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+Project Gutenberg's Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by Francis Marion Crawford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1
+       Studies from the Chronicles of Rome
+
+Author: Francis Marion Crawford
+
+Release Date: April 26, 2009 [EBook #28614]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, VOL. 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS
+
+STUDIES FROM THE CHRONICLES OF ROME
+
+BY
+
+FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES
+
+VOL. I
+
+New York
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+
+1899
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Copyright, 1898,
+By The Macmillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped October, 1898. Reprinted November,
+December, 1898.
+
+_Norwood Press_
+_J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith_
+_Norwood, Mass., U.S.A._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+VOLUME I
+
+                              PAGE
+
+THE MAKING OF THE CITY           1
+
+THE EMPIRE                      22
+
+THE CITY OF AUGUSTUS            57
+
+THE MIDDLE AGE                  78
+
+THE FOURTEEN REGIONS           100
+
+REGION I MONTI                 106
+
+REGION II TREVI                155
+
+REGION III COLONNA             190
+
+REGION IV CAMPO MARZO          243
+
+REGION V PONTE                 274
+
+REGION VI PARIONE              297
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES
+
+
+VOLUME I
+
+Map of Rome                                    _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                FACING PAGE
+
+The Wall of Romulus                                       4
+
+Palace of the Cæsars                                     30
+
+The Campagna and Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct          50
+
+Temple of Castor and Pollux                              70
+
+Basilica Constantine                                     90
+
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran                          114
+
+Baths of Diocletian                                     140
+
+Fountain of Trevi                                       158
+
+Piazza Barberini                                        188
+
+Porta San Lorenzo                                       214
+
+Villa Borghese                                          230
+
+Piazza del Popolo                                       256
+
+Island in the Tiber                                     280
+
+Palazzo Massimo alle Colonna                            306
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
+
+
+VOLUME I
+                                                       PAGE
+Palatine Hill and Mouth of the Cloaca Maxima              1
+
+Ruins of the Servian Wall                                 8
+
+Etruscan Bridge at Veii                                  16
+
+Tombs on the Appian Way                                  22
+
+Brass of Tiberius, showing the Temple of Concord         24
+
+The Tarpeian Rock                                        28
+
+Caius Julius Cæsar                                       36
+
+Octavius Augustus Cæsar                                  45
+
+Brass of Trajan, showing the Circus Maximus              56
+
+Brass of Antoninus Pius, in Honour of Faustina, with
+Reverse showing Vesta bearing the Palladium              57
+
+Ponte Rotto, now destroyed                               67
+
+Atrium of Vesta                                          72
+
+Brass of Gordian, showing the Colosseum                  78
+
+The Colosseum                                            87
+
+Ruins of the Temple of Saturn                            92
+
+Brass of Gordian, showing Roman Games                    99
+
+Ruins of the Julian Basilica                            100
+
+Brass of Titus, showing the Colosseum                   105
+
+Region I Monti, Device of                               106
+
+Santa Francesca Romana                                  111
+
+San Giovanni in Laterano                                116
+
+Piazza Colonna                                          119
+
+Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano                      126
+
+Santa Maria Maggiore                                    134
+
+Porta Maggiore, supporting the Channels of the Aqueduct
+of Claudius and the Anio Novus                          145
+
+Interior of the Colosseum                               152
+
+Region II Trevi, Device of                              155
+
+Grand Hall of the Colonna Palace                        162
+
+Interior of the Mausoleum of Augustus                   169
+
+Forum of Trajan                                         171
+
+Ruins of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli                      180
+
+Palazzo del Quirinale                                   185
+
+Region III Colonna, Device of                           190
+
+Arch of Titus                                           191
+
+Twin Churches at the Entrance of the Corso              197
+
+San Lorenzo in Lucina                                   204
+
+Palazzo Doria-Pamfili                                   208
+
+Palazzo di Monte Citorio                                223
+
+Palazzo di Venezia                                      234
+
+Region IV Campo Marzo, Device of                        248
+
+Piazza di Spagna                                        251
+
+Trinità de Monti                                        257
+
+Villa Medici                                            265
+
+Region V Ponte                                          274
+
+Bridge of Sant' Angelo                                  285
+
+Villa Negroni                                           292
+
+Region VI Parione, Device of                            297
+
+Piazza Navona                                           303
+
+Ponte Sisto                                             307
+
+The Cancelleria                                         316
+
+
+
+
+WORKS CONSULTED
+
+NOT INCLUDING CLASSIC WRITERS NOR ENCYCLOPÆDIAS
+
+
+1. AMPÈRE--Histoire Romaine à Rome.
+   AMPÈRE--L'Empire Remain à Rome.
+
+2. BARACCONI--I Rioni di Roma.
+
+3. BOISSIER--Promenades Archéologiques.
+
+4. BRYCE--The Holy Roman Empire.
+
+5. CELLINI--Memoirs.
+
+6. COPPI--Memoire Colonnesi.
+
+7. FORTUNATO--Storia delle vite delle Imperatrici Romane.
+
+8. GIBBON--Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+9. GNOLI--Vittoria Accoramboni.
+
+10. GREGOROVIUS--Geschichte der Stadt Rom.
+
+11. HARE--Walks in Rome.
+
+12. JOSEPHUS--Life of.
+
+13. LANCIANI--Ancient Rome.
+
+14. LETI--Vita di Sisto V.
+
+15. MURATORI--Scriptores Rerum Italicarum.
+    MURATORI--Annali d'Italia.
+    MURATORI--Antichità Italiane.
+
+16. RAMSAY AND LANCIANI--A Manual of Roman Antiquities.
+
+17. SCHNEIDER--Das Alte Rom.
+
+18. SILVAGNI--La Corte e la Società Romana.
+
+[Illustration: PALATINE HILL AND MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA]
+
+
+
+
+Ave Roma Immortalis
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+The story of Rome is the most splendid romance in all history. A few
+shepherds tend their flocks among volcanic hills, listening by day and
+night to the awful warnings of the subterranean voice,--born in danger,
+reared in peril, living their lives under perpetual menace of
+destruction, from generation to generation. Then, at last, the deep
+voice swells to thunder, roaring up from the earth's heart, the
+lightning shoots madly round the mountain top, the ground rocks, and the
+air is darkened with ashes. The moment has come. One man is a leader,
+but not all will follow him. He leads his small band swiftly down from
+the heights, and they drive a flock and a little herd before them,
+while each man carries his few belongings as best he can, and there are
+few women in the company. The rest would not be saved, and they perish
+among their huts before another day is over.
+
+Down, always downwards, march the wanderers, rough, rugged, young with
+the terrible youth of those days, and wise only with the wisdom of
+nature. Down the steep mountain they go, down over the rich, rolling
+land, down through the deep forests, unhewn of man, down at last to the
+river, where seven low hills rise out of the wide plain. One of those
+hills the leader chooses, rounded and grassy; there they encamp, and
+they dig a trench and build huts. Pales, protectress of flocks, gives
+her name to the Palatine Hill. Rumon, the flowing river, names the
+village Rome, and Rome names the leader Romulus, the Man of the River,
+the Man of the Village by the River; and to our own time the
+twenty-first of April is kept and remembered, and even now honoured, for
+the very day on which the shepherds began to dig their trench on the
+Palatine, the date of the Foundation of Rome, from which seven hundred
+and fifty-four years were reckoned to the birth of Christ.
+
+And the shepherds called their leader King, though his kingship was over
+but few men. Yet they were such men as begin history, and in the scant
+company there were all the seeds of empire. First the profound faith of
+natural mankind, unquestioning, immovable, inseparable from every daily
+thought and action; then fierce strength, and courage, and love of life
+and of possession; last, obedience to the chosen leader, in clear
+liberty, when one should fail, to choose another. So the Romans began to
+win the world, and won it in about six hundred years.
+
+By their camp-fires, by their firesides in their little huts, they told
+old tales of their race, and round the truth grew up romantic legend,
+ever dear to the fighting man and to the husbandman alike, with strange
+tales of their first leader's birth, fit for poets, and woven to stir
+young hearts to daring, and young hands to smiting. Truth there was
+under their stories, but how much of it no man can tell: how Amulius of
+Alba Longa slew his sons, and slew also his daughter, loved of Mars,
+mother of twin sons left to die in the forest, like Oedipus,
+father-slayers, as Oedipus was, wolf-suckled, of whom one was born to
+kill the other and be the first King, and be taken up to Jupiter in
+storm and lightning at the last. The legend of wise Numa, next, taught
+by Egeria; her stony image still weeps trickling tears for her royal
+adept, and his earthen cup, jealously guarded, was worshipped for more
+than a thousand years; legends of the first Arval brotherhood, dim as
+the story of Melchisedec, King and priest, but lasting as Rome itself.
+Tales of King Tullus, when the three Horatii fought for Rome against
+the three Curiatii, who smote for Alba and lost the day--Tullus
+Hostilius, grandson of that first Hostus who had fought against the
+Sabines; and always more legend, and more, and more, sometimes misty,
+sometimes clear and direct in action as a Greek tragedy. They hover upon
+the threshold of history, with faces of beauty or of terror, sublime,
+ridiculous, insignificant, some born of desperate, real deeds, many
+another, perhaps, first told by some black-haired shepherd mother to her
+wondering boys at evening, when the brazen pot simmered on the
+smouldering fire, and the father had not yet come home.
+
+But down beneath the legend lies the fact, in hewn stones already far in
+the third thousand of their years. Digging for truth, searchers have
+come here and there upon the first walls and gates of the Palatine
+village, straight, strong and deeply founded. The men who made them
+meant to hold their own, and their own was whatsoever they were able to
+take from others by force. They built their walls round a four-sided
+space, wide enough for them, scarcely big enough a thousand years later
+for the houses of their children's rulers, the palaces of the Cæsars of
+which so much still stands today.
+
+Then came the man who built the first bridge across the river, of wooden
+piles and beams, bolted with bronze, because the Romans had no iron yet,
+and ever afterwards repaired with wood and bronze, for its sanctity, in
+perpetual veneration of Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome. That was the
+bridge Horatius kept against Porsena of Clusium, while the fathers hewed
+it down behind him.
+
+[Illustration: WALL OF ROMULUS]
+
+Tarquin the first came next, a stranger of Greek blood, chosen, perhaps,
+because the factions in Rome could not agree. Then Servius, great and
+good, built his tremendous fortification, and the King of Italy today,
+driving through the streets in his carriage, may look upon the wall of
+the King who reigned in Rome more than two thousand and four hundred
+years ago.
+
+Under those six rulers, from Romulus to Servius, from the man of the
+River Village to the man of walls, Rome had grown from a sheepfold to a
+town, from a town to a walled city, from a city to a little nation,
+matched against all mankind, to win or die, inch by inch, sword in hand.
+She was a kingdom now, and her men were subjects; and still the third
+law of great races was strong and waking. Romans obeyed their leader so
+long as he could lead them well--no longer. The twilight of the Kings
+gathered suddenly, and their names were darkened, and their sun went
+down in shame and hate. In the confusion, tragic legend rises to tell
+the story. For the first time in Rome, a woman, famous in all history,
+turned the scale. The King's son, passionate, terrible, false, steals
+upon her in the dark. 'I am Sextus Tarquin, and there is a sword in my
+hand.' Yet she yielded to no fear of steel, but to the horror of
+unearned shame beyond death. On the next day, when she lay before her
+husband and her father and the strong Brutus, her story told, her deed
+done, splendidly dead by her own hand, they swore the oath in which the
+Republic was born. While father, husband and friend were stunned with
+grief, Brutus held up the dripping knife before their eyes. 'By this
+most chaste blood, I swear--Gods be my witnesses--that I will hunt down
+Tarquin the Proud, himself, his infamous wife and every child of his,
+with fire and sword, and with all my might, and neither he nor any other
+man shall ever again be King in Rome.' So they all swore, and bore the
+dead woman out into the market-place, and called on all men to stand by
+them.
+
+They kept their word, and the tale tells how the Tarquins were driven
+out to a perpetual exile, and by and by allied themselves with Porsena,
+and marched on Rome, and were stopped only at the Sublician bridge by
+brave Horatius.
+
+Chaos next. Then all at once the Republic stands out, born full grown
+and ready armed, stern, organized and grasping, but having already
+within itself the quickened opposites that were to fight for power so
+long and so fiercely,--the rich and the poor, the patrician and the
+plebeian, the might and the right.
+
+There is a wonder in that quick change from Kingdom to Commonwealth,
+which nothing can make clear, except, perhaps, modern history. Say that
+two thousand or more years hereafter men shall read of what our
+grandfathers, our fathers and ourselves have seen done in France within
+a hundred years, out of two or three old books founded mostly on
+tradition; they may be confused by the sudden disappearance of kings, by
+the chaos, the wild wars and the unforeseen birth of a lasting republic,
+just as we are puzzled when we read of the same sequence in ancient
+Rome. Men who come after us will have more documents, too. It is not
+possible that all books and traces of written history should be
+destroyed throughout the world, as the Gauls burned everything in Rome,
+except the Capitol itself, held by the handful of men who had taken
+refuge there.
+
+So the Kingdom fell with a woman's death, and the Commonwealth was made
+by her avengers. Take the story as you will, for truth or truth's
+legend, it is for ever humanly true, and such deeds would rouse a nation
+today as they did then and as they set Rome on fire once more nearly
+sixty years later.
+
+But all the time Rome was growing as if the very stones had life to put
+out shoots and blossoms and bear fruit. Round about the city the great
+Servian wall had wound like a vast finger, in and out, grasping the
+seven hills, and taking in what would be a fair-sized city even in our
+day. They were the last defences Rome built for herself, for nearly nine
+hundred years.
+
+Nothing can give a larger idea of Rome's greatness than that; not all
+the temples, monuments, palaces, public buildings of later years can
+tell half the certainty of her power expressed by that one fact--Rome
+needed no walls when once she had won the world.
+
+But it is very hard to guess at what the city was, in those grim times
+of the early fight for life. We know the walls, and there were nineteen
+gates in all, and there were paved roads; the wooden bridge, the Capitol
+with its first temple and first fortress, the first Forum with the
+Sacred Way, were all there, and the public fountain, called the
+Tullianum, and a few other sites are certain. The rest must be imagined.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE SERVIAN WALL]
+
+Rome was a brown city in those days, when there was no marble and little
+stucco: a brown city teeming with men and women clothed mostly in grey
+and brown and black woollen cloaks, like those the hill shepherds wear
+today, caught up under one arm and thrown far over the shoulder in dark
+folds. The low houses without any outer windows, entered by one rough
+door, were built close together, and those near the Forum had shops
+outside them, low-browed places, dark but not deep, where the cloaked
+keeper sat behind a stone counter among his wares, waiting for custom,
+watching all that happened in the market-place, gathering in gossip from
+one buyer to exchange it for more with the next, altogether not unlike
+the small Eastern merchant of today.
+
+Yet during more than half the time, there were few young men, or men in
+prime, in the streets of Rome. They were fighting more than half the
+year, while their fathers and their children stayed behind with the
+women. The women sat spinning and weaving wool in their little brown
+houses; the boys played, fought, ran races naked in the streets; the
+small girls had their quiet games and, surely, their dolls, made of
+rags, stuffed with the soft wool waste from their mothers' spindles and
+looms. The old men, scarred and seamed in the battles of an age when
+fighting was all hand to hand, kept the shops, or sunned themselves in
+the market-place, shelling and chewing lupins to pass the time, as the
+Romans have always done, and telling old tales, or boasting to each
+other of their half-grown grandchildren, and of their full-grown sons,
+fighting far away in the hills and the plains that Rome might have more
+possession. Meanwhile the maidens went in pairs to the springs to fetch
+water, or down to the river in small companies to wash the woollen
+clothes and dry them in the shade of the old wild trees, lest in the sun
+they should shrink and thicken; black-haired, black-eyed, dark-skinned
+maids, all of them, strong and light of foot, fit to be mothers of more
+soldiers, to slay more enemies, and bring back more spoil. Then, as in
+our own times, the flocks of goats were driven in from the pastures at
+early morning and milked from door to door, for each household, and
+driven out again to the grass before the sun was high. In the old wall
+there was the Cattle Gate, the Porta Mugonia, named, as the learned say,
+from the lowing of the herds. Then, as in the hill towns not long ago,
+the serving women, who were slaves, sat cross-legged on the ground in
+the narrow court within the house, with the hand-mill of two stones
+between them, and ground the wheat to flour for the day's meal. There
+have been wonderful survivals of the first age even to our own time.
+
+But that which has not come down to us is the huge vitality of those men
+and women. The world's holders have never risen suddenly in hordes; they
+have always grown by degrees out of little nations, that could live
+through more than their neighbours. Calling up the vision of the first
+Rome, one must see, too, such human faces and figures of men as are
+hardly to be found among us nowadays,--the big features, the great,
+square, devouring jaws, the steadily bright eyes, the strongly built
+brows, coarse, shagged hair, big bones, iron muscles and starting
+sinews. There are savage countries that still breed such men. They may
+have their turn next, when we are worn out. Browning has made John the
+Smith a memorable type.
+
+Rome was a clean city in those days. One of the Tarquins had built the
+great arched drain which still stands unshaken and in use, and smaller
+ones led to it, draining the Forum and all the low part of the town. The
+people were clean, far beyond our ordinary idea of them, as is plain
+enough from the contemptuous way in which the Latin authors use their
+strong words for uncleanliness. A dirty man was an object of pity, and
+men sometimes went about in soiled clothes to excite the public
+sympathy, as beggars do today in all countries. Dirt meant abject
+poverty, and in a grasping, getting race, poverty was the exception,
+even while simplicity was the rule. For all was simple with them, their
+dress, their homes, their lives, their motives, and if one could see the
+Rome of Tarquin the Proud, this simplicity would be of all
+characteristics the most striking, compared with what we know of later
+Rome, and with what we see about us in our own times. Simplicity is not
+strength, but the condition in which strength is least hampered in its
+full action.
+
+It was easy to live simply in such a place and in such a climate, under
+a wise King. The check in the first straight run of Rome's history
+brought the Romans suddenly face to face with the first great
+complication of their career, which was the struggle between the rich
+and the poor; and again the half truth rises up to explain the fact.
+Men whose first instinct was to take and hold took from one another in
+peace when they could not take from their enemies in war, since they
+must needs be always taking from some one. So the few strong took all
+from the many weak, till the weak banded themselves together to resist
+the strong, and the struggle for life took a new direction.
+
+The grim figure of Lucius Junius Brutus rises as the incarnation of that
+character which, at great times, made history, but in peace made
+trouble. The man who avenged Lucretia, who drove out the Tarquins, and
+founded the Republic, is most often remembered as the father who sat
+unmoved in judgment on his two traitor sons, and looked on with stony
+eyes while they paid the price of their treason in torment and death.
+That one deed stands out, and we forget how he himself fell fighting for
+Rome's freedom.
+
+But still the evil grew at home, and the hideous law of creditor and
+debtor, which only fiercest avarice could have devised, ground the poor,
+who were obliged to borrow to pay the tax-gatherer, and made slaves of
+them almost to the ruin of the state.
+
+Just then Etruria wakes, shadowy, half Greek, the central power of
+Italy, between Rome and Gaul. Porsena, the Lar of Clusium, comes against
+the city with a great host in gilded arms. Terror descends like a dark
+mist over the young nation. The rich fear for their riches, the poor for
+their lives. In haste the fathers gather great supplies of corn against
+a siege; credit and debt are forgotten; patrician and plebeian join
+hands as Porsena reaches Janiculum, and three heroic figures of romance
+stand forth from a host of heroes. Horatius keeps the bridge, first with
+two comrades, then, at the last, alone in the glory of single-handed
+fight against an army, sure of immortality whether he live or die.
+Scævola, sworn with the three hundred to slay the Lar, stabs the wrong
+man, and burns his hand to the wrist to show what tortures he can bear
+unmoved. Cloelia, the maiden hostage, rides her young steed at the
+yellow torrent, and swims the raging flood back to the Palatine.
+Cloelia and Horatius get statues in the Forum; Scævola is endowed with
+great lands, which his race holds for centuries, and leaves a name so
+great that two thousand years later, Sforza, greatest leader of the
+Middle Age, coveting long ancestry, makes himself descend from the man
+who burned off his own hand.
+
+They are great figures, the two men and the noble girl, and real to us,
+in a way, because we can stand on the very ground they trod, where
+Horatius fought, where Scævola suffered and where Cloelia took the
+river. They are nearer to us than Romulus, nearer even than Lucretia, as
+each figure, following the city's quick life, has more of reality about
+it, and not less of heroism.
+
+For two hundred years the Romans strove with each other in law making;
+the fathers for exclusive power and wealth, the plebeians for freedom,
+first, and then for office in the state; a time of fighting abroad for
+land, and of contention at home about its division. In fifty years the
+poor had their Tribunes, but it took them nearly three times as long,
+after that, to make themselves almost the fathers' equals in power.
+
+Once they tried a new kind of government by a board of ten, and it held
+for a while, till again a woman's life turned the tide of Roman history,
+and fair young Virginia, stabbed by her father in the Forum, left a name
+as lasting as any of that day.
+
+Romance again, but the true romance, above doubt, at last; not at all
+mythical, but full of fate's unanswerable logic, which makes dim stories
+clear to living eyes. You may see the actors in the Forum, where it all
+happened,--the lovely girl with frightened, wondering eyes; the father,
+desperate, white-lipped, shaking with the thing not yet done; Appius
+Claudius smiling among his friends and clients; the sullen crowd of
+strong plebeians, and the something in the chill autumn air that was a
+warning of fate and fateful change. Then the deed. A shriek at the edge
+of the throng; a long, thin knife, high in air, trembling before a
+thousand eyes; a harsh, heartbroken, vengeful voice; a confusion and a
+swaying of the multitude, and then the rising yell of men overlaid,
+ringing high in the air from the Capitol right across the Forum to the
+Palatine, and echoing back the doom of the Ten.
+
+The deed is vivid still, and then there is sudden darkness. One thinks
+of how that man lived afterwards. Had Virginius a home, a wife, other
+children to mourn the dead one? Or was he a lonely man, ten times alone
+after that day, with the memory of one flashing moment always undimmed
+in a bright horror? Who knows? Did anyone care? Rome's story changed its
+course, turning aside at the river of Virginia's blood, and going on
+swiftly in another way.
+
+To defeat this time, straight to Rome's first and greatest humiliation;
+to the coming of the Gauls, sweeping everything before them, Etruscans,
+Italians, Romans, up to the gates of the city and over the great moat
+and wall of Servius, burning, destroying, killing everything, to the
+foot of the central rock; baffled at the last stronghold on a dark night
+by a flock of cackling geese, but not caring for so small a thing when
+they had swallowed up the rest, or not liking the Latin land, perhaps,
+and so, taking ransom for peace and marching away northwards again
+through the starved and harried hills and valleys of Etruria to their
+own country. And six centuries passed away before an enemy entered Rome
+again.
+
+But the Gauls left wreck and ruin and scarcely one stone upon another in
+the great desolation; they swept away all records of history, then and
+there, and the general destruction was absolute, so that the Rome of the
+Republic and of the Empire, the centre and capital of the world, began
+to exist from that day. Unwillingly the people bore back Juno's image
+from Veii, where they had taken refuge and would have stayed, and built
+houses, and would have called that place Rome. But the nobles had their
+own way, and the great construction began, of which there was to be no
+end for many hundreds of years, in peace and war, mostly while hard
+fighting was going on abroad.
+
+[Illustration: ETRUSCAN BRIDGE AT VEII]
+
+They built hurriedly at first, for shelter, and as best they could,
+crowding their little houses in narrow streets with small care for
+symmetry or adornment. The second Rome must have seemed but a poor
+village compared with the solidly built city which the Gauls had burnt,
+and it was long before the present could compare with the past. In haste
+men seized on fragments of all sorts, blocks of stone, cracked and
+defaced in the flames, charred beams that could still serve, a door
+here, a window there, and such bits of metal as they could pick up. An
+irregular, crowded town sprang up, and a few rough temples, no doubt as
+pied and meanly pieced as many of those early churches built of odds and
+ends of ruin, which stand to this day.
+
+It is not impossible that the motley character of Rome, of which all
+writers speak in one way or another, had its first cause in that second
+building of the city. Rome without ruins would hardly seem Rome at all,
+and all was ruined in that first inroad of the savage Gauls,--houses,
+temples, public places. When the Romans came back from Veii they must
+have found the Forum not altogether unlike what it is today, but
+blackened with smoke, half choked with mouldering humanity, strewn with
+charred timbers, broken roof tiles and the wreck of much household
+furniture; a sorrowful confusion reeking with vapours of death, and
+pestilential with decay. It was no wonder that the poor plebeians lost
+heart and would have chosen to go back to the clear streets and cleaner
+air of Veii. Their little houses were lost and untraceable in the
+universal chaos. But the rich man's ruins stood out in bolder relief; he
+had his lands still; he still had slaves; he could rebuild his home; and
+he had his way.
+
+But ever afterwards, though the Republic and the Empire spent the wealth
+of nations in beautifying the city, the trace of that first defeat
+remained. Dark and narrow lanes wound in and out, round the great
+public squares, and within earshot of the broad white streets, and the
+time-blackened houses of the poor stood huddled out of sight behind the
+palaces of the rich, making perpetual contrast of wealth and poverty,
+splendour and squalor, just as one may see today in Rome, in London, in
+Paris, in Constantinople, in all the mistress cities of the world that
+have long histories of triumph and defeat behind them.
+
+The first Rome sprang from the ashes of the Alban volcano, the second
+Rome rose from the ashes of herself, as she has risen again and again
+since then. But the Gauls had done Rome a service, too. In crushing her
+to the earth, they had crushed many of her enemies out of existence; and
+when she stood up to face the world once more, she fought not to beat
+the Æquians or the Etruscans at her gates, but to conquer Italy. And by
+steady fighting she won it all, and brought home the spoils and divided
+the lands; here and there a battle lost, as in the bloody Caudine pass,
+but always more battles won, and more, and more, sternly relentless to
+revolt. Brutus had seen his own sons' heads fall at his own word; should
+Caius Pontius, the Samnite, be spared, because he was the bravest of the
+brave? To her faithful friends Rome was just, and now and then
+half-contemptuously generous.
+
+The idle Greek fine gentlemen of Tarentum sat in their theatre one day,
+overlooking the sea, shaded by dyed awnings from the afternoon sun,
+listening entranced to some grand play,--the Oedipus King, perhaps, or
+Alcestis, or Medea. Ten Roman trading ships came sailing round the
+point; and the wind failed, and they lay there with drooping sails,
+waiting for the land breeze that springs up at night. Perhaps some rough
+Latin sailor, as is the way today in calm weather when there is no work
+to be done, began to howl out one of those strange, endless songs which
+have been sung down to us, from ear to ear, out of the primeval Aryan
+darkness,--loud, long drawn out, exasperating in its unfinished cadence,
+jarring on the refined Greek ear, discordant with the actor's finely
+measured tones. In sudden rage at the noise--so it must have been--those
+delicate idlers sprang up and ran down to the harbour, and took the
+boats that lay there, and overwhelmed the unarmed Roman traders, slaying
+many of them. Foolish, cruel, almost comic. So a sensitive musician,
+driven half mad by a street organ, longs to rush out and break the thing
+to pieces, and kill the poor grinder for his barbarous noise.
+
+But when there was blood in the harbour of Tarentum, and some of the
+ships had escaped on their oars, the Greeks were afraid; and when the
+message of war came swiftly down to them from inexorable Rome, their
+terror grew, and they sent to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who had set up to be a
+conqueror, to come and conquer Rome for the sake of certain æsthetic
+fine gentlemen who could not bear to be disturbed at a good play on a
+spring afternoon. He came with all the pomp and splendour of Eastern
+warfare; he won a battle, and a battle, and half a battle, and then the
+Romans beat him at Beneventum, famous again and again, and utterly
+destroyed his army, and took back with them his gold and his jewels, and
+the tusks of his elephants, and the mastery of all Italy to boot, but
+not yet beyond dispute.
+
+Creeping down into Sicily, Rome met Carthage, both giants in those days,
+and the greatest and last struggle began, with half the known world and
+all the known sea for a battle-ground. Round and round the
+Mediterranean, by water and land, they fought for a hundred and eighteen
+years, through four generations of men, as we should reckon it, both
+grasping and strong, both relentless, both sworn to win or perish for
+ever, both doing great deeds that are remembered still. The mere name of
+Regulus is a legion of legends in itself; the name of Hannibal is in
+itself a history, that of Fabius Maximus a lesson; and while history
+lasts, Cornelius Scipio and Scipio the African will not be forgotten. It
+is the story of many and terrible defeats, from each of which Rome rose,
+fiercely young, to win a dozen terrible little victories. It is strange
+that we remember the lost days best; misty Thrasymene and Cannæ's
+fearful slaughter rise first in the memory. Then all at once, within ten
+years, the scale turns, and Caius Claudius Nero hurls Hasdrubal's
+disfigured head high over ditch and palisade into his brother's camp,
+right to his brother's feet. And five years later, the battle of Zama,
+won almost at the gates of Carthage; and then, almost the end, as great
+heartbroken Hannibal, defeated, ruined and exiled, drinks up the poison
+and rests at last, some forty years after he led his first army to
+victory. But he had been dead nearly forty years, when another Scipio at
+last tore down the walls of Carthage, and utterly destroyed the city to
+the foundations, for ever. And a dozen years later than that, Rome had
+conquered all the civilized world round about the Mediterranean sea,
+from Spain to Asia.
+
+[Illustration: TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+There was a mother in Rome, not rich, but of great race, for she was
+daughter to Scipio of Africa; and she called her sons her jewels when
+other women showed their golden ornaments and their precious stones and
+boasted of their husbands' wealth. Cornelia's two sons, Tiberius and
+Caius, lost their lives successively in a struggle against the avarice
+of the rich men who ruled Rome, Italy and the world; against that
+grasping avarice which far surpassed the greed of any other race before
+the Romans, or after them, and which had suddenly taken new growth as
+the spoils of the East and South and West poured into the city. Yet the
+vast booty men could see was but an earnest of the wide lands which had
+fallen to Rome, called 'Public Lands' almost as if in derision, while
+they fell into the power of the few and strong, by the hundred thousand
+acres at a time.
+
+Three hundred and fifty years before the Gracchi, when little conquests
+still seemed great, Spurius Cassius had died in defence of his Agrarian
+Law, at the hands of the savage rich who accused him of conspiring for a
+crown. Tiberius Gracchus set up the rights of the people to the public
+land, and perished.
+
+He fell within a stone's throw of the spot on which the great tribune,
+Nicholas Rienzi, died. The strong, small band of nobles, armed with
+staves and clubs, and with that supremacy of contemptuous bearing that
+cows the simple, plough their way through the rioting throng,
+murderously clubbing to right and left. Tiberius, retreating, stumbles
+against a corpse and his enemies are upon him; a stave swung high in
+air, a dull blow, and all is finished for that day, save to throw the
+body into the Tiber lest the people should make a revolution of its
+funeral.
+
+Next came Caius, a boy of six and twenty, fighting the same fight for a
+few years. On his head the nobles set a price--its weight in gold. He
+hides on the Aventine, and the Aventine is stormed. He escapes by the
+Sublician bridge and the bridge is held behind him by one friend, almost
+as Horatius held it against an army. Yet the nobles and their hired
+Cretan bowmen force the way and pursue him into Furina's grove. There a
+Greek slave ends him, and to get more gold fills the poor head with
+metal--and is paid in full. Three hundred died with Tiberius, three
+thousand were put to death for his brother's sake. With the goods of the
+slain and the dowries of their wives, Opimius built the Temple of
+Concord on the spot where the later one still stands in part, between
+the Comitium and the Capitol. The poor of Rome, and Cornelia, and the
+widows and children of the murdered men, knew what that 'Concord' meant.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TIBERIUS, SHOWING THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD]
+
+Then followed revolution, war with runaway slaves, war with the
+immediate allies, then civil war, while wealth and love of wealth grew
+side by side, the one, insatiate, devouring the other.
+
+First the slaves made for Sicily, wild, mountainous, half-governed then
+as it is today, and they held much of it against their masters for five
+years. Within short memory, almost yesterday, a handful of outlaws has
+defied a powerful nation's best soldiers in the same mountains. It is
+small wonder that many thousand men, fighting for liberty and life,
+should have held out so long.
+
+And meanwhile Jugurtha of Numidia had for long years bought every Roman
+general sent against him, had come to Rome himself and bought the laws,
+and had gone back to his country with contemptuous leave-taking--'Thou
+city where all is sold!' And still he bought, till Caius Marius,
+high-hearted plebeian and great soldier, brought him back to die in the
+Mamertine prison.
+
+Then against wealth arose the last and greatest power of Rome, her
+terrible armies that set up whom they would, to have their will of
+Senate and fathers and people. First Marius, then Sylla whom he had
+taught to fight, and taught to beat him in the end, after Cinna had been
+murdered for his sake at Ancona.
+
+Marius and Sylla, the plebeian and the patrician, were matched at first
+as leader and lieutenant, then both as conquerors, then as alternate
+despots of Rome and mortal foes, till their long duel wrecked what had
+been and opened ways for what was to be.
+
+First, Sylla claims that he, and not Marius, took Jugurtha, when the
+Numidian ally betrayed him, though the King and his two sons marched in
+the train of the plebeian's triumph. Marius answers by a stupendous
+victory over the Cimbrians and Teutons, slays a hundred thousand in one
+battle, comes home, triumphs again, sets up his trophies in the city and
+builds a temple to Honour and Courage. Next, in greed of popular power,
+he perjures himself to support a pair of murderous demagogues, betrays
+them in turn to the patricians, and Saturninus is pounded to death with
+roof tiles in the Capitol. Then, being made leader in the war with the
+allies, already old for fighting, he fails at the outset, and his rival
+Sylla is General in his stead.
+
+Then riot on riot in the Forum, violence after violence in the struggle
+for the consulship, murder after murder, blood upon blood not yet dry.
+Sylla gets the expedition against Mithridates; Marius, at home,
+undermines his enemy's influence and forces the tribes to give him the
+command, and sends out his lieutenants to the East. Sylla's soldiers
+murder them, and Sylla marches back against Rome with six legions.
+Marius is unprepared; Sylla breaks into the city, torch in hand, at the
+head of his troops, burning and slaying; the rivals meet face to face in
+the Esquiline market-place, Roman fights Roman, and the plebeian loses
+the day and escapes to the sea.
+
+The reign of terror begins, and a great slaying. Sylla declares his
+rival an enemy of Rome, and Marius is found hiding in the marshes of
+Minturnæ, is dragged out naked, covered with mud, a rope about his neck,
+and led into a little house of the town to be slain by a slave. 'Darest
+thou kill Caius Marius?' asks the old man with flashing eyes, and the
+slave executioner trembles before the unarmed prisoner. They let him go.
+He wanders to Africa and sits alone among the ruins of Carthage, while
+Sylla fights victoriously in the East. Rome, momentarily free of both,
+is torn by dissensions about the voting of the newly enfranchised.
+Instead of the greater rivals, Cinna and Octavius are matched for plebs
+and nobles. Knife-armed the parties fight it out in the Forum, the
+bodies of citizens lie in heaps, and the gutters are gorged with free
+blood, and again the patricians win the day. Cinna, fleeing from wrath,
+is deposed from office. Marius sees his chance again. Unshaven and
+unshorn since he left Rome last, he joins Cinna, leading six thousand
+fugitives, seizes and plunders the towns about Rome, while Cinna encamps
+beneath the walls. Together they enter Rome and nail Octavius' head to
+the Rostra. Then the vengeance of wholesale slaying, in another reign of
+terror, and Marius is despot of the city for a while, as Sylla had been
+before, till spent with age, his life goes out amid drunkenness and
+blood. The people tear down Sylla's house, burn his villa and drive out
+his wife and his children. Back he comes after four years, victorious,
+fighting his way right and left, against Lucanians and Samnites, back to
+Rome still fighting them, almost loses the battle, is saved by Crassus
+to take vengeance again, and again the long lists of the proscribed are
+written out and hung up in the Forum, and the city runs blood in a third
+Terror. Amid heaps of severed heads, Sylla sits before the temple of
+Castor and sells the lands of his dead enemies; and Catiline is first
+known to history as the executioner of Caius Gratidianus, whom he slices
+to death, piecemeal, beyond the Tiber.
+
+[Illustration: THE TARPEIAN ROCK]
+
+Sylla, cold, aristocratic, sublimely ironical monster, was Rome's first
+absolute and undisputed military lord. Tired of blood, he tried reform,
+invented an aristocratic constitution, saw that it must fail, and then,
+to the amazement of his friends and enemies, abdicated and withdrew to
+private life, protected by a hundred thousand veterans of his army, and
+many thousands of freedmen, to die at the last without violence.
+
+Of the chaos he left behind him, Cæsar made the Roman Empire.
+
+The Gracchi, champions of the people, were foully done to death. Marius
+and Sylla, tearing the proud Republic to pieces for their own greatness,
+both died in their beds, the one of old age, the other of disease. There
+is no irony like that which often ended the lives of great Romans.
+Marcus Manlius, who saved the Capitol from the Gauls, was hurled to his
+death from the same rock, by the tribunes of the people, and Rome's
+citadel and sanctuary was desecrated by the blood of its preserver.
+Scipio of Africa breathed his last in exile, but Appius Claudius, the
+Decemvir, died rich and honoured.
+
+One asks, naturally enough, how Rome could hold the civilized nations in
+subjection while she was fighting out a civil war that lasted fifty
+years. We have but little idea of her great military organization, after
+arms became a profession and a career. We can but call up scattered
+pictures to show us rags and fragments of the immense host that
+patrolled the world with measured tread and matchless precision of
+serried rank, in tens and scores and hundreds of thousands, for
+centuries, shoulder to shoulder and flank to flank, learning its own
+strength by degrees, till it suddenly grasped all power, gave it to one
+man, and made Caius Julius Cæsar Dictator of the earth.
+
+The greatest figure in all history suddenly springs out of the dim
+chaos and shines in undying glory, the figure of a man so great that the
+office he held means Empire, and the mere name he bore means Emperor
+today in four empires,--Cæsar, Kaiser, Czar, Kaisár,--a man of so vast
+power that the history of humanity for centuries after him was the
+history of those who were chosen to fill his place--the history of
+nearly half the twelve centuries foretold by the augur Attus, from
+Romulus, first King, to Romulus Augustulus, last Emperor. He was a man
+whose deeds and laws have marked out the life of the world even to this
+far day. Before him and with him comes Pompey, with him and after him
+Mark Antony, next to him in line and greatness, Augustus--all dwarfs
+compared with him, while two of them were failures outright, and the
+third could never have reached power but in his steps.
+
+[Illustration: PALACE OF THE CÆSARS]
+
+In that long tempest of parties wherein the Republic went down for ever,
+it is hard to trace the truth, or number the slain, or reckon up account
+of gain and loss. But when Cæsar rises in the centre of the storm the
+end is sure and there can be no other, for he drives it before him like
+a captive whirlwind, to do his bidding and clear the earth for his
+coming. Other men, and great men, too, are overwhelmed by it, dashed
+down and stunned out of all sense and judgment, to be lost and forgotten
+like leaves in autumn, whirled away before the gale. Pompey, great
+general and great statesman, conqueror in Spain, subduer of Spartacus
+and the Gladiators, destroyer of pirates and final victor over
+Mithridates, comes back and lives as a simple citizen. Noble of birth,
+but not trusted by his peers, he joins with Cæsar, leader of all the
+people, and with Crassus, for more power, and loses the world by giving
+Cæsar an army, and Gaul to conquer. Crassus, brave general, too, is
+slain in battle in far Parthia, and Pompey steals a march by getting a
+long term in Spain. Cæsar demands as much and is refused by Pompey's
+friends. Then the storm breaks and Cæsar comes back from Gaul to cross
+the Rubicon, and take all Italy in sixty days. Pompey, ambitious,
+ill-starred, fights losing battles everywhere. Murdered at last in
+Egypt, he, too, is dead, and Cæsar stands alone, master of Rome and of
+the world. One year he ruled, and then they slew him; but no one of them
+that struck him died a natural death.
+
+Creation presupposes chaos, and it is the divine prerogative of genius
+to evolve order from confusion. Julius Cæsar found the world of his day
+consisting of disordered elements of strength, all at strife with each
+other in a central turmoil, skirted and surrounded by the relative peace
+of an ancient and long undisturbed barbarism.
+
+It was out of these elements that he created what has become modern
+Europe, and the direction which he gave to the evolution of mankind has
+never wholly changed since his day. Of all great conquerors he was the
+least cruel, for he never sacrificed human life without the direct
+intention of benefiting mankind by an increased social stability. Of all
+great lawgivers, he was the most wise and just, and the truths he set
+down in the Julian Code are the foundation of modern justice. Of all
+great men who have leaped upon the world as upon an unbroken horse, who
+have guided it with relentless hands, and ridden it breathless to the
+goal of glory, Cæsar is the only one who turned the race into the track
+of civilization and, dying, left mankind a future in the memory of his
+past. He is the one great man of all, without whom it is impossible to
+imagine history. We cannot take him away and yet leave anything of what
+we have. The world could have been as it is without Alexander, without
+Charlemagne, without Napoleon; it could not have been the world we know
+without Caius Julius Cæsar.
+
+That fact alone places him at the head of mankind.
+
+In Cæsar's life there is the same matter for astonishment as in
+Napoleon's; there is the vast disproportion between beginnings and
+climax, between the relative modesty of early aims and the stupendous
+magnitude of the climacteric result. One asks how in a few years the
+impecunious son of the Corsican notary became the world's despot, and
+how the fashionable young spendthrift lawyer of Rome, dabbling in
+politics and almost ignorant of warfare, rose in a quarter of a century
+to be the world's conqueror, lawgiver and civilizer. The daily miracle
+of genius is the incalculable speed at which it simultaneously thinks
+and acts. Nothing is so logical as creation, and creation is the first
+sign as well as the only proof that genius is present.
+
+Hitherto the life of Cæsar has not been logically presented. His youth
+appears almost always to be totally disconnected from his maturity. The
+first success, the conquest of Gaul, comes as a surprise, because its
+preparation is not described. After it everything seems natural, and
+conquest follows victory as daylight follows dawn; but when we try to
+think backwards from that first expedition, we either see nothing
+clearly, or we find Cæsar an insignificant unit in a general disorder,
+as hard to identify as an individual ant in a swarming ant-hill. In the
+lives of all 'great men,' which are almost always totally unlike the
+lives of the so-called 'great,'--those born, not to power, but in
+power,--there is a point which must inevitably be enigmatical. It may be
+called the Hour of Fate--the time when in the suddenly loosed play of
+many circumstances, strained like springs and held back upon themselves,
+a man who has been known to a few thousands finds himself the chief of
+millions and the despot of a nation.
+
+Things which are only steps to great men are magnified to attainments in
+ordinary lives, and remembered with pride. The man of genius is sure of
+the great result, if he can but get a fulcrum for his lever. What
+strikes one most in the careers of such men as Cæsar and Napoleon is the
+tremendous advance realized at the first step--the difference between
+Napoleon's half-subordinate position before the first campaign in Italy
+and his dominion of France immediately after it, or the distance which
+separated Cæsar, the impeached Consul, from Cæsar, the conqueror of
+Gaul.
+
+It must not be forgotten that Cæsar came of a family that had held great
+positions, and which, though impoverished, still had credit,
+subsequently stretched by Cæsar to the extreme limit of its borrowing
+power. At sixteen, an age when Bonaparte was still an unknown student,
+Cæsar was Flamen Dialis, or high priest of Jupiter, and at one and
+twenty, the 'ill-girt boy,' as Sylla called him from his way of wearing
+his toga, was important enough to be driven from Rome, a fugitive. His
+first attempt at a larger notoriety had failed, and Dolabella, whom he
+had impeached, had been acquitted through the influence of friends. Yet
+the young lawyer had found the opportunity of showing what he could do,
+and it was not without reason that Sylla said of him, 'You will find
+many a Marius in this one Cæsar.'
+
+Twenty years passed before the prophecy began to be realized with the
+commencement of Cæsar's career in Gaul, and more than once during that
+time his life seemed a failure in his own eyes, and he said scornfully
+and sadly of himself that he had done nothing to be remembered at an age
+when Alexander had already conquered the world.
+
+Those twenty years which, to the thoughtful man, are by far the most
+interesting of all, appear in history as a confused and shapeless medley
+of political, military and forensic activity, strongly coloured by
+social scandals, which rested upon a foundation of truth, and darkened
+by accusations of worse kind, for which there is no sort of evidence,
+and which may be safely attributed to the jealousy of unscrupulous
+adversaries.
+
+The first account of him, which we have in the seventeenth year of his
+age, evokes a picture of youthful beauty. The boy who is to win the
+world is appointed high priest of Jove in Rome,--by what strong
+influence we know not,--and we fancy the splendid youth with his tall
+figure, full of elastic endurance, the brilliant face, the piercing,
+bold, black eyes; we see him with the small mitre set back upon the dark
+and curling locks that grow low on the forehead, as hair often does that
+is to fall early, clad in the purple robe of his high office, summoning
+all his young dignity to lend importance to his youthful grace as he
+moves up to Jove's high altar to perform his first solemn sacrifice with
+his young consort; for the high priesthood of Jove was held jointly by
+man and wife, and if the wife died the husband lost his office.
+
+He was about twenty when he cast his lot with the people, and within the
+year he fled from Sylla's persecution. The life of sudden changes and
+contrasts had begun. Straight from the sacred office, with all its
+pomp, and splendour, and solemnity, Cæsar is a fugitive in the Sabine
+hills, homeless, wifeless, fever-stricken, a price on his head. Such
+quick chances of evil fell to many in the days of the great struggle
+between Marius and Sylla, between the people and the nobles.
+
+Then as Sylla yielded to the insistence of the young 'populist'
+nobleman's many friends, the quick reverse is turned to us. Cæsar has a
+military command, sees some fighting and much idleness by the shores of
+the Bosphorus, in Bithynia--then in a fit of sudden energy, the
+soldier's spirit rises; he dashes to the attack on Mytilene, and shows
+himself a man.
+
+[Illustration: CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
+
+After a statue in the Palazzo dei Conservatori]
+
+One or two unimportant campaigns, as a subordinate officer, a civic
+crown won for personal bravery, an unsuccessful action brought against a
+citizen of high rank in the hope of forcing himself into notice, a trip
+to Rhodes made to escape the disgrace of failure, and an adventure with
+pirates--there, in a few words, is the story of Julius Cæsar's youth, as
+history tells it. But then suddenly, when his projected studies in quiet
+Rhodes were hardly begun, he crosses to the mainland, raises troops,
+seizes cities, drives Mithridates' governor out of the province, returns
+to Rome and is elected military tribune. The change is too quick, and
+one does not understand it. Truth should tell that those early years had
+been spent in the profound study of philosophy, history, biography,
+languages and mankind, of the genesis of events from the germ to the
+branching tree, of that chemistry of fate which brews effect out of
+cause, and distils the imperishable essence of glory from the rougher
+liquor of vulgar success.
+
+What strikes one most in the lives of the very great is that every
+action has a cumulative force beyond what it ever has in the existence
+of ordinary men. Success moves onward, passing through events on the
+same plane, as it were, and often losing brilliancy till it fades away,
+leaving those who have had it to outlive it in sorrow and weakness.
+Genius moves upward, treading events under its feet, scaling Olympus,
+making a ladder of mankind, outlasting its own activity for ever in a
+final and fixed glory more splendid than its own bright path. The really
+great man gathers power in action, the average successful man expends
+it.
+
+And so it must be understood that Cæsar, in his early youth, was not
+wasting his gifts in what seemed to be a half-voluptuous,
+half-adventurous, wholly careless life, but was accumulating strength by
+absorbing into himself the forces with which he came in contact,
+exhausting the intelligence of his companions in order to stock his own,
+learning everything simultaneously, forgetting nothing he learned till
+he could use all he knew to the extreme limit of its value.
+
+There is something mysterious in the almost unlimited credit which Cæsar
+seems to have enjoyed when still a very young man; and if the control of
+enormous sums of money by which he made himself beloved among the people
+explains, in a measure, his rapid rise from office to office, it is, on
+the other hand, hard to account for the trust which his creditors placed
+in his promises, and to explain why, when he was taken by pirates, the
+cities of Asia Minor should have voluntarily contributed money to make
+up the ransom demanded, seeing that he had never served in Asia, except
+as a subordinate. The only possible explanation is that while there, his
+real energies were devoted to the attainment of the greatest possible
+popularity in the shortest possible time, and that he was making himself
+beloved by the Asiatic cities, while his enemies said of him that he was
+wasting his time in idleness and dissipation.
+
+In any case, it was the control of money that most helped him in
+obtaining high offices in Rome, and from the very first he seems to have
+acted on the principle that in great enterprises economy spells ruin,
+and that to check expenditure is to trip up success. And this is
+explained, if not justified, by his close association with the people,
+from his very childhood. Until he was made Pontifex Maximus he seems to
+have lived in a small house in the Suburra, in one of the most crowded
+and least fashionable quarters of Rome; and as a mere boy, it was his
+influence with the common people that roused Sylla's anxiety. To live
+with the people, to take their part against the nobles, to give them of
+all he had and of all he could borrow, were the chief rules of his
+conduct, and the fact that he obtained such enormous loans proves that
+there were rich lenders who were ready to risk fortunes upon his
+success. And it was in dealing with the Roman plebeian that he learned
+to command the Roman soldier, with the tact of a demagogue and the
+firmness of an autocrat. He knew that a man must give largely, even
+recklessly, to be beloved, and that in order to be respected he must be
+able to refuse coldly and without condition, and that in all ages the
+people are but as little children before genius, though they may rise
+against talent like wild beasts and tear it to death.
+
+He knew also that in youth ten failures are nothing compared with one
+success, while in the full meridian of power one failure undoes a score
+of victories; hence his recklessness at first, his magnificent caution
+in his latter days; his daring resistance of Sylla's power before he was
+twenty, and his mildness towards the ringleaders of popular
+conspiracies against him when he was near his end; his violence upon the
+son of King Juba, whom he seized by the beard in open court when he
+himself was but a young lawyer, and his moderation in bearing the most
+atrocious libels, to punish which might have only increased their force.
+
+Cæsar's career divides itself not unnaturally into three periods,
+corresponding with his youth, his manhood and his maturity; with the
+absorption of force in gaining experience, the lavish expenditure of
+force in conquest, the calm employment of force in final supremacy. The
+man who never lost a battle in which he commanded in person, began life
+by failing in everything he attempted, and ended it as the foremost man
+of all humanity, past and to come, the greatest general, the greatest
+speaker, the greatest lawgiver, the greatest writer of Latin prose whom
+the great Roman people ever produced, and also the bravest man of his
+day, as he was the kindest. In an age when torture was a legitimate part
+of justice, he caused the pirates who had taken him, and whom he took in
+turn, to be mercifully put to death before he crucified their dead
+bodies for his oath's sake, and when his long-trusted servant tried to
+poison him he would not allow the wretch to be hurt save by the sudden
+stroke of instant death; nor ever in a long career of conquest did he
+inflict unnecessary pain. Never was man loved of women as he was, and
+his sins were many even for those days, yet in them we find no
+unkindness, and when his own wife should have been condemned for her
+love of Clodius, Cæsar would not testify against her. He divorced her,
+he said, not because he knew anything, but because his family should be
+above suspicion. He plundered the world, but he gave it back its gold in
+splendid gifts and public works, keeping its glory alone for himself. He
+was hated by the few because he was beloved by the many, and it was not
+revenge, but envy, that slew the benefactor of mankind. The weaknesses
+of the supreme conqueror were love of woman and trust of man, and as the
+first Brutus made his name glorious by setting his people free, the
+second disgraced it and blackened the name of friendship with a stain
+that will outlast time, and by a deed second only in infamy to that of
+Judas Iscariot. The last cry of the murdered master was the cry of a
+broken heart--'And thou, too, Brutus, my son!' Alexander left chaos
+behind him; Cæsar left Europe, and it may be truly said that the
+crowning manifestation of his sublime wisdom was his choice of
+Octavius--of the young Augustus--to complete the carving of a world
+which he himself had sketched and blocked out in the rough.
+
+The first period of his life ended with his election to the military
+tribuneship on his return to Rome after his Asian adventures, and his
+first acts were directed towards the reconstruction of what Sylla had
+destroyed, by reëstablishing the authority of tribunes and recalling
+some of Sylla's victims from their political exile. From that time
+onward, in his second period, he was more or less continually in office.
+Successively a tribune, a quæstor, governor of Farther Spain, ædile,
+pontifex maximus, prætor, governor of Spain again, and consul with the
+insignificant Bibulus, a man of so small importance that people used to
+date documents, by way of a jest, 'in the Consulship of Julius and
+Cæsar.' Then he obtained Gaul for his province, and lived the life of a
+soldier for nine years, during which he created the army that gave him
+at last the mastery of Rome. And in the tenth year Rome was afraid, and
+his enemies tried to deprive him of his power and passed bills against
+him, and drove out the tribunes of the people who took his part; and if
+he had returned to Rome then, yielding up his province and his legions,
+as he was called upon to do, he would have been judged and destroyed by
+his enemies. But he knew that the people loved him, and he crossed the
+Rubicon in arms.
+
+This second period of his life closed with the last triumph decreed to
+him for his victories in Spain. The third and final period had covered
+but one year when his assassins cut it short.
+
+Nothing demonstrates Cæsar's greatness so satisfactorily as this, that
+at his death Rome relapsed at once into civil war and strife as violent
+as that to which Cæsar had put an end, and that the man who brought
+lasting peace and unity into the distracted state, was the man of
+Cæsar's choice. But in endeavouring to realize his supreme wisdom,
+nothing helps us more than the pettiness of the accusations brought
+against him by such historians as Suetonius--that he once remained
+seated to receive the whole body of Conscript fathers, that he had a
+gilded chair in the Senate house, and appointed magistrates at his own
+pleasure to hold office for terms of years, that he laughed at an
+unfavourable omen and made himself dictator for life; and such things,
+says the historian, 'are of so much more importance than all his good
+qualities that he is considered to have abused his power and to have
+been justly assassinated.' But it is the people, not the historian, who
+make history, and when Caius Julius Cæsar was dead, the people called
+him God.
+
+Beardless Octavius, his sister's daughter's son, barely eighteen years
+old, brings in by force the golden age of Rome. As Triumvir, with Antony
+and Lepidus, he hunts down the murderers first, then his rebellious
+colleagues, and wins the Empire back in thirteen years. He rules long
+and well, and very simply, as commanding general of the army and by no
+other power, taking all into his hands besides, the Senate, the chief
+priesthood, and the Majesty of Rome over the whole earth, for which he
+was called Augustus, the 'Majestic.' And his strength lay in this, that
+by the army, he was master of Senate and people alike, so that they
+could no longer strive with each other in perpetual bloodshed, and the
+everlasting wars of Rome were fought against barbarians far away, while
+Rome at home was prosperous and calm and peaceful. Then Virgil sang, and
+Horace gave Latin life to Grecian verse, and smiled and laughed, and
+wept and dallied with love, while Livy wrote the story of greatness for
+us all to this day, and Ovid touched another note still unforgotten.
+Then temple rose by temple, and grand basilicas reared their height by
+the Sacred Way; the gold of the earth poured in and Art was queen and
+mistress of the age. Julius Cæsar was master in Rome for one year.
+Augustus ruled nearly half a century. Four and forty years he was sole
+monarch after Antony's fall at Actium. About the thirtieth year of his
+reign, Christ was born.
+
+All men have an original claim to be judged by the standard of their own
+time. Counting one by one the victims of the proscription proclaimed by
+the triumvirate in which Augustus was the chief power, some historians
+have brought down his greatness in quick declination to the level of a
+cold-blooded and cruel selfishness; and they account for his subsequent
+just and merciful conduct on the ground that he foresaw political
+advantage in clemency, and extension of power in the exercise of
+justice. The death of Cicero, sacrificed to Antony's not unreasonable
+vengeance, is magnified into a crime that belittles the Augustan age.
+
+Yet compared with the wholesale murders done by Marius and Sylla, and by
+the patricians themselves in their struggles with the people, the few
+political executions ordered by Augustus sink into comparative
+insignificance, and it will generally be seen that those who most find
+fault with him are ready to extol the murderers of Julius Cæsar as
+devoted patriots, if not as glorious martyrs to the divine cause of
+liberty.
+
+[Illustration: OCTAVIUS AUGUSTUS CÆSAR
+
+After a bust in the British Museum]
+
+It is easier, perhaps, to describe the growth of Rome from the early
+Kings to Augustus, than to account for the change from the Rome of the
+Empire at the beginning of our era to the Rome of the Popes in the year
+eight hundred. Probably the easiest and truest way of looking at the
+transition is to regard it according to the periods of supremacy,
+decadence and ultimate disappearance from Rome of the Roman Army. For
+the Army made the Emperors, and the Emperors made the times. The great
+military organization had in it the elements of long life, together with
+all sudden and terrible possibilities. The Army made Tiberius, Caligula,
+Claudius and Nero, the Julian Emperors; then destroyed Nero and set up
+Vespasian after one or two experiments. The Army chose such men as
+Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, and such monsters as Domitian and Commodus;
+the Army conquered the world, held the world and gave the world to
+whomsoever it pleased. The Army and the Emperor, each the other's tool,
+governed Rome for good and ill, for ill and good, by fear and bounty and
+largely by amusement, but ultimately to their own and Rome's
+destruction.
+
+For all the time the two great adversaries of the Empire, the spiritual
+and material, the Christian and the men of the North, were gaining
+strength and unity. Under Augustus, Christ was born. Under Augustus,
+Hermann the German chieftain destroyed Varus and his legions. By sheer
+strength and endurance, the Army widened and broadened the Empire,
+forcing back the Northmen upon themselves like a spring that gathers
+force by tension. Unnoticed, at first, Christianity quietly grew to
+power. Between Christians and Northmen, the Empire of Rome went down at
+last, leaving the Empire of Constantinople behind it.
+
+The great change was wrought in about five hundred years, by the Empire,
+from the City of the Republic to what had become the City of the Middle
+Age; between the reign of Augustus, first Emperor, and the deposition of
+the last Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by Odoacer, Rome's hired
+Pomeranian general.
+
+In that time Rome was transubstantiated in all its elements, in
+population, in language, in religion and in customs. To all intents and
+purposes, the original Latin race utterly disappeared, and the Latin
+tongue became the broken dialect of a mixed people, out of which the
+modern Italian speech was to grow, decadent in form, degenerate in
+strength but renascent in a grace and beauty which the Latin never
+possessed. First the vast population of slaves brought in their
+civilized and their barbarous words--Greek, Hebrew and Arabic, or
+Celtic, German and Slav; then came the Goth, and filled all Italy with
+himself and his rough language for a hundred years. The Latin of the
+Roman Mass is the Latin of slaves in Rome between the first and fifth
+centuries, from the time of the Apostles to that of Pope Gelasius, whose
+prayer for peace and rest is the last known addition to the Canon,
+according to most authorities. Compare it with the Latin of Livy and
+Tacitus; it is not the same language, for to read the one by no means
+implies an understanding of the other.
+
+Or take the dress. It is told of Augustus, as a strange and almost
+unknown thing, that he wore breeches and stockings, or leg swathings,
+because he suffered continually with cold. Men went barelegged and
+wrapped themselves in the huge toga which came down to their feet. In
+the days of Augustulus the toga was almost forgotten; men wore leggings,
+tunics and the short Greek cloak.
+
+In the change of religion, too, all customs were transformed, private
+and public, in a way impossible to realize today. The Roman household,
+with the father as absolute head, lord and despot, gradually gave way to
+a sort of half-patriarchal, half-religious family life, resembling the
+first in principle but absolutely different from it in details and
+result, and which, in a measure, has survived in Italy to the present
+time.
+
+In the lives of men, the terror of one man, as each despot lost power,
+began to give way to the fear of half-defined institutions, of the
+distant government in Constantinople and of the Church as a secular
+power, till the time came when the title of Emperor raised a smile,
+whereas the name of the Pope--of the 'Father-Bishop'--was spoken with
+reverence by Christians and with respect even by unbelievers. The time
+came when the army that had made Emperors and unmade them at its
+pleasure became a mere band of foreign mercenaries, who fought for wages
+and plunder when they could be induced to fight for Rome at all.
+
+So the change came. But in the long five hundred years of the Western
+Empire Rome had filled the world with the results of her own life and
+had founded modern Europe, from the Danube to England and from the Rhine
+to Gibraltar; so that when the tide set towards the south again, the
+Northmen brought back to Italy some of the spirit and some of the
+institutions which Rome had carried northwards to them in the days of
+conquest; and they came not altogether as strangers and barbarians, as
+the Huns had come, to ravage and destroy, and be themselves destroyed
+and scattered and forgotten, but, in a measure, as Europeans against
+Europeans, hoping to grasp the remnants of a civilized power. Theodoric
+tried to make a real kingdom, Totila and Teias fell fighting for one;
+the Franks established one in Gaul, and at last it was a Frank who gave
+the Empire life again, and conquests and laws, and was crowned by the
+Christian Pontifex Maximus in Rome when Julius Cæsar had been dead more
+than eight hundred years.
+
+One of the greatest of the world's historians has told the story of the
+change, calling it the 'Decline and Fall of the Empire,' and describing
+it in some three thousand pages, of which scarcely one can be spared for
+the understanding of the whole. Thereby its magnitude may be gauged, but
+neither fairly judged nor accurately measured. The man who would grasp
+the whole meaning of Rome's name, must spend a lifetime in study and
+look forward to disappointment in the end. It was Ampère, I believe, who
+told a young student that he might get a superficial impression of the
+city in ten years, but that twenty would be necessary in order to know
+anything about it worthy to be written. And perhaps the largest part of
+the knowledge worth having lies in the change from the ancient capital
+of the Empire to the mediæval seat of ecclesiastic domination.
+
+And, indeed, nothing in all history is more extraordinary than the rise
+of Rome's second power under the Popes. In the ordinary course of human
+events, great nations appear to have had but one life. When that was
+lived out, and when they had passed through the artistic period so often
+coincident with early decadence, they were either swept away, or they
+sank to the insignificance of mere commercial prosperity, thereafter
+deriving their fashions, arts, tastes, and in fact almost everything
+except their wealth, from nations far gone in decay.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAMPAGNA
+
+And Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct]
+
+But in Rome it was otherwise. The growth of the faith which subjected
+the civilized world was a matter of first importance to civilization,
+and Rome was the centre of that growing. Moreover, that development and
+that faith had one head, chosen by election, and the headship itself
+became an object of the highest ambition, whereby the strength and
+genius of individuals and families were constantly called into activity,
+and both families and isolated individuals of foreign race were
+attracted to Rome. It was no small thing to hold the kings of the earth
+in spiritual subjection, to be the arbiter of the new Empire founded by
+Charlemagne, the director of the kingdoms built up in France and
+England, and, almost literally, the feudal lord over all other temporal
+powers. The force of a predominant idea gave Rome new life, vivifying
+new elements with the vitality of new ambitions. The theatre was the
+same. The actors and the play had changed. The world was no longer
+governed by one man as monarch; it was directed by one man, who was the
+chief personage in the vast and intricate feudal system by which strong
+men agreed to live, and to which they forced the weak to submit.
+
+The Barons came into existence, and Rome was a city of fortresses and
+towers, as well as churches. Orsini and Colonna, Caetani and
+Vitelleschi, Savelli and Frangipani, fought with each other for
+centuries among ruins, built strongholds of the stones of temples, and
+burned the marble treasures of the world to make lime. And fiercely they
+held their own. Nicholas Rienzi wanders amid the deserted places,
+deciphers the broken inscriptions, gathers a little crowd of plebeians
+about him and tells them of ancient Rome, and of the rights of the
+people in old times. All at once he rises, a grand shadow of a Roman, a
+true tribune, brave, impulsive, eloquent. A little while longer and he
+is half mad with vanity and ambition, a public fool in a high place,
+decking himself in silks and satins, and ornaments of gold, and the
+angry nobles slay him on the steps of the Aracoeli, as other nobles
+long ago slew Tiberius Gracchus, a greater and a better man, almost on
+the same spot.
+
+Meanwhile the great schism of the Church rages, before and after Rienzi.
+The Empire and its Kingdoms join issue with each other and with the
+Barons for the lordship of Christendom; there are two Popes, waging war
+with nations on both sides, and Rome is reduced to a town of barely
+twenty thousand souls. Then comes Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh,
+friend of the Great Countess, humbler of the Emperor, a restorer of
+things, the Julius Cæsar of the Church, and from his day there is
+stability again, as Urban the Second follows, like an Augustus; Nicholas
+the Fifth, the next great Pontiff, comes in with the Renascence. Last of
+destroyers Charles, the wild Constable of Bourbon, marches in open
+rebellion against King, State and Church, friend to the Emperor,
+straight to his death at the walls, his work of destruction carried out
+to the terrible end by revengeful Spaniards who spare only the churches
+and the convents. Out of those ashes Rome rose again, for the last time,
+the Rome of Sixtus the Fifth, which is, substantially, the Rome we see
+today; less powerful in the world after that time, but more beautiful as
+she grew more peaceful by degrees; flourishing in a strange, motley
+way, like no other city in the world, as the Empire of the Hapsburgs and
+the Kingdoms of Europe learned to live apart from her, and she was
+concentrated again upon herself, still and always a factor among
+nations, and ever to be. But even in latter days, Napoleon could not do
+without her, and Francis the Second of Austria had to resign the Empire,
+in order that Pius the Seventh might call the self-crowned Corsican
+soldier, girt with Charlemagne's huge sword, the anointed Emperor of
+Christendom.
+
+Once more a new idea gives life to fragments hewn in pieces and
+scattered in confusion. A dream of unity disturbs Italy's sleep. Never,
+in truth, in all history, has Italy been united save by violence. By the
+sword the Republic brought Latins, Samnites and Etruscans into
+subjection; by sheer strength she crushed the rebellion of the slaves
+and then forced the Italian allies to a second submission; by terror
+Marius and Sylla ruled Rome and Italy; and it was the overwhelming power
+of a paid army that held the Italians in check under the Empire, till
+they broke away from each other as soon as the pressure was removed, to
+live in separate kingdoms and principalities for thirteen or fourteen
+hundred years, from Romulus Augustulus--or at least from Justinian--to
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, in whose veins ran not one drop of
+Italian blood.
+
+One asks whence came the idea of unity which has had such power to move
+these Italians, in modern times. The answer is plain and simple. Unity
+is the word; the interpretation of it is the name of Rome. The desire is
+for all the romance and the legends and the visions of supreme greatness
+which no other name can ever call up. What will be called hereafter the
+madness of the Italian people took possession of them on the day when
+Rome was theirs to do with as they pleased. Their financial ruin had its
+origin at that moment, when they became masters of the legendary
+Mistress of the world. What the end will be, no one can foretell, but
+the Rome of old was not made great by dreams. Her walls were founded in
+blood, and her temples were built with the wealth of conquered nations,
+by captives and slaves of subject races.
+
+The Rome we see today owes its mystery, its sadness and its charm to six
+and twenty centuries of history, mostly filled with battle, murder and
+sudden death, deeds horrible in that long-past present which we try to
+call up, but alternately grand, fascinating and touching now, as we
+shape our scant knowledge into visions and fill out our broken dreams
+with the stuff of fancy. In most men's minds, perhaps, the charm lies in
+that very confusion of suggestions, for few indeed know Rome so well as
+to divide clearly the truth from the legend in her composition. Such
+knowledge is perhaps altogether unattainable in any history; it is most
+surely so here, where city is built on city, monument upon monument,
+road upon road, from the heart of the soil upwards--the hardened lava
+left by many eruptions of life; where the tablets of Clio have been
+shattered again and again, where fire has eaten, and sword has hacked,
+and hammer has bruised ages of records out of existence, where even the
+race and type of humanity have changed and have been forgotten twice and
+three times over.
+
+Therefore, unless one have half a lifetime to spend in patient study and
+deep research, it is better, if one come to Rome, to feel much than to
+try and know a little, for in much feeling there is more human truth
+than in that dangerous little knowledge which dulls the heart and
+hampers the clear instincts of natural thought. Let him who comes hither
+be satisfied with a little history and much legend, with rough warp of
+fact and rich woof of old-time fancy, and not look too closely for the
+perfect sum of all, where more than half the parts have perished for
+ever.
+
+It matters not much whether we know the exact site of Virgil's
+Laurentum; it is more interesting to remember how Commodus, cruel,
+cowardly and selfish, fled thither from the great plague, caring not at
+all that his people perished by tens of thousands in the city, since he
+himself was safe, with the famous Galen to take care of him. We can
+leave the task of tracing the enclosures of Nero's golden house to
+learned archælogists, and let our imagination find wonder and delight in
+their accounts of its porticos three thousand feet long, its game park,
+its baths, its thousands of columns with their gilded capitals, and its
+walls encrusted with mother-of-pearl. And we may realize the depth of
+Rome's abhorrence for the dead tyrant, as we think of how Vespasian and
+his son Titus pulled down the enchanted palace for the people's sake,
+and built the Colosseum where the artificial lake had been, and their
+great baths on the very foundations of Nero's gorgeous dwelling.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TRAJAN, SHOWING THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS]
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF ANTONINUS PIUS, IN HONOUR OF FAUSTINA, WITH
+REVERSE SHOWING VESTA BEARING THE PALLADIUM]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+It is impossible to conceive of the Augustan age without Horace, nor to
+imagine a possible Horace without Greece and Greek influence. At the
+same time Horace is in many ways the prototype of the old-fashioned,
+cultivated, gifted, idle, sarcastic, middle-class Roman official, making
+the most of life on a small salary and the friendship of a great
+personage; praising poverty, but making the most of the good things that
+fell in his way; extolling pristine austerity of life and yielding with
+a smile to every agreeable temptation; painting the idyllic life of a
+small gentleman farmer as the highest state of happiness, but secretly
+preferring the town; prudently avoiding marriage, but far too human to
+care for an existence in which woman had no share; more sensible in
+theory than in practice, and more religious in manner than in heart;
+full of quaint superstitions, queer odds and ends of knowledge, amusing
+anecdotes and pictures of personal experience; the whole compound
+permeated with a sort of indolent sadness at the unfulfilled promises of
+younger years, in which there had been more of impulse than of ambition,
+and more of ambition than real strength. The early struggles for Italian
+unity left many such half-disappointed patriots, and many less fortunate
+in their subsequent lives than Horace.
+
+Born in the far South, and the son of a freed slave, brought to Rome as
+a boy and carefully taught, then sent to Athens to study Greek, he was
+barely twenty years of age when he joined Brutus after Cæsar's death,
+was with him in Asia, and, in the lack of educated officers perhaps,
+found himself one day, still a mere boy, tribune of a Legion--or, as we
+should say, in command of a brigade of six thousand men, fighting for
+what he believed to be the liberty of Rome, in the disastrous battle of
+Philippi. Brutus being dead, the dream of glory ended, after the
+amnesty, in a scribe's office under one of the quæstors, and the
+would-be liberator of his country became a humble clerk in the Treasury,
+eking out his meagre salary with the sale of a few verses. Many an old
+soldier of Garibaldi's early republican dreams has ended in much the
+same way in our own times under the monarchy.
+
+But Horace was born to other things. Chaucer was a clerk in the Custom
+House, and found time to be the father of English poetry. Horace's daily
+work did not hinder him from becoming a poet. His love of Greek,
+acquired in Athens and Asia Minor, and the natural bent of his mind made
+him the greatest imitator and adapter of foreign verses that ever lived;
+and his character, by its eminently Italian combination of prim
+respectability and elastic morality, gave him a two-sided view of men
+and things that has left us representations of life in three dimensions
+instead of the flat, though often violent, pictures which prejudice
+loves best to paint.
+
+In his admiration of Greek poetry, Horace was not a discoverer; he was
+rather the highest expression of Rome's artistic want. If Scipio of
+Africa had never conquered the Carthaginians at Zama, he would be
+notable still as one of the first and most sincere lovers of Hellenic
+literature, and as one of the earliest imitators of Athenian manners.
+The great conqueror is remembered also as the first man in Rome who
+shaved every day, more than a hundred and fifty years before Horace's
+time. He was laughed at by some, despised by others and disliked by the
+majority for his cultivated tastes and his refined manners.
+
+The Romans had most gifts excepting those we call creative. Instead of
+creating, therefore, Rome took her art whole, and by force, from the
+most artistic nation the world ever produced. Sculptors, architects,
+painters and even poets, such as there were, came captive to Rome in
+gangs, were sold at auction as slaves, and became the property of the
+rich, to work all their lives at their several arts for their master's
+pleasure; and the State rifled Greece and Asia, and even the Greek Italy
+of the south, and brought back the masterpieces of an age to adorn
+Rome's public places. The Roman was the engineer, the maker of roads, of
+aqueducts, of fortifications, the layer out of cities, and the planner
+of harbours. In a word, the Roman made the solid and practical
+foundation, and then set the Greek slave to beautify it. When he had
+watched the slave at work for a century or two, he occasionally
+attempted to imitate him. That was as far as Rome ever went in original
+art.
+
+But her love of the beautiful, though often indiscriminating and lacking
+in taste, was profound and sincere. It does not appear that in all her
+conquests her armies ever wantonly destroyed beautiful things. On the
+contrary, her generals brought home all they could with uncommon care,
+and the consequence was that in Horace's day the public places of the
+city were vast open-air museums, and the great temples picture galleries
+of which we have not the like now in the whole world. And with those
+things came all the rest; the manners, the household life, the
+necessaries and the fancies of a conquering and already decadent nation,
+the thousands of slaves whose only duty was to amuse their owners and
+the public; the countless men and women and girls and boys, whose souls
+and bodies went to feed the corruption of the gorgeous capital, or to
+minister to its enormous luxuries; the companies of flute-players and
+dancing-girls, the sharp-tongued jesters, the coarse buffoons, the
+play-actors and the singers. And then, the endless small commerce of an
+idle and pleasure-seeking people, easily attracted by bright colours,
+new fashions and new toys; the drug-sellers and distillers of perfumes,
+the venders of Eastern silks and linens and lace, the barbers and
+hairdressers, the jewellers and tailors, the pastry cooks and makers of
+honey-sweetmeats; and everywhere the poor rabble of failures, like scum
+in the wake of a great ship; the beggars everywhere, and the pickpockets
+and the petty thieves. It is no wonder that Horace was fond of strolling
+in Rome.
+
+In contrast, the great and wonderful things of the Augustan city stand
+out in high relief, above the varied crowd that fills the streets, with
+all the dignity that centuries of power can lend. To the tawdry is
+opposed the splendid, the Roman general in his chiselled corselet and
+dyed mantle faces the Greek actor in his tinsel; the band of painted,
+half-clad, bedizened dancing-girls falls back cowering in awestruck
+silence as the noble Vestal passes by, high-browed, white-robed,
+untainted, the incarnation of purity in an age of vice. And the old
+Senator in his white cloak with its broad purple hem, his smooth-faced
+clients at his elbows, his silent slaves before him and behind, meets
+the low-chattering knot of Hebrew money-lenders, making the price of
+short loans for the day, and discussing the assets of a famous
+spendthrift, as their yellow-turbaned, bearded fathers had talked over
+the chances of Julius Cæsar when he was as yet but a fashionable young
+lawyer of doubtful fortune, with an unlimited gift of persuasion and an
+equally unbounded talent for amusement.
+
+Between the contrasts lived men of such position as Horace occupied, but
+not many. For the great middle element of society is a growth of later
+centuries, and even Horace himself, as time went on, became attached to
+Mæcenas and then, more or less, to the person of the Emperor, by a
+process of natural attraction, just as his butt, Tigellius, gravitated
+to the common herd that mourned his death. The 'golden mean' of which
+Horace wrote was a mere expression, taught him, perhaps, by his father,
+a part of his stock of maxims. Where there were only great people on the
+one side, and a rabble on the other, the man of genius necessarily rose
+to the level of the high, by his own instinct and their liking. What was
+best of Greek was for them, what was worst was for the populace.
+
+But the Greek was everywhere, with his keen weak face, his sly look and
+his skilful fingers. Scipio and Paulus Emilius had brought him, and he
+stayed in Rome till the Goth came, and afterwards. Greek poetry, Greek
+philosophy, Greek sculpture, Greek painting, Greek music everywhere--to
+succeed at all in such society, Virgil and Horace and Ovid must needs
+make Greek of Latin, and bend the stiff syllables to Alcaics and
+Sapphics and Hexameters. The task looked easy enough, though it was
+within the powers of so very few. Thousands tried it, no doubt, when the
+three or four had set the fashion, and failed, as the second-rate fail,
+with some little brief success in their own day, turned into the total
+failure of complete disappearance when they had been dead awhile.
+
+Supreme of them all, for his humanity, Horace remains. Epic Virgil,
+appealing to the traditions of a living race of nobles and to the
+carefully hidden, sober vanity of the world's absolute monarch, does not
+appeal to modern man. The twilight of the gods has long deepened into
+night, and Ovid's tales of them and their goddesses move us by their own
+beauty rather than by our sympathy for them, though we feel the tender
+touch of the exiled man whose life was more than half love, in the
+marvellous Letters of Heroes' Sweethearts--in the complaint of Briseïs
+to Achilles, in the passionately sad appeal of Hermione to Orestes.
+Whoever has not read these things does not know the extreme limit of
+man's understanding of woman. Yet Horace, with little or nothing of such
+tenderness, has outdone Ovid and Virgil in this later age.
+
+He strolled through life, and all life was a play of which he became
+the easy-going but unforgetful critic. There was something good-natured
+even in his occasional outbursts of contempt and hatred for the things
+and the people he did not like. There was something at once caressing
+and good-humouredly sceptical in his way of addressing the gods,
+something charitable in his attacks on all that was ridiculous,--men,
+manners and fashions.
+
+He strolled wherever he would, alone; in the market, looking at
+everything and asking the price of what he saw, of vegetables and grain
+and the like; in the Forum, or the Circus, at evening, when 'society'
+was dining, and the poor people and slaves thronged the open places for
+rest and air, and there he used to listen to the fortune-tellers, and
+among them, no doubt, was that old hag, Canidia, immortalized in the
+huge joke of his comic resentment. He goes home to sup on lupins and
+fritters and leeks,--or says so,--though his stomach abhorred garlic;
+and his three slaves--the fewest a man could have--wait on him as he
+lies before the clean white marble table, leaning on his elbow. He does
+not forget the household gods, and pours a few drops upon the cement
+floor in libation to them, out of the little earthen saucer filled from
+the slim-necked bottle of Campanian earthenware. Then to sleep, careless
+of getting up early or late, just as he might feel, to stay at home and
+read or write, or to wander about the city, or to play the favourite
+left-handed game of ball in the Campus Marius before his bath and his
+light midday meal.
+
+With a little change here and there, it is the life of the idle
+middle-class Italian today, which will always be much the same, let the
+world wag and change as it will, with all its extravagances, its
+fashions and its madnesses. Now and then he exclaims that there is no
+average common sense left in the world, no half-way stopping-place
+between extremes. One man wears his tunic to his heels, another is girt
+up as if for a race; Rufillus smells of perfumery, Gargonius of anything
+but scent; and so on--and he cries out that when a fool tries to avoid a
+mistake he will run to any length in the opposite direction. And Horace
+had a most particular dislike for fools and bores, and has left us the
+most famous description of the latter ever set down by an accomplished
+observer.
+
+By chance, he says, he was walking one morning along the Sacred Street
+with one slave behind him, thinking of some trifle and altogether
+absorbed in it, when a man whom he barely knew by name came up with him
+in a great hurry and grasped his hand. 'How do you do, sweet friend?'
+asks the Bore. 'Pretty well, as times go,' answers Horace, stopping
+politely for a moment; and then beginning to move on, he sees to his
+horror that the Bore walks by his side. 'Can I do anything for you?'
+asks the poet, still civil, but hinting that he prefers his own
+company. The Bore plunges into the important business of praising
+himself, with a frankness not yet forgotten in his species, and Horace
+tries to get rid of him, walking very fast, then very slowly, then
+turning to whisper a word to his slave, and in his anxiety he feels the
+perspiration breaking out all over him, while his Tormentor chatters on,
+as they skirt the splendid Julian Basilica, gleaming in the morning sun.
+Horace looks nervously and eagerly to right and left, hoping to catch
+sight of a friend and deliverer. Not a friendly face was in sight, and
+the Bore knew it, and was pitilessly frank. 'Oh, I know you would like
+to get away from me!' he exclaimed. 'I shall not let you go so easily!
+Where are you going?' 'Across the Tiber,' answered Horace, inventing a
+distant visit. 'I am going to see someone who lives far off, in Cæsar's
+gardens--a man you do not know. He is ill.' 'Very well,' said the other;
+'I have nothing to do, and am far from lazy. I will go all the way with
+you.' Horace hung his head, as a poor little Italian donkey does when a
+heavy load is piled upon his back, for he was fairly caught, and he
+thought of the long road before him, and he had moreover the unpleasant
+consciousness that the Bore was laughing at his imaginary errand, since
+they were walking in a direction exactly opposite from the Tiber, and
+would have to go all the way round the Palatine by the Triumphal Road
+and the Circus Maximus and then cross by the Sublician bridge, instead
+of turning back towards the Velabrum, the Provision Market and the
+Bridge of Æmilius, which we have known and crossed as the Ponte Rotto,
+but of which only one arch is left now, in midstream.
+
+[Illustration: PONTE ROTTO, NOW DESTROYED
+
+After an engraving made about 1850]
+
+Then, pressing his advantage, the Bore began again. 'If I am any judge
+of myself,' he observed, 'you will make me one of your most intimate
+friends. I am sure nobody can write such good verses as fast as I can.
+As for my singing, I know it for a fact that Hermogenes is decidedly
+jealous of me!' 'Have you a mother, Sir?' asked Horace, gravely. 'Have
+you any relations to whom your safety is a matter of importance?' 'No,'
+answered the other, 'no one. I have buried them all!' 'Lucky people!'
+said the poet to himself, and he wished he were dead, too, at that
+moment, and he thought of all the deaths he might have died. It was
+evidently not written that he should die of poison nor in battle, nor of
+a cough, nor of the liver, nor even of gout. He was to be slowly talked
+to death by a bore. By this time they were before the temple of Castor
+and Pollux, where the great Twin Brethren bathed their horses at
+Juturna's spring. The temple of Vesta was before them, and the Sacred
+Street turned at right angles to the left, crossing over between a row
+of shops on one side and the Julian Rostra on the other, to the Courts
+of Law. The Bore suddenly remembered that he was to appear in answer to
+an action on that very morning, and as it was already nine o'clock, he
+could not possibly walk all the way to Cæsar's gardens and be back
+before noon, and if he was late, he must forfeit his bail, and the suit
+would go against him by default. On the other hand, he had succeeded in
+catching the great poet alone, after a hundred fruitless attempts, and
+the action was not a very important one, after all. He stopped short.
+'If you have the slightest regard for me,' he said, 'you will just go
+across with me to the Courts for a moment.' Horace looked at him
+curiously, seeing a chance of escape. 'You know where I am going,' he
+answered with a smile; 'and as for law, I do not know the first thing
+about it.' The Bore hesitated, considered what the loss of the suit must
+cost him, and what he might gain by pushing his acquaintance with the
+friend of Mæcenas and Augustus. 'I am not sure,' he said doubtfully,
+'whether I had better give up your company, or my case,' 'My company, by
+all means!' cried Horace, with alacrity. 'No!' answered the other,
+looking at his victim thoughtfully, 'I think not!' And he began to move
+on again by the Nova Via towards the House of the Vestals. Having made
+up his mind to sacrifice his money, however, he lost no time before
+trying to get an equivalent for it. 'How do you stand with Mæcenas?' he
+asked suddenly, fixing his small eyes on Horace's weary profile, and
+without waiting for an answer he ran on to praise the great man. 'He is
+keen and sensible,' he continued, 'and has not many intimate friends. No
+one knows how to take advantage of luck as he does. You would find me a
+valuable ally, if you would introduce me. I believe you might drive
+everybody else out of the field--with my help, of course.' 'You are
+quite mistaken there!' answered Horace, rather indignantly. 'He is not
+at all that kind of man! There is not a house in Rome where any sort of
+intrigue would be more utterly useless!' 'Really, I can hardly believe
+it!' 'It is a fact, nevertheless,' retorted Horace, stoutly. 'Well,'
+said the Bore, 'if it is, I am of course all the more anxious to know
+such a man!' Horace smiled quietly. 'You have only to wish it, my dear
+Sir,' he answered, with the faintest modulation of polite irony in his
+tone. 'With such gifts at your command, you will certainly charm him.
+Why, the very reason of his keeping most people at arm's length is that
+he knows how easily he yields!' 'In that case, I will show you what I
+can do,' replied the Bore, delighted. 'I shall bribe the slaves; I will
+not give it up, if I am not received at first! I will bide my time and
+catch him in the street, and follow him about. One gets nothing in life
+without taking trouble!' As the man was chattering on, Horace's quick
+eyes caught sight of an old friend at last, coming towards him from the
+corner of the Triumphal Road, for they had already almost passed the
+Palatine. Aristius, sauntering along and enjoying the morning air, with
+a couple of slaves at his heels, saw Horace's trouble in a moment, for
+he knew the Bore well enough, and realized at once that if he delivered
+his friend, he himself would be the next victim. He was far too clever
+for that, and with a cold-blooded smile pretended not to understand
+Horace's signals of distress. 'I forget what it was you wished to speak
+about with me so particularly, my dear Aristius,' said the poet, in
+despair. 'It was something very important, was it not?' 'Yes,' answered
+the other, with another grin, 'I remember very well; but this is an
+unlucky day, and I shall choose another time. Today is the thirtieth
+Sabbath,' he continued, inventing a purely imaginary Hebrew feast, 'and
+you surely would not risk a Jew's curse for a few moments of
+conversation, would you?' 'I have no religion!' exclaimed Horace,
+eagerly. 'No superstition! Nothing!' 'But I have,' retorted Aristius,
+still smiling. 'My health is not good--perhaps you did not know? I will
+tell you about it some other time.' And he turned on his heel, with a
+laugh, leaving Horace to his awful fate. Even the sunshine looked black.
+But salvation came suddenly in the shape of the man who had brought the
+action against the Bore, and who, on his way to the Court, saw his
+adversary going off in the opposite direction. 'Coward! Villain!' yelled
+the man, springing forward and catching the poet's tormentor by his
+cloak. 'Where are you going now? You are witness, Sir, that I am in my
+right,' he added, turning to look for Horace. But Horace had disappeared
+in the crowd that had collected to see the quarrel, and his gods had
+saved him after all.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX]
+
+A part of the life of the times is in the little story, and anyone may
+stroll today along the Sacred Street, past the Basilica and the sharp
+turn that leads to the block of old houses where the Court House stood,
+between St. Adrian's and San Lorenzo in Miranda. Anyone may see just how
+it happened, and many know exactly how Horace felt from the moment when
+the Bore buttonholed him at the corner of the Julian Basilica till his
+final deliverance near the corner of the Triumphal Road, which is now
+the Via di San Gregorio.
+
+[Illustration: ATRIUM OF VESTA]
+
+There was much more resemblance to our modern life than one might think
+at first sight. Perhaps, after his timely escape, Horace turned back
+along the Sacred Street, followed by his single slave, and retraced his
+steps, past the temple of Vesta, the temple of Julius Cæsar, skirting
+the Roman Forum to the Golden Milestone at the foot of the ascent to the
+Capitol, from which landmark all the distances in the Roman Empire were
+reckoned, the very centre of the known world. Thence, perhaps, he turned
+up towards the Argiletum, with something of that instinct which takes a
+modern man of letters to his publisher's when he is in the
+neighbourhood. There the 'Brothers Sosii' had their publishing
+establishment, among many others of the same nature, and employed a
+great staff of copyists in preparing volumes for sale. All the year
+round the skilled scribes sat within in rows, with pen and ink, working
+at the manufacture of books. The Sosii Brothers were rich, and probably
+owned their workmen as slaves, both the writers and those who prepared
+the delicate materials, the wonderful ink, of which we have not the like
+today, the fine sheets of papyrus,--Pliny tells how they were sometimes
+too rough, and how they sometimes soaked up the ink like a cloth, as
+happens with our own paper,--and the carefully cut pens of Egyptian reed
+on which so much of the neatness in writing depended, though Cicero says
+somewhere that he could write with any pen he chanced to take up.
+
+It was natural enough that Horace should look in to ask how his latest
+book was selling, or more probably his first, for he had written but a
+few Epodes and not many Satires at the time when he met the immortal
+Bore. Later in his life, his books were published in editions of a
+thousand, as is the modern custom in Paris, and were sold all over the
+Empire, like those of other famous authors. The Satires did him little
+credit, and probably brought him but little money at their first
+publication. It seems certain that they have come down to us through a
+single copy. The Greek form of the Odes pleased people better. Moreover,
+some of the early Satires made distinguished people shy of his
+acquaintance, and when he told the Bore that Mæcenas was difficult of
+access he remembered that nine months had elapsed from the time of his
+own introduction to the great man until he had received the latter's
+first invitation to dinner. More than once he went almost too far in his
+attacks on men and things and then tried to remove the disagreeable
+impression he had produced, and wrote again of the same subject in a
+different spirit--notably when he attacked the works of the dead poet
+Lucilius and was afterwards obliged to explain himself.
+
+No doubt he often idled away a whole morning at his publisher's, looking
+over new books of other authors, and very probably borrowing them to
+take home with him, because he was poor, and he assuredly must have
+talked over with the Sosii the impression produced on the public by his
+latest poems. He was undoubtedly a quæstor's scribe, but it is more than
+doubtful whether he ever went near the Treasury or did any kind of
+clerk's work. If he ever did, it is odd that he should never speak of
+it, nor take anecdotes from such an occupation and from the clerks with
+whom he must have been thrown, for he certainly used every other sort of
+social material in the Satires. Among the few allusions to anything of
+the kind in his works are his ridicule of the over-dressed prætor of the
+town of Fundi, who had been a government clerk in Rome, and in the same
+story, his jest at one of Mæcenas' parasites, a freedman, and nominally
+a Treasury clerk, as Horace had been. In another Satire, the clerks in
+a body wish him to be present at one of their meetings.
+
+Perhaps what strikes one most in the study of Horace, which means the
+study of the Augustan age, is the vivid contrast between the man who
+composed the Carmen Sæculare, the sacred hymn sung on the Tenth
+anniversary of Augustus' accession to the imperial power, besides many
+odes that breathe a pristine reverence for the gods, and, on the other
+hand, the writer of satirical, playfully sceptical verses, who comments
+on the story of the incense melting without fire at the temple of
+Egnatia, with the famous and often-quoted 'Credat Judæus'! The original
+Romans had been a believing people, most careful in all ceremonies and
+observances, visiting anything like sacrilege with a cool ferocity
+worthy of the Christian religious wars in later days. Horace, at one
+time or another, laughs at almost every god and goddess in the heathen
+calendar, and publishes his jests, in editions of a thousand copies,
+with perfect indifference and complete immunity from censorship, while
+apparently bestowing a certain amount of care on household sacrifices
+and the like.
+
+The fact is that the Romans were a religious people, whereas the
+Italians were not. It is a singular fact that Rome, when left long to
+herself, has always shown a tendency to become systematically devout,
+whereas most of the other Italian states have exhibited an equally
+strong inclination to a scepticism not unfrequently mixed with the
+grossest superstition. It must be left to more profound students of
+humanity to decide whether certain places have a permanent influence in
+one determined direction upon the successive races that inhabit them;
+but it is quite undeniably true that the Romans of all ages have tended
+to religion of some sort in the most marked manner. In Roman history
+there is a succession of religious epochs not to be found in the annals
+of any other city. First, the early faith of the Kings, interrupted by
+the irruption of Greek influences which began approximately with Scipio
+Africanus; next, the wild Bacchic worship that produced the secret
+orgies on the Aventine, the discovery of which led to a religious
+persecution and the execution of thousands of persons on religious
+grounds; then the worship of the Egyptian deities, brought over to Rome
+in a new fit of belief, and at the same time, or soon afterwards, the
+mysterious adoration of the Persian Mithras, a gross and ignorant form
+of mysticism which, nevertheless, took hold of the people, at a time
+when other religions were almost reduced to a matter of form.
+
+Then, as all these many faiths lost vitality, Christianity arose, the
+terribly simple and earnest Christianity of the early centuries, sown
+first under the Cæsars, in Rome's secure days, developing to a power
+when Rome was left to herself by the transference of the Empire to the
+East, culminating for the first time in the crowning of Charlemagne,
+again in the Crusades, sinking under the revival of mythology and
+Hellenism during the Renascence, rising again, by slow degrees, to the
+extreme level of devotion under Pius the Ninth and the French
+protectorate, sinking suddenly with the movement of Italian unity, and
+the coming of the Italians in 1870, then rising again, as we see it now,
+with undying energy, under Leo the Thirteenth, and showing itself in the
+building of new churches, in the magnificent restoration of old ones,
+and in the vast second growth of ecclesiastical institutions, which are
+once more turning Rome into a clerical city, now that she is again at
+peace with herself, under a constitutional monarchy, but threatened only
+too plainly by an impending anarchic revolution. It would be hard to
+find in the history of any other city a parallel to such periodical
+recurrences of religious domination. Nor, in times when belief has been
+at its lowest ebb, have outward religious practices anywhere continued
+to hold so important a place in men's lives as they have always held in
+Rome. Of all Rome's mad tyrants, Elagabalus alone dared to break into
+the temple of Vesta and carry out the sacred Palladium. During more than
+eleven hundred years, six Vestal Virgins guarded the sacred fire and the
+Holy Things of Rome, in peace and war, through kingdom, republic,
+revolution and empire. For fifteen hundred years since then, the bones
+of Saint Peter have been respected by the Emperors, by Goths, by Kings,
+revolutions and short-lived republics.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+There was a surprising strength in those early institutions of which the
+fragmentary survival has made Rome what it is. Strongest of all,
+perhaps, was the patriarchal mode of life which the shepherds of Alba
+Longa brought with them when they fled from the volcano, and of which
+the most distinct traces remain to the present day, while its origin
+goes back to the original Aryan home. Upon that principle all the
+household life ultimately turned in Rome's greatest times. The Senators
+were Patres, conscript fathers, heads of strong houses; the Patricians
+were those who had known 'fathers,' that is, a known and noble descent.
+Horace called Senators simply 'Conscripts,' and the Roman nobles of
+today call themselves the 'Conscript' families. The chain of tradition
+is unbroken from Romulus to our own time, while everything else has
+changed in greater or less degree.
+
+It is hard for Anglo-Saxons to believe that, for more than a thousand
+years, a Roman father possessed the absolute legal right to try, condemn
+and execute any of his children, without witnesses, in his own house and
+without consulting anyone. Yet nothing is more certain. 'From the most
+remote ages,' says Professor Lanciani, the highest existing authority,
+'the power of a Roman father over his children, including those by
+adoption as well as by blood, was unlimited. A father might, without
+violating any law, scourge or imprison his son, or sell him for a slave,
+or put him to death, even after that son had risen to the highest
+honours in the state.' During the life of the father, a child, no matter
+of what age, could own no property independently, nor keep any private
+accounts, nor dispose of any little belongings, no matter how
+insignificant, without the father's consent, which was never anything
+more than an act of favour, and was revocable at any moment, without
+notice. If a son became a public magistrate, the power was suspended,
+but was again in force as soon as the period of office terminated. A man
+who had been Dictator of Rome became his father's slave and property
+again, as soon as his dictatorship ended.
+
+But if the son married with his father's consent, he was partly free,
+and became a 'father' in his turn, and absolute despot of his own
+household. So, if a daughter married, she passed from her father's
+dominion to that of her husband. A Priest of Jupiter for life was free.
+So was a Vestal Virgin. There was a complicated legal trick by which the
+father could liberate his son if he wished to do so for any reason, but
+he had no power to set any of his children free by a mere act of will,
+without legal formality. The bare fact that the men of a people should
+be not only trusted with such power, but that it should be forcibly
+thrust upon them, gives an idea of the Roman character, and it is
+natural enough that the condition of family life imposed by such laws
+should have had pronounced effects that may still be felt. As the Romans
+were a hardy race and long-lived, when they were not killed in battle,
+the majority of men were under the absolute control of their fathers
+till the age of forty or fifty years, unless they married with their
+parents' consent, in which case they advanced one step towards liberty,
+and at all events, could not be sold as slaves by their fathers, though
+they still had no right to buy or sell property nor to make a will.
+
+There are few instances of the law being abused, even in the most
+ferocious times. Brutus had the right to execute his sons, who conspired
+for the Tarquins, without any public trial. He preferred the latter.
+Titus Manlius caused his son to be publicly beheaded for disobeying a
+military order in challenging an enemy to single combat, slaying him,
+and bringing back the spoils. He might have cut off his head in private,
+so far as the law was concerned, for any reason whatsoever, great or
+small.
+
+As for the condition of real slaves, it was not so bad in early times as
+it became later, but the master's power was absolute to inflict torture
+and death in any shape. In slave-owning communities, barbarity has
+always been, to some extent, restrained by the actual value of the
+humanity in question, and slaves were not as cheap in Rome as might be
+supposed. A perfectly ignorant labourer of sound body was worth from
+eighty to a hundred dollars of our money, which meant much more in those
+days, though in later times twice that sum was sometimes paid for a
+single fine fish. The money value of the slave was, nevertheless, always
+a sort of guarantee of safety to himself; but men who had right of life
+and death over their own children, and who occasionally exercised it,
+were probably not, as a rule, very considerate to creatures who were
+bought and sold like cattle. Nevertheless, the number of slaves who were
+freed and enriched by their masters is really surprising.
+
+The point of all this, however, is that the head of a Roman family was,
+under protection of all laws and traditions, an absolute tyrant over his
+wife, his children, and his servants; and the Roman Senate was a chosen
+association of such tyrants. It is astonishing that they should have
+held so long to the forms of a republican government, and should never
+have completely lost their republican traditions.
+
+In this household tyranny, existing side by side with certain general
+ideas of liberty and constitutional government, under the ultimate
+domination of the Emperors' despotism as introduced by Augustus, is to
+be found the keynote of Rome's subsequent social life. Without those
+things, the condition of society in the Middle Age would be
+inexplicable, and the feudal system could never have developed. The old
+Roman principle that 'order should have precedence over order, not man
+over man,' rules most of Europe at the present day, though in Rome and
+Italy it is now completely eclipsed by a form of government which can
+only be defined as a monarchic democracy.
+
+The mere fact that under Augustus no man was eligible to the Senate who
+possessed less than a sum equal to a quarter of a million dollars, shows
+plainly enough what one of the most skilful despots who ever ruled
+mankind wisely, thought of the institution. It was intended to balance,
+by its solidity, the ever-unsettled instincts of the people, to prevent
+as far as possible the unwise passage of laws by popular acclamation,
+and, so to say, to regulate the pulse of the nation. It has been
+imitated, in one way or another, by all the nations we call civilized.
+
+But the father of the family was in his own person the despot, the
+senate, the magistrate and the executive of the law; his wife, his
+children and his slaves represented the people, constantly and eternally
+in real or theoretical opposition, while he was protected by all the
+force of the most ferocious laws. A father could behead his son with
+impunity; but the son who killed his father was condemned to be all but
+beaten to death, and then to be sewn up in a leathern sack and drowned.
+The father could take everything from the son; but if the son took the
+smallest thing from his father he was a common thief and malefactor, and
+liable to be treated as one, at his father's pleasure. The conception of
+justice in Rome never rested upon any equality, but always upon the
+precedence of one order over another, from the highest to the lowest.
+There were orders even among the slaves, and one who had been allowed to
+save money out of his allowances could himself buy a slave to wait on
+him, if he chose.
+
+Hence the immediate origin of European caste, of different degrees of
+nobility, of the relative standing of the liberal professions, of the
+mediæval guilds of artisans and tradesmen, and of the numerous
+subdivisions of the agricultural classes, of which traces survive all
+over Europe. The tendency to caste is essentially and originally Aryan,
+and will never be wholly eliminated from any branch of the Aryan race.
+
+One may fairly compare the internal life of a great nation to a building
+which rises from its foundations story by story until the lower part can
+no longer carry the weight of the superstructure, and the first signs of
+weakness begin to show themselves in the oldest and lowest portion of
+the whole. Carefully repaired, when the weakness is noticed at all, it
+can bear a little more, and again a little, but at last the breaking
+strain is reached, the tall building totters, the highest pinnacles
+topple over, then the upper story collapses, and the end comes either in
+the crash of a great falling or, by degrees, in the irreparable ruin of
+ages. But when all is over, and wind and weather and time have swept
+away what they can, parts of the original foundation still stand up
+rough and heavy, on which a younger and smaller people must build their
+new dwelling, if they build at all.
+
+The aptness of the simile is still more apparent when we confront the
+material constructions of a nation with the degree of the nation's
+development or decadence at the time when the work was done.
+
+It is only by doing something of that sort that we can at all realize
+the connection between the settlement of the shepherds, the Rome of the
+Cæsars, and the desolate and scantily populated fighting ground of the
+Barons, upon which, with the Renascence, the city of the later Popes
+began to rise under Nicholas the Fifth. And lastly, without a little of
+such general knowledge it would be utterly impossible to call up, even
+faintly, the lives of Romans in successive ages. Read the earlier parts
+of Livy's histories and try to picture the pristine simplicity of those
+primeval times. Read Cæsar's Gallic War, the marvellously concise
+reports of the greatest man that ever lived, during ten years of his
+conquests. Read Horace, and attempt to see a little of what he describes
+in his good-natured, easy way. Read the correspondence of the younger
+Pliny when proconsul in Bithynia under Trajan, and follow the
+extraordinary details of administration which, with ten thousand others,
+the Spanish Emperor of Rome carried in his memory, and directed and
+decided. Take Petronius Arbiter's 'novel' next, the Satyricon, if you be
+not over-delicate in taste, and glance at the daily journal of a
+dissolute wretch wandering from one scene of incredible vice to another.
+And so on, through the later writers; and from among the vast annals of
+the industrious Muratori pick out bits of Roman life at different
+periods, and try to piece them together. At first sight it seems utterly
+impossible that one and the same people should have passed through such
+social changes and vicissitudes. Every educated man knows the main
+points through which the chain ran. Scholars have spent their lives in
+the attempt to restore even a few of the links and, for the most part,
+have lost their way in the dry quicksands that have swallowed up so
+much.
+
+'I have raised a monument more enduring than bronze!' exclaimed Horace,
+in one of his rare moments of pardonable vanity. The expression meant
+much more then than it does now. The golden age of Rome was an age of
+brazen statues apparently destined to last as long as history. Yet the
+marble outlasted the gilded metal, and Horace's verse outlived both, and
+the names of the artists of that day are mostly forgotten, while his is
+a household word. In conquering races, literature has generally attained
+higher excellence than painting or sculpture, or architecture, for the
+arts are the expression of a people's tastes, often incomprehensible to
+men who live a thousand years later; but literature, if it expresses
+anything, either by poetry, history, or fiction, shows the feeling of
+humanity; and the human being, as such, changes very little in twenty or
+thirty centuries. Achilles, in his wrath at being robbed of the lovely
+Briseïs, brings the age of Troy nearer to most men in its living
+vitality than the matchless Hermes of Olympia can ever bring the century
+of Greece's supremacy. One line of Catullus makes his time more alive
+today than the huge mass of the Colosseum can ever make Titus seem. We
+see the great stones piled up to heaven, but we do not see the men who
+hewed them, and lifted them, and set them in place. The true poet gives
+us the real man, and after all, men are more important than stones. Yet
+the work of men's hands explains the working of men's hearts, telling us
+not what they felt, but how the feelings which ever belong to all men
+more particularly affected the actors at one time or another during the
+action of the world's long play. Little things sometimes tell the
+longest stories.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+Pliny, suffering from sore eyes, going about in a closed carriage, or
+lying in the darkened basement portico of his house, obliged to dictate
+his letters, and unable to read, sends his thanks--by dictation--to his
+friend and colleague, Cornutus, for a fowl sent him, and says that
+although he is half blind, his eyes are sharp enough to see that it is a
+very fat one. The touch of human nature makes the whole picture live.
+Horace, journeying to Brindisi, and trying to sleep a little on a canal
+boat, is kept awake by mosquitoes and croaking frogs, and by the
+long-drawn-out, tipsy singing of a drunken sailor, who at last turns off
+the towing mule to graze, and goes to sleep till daylight. It is easier
+to see all this than to call up one instant of a chariot race in the
+great circus, or one of the ten thousand fights in the Colosseum,
+wherein gladiators fought and died, and left no word of themselves.
+
+Yet, without the setting, the play is imperfect, and we must have some
+of the one to understand the other. For human art is, in the first
+place, a progressive commentary on human nature, and again, in quick
+reaction, stimulates it with a suggestive force. Little as we really
+know of the imperial times, we cannot conceive of Rome without the
+Romans, nor of the Romans without Rome. They belonged together; when the
+seat of Empire became cosmopolitan, the great dominion began to be
+weakened; and when a homogeneous power dwelt in the city again, a new
+domination had its beginning, and was built up on the ruins of the old.
+
+Napoleon is believed to have said that the object of art is to create
+and foster agreeable illusions. Admitting the general truth of the
+definition, it appears perfectly natural that since the Romans had
+little or no art of their own, they should have begun to import Greek
+art just when they did, after the successful issue of the Second Punic
+War. Up to that time the great struggle had lasted. When it was over,
+the rest was almost a foregone conclusion. Rome and Carthage had made a
+great part of the known world their fighting ground in the duel that
+lasted a hundred and eighteen years; and the known world was the portion
+of the victor. Spoil first, for spoil's sake, he brought home; then
+spoil for the sake of art; then art for what itself could give him. In
+the fight for Empire, as in each man's struggle for life, success means
+leisure, and therefore civilization, which is the growth of people who
+have time at their disposal--time to 'create and foster agreeable
+illusions.' When the Romans conquered the Samnites they were the least
+artistic people in the world; when Augustus Cæsar died, they possessed
+and valued the greater part of the world's artistic treasures, many of
+these already centuries old, and they owned literally, and as slaves, a
+majority of the best living artists. Augustus had been educated in
+Athens; he determined that Rome should be as Athens, magnified a hundred
+times. Athens had her thousand statues, Rome should have her ten
+thousand; Rome should have state libraries holding a score of volumes
+for every one that Greece could boast; Rome's temples should be
+galleries of rare paintings, ten for each that Athens had. Rome should
+be so great, so rich, so gorgeous, that Greece should be as nothing
+beside her; Egypt should dwindle to littleness, and the memory of
+Babylon should be forgotten. Greece had her Homer, her Sophocles, her
+Anacreon; Rome should have her immortals also.
+
+Greatly Augustus laboured for his thought, and grandly he carried out
+his plan. He became the greatest 'art-collector' in all history, and the
+men of his time imitated him. Domitius Tullus, a Roman gentleman, had
+collected so much, that he was able to adorn certain extensive gardens,
+on the very day of the purchase, with an immense number of genuine
+ancient statues, which had been lying, half neglected, in a barn--or, as
+some read the passage, in other gardens of his.
+
+[Illustration: BASILICA CONSTANTINE]
+
+Augustus succeeded in one way. Possibly he was successful in his own
+estimation. 'Have I not acted the play well?' they say he asked, just
+before he died. The keynote is there, whether he spoke the words or not.
+He did all from calculation, nothing from conviction. The artist, active
+and creative or passive and appreciative, calculates nothing except the
+means of expressing his conviction. And in the over-calculating of
+effects by Augustus and his successors, one of the most singular
+weaknesses of the Latin race was thrust forward; namely, that giantism
+or megalomania, which has so often stamped the principal works of the
+Latins in all ages--that effort to express greatness by size, which is
+so conspicuously absent from all that the Greeks have left us. Agrippa
+builds a threefold temple and Hadrian rears the Pantheon upon its
+charred ruins; Constantine builds his Basilica; Michelangelo says, 'I
+will set the Pantheon upon the Basilica of Constantine.' He does it, and
+the result is Saint Peter's, which covers more ground than that other
+piece of giantism, the Colosseum; in Rome's last and modern revival, the
+Palazzo delle Finanze is built, the Treasury of the poorest of the
+Powers, which, incredible as it may seem, fills a far greater area than
+either the Colosseum or the Church of Saint Peter's. What else is such
+constructive enormity but 'giantism'? For the great Cathedral of
+Christendom, it may be said, at least, that it has more than once in
+history been nearly filled by devout multitudes, numbering fifty or
+sixty thousand people; in the days of public baths, nearly sixty-three
+thousand Romans could bathe daily with every luxury of service; when
+bread and games were free, a hundred thousand men and women often sat
+down in the Flavian Amphitheatre to see men tear each other to pieces;
+of the modern Ministry of Finance there is nothing to be said. The Roman
+curses it for the millions it cost; but the stranger looks, smiles and
+passes by a blank and hideous building three hundred yards long. There
+is no reason why a nation should not wish to be great, but there is
+every reason why a small nation should not try to look big; and the
+enormous follies of modern Italy must be charitably attributed to a
+defect of judgment which has existed in the Latin peoples from the
+beginning, and has by no means disappeared today. The younger Gordian
+began a portico which was to cover forty-four thousand square yards, and
+intended to raise a statue of himself two hundred and nineteen feet
+high. The modern Treasury building covers about thirty thousand square
+yards, and goes far to rival the foolish Emperor's insane scheme.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF SATURN]
+
+Great contrasts lie in the past, between his age and ours. One must
+guess at them at least, if one have but little knowledge, in order to
+understand at all the city of the Middle Age and the Rome we see today.
+Imagine it at its greatest, a capital inhabited by more than two
+millions of souls, filling all that is left to be seen within and
+without the walls, and half the Campagna besides, spreading out in a
+vast disc of seething life from the central Golden Milestone at the
+corner of the temple of Saturn--the god of remote ages, and of earth's
+dim beginning; see, if you can, the splendid roads, where to right and
+left the ashes of the great rested in tombs gorgeous with marble and
+gold and bronze; see the endless villas and gardens and terraces lining
+both banks of the Tiber, with trees and flowers and marble palaces, from
+Rome to Ostia and the sea, and both banks of the Anio, from Rome to
+Tivoli in the hills; conceive of the vast commerce, even of the mere
+business of supply to feed two millions of mouths; picture the great
+harbour with its thousand vessels--and some of those that brought grain
+from Egypt were four hundred feet long; remember its vast granaries and
+store-barns and offices; think of the desolate Isola Sacra as a lovely
+garden, of the ruins of Laurentum as an imperial palace and park; reckon
+up roughly what all that meant of life, of power, of incalculable
+wealth. Mark Antony squandered, in his short lifetime, eight hundred
+millions of pounds sterling, four thousand millions of dollars. Guess,
+if possible, at the myriad million details of the vast city.
+
+Then let twelve hundred years pass in a dream, and look at the Rome of
+Rienzi. Some twenty thousand souls, the remnant and the one hundredth
+part of the two millions, dwell pitifully in the ruins of which the
+strongest men have fortified bits here and there. The walls of Aurelian,
+broken and war-worn and full of half-repaired breaches, enclose a
+desert, a world too wide for its inhabitants, a vast straggling
+heterogeneous mass of buildings in every stage of preservation and
+decay, splendid temples, mossy and ivy-grown, but scarcely injured by
+time, then wastes of broken brick and mortar; stern dark towers of
+Savelli, and Frangipani, and Orsini, and Colonna, dominating and
+threatening whole quarters of ruins; strange small churches built of
+odds and ends and remnants not too heavy for a few workmen to move;
+broken-down aqueducts sticking up here and there in a city that had to
+drink the muddy water of the Tiber because not a single channel remained
+whole to feed a single fountain, from the distant springs that had once
+filled baths for sixty thousand people every day. And round about all,
+the waste Campagna, scratched here and there by fever-stricken peasants
+to yield the little grain that so few men could need. The villas gone,
+the trees burned or cut down, the terraces slipped away into the rivers,
+the tombs of the Appian Way broken and falling to pieces, or transformed
+into rude fortresses held by wild-looking men in rusty armour, who
+sallied out to fight each other or, at rare intervals, to rob some train
+of wretched merchants, riding horses as rough and wild as themselves.
+Law gone, and order gone with it; wealth departed, and self-respect
+forgotten in abject poverty; each man defending his little with his own
+hand against the many who coveted it; Rome a den of robbers and thieves;
+the Pope, when there was one,--there was none in the year of Rienzi's
+birth,--either defended by one baron against another, or forced to fly
+for his life. Men brawling in the streets, ill clad, savage, ready with
+sword and knife and club for any imaginable violence. Women safe from
+none but their own husbands and sons, and not always from them. Children
+wild and untaught, growing up to be fierce and unlettered like their
+fathers. And in the midst of such a city, Cola di Rienzi, with great
+heart and scanty learning, labouring to decipher the inscriptions that
+told of dead and ruined greatness, dreaming of a republic, of a
+tribune's power, of the humiliation of the Barons, of a resurrection for
+Italy and of her sudden return to the dominion of the world.
+
+Rome, then, was like a field long fallow, of rich soil, but long
+unploughed. Scarcely below the surface lay the treasures of ages,
+undreamt of by the few descendants of those who had brought them
+thither. Above ground, overgrown with wild creepers and flowers, there
+still stood some such monuments of magnificence as we find it hard to
+recall by mere words, not yet voluntarily destroyed, but already falling
+to pieces under the slow destruction of grinding time, when violence had
+spared them. Robert Guiscard had burned the city in 1084, but he had not
+destroyed everything. The Emperors of the East had plundered Rome long
+before that, carrying off works of art without end to adorn their city
+of Constantinople. Builders had burned a thousand marble statues to lime
+for their cement, for the statues were ready to hand and easily broken
+up to be thrown into the kiln, so that it seemed a waste of time and
+tools to quarry out the blocks from the temples. The Barbarians of
+Genseric and the Jews of Trastevere had seized upon such of the four
+thousand bronze statues as the Emperors had left, and had melted many of
+them down for metal, often hiding them in strange places while waiting
+for an opportunity of heating the furnace. And some have been found,
+here and there, piled up in little vaults, most generally near the
+Tiber, by which it was always easy to ship the metal away. Already
+temples had been turned into churches, in a travesty only saved from the
+ridiculous by the high solemnity of the Christian faith. Other temples
+and buildings, here and there, had been partly stripped of columns and
+marble facings to make other churches even more nondescript than the
+first. Much of the old was still standing, but nothing of the old was
+whole. The Colosseum had not yet been turned into a quarry. The
+Septizonium of Septimius Severus, with its seven stories of columns and
+its lofty terrace, nearly half as high as the dome of Saint Peter's,
+though beginning to crumble, still crowned the south end of the
+Palatine; Minerva's temple was almost entire, and its huge architrave
+had not been taken to make the high altar of Saint Peter's; and the
+triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius was standing in what was perhaps not
+yet called the Corso in those days, but the Via Lata--'Broad Street.'
+
+The things that had not yet fallen, nor been torn down, were the more
+sadly grand by contrast with the chaos around them. There was also the
+difference between ruins then, and ruins now, which there is between a
+king just dead in his greatness, in whose features lingers the smile of
+a life so near that it seems ready to come back, and a dried mummy set
+up in a museum and carefully dusted for critics to study.
+
+In even stronger and rougher contrast, in the wreck of all that had
+been, there was the fierce reality of the daily fight for life amid the
+seething elements of the new things that were yet to be; the preparation
+for another time of domination and splendour; the deadly wrestling of
+men who meant to outlive one another by sheer strength and grim power of
+killing; the dark ignorance, darkest just before the waking of new
+thought, and art, and learning; the universal cruelty of all living
+things to each other, that had grown out of the black past; and, with
+all this, the undying belief in Rome's greatness, in Rome's future, in
+Rome's latent power to rule the world again.
+
+That was the beginning of the new story, for the old one was ended, the
+race of men who had lived it was gone, and their works were following
+them, to the universal dust. Out of the memories they left and the
+departed glory of the places wherein they had dwelt, the magic of the
+Middle Age was to weave another long romance, less grand but more
+stirring, less glorious but infinitely more human.
+
+Perhaps it is not altogether beyond the bounds of reason to say that
+Rome was masculine from Romulus to the dark age, and that with the first
+dawn of the Renascence she began to be feminine. As in old days the
+Republic and the Empire fought for power and conquest and got both by
+force, endurance and hardness of character, so, in her second life,
+others fought for Rome, and courted her, and coveted her, and sometimes
+oppressed her and treated her cruelly, and sometimes cherished her and
+adorned her, and gave her all they had. In a way, too, the elder
+patriots reverenced their city as a father, and those of after-times
+loved her as a woman, with a tender and romantic love.
+
+Be that as it may, for it matters little how we explain what we feel.
+And assuredly we all feel that what we call the 'charm,' the feminine
+charm, of Rome, proceeds first from that misty time between two
+greatnesses, when her humanity was driven back upon itself, and simple
+passions, good and evil, suddenly felt and violently expressed, made up
+the whole life of a people that had ceased to rule by force, and had not
+yet reached power by diplomacy.
+
+It is fair, moreover, to dwell a little on that time, that we may not
+judge too hardly the men who came afterwards. If we have any virtues
+ourselves of which to boast, we owe them to a long growth of
+civilization, as a child owes its manners to its mother; the men of the
+Renascence had behind them chaos, the ruin of a slave-ridden,
+Hun-harried, worm-eaten Empire, in which law and order had gone down
+together, and the whole world seemed to the few good men who lived in it
+to be but one degree better than hell itself. Much may be forgiven them,
+and for what just things they did they should be honoured, for the
+hardship of having done right at all against such odds.
+
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING ROMAN GAMES]
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE JULIAN BASILICA]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+
+Here and there, in out-of-the-way places, overlooked in the modern rage
+for improvement, little marble tablets are set into the walls of old
+houses, bearing semi-heraldic devices such as a Crescent, a Column, a
+Griffin, a Stag, a Wheel and the like. Italian heraldry has always been
+eccentric, and has shown a tendency to display all sorts of strange
+things, such as comets, trees, landscapes and buildings in the
+escutcheon, and it would naturally occur to the stranger that the small
+marble shields, still visible here and there at the corners of old
+streets, must be the coats of arms of Roman families that held property
+in that particular neighbourhood. But this is not the case. They are the
+distinctive devices of the Fourteen Rioni, or wards, into which the
+city was divided, with occasional modifications, from the time of
+Augustus to the coming of Victor Emmanuel, and which with some further
+changes survive to the present day. The tablets themselves were put up
+by Pope Benedict the Fourteenth, who reigned from 1740 to 1758, and who
+finally brought them up to the ancient number of fourteen; but from the
+dark ages the devices themselves were borne upon flags on all public
+occasions by the people of the different Regions. For 'Rione' is only a
+corruption of the Latin 'Regio,' the same with our 'Region,' by which
+English word it will be convenient to speak of these divisions that
+played so large a part in the history of the city during many successive
+centuries.
+
+For the sake of clearness, it is as well to enumerate them in their
+order and with the numbers that have always belonged to each. They are:
+
+     I. Monti,
+     II. Trevi,
+     III. Colonna,
+     IV. Campo Marzo,
+     V. Ponte
+     VI. Parione,
+     VII. Regola,
+     VIII. Sant' Eustachio,
+     IX. Pigna,
+     X. Campitelli,
+     XI. Sant' Angelo,
+     XII. Ripa,
+     XIII. Trastevere,
+     XIV. Borgo.
+
+Five of these names, that is to say, Ponte, Parione, Regola, Pigna and
+Sant' Angelo, indicate in a general way the part of the city designated
+by each. Ponte, the Bridge, is the Region about the Bridge of Sant'
+Angelo, on the left bank at the sharp bend of the river seen from that
+point; but the original bridge which gave the name was the Pons
+Triumphalis, of which the foundations are still sometimes visible a
+little below the Ælian bridge leading to the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
+Parione, the Sixth ward, is the next division to the preceding one,
+towards the interior of the city, on both sides of the modern Corso
+Vittorio Emmanuele, taking in the ancient palace of the Massimo family,
+the Cancelleria, famous as the most consistent piece of architecture in
+Rome, and the Piazza Navona. Regola is next, towards the river,
+comprising the Theatre of Pompey and the Palazzo Farnese. Pigna takes in
+the Pantheon, the Collegio Romano and the Palazzo di Venezia. Sant'
+Angelo has nothing to do with the castle or the bridge, but takes its
+name from the little church of Sant' Angelo in the Fishmarket, and
+includes the old Ghetto with some neighbouring streets. The rest explain
+themselves well enough to anyone who has even a very slight acquaintance
+with the city.
+
+At first sight these more or less arbitrary divisions may seem of little
+importance. It was, of course, necessary, even in early times, to divide
+the population and classify it for political and municipal purposes.
+There is no modern city in the world that is not thus managed by wards
+and districts, and the consideration of such management and of its means
+might appear to be a very flat and unprofitable study, tiresome alike
+to the reader and to the writer. And so it would be, if it were not true
+that the Fourteen Regions of Rome were fourteen elements of romance,
+each playing its part in due season, while all were frequently the stage
+at once, under the collective name of the people, in their ever-latent
+opposition and in their occasional violent outbreaks against the nobles
+and the popes, who alternately oppressed and spoiled them for private
+and public ends. In other words, the Regions with their elected captains
+under one chief captain were the survival of the Roman People, for ever
+at odds with the Roman Senate. In times when there was no government, in
+any reasonable sense of the word, the people tried to govern themselves,
+or at least to protect themselves as best they could by a rough system
+which was all that remained of the elaborate municipality of the Empire.
+Without the Regions the struggles of the Barons would probably have
+destroyed Rome altogether; nine out of the twenty-four Popes who reigned
+in the tenth century would not have been murdered and otherwise done to
+death; Peter the Prefect could not have dragged Pope John the Thirteenth
+a prisoner through the streets; Stefaneschi could never have terrorized
+the Barons, and half destroyed their castles in a week; Rienzi could not
+have made himself dictator; Ludovico Migliorati could not have murdered
+the eleven captains of Regions in his house and thrown their bodies to
+the people from the windows, for which Giovanni Colonna drove out the
+Pope and the cardinals, and sacked the Vatican; in a word, the
+strangest, wildest, bloodiest scenes of mediæval Rome could not have
+found a place in history. It is no wonder that to men born and bred in
+the city the Regions seem even now to be an integral factor in its
+existence.
+
+There were two other elements of power, namely, the Pope and the Barons.
+The three are almost perpetually at war, two on a side, against the
+third. Philippe de Commines, ambassador of Lewis the Eleventh in Rome,
+said that without the Orsini and the Colonna, the States of the Church
+would be the happiest country in the world. He forgot the People, and
+was doubtless too politic to speak of the Popes to his extremely devout
+sovereign. Take away the three elements of discord, and there would
+certainly have been peace in Rome, for there would have been no one to
+disturb the bats and the owls, when everybody was gone.
+
+The excellent advice of Ampère, already quoted, is by no means easy to
+follow, since there are not many who have the time and the inclination
+to acquire a 'superficial knowledge' of Rome by a ten years' visit. If,
+therefore, we merely presuppose an average knowledge of history and a
+guide-book acquaintance with the chief points in the city, the simplest
+and most direct way of learning more about it is to take the Regions in
+their ancient order, as the learned Baracconi has done in his
+invaluable little work, and to try as far as possible to make past deeds
+live again where they were done, with such description of the places
+themselves as may serve the main purpose best. To follow any other plan
+would be either to attempt a new history of the city of Rome, or to
+piece together a new archæological manual. In either case, even
+supposing that one could be successful where so much has already been
+done by the most learned, the end aimed at would be defeated, for
+romance would be stiffened to a record, and beauty would be dissected to
+an anatomical preparation.
+
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TITUS, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION I MONTI
+
+
+'Monti' means 'The Hills,' and the device of the Region represents
+three, figuring those enclosed within the boundaries of this district;
+namely, the Quirinal, the Esquiline and the Coelian. The line encircling
+them includes the most hilly part of the mediæval city; beginning at the
+Porta Salaria, it runs through the new quarter, formerly Villa Ludovisi,
+to the Piazza Barberini, thence by the Tritone to the Corso, by the Via
+Marforio, skirting the eastern side of the Capitoline Hill and the
+eastern side of the Roman Forum to the Colosseum, which it does not
+include; on almost to the Lateran, back again, so as to include the
+Basilica, by San Stefano Rotondo, and out by the Navicella to the now
+closed Porta Metronia. The remainder of the circuit is completed by the
+Aurelian wall, which is the present wall of the city, though the modern
+Electoral Wards extend in some places beyond it. The modern gates
+included in this portion are the Porta Salaria, the Porta Pia, the new
+gate at the end of the Via Montebello, the next, an unnamed opening
+through which passes the Viale Castro Pretorio, then the Porta
+Tiburtina, the Porta San Lorenzo, the exit of the railway, Porta
+Maggiore, and lastly the Porta San Giovanni.
+
+The Region of the Hills takes in by far the largest area of the fourteen
+districts, but also that portion which in later times has been the least
+thickly populated, the wildest districts of mediæval and recent Rome,
+great open spaces now partially covered by new though hardly inhabited
+buildings, but which were very lately either fallow land or ploughed
+fields, or cultivated vineyards, out of which huge masses of ruins rose
+here and there in brown outline against the distant mountains, in the
+midst of which towered the enormous basilicas of Santa Maria Maggiore
+and Saint John Lateran, the half-utilized, half-consecrated remains of
+the Baths of Diocletian, the Baths of Titus, and over against the
+latter, just beyond the southwestern boundary, the gloomy Colosseum, and
+on the west the tall square tower of the Capitol with its deep-toned
+bell, the 'Patarina,' which at last was sounded only when the Pope was
+dead, and when Carnival was over on Shrove Tuesday night.
+
+It must first be remembered that each Region had a small independent
+existence, with night watchmen of its own, who dared not step beyond the
+limits of their beat; defined by parishes, there were separate charities
+for each Region, separate funds for giving dowries to poor girls,
+separate 'Confraternite' or pious societies to which laymen belonged,
+and, in a small way, a sort of distinct nationality. There was rivalry
+between each Region and its neighbours, and when the one encroached upon
+the other there was strife and bloodshed in the streets. In the public
+races, of which the last survived in the running of riderless horses
+through the Corso in Carnival, each Region had its colours, its right of
+place, and its separate triumph if it won in the contest. There was all
+that intricate opposition of small parties which arose in every mediæval
+city, when children followed their fathers' trades from generation to
+generation, and lived in their fathers' houses from one century to
+another; and there was all the individuality and the local tradition
+which never really hindered civilization, but were always an
+insurmountable barrier against progress.
+
+Some one has called democracy Rome's 'Original Sin.' It would be more
+just and true to say that most of Rome's misfortunes, and Italy's too,
+have been the result of the instinct to oppose all that is, whether good
+or bad, as soon as it has existed for a while; in short, the original
+sin of Italians is an original detestation of that unity of which the
+empty name has been a fetish for ages. Rome, thrown back upon herself
+in the dark times, when she was shorn of her possessions, was a true
+picture of what Italy was before Rome's iron hand had bound the Italian
+peoples together by force, of what she became again as soon as that
+force was relaxed, of what she has grown to be once more, now that the
+delight of revolution has disappeared in the dismal swamp of financial
+disappointment, of what she will be to all time, because, from all time,
+she has been populated by races of different descent, who hated each
+other as only neighbours can.
+
+The redeeming feature of a factional life has sometimes been found in a
+readiness to unite against foreign oppression; it has often shown itself
+in an equal willingness to submit to one foreign ruler in order to get
+rid of another. Circumstances have made the result good or bad. In the
+year 799, the Romans attacked and wounded Pope Leo the Third in a solemn
+procession, almost killed him and drove him to flight, because he had
+sent the keys of the city to Charles the Great, in self-protection
+against the splendid, beautiful, gifted, black-hearted Irene, Empress of
+the East, who had put out her own son's eyes and taken the throne by
+force. Two years later the people of Rome shouted "Life and Victory to
+Charles the Emperor," when the same Pope Leo, his scars still fresh,
+crowned Charlemagne in Saint Peter's. One remembers, for that matter,
+that Napoleon Bonaparte, crowned in French Paris by another Pope, girt
+on the very sword of that same Frankish Charles, whose bones the French
+had scattered to the elements at Aix. Savonarola, of more than doubtful
+patriotism, to whom Saint Philip Neri prayed, but whom the English
+historian, Roscoe, flatly calls a traitor, would have taken Florence
+from the Italian Medici and given it to the French king. Dante was for
+German Emperors against Italian Popes. Modern Italy has driven out
+Bourbons and Austrians and given the crown of her Unity to a house of
+Kings, brave and honourable, but in whose veins there is no drop of
+Italian blood, any more than their old Dukedom of Savoy was ever Italian
+in any sense. The glory of history is rarely the glory of any ideal; it
+is more often the glory of success.
+
+The Roman Republic was the result of internal opposition, and the
+instinct to oppose power, often rightly, sometimes wrongly, will be the
+last to survive in the Latin race. In the Middle Age, when Rome had
+shrunk from the boundaries of civilization to the narrow limits of the
+Aurelian walls, it produced the hatred between the Barons and the
+people, and within the people themselves, the less harmful rivalry of
+the Regions and their Captains.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA FRANCESCA ROMANA]
+
+These Captains held office for three months only. At the expiration of
+the term, they and the people of their Region proceeded in procession,
+all bearing olive branches, to the temple of Venus and Rome, of which a
+part was early converted into the Church of Santa Maria Nuova, now known
+as Santa Francesca Romana, between the Forum and the Colosseum, and just
+within the limits of 'Monti.' Down from the hills on the one side the
+crowd came; up from the regions of the Tiber, round the Capitol from
+Colonna, and Trevi, and Campo Marzo, as ages before them the people had
+thronged to the Comitium, only a few hundred yards away. There, before
+the church in the ruins, each Region dropped the names of its own two
+candidates into the ballot box, and chance decided which of the two
+should be Captain next. In procession, then, all round the Capitol, they
+went to Aracoeli, and the single Senator, the lone shadow of the
+Conscript Fathers, ratified each choice. Lastly, among themselves, they
+used to choose the Prior, or Chief Captain, until it became the custom
+that the captain of the First Region, Monti, should of right be head of
+all the rest, and in reality one of the principal powers in the city.
+
+And the principal church of Monti also held preëminence over others. The
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran was entitled 'Mother and Head of all
+Churches of the City and of the World'; and it took its distinctive name
+from a rich Roman family, whose splendid house stood on the same spot as
+far back as the early days of the Empire. Even Juvenal speaks of it.
+
+Overthrown by earthquake, erected again at once, twice burned and
+immediately rebuilt, five times the seat of Councils of the Church,
+enlarged even in our day at enormous cost, it seems destined to stand on
+the same spot for ages, and to perpetuate the memory of the Laterans to
+all time, playing monument to an obscure family of rich citizens, whose
+name should have been almost lost, but can never be forgotten now.
+
+Constantine, sentimental before he was great, and great before he was a
+Christian, gave the house of the Roman gentleman to Pope Sylvester. He
+bought it, or it fell to the crown at the extinction of the family, for
+he was not the man to confiscate property for a whim; and within the
+palace he made a church, which was called by more than one name, till
+after nearly six hundred years it was finally dedicated to Saint John
+the Baptist; until then it had been generally called the church 'in the
+Lateran house,' and to this day it is San Giovanni in Laterano. Close by
+it, in the palace of the Annii, Marcus Aurelius, last of the so-called
+Antonines, and last of the great emperors, was born and educated; and in
+his honour was made the famous statue of him on horseback, which now
+stands in the square of the Capitol. The learned say that it was set up
+before the house where he was born, and so found itself also before the
+Lateran in later times, with the older Wolf, at the place of public
+justice and execution.
+
+In the wild days of the tenth century, when the world was boiling with
+faction, and trembling at the prospect of the Last Judgment, clearly
+predicted to overtake mankind in the thousandth year of the Christian
+era, the whole Roman people, without sanction of the Emperor and without
+precedent, chose John the Thirteenth to be their Pope. The Regions with
+their Captains had their way, and the new Pontiff was enthroned by
+their acclamation. Then came their disappointment, then their anger.
+Pope John, strong, high-handed, a man of order in days of chaos, ruled
+from the Lateran for one short year, with such wisdom as he possessed,
+such law as he chanced to have learnt, and all the strength he had.
+Neither Barons nor people wanted justice, much less learning. The Latin
+chronicle is brief: 'At that time, Count Roffredo and Peter the
+Prefect,'--he was the Prior of the Regions' Captains,--'with certain
+other Romans, seized Pope John, and first threw him into the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo, but at last drove him into exile in Campania for more than
+ten months. But when the Count had been murdered by one of the
+Crescenzi,'--in whose house Rienzi afterwards lived,--'the Pope was
+released and returned to his See.'
+
+Back came Otto the Great, Saxon Emperor, at Christmas time, as he came
+more than once, to put down revolution with a strong hand and avenge the
+wrongs of Pope John by executing all but one of the Captains of the
+Regions. Twelve of them he hanged. Peter the Prefect, or Prior, was
+bound naked upon an ass with an earthen jar over his head, flogged
+through the city, and cruelly put to death; and at last his torn body
+was hung by the hair to the head of the bronze horse whereon the stately
+figure of Marcus Aurelius sat in triumph before the door of the Pope's
+house, as it sits today on the Capitol before the Palace of the Senator.
+And Otto caused the body of murdered Roffredo to be dragged from its
+grave and quartered by the hangman and scattered abroad, a warning to
+the Regions and their leaders. They left Pope John in peace after that,
+and he lived five years and held a council in the Lateran, and died in
+his bed. Possibly after his rough experience, his rule was more gentle,
+and when he was dead he was spoken of as 'that most worthy Pontiff.' Who
+Count Roffredo was no one can tell surely, but his name belongs to the
+great house of Caetani.
+
+[Illustration: BASILICA OF ST JOHN LATERAN]
+
+It is hard to see past terror in present peace; it is not easy to fancy
+the rough rabble of Rome in those days, strangely clad, more strangely
+armed, far out in the waste fields about the Lateran, surging up like
+demons in the lurid torchlight before the house of the Pope, pressing
+upon the mailed Count's stout horse, and thronging upon the heels of the
+Captains and the Prefect, pounding down the heavy doors with stones, and
+with deep shouts for every heavy blow, while white-robed John and his
+frightened priests cower together within, expecting death. Down goes the
+oak with a crash like artillery, that booms along the empty corridors; a
+moment's pause, and silence, and then the rush, headed by the Knight and
+the leaders who mean no murder, but mean to have their way, once and for
+ever, and buffet back their furious followers when they have reached the
+Pope's room, lest he should be torn in pieces. Then, the subsidence of
+the din, and the old man and his priests bound and dragged out and
+forced to go on foot by all the long dark way through the city to the
+black dungeons of Sant' Angelo beyond the rushing river.
+
+[Illustration: SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO]
+
+It seems far away. Yet we who have seen the Roman people rise, overlaid
+with burdens and maddened by the news of a horrible defeat, can guess at
+what it must have been. Those who saw the sea of murderous pale faces,
+and heard the deep cry, 'Death to Crispi,' go howling and echoing
+through the city can guess what that must have been a thousand years
+ago, and many another night since then, when the Romans were roused and
+there was a smell of blood in the air.
+
+But today there is peace in the great Mother of Churches, with an
+atmosphere of solemn rest that one may not breathe in Saint Peter's nor
+perhaps anywhere else in Rome within consecrated walls. There is mystery
+in the enormous pillars that answer back the softest whispered word from
+niche to niche across the silent aisle; there is simplicity and dignity
+of peace in the lofty nave, far down and out of jarring distance from
+the over-gorgeous splendour of the modern transept. In Holy Week,
+towards evening at the Tenebræ, the divine tenor voice of Padre
+Giovanni, monk and singer, soft as a summer night, clear as a silver
+bell, touching as sadness itself, used to float through the dim air with
+a ring of Heaven in it, full of that strange fatefulness that followed
+his short life, till he died, nearly twenty years ago, foully poisoned
+by a layman singer in envy of a gift not matched in the memory of man.
+
+Sometimes, if one wanders upward towards the Monti when the moon is
+high, a far-off voice rings through the quiet air--one of those voices
+which hardly ever find their way to the theatre nowadays, and which,
+perhaps, would not satisfy the nervous taste of our Wagnerian times.
+Perhaps it sounds better in the moonlight, in those lonely, echoing
+streets, than it would on the stage. At all events, it is beautiful as
+one hears it, clear, strong, natural, ringing. It belongs to the place
+and hour, as the humming of honey bees to a field of flowers at noon, or
+the desolate moaning of the tide to a lonely ocean coast at night. It is
+not an exaggeration, nor a mere bit of ill nature, to say that there are
+thousands of fastidiously cultivated people today who would think it all
+theatrical in the extreme, and would be inclined to despise their own
+taste if they felt a secret pleasure in the scene and the song. But in
+Rome even such as they might condescend to the romantic for an hour,
+because in Rome such deeds have been dared, such loves have been loved,
+such deaths have been died, that any romance, no matter how wild, has
+larger probability in the light of what has actually been the lot of
+real men and women. So going alone through the winding moonlit ways
+about Tor de' Conti, Santa Maria dei Monti and San Pietro in Vincoli, a
+man need take no account of modern fashions in sensation; and if he will
+but let himself be charmed, the enchantment will take hold of him and
+lead him on through a city of dreams and visions, and memories strange
+and great, without end. Ever since Rome began there must have been just
+such silvery nights; just such a voice rang through the same air ages
+ago; just as now the velvet shadows fell pall-like and unrolled
+themselves along the grey pavement under the lofty columns of Mars the
+Avenger and beneath the wall of the Forum of Augustus.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA COLONNA]
+
+Perhaps it is true that the impressions which Rome makes upon a
+thoughtful man vary more according to the wind and the time of day than
+those he feels in other cities. Perhaps, too, there is no capital in all
+the world which has such contrasts to show within a mile of each
+other--one might almost say within a dozen steps. One of the most
+crowded thoroughfares of Rome, for instance, is the Via del Tritone,
+which is the only passage through the valley between the Pincian and the
+Quirinal hills, from the region of Piazza Colonna towards the railway
+station and the new quarter. During the busy hours of the day a carriage
+can rarely move through its narrower portions any faster than at a foot
+pace, and the insufficient pavements are thronged with pedestrians. In a
+measure, the Tritone in Rome corresponds to Galata bridge in
+Constantinople. In the course of the week most of the population of the
+city must have passed at least once through the crowded little street,
+which somehow in the rain of millions that lasted for two years, did not
+manage to attract to itself even the small sum which would have sufficed
+to widen it by a few yards. It is as though the contents of Rome were
+daily drawn through a keyhole. In the Tritone are to be seen magnificent
+equipages, jammed in the line between milk carts, omnibuses and
+dustmen's barrows, preceded by butcher's vans and followed by miserable
+cabs, smart dogcarts and high-wheeled country vehicles driven by rough,
+booted men wearing green-lined cloaks and looking like stage bandits;
+even saddle horses are led sometimes that way to save time; and on each
+side flow two streams of human beings of every type to be found between
+Porta Angelica and Porta San Giovanni. A prince of the Holy Roman Empire
+pushes past a troop of dirty school children, and is almost driven into
+an open barrel of salt codfish, in the door of a poor shop, by a
+black-faced charcoal man carrying a sack on his head more than half as
+high as himself. A party of jolly young German tourists in loose
+clothes, with red books in their hands, and their field-glasses hanging
+by straps across their shoulders, try to rid themselves of the
+flower-girls dressed in sham Sabine costumes, and utter exclamations of
+astonishment and admiration when they themselves are almost run down by
+a couple of the giant Royal Grenadiers, each six feet five or
+thereabouts, besides nine inches, or so, of crested helmet aloft,
+gorgeous, gigantic and spotless. Clerks by the dozen and liveried
+messengers of the ministries struggle in the press; ladies gather their
+skirts closely, and try to pick a dainty way where, indeed, there is
+nothing 'dain' (a word which Doctor Johnson confesses that he could not
+find in any dictionary, but which he thinks might be very useful);
+servant girls, smart children with nurses and hoops going up to the
+Pincio, black-browed washerwomen with big baskets of clothes on their
+heads, stumpy little infantry soldiers in grey uniforms, priests,
+friars, venders of boot-laces and thread, vegetable sellers pushing
+hand-carts of green things in and out among the horses and vehicles with
+amazing dexterity, and yelling their cries in super-humanly high
+voices--there is no end to the multitude. If the day is showery, it is a
+sight to see the confusion in the Tritone when umbrellas of every age,
+material and colour are all opened at once, while the people who have
+none crowd into the codfish shop and the liquor seller's and the
+tobacconist's, with traditional 'con permesso' of excuse for entering
+when they do not mean to buy anything; for the Romans are mostly civil
+people and fairly good-natured. But rain or shine, at the busy hours,
+the place is always crowded to overflowing with every description of
+vehicle and every type of humanity.
+
+Out of Babel--a horizontal Babel--you may turn into the little church,
+dedicated to the 'Holy Guardian Angel.' It stands on the south side of
+the Tritone, in that part which is broader, and which a little while ago
+was still called the Via dell' Angelo Custode--Guardian Angel Street. It
+is an altogether insignificant little church, and strangers scarcely
+ever visit it. But going down the Tritone, when your ears are splitting,
+and your eyes are confused with the kaleidoscopic figures of the
+scurrying crowd, you may lift the heavy leathern curtain, and leave the
+hurly-burly outside, and find yourself all alone in the quiet presence
+of death, the end of all hurly-burly and confusion. It is quite possible
+that under the high, still light in the round church, with its four
+niche-like chapels, you may see, draped in black, that thing which no
+one ever mistakes for anything else; and round about the coffin a dozen
+tall wax candles may be burning with a steady yellow flame. Possibly, at
+the sound of the leathern curtain slapping the stone door-posts, as it
+falls behind you, a sad-looking sacristan may shuffle out of a dark
+corner to see who has come in; possibly not. He may be asleep, or he may
+be busy folding vestments in the sacristy. The dead need little
+protection from the living, nor does a sacristan readily put himself out
+for nothing. You may stand there undisturbed as long as you please, and
+see what all the world's noise comes to in the end. Or it may be, if the
+departed person belonged to a pious confraternity, that you chance upon
+the brothers of the society--clad in dark hoods with only holes for
+their eyes, and no man recognized by his neighbour--chanting penitential
+psalms and hymns for the one whom they all know because he is dead, and
+they are living.
+
+Such contrasts are not lacking in Rome. There are plenty of them
+everywhere in the world, perhaps, but they are more striking here, in
+proportion as the outward forms of religious practice are more ancient,
+unchanging and impressive. For there is nothing very impressive or
+unchanging about the daily outside world, especially in Rome.
+
+Rome, the worldly, is the capital of one of the smaller kingdoms of the
+world, which those who rule it are anxious to force into the position of
+a great power. One need not criticise their action too hardly; their
+motives can hardly be anything but patriotic, considering the fearful
+sacrifices they impose upon their country. But they are not the men who
+brought about Italian unity. They are the successors of those men; they
+are not satisfied with that unification, and they have dreamed a dream
+of ambition, beside which, considering the means at their disposal, the
+projects of Alexander, Cæsar and Napoleon sink into comparative
+insignificance. At all events, the worldly, modern, outward Italian
+Rome is very far behind the great European capitals in development, not
+to say wealth and magnificence. 'Lay' Rome, if one may use the
+expression, is not in the least a remarkable city. 'Ecclesiastic' Rome
+is the stronghold of a most tremendous fact, from whatever point of view
+Christianity may be considered. If one could, in imagination, detach the
+head of the Catholic Church from the Church, one would be obliged to
+admit that no single living man possesses the far-reaching and lasting
+power which in each succeeding papal reign belongs to the Pope. Behind
+the Pope stands the fact which confers, maintains and extends that power
+from century to century; a power which is one of the hugest elements of
+the world's moral activity, both in its own direct action and in the
+counteraction and antagonism which it calls forth continually.
+
+It is the all-pervading presence of this greatest fact in Christendom
+which has carried on Rome's importance from the days of the Cæsars,
+across the chasm of the dark ages, to the days of the modern popes; and
+its really enormous importance continually throws forward into cruel
+relief the puerilities and inanities of the daily outward world. It is
+the consciousness of that importance which makes old Roman society what
+it is, with its virtues, its vices, its prejudices and its strange,
+old-fashioned, close-fisted kindliness; which makes the contrast between
+the Saturnalia of Shrove Tuesday night and the cross signed with ashes
+upon the forehead on Ash Wednesday morning, between the careless
+laughter of the Roman beauty in Carnival, and the tragic earnestness of
+the same lovely face when the great lady kneels in Lent, before the
+confessional, to receive upon her bent head the light touch of the
+penitentiary's wand, taking her turn, perhaps, with a score of women of
+the people. It is the knowledge of an always present power, active
+throughout the whole world, which throws deep, straight shadows, as it
+were, through the Roman character, just as in certain ancient families
+there is a secret that makes grave the lives of those who know it.
+
+The Roman Forum and the land between it and the Colosseum, though
+strictly within the limits of Monti, were in reality a neutral ground,
+the chosen place for all struggles of rivalry between the Regions. The
+final destruction of its monuments dates from the sacking of Rome by
+Robert Guiscard with his Normans and Saracens in the year one thousand
+and eighty-four, when the great Duke of Apulia came in arms to succour
+Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh, against the Emperor Henry the
+Fourth, smarting under the bitter humiliation of Canossa; and against
+his Antipope Clement, more than a hundred years after Otto had come back
+in anger to avenge Pope John. There is no more striking picture of the
+fearful contest between the Church and the Empire.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DI SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO]
+
+Alexis, Emperor of the East, had sent Henry, Emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, one hundred and forty-four thousand pieces of gold, and one
+hundred pieces of woven scarlet, as an inducement to make war upon the
+Norman Duke, the Pope's friend. But the Romans feared Henry and sent
+ambassadors to him, and on the twenty-first of March, being the Thursday
+before Palm Sunday, the Lateran gate was opened for him to enter in
+triumph. The city was divided against itself, the nobles were for
+Hildebrand, the people were against him. The Emperor seized the Lateran
+palace and all the bridges. The Pope fled to the Castle of Sant' Angelo,
+an impregnable fortress in those times, ever ready and ever provisioned
+for a siege. Of the nobles Henry required fifty hostages as earnest of
+their neutrality. On the next day he threw his gold to the rabble and
+they elected his Antipope Gilbert, who called himself Clement the Third,
+and certain bishops from North Italy consecrated him in the Lateran on
+Palm Sunday.
+
+Meanwhile Hildebrand secretly sent swift riders to Apulia, calling on
+Robert Guiscard for help, and still the nobles were faithful to him, and
+though Henry held the bridges, they were strong in Trastevere and the
+Borgo, which is the region between the Castle of Sant' Angelo and Saint
+Peter's. So it turned out that when Henry tried to bring his Antipope in
+solemn procession to enthrone him in the Pontifical chair, on Easter
+day, he found mailed knights and footmen waiting for him, and had to
+fight his way to the Vatican, and forty of his men were killed and
+wounded in the fray, while the armed nobles lost not one. Yet he reached
+the Vatican at last, and there he was crowned by the false Pope he had
+made, with the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The chronicler apologizes
+for calling him an emperor at all. Then he set to work to destroy the
+dwellings of the faithful nobles, and laid siege to the wonderful
+Septizonium of Severus, in which the true Pope's nephew had fortified
+himself, and began to batter it down with catapults and battering-rams.
+Presently came the message of vengeance, brought by one man outriding a
+host, while the rabble were still building a great wall to encircle
+Sant' Angelo and starve Hildebrand to death or submission, working day
+and night like madmen, tearing down everything at hand to pile the great
+stones one upon another. Swiftly came the terrible Norman from the
+south, with his six thousand horse, Normans and Saracens, and thirty
+thousand foot, forcing his march and hungry for the Emperor. But Henry
+fled, making pretext of great affairs in Lombardy, promising great and
+wonderful gifts to the Roman rabble, and entrusting to their care his
+imperial city.
+
+Like a destroying whirlwind of fire and steel Robert swept on to the
+gates and into Rome, burning and slaying as he rode, and sparing neither
+man, nor woman, nor child, till the red blood ran in rivers between
+walls of yellow flame. And he took Hildebrand from Sant' Angelo, and
+brought him back to the Lateran through the reeking ruins of the city in
+grim and fearful triumph of carnage and destruction.
+
+That was the end of the Roman Forum, and afterwards, when the
+blood-soaked ashes and heaps of red-hot rubbish had sunk down and
+hardened to a level surface, the place where the shepherd fathers of
+Alba Longa had pastured their flocks was called the Campo Vaccino, the
+Cattle Field, because it was turned into the market for beeves, and rows
+of trees were planted, and on one side there was a walk where ropes were
+made, even to our own time.
+
+It became also the fighting ground of the Regions. Among the strangest
+scenes in the story of the city are those regular encounters between the
+Regions of Monti and Trastevere which for centuries took place on feast
+days, by appointment, on the site of the Forum, or occasionally on the
+wide ground before the Baths of Diocletian. They were battles fought
+with stones, and far from bloodless. Monti was traditionally of the
+Imperial or Ghibelline party; Trastevere was Guelph and for the Popes.
+The enmity was natural and lasting, on a small scale, as it was
+throughout Italy. The challenge to the fray was regularly sent out by
+young boys as messengers, and the place and hour were named and the word
+passed in secret from mouth to mouth. It was even determined by
+agreement whether the stones were to be thrown by hand or whether the
+more deadly sling was to be used.
+
+At the appointed time, the combatants appear in the arena, sometimes as
+many as a hundred on a side, and the tournament begins, as in Homeric
+times, with taunts and abuse, which presently end in skirmishes between
+the boys who have come to look on. Scouts are placed at distant points
+to cry 'Fire' at the approach of the dreaded Bargello and his men, who
+are the only representatives of order in the city and not, indeed,
+anxious to face two hundred infuriated slingers for the sake of making
+peace.
+
+One boy throws a stone and runs away, followed by the rest, all
+prudently retiring to a safe distance. The real combatants wrap their
+long cloaks about their left arms, as the old Romans used their togas on
+the same ground, to shield their heads from the blows; a sling whirls
+half a dozen times like lightning, and a smooth round stone flies like a
+bullet straight at an enemy's face, followed by a hundred more in a
+deadly hail, thick and fast. Men fall, blood flows, short deep curses
+ring through the sunny air, the fighters creep up to one another,
+dodging behind trees and broken ruins, till they are at cruelly short
+range; faster and faster fly the stones, and scores are lying prostrate,
+bleeding, groaning and cursing. Strength, courage, fierce endurance and
+luck have it at last, as in every battle. Down goes the leader of
+Trastevere, half dead, with an eye gone, down goes the next man to him,
+his teeth broken under his torn lips, down half a dozen more, dead or
+wounded, and the day is lost. Trastevere flies towards the bridge,
+pursued by Monti with hoots and yells and catcalls, and the thousands
+who have seen the fight go howling after them, women and children
+screaming, dogs racing and barking and biting at their heels. And far
+behind on the deserted Campo Vaccino, as the sun goes down, women weep
+and frightened children sob beside the young dead. But the next feast
+day would come, and a counter-victory and vengeance.
+
+That has always been the temper of the Romans; but few know how
+fiercely it used to show itself in those days. It would have been
+natural enough that men should meet in sudden anger and kill each other
+with such weapons as they chanced to have or could pick up, clubs,
+knives, stones, anything, when fighting was half the life of every grown
+man. It is harder to understand the murderous stone throwing by
+agreement and appointment. In principle, indeed, it approached the
+tournament, and the combat of champions representing two parties is an
+expression of the ancient instinct of the Latin peoples; so the Horatii
+and Curiatii fought for Rome and Alba--so Francis the First of France
+offered to fight the Emperor Charles the Fifth for settlement of all
+quarrels between the Kingdom and the Empire--and so the modern Frenchman
+and Italian are accustomed to settle their differences by an appeal to
+what they still call 'arms,' for the sake of what modern society is
+pleased to dignify by the name of 'honour.'
+
+But in the stone-throwing combats of Campo Vaccino there was something
+else. The games of the circus and the bloody shows of the amphitheatre
+were not forgotten. As will be seen hereafter, bull-fighting was a
+favourite sport in Rome as it is in Spain today, and the hand-to-hand
+fights between champions of the Regions were as much more exciting and
+delightful to the crowd as the blood of men is of more price than the
+blood of beasts.
+
+The habit of fighting for its own sake, with dangerous weapons, made the
+Roman rabble terrible when the fray turned quite to earnest; the deadly
+hail of stones, well aimed by sling and hand, was familiar to every
+Roman from his childhood, and the sight of naked steel at arm's length
+inspired no sudden, keen and unaccustomed terror, when men had little
+but life to lose and set small value on that, throwing it into the
+balance for a word, rising in arms for a name, doing deeds of blood and
+flame for a handful of gold or a day of power.
+
+Monti was both the battlefield of the Regions and also, in times early
+and late, the scene of the most splendid pageants of Church and State.
+There is a strange passage in the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus, a
+pagan Roman of Greek birth, contemporary with Pope Damasus in the latter
+part of the fourth century. Muratori quotes it, as showing what the
+Bishopric of Rome meant even in those days. It is worth reading, for a
+heathen's view of things under Valens and Valentinian, before the coming
+of the Huns and the breaking up of the Roman Empire, and, indeed, before
+the official disestablishment, as we should say, of the heathen
+religion; while the High Priest of Jupiter still offered sacrifices on
+the Capitol, and the six Vestal Virgins still guarded the Seven Holy
+Things of Rome, and held their vast lands and dwelt in their splendid
+palace in all freedom of high privilege, as of old.
+
+'For my part,' says Ammianus, 'when I see the magnificence in which the
+Bishops live in Rome, I am not surprised that those who covet the
+dignity should use force and cunning to obtain it. For if they succeed,
+they are sure of becoming enormously rich by the gifts of the devout
+Roman matrons; they will drive about Rome in their carriages, as they
+please, gorgeously dressed, and they will not only keep an abundant
+table, but will give banquets so sumptuous as to outdo those of kings
+and emperors. They do not see that they could be truly happy if instead
+of making the greatness of Rome an excuse for their excesses, they would
+live as some of the Bishops of the Provinces do, who are sparing and
+frugal, poorly clad and modest, but who make the humility of their
+manners and the purity of their lives at once acceptable to their God
+and to their fellow worshippers.'
+
+So much Ammianus says. And Saint Jerome tells how Prætextatus, Prefect
+of the City, when Pope Damasus tried to convert him, answered with a
+laugh, 'I will become a Christian if you will make me Bishop of Rome.'
+
+Yet Damasus, famous for the good Latin and beautiful carving of the many
+inscriptions he composed and set up, was undeniably also a good man in
+the evil days which foreshadowed the great schism.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE]
+
+And here, in the year 366, in the Region of Monti, in the church where
+now stands Santa Maria Maggiore, a great and terrible name stands out
+for the first time in history. Orsino, Deacon of the Holy Roman Catholic
+and Apostolic Church, rouses a party of the people, declares the
+election of Damasus invalid, proclaims himself Pope in his stead, and
+officiates as Pontiff in the Basilica of Sicininus. Up from the deep
+city comes the roaring crowd, furious and hungry for fight; the great
+doors are closed and Orsino's followers gather round him as he stands on
+the steps of the altar; but they are few, and those for Damasus are
+many; down go the doors, burst inward with battering-rams, up shoot the
+flames to the roof, and the short, wild fray lasts while one may count
+five score, and is over. Orsino and a hundred and thirty-six of his men
+lie dead on the pavement, the fire licks the rafters, the crowd press
+outward, and the great roof falls crashing down into wide pools of
+blood. And after that Damasus reigns eighteen years in peace and
+splendour. No one knows whether the daring Deacon was of the race that
+made and unmade popes afterwards, and held half Italy with its
+fortresses, giving its daughters to kings and taking kings' daughters
+for its sons, till Vittoria Accoramboni of bad memory began to bring
+down a name that is yet great. But Orsino he was called, and he had in
+him much of the lawless strength of those namesakes of his who outfought
+all other barons but the Colonna, for centuries; and romance may well
+make him one of them.
+
+Three hundred years later, and a little nearer to us in the dim
+perspective of the dark ages, another scene is enacted in the same
+cathedral. Martin the First was afterwards canonized as Saint Martin for
+the persecutions he suffered at the hands of Constans, who feared and
+hated him and set up an antipope in his stead, and at last sent him
+prisoner to die a miserable death in the Crimea. Olympius, Exarch of
+Italy, was the chosen tool of the Emperor, sent again and again to Rome
+to destroy the brave Bishop and make way for the impostor. At last, says
+the greatest of Italian chroniclers, fearing the Roman people and their
+soldiers, he attempted to murder the Pope foully, in hideous sacrilege.
+To that end he pretended penitence, and begged to be allowed to receive
+the Eucharist from the Pope himself at solemn high Mass, secretly
+instructing one of his body-guards to stab the Bishop at the very moment
+when he should present Olympius with the consecrated bread.
+
+Up to the basilica they went, in grave and splendid procession. One may
+guess the picture, with its deep colour, with the strong faces of those
+men, the Eastern guards, the gorgeous robes, the gilded arms, the high
+sunlight crossing the low nave and falling through the yellow clouds of
+incense upon the venerable bearded head of the holy man whose death was
+purposed in the sacred office. First, the measured tread of the Exarch's
+band moving in order; then, the silence over all the kneeling throng,
+and upon it the bursting unison of the 'Gloria in Excelsis' from the
+choir. Chant upon chant as the Pontiff and his Ministers intone the
+Epistle and the Gospel and are taken up by the singers in chorus at the
+first words of the Creed. By and by, the Pope's voice alone, still clear
+and brave in the Preface. 'Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and all
+the company of Heaven,' he chants, and again the harmony of many voices
+singing 'Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Sabaoth.' Silence then, at the
+Consecration, and the dark-browed Exarch bowing to the pavement, beside
+the paid murderer whose hand is already on his dagger's hilt. 'O Lamb of
+God, that takest away the sins of the world,' sings the choir in its
+sad, high chant, and Saint Martin bows, standing, over the altar,
+himself communicating, while the Exarch holds his breath, and the slayer
+fixes his small, keen eyes on the embroidered vestments and guesses how
+they will look with a red splash upon them.
+
+As the soldier looks, the sunlight falls more brightly on the gold, the
+incense curls in mystic spiral wreaths, its strong perfume penetrates
+and dims his senses; little by little, his thoughts wander till they are
+strangely fixed on something far away, and he no longer sees Pope nor
+altar nor altar-piece beyond, and is wrapped in a sort of waking sleep
+that is blindness. Olympius kneels at the steps within the rail, and his
+heart beats loud as the grand figure of the Bishop bends over him, and
+the thin old hand with its strong blue veins offers the sacred bread to
+his open lips. He trembles, and tries to glance sideways to his left
+with downcast eyes, for the moment has come, and the blow must be struck
+then or never. Not a breath, not a movement in the church, not the
+faintest clink of all those gilded arms, as the Saint pronounces the few
+solemn words, then gravely and slowly turns, with his deacons to right
+and left of him, and ascends the altar steps once more, unhurt. A
+miracle, says the chronicler. A miracle, says the amazed soldier, and
+repeats it upon solemn oath. A miracle, says Olympius himself, penitent
+and converted from error, and ready to save the Pope by all means he
+has, as he was ready to slay him before. But he only, and the hired
+assassin beside him, had known what was to be, and the people say that
+the Exarch and the Pope were already reconciled and agreed against the
+Emperor.
+
+The vast church has had many names. It seems at one time to have been
+known as the Basilica of Sicininus, for so Ammianus Marcellinus still
+speaks of it. But just before that, there is the lovely legend of Pope
+Liberius' dream. To him and to the Roman patrician, John, came the
+Blessed Virgin in a dream, one night in high summer, commanding them to
+build her a church wheresoever they should find snow on the morrow. And
+together they found it, glistening in the morning sun, and they traced,
+on the white, the plan of the foundation, and together built the first
+church, calling it 'Our Lady of Snows,' for Damasus to burn when Orsino
+seized it,--but the people spoke of it as the Basilica of Liberius. It
+was called also 'Our Lady of the Manger,' from the relic held holy
+there; and Sixtus the Third named it 'Our Lady, Mother of God'; and
+under many popes it was rebuilt and grew, until at last, for its size,
+it was called, as it is today, 'The Greater Saint Mary's.' At one time,
+the popes lived near it, and in our own century, when the palace had
+long been transferred to the Quirinal, a mile to northward of the
+basilica, Papal Bulls were dated 'From Santa Maria Maggiore.'
+
+It is too gorgeous now, too overladen, too rich; and yet it is imposing.
+The first gold brought from South America gilds the profusely decorated
+roof, the dark red polished porphyry pillars of the high altar gleam in
+the warm haze of light, the endless marble columns rise in shining
+ranks, all is gold, marble and colour.
+
+Many dead lie there, great men and good; and one over whom a sort of
+mystery hangs, for he was Bartolommeo Sacchi, Cardinal Platina,
+historian of the Church, a chief member of the famous Roman Academy of
+the fifteenth century, and a mediæval pagan, accused with Pomponius
+Letus and others of worshipping false gods; tried, acquitted for lack of
+evidence; dead in the odour of sanctity; proved at last ten times a
+heathen, and a bad one, today, by inscriptions found in the remotest
+part of the Catacombs, where he and his companions met in darkest secret
+to perform their extravagant rites. He lies beneath the chapel of Sixtus
+the Fifth, but the stone that marked the spot is gone.
+
+Strange survivals of ideas and customs cling to some places like ghosts,
+and will not be driven away. The Esquiline was long ago the haunt of
+witches, who chanted their nightly incantations over the shallow graves
+where slaves were buried, and under the hideous crosses whereon dead
+malefactors had groaned away their last hours of life. Mæcenas cleared
+the land and beautified it with gardens, but still the witches came by
+stealth to their old haunts. The popes built churches and palaces on it,
+but the dark memories never vanished in the light; and even in our own
+days, on Saint John's Eve, which is the witches' night of the Latin
+race, as the Eve of May-day is the Walpurgis of the Northmen, the people
+went out in thousands, with torches and lights, and laughing tricks of
+exorcism, to scare away the powers of evil for the year.
+
+On that night the vast open spaces around the Lateran were thronged with
+men and women and children; against the witches' dreaded influence they
+carried each an onion, torn up by the roots with stalk and flower; all
+about, on the outskirts of the place, were kitchen booths, set up with
+boughs and bits of awnings, yellow with the glare of earthen and iron
+oil lamps, where snails--great counter-charms against spells--were fried
+and baked in oil, and sold with bread and wine, and eaten with more or
+less appetite, according to the strength of men's stomachs. All night,
+till the early summer dawn, the people came and went, and wandered round
+and round, and in and out, in parties and by families, to go laughing
+homeward at last, scarce knowing why they had gone there at all, unless
+it were because their fathers and mothers had done as they did for
+generations unnumbered.
+
+[Illustration: BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN]
+
+And the Lateran once had another half-heathen festival, on the Saturday
+after Easter, in memory of the ancient Floralia of the Romans, which had
+formerly been celebrated on the 28th of April. It was a most strange
+festival, now long forgotten, in which Christianity and paganism were
+blended together. Baracconi, from whom the following account is taken,
+quotes three sober writers as authority for his description. Yet there
+is a doubt about the very name of the feast, which is variously called
+the 'Coromania' and the 'Cornomania.'
+
+On the afternoon of the Saturday in Easter week, say these writers, the
+priests of the eighteen principal 'deaconries'--an ecclesiastical
+division of the city long ago abolished and now somewhat obscure--caused
+the bells to be rung, and the people assembled at their parish churches,
+where they were received by a 'mansionarius,'--probably meaning here 'a
+visitor of houses,'--and a layman, who was arrayed in a tunic, and
+crowned with the flowers of the cornel cherry. In his hand he carried a
+concave musical instrument of copper, by which hung many little bells.
+One of these mysterious personages, who evidently represented the pagan
+element in the ceremony, preceded each parish procession, being followed
+immediately by the parish priest, wearing the cope. From all parts of
+the city they went up to the Lateran, and waited before the palace of
+the Pope till all were assembled.
+
+The Pope descended the steps to receive the homage of the people.
+Immediately, those of each parish formed themselves into wide circles
+round their respective 'visitors' and priests, and the strange rite
+began. In the midst the priest stood still. Round and round him the lay
+'visitor' moved in a solemn dance, striking his copper bells
+rhythmically to his steps, while all the circle followed his gyrations,
+chanting a barbarous invocation, half Latin and half Greek: 'Hail,
+divinity of this spot! Receive our prayers in fortunate hour!' and many
+verses more to the same purpose, and quite beyond being construed
+grammatically.
+
+The dance is over with the song. One of the parish priests mounts upon
+an ass, backwards, facing the beast's tail, and a papal chamberlain
+leads the animal, holding over its head a basin containing twenty pieces
+of copper money. When they have passed three rows of benches--which
+benches, by the bye?--the priest leans back, puts his hand behind him
+into the basin, and pockets the coins.
+
+Then all the priests lay garlands at the feet of the Pope. But the
+priest of Santa Maria in Via Lata also lets a live fox out of a bag, and
+the little creature suddenly let loose flies for its life, through the
+parting crowd, out to the open country, seeking cover. It is like the
+Hebrew scapegoat. In return each priest receives a golden coin from the
+Pontiff's hand. The rite being finished, all return to their respective
+parishes, the dancing 'visitor' still leading the procession. Each
+priest is accompanied then by acolytes who bear holy water, branches of
+laurel, and baskets of little rolls, or of those big, sweet wafers,
+rolled into a cylinder and baked, which are called 'cialdoni,' and are
+eaten to this day by Romans with ice cream. From house to house they go;
+the priest blesses each dwelling, sprinkling water about with the
+laurel, and then burning the branch on the hearth and giving some of the
+rolls to the children. And all the time the dancer slowly dances and
+chants the strange words made up of some Hebrew, a little Chaldean and a
+leavening of nonsense.
+
+    Jaritan, jaritan, iarariasti
+    Raphaym, akrhoin, azariasti!
+
+One may leave the interpretation of the jargon to curious scholars. As
+for the rite itself, were it not attested by trustworthy writers, one
+would be inclined to treat it as a mere invention, no more to be
+believed than the legend of Pope Joan, who was supposed to have been
+stoned to death near San Clemente, on the way to the Lateran.
+
+An extraordinary number of traditions cling to the Region of Monti, and
+considering that in later times a great part of this quarter was a
+wilderness, the fact would seem strange. As for the 'Coromania' it seems
+to have disappeared after the devastation of Monti by Robert Guiscard in
+1084, and the general destruction of the city from the Lateran to the
+Capitol is attributed to the Saracens who were with him. But a more
+logical cause of depopulation is found in the disappearance of water
+from the upper Region by the breaking of the aqueducts, from which alone
+it was derived. The consequence of this, in the Middle Age, was that the
+only obtainable water came from the river, and was naturally taken from
+it up-stream, towards the Piazza del Popolo, in the neighbourhood of
+which it was collected in tanks and kept until the mud sank to the
+bottom and it was approximately fit to drink.
+
+In Imperial times the greater number of the public baths were situated
+in the Monti. The great Piazza di Termini, now re-named Piazza delle
+Terme, before the railway station, took its name from the Baths of
+Diocletian--'Thermæ,' 'Terme,' 'Termini.' The Baths of Titus, the Baths
+of Constantine, of Philippus, Novatus and others were all in Monti,
+supplied by the aqueduct of Claudius, the Anio Novus, the Aqua Marcia,
+Tepula, Julia, Marcia Nova and Anio Vetus. No people in the world were
+such bathers as the old Romans; yet few cities have ever suffered so
+much or so long from lack of good water as Rome in the Middle Age. The
+supply cut off, the whole use of the vast institutions was instantly
+gone, and the huge halls and porticos and playgrounds fell to ruin and
+base uses. Owing to their peculiar construction and being purposely made
+easy of access on all sides, like the temples, the buildings could not
+even be turned to account by the Barons for purposes of fortification,
+except as quarries for material with which to build their towers and
+bastions. The inner chambers became hiding-places for thieves, herdsmen
+in winter penned their flocks in the shelter of the great halls, grooms
+used the old playground as a track for breaking horses, and round and
+about the ruins, on feast days, the men of Monti and Trastevere chased
+one another in their murderous tournaments of stone throwing. A fanatic
+Sicilian priest saved the great hall of Diocletian's Baths from
+destruction in Michelangelo's time.
+
+[Illustration: PORTA MAGGIORE, SUPPORTING THE CHANNELS OF THE AQUEDUCT
+OF CLAUDIUS AND THE ANIO NOVUS]
+
+The story is worth telling, for it is little known. In a little church
+in Palermo, in which the humble priest Antonio Del Duca officiated, he
+discovered under the wall-plaster a beautiful fresco or mosaic of the
+Seven Archangels, with their names and attributes. Day after day he
+looked at the fair figures till they took possession of his mind and
+heart and soul, and inspired him with the apparently hopeless desire to
+erect a church in Rome in their honour. To Rome he came, persuaded of
+his righteous mission, to fail of course, after seven years of
+indefatigable effort. Back to Palermo then, to the contemplation of his
+beloved angels. And again they seemed to drive him to Rome. Scarcely had
+he returned when in a dream he seemed to see his ideal church among the
+ruins of the Baths of Diocletian, which had been built, as tradition
+said, by thousands of condemned Christians. To dream was to wake with
+new enthusiasm, to wake was to act. In an hour, in the early dawn, he
+was in the great hall which is now the Church of Santa Maria degli
+Angeli, 'Saint Mary of the Angels.'
+
+But it was long before his purpose was finally accomplished. Thirty
+years of his life he spent in unremitting labour for his purpose, and an
+accident at last determined his success. He had brought a nephew with
+him from Sicily, a certain Giacomo Del Duca, a sculptor, who was
+employed by Michelangelo to carve the great mask over the Porta Pia.
+Pope Pius the Fourth, for whom the gate was named, praised the stone
+face to Michelangelo, who told him who had made it. The name recalled
+the sculptor's uncle and his mad project, which appealed to
+Michelangelo's love of the gigantic. Even the coincidence of appellation
+pleased the Pope, for he himself had been christened Angelo, and his
+great architect and sculptor bore an archangel's name. So the work was
+done in short time, the great church was consecrated, and one of the
+noblest of Roman buildings was saved from ruin by the poor
+Sicilian,--and there, in 1896, the heir to the throne of Italy was
+married with great magnificence, that particular church being chosen
+because, as a historical monument, it is regarded as the property of the
+Italian State, and is therefore not under the immediate management of
+the Vatican. Probably not one in a thousand of the splendid throng that
+filled the church had heard the name of Antonio Del Duca, who lies
+buried before the high altar without a line to tell of all he did. So
+lies Bernini, somewhere in Santa Maria Maggiore, so lies Platina,--he,
+at least, the better for no epitaph,--and Beatrice Cenci and many
+others, rest unforgotten in nameless graves.
+
+From the church to the railway station stretch the ruins, continuous,
+massive, almost useless, yet dear to all who love old Rome. On the south
+side, there used to be a long row of buildings, ending in a tall old
+mansion of good architecture, which was the 'Casino' of the great old
+Villa Negroni. In that house, but recently gone, Thomas Crawford,
+sculptor, lived for many years, and in the long, low studio that stood
+before what is now the station, but was then a field, he modelled the
+great statue of Liberty that crowns the Capitol in Washington, and
+Washington's own monument which stands in Richmond, and many of his
+other works. My own early childhood was spent there, among the old-time
+gardens, and avenues of lordly cypresses and of bitter orange trees, and
+the moss-grown fountains, and long walks fragrant with half-wild roses
+and sweet flowers that no one thinks of planting now. Beyond, a wild
+waste of field and broken land led up to Santa Maria Maggiore; and the
+grand old bells sent their far voices ringing in deep harmony to our
+windows; and on the Eve of Saint Peter's day, when Saint Peter's was a
+dream of stars in the distance and the gorgeous fireworks gleamed in the
+dark sky above the Pincio, we used to climb the high tower above the
+house and watch the still illumination and the soaring rockets through a
+grated window, till the last one had burst and spent itself, and we
+crept down the steep stone steps, half frightened at the sound of our
+own voices in the ghostly place.
+
+And in that same villa once lived Vittoria Accoramboni, married to
+Francesco Peretti, nephew of Cardinal Montalto, who built the house, and
+was afterwards Sixtus the Fifth, and filled Rome with his works in the
+five years of his stirring reign. Hers also is a story worth telling,
+for few know it, even among Romans, and it is a tale of bloodshed, and
+of murder, and of all crimes against God and man, and of the fall of the
+great house of Orsini. But it may better be told in another place, when
+we reach the Region where they lived and fought and ruled, by terror and
+the sword.
+
+Near the Baths of Diocletian, and most probably on the site of that same
+Villa Negroni, too, was that vineyard, or 'villa' as we should say,
+where Cæsar Borgia and his elder brother, the Duke of Gandia, supped
+together for the last time with their mother Vanozza, on the night of
+the 14th of June, in the year 1497. There has always been a dark mystery
+about what followed. Many say that Cæsar feared his brother's power and
+influence with the Pope. Not a few others suggest that the cause of the
+mutual hatred was a jealousy so horrible to think of that one may hardly
+find words for it, for its object was their own sister Lucrezia. However
+that may be, they supped together with their mother in her villa, after
+the manner of Romans in those times, and long before then, and long
+since. In the first days of summer heat, when the freshness of spring is
+gone and June grows sultry, the people of the city have ever loved to
+breathe a cooler air. In the Region of Monti there were a score of
+villas, and there were wide vineyards and little groves of trees, such
+as could grow where there was not much water, or none at all perhaps,
+saving what was collected in cisterns from the roofs of the few
+scattered houses, when it rained.
+
+In the long June twilight the three met together, the mother and her two
+sons, and sat down under an arbour in the garden, for the air was dry
+with the south wind and there was no fear of fever. Screened lamps and
+wax torches shed changing tints of gold and yellow on the fine linen,
+and the deep-chiselled dishes and vessels of silver, and the tall
+glasses and beakers of many hues. Fruit was piled up in the midst, such
+as the season afforded, cherries and strawberries, and bright oranges
+from the south. One may fancy the dark-browed woman of forty years, in
+the beauty of maturity almost too ripe, with her black eyes and hair of
+auburn, her jewelled cap, her gold laces just open at her marble throat,
+her gleaming earrings, her sleeves slashed to show gauze-fine linen, her
+white, ring-laden fingers that delicately took the finely carved meats
+in her plate--before forks were used in Rome--and dabbled themselves
+clean from each touch in the scented water the little page poured over
+them. On her right, her eldest, Gandia, fair, weak-mouthed, sensually
+beautiful, splendid in velvet, and chain of gold, and deep-red silk, his
+blue eyes glancing now and then, half scornfully, half anxiously at his
+strong brother. And he, Cæsar, the man of infamous memory, sitting there
+the very incarnation of bodily strength and mental daring; square as a
+gladiator, dark as a Moor, with deep and fiery eyes, now black, now red
+in the lamplight, the marvellous smile wreathing his thin lips now and
+then, and showing white, wolfish teeth, his sinewy brown hands direct
+in every little action, his soft voice the very music of a lie to those
+who knew the terrible brief tones it had in wrath.
+
+Long they sat, sipping the strong iced wine, toying with fruits and
+nuts, talking of State affairs, of the Pope, of Maximilian, the jousting
+Emperor,--discussing, perhaps, with a smile, his love of dress and the
+beautiful fluted armour which he first invented;--of Lewis the Eleventh
+of France, tottering to his grave, strangest compound of devotion,
+avarice and fear that ever filled a throne; of Frederick of Naples, to
+whom Cæsar was to bear the crown within a few days; of Lucrezia's
+quarrel with her husband, which had brought her to Rome; and at her name
+Cæsar's eyes blazed once and looked down at the strawberries on the
+silver dish, and Gandia turned pale, and felt the chill of the night
+air, and stately Vanozza rose slowly in the silence, and bade her evil
+sons good-night, for it was late.
+
+Two hours later, Gandia's thrice-stabbed corpse lay rolling and bobbing
+at the Tiber's edge, as dead things do in the water, caught by its silks
+and velvets in wild branches that dipped in the muddy stream; and the
+waning moon rose as the dawn forelightened.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+If the secrets of old Rome could be known and told, they would fill the
+world with books. Every stone has tasted blood, every house has had its
+tragedy, every shrub and tree and blade of grass and wild flower has
+sucked life from death, and blossoms on a grave. There is no end of
+memories, in this one Region, as in all the rest. Far up by Porta Pia,
+over against the new Treasury, under a modern street, lie the bones of
+guilty Vestals, buried living, each in a little vault two fathoms deep,
+with the small dish and crust and the earthen lamp that soon flickered
+out in the close damp air; and there lies that innocent one, Domitian's
+victim, who shrank from the foul help of the headsman's hand, as her
+foot slipped on the fatal ladder, and fixed her pure eyes once upon the
+rabble, and turned and went down alone into the deadly darkness. Down by
+the Colosseum, where the ruins of Titus' Baths still stand in part,
+stood Nero's dwelling palace, above the artificial lake in which the
+Colosseum itself was built, and whose waters reflected the flames of the
+great fire. To northward, in a contrast that leaps ages, rise the huge
+walls of the Tor de' Conti, greatest of mediæval fortresses built within
+the city, the stronghold of a dim, great house, long passed away,
+kinsmen of Innocent the Third. What is left of it helps to enclose a
+peaceful nunnery.
+
+There were other towers, too, and fortresses, though none so strong as
+that, when it faced the Colosseum, filled then by the armed thousands of
+the great Frangipani. The desolate wastes of land in the Monti were ever
+good battlefields for the nobles and the people. But the stronger and
+wiser and greater Orsini fortified themselves in the town, in Pompey's
+theatre, while the Colonna held the midst, and the popes dwelt far aloof
+on the boundary, with the open country behind them for ready escape, and
+the changing, factious, fighting city before.
+
+The everlasting struggle, the furious jealousy, the always ready knife,
+kept the Regions distinct and individual and often at enmity with each
+other, most of all Monti and Trastevere, hereditary adversaries,
+Ghibelline and Guelph. Trastevere has something of that proud and
+violent character still. Monti lost it in the short eruption of
+'progress' and 'development.' In the wild rage of speculation which
+culminated in 1889, its desolate open lands, its ancient villas and its
+strange old houses were the natural prey of a foolish greediness the
+like of which has never been seen before. Progress ate up romance, and
+hundreds of acres of wretched, cheaply built, hideous, unsafe buildings
+sprang up like the unhealthy growth of a foul disease, between the
+Lateran gate and the old inhabited districts. They are destined to a
+graceless and ignoble ruin. Ugly cracks in the miserable stucco show
+where the masonry is already parting, as the hollow foundations subside,
+and walls on which the paint is still almost fresh are shored up with
+dusty beams lest they should fall and crush the few paupers who dwell
+within. Filthy, half-washed clothes of beggars hang down from the
+windows, drying in the sun as they flap and flutter against pretentious
+moulded masks of empty plaster. Miserable children loiter in the
+high-arched gates, under which smart carriages were meant to drive, and
+gnaw their dirty fingers, or fight for a cold boiled chestnut one of
+them has saved. Squalor, misery, ruin and vile stucco, with a sprinkling
+of half-desperate humanity,--those are the elements of the modern
+picture,--that is what the 'great development' of modern Rome brought
+forth and left behind it. Peace to the past, and to its ashes of romance
+and beauty.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION II TREVI
+
+
+In Imperial times, the street now called the Tritone, from the Triton on
+the fountain in Piazza Barberini, led up from the Portico of Vipsanius
+Agrippa's sister in the modern Corso to the temple of Flora at the
+beginning of the Quattro Fontane. It was met at right angles by a long
+street leading straight from the Forum of Trajan, and which struck it
+close to the Arch of Claudius. Then, as now, this point was the meeting
+of two principal thoroughfares, and it was called Trivium, or the
+'crossroads.' Trivium turned itself into the Italian 'Trevi,' called in
+some chronicles 'the Cross of Trevi.' The Arch of Claudius carried the
+Aqua Virgo, still officially called the Acqua Vergine, across the
+highway; the water, itself, came to be called the water 'of the
+crossroads' or 'of Trevi,' and 'Trevi' gave its name at last to the
+Region, long before the splendid fountain was built in the early part of
+the last century. The device of the Region seems to have nothing to do
+with the water, except, perhaps, that the idea of a triplicity is
+preserved in the three horizontally disposed rapiers.
+
+The legend that tells how the water was discovered gave it the first
+name it bore. A detachment of Roman soldiers, marching down from
+Præneste, or Palestrina, in the summer heat, were overcome by thirst,
+and could find neither stream nor well. A little girl, passing that way,
+led them aside from the high-road and brought them to a welling spring,
+clear and icy cold, known only to shepherds and peasants. They drank
+their fill and called it Aqua Virgo, the Maiden Water. And so it has
+remained for all ages. But it is commonly called 'Trevi' in Rome, by the
+people and by strangers, and the name has a ring of poetry, by its
+associations. For they say that whoever will go to the great fountain,
+when the high moon rays dance upon the rippling water, and drink, and
+toss a coin far out into the middle, in offering to the genius of the
+place, shall surely come back to Rome again, old or young, sooner or
+later. Many have performed the rite, some secretly, sadly, heartbroken,
+for love of Rome and what it holds, and others gayly, many together,
+laughing, while they half believe, and sometimes believing altogether
+while they laugh. And some who loved, and could meet only in Rome, have
+gone there together, and women's tears have sometimes dropped upon the
+silvered water that reflected the sad faces of grave men.
+
+The foremost memories of the past in Trevi centre about the ancient
+family of the Colonna, still numerous, distinguished and flourishing
+after a career of nearly a thousand years--longer than that, it may be,
+if one take into account the traditions of them that go back beyond the
+earliest authentic mention of their greatness; a race of singular
+independence and energy, which has given popes to Rome, and great
+patriots, and great generals as well, and neither least nor last,
+Vittoria, princess and poetess, whose name calls up the gentlest
+memories of Michelangelo's elder years.
+
+The Colonna were originally hill men. The earliest record of them tells
+that their great lands towards Palestrina were confiscated by the
+Church, in the eleventh century. The oldest of their titles is that of
+Duke of Paliano, a town still belonging to them, rising on an eminence
+out of the plain beyond the Alban hills. The greatest of their early
+fortresses was Palestrina, still the seat and title estate of the
+Barberini branch of the family. Their original stronghold in Rome was
+almost on the site of their present palace, being then situated on the
+opposite side of the Basilica of the Santi Apostoli, where the
+headquarters of the Dominicans now are, and running upwards and
+backwards, thence, to the Piazza della Pilotta; but they held Rome by a
+chain of towers and fortifications, from the Quirinal to the Mausoleum
+of Augustus, now hidden among the later buildings, between the Corso,
+the Tiber, the Via de' Pontefici and the Via de' Schiavoni. The present
+palace and the basilica stood partly upon the site of the ancient
+quarters occupied by the first Cohort of the Vigiles, or city police, of
+whom about seven thousand preserved order when the population of ancient
+Rome exceeded two millions.
+
+The 'column,' from which the Colonna take their name, is generally
+supposed to have stood in the market-place of the village of that name
+in the higher part of the Campagna, between the Alban and the Samnite
+hills, on the way to Palestrina. It is a peaceful and vine-clad country,
+now. South of it rise the low heights of Tusculum, and it is more than
+probable that the Colonna were originally descended from the great
+counts who tyrannized over Rome from that strong point of vantage and,
+through them, from Theodora Senatrix. Be that as it may, their arms
+consist of a simple column, used on a shield, or as a crest, or as the
+badge of the family, and it is found in many a threadbare tapestry, in
+many a painting, in the frescos and carved ornaments of many a dim old
+church in Rome.
+
+[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF TREVI]
+
+In their history, the first fact that stands out is their adherence to
+the Emperors, as Ghibellines, whereas their rivals, the Orsini, were
+Guelphs and supporters of the Church in most of the great contests of
+the Middle Age. The exceptions to the rule are found when the Colonna
+had a Pope of their own, or one who, like Nicholas the Fourth, was of
+their own making. 'That Pope,' says Muratori, 'had so boundlessly
+favoured the aggrandizement of the Colonna that his actions depended
+entirely upon their dictates, and a libel was published upon him,
+entitled the Source of Evil, illustrated by a caricature, in which the
+mitred head of the Pontiff was seen issuing from a tall column between
+two smaller ones, the latter intended to represent the two living
+cardinals of the house, Jacopo and Pietro.' Yet in the next reign, when
+they impeached the election of Boniface the Eighth, they found
+themselves in opposition to the Holy See, and they and theirs were
+almost utterly destroyed by the Pope's partisans and kinsmen, the
+powerful Caetani.
+
+Just before him, after the Holy See had been vacant for two years and
+nearly four months, because the Conclave of Perugia could not agree upon
+a Pope, a humble southern hermit of the Abruzzi, Pietro da Morrone, had
+been suddenly elevated to the Pontificate, to his own inexpressible
+surprise and confusion, and after a few months of honest, but utterly
+fruitless, effort to understand and do what was required of him, he had
+taken the wholly unprecedented step of abdicating the papacy. He was
+succeeded by Benedict Caetani, Boniface the Eighth, keen, learned,
+brave, unforgiving and the mortal foe of the Colonna; 'the magnanimous
+sinner,' as Gibbon quotes from a chronicle, 'who entered like a fox,
+reigned like a lion and died like a dog.' Yet the judgment is harsh, for
+though his sins were great, the expiation was fearful, and he was brave
+as few men have been.
+
+Samson slew a lion with his hands, and the Philistines with the jaw-bone
+of an ass. Men have always accepted the Bible's account of the
+slaughter. But when an ass, without the aid of any Samson, killed a lion
+in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Priori, in Florence, the event was
+looked upon as of evil portent, exceeding the laws of nature. For Pope
+Boniface had presented the Commonwealth of Florence with a young and
+handsome lion, which was chained up and kept in the court of the palace
+aforesaid. A donkey laden with firewood was driven in, and 'either from
+fear, or by a miracle,' as the chronicle says, at once assailed the lion
+with the utmost ferocity, and kicked him to death, in spite of the
+efforts of a number of men to drag the beast of burden off. Of the two
+hypotheses, the wise men of the day preferred the supernatural
+explanation, and one of them found an ancient Sibylline prophecy to the
+effect that 'when the tame beast should kill the king of beasts, the
+dissolution of the Church should begin.' Which saying, adds Villani, was
+presently fulfilled in Pope Boniface.
+
+For the Pope had a mortal quarrel with Philip the Fair of France whom he
+had promised to make Emperor, and had then passed over in favour of
+Albert, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg; and Philip made a friend and ally of
+Stephen Colonna, the head of the great house, who was then in France,
+and drove Boniface's legate out of his kingdom, and allowed the Count of
+Artois to burn the papal letters. The Pope retorted by a Major
+Excommunication, and the quarrel became furious. The Colonna being under
+his hand, Boniface vented his anger upon them, drove them from Rome,
+destroyed their houses, levelled Palestrina to the ground, and ploughed
+up the land where it had stood. The six brothers of the house were
+exiles and wanderers. Old Stephen, the idol of Petrarch, alone and
+wretched, was surrounded by highwaymen, who asked who he was. 'Stephen
+Colonna,' he answered, 'a Roman citizen.' And the thieves fell back at
+the sound of the great name. Again, someone asked him with a sneer where
+all his strongholds were, since Palestrina was gone. 'Here,' he
+answered, unmoved, and laying his hand upon his heart. Of such stuff
+were the Pope's enemies.
+
+Nor could he crush them. Boniface was of Anagni, a city of prehistoric
+walls and ancient memories which belonged to the Caetani; and there, in
+the late summer, he was sojourning for rest and country air, with his
+cardinals and his court and his kinsmen about him. Among the cardinals
+was Napoleon Orsini.
+
+[Illustration: GRAND HALL OF THE COLONNA PALACE]
+
+Then came William of Nogaret, sent by the King of France, and Sciarra
+Colonna, the boldest man of his day, and many other nobles, with three
+hundred knights and many footmen. For a long time they had secretly
+plotted a master-stroke of violence, spending money freely among the
+people, and using all persuasion to bring the country to their side, yet
+with such skill and caution that not the slightest warning reached the
+Pope's ears. In calm security he rose early on the morning of the
+seventh of September. He believed his position assured, his friends
+loyal and the Colonna ruined for ever; and Colonna was at the gate.
+
+Suddenly, from below the walls, a cry of words came up to the palace
+windows; long drawn out, distinct in the still mountain air. 'Long live
+the King of France! Death to Pope Boniface!' It was taken up by hundreds
+of voices, and repeated, loud, long and terrible, by the people of the
+town, by men going out to their work in the hills, by women loitering on
+their doorsteps, by children peering out, half frightened, from behind
+their mothers' scarlet woollen skirts, to see the armed men ride up the
+stony way. Cardinals, chamberlains, secretaries, men-at-arms, fled like
+sheep; and when Colonna reached the palace wall, only the Pope's own
+kinsmen remained within to help him as they could, barring the great
+doors and posting themselves with crossbows at the grated window. For
+the Caetani were always brave men.
+
+But Boniface knew that he was lost, and calmly, courageously, even
+grandly, he prepared to face death. 'Since I am betrayed,' he said, 'and
+am to die, I will at least die as a Pope should!' So he put on the great
+pontifical chasuble, and set the tiara of Constantine upon his head,
+and, taking the keys and the crosier in his hands, sat down on the papal
+throne to await death.
+
+The palace gates were broken down, and then there was no more
+resistance, for the defenders were few. In a moment Colonna in his
+armour stood before the Pontiff in his robes; but he saw only the enemy
+of his race, who had driven out his great kinsmen, beggars and wanderers
+on the earth, and he lifted his visor and looked long at his victim, and
+then at last found words for his wrath, and bitter reproaches and taunts
+without end and savage curses in the broad-spoken Roman tongue. And
+William of Nogaret began to speak, too, and threatened to take Boniface
+to Lyons where a council of the Church should depose him and condemn him
+to ignominy. Boniface answered that he should expect nothing better than
+to be deposed and condemned by a man whose father and mother had been
+publicly burned for their crimes. And this was true of Nogaret, who was
+no gentleman. A legend says that Colonna struck the Pope in the face,
+and that he afterwards made him ride on an ass, sitting backwards, after
+the manner of the times. But no trustworthy chronicle tells of this. On
+the contrary, no one laid hands upon him while he was kept a prisoner
+under strict watch for three days, refusing to touch food; for even if
+he could have eaten he feared poison. And Colonna tried to force him to
+abdicate, as Pope Celestin had done before him, but he refused stoutly;
+and when the three days were over, Colonna went away, driven out, some
+say, by the people of Anagni who turned against him. But that is
+absurd, for Anagni is a little place and Colonna had a strong force of
+good soldiers with him. Possibly, seeing that the old man refused to
+eat, Sciarra feared lest he should be said to have starved the Pope to
+death. They went away and left him, carrying off his treasures with
+them, and he returned to Rome, half mad with anger, and fell into the
+hands of the Orsini cardinals, who judged him not sane and kept him a
+prisoner at the Vatican, where he died soon afterwards, consumed by his
+wrath. And before long the Colonna had their own again and rebuilt
+Palestrina and their palace in Rome.
+
+Twenty-five years later they were divided against each other, in the
+wild days when Lewis the Bavarian, excommunicated and at war with the
+Pope, was crowned and consecrated Emperor, by the efforts of an
+extraordinary man of genius, Castruccio degli Interminelli, known better
+as Castruccio Castracane, the Ghibelline lord of Lucca who made Italy
+ring with his deeds for twenty years, and died of a fever, in the height
+of his success and glory, at the age of forty-seven years. Sciarra
+Colonna was for him and for Lewis. Stephen, head of the house, was
+against them, and in those days when Rome was frantic for an Emperor,
+Stephen's son Jacopo had the quiet courage to bring out the Bull of
+Excommunication against the chosen Emperor and nail it to the door of
+San Marcello, in the Corso, in the heart of Rome and in the sight of a
+thousand angry men, in protest against what they meant to do--against
+what was doing even at that moment. And he reached Palestrina in safety,
+shaking the dust of Rome from his feet.
+
+But on that bright winter's day, Lewis of Bavaria and his queen rode
+down from Santa Maria Maggiore by the long and winding ways towards
+Saint Peter's. The streets were all swept and strewn with yellow sand
+and box leaves and myrtle that made the air fragrant, and from every
+window and balcony gorgeous silks and tapestries were hung, and even
+ornaments of gold and silver and jewels. Before the procession rode
+standard-bearers, four for each Region, on horses most richly
+caparisoned. There rode Sciarra Colonna, and beside him, for once in
+history, Orsino Orsini, and others, all dressed in cloth of gold, and
+Castruccio Castracane, wearing that famous sword which in our own times
+was offered by Italy to King Victor Emmanuel; and many other Barons rode
+there in splendid array, and there was great concourse of the people. So
+they came to Saint Peter's; and because the Count of the Lateran should
+by right have been the Emperor's sponsor at the anointing, and had left
+Rome in anger and disdain, Lewis made Castruccio a knight of the Empire
+and Count of the Lateran in his stead, and sponsor; and two
+excommunicated Bishops consecrated the Emperor, and anointed him, and
+Sciarra Colonna crowned him and his queen. After which they feasted in
+the evening at the Aracoeli, and slept in the Capitol, because they
+were all weary with the long ceremony, and it was too late to go home.
+The chronicler's comment is curious. 'Note,' he says, 'what presumption
+was this, of the aforesaid damned Bavarian, such as thou shalt not find
+in any ancient or recent history; for never did any Christian Emperor
+cause himself to be crowned save by the Pope or his legate, even though
+opposed to the Church, neither before then nor since, except this
+Bavarian.' But Sciarra and Castruccio had their way, and Lewis did what
+even Napoleon, master of the world by violent chance, would not do. And
+twenty years later, in the same chronicle, it is told how 'Lewis of
+Bavaria, who called himself Emperor, fell with his horse, and was killed
+suddenly, without penitence, excommunicated and damned by Holy Church.'
+It is a curious coincidence that Boniface the Eighth, Sciarra's
+prisoner, and Lewis the Bavarian, whom he crowned Emperor, both died on
+the eleventh of October, according to most authorities.
+
+The Senate of Rome had dwindled to a pitiable office, held by one man.
+At or about this time, the Colonna and the Orsini agreed by a compromise
+that there should be two, chosen from their two houses. The Popes were
+in Avignon, and men who could make Emperors were more than able to do as
+they pleased with a town of twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants, so
+long as the latter had no leader. One may judge of what Rome was, when
+even pilgrims did not dare to go thither and visit the tomb of Saint
+Peter. The discord of the great houses made Rienzi's life a career; the
+defection of the Orsini from the Pope's party led to his flight; their
+battles suggested to the exiled Pope the idea of sending him back to
+Rome to break their power and restore a republic by which the Pope might
+restore himself; and the rage of their retainers expended itself in his
+violent death. For it was their retainers who fought for their masters,
+till the younger Stephen Colonna killed Bertoldo Orsini, the bravest man
+of his day, in an ambush, and the Orsini basely murdered a boy of the
+Colonna on the steps of a church. But Rienzi was of another Region, of
+the Regola by the Tiber, and it is not yet time to tell his story. And
+by and by, as the power of the Popes rose and they became again as the
+Cæsars had been, Colonna and Orsini forgot their feuds, and were glad to
+stand on the Pope's right and left as hereditary 'Assistants of the Holy
+See.' In the petty ending of all old greatnesses in modern times, the
+result of the greatest feud that ever made two races mortal foes is
+merely that no prudent host dare ask the heads of the two houses to
+dinner together, lest a question of precedence should arise, such as no
+master of ceremonies would presume to settle. That is what it has come
+to. Once upon a time an Orsini quarrelled with a Colonna in the Corso,
+just where Aragno's café is now situated, and ran him through with his
+rapier, wounding him almost to death. He was carried into the palace of
+the Theodoli, close by, and the records of that family tell that within
+the hour eight hundred of the Colonna's retainers were in the house to
+guard him. In as short space, the Orsini called out three thousand men
+in arms, when Cæsar Borgia's henchman claimed the payment of a tax.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Times have changed since then. The Mausoleum of Augustus, once a
+fortress, has been an open air theatre in our time, and there the great
+Salvini and Ristori often acted in their early youth; it is a circus
+now. And in less violent contrast, but with change as great from what it
+was, the palace of the Colonna suggests no thought of defence nowadays,
+and the wide gates and courtyard recall rather the splendours of the
+Constable and of his wife, Maria Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin,
+than the fiercer days when Castracane was Sciarra's guest on the other
+side of the church.
+
+The Basilica of the Apostles is said to have been built by Pelagius the
+First, who was made Pope in the year 555, and who dedicated it to Saint
+Philip and Saint James. Recent advances in the study of archæology make
+it seem more than probable that he adapted for the purpose a part of the
+ancient barracks of the Vigiles, of which the central portion appears
+almost to coincide with the present church, at a somewhat different
+angle; and in the same way it is likely that the remains of the north
+wing were rebuilt at a later period by the Colonna as a fortified
+palace. In those times men would not have neglected to utilize the
+massive substructures and walls. However that may be, the Colonna dwelt
+there at a very early date, and in eight hundred years or more have only
+removed their headquarters from one side of the church to the other. The
+latter has been changed and rebuilt, and altered again, like most of the
+great Roman sanctuaries, till it bears no resemblance to the original
+building. The present church is distinctly ugly, with the worst defects
+of the early eighteenth century; and that age was as deficient in
+cultivated taste as it was abhorrent of natural beauty. Some fragments
+of the original frescos that adorned the apse are now preserved in a
+hall behind the main Sacristy of Saint Peter's. Against the flat walls,
+under the inquisition of the crudest daylight, the fragments of Melozzo
+da Forli's masterpiece are masterpieces still; the angelic faces,
+imprisoned in a place not theirs, reflect the sadness of art's
+captivity; and the irretrievable destruction of an inimitable past
+excites the pity and resentment of thoughtful men. The attempt to outdo
+the works of the great has exhibited the contemptible imbecility of the
+little, and the coarse-grained vanity of Clement the Eleventh has
+parodied the poetry of art in the bombastic prose of a vulgar tongue.
+Pope Pelagius took for his church the pillars and marbles of Trajan's
+Forum, in the belief that his acts were acceptable to God; but Clement
+had no such excuse, and the edifice which was a monument of faith has
+given place to the temple of a monumental vanity.
+
+[Illustration: FORUM OF TRAJAN]
+
+It is remarkable that the Colonna rarely laid their dead in the Church
+of the Apostles, for it was virtually theirs by right of immediate
+neighbourhood, and during their domination they could easily have
+assumed actual possession of it as a private property. A very curious
+custom, which survived in the sixteenth century, and perhaps much later,
+bears witness to the close connection between their family and the
+church. At that time a gallery existed, accessible from the palace and
+looking down into the basilica, so that the family could assist at Mass
+without leaving their dwelling.
+
+On the afternoon of the first of May, which is the traditional feast of
+this church, the poor of the neighbourhood assembled within. The windows
+of the palace gallery were then thrown open and a great number of fat
+fowls were thrown alive to the crowd, turkeys, geese and the like, to
+flutter down to the pavement and be caught by the luckiest of the people
+in a tumultuous scramble. When this was over, a young pig was swung out
+and lowered in slings by a purchase of which the block was seized to a
+roof beam. When just out of reach the rope was made fast, and the most
+active of the men jumped for the animal from below, till one was
+fortunate enough to catch it with his hands, when the rope was let go,
+and he carried off the prize. The custom was evidently similar to that
+of climbing the May-pole, which was set up on the same day in the Campo
+Vaccino. May-day was one of the oldest festivals of the Romans, for it
+was sacred to the tutelary Lares, or spirits of ancestors, and was kept
+holy, both publicly by the whole city as the habitation of the Roman
+people, and by each family in its private dwelling. It is of Aryan
+origin and is remembered in one way or another by all Aryan races in our
+own time, and it is not surprising that in the general conversion of
+Paganism to Christianity a new feast should have been intentionally made
+to coincide with an old one; but it is hard to understand the lack of
+all reverence for sacred places which could admit such a scene as the
+scrambling for live fowls and pigs in honour of the twelve Apostles, a
+pious exercise which is perhaps paralleled, though assuredly not
+equalled, in crudeness, by the old Highland custom of smoking tobacco in
+kirk throughout the sermon.
+
+At the very time when we have historical record of a Pope's presence as
+an amused spectator of the proceedings, Michelangelo had lately painted
+the ceiling of the Sixtine chapel, and had not yet begun his Last
+Judgment; and 'Diva' Vittoria Colonna, not yet the friend of his later
+years, was perhaps even then composing those strangely passionate
+spiritual sonnets which appeal to the soul through the heart, by the
+womanly pride that strove to make the heart subject to the soul.
+
+The commonplace romance which has represented Vittoria Colonna and
+Michelangelo as in love with each other is as unworthy of both as it is
+wholly without foundation. They first met nine years before her death,
+when she was almost fifty and he was already sixty-four. She had then
+been widowed twelve years, and it was long since she had refused in
+Naples the princely suitors who made overtures for her hand. The true
+romance of her life was simpler, nobler and more enduring, for it began
+when she was a child, and it ended when she breathed her last in the
+house of Giuliano Cesarini, the kinsman of her people, whose descendant
+married her namesake in our own time.
+
+At the age of four, Vittoria was formally betrothed to Francesco
+d'Avalos, heir of Pescara, one of that fated race whose family history
+has furnished matter for more than one stirring tale. Vittoria was born
+in Marino, the Roman town and duchy which still gives its title to
+Prince Colonna's eldest son, and she was brought up in Rome and Naples,
+of which latter city her father was Grand Constable. Long before she was
+married, she saw her future husband and loved him at first sight, as
+she loved him to her dying day, so that although even greater offers
+were made for her, she steadfastly refused to marry any other man. They
+were united when she was seventeen years old, he loved her devotedly,
+and they spent many months together almost without other society in the
+island of Ischia. The Emperor Charles the Fifth was fighting his
+lifelong fight with Francis the First of France. Colonna and Pescara
+were for the Empire, and Francesco d'Avalos joined the imperial army; he
+was taken prisoner at Ravenna and carried captive to France; released,
+he again fought for Charles, who offered him the crown of the kingdom of
+Naples; but he refused it, and still he fought on, to fall at last at
+Pavia, in the strength of his mature manhood, and to die of his wounds
+in Milan when Vittoria was barely five and thirty years of age, still
+young, surpassingly beautiful, and gifted as few women have ever been.
+What their love was, their long correspondence tells,--a love passionate
+as youth and enduring as age, mutual, whole and faithful. For many years
+the heartbroken woman lived in Naples, where she had been most happy,
+feeding her soul with fire and tears. At last she returned to Rome, to
+her own people, in her forty-ninth year. There she was visited by the
+old Emperor for whom her husband had given his life, and there she met
+Michelangelo.
+
+It was natural enough that they should be friends. It is monstrous to
+suppose them lovers. The melancholy of their natures drew them together,
+and the sympathy of their tastes cemented the bond. To the woman-hating
+man of genius, this woman was a revelation and a wonder; to the great
+princess in her perpetual sorrow the greatest of creative minds was a
+solace and a constant intellectual delight. Their friendship was mutual,
+fitting and beautiful, which last is more than can be said for the
+absurd stories about their intercourse which are extant in print and
+have been made the subject of imaginary pictures by more than one
+painter. The tradition that they used to meet often in the little Church
+of Saint Sylvester, behind the Colonna gardens, rests upon the fact that
+they once held a consultation there in the presence of Francesco
+d'Olanda, a Portuguese artist, when Vittoria was planning the Convent of
+Saint Catherine, which she afterwards built not very far away. The truth
+is that she did not live in the palace of her kinsfolk after her return
+to Rome, but most probably in the convent attached to the other and
+greater Church of Saint Sylvester which stands in the square of that
+name not far from the Corso. The convent itself is said to have been
+originally built for the ladies of the Colonna who took the veil, and
+was only recently destroyed to make room for the modern Post-office, the
+church itself having passed into the hands of the English. The
+coincidence of the two churches being dedicated to the same saint
+doubtless helped the growth of the unjust fable. But in an age of great
+women, in the times of Lucrezia Borgia, great and bad, of Catherine
+Sforza, great and warlike, Vittoria Colonna was great and good; and the
+ascetic Michelangelo, discovering in her the realization of an ideal,
+laid at her feet the homage of a sexagenarian's friendship.
+
+In the battle of the archæologists the opposing forces traverse and
+break ground, and rush upon each other again, 'hurtling together like
+wild boars,'--as Mallory describes the duels of his knights,--and when
+learned doctors disagree it is not the province of a searcher after
+romance to attempt a definition of exact truths. 'Some romances
+entertain the genius,' quotes Johnson, 'and strengthen it by the noble
+ideas which they give of things; but they corrupt the truth of history.'
+
+Professor Lanciani, who is probably the greatest authority, living or
+dead, on Roman antiquities, places the site of the temple of the Sun in
+the Colonna gardens, and another writer compares the latter to the
+hanging gardens of Babylon, supported entirely on ancient arches and
+substructures rising high above the natural soil below. But before
+Aurelian erected the splendid building to record his conquest of
+Palmyra, the same spot was the site of the 'Little Senate,' instituted
+by Elagabalus in mirthful humour, between an attack of sacrilegious
+folly and a fit of cruelty.
+
+The 'Little Senate' was a woman's senate; in other words, it was a
+regular assembly of the fashionable Roman matrons of the day, who met
+there in hours of idleness under the presidency of the Emperor's mother,
+Semiamira. Ælius Lampridius, quoted by Baracconi, has a passage about
+it. 'From this Senate,' he says, 'issued the absurd laws for the
+matrons, entitled Semiamiran Senatorial Decrees, which determined for
+each matron how she might dress, to whom she must yield precedence, by
+whom she might be kissed, deciding which ladies might drive in chariots,
+and which in carts, and whether the latter should be drawn by
+caparisoned horses, or by asses, or by mules, or oxen; who should be
+allowed to be carried in a litter or a chair, which might be of leather
+or of bone with fittings of ivory or of silver, as the case might be;
+and it was even determined which ladies might wear shoes adorned only
+with gold, and which might have gems set in their boots.' Considering
+how little human nature has changed in eighteen hundred years it is easy
+enough to imagine what the debates in the 'Little Senate' must have been
+with Semiamira in the chair ruling everything 'out of order' which did
+not please her capricious fancy: the shrill discussions about a
+fashionable head-dress, the whispered intrigues for a jewel-studded
+slipper, the stormy divisions on the question of gold hairpins, and the
+atmosphere of beauty, perfumes, gossip, vanity and all feminine
+dissension. But the 'Little Senate' was short-lived.
+
+Some fifty years after Elagabalus, Aurelian triumphed over Zenobia of
+Palmyra, and built his temple of the Sun. That triumph was the finest
+sight, perhaps, ever seen in imperial Rome. Twenty richly caparisoned
+elephants and two hundred captive wild beasts led the immense
+procession; eight hundred pairs of gladiators came next, the glory and
+strength of fighting manhood, with all their gleaming arms and
+accoutrements, marching by the huge Flavian Amphitheatre, where sooner
+or later they must fight each other to the death; then countless
+captives of the East and South and West and North, Syrian nobles, Gothic
+warriors, Persian dignitaries beside Frankish chieftains, and Tetricus,
+the great Gallic usurper, in the attire of his nation, with his young
+son whom he had dared to make a Senator in defiance of the Empire. Three
+royal equipages followed, rich with silver, gold and precious stones,
+one of them Zenobia's own, and she herself seated therein, young,
+beautiful, proud and vanquished, loaded from head to foot with gems,
+most bitterly against her will, her hands and feet bound with a golden
+chain, and about her neck another, long and heavy, of which the end was
+held by a Persian captive who walked beside the chariot and seemed to
+lead her. Then Aurelian, the untiring conqueror, in the car of the
+Gothic king, drawn by four great stags, which he himself was to
+sacrifice to Jove that day according to his vow, and a long line of
+wagons loaded down and groaning under the weight of the vast spoil; the
+Roman army, horse and foot, the Senate and the people, a million,
+perhaps, all following the indescribable magnificence of the great
+triumph, along the Sacred Way, that was yellow with fresh strewn sand
+and sweet with box and myrtle.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI]
+
+But when it was over, Aurelian, who was generous when he was not
+violent, honoured Zenobia and endowed her with great fortune, and she
+lived for many years as a Roman Matron in Hadrian's villa at Tivoli. And
+the Emperor made light of the 'Little Senate' and built his Sun temple
+on the spot, with singular magnificence, enriching its decoration with
+pearls and precious stones and with fifteen thousand pounds in weight of
+pure gold. Much of that temple was still standing in the seventeenth
+century and was destroyed by Urban the Eighth, the Pope who built the
+heavy round tower on the south side of the Quirinal palace, facing Monte
+Cavallo.
+
+Monte Cavallo itself was a part of the Colonna villa, and its name, only
+recently changed to Piazza del Quirinale, was given to it by the great
+horses that stand on each side of the fountain, and which were found
+long ago, according to tradition, between the Palazzo Rospigliosi and
+the Palazzo della Consulta. In the times of Sixtus the Fifth, they were
+in a pitiable state, their forelegs and tails gone, their necks broken,
+their heads propped up by bits of masonry. When he finished the Quirinal
+palace he restored them and set them up, side by side, before the
+entrance, and when Pius the Sixth changed their position and turned them
+round, the ever conservative and ever discontented Roman people were
+disgusted by the change. On the pedestal of one of them are the words,
+'Opus Phidiae,' 'the work of Phidias,' A punning placard was at once
+stuck upon the inscription with the legend, 'Opus Perfidiae Pii
+Sexti'--'the work of perfidy of Pius the Sixth.'
+
+The Quirinal palace cannot be said to have played a part in the history
+of Rome. Its existence is largely due to the common sense of Sixtus the
+Fifth, and to his love of good air. He was a shepherd by birth, and it
+is recorded that the first of his bitter disappointments was that the
+farmer whom he served set him to feed the pigs because he could not
+learn how to drive sheep to pasture; a disgrace which ultimately made
+him run away, when he fell in with a monk whose face he liked. He
+informed the astonished father that he meant to follow him everywhere,
+'to Hell, if he chose,'--which was a forcible if not a pious
+resolution,--and explained that the pigs would find their way home
+alone. Later, when he had quarrelled with all the monks in Naples,
+including his superiors, he came to Rome, and, being by that time very
+learned, he was employed to expound the 'Formalities' of Scotus to the
+'Signor' Marcantonio Colonna, abbot of the Monastery of the Apostles;
+and there he resided as a guest for a long time till his brilliant pupil
+was himself master of the subject, as well as a firm friend of the
+quarrelsome monk; and in their intercourse the seeds were no doubt sown
+of that implacable hatred against the Orsini which, under the great and
+just provocation of a kinsman's murder, ended in the exile and temporary
+ruin of the Colonna's rivals. No doubt, also, the abbot and the monk
+often strolled together in the Colonna gardens, and the future Pope
+breathed the high air of the Quirinal hill with a sense of relief, and
+dreamed of living up there, far above the city, literally in an
+atmosphere of his own. Therefore, when he was Pope, he made the great
+palace that crowns the eminence, completing and extending a much smaller
+building planned by the wise Gregory the Thirteenth, and ever since
+then, until 1870, the Popes lived there during some part of the year. It
+is modern, as age is reckoned in Rome, and it has modern associations in
+the memory of living men.
+
+It was from the great balcony of the Quirinal that Pius the Ninth
+pronounced his famous benediction to an enthusiastic and patriotic
+multitude in 1846. It will be remembered that a month after his
+election, Pius proclaimed a general amnesty in favour of all persons
+imprisoned for political crimes, and a decree by which all criminal
+prosecutions for political offences should be immediately discontinued,
+unless the persons accused were ecclesiastics, soldiers, or servants of
+the government, or criminals in the universal sense of the word.
+
+The announcement was received with a frenzy of enthusiasm, and Rome went
+mad with delight. Instinctively, the people began to move towards the
+Quirinal from all parts of the city, as soon as the proclamation was
+published; the stragglers became a band, and swelled to a crowd; music
+was heard, flags appeared and the crowd swelled to a multitude that
+thronged the streets, singing, cheering and shouting for joy as they
+pushed their way up to the palace, filling the square, the streets that
+led to it and the Via della Dateria below it, to overflowing. In answer
+to this popular demonstration the Pope appeared upon the great balcony
+above the main entrance; a shout louder than all the rest burst from
+below, the long drawn 'Viva!' of the southern races; he lifted his
+hand, and there was silence; and in the calm summer air his quiet eyes
+were raised towards the sky as he imparted his benediction to the people
+of Rome.
+
+Twenty-four years later, when the Italians had taken Rome, a detachment
+of soldiers accompanied by a smith and his assistants marched up to the
+same gate. Not a soul was within, and they had instructions to enter and
+take possession of the palace. In the presence of a small and silent
+crowd of sullen-looking men of the people, the doors were forced.
+
+The difference between Unity under Augustus and Unity under Victor
+Emmanuel is that under the Empire the Romans took Italy, whereas under
+the Kingdom the Italians have taken Rome. Without pretending that there
+can be any moral distinction between the two, one may safely admit that
+there is a great and vital one between the two conditions of Rome, at
+the two periods of history, a distinction no less than that which
+separates the conqueror from the conquered, and the fruits of conquest
+from the consequences of subjection. But thinking men do not forget that
+they look at the past in one way and at the present in another; and that
+while the actions of a nation are dictated by the impulses of contagious
+sentiment, the judgments of history are too often based upon an all but
+commercial reckoning and balancing of profit and loss.
+
+When Sixtus the Fifth was building the Quirinal palace, he was not
+working in a wilderness resembling the deserted fields of the outlying
+Monti. The hill was covered with gardens and villas. Ippolito d'Este,
+the son of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, and of Lucrezia Borgia, had built
+himself a residence on the west side of the hill, surrounded by gardens.
+It was in the manner of his magnificent palace at Tivoli, that Villa
+d'Este of which the melancholy charm had such a mysterious attraction
+for Liszt, where the dark cypresses reflect their solemn beauty in the
+stagnant water, and a weed-grown terrace mourns the dead artist in the
+silence of decay.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DEL QUIRINALE]
+
+Further on, along the Via Venti Settembre, stretched the pleasure
+grounds of Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, who is remembered as the man who
+first recognized the merits of the beautiful mutilated group
+subsequently known as 'Pasquino,' and set it upon the pedestal which
+made it famous, and gave its name a place in all languages, by the witty
+lampoons and stinging satires almost daily affixed to the block of
+stone. Many other villas followed in the same direction, and in those
+insecure days not a few Romans, when the summer days grew hot, were
+content to move up from their palaces in the lower parts of the city to
+breathe the somewhat better air of the Quirinal and the Esquiline,
+instead of risking a journey to the country.
+
+Sixtus the Fifth died in the Quirinal palace, and twenty-one other Popes
+have died there since, all following the curious custom of bequeathing
+their hearts and viscera to the parish Church of the Saints Vincent and
+Anastasius, which is known as the Church of Cardinal Mazarin, because
+the tasteless front was built by him, though the rest existed much
+earlier. It stands opposite the fountain of Trevi, at one corner of the
+little square; the vault in which the urns were placed is just behind
+and below the high altar; but Benedict the Fourteenth built a special
+monument for them on the left of the apse, and a tablet on the right
+records the names of the Popes who left these strange legacies to the
+church.
+
+In passing, one may remember that Mazarin himself was born in the Region
+of Trevi, the son of a Sicilian,--like Crispi and Rudinì. His father was
+employed at first as a butler and then as a steward by the Colonna,
+married an illegitimate daughter of the family, and lived to see his
+granddaughter, Maria Mancini, married to the head of the house, and his
+son a cardinal and despot of France, and himself, after the death of his
+first wife, the honoured husband of Porzia Orsini, so that he was the
+only man in history who was married both to an Orsini and to a Colonna.
+In the light of his father's extraordinary good fortune, the success of
+the son, though not less great, is at least less astonishing. The
+magnificent Rospigliosi palace, often ascribed by a mistake to Cardinal
+Scipio Borghese, was the Palazzo Mazarini and Mazarin's father died
+there; it was inherited by the Dukes of Nevers, through another niece of
+the Cardinal's, and was bought from them between 1667 and 1670, by
+Prince Rospigliosi, brother of Pope Clement the Ninth, then reigning.
+
+Urban the Eighth, the Barberini Pope, had already left his mark on the
+Quirinal hill. The great Barberini palace was built by him, it is said,
+of stones taken from the Colosseum, whereupon a Pasquinade announced
+that 'the Barberini had done what the Barbarians had not.' The
+Barbarians did not pull down the Colosseum, it is true, but they could
+assuredly not have built as Urban did, and in that particular instance,
+without wishing to justify the vandalisms of the centuries succeeding
+the Renascence, it may well be asked whether the Amphitheatre is not
+more picturesque in its half-ruined state, as it stands, and whether the
+city is not richer by a great work of art in the princely dwelling which
+faces the street of the Four Fountains.
+
+Among the many memories of the Quirinal there is one more mysterious
+than the rest. The great Baths of Constantine extended over the site of
+the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and the ruins were in part standing at the end
+of the sixteenth century. It is related by a writer of those days and an
+eye-witness of the fact, that a vault was discovered beneath the old
+baths, about eighty feet long by twenty wide, closed at one end by a
+wall thrown up with evident haste and lack of skill, and completely
+filled with human bodies that fell to dust at the first touch, evidently
+laid there all at the same time, just after death, and probably
+numbering at least a thousand. In vain one conjectures the reason of
+such wholesale burial--one of Nero's massacres, perhaps, or a plague. No
+one can tell.
+
+The invaluable Baracconi, often quoted, recalls the fact that Tasso,
+when a child, lived with his father in some house on the Monte Cavallo,
+when the execrable Carafa cardinal and his brother had temporarily
+succeeded in seizing all the Colonna property; and he gives a letter of
+Bernardo, the poet's father, written in July to his wife, who was away
+just then.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA BARBERINI]
+
+'I do not wish the children to go to the vineyard because they get too
+hot, and the air is bad there this summer, but in order that they may
+have a change, I took steps to have the use of the Boccaccio Vineyard
+[Villa Colonna], and the Duke of Paliano [then a Carafa, for the latter
+had stolen the title as well as the lands] has let me have it, and we
+have been here a week and shall stay all summer in this good air.'
+
+The words call up a picture of Tasso, a small boy, pale with the heat of
+a Roman summer, but restless and for ever running about, overheated and
+catching cold like all delicate children, which brings the unhappy poet
+a little nearer to us.
+
+Of those great villas and gardens there remain the Colonna, the
+Rospigliosi and the Quirinal, by far the largest of the three, and
+enclosing between four walls an area almost, if not quite, equal to the
+Pincio. The great palace where twenty-two popes died is inhabited by the
+royal family of Italy and crowns the height, as the Vatican, far away
+across the Tiber, is also on an eminence of its own. They face each
+other, like two principles in natural and eternal opposition,--Rome the
+conqueror of the world, and Italy the conqueror of Rome. And he who
+loves the land for its own sake can only pray that if they must oppose
+each other for ever in heart, they may abide in that state of civilized
+though unreconciled peace, which is the nation's last and only hope of
+prosperity.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION III COLONNA
+
+
+When the present Queen of Italy first came to Rome as Princess Margaret,
+and drove through the city to obtain a general impression of it, she
+reached the Piazza Colonna and asked what the column might be which is
+the most conspicuous landmark in that part of Rome and gives a name to
+the square, and to the whole Region. The answer of the elderly officer
+who accompanied the Princess and her ladies is historical. 'That
+column,' he answered, 'is the Column of Piazza Colonna'--'the Column of
+Column Square,' as we might say--and that was all he could tell
+concerning it, for his business was not archæology, but soldiering. The
+column was erected by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, whose equestrian
+statue stands on the Capitol, to commemorate his victory over the
+Marcomanni.
+
+[Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS]
+
+It is remarkable that so many of the monuments still preserved
+comparatively intact should have been set up by the adoptive line of the
+so-called Antonines, from Trajan to Marcus Aurelius, and that the two
+monster columns, the one in Piazza Colonna and the one in Trajan's
+Forum, should be the work of the last and the first of those emperors,
+respectively. Among other memorials of them are the Colosseum, the Arch
+of Titus and the statue mentioned above. The lofty Septizonium is
+levelled to the ground, the Palaces of the Cæsars are a mountain of
+ruins, the triumphal arches of Marcus Aurelius and of Domitian have
+disappeared with those of Gratian, of Valens, of Arcadius and of many
+others; but the two gigantic columns still stand erect with their
+sculptured tales of victory and triumph almost unbroken, surmounted by
+the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, whose memory was sacred to
+all Christians long before the monuments were erected, and to whom,
+respectively, they have been dedicated by a later age.
+
+There may have been a connection, too, in the minds of the people,
+between the 'Column of Piazza Colonna' and the Column of the Colonna
+family, since a great part of this Region had fallen under the
+domination of the noble house, and was held by them with a chain of
+towers and fortifications; but the pillar which is the device of the
+Region terminates in the statue of the Apostle Peter, whereas the one
+which figures in the shield of Colonna is crowned with a royal crown, in
+memory of the coronation of Lewis the Bavarian by Sciarra, who himself
+generally lived in a palace facing the small square which bears his
+name, and which is only a widening of the Corso just north of San
+Marcello, the scene of Jacopo Colonna's brave protest against his
+kinsman's mistaken imperialism.
+
+The straight Corso itself, or what is the most important part of it to
+Romans, runs through the Region from San Lorenzo in Lucina to Piazza di
+Sciarra, and beyond that, southwards, it forms the western boundary of
+Trevi as far as the Palazzo di Venezia, and the Ripresa de' Barberi--the
+'Catching of the Racers.' West of the Corso, the Region takes in the
+Monte Citorio and the Piazza of the Pantheon, but not the Pantheon
+itself, and eastwards it embraces the new quarter which was formerly the
+Villa Ludovisi, and follows the Aurelian wall, from Porta Salaria to
+Porta Pinciana. Corso means a 'course,' and the Venetian Paul the
+Second, who found Rome dull compared with Venice, gave it the name when
+he made it a race-course for the Carnival, towards the close of the
+fifteenth century. Before that it was Via Lata,--'Broad Street,'--and
+was a straight continuation of the Via Flaminia, the main northern
+highway from the city. For centuries it has been the chief playground of
+the Roman Carnival, a festival of which, perhaps, nothing but the memory
+will remain in a few years, when the world will wonder how it could be
+possible that the population of the grave old city should have gone mad
+each year for ten days and behaved itself by day and night like a crowd
+of schoolboys let loose.
+
+'Carnival' is supposed to be derived from 'Carnelevamen,' a 'solace for
+the flesh.' Byron alone is responsible for the barbarous derivation
+'Carne Vale,' farewell meat--a philological impossibility. In the minds
+of the people it is probably most often translated as 'Meat Time,' a
+name which had full meaning in times when occasional strict fasting and
+frequent abstinence were imposed on Romans almost by law. Its beginnings
+are lost in the dawnless night of time--of Time, who was Kronos, of
+Kronos who was Saturn, of Saturn who gave his mysterious name to the
+Saturnalia in which Carnival had its origin. His temple stood at the
+foot of the Capitol hill, facing the corner of the Forum, and there are
+remains of it today, tall columns in a row, with architrave and frieze
+and cornice; from the golden milestone close at hand, as from the
+beginning of time, were measured the ways of the world to the ends of
+the earth; and the rites performed within it were older than any others,
+and different, for here the pious Roman worshipped with uncovered head,
+whereas in all other temples he drew up his robes as a veil lest any
+sight of evil omen should meet his eyes, and here waxen tapers were
+first burned in Rome in honour of a god. And those same tapers played a
+part, to the end, on the last night of Carnival. But in the coincidence
+of old feasts with new ones, the festival of Lupercus falls nearer to
+the time of Ash Wednesday, for the Lupercalia were celebrated on the
+fifteenth of February, whereas the Carnival of Saturn began on the
+seventeenth of December.
+
+Lupercus was but a little god, yet he was great among the shepherds in
+Rome's pastoral beginnings, for he was the driver away of wolves, and on
+his day the early settlers ran round and round their sheepfold on the
+Palatine, all dressed in skins of fresh-slain goats, praising the Faun
+god, and calling upon him to protect their flocks. And in truth, as the
+winter, when wolves are hungry and daring, was over, his protection was
+a foregone conclusion till the cold days came again. The grotto
+dedicated to him was on the northwest slope of the Palatine, nearly
+opposite the Church of Saint George in Velabro, across the Via di San
+Teodoro; and all that remains of the great festival in which Mark Antony
+and the rest ran like wild men through the streets of Rome, smiting men
+and women with the purifying leathern thong, and offering at last that
+crown which Cæsar thrice refused, is merged and forgotten, with the
+Saturnalia, in the ten days' feasting and rioting that change to the
+ashes and sadness of Lent, as the darkest night follows the brightest
+day. For the Romans always loved strong contrasts.
+
+Carnival, in the wider sense, begins at Christmas and ends when Lent
+begins; but to most people it means but the last ten days of the season,
+when festivities crowd upon each other till pleasure fights for minutes
+as for jewels; when tables are spread all night and lights are put out
+at dawn; when society dances itself into distraction and poor men make
+such feasting as they can; when no one works who can help it, and no
+work done is worth having, because it is done for double price and half
+its value; when affairs of love are hastened to solution or catastrophe,
+and affairs of state are treated with the scorn they merit in the eyes
+of youth, because the only sense is laughter, and the only wisdom,
+folly. That is Carnival, personified by the people as a riotous old
+red-cheeked, bottle-nosed hunchback, animated by the spirit of fun.
+
+In a still closer sense, Carnival is the Carnival in the Corso, or was;
+for it is dead beyond resuscitation, and such efforts as are made to
+give it life again are but foolish incantations that call up sad ghosts
+of joy, spiritless and witless. But within living memory, it was very
+different. In those days which can never come back, the Corso was a
+sight to see and not to be forgotten. The small citizens who had small
+houses in the street let every window to the topmost story for the whole
+ten days; the rich whose palaces faced the favoured line threw open
+their doors to their friends; every window was decorated, from every
+balcony gorgeous hangings, or rich carpets, or even richer tapestries
+hung down; the street was strewn thick with yellow sand, and wheresoever
+there was an open space wooden seats were built up, row above row, where
+one might hire a place to see the show and join in throwing flowers, and
+the lime-covered 'confetti' that stung like small shot and whitened
+everything like meal, and forced everyone in the street or within reach
+of it to wear a shield of thin wire netting to guard the face, and thick
+gloves to shield the hands; or, in older times, a mask, black, white, or
+red, or modelled and painted with extravagant features, like evil beings
+in a dream.
+
+[Illustration: TWIN CHURCHES AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE CORSO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+In the early afternoon of each day except Sunday it all began, day after
+day the same, save that the fun grew wilder and often rougher as the
+doom of Ash Wednesday drew near. First when the people had gathered in
+their places, high and low, and already thronged the street from side to
+side, there was a distant rattle of scabbards and a thunder of hoofs,
+and all fell back, crowding and climbing upon one another, to let a
+score of cavalrymen trot through, clearing the way for the carriages of
+the 'Senator' and Municipality, which drove from end to end of the Corso
+with their scarlet and yellow liveries, before any other vehicles were
+allowed to pass, or any pelting with 'confetti' began. But on the
+instant when they had gone by, the showers began, right, left, upwards,
+downwards, like little storms of flowers and snow in the afternoon
+sunshine, and the whole air was filled with the laughter and laughing
+chatter of twenty thousand men and women and children--such a sound as
+could be heard nowhere else in the world. Many have heard a great host
+cheer, many have heard the battle-cries of armies, many have heard the
+terrible deep yell that goes up from an angry multitude in times of
+revolution; but only those who remember the Carnival as it used to be
+have heard a whole city laugh, and the memory is worth having, for it is
+like no other. The sound used to flow along in great waves, following
+the sights that passed, and swelling with them to a peal that was like a
+cheer, and ebbing then to a steady, even ripple of enjoyment that never
+ceased till it rose again in sheer joy of something new to see. Nothing
+can give an idea of the picture in times when Rome was still Roman; no
+power of description can call up the crowd that thronged and jammed the
+long, narrow street, till the slowly moving carriages and cars seemed to
+force their way through the stiffly packed mass of humanity as a strong
+vessel ploughs her course up-stream through packed ice in winter. Yet no
+one was hurt, and an order reigned which could never have been produced
+by any means except the most thorough good temper and the determination
+of each individual to do no harm to his neighbour, though all respect of
+individuals was as completely gone as in any anarchy of revolution. The
+more respectable a man looked who ventured into the press in ordinary
+clothes, the more certainly he became at once the general mark for
+hail-storms of 'confetti.' No uniform nor distinguishing badge was
+respected, excepting those of the squad of cavalrymen who cleared the
+way, and the liveries of the Municipality's coaches. Men and women were
+travestied and disguised in every conceivable way, as Punch and Judy, as
+judges and lawyers with enormous square black caps, black robes and
+bands, or in dresses of the eighteenth century, or as Harlequins, or
+even as bears and monkeys, singly, or in twos and threes, or in little
+companies of fifteen or twenty, all dressed precisely alike and
+performing comic evolutions with military exactness. Everyone carried a
+capacious pouch, or a fishing-basket, or some receptacle of the kind for
+the white 'confetti,' and arms and hands were ceaselessly swung in air,
+flinging vast quantities of the snowy stuff at long range and short. At
+every corner and in every side street, men sold it out of huge baskets,
+by the five, and ten, and twenty pounds, weighing it out with the
+ancient steelyard balance. Every balcony was lined with long troughs of
+it, constantly replenished by the house servants; every carriage and car
+had a full supply. And through all the air the odd, clean odour of the
+fresh plaster mingled with the fragrance of the box-leaves and the
+perfume of countless flowers. For flowers were thrown, too, in every
+way, loose and scattered, or in hard little bunches, the 'mazzetti,'
+that almost hurt when they struck the mark, and in beautiful nosegays,
+rarely flung at random when a pretty face was within sight at a window.
+The cars, often charmingly decorated, were filled with men and women
+representing some period of fashion, or some incident in history, or
+some allegorical subject, and were sometimes two or three stories high,
+and covered all over with garlands of flowers and box and myrtle. In the
+intervals between them endless open carriages moved along, lined with
+white, filled with white dominos, drawn by horses all protected and
+covered with white cotton robes, against the whiter 'confetti'--everyone
+fighting mock battles with everyone else, till it seemed impossible that
+anything could be left to throw, and the long perspective of the narrow
+street grew dim between the high palaces, and misty and purple in the
+evening light.
+
+A gun fired somewhere far away as a signal warned the carriages to turn
+out, and make way for the race that was to follow. The last moments were
+the hottest and the wildest, as flowers, 'confetti,' sugar plums with
+comet-like tails, wreaths, garlands, everything, went flying through the
+air in a final and reckless profusion, and as the last car rolled away
+the laughter and shouting ceased, and all was hushed in the expectation
+of the day's last sight. Again, the clatter of hoofs and scabbards, as
+the dragoons cleared the way; twenty thousand heads and necks craning to
+look northward, as the people pushed back to the side pavements;
+silence, and the inevitable yellow dog that haunts all race-courses,
+scampering over the white street, scared by the shouts, and catcalls,
+and bursts of spasmodic laughter; then a far sound of flying hoofs, a
+dead silence, and the quick breathing of suppressed excitement; louder
+and louder the hoofs, deader the hush; and then, in the dash of a
+second, in the scud of a storm, in a whirlwind of light and colour and
+sparkling gold leaf, with straining necks, and flashing eyes, and wide
+red nostrils flecked with foam, the racing colts flew by as fleet as
+darting lightning, riderless and swift as rock-swallows by the sea.
+
+Then, if it were the last night of Carnival, as the purple air grew
+brown in the dusk, myriads of those wax tapers first used in Saturn's
+temple of old lit up the street like magic and the last game of all
+began, for every man and woman and child strove to put out another's
+candle, and the long, laughing cry, 'No taper! No taper! Senza moccolo!'
+went ringing up to the darkling sky. Long canes with cloths or damp
+sponges or extinguishers fixed to them started up from nowhere, down
+from everywhere, from window and balcony to the street below, and from
+the street to the low balconies above. Put out at every instant, the
+little candles were instantly relighted, till they were consumed down to
+the hand; and as they burned low, another cry went up, 'Carnival is
+dead! Carnival is dead!' But he was not really dead till midnight, when
+the last play of the season had been acted in the playhouses, the last
+dance danced, the last feast eaten amid song and laughter, and the
+solemn Patarina of the Capitol tolled out the midnight warning like a
+funeral knell. That was the end.
+
+The riderless race was at least four hundred years old when it was given
+up. The horses were always called Bárberi, with the accent on the first
+syllable, and there has been much discussion about the origin of the
+name. Some say that it meant horses from Barbary, but then it should be
+pronounced Barbéri, accented on the penultimate. Others think it stood
+for Bárbari--barbarian, that is, unridden. The Romans never misplace an
+accent, and rarely mistake the proper quantity of a syllable long or
+short. For my own part, though no scholar has as yet suggested it, I
+believe that the common people, always fond of easy witticisms and
+catchwords, coined the appellation, with an eye to the meaning of both
+the other derivations, out of Barbo, the family name of Pope Paul the
+Second, who first instituted the Carnival races, and set the winning
+post under the balcony of the huge Palazzo di Venezia, which he had
+built beside the Church of Saint Mark, to the honour and glory of his
+native city.
+
+He made men run foot-races, too: men, youths and boys, of all ages; and
+the poor Jews, in heavy cloth garments, were first fed and stuffed with
+cakes and then made to run, too. The jests of the Middle Age were savage
+compared with the roughest play of later times.
+
+The pictures of old Rome are fading fast. I can remember, when a little
+boy, seeing the great Carnival of 1859, when the Prince of Wales was in
+Rome, and the masks which had been forbidden since the revolution were
+allowed again in his honour; and before the flower throwing began, I saw
+Liszt, the pianist, not yet in orders, but dressed in a close-fitting
+and very fashionable grey frock-coat, with a grey high hat, young then,
+tall, athletic and erect; he came out suddenly from a doorway, looked to
+the right and left in evident fear of being made a mark for 'confetti,'
+crossed the street hurriedly and disappeared--not at all the
+silver-haired, priestly figure the world knew so well in later days. And
+by and by the Prince of Wales came by in a simple open carriage, a thin
+young man in a black coat, with a pale, face and a quiet smile, looking
+all about him with an almost boyish interest, and bowing to the right
+and left.
+
+Then in deep contrast of sadness, out of the past years comes a great
+funeral by night, down the Corso; hundreds of brown, white-bearded
+friars, two and two with huge wax candles, singing the ancient chant of
+the penitential psalms; hundreds of hooded lay brethren of the
+Confraternities, some in black, some in white, with round holes for
+their eyes that flashed through, now and then, in the yellow glare of
+the flaming tapers; hundreds of little street boys beside them in the
+shadow, holding up big horns of grocers' paper to catch the dripping
+wax; and then, among priests in cotta and stole, the open bier carried
+on men's shoulders, and on it the peaceful figure of a dead girl,
+white-robed, blossom crowned, delicate as a frozen flower in the cold
+winter air. She had died of an innocent love, they said, and she was
+borne in through the gates of the Santi Apostoli to her rest in the
+solemn darkness. Nor has anyone been buried in that way since then.
+
+[Illustration: SAN LORENZO IN LUCINA]
+
+In the days of Paul the Second, what might be called living Rome, taken
+in the direction of the Corso, began at the Arch of Marcus Aurelius,
+long attributed to Domitian, which stood at the corner of the small
+square called after San Lorenzo in Lucina. Beyond that point, northwards
+and eastwards, the city was a mere desert, and on the west side the
+dwelling-houses fell away towards the Mausoleum of Augustus, the
+fortress of the Colonna. The arch itself used to be called the Arch of
+Portugal, because a Portuguese Cardinal, Giovanni da Costa, lived in the
+Fiano palace at the corner of the Corso. No one would suppose that very
+modern-looking building, with its smooth front and conventional
+balconies, to be six hundred years old, the ancient habitation of all
+the successive Cardinals of Saint Lawrence. Its only other interest,
+perhaps, lies in the fact that it formed part of the great estates
+bestowed by Sixtus the Fifth on his nephews, and was nevertheless sold
+over their children's heads for debt, fifty-five years after his death.
+The swineherd's race was prodigal, excepting the 'Great Friar' himself,
+and, like the Prodigal Son, it was not long before the Peretti were
+reduced to eating the husks.
+
+It was natural that the palaces of the Renascence should rise along the
+only straight street of any length in what was then the inhabited part
+of the city, and that the great old Roman Barons, the Colonna, the
+Orsini, the Caetani, should continue to live in their strongholds, where
+they had always dwelt. The Caetani, indeed, once bought from a
+Florentine banker what is now the Ruspoli palace, and Sciarra Colonna
+had lived far down the Corso; but with these two exceptions, the
+princely habitations between the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza di
+Venezia are almost all the property of families once thought foreigners
+in Rome. The greatest, the most magnificent private dwelling in the
+world is the Doria Pamfili palace, as the Doria themselves were the most
+famous, and became the most powerful of those many nobles who, in the
+course of centuries, settled in the capital and became Romans, not only
+in name but in fact--Doria, Borghese, Rospigliosi, Pallavicini and
+others of less enduring fame or reputation, who came in the train or
+alliance of a Pope, and remained in virtue of accumulated riches and
+acquired honour.
+
+Two hundred and fifty years have passed since a council of learned
+doctors and casuists decided for Pope Innocent the Tenth the precise
+limit of his just power to enrich his nephews and relations, the
+Pamfili, by an alliance with whom the original Doria of Genoa added
+another name to their own, and inherited the vast estates. But nearly
+four hundred years before Innocent, the Doria had been high admirals and
+almost despots of Genoa. For they were a race of seamen from the first,
+in a republic where seamanship was the first essential to distinction.
+Albert Doria overcame the Pisans off Meloria in 1284, slaying five
+thousand, and taking eleven thousand prisoners. Conrad, his son, was
+'Captain of the Genoese Freedom,' and 'Captain of the People.' Lamba
+Doria vanquished the Venetians under the brave Andrea Dandolo, and
+Paganino Doria conquered them again under another Andrea Dandolo; and
+then an Andrea Doria took service with the Pope, and became the greatest
+sailor in Europe, the hero of a hundred sea-fights, at one time the ally
+of Francis the First of France, and the most dangerous opponent of
+Gonzalvo da Cordova, then high admiral of the Empire under Charles the
+Fifth, a destroyer of pirates, by turns the idol, the enemy and the
+despot of his own city, Genoa, and altogether such a type of a
+soldier-sailor of fortune as the world has not seen before or since. And
+there were others after him, notably Gian Andrea Doria, remembered by
+the great victory over the Turks at Lepanto, whence he brought home
+those gorgeous Eastern spoils of tapestry and embroideries which hang in
+the Doria palace today.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DORIA PAMFILI]
+
+The history of the palace itself is not without interest, for it shows
+how property, which was not in the possession of the original Barons,
+sometimes passed from hand to hand, changing names with each new owner,
+in the rise and fall of fortunes in those times. The first building
+seems to have belonged to the Chapter of Santa Maria Maggiore, which
+somehow ceded it to Cardinal Santorio, who spent an immense sum in
+rebuilding, extending and beautifying it. When it was almost finished,
+Julius the Second came to see it, and after expressing the highest
+admiration for the work, observed that such a habitation was less
+fitting for a prince of the church than for a secular duke--meaning, by
+the latter, his own nephew, Francesco della Rovere, then Duke of Urbino;
+and the unfortunate Santorio, who had succeeded in preserving his
+possessions under the domination of the Borgia, was forced to offer the
+most splendid palace in Rome as a gift to the person designated by his
+master. He died of a broken heart within the year. A hundred years
+later, the Florentine Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement the Eighth, bought
+it from the Dukes of Urbino for twelve thousand measures of grain,
+furnished them for the purpose by their uncle, and finally, when it had
+fallen in inheritance to Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini, Innocent the Tenth
+married her to his nephew, Camillo Pamfili, from whom, by the fusion of
+the two families, it at last came into the hands of the Doria-Pamfili.
+
+The Doria palace is almost two-thirds of the size of Saint Peter's, and
+within the ground plan of Saint Peter's the Colosseum could stand. It
+used to be said that a thousand persons lived under the roof outside of
+the gallery and the private apartments, which alone surpass in extent
+the majority of royal residences. Without some such comparison mere
+words can convey nothing to a mind unaccustomed to such size and space,
+and when the idea is grasped, one asks, naturally enough, how the people
+lived who built such houses--the people whose heirs, far reduced in
+splendour, if not in fortune, are driven to let four-fifths of their
+family mansion, because they find it impossible to occupy more rooms
+than suffice the Emperor of Germany or the Queen of England. One often
+hears foreign visitors, ignorant of the real size of palaces in Rome,
+observe, with contempt, that the Roman princes 'let their palaces.' It
+would be more reasonable to inquire what use could be made of such
+buildings, if they were not let, or how any family could be expected to
+inhabit a thousand rooms, and, ultimately, for what purpose such
+monstrous residences were ever built at all.
+
+The first thing that suggests itself in answer to the latter question as
+the cause of such boundless extravagance is the inherited giantism of
+the Latins, to which reference has been more than once made in these
+pages, and to which the existence of many of the principal buildings in
+Rome must be ascribed. Next, we may consider that at one time or
+another, each of the greater Roman palaces has been, in all essentials,
+the court of a pope or of a reigning feudal prince. Lastly, it must be
+remembered that each palace was the seat of management of all its
+owner's estates, and that such administration in those times required a
+number of scribes and an amount of labour altogether out of proportion
+with the income derived from the land.
+
+At first sight the study of Italian life in the Middle Age does not seem
+very difficult, because it is so interesting. But when one has read the
+old chronicles that have survived, and the histories of those times, one
+is amazed to see how much we are told about people and their actions,
+and how very little about the way in which people lived. It is easier to
+learn the habits of the Egyptians, or the Greeks, or the ancient Romans,
+or the Assyrians, than to get at the daily life of an Italian family
+between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, from such books as we
+have. There are two reasons for this. One is the scarcity of literature,
+excepting historical chronicles, until the time of Boccaccio and the
+Italian storytellers. The other is the fact that what we call the Middle
+Age was an age of transition from barbarism to the civilization of the
+Renascence, and the Renascence was reached by sweeping away all the
+barbarous things that had gone before it.
+
+One must have lived a lifetime in Italy to be able to call up a fairly
+vivid picture of the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries. One
+must have actually seen the grand old castles and gloomy monasteries,
+and feudal villages of Calabria and Sicily, where all things are least
+changed from what they were, and one should understand something of the
+nature of the Italian people, where the original people have survived;
+one must try also to realize the violence of those passions which are
+ugly excrescences on Italian character even now, and which were once the
+main movers of that character.
+
+There are extant many inventories of lordly residences of earlier times
+in Italy, for the inventory was taken every time the property changed
+hands by inheritance or sale. Everyone of these inventories begins at
+the main gate of the stronghold, and the first item is 'Rope for giving
+the cord.' Now 'to give the cord' was a torture, and all feudal lords
+had the right to inflict it. The victim's hands were tied behind his
+back, the rope was made fast to his bound wrists, and he was hoisted
+some twenty feet or so to the heavy iron ring which is fixed in the
+middle of the arch of every old Italian castle gateway; he was then
+allowed to drop suddenly till his feet, to which heavy weights were
+sometimes attached, were a few inches from the ground, so that the
+strain of his whole weight fell upon his arms, twisted them backwards,
+and generally dislocated them at the shoulders. And this was usually
+done three times, and sometimes twenty times, in succession, to the same
+prisoner, either as a punishment or by way of examination, to extract a
+confession of the truth. As the rope of torture was permanently rove
+through the pulley over the front door, it must have been impossible not
+to see it and remember what it meant every time one went in or out. And
+such quick reminders of danger and torture, and sudden, painful death,
+give the pitch and key of daily existence in the Middle Age. Every man's
+life was in his hand until it was in his enemy's. Every man might be
+forced, at a moment's notice, to defend not only his honour, and his
+belongings, and his life, but his women and children, too,--not against
+public enemies only, but far more often against private spite and
+personal hatred. Nowadays, when most men only stake their money on their
+convictions, it is hard to realize how men reasoned who staked their
+lives at every turn; or to guess, for instance, at what women felt whose
+husbands and sons, going out for a stroll of an afternoon, in the
+streets of Rome, might as likely as not be brought home dead of a dozen
+sword-wounds before evening. A husband, a father, was stabbed in the
+dark by treachery; try and imagine the daily and year-long sensations of
+the widowed mother, bringing up her only son deliberately to kill her
+husband's murderer; teaching him to look upon vengeance as the first,
+most real and most honourable aim of life, from the time he was old
+enough to speak, to the time when he should be strong enough to kill.
+Everything was earnest then. One should remember that most of the
+stories told by Boccaccio, Sacchetti and Bandello--the stories from
+which Shakespeare got his Italian plays, his Romeo and Juliet, his
+Merchant of Venice--were not inventions, but were founded on the truth.
+Everyone has read about Cæsar Borgia, his murders, his treacheries and
+his end, and he is held up to us as a type of monstrous wickedness. But
+a learned Frenchman, Émile Gebhart, has recently written a rather
+convincing treatise, to show that Cæsar Borgia was not a monster at all,
+nor even much of an exception to the general rule among the Italian
+despots of his day, and his day was civilized compared with that of
+Rienzi, of Boniface the Eighth, of Sciarra Colonna.
+
+In order to understand anything about the real life of the Middle Age,
+one should begin at the beginning; one should see the dwellings, the
+castles, and the palaces with their furniture and arrangements, one
+should realize the stern necessities as well as the few luxuries of that
+time. And one should make acquaintance with the people themselves, from
+the grey-haired old baron, the head of the house, down to the scullery
+man and the cellarer's boy and the stable lads. And then, knowing
+something of the people and their homes, one might begin to learn
+something about their household occupations, their tremendously tragic
+interests and their few and simple amusements.
+
+[Illustration: PORTA SAN LORENZO]
+
+The first thing that strikes one about the dwellings is the enormous
+strength of those that remain. The main idea, in those days, when a man
+built a house, was to fortify himself and his belongings against attacks
+from the outside, and every other consideration was secondary to that.
+That is true not only of the Barons' castles in the country and of their
+fortified palaces in town,--which were castles, too, for that
+matter,--but of the dwellings of all classes of people who could afford
+to live independently, that is, who were not serfs and retainers of the
+rich. We talk of fire-proof buildings nowadays, which are mere shells of
+iron and brick and stone that shrivel up like writing-paper in a great
+fire. The only really fire-proof buildings were those of the Middle Age,
+which consisted of nothing but stone and mortar throughout, stone walls,
+stone vaults, stone floors, and often stone tables and stone seats. I
+once visited the ancient castle of Muro, in the Basilicata, one of the
+southern provinces in Italy, where Queen Joanna the First paid her life
+for her sins at last, and died under the feather pillow that was forced
+down upon her face by two Hungarian soldiers. It is as wild and lonely a
+place as you will meet with in Europe, and yet the great castle has
+never been a ruin, nor at any time uninhabited, since it was built in
+the eleventh century, over eight hundred years ago. Nor has the lower
+part of it ever needed repair. The walls are in places twenty-five feet
+thick, of solid stone and mortar, so that the embrasure by which each
+narrow window is reached is like a tunnel cut through rock, while the
+deep prisons below are hewn out of the rock itself. Up to what we should
+call the third story, every room is vaulted. Above that the floors are
+laid on beams, and the walls are not more than eight feet
+thick--comparatively flimsy for such a place! Nine-tenths of it was
+built for strength--the small remainder for comfort; there is not a
+single large hall in all the great fortress, and the courtyard within
+the main gate is a gloomy, ill-shaped little paved space, barely big
+enough to give fifty men standing room. Nothing can give any idea of the
+crookedness of it all, of the small dark corridors, the narrow winding
+steps, the dusky inclined ascents, paved with broad flagstones that
+echo the lightest tread, and that must have rung and roared like sea
+caves to the tramp of armed men. And so it was in the cities, too. In
+Rome, bits of the old strongholds survive still. There were more of them
+thirty years ago. Even the more modern palaces of the late Renascence
+are built in such a way that they must have afforded a safe refuge
+against everything except artillery. The strong iron-studded doors and
+the heavily grated windows of the ground floor would stand a siege from
+the street. The Palazzo Gabrielli, for two or three centuries the chief
+dwelling of the Orsini, is built in the midst of the city like a great
+fortification, with escarpments and buttresses and loop-holes; and at
+the main gate there is still a portcullis which sinks into the ground by
+a system of chains and balance weights and is kept in working order even
+now.
+
+In the Middle Age, each town palace had one or more towers, tall, square
+and solid, which were used as lookouts and as a refuge in case the rest
+of the palace should be taken by an enemy. The general principle of all
+mediæval towers was that they were entered through a small window at a
+great height above the ground, by means of a jointed wooden ladder. Once
+inside, the people drew the ladder up after them and took it in with
+them, in separate pieces. When that was done, they were comparatively
+safe, before the age of gunpowder. There were no windows to break, it
+was impossible to get in, and the besieged party could easily keep
+anyone from scaling the tower, by pouring boiling oil or melted lead
+from above, or with stones and missiles, so that as long as provisions
+and water held out, the besiegers could do nothing. As for water, the
+great rainwater cistern was always in the foundations of the tower
+itself, immediately under the prison, which got neither light nor air
+excepting from a hole in the floor above. Walls from fifteen to twenty
+feet thick could not be battered down with any engines then in
+existence. Altogether, the tower was a safe place in times of danger. It
+is said that at one time there were over four hundred of these in Rome,
+belonging to the nobles, great and small.
+
+The small class of well-to-do commoners, the merchants and goldsmiths,
+such as they were, who stood between the nobles and the poor people,
+imitated the nobles as much as they could, and strengthened their houses
+by every means. For their dwellings were their warehouses, and in times
+of disturbance the first instinct of the people was to rob the
+merchants, unless they chanced to be strong enough to rob the nobles, as
+sometimes happened. But in Rome the merchants were few, and were very
+generally retainers or dependants of the great houses. It is frequent in
+the chronicles to find a man mentioned as the 'merchant' of the Colonna
+family, or of the Orsini, or of one of the independent Italian princes,
+like the Duke of Urbino. Such a man acted as agent to sell the produce
+of a great estate; part of his business was to lend money to the owner,
+and he also imported from abroad the scanty merchandise which could be
+imported at all. About half of it usually fell into the hands of
+highwaymen before it reached the city, and the price of luxuries was
+proportionately high. Such men, of course, lived well, though there was
+a wide difference between their mode of life and that of the nobles, not
+so much in matters of abundance and luxury, as in principle. The chief
+rule was that the wives and daughters of the middle class did a certain
+amount of housekeeping work, whereas the wives and daughters of the
+nobles did not. The burgher's wife kept house herself, overlooked the
+cooking, and sometimes cooked a choice dish with her own hands, and
+taught her daughters to do so. A merchant might have a considerable
+retinue of men, for his service and protection, and they carried staves
+when they accompanied their master abroad, and lanterns at night. But
+the baron's men were men-at-arms,--practically soldiers,--who wore his
+colours, and carried swords and pikes, and lit the way for their lord at
+night with torches, always the privilege of the nobles. As a matter of
+fact, they were generally the most dangerous cutthroats whom the
+nobleman was able to engage, highwaymen, brigands and outlaws, whom he
+protected against the semblance of the law; whereas the merchant's
+train consisted of honest men who worked for him in his warehouse, or
+they were countrymen from his farms, if he had any.
+
+It is not easy to give any adequate idea of those great mediæval
+establishments, except by their analogy with the later ones that came
+after them. They were enormous in extent, and singularly uncomfortable
+in their internal arrangement.
+
+A curious book, published in 1543, and therefore at the first
+culmination of the Renascence, has lately been reprinted. It is entitled
+'Concerning the management of a Roman Nobleman's Court,' and was
+dedicated to 'The magnificent and Honourable Messer Cola da Benevento,'
+forty years after the death of the Borgia Pope and during the reign of
+Paul the Third, Farnese, who granted the writer a copyright for ten
+years. The little volume is full of interesting details, and the
+attendant gentlemen and servants enumerated give some idea of what
+according to the author was not considered extravagant for a nobleman of
+the sixteenth century. There were to be two chief chamberlains, a
+general controller of the estates, a chief steward, four chaplains, a
+master of the horse, a private secretary and an assistant secretary, an
+auditor, a lawyer and four literary personages, 'Letterati,' who, among
+them, must know 'the four principal languages of the world, namely,
+Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Italian.' The omission of every other living
+language but the latter, when Francis the First, Charles the Fifth and
+Henry the Eighth were reigning, is pristinely Roman in its contempt of
+'barbarians.' There were also to be six gentlemen of the chambers, a
+private master of the table, a chief carver and ten waiting men, a
+butler of the pantry with an assistant, a butler of the wines, six head
+grooms, a marketer with an assistant, a storekeeper, a cellarer, a
+carver for the serving gentlemen, a chief cook, an under cook and
+assistant, a chief scullery man, a water carrier, a sweeper,--and last
+in the list, a physician, whom the author puts at the end of the list,
+'not because a doctor is not worthy of honour, but in order not to seem
+to expect any infirmity for his lordship or his household.'
+
+This was considered a 'sufficient household' for a nobleman, but by no
+means an extravagant one, and many of the officials enumerated were
+provided with one or more servants, while no mention is made of any
+ladies in the establishment nor of the numerous retinue they required.
+But one remembers the six thousand servants of Augustus, all honourably
+buried in one place, and the six hundred who waited on Livia alone; and
+the modest one hundred and seven which were reckoned 'sufficient' for
+the Lord Cola of Benevento sink into comparative insignificance. For
+Livia, besides endless keepers of her robes and folders of her
+clothes--a special office--and hairdressers, perfumers, jewellers and
+shoe keepers, had a special adorner of her ears, a keeper of her chair
+and a governess for her favourite lap-dog.
+
+The little book contains the most complete details concerning daily
+expenditure for food and drink for the head of the house and his
+numerous gentlemen, which amounted in a year to the really not
+extravagant sum of four thousand scudi, or dollars, over fourteen
+hundred being spent on wine alone. The allowance was a jug--rather more
+than a quart--of pure wine daily to each of the 'gentlemen,' and the
+same measure diluted with one-third of water to all the rest. Sixteen
+ounces of beef, mutton, or veal were reckoned for every person, and each
+received twenty ounces of bread of more or less fine quality, according
+to his station; and an average of twenty scudi was allowed daily as
+given away in charity,--which was not ungenerous, either, for such a
+household. The olive oil used for the table and for lamps was the same,
+and was measured together, and the household received each a pound of
+cheese, monthly, besides a multitude of other eatables, all of which are
+carefully enumerated and valued. Among other items of a different nature
+are 'four or five large wax candles daily, for his lordship,' and wax
+for torches 'to accompany the dishes brought to his table, and to
+accompany his lordship and the gentlemen out of doors at night,' and
+'candles for the altar,' and tallow candles for use about the house. As
+for salaries and wages, the controller and chief steward received ten
+scudi, each month, whereas the chaplain only got two, and the 'literary
+men,' who were expected to know Hebrew, Greek and Latin, were each paid
+one hundred scudi yearly. The physician was required to be not only
+'learned, faithful, diligent and affectionate,' but also 'fortunate' in
+his profession. Considering the medical practices of those days, a
+doctor could certainly not hope to heal his patients without the element
+of luck.
+
+The old-fashioned Roman character is careful, if not avaricious, with
+occasional flashes of astonishing extravagance, and its idea of riches
+is so closely associated with that of power as to make the display of a
+numerous retinue its first and most congenial means of exhibiting great
+wealth; so that to this day a Roman in reduced fortune will live very
+poorly before he will consent to exist without the two or three
+superfluous footmen who loiter all day in his hall, or the handsome
+equipage in which his wife and daughters are accustomed to take the
+daily drive, called from ancient times the 'trottata,' or 'trot,' in the
+Villa Borghese, or the Corso, or on the Pincio, and gravely provided for
+in the terms of the marriage contract. At a period when servants were
+necessary, not only for show but also for personal protection, it is not
+surprising that the nobles should have kept an extravagant number of
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DI MONTE CITORIO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Then also, to account for the size of Roman palaces, there was the
+patriarchal system of life, now rapidly falling into disuse. The
+so-called 'noble floor' of every mansion is supposed to be reserved
+exclusively for the father and mother of the family, and the order of
+arranging the rooms is as much a matter of rigid rule as in the houses
+of the ancient Romans, where the vestibule preceded the atrium, the
+atrium the peristyle, and the latter the last rooms which looked upon
+the garden. So in the later palace, the door from the first landing of
+the grand staircase opens upon an outer hall, uncarpeted, but crossed by
+a strip of matting, and furnished only with a huge table and
+old-fashioned chests, made with high backs, on which are painted or
+carved the arms of the family. Here, at least two or three footmen are
+supposed to be in perpetual readiness to answer the door, the lineally
+descended representatives of the armed footmen who lounged there four
+hundred years ago. Next to the hall comes the antechamber, sometimes
+followed by a second, and here is erected the 'baldacchino,' the
+coloured canopy which marks the privilege of the sixty 'conscript
+families' of Rome, who rank as princes. It recalls the times when,
+having powers of justice, and of life and death, the lords sat in state
+under the overhanging silks, embroidered with their coats of arms, to
+administer the law. Beyond the antechamber comes the long succession of
+state apartments, lofty, ponderously decorated, heavily furnished with
+old-fashioned gilt or carved chairs that stand symmetrically against the
+walls, and on the latter are hung pictures, priceless works of old
+masters beside crude portraits of the last century, often arranged much
+more with regard to the frames than to the paintings. Stiff-legged
+pier-tables of marble and alabaster face the windows or are placed
+between them; thick curtains that can be drawn quite back cover the
+doors; strips of hemp carpet lead straight from one door to another; the
+light is dim and cold, half shut out by the window curtains, and gets a
+peculiar quality of sadness and chilliness, which is essentially
+characteristic of every old Roman house, where the reception rooms are
+only intended to be used at night, and the sunny side is exclusively
+appropriated to the more intimate life of the owners. There may be
+three, four, six, ten of those big drawing-rooms in succession, each
+covering about as much space as a small house in New York or London,
+before one comes to the closed door that gives access to the princess'
+boudoir, beyond which, generally returning in a direction parallel with
+the reception rooms, is her bedroom, and the prince's, and the latter's
+study, and then the private dining-room, the state dining-room, the
+great ballroom, with clear-story windows, and as many more rooms as the
+size of the apartment will admit. In the great palaces, the picture
+gallery takes a whole wing and sometimes two, the library being
+generally situated on a higher story.
+
+The patriarchal system required that all the married sons, with their
+wives and children and servants, should be lodged in the same building
+with their parents. The eldest invariably lived on the second floor, the
+second son on the third, which is the highest, though there is generally
+a low rambling attic, occupied by servants, and sometimes by the
+chaplain, the librarian and the steward, in better rooms. When there
+were more than two married sons, which hardly ever happened under the
+old system of primogeniture, they divided the apartments between them as
+best they could. The unmarried younger children had to put up with what
+was left. Moreover, in the greatest houses, where there was usually a
+cardinal of the name, one wing of the first floor was entirely given up
+to him; and instead of the canopy in the antechamber, flanked by the
+hereditary coloured umbrellas carried on state occasions by two lackeys
+behind the family coach, the prince of the Church was entitled to a
+throne room, as all cardinals are. The eldest son's apartment was
+generally more or less a repetition of the state one below, but the
+rooms were lower, the decorations less elaborate, though seldom less
+stiff in character, and a large part of the available space was given up
+to the children.
+
+It is clear from all this that even in modern times a large family might
+take up a great deal of room. Looking back across two or three
+centuries, therefore, to the days when every princely household was a
+court, and was called a court, it is easier to understand the existence
+of such phenomenally vast mansions as the Doria palace, or those of the
+Borghese, the Altieri, the Barberini and others, who lived in almost
+royal state, and lodged hundreds upon hundreds of retainers in their
+homes.
+
+And not only did all the members of the family live under one roof, as a
+few of them still live, but the custom of dining together at one huge
+table was universal. A daily dinner of twenty persons--grandparents,
+parents and children, down to the youngest that is old enough to sit up
+to its plate in a high chair, would be a serious matter to most European
+households. But in Rome it was looked upon as a matter of course, and
+was managed through the steward by a contract with the cook, who was
+bound to provide a certain number of dishes daily for the fixed meals,
+but nothing else--not so much as an egg or a slice of toast beyond
+that. This system still prevails in many households, and as it is to be
+expected that meals at unusual hours may sometimes be required, an
+elaborate system of accounts is kept by the steward and his clerks, and
+the smallest things ordered by any of the sons or daughters are charged
+against an allowance usually made them, while separate reckonings are
+kept for the daughters-in-law, for whom certain regular pin-money is
+provided out of their own dowries at the marriage settlement, all of
+which goes through the steward's hands. The same settlement, even in
+recent years, stipulated for a fixed number of dishes of meat daily,
+generally only two, I believe, for a certain number of new gowns and
+other clothes, and for a great variety of details, besides the use of a
+carriage every day, to be harnessed not more than twice, that is, either
+in the morning and afternoon, or once in the daytime and once at night.
+Everything,--a cup of tea, a glass of lemonade,--if not mentioned in the
+marriage settlement, had to be paid for separately. The justice of such
+an arrangement--for it is just--is only equalled by its inconvenience,
+for it requires the machinery of a hotel, combined with an honesty not
+usual in hotels. Undoubtedly, the whole system is directly descended
+from the practice of the ancients, which made every father of a family
+the absolute despot of his household, and made it impossible for a son
+to hold property or have any individual independence during his
+father's life, and it has not been perceptibly much modified since the
+Middle Age, until the last few years. Its existence shows in the
+strongest light the main difference between the Latin and the
+Anglo-Saxon races, in the marked tendency of the one to submit to
+despotic government, and of the other to govern itself; of the one to
+stay at home under paternal authority, and of the other to leave the
+father's house and plunder the world for itself; of the sons of the one
+to accept wives given them, and of the other's children to marry as they
+please.
+
+Roman family life, from Romulus to the year 1870, was centred in the
+head of the house, whose position was altogether unassailable, whose
+requirements were necessities, and whose word was law. Next to him in
+place came the heir, who was brought up with a view to his exercising
+the same powers in his turn. After him, but far behind him in
+importance, if he promised to be strong, came the other sons, who, if
+they took wives at all, were expected to marry heiresses, and one of
+whom, almost as a matter of course, was brought up to be a churchman.
+The rest, if there were any, generally followed the career of arms, and
+remained unmarried; for heiresses of noble birth were few, and their
+guardians married them to eldest sons of great houses whenever possible,
+while the strength of caste prejudice made alliances of nobles with the
+daughters of rich plebeians extremely unusual.
+
+It is possible to trace the daily life of a Roman family in the Middle
+Age from its regular routine of today, as out of what anyone may see in
+Italy the habits of the ancients can be reconstructed with more than
+approximate exactness. And yet it is out of the question to fix the
+period of the general transformation which ultimately turned the Rome of
+the Barons into the Rome of Napoleon's time, and converted the
+high-handed men of Sciarra Colonna's age into the effeminate fops of
+1800, when a gentleman of noble lineage, having received a box on the
+ear from another at high noon in the Corso, willingly followed the
+advice of his confessor, who counselled him to bear the affront with
+Christian meekness and present his other cheek to the smiter. Customs
+have remained, fashions have altogether changed; the outward forms of
+early living have survived, the spirit of life is quite another; and
+though some families still follow the patriarchal mode of existence, the
+patriarchs are gone, the law no longer lends itself to support household
+tyranny, and the subdivision of estates under the Napoleonic code is
+guiding an already existing democracy to the untried issue of a
+problematic socialism. Without attempting to establish a comparison upon
+the basis of a single cause, where so many are at work, it is
+permissible to note that while in England and Germany a more or less
+voluntary system of primogeniture is admitted and largely followed from
+choice, and while in the United States men are almost everywhere
+entirely free to dispose of their property as they please, and while the
+population and wealth of those countries are rapidly increasing, France,
+enforcing the division of estates among children, though she is
+accumulating riches, is faced by the terrible fact of a steadily
+diminishing census; and Italy, under the same laws, is not only rapidly
+approaching national bankruptcy, but is in parts already depopulated by
+an emigration so extensive that it can only be compared with the
+westward migration of the Aryan tribes. The forced subdivision of
+property from generation to generation is undeniably a socialistic
+measure, since it must, in the end, destroy both aristocracy and
+plutocracy; and it is surely a notable point that the two great European
+nations which have adopted it as a fundamental principle of good
+government should both be on the road to certain destruction, while
+those powers that have wholly and entirely rejected any such measure are
+filling the world with themselves and absorbing its wealth at an
+enormous and alarming rate.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA BORGHESE]
+
+The art of the Renascence has left us splendid pictures of mediæval
+public life, which are naturally accepted as equally faithful
+representations of the life of every day. Princes and knights, in
+gorgeous robes and highly polished armour, ride on faultlessly
+caparisoned milk-white steeds; wondrous ladies wear not less wonderful
+gowns, fitted with a perfection which women seek in vain today, and
+embroidered with pearls and precious stones that might ransom a rajah;
+young pages, with glorious golden hair, stand ready at the elbows of
+their lords and ladies, or kneel in graceful attitude to deliver a
+letter, or stoop to bear a silken train, clad in garments which the
+modern costumer strives in vain to copy. After three or four centuries,
+the colours of those painted silks and satins are still richer than
+anything the loom can weave. In the great fresco, each individual of the
+multitude that fills a public place, or defiles in open procession under
+the noonday light, is not only a masterpiece of fashion, but a model of
+neatness; linen, delicate as woven gossamer, falls into folds as finely
+exact as an engraver's point could draw; velvet shoes tread without
+speck or spot upon the well-scoured pavement of a public street;
+men-at-arms grasp weapons and hold bridles with hands as carefully
+tended as any idle fine gentleman's, and there is neither fleck nor
+breath of dimness on the mirror-like steel of their armour; the very
+flowers, the roses and lilies that strew the way, are the perfection of
+fresh-cut hothouse blossoms; and when birds and beasts chance to be
+necessary to the composition of the picture, they are represented with
+no less care for a more than possible neatness, their coats are combed
+and curled, their attitudes are studied and graceful, they wear
+carefully made collars, ornamented with chased silver and gold.
+
+Centuries have dimmed the wall-painting, sunshine has faded it, mould
+has mottled the broad surfaces of red and blue and green, and a later
+age has done away with the dresses represented; yet, when the frescos in
+the library of the Cathedral at Siena, for instance, were newly
+finished, they were the fashion-plates of the year and month, executed
+by a great artist, it is true, grouped with matchless skill and drawn
+with supreme mastery of art, but as far from representing the ordinary
+scenes of daily life as those terrible coloured prints published
+nowadays for tailors, in which a number of beautiful young gentlemen, in
+perfectly new clothes, lounge in stage attitudes on the one side, and an
+equal number of equally beautiful young butlers, coachmen, grooms and
+pages, in equally perfect liveries, appear to be discussing the
+æsthetics of an ideal and highly salaried service, at the other end of
+the same room. In the comparison there is all the brutal profanity of
+truth that shocks the reverence of romance; but in the respective
+relations of the great artist's masterpiece and of the poor modern
+lithograph to the realities of each period, there is the clue to the
+daily life of the Middle Age.
+
+Living was outwardly rough as compared with the representations of it,
+though it was far more refined than in any other part of Europe, and
+Italy long set the fashion to the world in habits and manners. People
+kept their fine clothes for great occasions, there was a keeper of robes
+in every large household, and there were rooms set apart for the
+purpose. In every-day life, the Barons wore patched hose and leathern
+jerkins, stained and rusted by the joints of the armour that was so
+often buckled over them, or they went about their dwellings in long
+dressing-gowns which hid many shortcomings. When gowns, and hose, and
+jerkins were well worn, they were cut down for the boys of the family,
+and the fine dresses, only put on for great days, were preserved as
+heirlooms from generation to generation, whether they fitted the
+successive wearers or not. The beautiful tight-fitting hose which, in
+the paintings of the time, seem to fit like theatrical tights, were
+neither woven nor knitted, but were made of stout cloth, and must often
+have been baggy at the knees in spite of the most skilful cutting; and
+the party-coloured hose, having one leg of one piece of stuff and one of
+another, and sometimes each leg of two or more colours, were very likely
+first invented from motives of economy, to use up cuttings and leavings.
+Clothes were looked upon as permanent and very desirable property, and
+kings did not despise a gift of fine scarlet cloth, in the piece, to
+make them a gown or a cloak. As for linen, as late as the sixteenth
+century, the English thought the French nobles very extravagant because
+they put on a clean shirt once a fortnight and changed their ruffles
+once a week.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DI VENEZIA]
+
+The mediæval Roman nobles were most of them great farmers as well as
+fighters. Then, as now, land was the ultimate form of property, and its
+produce the usual form of wealth; and then, as now, many families were
+'land-poor,' in the sense of owning tracts of country which yielded
+little or no income but represented considerable power, and furnished
+the owners with most of the necessaries of life, such rents as were
+collected being usually paid in kind, in oil and wine, in grain, fruit
+and vegetables, and even in salt meat, and horses, cattle for
+slaughtering and beasts of burden, not to speak of wool, hemp and flax,
+as well as firewood. But money was scarce and, consequently, all the
+things which only money could buy, so that a gown was a possession, and
+a corselet or a good sword a treasure. The small farmer of our times
+knows what it means to have plenty to eat and little to wear. His
+position is not essentially different from that of the average landed
+gentry in the Middle Age, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. In
+times when superiority lay in physical strength, courage, horsemanship
+and skill in the use of arms, the so-called gentleman was not
+distinguished from the plebeian by the newness or neatness of his
+clothes so much as by the nature and quality of the weapons he wore when
+he went abroad in peace or war, and very generally by being mounted on a
+good horse.
+
+In his home he was simple, even primitive. He desired space more than
+comfort, and comfort more than luxury. His furniture consisted almost
+entirely of beds, chests and benches, with few tables except such as
+were needed for eating. Beds were supported by boards laid on trestles,
+raised very high above the floor to be beyond the reach of rats, mice
+and other creatures. The lower mattress was filled with the dried leaves
+of the maize, and the upper one contained wool, with which the pillows
+also were stuffed. The floors of dwelling rooms were generally either
+paved with bricks or made of a sort of cement, composed of lime, sand
+and crushed brick, the whole being beaten down with iron pounders, while
+in the moist state, during three days. There were no carpets, and fresh
+rushes were strewn everywhere on the floors, which in summer were first
+watered, like a garden path, to lay the dust. There was no glass in the
+windows of ordinary rooms, and the consequence was that during the
+daytime people lived almost in the open air, in winter as well as
+summer; sunshine was a necessity of existence, and sheltered courts and
+cloistered walks were built like reservoirs for the light and heat.
+
+In the rooms, ark-shaped chests stood against the walls, to contain the
+ordinary clothes not kept in the general 'guardaroba.' In the deep
+embrasures of the windows there were stone seats, but there were few
+chairs, or none at all, in the bedrooms. At the head of each bed hung a
+rough little cross of dark wood--later, as carving became more general,
+a crucifix--and a bit of an olive branch preserved from Palm Sunday
+throughout the year. The walls themselves were scrupulously whitewashed;
+the ceilings were of heavy beams, supporting lighter cross-beams, on
+which in turn thick boards were laid to carry the cement floor of the
+room overhead.
+
+Many hundred men-at-arms could be drawn up in the courtyards, and their
+horses stalled in the spacious stables. The kitchens, usually situated
+on the ground floor, were large enough to provide meals for half a
+thousand retainers, if necessary; and the cellars and underground
+prisons were a vast labyrinth of vaulted chambers, which not
+unfrequently communicated with the Tiber by secret passages. In
+restoring the palace of the Santacroce, a few years ago, a number of
+skeletons were discovered, some still wearing armour, and all most
+evidently the remains of men who had died violent deaths. One of them
+was found with a dagger driven through the skull and helmet. The hand
+that drove it must have been strong beyond the hands of common men.
+
+The grand staircase led up from the sunny court to the state apartments,
+such as they were in those days. There, at least, there were sometimes
+carpets, luxuries of enormous value, and even before the Renascence the
+white walls were hung with tapestries, at least in part. In those times,
+too, there were large fireplaces in almost every room, for fuel was
+still plentiful in the Campagna and in the near mountains; and where the
+houses were practically open to the air all day, fires were an absolute
+necessity. Even in ancient times it is recorded that the Roman Senate,
+amidst the derisive jests of the plebeians, once had to adjourn on
+account of the extreme cold. People rose early in the Middle Age, dined
+at noon, slept in the afternoon when the weather was warm, and supped,
+as a rule, at 'one hour of the night,' that is to say an hour after 'Ave
+Maria,' which was rung half an hour after sunset, and was the end of the
+day of twenty-four hours. Noon was taken from the sun, but did not fall
+at a regular hour of the clock, and never fell at twelve. In winter, for
+instance, if the Ave Maria bell rang at half-past five of our modern
+time, the noon of the following day fell at 'half-past eighteen o'clock'
+by the mediæval clocks. In summer, it might fall as early as three
+quarters past fifteen; and this manner of reckoning time was common in
+Rome thirty-five years ago, and is not wholly unpractised in some parts
+of Italy still.
+
+It was always an Italian habit, and a very healthy one, to get out of
+doors immediately on rising, and to put off making anything like a
+careful toilet till a much later hour. Breakfast, as we understand it,
+is an unknown meal in Italy, even now. Most people drink a cup of black
+coffee, standing; many eat a morsel of bread or biscuit with it and get
+out of doors as soon as they can; but the greediness of an Anglo-Saxon
+breakfast disgusts all Latins alike, and two set meals daily are thought
+to be enough for anyone, as indeed they are. The hard-working Italian
+hill peasant will sometimes toast himself a piece of corn bread before
+going to work, and eat it with a few drops of olive oil; and in the
+absence of tea or coffee, the people of the Middle Age often drank a
+mouthful of wine on rising to 'move the blood,' as they said. But that
+was all.
+
+Every mediæval palace had its chapel, which was sometimes an adjacent
+church communicating with the house, and in many families it is even now
+the custom to hear the short low Mass at a very early hour. But
+probably nothing can give an adequate idea of the idleness of the Middle
+Age, when the day was once begun. Before the Renascence, there was no
+such thing as study, and there were hardly any pastimes except gambling
+and chess, both of which the girls and youths of the Decameron seem to
+have included in one contemptuous condemnation when they elected to
+spend their time in telling stories. The younger men of the household,
+of course, when not actually fighting, passed a certain number of hours
+in the practice of horsemanship and arms; but the only real excitement
+they knew was in love and war, the latter including everything between
+the battles of the Popes and Emperors, and the street brawls of private
+enemies, which generally drew blood and often ended in a death.
+
+It does not appear that the idea of 'housekeeping' as the chief
+occupation of the Baron's wife ever entered into the Roman mind. In
+northern countries there has always been more equality between men and
+women, more respect for woman as an intelligent being, and less care for
+her as a valuable possession to be guarded against possible attacks from
+without. In Rome and the south of Italy the women in a great household
+were carefully separated from the men, and beyond the outer halls in
+which visitors were received, business transacted and politics
+discussed, there were closed doors, securely locked, leading to the
+women's apartments beyond. In every Roman palace and fortress there was
+a revolving 'dumb-waiter' between the women's quarters and the men's,
+called the 'wheel,' and used as a means of communication. Through this
+the household supplies were daily handed in, for the cooking was very
+generally done by women, and through the same machine the prepared food
+was passed out to the men, the wheel being so arranged that men and
+women could not see each other, though they might hear each other speak.
+To all intents and purposes the system was oriental and the women were
+shut up in a harem. The use of the dumb-waiter survived the revolution
+in manners under the Renascence, and the wheel itself remains as a
+curiosity of past times in more than one Roman dwelling today. It had
+its uses and was not a piece of senseless tyranny. In order to keep up
+an armed force for all emergencies the Baron took under his protection
+as men-at-arms the most desperate ruffians, outlaws and outcasts whom he
+could collect, mostly men under sentence of banishment or death for
+highway robbery and murder, whose only chance of escaping torture and
+death lay in risking life and limb for a master strong enough to defy
+the law, the 'bargello' and the executioner, in his own house or castle,
+where such henchmen were lodged and fed, and were controlled by nothing
+but fear of the Baron himself, of his sons, when they were grown up,
+and of his poorer kinsmen who lived with him. There were no crimes which
+such malefactors had not committed, or were not ready to commit for a
+word, or even for a jest. The women, on the other hand, were in the
+first place the ladies and daughters of the house, and of kinsmen,
+brought up in almost conventual solitude, when they were not actually
+educated in convents; and, secondly, young girls from the Baron's
+estates who served for a certain length of time, and were then generally
+married to respectable retainers. The position of twenty or thirty women
+and girls under the same roof with several hundreds of the most
+atrocious cutthroats of any age was undeniably such as to justify the
+most tyrannical measures for their protection.
+
+There are traces, even now, of the enforced privacy in which they lived.
+For instance, no Roman lady of today will ever show herself at a window
+that looks on the street, except during Carnival, and in most houses
+something of the old arrangement of rooms is still preserved, whereby
+the men and women occupy different parts of the house.
+
+One must try to call up the pictures of one day, to get any idea of
+those times; one must try and see the grey dawn stealing down the dark,
+unwindowed lower walls of the fortress that flanks the Church of the
+Holy Apostles,--the narrow and murky street below, the broad, dim space
+beyond, the mystery of the winding distances whence comes the first
+sound of the day, the far, high cry of the waterman driving his little
+donkey with its heavy load of water-casks. The beast stumbles along in
+the foul gloom, through the muddy ruts, over heaps of garbage at the
+corners, picking its way as best it can, till it starts with a snort and
+almost falls with its knees upon a dead man, whose thrice-stabbed body
+lies right across the way. The waterman, ragged, sandal-shod, stops,
+crosses himself, and drags his beast back hurriedly with a muttered
+exclamation of mingled horror, disgust and fear for himself, and makes
+for the nearest corner, stumbling along in his haste lest he should be
+found with the corpse and taken for the murderer. As the dawn
+forelightens, and the cries go up from the city, the black-hooded
+Brothers of Prayer and Death come in a little troop, their lantern still
+burning as they carry their empty stretcher, seeking for dead men; and
+they take up the poor nameless body and bear it away quickly from the
+sight of the coming day.
+
+Then, as they disappear, the great bell of the Apostles' Church begins
+to toll the morning Angelus, half an hour before sunrise,--three
+strokes, then four, then five, then one, according to ancient custom,
+and then after a moment's silence, the swinging peal rings out, taken up
+and answered from end to end of the half-wasted city. A troop of
+men-at-arms ride up to the great closed gate 'in rusty armour marvellous
+ill-favoured,' as Shakespeare's stage direction has it, mud-splashed,
+their brown cloaks half concealing their dark and war-worn mail, their
+long swords hanging down and clanking against their huge stirrups, their
+beasts jaded and worn and filthy from the night raid in the Campagna, or
+the long gallop from Palestrina. The leader pounds three times at the
+iron-studded door with the hilt of his dagger, a sleepy porter,
+grey-bearded and cloaked, slowly swings back one half of the gate and
+the ruffians troop in, followed by the waterman who has gone round the
+fortress to avoid the dead body. The gate shuts again, with a long
+thundering rumble. High up, wooden shutters, behind which there is no
+glass, are thrown open upon the courtyard, and one window after another
+is opened to the morning air; on one side, girls and women look out,
+muffled in dark shawls; from the other grim, unwashed, bearded men call
+down to their companions, who have dismounted and are unsaddling their
+weary horses, and measuring out a little water to them, where water is a
+thing of price.
+
+The leader goes up into the house to his master, to tell him of the
+night's doings, and while he speaks the Baron sits in a great wooden
+chair, in his long gown of heavy cloth, edged with coarse fox's fur, his
+feet in fur slippers, and a shabby cap upon his head, but a manly and
+stern figure, all the same, slowly munching a piece of toasted bread and
+sipping a few drops of old white wine from a battered silver cup.
+
+Then Mass in the church, the Baron, his kinsmen, the ladies and the
+women kneeling in the high gallery above the altar, the men-at-arms and
+men-servants and retainers crouching below on the stone pavement; a
+dusky multitude, with a gleam of steel here and there, and red flashing
+eyes turned up with greedy longing towards the half-veiled faces of the
+women, met perhaps, now and then, by a furtive answering glance from
+under a veil or hoodlike shawl, for every woman's head is covered, but
+of the men only the old lord wears his cap, which he devoutly lifts at
+'Gloria Patri' and 'Verbum Caro,' and at 'Sanctus' and at the
+consecration. It is soon over, and the day is begun, for the sun is
+fully risen and streams through the open unglazed windows as the maids
+sprinkle water on the brick floors, and sweep and strew fresh rushes,
+and roll back the mattresses on the trestle beds, which are not made
+again till evening. In the great courtyard, the men lead out the horses
+and mount them bareback and ride out in a troop, each with his sword by
+his side, to water them at the river, half a mile away, for not a single
+public fountain is left in Rome; and the grooms clean out the stables,
+while the peasants come in from the country, driving mules laden with
+provisions for the great household, and far away, behind barred doors,
+the women light the fires in the big kitchen.
+
+Later again, the children of the noble house are taught to ride and
+fence in the open court; splendid boys with flowing hair, bright as gold
+or dark as night, dressed in rough hose and leathern jerkin,
+bright-eyed, fearless, masterful already in their play as a lion's
+whelps, watched from an upper window by their lady mother and their
+little sisters, and not soon tired of saddle or sword--familiar with the
+grooms and men by the great common instinct of fighting, but as far from
+vulgar as Polonius bade Laertes learn to be.
+
+So morning warms to broad noon, and hunger makes it dinner-time, and the
+young kinsmen who have strolled abroad come home, one of them with his
+hand bound up in a white rag that has drops of blood on it, for he has
+picked a quarrel in the street and steel has been out, as usual, though
+no one has been killed, because the 'bargello' and his men were in
+sight, down there near the Orsini's theatre-fortress. And at dinner when
+the priest has blessed the table, the young men laugh about the
+scrimmage, while the Baron himself, who has killed a dozen men in
+battle, with his own hand, rebukes his sons and nephews with all the
+useless austerity which worn-out age wears in the face of unbroken
+youth. The meal is long, and they eat much, for there will be nothing
+more till night; they eat meat broth, thick with many vegetables and
+broken bread and lumps of boiled meat, and there are roasted meats and
+huge earthen bowls of salad, and there is cheese in great blocks, and
+vast quantities of bread, with wine in abundance, poured for each man by
+the butler into little earthen jugs from big earthenware flagons. They
+eat from trenchers of wood, well scoured with ashes; forks they have
+none, and most of the men use their own knives or daggers when they are
+not satisfied with the carving done for them by the carver. Each man,
+when he has picked a bone, throws it under the table to the house-dogs
+lying in wait on the floor, and from time to time a basin is passed and
+a little water poured upon the fingers. The Baron has a napkin of his
+own; there is one napkin for all the other men; the women generally eat
+by themselves in their own apartments, the so-called 'gentlemen' in the
+'tinello,' and the men-at-arms and grooms, and all the rest, in the big
+lower halls near the kitchens, whence their food is passed out to them
+through the wheel.
+
+After dinner, if it be summer and the weather hot, the gates are barred,
+the windows shut, and the whole household sleeps. Early or late, as the
+case may be, the lords and ladies and children take the air, guarded by
+scores of mounted men, riding towards that part of the city where they
+may neither meet their enemies nor catch a fever in the warm months. In
+rainy weather they pass the time as they can, with telling of many
+tales, short, dramatic and strong as the framework of a good play, with
+music, sometimes, and with songs, and with discussing of such news as
+there may be in such times. And at dusk the great bells ring to
+even-song, the oil lamp is swung up in the great staircase, the windows
+and gates are shut again, the torches and candles and little lamps are
+lit for supper, and at last, with rushlights, each finds the way along
+the ghostly corridors to bed and sleep. That was the day's round, and
+there was little to vary it in more peaceful times.
+
+Over all life there was the hopeless, resentful dulness that oppressed
+men and women till it drove them half mad, to the doing of desperate
+things in love and war; there was the everlasting restraint of danger
+without and of forced idleness within--danger so constant that it ceased
+to be exciting and grew tiresome, idleness so oppressive that battle,
+murder and sudden death were a relief from the inactivity of sluggish
+peace; a state in which the mind was no longer a moving power in man,
+but only by turns the smelting pot and the anvil of half-smothered
+passions that now and then broke out with fire and flame and sword to
+slash and burn the world with a history of unimaginable horror.
+
+That was the Middle Age in Italy. A poorer race would have gone down
+therein to a bloody destruction; but it was out of the Middle Age that
+the Italians were born again in the Renascence. It deserved the name.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION IV CAMPO MARZO
+
+
+It was harvest time when the Romans at last freed themselves from the
+very name of Tarquin. In all the great field, between the Tiber and the
+City, the corn stood high and ripe, waiting for the sickle, while Brutus
+did justice upon his two sons, and upon the sons of his sister, and upon
+those 'very noble youths,' still the Tarquins' friends, who laid down
+their lives for their mistaken loyalty and friendship, and for whose
+devotion no historian has ever been brave enough, or generous enough, to
+say a word. It has been said that revolution is patriotism when it
+succeeds, treason when it fails, and in the converse, more than one
+brave man has died a traitor's death for keeping faith with a fallen
+king. Successful revolution denied those young royalists the charitable
+handful of earth and the four words of peace--'sit eis terra
+levis'--that should have laid their unquiet ghosts, and the brutal
+cynicism of history has handed down their names to the perpetual
+execration of mankind.
+
+The corn stood high in the broad field which the Tarquins had taken from
+Mars and had ploughed and tilled for generations. The people went out
+and reaped the crop, and bound it in sheaves to be threshed for the
+public bread, but their new masters told them that it would be impious
+to eat what had been meant for kings, and they did as was commanded to
+them, meekly, and threw all into the river. Sheaf upon sheaf, load upon
+load, the yellow stream swept away the yellow ears and stalks, down to
+the shallows, where the whole mass stuck fast, and the seeds took root
+in the watery mud, and the stalks rotted in great heaps, and the island
+of the Tiber was first raised above the level of the water. Then the
+people burned the stubble and gave back the land to Mars, calling it the
+Campus Martius, after him.
+
+There the young Romans learned the use of arms, and were taught to ride;
+and under sheds there stood those rows of wooden horses, upon which
+youths learned to vault, without step or stirrup, in their armour and
+sword in hand. There they ran foot-races in the clouds of dust whirled
+up from the dry ground, and threw the discus by the twisted thong as the
+young men of the hills do today, and the one who could reach the goal
+with the smallest number of throws was the winner,--there, under the
+summer sun and in the biting wind of winter, half naked, and tough as
+wolves, the boys of Rome laboured to grow up and be Roman men.
+
+There, also, the great assemblies were held, the public meetings and the
+elections, when the people voted by passing into the wooden lists that
+were called 'Sheepfolds,' till Julius Cæsar planned the great marble
+portico for voting, and Agrippa finished it, making it nearly a mile
+round; and behind it, on the west side, a huge space was kept open for
+centuries, called the Villa Publica, where the censors numbered the
+people. The ancient Campus took in a wide extent of land, for it
+included everything outside the Servian wall, from the Colline Gate to
+the river. All that visibly bears its name today is a narrow street that
+runs southward from the western end of San Lorenzo in Lucina. The Region
+of Campo Marzo, however, is still one of the largest in the city,
+including all that lies within the walls from Porta Pinciana, by Capo le
+Case, Via Frattina, Via di Campo Marzo and Via della Stelletta, past the
+Church of the Portuguese and the Palazzo Moroni,--known by Hawthorne's
+novel as 'Hilda's Tower,'--and thence to the banks of the Tiber.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DI SPAGNA]
+
+From the Renascence until the recent extension of the city on the south
+and southeast, this Region was the more modern part of Rome. In the
+Middle Age it was held by the Colonna, who had fortified the tomb of
+Augustus and one or two other ruins. Later it became the strangers'
+quarter. The Lombards established themselves near the Church of Saint
+Charles, in the Corso; the English, near Saint Ives, the little church
+with the strange spiral tower, built against the University of the
+Sapienza; the Greeks lived in the Via de' Greci; the Burgundians in the
+Via Borgognona, and thence to San Claudio, where they had their Hospice;
+and so on, almost every nationality being established in a colony of its
+own; and the English visitors of today are still inclined to think the
+Piazza di Spagna the most central point of Rome, whereas to Romans it
+seems to be very much out of the way.
+
+The tomb of Augustus, which served as the model for the greater
+Mausoleum of Hadrian, dominated the Campus Martius, and its main walls
+are still standing, though hidden by many modern houses. The tomb of the
+Julian Cæsars rose on white marble foundations, a series of concentric
+terraces, planted with cypress trees, to the great bronze statue of
+Augustus that crowned the summit. Here rested the ashes of Augustus, of
+the young Marcellus, of Livia, of Tiberius, of Caligula, and of many
+others whose bodies were burned in the family Ustrinum near the tomb
+itself. Plundered by Alaric, and finally ruined by Robert Guiscard, when
+he burnt the city, it became a fortress under the Colonna, and is
+included, with the fortress of Monte Citorio, in a transfer of property
+made by one member of the family to another in the year 1252. Ruined at
+last, it became a bull ring in the last century and in the beginning of
+this one, when Leo the Twelfth forbade bull-fighting. Then it was a
+theatre, the scene of Salvini's early triumphs. Today it is a circus,
+dignified by the name of the reigning sovereign.
+
+Few people know that bull-fights were common in Rome eighty years ago.
+The indefatigable Baracconi once talked with the son of the last
+bull-fighter. So far as one may judge, it appears that during the
+Middle Age, and much later, it was the practice of butchers to bait
+animals in their own yards, before slaughtering them, in the belief that
+the cruel treatment made the meat more tender, and they admitted the
+people to see the sport. From this to a regular arena was but a step,
+and no more suitable place than the tomb of the Cæsars could be found
+for the purpose. A regular manager took possession of it, provided the
+victims, both bulls and Roman buffaloes, and hired the fighters. It does
+not appear that the beasts were killed during the entertainment, and one
+of the principal attractions was the riding of the maddened bull three
+times round the circus; savage dogs were also introduced, but in all
+other respects the affair was much like a Spanish bull-fight, and quite
+as popular; when the chosen bulls were led in from the Campagna, the
+Roman princes used to ride far out to meet them with long files of
+mounted servants in gala liveries, coming back at night in torchlight
+procession. And again, after the fight was over, the circus was
+illuminated, and there was a small display of Bengal lights, while the
+fashionable world of Rome met and gossiped away the evening in the
+arena, happily thoughtless and forgetful of all the spot had been and
+had meant in history.
+
+The new Rome sinks out of sight below the level of the old, as one
+climbs the heights of the Janiculum on the west of the city, or the
+gardens of the Pincio on the east. The old monuments and the old
+churches still rise above the dreary wastes of modern streets, and from
+the spot whence Messalina looked down upon the cypresses of the first
+Emperor's mausoleum, the traveller of today descries the cheap metallic
+roof which makes a circus of the ancient tomb.
+
+For it was in the gardens of Lucullus that Mark Antony's
+great-grandchild felt the tribune's sword in her throat, and in the neat
+drives and walks of the Pincio, where pretty women in smart carriages
+laugh over today's gossip and tomorrow's fashion, and the immaculate
+dandy idles away an hour and a cigarette, the memory of Messalina calls
+up a tragedy of shades. Less than thirty years after Augustus had
+breathed out his old age in peace, Rome was ruled again by terror and
+blood, and the triumph of a woman's sins was the beginning of the end of
+the Julian race. The great historian who writes of her guesses that
+posterity may call the truth a fable, and tells the tale so tersely and
+soberly from first to last, that the strength of his words suggests a
+whole mystery of evil. Without Tiberius, there could have been no
+Messalina, nor, without her, could Nero have been possible; and the
+worst of the three is the woman--the archpriestess of all conceivable
+crime. Tacitus gives Tiberius one redeeming touch. Often the old Emperor
+came almost to Rome, even to the gardens by the Tiber, and then turned
+back to the rocks of Capri and the solitude of the sea, in mortal shame
+of his monstrous deeds, as if not daring to show himself in the city.
+With Nero, the measure was full, and the world rose and destroyed him.
+Messalina knew no shame, and the Romans submitted to her, and but for a
+court intrigue and a frightened favourite she might have lived out her
+life unhurt. In the eyes of the historian and of the people of her time
+her greatest misdeed was that while her husband Claudius, the Emperor,
+was alive she publicly celebrated her marriage with the handsome Silius,
+using all outward legal forms. Our modern laws of divorce have so far
+accustomed our minds to such deeds that, although we miss the legal
+formalities which would necessarily precede such an act in our time, we
+secretly wonder at the effect it produced upon the men of that day, and
+are inclined to smile at the epithets of 'impious' and 'sacrilegious'
+which it called down upon Messalina, whose many other frightful crimes
+had elicited much more moderate condemnation. Claudius, himself no
+novice or beginner in horrors, hesitated long after he knew the truth,
+and it was the favourite Narcissus who took upon himself to order the
+Empress' death. Euodus, his freedman, and a tribune of the guard were
+sent to make an end of her. Swiftly they went up to the gardens--the
+gardens of the Pincian--and there they found her, beautiful, dark,
+dishevelled, stretched upon the marble floor, her mother Lepida
+crouching beside her, her mother, who in the bloom of her daughter's
+evil life had turned from her, but in her extreme need was overcome
+with pity. There knelt Domitia Lepida, urging the terror-mad woman not
+to wait the executioner, since life was over and nothing remained but to
+lend death the dignity of suicide. But the dishonoured self was empty of
+courage, and long-drawn weeping choked her useless lamentations. Then
+suddenly the doors were flung open with a crash, and the stern tribune
+stood silent in the hall, while the freedman Euodus screamed out curses,
+after the way of triumphant slaves. From her mother's hand the lost
+Empress took the knife at last and trembling laid it to her breast and
+throat, with weakly frantic fingers that could not hurt herself; the
+silent tribune killed her with one straight thrust, and when they
+brought the news to Claudius sitting at supper, and told him that
+Messalina had perished, his face did not change, and he said nothing as
+he held out his cup to be filled.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DEL POPOLO]
+
+She died somewhere on the Pincian hill. Romance would choose the spot
+exactly where the nunnery of the Sacred Heart stands, at the Trinità de'
+Monti, looking down De Sanctis' imposing 'Spanish' steps; and the house
+in which the noble girls of modern Rome are sent to school may have
+risen upon the foundations of Messalina's last abode. Or it may be that
+the place was further west, in the high grounds of the French Academy,
+or on the site of the academy itself, at the gates of the public garden,
+just where the old stone fountain bubbles and murmurs under the shade of
+the thick ilex trees. Most of that land once belonged to Lucullus, the
+conqueror of Mithridates, the Academic philosopher, the arch feaster,
+and the man who first brought cherries to Italy.
+
+[Illustration: TRINITÀ DE' MONTI]
+
+The last descendant of Julia, the last sterile monster of the Julian
+race, Nero, was buried at the foot of the same hill. Alive, he was
+condemned by the Senate to be beaten to death in the Comitium; dead by
+his own hand, he received imperial honours, and his ashes rested for a
+thousand years where they had been laid by his two old nurses and a
+woman who had loved him. And during ten centuries the people believed
+that his terrible ghost haunted the hill, attended and served by
+thousands of demon crows that rested in the branches of the trees about
+his tomb, and flew forth to do evil at his bidding, till at last Pope
+Paschal the Second cut down with his own hands the walnut trees which
+crowned the summit, and commanded that the mausoleum should be
+destroyed, and the ashes of Nero scattered to the winds, that he might
+build a parish church on the spot and dedicate it to Saint Mary. It is
+said, too, that the Romans took the marble urn in which the ashes had
+been, and used it as a public measure for salt in the old market-place
+of the Capitol. A number of the rich Romans of the Renascence afterwards
+contributed money to the restoration of the church and built themselves
+chapels within it, as tombs for their descendants, so that it is the
+burial-place of many of those wealthy families that settled in Rome and
+took possession of the Corso when the Barons still held the less central
+parts of the city with their mediæval fortresses. Sixtus the Fourth and
+Julius the Second are buried in Saint Peter's, but their chapel was
+here, and here lie others of the della Rovere race, and many of the
+Chigi and Pallavicini and Theodoli; and here, in strange coincidence,
+Alexander the Sixth, the worst of the Popes, erected a high altar on the
+very spot where the worst of the Emperors had been buried. It is gone
+now, but the strange fact is not forgotten.
+
+Far across the beautiful square, at the entrance to the Corso, twin
+churches seem to guard the way like sentinels, built, it is said, to
+replace two chapels which once stood at the head of the bridge of Sant'
+Angelo; demolished because, when Rome was sacked by the Constable of
+Bourbon, they had been held as important points by the Spanish soldiers
+in besieging the Castle, and it was not thought wise to leave such
+useful outworks for any possible enemy in the future. Alexander the
+Seventh, the Chigi Pope, died, and left the work unfinished; and a folk
+story tells how a poor old woman who lived near by saved what she could
+for many years, and, dying, left one hundred and fifty scudi to help the
+completion of the buildings; and Cardinal Gastaldi, who had been refused
+the privilege of placing his arms upon a church which he had desired to
+build in Bologna, and was looking about for an opportunity of
+perpetuating his name, finished the two churches, his attention having
+been first called to them by the old woman's humble bequest.
+
+As for the Pincio itself, and the ascent to it from the Piazza del
+Popolo, all that land was but a grass-grown hillside, crowned by a few
+small and scattered villas and scantily furnished with trees, until the
+beginning of the present century; and the public gardens of the earlier
+time were those of the famous and beautiful Villa Medici, which Napoleon
+the First bestowed upon the French Academy. It was there that the
+fashionable Romans of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used to
+meet, and walk, and be carried about in gilded sedan-chairs, and flirt,
+and gossip, and exchange views on politics and opinions about the latest
+scandal. That was indeed a very strange society, further from us in many
+ways than the world of the Renascence, or even of the Crusades; for the
+Middle Age was strong in the sincerity of its beliefs, as we are
+powerful in the cynicism of our single-hearted faith in riches; but the
+fabric of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was founded upon the
+abuse of an already declining power; it was built up in the most
+extraordinary and elaborate affectation, and it was guarded by a system
+of dissimulation which outdid that of our own day by many degrees, and
+possibly surpassed the hypocrisy of any preceding age.
+
+No one, indeed, can successfully uphold the idea that the high
+development of art in any shape is of necessity coincident with a strong
+growth of religion or moral conviction. Perugino made no secret of being
+an atheist; Lionardo da Vinci was a scientific sceptic; Raphael was an
+amiable rake, no better and no worse than the majority of those gifted
+pupils to whom he was at once a model of perfection and an example of
+free living; and those who maintain that art is always the expression of
+a people's religion have but an imperfect acquaintance with the age of
+Praxiteles, Apelles and Zeuxis. Yet the idea itself has a foundation,
+lying in something which is as hard to define as it is impossible to
+ignore; for if art be not a growth out of faith, it is always the result
+of a faith that has been, since although it is possible to conceive of
+religion without art, it is out of the question to think of art as a
+whole, without a religious origin; and as the majority of writers find
+it easier to describe scenes and emotions, when a certain lapse of time
+has given them what painters call atmospheric perspective, so the
+Renascence began when memory already clothed the ferocious realism of
+mediæval Christianity in the softer tones of gentle chivalry and tender
+romance. It is often said, half in jest, that, in order to have
+intellectual culture, a man must at least have forgotten Latin, if he
+cannot remember it, because the fact of having learned it leaves
+something behind that cannot be acquired in any other way. Similarly, I
+think that art of all sorts has reached its highest level in successive
+ages when it has aimed at recalling, by an illusion, a once vivid
+reality from a not too distant past. And so when it gives itself up to
+the realism of the present, it impresses the senses rather than the
+thoughts, and misses its object, which is to bring within our mental
+reach what is beyond our physical grasp; and when, on the other hand, it
+goes back too far, it fails in execution, because its models are not
+only out of sight, but out of mind, and it cannot touch us because we
+can no longer feel even a romantic interest in the real or imaginary
+events which it attempts to describe.
+
+The subject is too high to be lightly touched, and too wide to be
+touched more than lightly here; but in this view of it may perhaps be
+found some explanation of the miserable poverty of Italian art in the
+eighteenth century, foreshadowed by the decadence of the seventeenth,
+which again is traceable to the dissipation of force and the
+disappearance of individuality that followed the Renascence, as
+inevitably as old age follows youth. Besides all necessary gifts of
+genius, the development of art seems to require that a race should not
+only have leisure for remembering, but should also have something to
+remember which may be worthy of being recalled and perhaps of being
+imitated. Progress may be the road to wealth and health, and to such
+happiness as may be derived from both; but the advance of civilization
+is the path of thought, and its landmarks are not inventions nor
+discoveries, but those very great creations of the mind which ennoble
+the heart in all ages; and as the idea of progress is inseparable from
+that of growing riches, so is the true conception of civilization
+indivisible from thoughts of beauty and nobility. In the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, Italy had almost altogether lost sight of these;
+art was execrable, fashion was hideous, morality meant hypocrisy; the
+surest way to power lay in the most despicable sort of intrigue, and
+inward and spiritual faith was as rare as outward and visible devoutness
+was general.
+
+That was the society which frequented the Villa Medici on fine
+afternoons, and it is hard to see wherein its charm lay, if, indeed, it
+had any. Instead of originality, its conversation teemed with artificial
+conventionalisms; instead of nature, it exhibited itself in the disguise
+of fashions more inconvenient, uncomfortable and ridiculous than those
+of any previous or later times; it delighted in the impossibly
+nonsensical 'pastoral' verses which we find too silly to read; and in
+place of wit, it clothed gross and cruel sayings in a thin remnant of
+worn-out classicism. It had not the frankly wicked recklessness of the
+French aristocracy between Lewis the Fourteenth and the Revolution, nor
+the changing contrasts of brutality, genius, affectation and Puritanical
+austerity which marked England's ascent, from the death of Edward the
+Sixth to the victories of Nelson and Wellington; still less had it any
+of those real motives for existence which carried Germany through her
+long struggle for life. It had little which we are accustomed to respect
+in men and women, and yet it had something which we lack today, and
+which we unconsciously envy--it had a colour of its own. Wandering under
+the ancient ilexes of those sad and beautiful gardens, meeting here and
+there a few silent and soberly clad strangers, one cannot but long for
+the brilliancy of two centuries ago, when the walks were gay with
+brilliant dresses, and gilded chairs, and servants in liveries of
+scarlet and green and gold, and noble ladies, tottering a few steps on
+their ridiculous high heels, and men bewigged and becurled, their
+useless little hats under their arms, and their embroidered coat tails
+flapping against their padded, silk-stockinged calves; and red-legged,
+unpriestly Cardinals who were not priests even in name, but only the lay
+life-peers of the Church; and grave Bishops with their secretaries; and
+laughing abbés, whose clerical dress was the accustomed uniform of
+government office, which they still wore when they were married, and
+were fathers of families. There is little besides colour to recommend
+the picture, but at least there is that.
+
+The Pincian hill has always been the favourite home of artists of all
+kinds, and many lived at one time or another in the little villas that
+once stood there, and in the houses in the Via Sistina and southward,
+and up towards the Porta Pinciana. Guido Reni, the Caracci, Salvator
+Rosa, Poussin, Claude Lorrain, have all left the place the association
+of their presence, and the Zuccheri brothers built themselves the house
+which still bears their name, just below the one at the corner of the
+Trinità de' Monti, known to all foreigners as the 'Tempietto' or little
+temple. But the Villa Medici stands as it did long ago, its walls
+uninjured, its trees grander than ever, its walks unchanged.
+Soft-hearted Baracconi, in love with those times more than with the
+Middle Age, speaks half tenderly of the people who used to meet there,
+calling them collectively a gay and light-hearted society, gentle, idle,
+full of graceful thoughts and delicate perceptions, brilliant
+reflections and light charms; he regrets the gilded chairs, the huge
+built-up wigs, the small sword of the 'cavalier servente,' and the
+abbé's silk mantle, the semi-platonic friendships, the jests borrowed
+from Goldoni, the 'pastoral' scandal, and exchange of compliments and
+madrigals and epigrams, and all the brilliant powdered train of that
+extinct world.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA MEDICI]
+
+Whatever life may have been in those times, that world died in a pretty
+tableau, after the manner of Watteau's paintings; it meant little and
+accomplished little, and though its bright colouring brings it for a
+moment to the foreground, it has really not much to do with the Rome we
+know nor with the Rome one thinks of in the past, always great, always
+sad, always tragic, as no other city in the world can ever be.
+
+Ignorance, tradition, imagination, romance,--call it what you will,--has
+chosen the long-closed Pincian Gate for the last station of blind
+Belisarius. There, says the tale, the ancient conqueror, the banisher
+and maker of Popes, the favourite and the instrument of imperial
+Theodora, stood begging his bread at the gate of the city he had won and
+lost, leaning upon the arm of the fair girl child who would not leave
+him, and stretching forth his hand to those that passed by, with a
+feeble prayer for alms, pathetic as Oedipus in the utter ruin of his
+life and fortune. A truer story tells how Pope Silverius, humble and
+gentle, and hated by Theodora, went up to the Pincian villa to answer
+the accusation of conspiring with the Goths, when he himself had opened
+the gates of Rome to Belisarius; and how he was led into the great hall
+where the warrior's wife, Theodora's friend, the beautiful and evil
+Antonina, lay with half-closed eyes upon her splendid couch, while
+Belisarius sat beside her feet, toying with her jewels. There the
+husband and wife accused the Pope, and judged him without hearing, and
+condemned him without right; and they caused him to be stripped of his
+robes, and clad as a poor monk and driven out to far exile, that they
+might set up the Empress Theodora's Pope in his place; and with him they
+drove out many Roman nobles.
+
+And it is said that when Silverius was dead of a broken heart in the
+little island of Palmaria, Belisarius repented of his deeds and built
+the small Church of Santa Maria de' Crociferi, behind the fountain of
+Trevi, in partial expiation of his fault, and there, to prove the truth
+of the story, the tablet that tells of his repentance has stood nearly
+fourteen hundred years and may be read today, on the east wall, towards
+the Via de' Poli. The man who conquered Africa for Justinian, seized
+Sicily, took Rome, defended it successfully against the Goths, reduced
+Ravenna, took Rome from the Goths again, and finally rescued
+Constantinople, was disgraced more than once; but he was not blinded,
+nor did he die in exile or in prison, for at the end he breathed his
+last in the enjoyment of his freedom and his honours; and the story of
+his blindness is the fabrication of an ignorant Greek monk who lived six
+hundred years later and confounded Justinian's great general with the
+romantic and unhappy John of Cappadocia, who lived at the same time, was
+a general at the same time, and incurred the displeasure of that same
+pious, proud, avaricious Theodora, actress, penitent and Empress, whose
+paramount beauty held the Emperor in thrall for life, and whose
+surpassing cruelty imprinted an indelible seal of horror upon his
+glorious reign--of her who, when she delivered a man to death,
+admonished the executioner with an oath, saying, 'By Him who liveth for
+ever, if thou failest, I will cause thee to be flayed alive.'
+
+Another figure rises at the window of the Tuscan Ambassador's great
+villa, with the face of a man concerning whom legend has also found much
+to invent and little to say that is true, a man of whom modern science
+has rightly made a hero, but whom prejudice and ignorance have wrongly
+crowned as a martyr--Galileo Galilei. Tradition represents him as
+languishing, laden with chains, in the more or less mythical prisons of
+the Inquisition; history tells very plainly that his first confinement
+consisted in being the honoured guest of the Tuscan Ambassador in the
+latter's splendid residence in Rome, and that his last imprisonment was
+a relegation to the beautiful castle of the Piccolomini near Siena, than
+which the heart of man could hardly desire a more lovely home. History
+affirms beyond doubt, moreover, that Galileo was the personal friend of
+that learned and not illiberal Barberini, Pope Urban the Eighth, under
+whose long reign the Copernican system was put on trial, who believed in
+that system as Galileo did, who read his books and talked with him; and
+who, when the stupid technicalities of the ecclesiastic courts declared
+the laws of the universe to be nonsense, gave his voice against the
+decision, though he could not officially annul it without scandal. 'It
+was not my intention,' said the Pope in the presence of witnesses, 'to
+condemn Galileo. If the matter had depended upon me, the decree of the
+Index which condemned his doctrines should never have been pronounced.'
+
+That Galileo's life was saddened by the result of the absurd trial, and
+that he was nominally a prisoner for a long time, is not to be denied.
+But that he suffered the indignities and torments recorded in legend is
+no more true than that Belisarius begged his bread at the Porta
+Pinciana. He lived in comfort and in honour with the Ambassador in the
+Villa Medici, and many a time from those lofty windows, unchanged since
+before his day, he must have watched the earth turning with him from the
+sun at evening, and meditated upon the emptiness of the ancient phrase
+that makes the sun 'set' when the day is done--thinking of the world,
+perhaps, as turning upon its other side, with tired eyes, and ready for
+rest and darkness and refreshment, after long toil and heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+One may stand under those old trees before the Villa Medici, beside the
+ancient fountain facing Saint Peter's distant dome, and dream the great
+review of history, and call up a vast, changing picture at one's feet
+between the heights and the yellow river. First, the broad corn-field of
+the Tarquin Kings, rich and ripe under the evening breeze of summer that
+runs along swiftly, bending the golden surface in soft moving waves from
+the Tiber's edge to the foot of the wooded slope. Then, the hurried
+harvesting, the sheaves cast into the river, the dry, stiff stubble
+baking in the sun, and presently the men of Rome coming forth in
+procession from the dark Servian wall on the left to dedicate the field
+to the War God with prayer and chant and smoking sacrifice. By and by
+the stubble trodden down under horses' hoofs, the dusty plain the
+exercising ground of young conquerors, the voting place, later, of a
+strong Republic, whither the centuries went out to choose their consuls,
+to decide upon peace or war, to declare the voice of the people in grave
+matters, while the great signal flag waved on the Janiculum, well in
+sight though far away, to fall suddenly at the approach of any foe and
+suspend the 'comitia' on the instant. And in the flat and dusty plain,
+buildings begin to rise; first, the Altar of Mars and the holy place of
+the infernal gods, Dis and Proserpine; later, the great 'Sheepfold,' the
+lists and hustings for the voting, and, encroaching a little upon the
+training ground, the temple of Venus Victorious and the huge theatre of
+Pompey, wherein the Orsini held their own so long; but in the times of
+Lucullus, when his gardens and his marvellous villa covered the Pincian
+hill, the plain was still a wide field, and still the field of Mars,
+without the walls, broken by few landmarks, and trodden to deep white
+dust by the scampering hoofs of half-drilled cavalry. Under the
+Emperors, then, first beautified in part, as Cæsar traces the great
+Septa for the voting, and Augustus erects the Altar of Peace and builds
+up his cypress-clad tomb, crowned by his own image, and Agrippa raises
+his triple temple, and Hadrian builds the Pantheon upon its ruins, while
+the obelisk that now stands on Monte Citorio before the House of
+Parliament points out the brass-figured hours on the broad marble floor
+of the first Emperor's sun-clock and marks the high noon of Rome's
+glory--and the Portico of Neptune and many other splendid works spring
+up. Isis and Serapis have a temple next, and Domitian's race-course
+appears behind Agrippa's Baths, straight and white. By and by the
+Antonines raise columns and triumphal arches, but always to southward,
+leaving the field of Mars a field still, for its old uses, and the tired
+recruits, sweating from exercise, gather under the high shade of
+Augustus' tomb at midday for an hour's rest.
+
+Last of all, the great temple of the Sun, with its vast portico, and the
+Mithræum at the other end, and when the walls of Aurelian are built, and
+when ruin comes upon Rome from the north, the Campus Martius is still
+almost an open stretch of dusty earth on which soldiers have learned
+their trade through a thousand years of hard training.
+
+Not till the poor days when the waterless, ruined city sends its people
+down from the heights to drink of the muddy stream does Campo Marzo
+become a town, and then, around the castle-tomb of the Colonna and the
+castle-theatre of the Orsini the wretched houses begin to rise here and
+there, thickening to a low, dark forest of miserable dwellings threaded
+through and through, up and down and crosswise, by narrow and crooked
+streets, out of which by degrees the lofty churches and palaces of the
+later age are to spring up. From a training ground it has become a
+fighting ground, a labyrinth of often barricaded ways and lanes, deeper
+and darker towards the water-gates cut in the wall that runs along the
+Tiber, from Porta del Popolo nearly to the island of Saint Bartholomew,
+and almost all that is left of Rome is crowded and huddled into the
+narrow pen overshadowed and dominated here and there by black fortresses
+and brown brick towers. The man who then might have looked down from the
+Pincian hill would have seen that sight; houses little better than those
+of the poorest mountain village in the Southern Italy of today, black
+with smoke, black with dirt, blacker with patches made by shadowy
+windows that had no glass. A silent town, too, surly and defensive; now
+and then the call of the water-carrier disturbs the stillness, more
+rarely, the cry of a wandering peddler; and sometimes a distant sound of
+hoofs, a far clash of iron and steel, and the echoing yell of furious
+fighting men--'Orsini!' 'Colonna!'--the long-drawn syllables coming up
+distinct through the evening air to the garden where Messalina died,
+while the sun sets red behind the spire of old Saint Peter's across the
+river, and gilds the huge girth of dark Sant' Angelo to a rusty red,
+like battered iron bathed in blood.
+
+Back come the Popes from Avignon, and streets grow wider and houses
+cleaner and men richer--all for the Bourbon's Spaniards to sack, and
+burn, and destroy before the last city grows up, and the rounded domes
+raise their helmet-like heads out of the chaos, and the broad Piazza del
+Popolo is cleared, and old Saint Peter's goes down in dust to make way
+for the Cathedral of all Christendom as it stands. Then far away, on
+Saint Peter's evening, when it is dusk, the great dome, and the small
+domes, and the colonnades, and the broad façade are traced in silver
+lights that shine out quietly as the air darkens. The solemn bells toll
+the first hour of the June night; the city is hushed, and all at once
+the silver lines are turned to gold, as the red flame runs in magic
+change from the topmost cross down the dome, in rivers, to the roof, and
+the pillars and the columns of the square below--the grandest
+illumination of the grandest church the world has ever seen.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION V PONTE
+
+
+The Region of Ponte, 'the Bridge,' takes its name from the ancient
+Triumphal Bridge which led from the city to the Vatican Fields, and at
+low water some fragments of the original piers may be seen in the river
+at the bend just below Ponte Sant' Angelo, between the Church of Saint
+John of the Florentines on the one bank, and the Hospital of Santo
+Spirito on the other. In the Middle Age, according to Baracconi and
+others, the broken arches still extended into the stream, and upon them
+was built a small fortress, the outpost of the Orsini on that side. The
+device, however, appears to represent a portion of the later Bridge of
+Sant' Angelo, built upon the foundations of the Ælian Bridge of
+Hadrian, which connected his tomb with the Campus Martius. The Region
+consists of the northwest point of the city, bounded by the Tiber, from
+Monte Brianzo round the bend, and down stream to the new Lungara bridge,
+and on the land side by a very irregular line running across the Corso
+Vittorio Emanuele, close to the Chiesa Nuova, and then eastward and
+northward in a zigzag, so as to take in most of the fortresses of the
+Orsini family, Monte Giordano, Tor Millina, Tor Sanguigna, and the now
+demolished Torre di Nona. The Sixth and Seventh Regions adjacent to the
+Fifth and to each other would have to be included in order to take in
+all that part of Rome once held by the only family that rivalled, and
+sometimes surpassed, the Colonna in power.
+
+As has been said before, the original difference between the two was
+that the Colonna were Ghibellines and for the Emperors, while the Orsini
+were Guelphs and generally adhered to the Popes. In the violent changes
+of the Middle Age, it happened indeed that the Colonna had at least one
+Pope of their own, and that more than one, such as Nicholas the Fourth,
+favoured their race to the point of exciting popular indignation. But,
+on the whole, they kept to their parties. When Lewis the Bavarian was to
+be crowned by force, Sciarra Colonna crowned him; when Henry the Seventh
+of Luxemburg had come to Rome for the same purpose, a few years earlier,
+the Orsini had been obliged to be satisfied with a sort of second-rate
+coronation at Saint John Lateran's; and when the struggle between the
+two families was at its height, nearly two centuries later, and Sixtus
+the Fourth 'assumed the part of mediator,' as the chronicle expresses
+it, one of his first acts of mediation was to cut off the head of a
+Colonna, and his next was to lay regular siege to the strongholds of the
+family in the Roman hills; but before he had brought this singular
+process of mediation to an issue he suddenly died, the Colonna returned
+to their dwellings in Rome 'with great clamour and triumph,' got the
+better of the Orsini, and proceeded to elect a Pope after their own
+hearts, in the person of Cardinal Cibo, of Genoa, known as Innocent the
+Eighth. He it is who lies under the beautiful bronze monument in the
+inner left aisle of Saint Peter's, which shows him holding in his hand a
+model of the spear-head that pierced Christ's side, a relic believed to
+have been sent to the Pope as a gift by Sultan Bajazet the Second.
+
+The origin of the hatred between Colonna and Orsini is unknown, for the
+archives of the former have as yet thrown no light upon the subject, and
+those of the latter were almost entirely destroyed by fire in the last
+century. In the year 1305, Pope Clement the Fifth was elected Pope at
+Perugia. He was a Frenchman, and was Archbishop of Bordeaux, the
+candidate of Philip the Fair, whose tutor had been a Colonna, and he
+was chosen by the opposing factions of two Orsini cardinals because the
+people of Perugia were tired of a quarrel that had lasted eleven months,
+and had adopted the practical and always infallible expedient of
+deliberately starving the conclave to a vote. Muratori calls it a
+scandalous and illicit election, which brought about the ruin of Italy
+and struck a memorable blow at the power of the Holy See. Though not a
+great man, Philip the Fair was one of the cleverest that ever lived.
+Before the election he had made his bishop swear upon the Sacred Host to
+accept his conditions, without expressing them all; and the most
+important proved to be the transference of the Papal See to France. The
+new Pope obeyed his master, established himself in Avignon, and the King
+to all intents and purposes had taken the Pontificate captive and lost
+no time in using it for his own ends against the Empire, his hereditary
+foe. Such, in a few words, is the history of that memorable transaction;
+and but for the previous quarrels of Colonna, Caetani and Orsini, it
+could never have taken place. The Orsini repented bitterly of what they
+had done, for one of Clement the Fifth's first acts was to 'annul
+altogether all sentences whatsoever pronounced against the Colonna.'
+
+But the Pope being gone, the Barons had Rome in their power and used it
+for a battlefield. Four years later, we find in Villani the first record
+of a skirmish fought between Orsini and Colonna. In the month of
+October, 1309, says the chronicler, certain of the Orsini and of the
+Colonna met outside the walls of Rome with their followers, to the
+number of four hundred horse, and fought together, and the Colonna won;
+and there died the Count of Anguillara, and six of the Orsini were
+taken, and Messer Riccardo degli Annibaleschi who was in their company.
+
+Three years afterwards, Henry of Luxemburg alternately feasted and
+fought his way to Rome to be crowned Emperor in spite of Philip the
+Fair, the Tuscan league and Robert, King of Naples, who sent a thousand
+horsemen out of the south to hinder the coronation. In a day Rome was
+divided into two great camps. Colonna held for the Emperor the Lateran,
+Santa Maria Maggiore, the Colosseum, the Torre delle Milizie,--the brick
+tower on the lower part of the modern Via Nazionale,--the Pantheon, as
+an advanced post in one direction, and Santa Sabina, a church that was
+almost a fortress, on the south, by the Tiber,--a chain of fortresses
+which would be formidable in any modern revolution. Against Henry,
+however, the Orsini held the Vatican and Saint Peter's, the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo and all Trastevere, their fortresses in the Region of
+Ponte, and, moreover, the Capitol itself. The parties were well matched,
+for, though Henry entered Rome on the seventh of May, the struggle
+lasted till the twenty-ninth of June.
+
+Those who have seen revolutions can guess at the desperate fighting in
+the barricaded streets, and at the well-guarded bridges from one end of
+the city to the other. Backwards and forwards the battle raged for days
+and weeks, by day and night, with small time for rest and refreshment.
+Forward rode the Colonna, the stolid Germans, Henry himself, the eagle
+of the Empire waving in the dim streets beside the flag that displayed
+the simple column in a plain field. It is not hard to hear and see it
+all again--the clanging gallop of armoured knights, princes, nobles and
+bishops, with visors down, and long swords and maces in their hands, the
+high, fierce cries of the light-armed footmen, the bowmen and the
+slingers, the roar of the rabble rout behind, the shrill voices of women
+at upper windows, peering down for the face of brother, husband, or
+lover in the dashing press below,--the dust, the heat, the fierce June
+sunshine blazing on broad steel, and the deep, black shadows putting out
+all light as the bands rush past. Then, on a sudden, the answering shout
+of the Orsini, the standard of the Bear, the Bourbon lilies of Anjou,
+the scarlet and white colours of the Guelph house, the great black
+horses, and the dark mail--the enemies surging together in the street
+like swift rivers of loose iron meeting in a stone channel, with a
+rending crash and the quick hammering of steel raining desperate blows
+on steel--horses rearing their height, footmen crushed, knights reeling
+in the saddle, sparks flying, steel-clad arms and long swords whirling
+in great circles through the air. Foremost of all in fight the Bishop of
+Liège, his purple mantle flying back from his corselet, trampling down
+everything, sworn to win the barricade or die, riding at it like a
+madman, forcing his horse up to it over the heaps of quivering bodies
+that made a causeway, leaping it alone at last, like a demon in air, and
+standing in the thick of the Orsini, slaying to right and left.
+
+In an instant they had him down and bound and prisoner, one man against
+a thousand; and they fastened him behind a man-at-arms, on the crupper,
+to take him into Sant' Angelo alive. But a soldier, whose brother he had
+slain a moment earlier, followed stealthily on foot and sought the joint
+in the back of the armour, and ran in his pike quickly, and killed
+him--'whereof,' says the chronicle, 'was great pity, for the Bishop was
+a man of high courage and authority.' But on the other side of the
+barricade, those who had followed him so far, and lost him, felt their
+hearts sink, for not one of them could do what he had done; and after
+that, though they fought a whole month longer, they had but little hope
+of ever getting to the Vatican. So the Colonna took Henry up to the
+Lateran, where they were masters, and he was crowned there by three
+cardinals in the Pope's stead, while the Orsini remained grimly
+intrenched in their own quarter, and each party held its own, even after
+Henry had prudently retired to Tivoli, in the hills.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND IN THE TIBER]
+
+At last the great houses made a truce and a compromise, by which they
+attempted to govern Rome jointly, and chose Sciarra--the same who had
+taken Pope Boniface prisoner in Anagni--and Matteo Orsini of Monte
+Giordano, to be Senators together; and there was peace between them for
+a time, in the year in which Rienzi was born. But in that very year, as
+though foreshadowing his destiny, the rabble of Rome rose up, and chose
+a dictator; and somehow, by surprise or treachery, he got possession of
+the Barons' chief fortresses, and of Sant' Angelo, and set up the
+standard of terror against the nobles. In a few days he sacked and
+burned their strongholds, and the high and mighty lords who had made the
+reigning Pope, and had fought to an issue for the Crown of the Holy
+Roman Empire, were conquered, humiliated and imprisoned by an upstart
+plebeian of Trastevere. The portcullis of Monte Giordano was lifted, and
+the mysterious gates were thrown wide to the curiosity of a populace
+drunk with victory; Giovanni degli Stefaneschi issued edicts of
+sovereign power from the sacred precincts of the Capitol; and the
+vagabond thieves of Rome feasted in the lordly halls of the Colonna
+palace. But though the tribune and the people could seize Rome,
+outnumbering the nobles as ten to one, they had neither the means nor
+the organization to besiege the fortified towns of the great houses,
+which hemmed in the city and the Campagna on every side. Thither the
+nobles retired to recruit fresh armies among their retainers, to forge
+new swords in their own smithies, and to concert new plans for
+recovering their ancient domination; and thence they returned in their
+strength, from their towers and their towns and fortresses, from
+Palestrina and Subiaco, Genazzano, San Vito and Paliano on the south,
+and from Bracciano and Galera and Anguillara, and all the Orsini castles
+on the north, to teach the people of Rome the great truth of those days,
+that 'aristocracy' meant not the careless supremacy of the nobly born,
+but the power of the strongest hands and the coolest heads to take and
+hold. Back came Colonna and Orsini, and the people, who a few months
+earlier had acclaimed their dictator in a fit of justifiable ill-temper
+against their masters, opened the gates for the nobles again, and no man
+lifted a hand to help Giovanni degli Stefaneschi, when the men-at-arms
+bound him and dragged him off to prison. Strange to say, no further
+vengeance was taken upon him, and for once in their history, the nobles
+shed no blood in revenge for a mortal injury.
+
+No man could count the tragedies that swept over the Region of Ponte
+from the first outbreak of war between the Orsini and the Colonna, till
+Paolo Giordano Orsini, the last of the elder branch, breathed out his
+life in exile under the ban of Sixtus the Fifth, three hundred years
+later. There was no end of them till then, and there was little
+interruption of them while they lasted; there is no stone left standing
+from those days in that great quarter that may not have been splashed
+with their fierce blood, nor is there, perhaps, a church or chapel
+within their old holding into which an Orsini has not been borne dead or
+dying from some deadly fight. Even today it is gloomy, and the broad
+modern street, which swept down a straight harvest of memories through
+the quarter to the very Bridge of Sant' Angelo, has left the mediæval
+shadows on each side as dark as ever. Of the three parts of the city,
+which still recall the Middle Age most vividly, namely, the
+neighbourhood of San Pietro in Vincoli, in the first Region, the by-ways
+of Trastevere and the Region of Ponte, the latter is by far the most
+interesting. It was the abode of the Orsini; it was also the chief place
+of business for the bankers and money-changers who congregated there
+under the comparatively secure protection of the Guelph lords; and it
+was the quarter of prisons, of tortures, and of executions both secret
+and public. The names of the streets had terrible meaning: there was the
+Vicolo della Corda, and the Corda was the rope by which criminals were
+hoisted twenty feet in the air, and allowed to drop till their toes were
+just above the ground; there was the Piazza della Berlina Vecchia, the
+place of the Old Pillory; there was a little church known as the 'Church
+of the Gallows'; and there was a lane ominously called Vicolo dello
+Mastro; the Mastro was the Master of judicial executions, in other
+words, the Executioner himself. Before the Castle of Sant' Angelo stood
+the permanent gallows, rarely long unoccupied, and from an upper window
+of the dark Torre di Nona, on the hither side of the bridge, a rope hung
+swinging slowly in the wind, sometimes with a human body at the end of
+it, sometimes without. It was the place, and that was the manner, of
+executions that took place in the night. In Via di Monserrato stood the
+old fortress of the Savelli, long ago converted into a prison, and
+called the Corte Savella, the most terrible of all Roman dungeons for
+the horror of damp darkness, for ever associated with Beatrice Cenci's
+trial and death. Through those very streets she was taken in the cart to
+the little open space before the bridge, where she laid down her life
+upon the scaffold three hundred years ago, and left her story of
+offended innocence, of revenge and of expiation, which will not be
+forgotten while Rome is remembered.
+
+Beatrice Cenci's story has been often told, but nowhere more clearly and
+justly than in Shelley's famous letter, written to explain his play.
+There are several manuscript accounts of the last scene at the Ponte
+Sant' Angelo, and I myself have lately read one, written by a
+contemporary and not elsewhere mentioned, but differing only from the
+rest in the horrible realism with which the picture is presented. The
+truth is plain enough; the unspeakable crimes of Francesco Cenci, his
+more than inhuman cruelty to his children and his wives, his monstrous
+lust and devilish nature, outdo anything to be found in any history of
+the world, not excepting the private lives of Tiberius, Nero, or
+Commodus. His daughter and his second wife killed him in his sleep. His
+death was merciful and swift, in an age when far less crimes were
+visited with tortures at the very name of which we shudder. They were
+driven to absolute desperation, and the world has forgiven them their
+one quick blow, struck for freedom, for woman's honour and for life
+itself in the dim castle of Petrella. Tormented with rack and cord they
+all confessed the deed, save Beatrice, whom no bodily pain could move;
+and if Paolo Santacroce had not murdered his mother for her money before
+their death was determined, Clement the Eighth would have pardoned them.
+But the times were evil, an example was called for, Santacroce had
+escaped to Brescia, and the Pope's heart was hardened against the Cenci.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OF SANT' ANGELO]
+
+They died bravely, there at the head of the bridge, in the calm May
+morning, in the midst of a vast and restless crowd, among whom more than
+one person was killed by accident, as by the falling of a pot of flowers
+from a high window, and by the breaking down of a balcony over a shop,
+where too many had crowded in to see. The old house opposite looked down
+upon the scene, and the people watched Beatrice Cenci die from those
+same arched windows. Above the sea of faces, high on the wooden
+scaffold, rises the tall figure of a lovely girl, her hair gleaming in
+the sunshine like threads of dazzling gold, her marvellous blue eyes
+turned up to Heaven, her fresh young dimpled face not pale with fear,
+her exquisite lips moving softly as she repeats the De Profundis of her
+last appeal to God. Let the axe not fall. Let her stand there for ever
+in the spotless purity that cost her life on earth and set her name for
+ever among the high constellated stars of maidenly romance.
+
+Close by the bridge, just opposite the Torre di Nona, stood the 'Lion
+Inn,' once kept by the beautiful Vanozza de Catanei, the mother of
+Rodrigo Borgia's children, of Cæsar, and Gandia, and Lucrezia, and the
+place was her property still when she was nominally married to her
+second husband, Carlo Canale, the keeper of the prison across the way.
+In the changing vicissitudes of the city, the Torre di Nona made way for
+the once famous Apollo Theatre, built upon the lower dungeons and
+foundations, and Faust's demon companion rose to the stage out of the
+depths that had heard the groans of tortured criminals; the theatre
+itself disappeared a few years ago in the works for improving the
+Tiber's banks, and a name is all that remains of a fact that made men
+tremble. In the late destruction, the old houses opposite were not
+altogether pulled down, but were sliced, as it were, through their roofs
+and rooms, at a safe angle; and there, no doubt, are still standing
+portions of Vanozza's inn, while far below, the cellars where she kept
+her wine free of excise, by papal privilege, are still as cool and
+silent as ever.
+
+Not far beyond her hostelry stands another Inn, famous from early days
+and still open to such travellers as deign to accept its poor
+hospitality. It is an inn for the people now, for wine carters, and the
+better sort of hill peasants; it was once the best and most fashionable
+in Rome, and there the great Montaigne once dwelt, and is believed to
+have written at least a part of his famous Essay on Vanity. It is the
+Albergo dell' Orso, the 'Bear Inn,' and perhaps it is not a coincidence
+that Vanozza's sign of the Lion should have faced the approach to the
+Leonine City beyond the Tiber, and that the sign of the Bear, 'The
+Orsini Arms,' as an English innkeeper would christen it, should have
+been the principal resort of the kind in a quarter which was
+three-fourths the property and altogether the possession of the great
+house that overshadowed it, from Monte Giordano on the one side, and
+from Pompey's Theatre on the other.
+
+The temporary fall of the Orsini at the end of the sixteenth century
+came about by one of the most extraordinary concatenations of events to
+be found in the chronicles. The story has filled more than one volume
+and is nevertheless very far from complete; nor is it possible, since
+the destruction of the Orsini archives, to reconstruct it with absolute
+accuracy. Briefly told, it is this.
+
+Felice Peretti, monk and Cardinal of Montalto, and still nominally one
+of the so-called 'poor cardinals' who received from the Pope a daily
+allowance known as 'the Dish,' had nevertheless accumulated a good deal
+of property before he became Pope under the name of Sixtus the Fifth,
+and had brought some of his relatives to Rome. Among these was his well
+beloved nephew, Francesco Peretti, for whom he naturally sought an
+advantageous marriage. There was at that time in Rome a notary, named
+Accoramboni, a native of the Marches of Ancona and a man of some wealth
+and of good repute. He had one daughter, Vittoria, a girl of excessive
+vanity, as ambitious as she was vain and as singularly beautiful as she
+was ambitious. But she was also clever in a remarkable degree, and seems
+to have had no difficulty in hiding her bad qualities. Francesco Peretti
+fell in love with her, the Cardinal approved the match, though he was a
+man not easily deceived, and the two were married and settled in the
+Villa Negroni, which the Cardinal had built near the Baths of
+Diocletian. Having attained her first object, Vittoria took less pains
+to play the saint, and began to dress with unbecoming magnificence and
+to live on a very extravagant scale. Her name became a byword in Rome
+and her lovely face was one of the city's sights. The Cardinal,
+devotedly attached to his nephew, disapproved of the latter's young wife
+and regretted the many gifts he had bestowed upon her. Like most clever
+men, too, he was more than reasonably angry at having been deceived in
+his judgment of a girl's character. So far, there is nothing not
+commonplace about the tale.
+
+At that time Paolo Giordano Orsini, the head of the house, Duke of
+Bracciano and lord of a hundred domains, was one of the greatest
+personages in Italy. No longer young and already enormously fat, he was
+married to Isabella de' Medici, the daughter of Cosimo, reigning in
+Florence. She was a beautiful and evil woman, and those who have
+endeavoured to make a martyr of her forget the nameless doings of her
+youth. Giordano was weak and extravagant, and paid little attention to
+his wife. She consoled herself with his kinsman, the young and handsome
+Troilo Orsini, who was as constantly at her side as an official
+'cavalier servente' of later days. But the fat Giordano, indolent and
+pleasure seeking, saw nothing. Nor is there anything much more than
+vulgar and commonplace in all this.
+
+Paolo Giordano meets Vittoria Peretti in Rome, and the two commonplaces
+begin the tragedy. On his part, love at first sight; ridiculous, at
+first, when one thinks of his vast bulk and advancing years, terrible,
+by and by, as the hereditary passions of his fierce race could be,
+backed by the almost boundless power which a great Italian lord
+possessed in his surroundings. Vittoria, tired of her dull and virtuous
+husband and of the lectures and parsimony of his uncle, and not dreaming
+that the latter was soon to be Pope, saw herself in a dream of glory
+controlling every mood and action of the greatest noble in the land. And
+she met Giordano again and again, and he pleaded and implored, and was
+alternately ridiculous and almost pathetic in his hopeless passion for
+the notary's daughter. But she had no thought of yielding to his
+entreaties. She would have marriage, or nothing. Neither words nor gifts
+could move her.
+
+She had a husband, he had a wife; and she demanded that he should marry
+her, and was grimly silent as to the means. Until she was married to him
+he should not so much as touch the tips of her jewelled fingers, nor
+have a lock of her hair to wear in his bosom. He was blindly in love,
+and he was Paolo Giordano Orsini. It was not likely that he should
+hesitate. He who had seen nothing of his wife's doings, suddenly saw his
+kinsman, Troilo, and Isabella was doomed. Troilo fled to Paris, and
+Orsini took Isabella from Bracciano to the lonely castle of Galera.
+There he told her his mind and strangled her, as was his right, being
+feudal lord and master with powers of life and death. Then from
+Bracciano he sent messengers to kill Francesco Peretti. One of them had
+a slight acquaintance with the Cardinal's nephew.
+
+They came to the Villa Negroni by night, and called him out, saying that
+his best friend was in need of him, and was waiting for him at Monte
+Cavallo. He hesitated, for it was very late. They had torches and
+weapons, and would protect him, they said. Still he wavered. Then
+Vittoria, his wife, scoffed at him, and called him coward, and thrust
+him out to die; for she knew. The men walked beside him with their
+torches, talking as they went. They passed the deserted land in the
+Baths of Diocletian, and turned at Saint Bernard's Church to go towards
+the Quirinal. Then they put out the lights and killed him quickly in the
+dark.
+
+His body lay there all night, and when it was told the next day that
+Montalto's nephew had been murdered, the two men said that they had left
+him at Monte Cavallo and that he must have been killed as he came home
+alone. The Cardinal buried him without a word, and though he guessed the
+truth he asked neither vengeance nor justice of the Pope.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA NEGRONI
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Gregory the Thirteenth guessed it, too, and when Orsini would have
+married Vittoria, the Pope forbade the banns and interdicted their union
+for ever. That much he dared to do against the greatest peer in the
+country.
+
+To this, Orsini replied by plighting his faith to Vittoria with a ring,
+in the presence of a serving woman, an irregular ceremony which he
+afterwards described as a marriage, and he thereupon took his bride and
+her mother under his protection. The Pope retorted by a determined
+effort to arrest the murderers of Francesco; the Bargello and his men
+went in the evening to the Orsini palace at Pompey's Theatre and
+demanded that Giordano should give up the criminals; the porter replied
+that the Duke was asleep; the Orsini men-at-arms lunged out with their
+weapons, looked on during the interview, and considering the presence of
+the Bargello derogatory to their master, drove him away, killing one of
+his men and wounding several others. Thereupon Pope Gregory forbade the
+Duke from seeing Vittoria or communicating with her by messengers, on
+pain of a fine of ten thousand gold ducats, an order to which Orsini
+would have paid no attention but which Vittoria was too prudent to
+disregard, and she retired to her brother's house, leaving the Duke in a
+state of frenzied rage that threatened insanity. Then the Pope seemed to
+waver again, and then again learning that the lovers saw each other
+constantly in spite of his commands, he suddenly had Vittoria seized and
+imprisoned in Sant' Angelo. It is impossible to follow the long struggle
+that ensued. It lasted four years, at the end of which time the Duke and
+Vittoria were living at Bracciano, where the Orsini was absolute lord
+and master and beyond the jurisdiction of the Church--two hours' ride
+from the gates of Rome. But no further formality of marriage had taken
+place and Vittoria was not satisfied. Then Gregory the Thirteenth died.
+
+During the vacancy of the Holy See, all interdictions of the late Pope
+were suspended. Instantly Giordano determined to be married, and came to
+Rome with Vittoria. They believed that the Conclave would last some time
+and were making their arrangements without haste, living in Pompey's
+Theatre, when a messenger brought word that Cardinal Montalto would
+surely be elected Pope within a few hours. In the fortress is the small
+family church of Santa Maria di Grotta Pinta. The Duke sent down word to
+his chaplain that the latter must marry him at once. That night a
+retainer of the house had been found murdered at the gate; his body lay
+on a trestle bier before the altar of the chapel when the Duke's message
+came; the Duke himself and Vittoria were already in the little winding
+stair that leads down from the apartments; there was not a moment to be
+lost; the frightened chaplain and the messenger hurriedly raised a
+marble slab which closed an unused vault, dropped the murdered man's
+body into the chasm, and had scarcely replaced the stone when the ducal
+pair entered the church. The priest married them before the altar in
+fear and trembling, and when they were gone entered the whole story in
+the little register in the sacristy. The leaf is extant.
+
+Within a few hours, Montalto was Pope, the humble cardinal was changed
+in a moment to the despotic pontiff, whose nephew's murder was
+unavenged; instead of the vacillating Gregory, Orsini had to face the
+terrible Sixtus, and his defeat and exile were foregone conclusions. He
+could no longer hold his own and he took refuge in the States of Venice,
+where his kinsman, Ludovico, was a fortunate general. He made a will
+which divided his personal estate between Vittoria and his son,
+Virginio, greatly to the woman's advantage; and overcome by the
+infirmity of his monstrous size, spent by the terrible passions of his
+later years, and broken in heart by an edict of exile which he could no
+longer defy, he died at Salò within seven months of his great enemy's
+coronation, in the forty-ninth year of his age.
+
+Vittoria retired to Padua, and the authorities declared the inheritance
+valid, but Ludovico Orsini's long standing hatred of her was inflamed to
+madness by the conditions of the will. Six weeks after the Duke's death,
+at evening, Vittoria was in her chamber; her boy brother, Flaminio, was
+singing a Miserere to his lute by the fire in the great hall. A sound of
+quick feet, the glare of torches, and Ludovico's masked men filled the
+house. Vittoria died bravely with one deep stab in her heart. The boy,
+Flaminio, was torn to pieces with seventy-four wounds.
+
+But Venice would permit no such outrageous deeds. Ludovico was besieged
+in his house, by horse and foot and artillery, and was taken alive with
+many of his men and swiftly conveyed to Venice; and a week had not
+passed from the day of the murder before he was strangled by the
+Bargello in the latter's own room, with the red silk cord by which it
+was a noble's privilege to die. The first one broke, and they had to
+take another, but Ludovico Orsini did not wince. An hour later his body
+was borne out with forty torches, in solemn procession, to lie in state
+in Saint Mark's Church. His men were done to death with hideous tortures
+in the public square. So ended the story of Vittoria Accoramboni.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION VI PARIONE
+
+
+The principal point of this Region is Piazza Navona, which exactly
+coincides with Domitian's race-course, and the Region consists of an
+irregular triangle of which the huge square is at the northern angle,
+the western one being the Piazza della Chiesa Nuova and the southern
+extremity the theatre of Pompey, so often referred to in these pages as
+one of the Orsini's strongholds and containing the little church in
+which Paolo Giordano married Vittoria Accoramboni, close to the Campo
+dei Fiori which was the place of public executions by fire. The name
+Parione is said to be derived from the Latin 'Paries,' a wall, applied
+to a massive remnant of ancient masonry which once stood somewhere in
+the Via di Parione. It matters little; nor can we find any satisfactory
+explanation of the gryphon which serves as a device for the whole
+quarter, included during the Middle Age, with Ponte and Regola, in the
+large portion of the city dominated by the Orsini.
+
+The Befana, which is a corruption of Epifania, the Feast of the
+Epiphany, is and always has been the season of giving presents in Rome,
+corresponding with our Christmas; and the Befana is personated as a
+gruff old woman who brings gifts to little children after the manner of
+our Saint Nicholas. But in the minds of Romans, from earliest childhood,
+the name is associated with the night fair, opened on the eve of the
+Epiphany in Piazza Navona, and which was certainly one of the most
+extraordinary popular festivals ever invented to amuse children and make
+children of grown people, a sort of foreshadowing of Carnival, but
+having at the same time a flavour and a colour of its own, unlike
+anything else in the world.
+
+During the days after Christmas a regular line of booths is erected,
+encircling the whole circus-shaped space. It is a peculiarity of Roman
+festivals that all the material for adornment is kept together from year
+to year, ready for use at a moment's notice, and when one sees the
+enormous amount of lumber required for the Carnival, for the fireworks
+on the Pincio, or for the Befana, one cannot help wondering where it is
+all kept. From year to year it lies somewhere, in those vast
+subterranean places and great empty houses used for that especial
+purpose, of which only Romans guess the extent. When needed, it is
+suddenly produced without confusion, marked and numbered, ready to be
+put together and regilt or repainted, or hung with the acres of
+draperies which Latins know so well how to display in everything
+approaching to public pageantry.
+
+At dark, on the Eve of the Epiphany, the Befana begins. The hundreds of
+booths are choked with toys and gleam with thousands of little lights,
+the open spaces are thronged by a moving crowd, the air splits with the
+infernal din of ten thousand whistles and tin trumpets. Noise is the
+first consideration for a successful befana, noise of any kind, shrill,
+gruff, high, low--any sort of noise; and the first purchase of everyone
+who comes must be a tin horn, a pipe, or one of those grotesque little
+figures of painted earthenware, representing some characteristic type of
+Roman life and having a whistle attached to it, so cleverly modelled in
+the clay as to produce the most hideous noises without even the addition
+of a wooden plug. But anything will do. On a memorable night nearly
+thirty years ago, the whole cornopean stop of an organ was sold in the
+fair, amounting to seventy or eighty pipes with their reeds. The
+instrument in the old English Protestant Church outside of Porta del
+Popolo had been improved, and the organist, who was a practical
+Anglo-Saxon, conceived the original and economical idea of selling the
+useless pipes at the night fair for the benefit of the church. The
+braying of the high, cracked reeds was frightful and never to be
+forgotten.
+
+Round and round the square, three generations of families, children,
+parents and even grandparents, move in a regular stream, closer and
+closer towards midnight and supper-time; nor is the place deserted till
+three o'clock in the morning. Toys everywhere, original with an
+attractive ugliness, nine-tenths of them made of earthenware dashed with
+a kind of bright and harmless paint of which every Roman child remembers
+the taste for life; and old and young and middle-aged all blow their
+whistles and horns with solemnly ridiculous pertinacity, pausing only to
+make some little purchase at the booths, or to exchange a greeting with
+passing friends, followed by an especially vigorous burst of noise as
+the whistles are brought close to each other's ears, and the party that
+can make the more atrocious din drives the other half deafened from the
+field. And the old women who help to keep the booths sit warming their
+skinny hands over earthen pots of coals and looking on without a smile
+on their Sibylline faces, while their sons and daughters sell clay
+hunchbacks and little old women of clay, the counterparts of their
+mothers, to the passing customers. Thousands upon thousands of people
+throng the place, and it is warm with the presence of so much humanity,
+even under the clear winter sky. And there is no confusion, no
+accident, no trouble, there are no drunken men and no pickpockets. But
+Romans are not like other people.
+
+In a few days all is cleared away again, and Bernini's great fountain
+faces Borromini's big Church of Saint Agnes, in the silence; and the
+officious guide tells the credulous foreigner how the figure of the Nile
+in the group is veiling his head to hide the sight of the hideous
+architecture, and how the face of the Danube expresses the River God's
+terror lest the tower should fall upon him; and how the architect
+retorted upon the sculptor by placing Saint Agnes on the summit of the
+church, in the act of reassuring the Romans as to the safety of her
+shrine; and again, how Bernini's enemies said that the obelisk of the
+fountain was tottering, till he came alone on foot and tied four lengths
+of twine to the four corners of the pedestal, and fastened the strings
+to the nearest houses, in derision, and went away laughing. It was at
+that time that he modelled four grinning masks for the corners of his
+sedan-chair, so that they seemed to be making scornful grimaces at his
+detractors as he was carried along. He could afford to laugh. He had
+been the favourite of Urban the Eighth who, when Cardinal Barberini, had
+actually held the looking-glass by the aid of which the handsome young
+sculptor modelled his own portrait in the figure of David with the
+sling, now in the Museum of Villa Borghese. After a brief period of
+disgrace under the next reign, brought about by the sharpness of his
+Neapolitan tongue, Bernini was restored to the favour of Innocent the
+Tenth, the Pamfili Pope, to please whose economical tastes he executed
+the fountain in Piazza Navona, after a design greatly reduced in extent
+as well as in beauty, compared with the first he had sketched. But an
+account of Bernini would lead far and profit little; the catalogue of
+his works would fill a small volume; and after all, he was successful
+only in an age when art had fallen low. In place of Michelangelo's
+universal genius, Bernini possessed a born Neapolitan's universal
+facility. He could do something of everything, circumstances gave him
+enormous opportunities, and there were few things which he did not
+attempt, from classic sculpture to the final architecture of Saint
+Peter's and the fortifications of Sant' Angelo. He was afflicted by the
+hereditary giantism of the Latins, and was often moved by motives of
+petty spite against his inferior rival, Borromini. His best work is the
+statue of Saint Teresa in Santa Maria della Vittoria, a figure which has
+recently excited the ecstatic admiration of a French critic, expressed
+in language that betrays at once the fault of the conception, the taste
+of the age in which Bernini lived, and the unhealthy nature of the
+sculptor's prolific talent. Only the seventeenth century could have
+represented such a disquieting fusion of the sensuous and the
+spiritual, and it was reserved for the decadence of our own days to find
+words that could describe it. Bernini has been praised as the
+Michelangelo of his day, but no one has yet been bold enough, or foolish
+enough, to call Michelangelo the Bernini of the sixteenth century.
+Barely sixty years elapsed between the death of the one and birth of the
+other, and the space of a single lifetime separates the zenith of the
+Renascence from the nadir of Barocco art.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA NAVONA]
+
+The names of Bernini and of Piazza Navona recall Innocent the Tenth, who
+built the palace beside the Church of Saint Agnes, his meannesses, his
+nepotism, his weakness, and his miserable end; how his relatives
+stripped him of all they could lay hands on, and how at the last, when
+he died in the only shirt he possessed, covered by a single ragged
+blanket, his sister-in-law, Olimpia Maldachini, dragged from beneath his
+pallet bed the two small chests of money which he had succeeded in
+concealing to the end. A brass candlestick with a single burning taper
+stood beside him in his last moments, and before he was quite dead, a
+servant stole it and put a wooden one in its place. When he was dead at
+the Quirinal, his body was carried to Saint Peter's in a bier so short
+that the poor Pope's feet stuck out over the end, and three days later,
+no one could be found to pay for the burial. Olimpia declared that she
+was a starving widow and could do nothing; the corpse was thrust into a
+place where the masons of the Vatican kept their tools, and one of the
+workmen, out of charity or superstition, lit a tallow candle beside it.
+In the end, the maggiordomo paid for a deal coffin, and Monsignor Segni
+gave five scudi--an English pound--to have the body taken away and
+buried. It was slung between two mules and taken by night to the Church
+of Saint Agnes, where in the changing course of human and domestic
+events, it ultimately got an expensive monument in the worst possible
+taste. The learned and sometimes witty Baracconi, who has set down the
+story, notes the fact that Leo the Tenth, Pius the Fourth and Gregory
+the Sixteenth fared little better in their obsequies, and he comments
+upon the democratic spirit of a city in which such things can happen.
+
+Close to the Piazza Navona stands the famous mutilated group, known as
+Pasquino, of which the mere name conveys a better idea of the Roman
+character than volumes of description, for it was here that the
+pasquinades were published, by affixing them to a pedestal at the corner
+of the Palazzo Braschi. And one of Pasquino's bitterest jests was
+directed against Olimpia Maldachini. Her name was cut in two, to make a
+good Latin pun: 'Olim pia, nunc impia,' 'once pious, now impious,' or
+'Olimpia, now impious,' as one chose to join or separate the syllables.
+Whole books have been filled with the short and pithy imaginary
+conversations between Marforio, the statue of a river god which used to
+stand in the Monti, and Pasquino, beneath whom the Roman children used
+to be told that the book of all wisdom was buried for ever.
+
+In the Region of Parione stands the famous Cancelleria, a masterpiece of
+Bramante's architecture, celebrated for many events in the later history
+of Rome, and successively the princely residence of several cardinals,
+chief of whom was that strong Pompeo Colonna, the ally of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth, who was responsible for the sacking of Rome by the
+Constable of Bourbon, who ultimately ruined the Holy League, and imposed
+his terrible terms of peace upon Clement the Seventh, a prisoner in
+Sant' Angelo. Considering the devastation and the horrors which were the
+result of that contest, and its importance in Rome's history, it is
+worth while to tell the story again. Connected with it was the last
+great struggle between Orsini and Colonna, Orsini, as usual, siding for
+the Pope, and therefore for the Holy League, and Colonna for the
+Emperor.
+
+Charles the Fifth had vanquished Francis the First at Pavia, in the year
+1525, and had taken the French King prisoner. A year later the Holy
+League was formed, between Pope Clement the Seventh, the King of France,
+the Republics of Venice and Florence, and Francesco Sforza, Duke of
+Milan. Its object was to fight the Emperor, to sustain Sforza, and to
+seize the Kingdom of Naples by force. Immediately upon the proclamation
+of the League, the Emperor's ambassadors left Rome, the Colonna retired
+to their strongholds, and the Emperor made preparations to send Charles,
+Duke of Bourbon, the disgraced relative of King Francis, to storm Rome
+and reduce the imprisoned Pope to submission. The latter's first and
+nearest source of fear lay in the Colonna, who held the fortresses and
+passes between Rome and the Neapolitan frontier, and his first instinct
+was to attack them with the help of the Orsini. But neither side was
+ready for the fight, and the timid Pontiff eagerly accepted the promise
+of peace made by the Colonna in order to gain time, and he dismissed the
+forces he had hastily raised against them.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO MASSIMO ALLE COLONNA]
+
+[Illustration: PONTE SISTO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+They, in the mean time, treated with Moncada, Regent of Naples for the
+Emperor, and at once seized Anagni, put several thousand men in the
+field, marched upon Rome with incredible speed, seized three gates in
+the night, and entered the city in triumph on the following morning. The
+Pope and the Orsini, completely taken by surprise, offered little or no
+resistance. According to some writers, it was Pompeo Colonna's daring
+plan to murder the Pope, force his own election to the Pontificate by
+arms, destroy the Orsini, and open Rome to Charles the Fifth; and when
+the Colonna advanced on the same day, by Ponte Sisto, to Trastevere, and
+threatened to attack Saint Peter's and the Vatican, Clement the Seventh,
+remembering Sciarra and Pope Boniface, was on the point of imitating
+the latter and arraying himself in his Pontifical robes to await his
+enemy with such dignity as he could command. But the remonstrances of
+the more prudent cardinals prevailed, and about noon they conveyed him
+safely to Sant' Angelo by the secret covered passage, leaving the
+Colonna to sack Trastevere and even Saint Peter's itself, though they
+dared not come too near to Sant' Angelo for fear of its cannons. The
+tumult over at last, Don Ugo de Moncada, in the Emperor's name, took
+possession of the Pope's two nephews as hostages for his own safety,
+entered Sant' Angelo under a truce, and stated the Emperor's conditions
+of peace. These were, to all intents and purposes, that the Pope should
+withdraw his troops, wherever he had any, and that the Emperor should be
+free to advance wherever he pleased, except through the Papal States,
+that the Pope should give hostages for his good faith, and that he
+should grant a free pardon to all the Colonna, who vaguely agreed to
+withdraw their forces into the Kingdom of Naples. To this humiliating
+peace, or armistice, for it was nothing more, the Pope was forced by the
+prospect of starvation, and he would even have agreed to sail to
+Barcelona in order to confer with the Emperor; but from this he was
+ultimately dissuaded by Henry the Eighth of England and the King of
+France, 'who sent him certain sums of money and promised him their
+support.' The consequence was that he broke the truce as soon as he
+dared, deprived the Cardinal of his hat, and, with the help of the
+Orsini, attacked the Colonna by surprise on their estates, giving orders
+to burn their castles and raze their fortresses to the ground. Four
+villages were burned before the surprised party could recover itself;
+but with some assistance from the imperial troops they were soon able to
+face their enemies on equal terms, and the little war raged fiercely
+during several months, with varying success and all possible cruelty on
+both sides.
+
+Meanwhile Charles, Duke of Bourbon, known as the Constable, and more or
+less in the pay of the Emperor, had gathered an army in Lombardy. His
+force consisted of the most atrocious ruffians of the time,--Lutheran
+Germans, superstitious Spaniards, revolutionary Italians, and such other
+nondescripts as would join his standard,--all fellows who had in reality
+neither country nor conscience, and were ready to serve any soldier of
+fortune who promised them plunder and license. The predominating element
+was Spanish, but there was not much to choose among them all so far as
+their instincts were concerned. Charles was penniless, as usual; he
+offered his horde of cutthroats the rich spoils of Tuscany and Rome,
+they swore to follow him to death and perdition, and he began his
+southward march. The Emperor looked on with an approving eye, and the
+Pope was overcome by abject terror. In the vain hope of saving himself
+and the city he concluded a truce with the Viceroy of Naples, agreeing
+to pay sixty thousand ducats, to give back everything taken from the
+Colonna, and to restore Pompeo to the honours of the cardinalate. The
+conditions of the armistice were forthwith carried out, by the
+disbanding of the Pope's hired soldiers and the payment of the
+indemnity, and Clement the Seventh enjoyed during a few weeks the
+pleasant illusion of fancied safety.
+
+He awoke from the dream, in horror and fear, to find that the Constable
+considered himself in no way bound by a peace concluded with the
+Emperor's Viceroy, and was advancing rapidly upon Rome, ravaging and
+burning everything in his way. Hasty preparations for defence were made;
+a certain Renzo da Ceri armed such men as he could enlist with such
+weapons as he could find, and sent out a little force of grooms and
+artificers to face the Constable's ruthless Spaniards and the fierce
+Germans of his companion freebooter, George of Fransperg, or Franzberg,
+who carried about a silken cord by which he swore to strangle the Pope
+with his own hands. The enemy reached the walls of Rome on the night of
+the fifth of May; devastation and famine lay behind them in their track,
+the plunder of the Church was behind the walls, and far from northward
+came rumours of the army of the League on its way to cut off their
+retreat. They resolved to win the spoil or die, and at dawn the
+Constable, clad in a white cloak, led the assault and set up the first
+scaling ladder, close to the Porta San Spirito. In the very act a bullet
+struck him in a vital part and he fell headlong to the earth. Benvenuto
+Cellini claimed the credit of the shot, but it is more than probable
+that it sped from another hand, that of Bernardino Passeri; it matters
+little now, it mattered less then, as the infuriated Spaniards stormed
+the walls in the face of Camillo Orsini's desperate and hopeless
+resistance, yelling 'Blood and the Bourbon,' for a war-cry.
+
+Once more the wretched Pope fled along the secret corridor with his
+cardinals, his prelates and his servants; for although he might yet have
+escaped from the doomed city, messengers had brought word that Cardinal
+Pompeo Colonna had ten thousand men-at-arms in the Campagna, ready to
+cut off his flight, and he was condemned to be a terrified spectator of
+Rome's destruction from the summit of a fortress which he dared not
+surrender and could hardly hope to defend. Seven thousand Romans were
+slaughtered in the storming of the walls; the enemy gained all
+Trastevere at a blow and the sack began; the torrent of fury poured
+across Ponte Sisto into Rome itself, thousands upon thousands of
+steel-clad madmen, drunk with blood and mad with the glitter of gold, a
+storm of unimaginable terror. Cardinals, Princes and Ambassadors were
+dragged from their palaces, and when greedy hands had gathered up all
+that could be taken away, fire consumed the rest, and the miserable
+captives were tortured into promising fabulous ransoms for life and
+limb. Abbots, priors and heads of religious orders were treated with
+like barbarity, and the few who escaped the clutches of the bloodthirsty
+Spanish soldiers fell into the reeking hands of the brutal German
+adventurers. The enormous sum of six million ducats was gathered
+together in value of gold and silver bullion and of precious things, and
+as much more was extorted as promised ransom from the gentlemen and
+churchmen and merchants of Rome by the savage tortures of the lash, the
+iron boot and the rack. The churches were stripped of all consecrated
+vessels, the Sacred Wafers were scattered abroad by the Catholic
+Spaniards and trampled in the bloody ooze that filled the ways, the
+convents were stormed by a rabble in arms and the nuns were distributed
+as booty among their fiendish captors, mothers and children were
+slaughtered in the streets and drunken Spaniards played dice for the
+daughters of honourable citizens.
+
+From the surrounding Campagna the Colonna entered the city in arms,
+orderly, silent and sober, and from their well-guarded fortresses they
+contemplated the ruin they had brought upon Rome. Cardinal Pompeo
+installed himself in his palace of the Cancelleria in the Region of
+Parione, and gave shelter to such of his friends as might be useful to
+him thereafter. In revenge upon John de' Medici, the Captain of the
+Black Bands, whose assistance the Pope had invoked, the Cardinal caused
+the Villa Medici on Monte Mario to be burned to the ground, and Clement
+the Seventh watched the flames from the ramparts of Sant' Angelo. One
+good action is recorded of the savage churchman. He ransomed and
+protected in his house the wife and the daughter of that Giorgio
+Santacroce who had murdered the Cardinal's father by night, when the
+Cardinal himself was an infant in arms, more than forty years earlier;
+and he helped some of his friends to escape by a chimney from the room
+in which they had been confined and tortured into promising a ransom
+they could not pay. But beyond those few acts he did little to mitigate
+the horrors of the month-long sack, and nothing to relieve the city from
+the yoke of its terrible captors. The Holy League sent a small force to
+the Pope's assistance and it reached the gates of Rome; but the
+Spaniards were in possession of immense stores of ammunition and
+provisions, they had more horses than they needed and more arms than
+they could bear; the forces of the League had traversed a country in
+which not a blade of grass had been left undevoured nor a measure of
+corn uneaten; and the avengers of the dead Constable, securely fortified
+within the walls, looked down with contempt upon an army already
+decimated by sickness and starvation.
+
+At this juncture, Clement the Seventh resolved to abandon further
+resistance and sue for peace. The guns of Sant' Angelo had all but fired
+their last shot, and the supply of food was nearly exhausted, when the
+Pope sent for Cardinal Colonna; the churchman consented to a parley, and
+the man who had suffered confiscation and disgrace entered the castle as
+the arbiter of destiny. He was received as the mediator of peace and a
+benefactor of humanity, and when he stated his terms they were not
+refused. The Pope and the thirteen Cardinals who were with him were to
+remain prisoners until the payment of four hundred thousand ducats of
+gold, after which they were to be conducted to Naples to await the
+further pleasure of the Emperor; the Colonna were to be absolutely and
+freely pardoned for all they had done; in the hope of some subsequent
+assistance the Pope promised to make Cardinal Colonna the Legate of the
+Marches. As a hostage for the performance of these and other conditions,
+Cardinal Orsini was delivered over to his enemy, who conducted him as
+his prisoner to the Castle of Grottaferrata, and the Colonna secretly
+agreed to allow the Pope to go free from Sant' Angelo. On the night of
+December the ninth, seven months after the storming of the city, the
+head of the Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church fled from the
+castle in the humble garb of a market gardener, and made good his escape
+to Orvieto and to the protection of the Holy League.
+
+Meanwhile a pestilence had broken out in Rome, and the spectre of a
+mysterious and mortal sickness distracted those who had survived the
+terrors of sword and flame. The Spanish and German soldiery either fell
+victims to the plague or deserted in haste and fear; and though Cardinal
+Pompeo's peace contained no promise that the city should be evacuated,
+it was afterwards stated upon credible authority that, within two years
+from their coming, not one of the barbarous horde was left alive within
+the walls. When all was over the city was little more than a heap of
+ruins, but the Colonna had been victorious, and were sated with revenge.
+This, in brief, is the history of the storming and sacking of Rome which
+took place in the year 1527, at the highest development of the
+Renascence, in the youth of Benvenuto Cellini, when Michelangelo had not
+yet painted the Last Judgment, when Titian was just fifty years old, and
+when Raphael and Lionardo da Vinci were but lately dead; and the
+contrast between the sublimity of art and the barbarity of human nature
+in that day is only paralleled in the annals of our own century, at once
+the bloodiest and the most civilized in the history of the world.
+
+The Cancelleria, wherein Pompeo Colonna sheltered the wife and daughter
+of his father's murderer, is remembered for some modern political
+events: for the opening of the first representative parliament under
+Pius the Ninth, in 1848, for the assassination of the Pope's minister,
+Pellegrino Rossi, on the steps of the entrance in the same year, and as
+the place where the so-called Roman Republic was proclaimed in 1849. But
+it is most of all interesting for the nobility of its proportions and
+the simplicity of its architecture. It is undeniably, and almost
+undeniedly, the best building in Rome today, though that may not be
+saying much in a city which has been more exclusively the prey of the
+Barocco than any other.
+
+[Illustration: THE CANCELLERIA
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+The Palace of the Massimo, once built to follow the curve of a narrow
+winding street, but now facing the same great thoroughfare as the
+Cancelleria, has something of the same quality, with a wholly different
+character. It is smaller and more gloomy, and its columns are almost
+black with age; it was here, in 1455, that Pannartz and Schweinheim, two
+of those nomadic German scholars who have not yet forgotten the road to
+Italy, established their printing-press in the house of Pietro de'
+Massimi, and here took place one of those many romantic tragedies which
+darkened the end of the sixteenth century. For a certain Signore
+Massimo, in the year 1585, had been married and had eight sons, mostly
+grown men, when he fell in love with a light-hearted lady of more wit
+than virtue, and announced that he would make her his wife, though his
+sons warned him that they would not bear the slight upon their mother's
+memory. The old man, infatuated and beside himself with love, would not
+listen to them, but published the banns, married the woman, and brought
+her home for his wife.
+
+One of the sons, the youngest, was too timid to join the rest; but on
+the next morning the seven others went to the bridal apartment, and
+killed their step-mother when their father was away. But he came back
+before she was quite dead, and he took the Crucifix from the wall by the
+bed and cursed his children. And the curse was fulfilled upon them.
+
+Parione is the heart of Mediæval Rome, the very centre of that black
+cloud of mystery which hangs over the city of the Middle Age. A history
+might be composed out of Pasquin's sayings, volumes have been written
+about Cardinal Pompeo Colonna and the ruin he wrought, whole books have
+been filled with the life and teachings and miracles of Saint Philip
+Neri, who belonged to this quarter, erected here his great oratory, and
+is believed to have recalled from the dead a youth of the house of
+Massimo in that same gloomy palace.
+
+The story of Rome is a tale of murder and sudden death, varied,
+changing, never repeated in the same way; there is blood on every
+threshold; a tragedy lies buried in every church and chapel; and again
+we ask in vain wherein lies the magic of the city that has fed on terror
+and grown old in carnage, the charm that draws men to her, the power
+that holds, the magic that enthralls men soul and body, as Lady Venus
+cast her spells upon Tannhäuser in her mountain of old. Yet none deny
+it, and as centuries roll on, the poets, the men of letters, the
+musicians, the artists of all ages, have come to her from far countries
+and have dwelt here while they might, some for long years, some for the
+few months they could spare; and all of them have left something, a
+verse, a line, a sketch, a song that breathes the threefold mystery of
+love, eternity and death.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+A
+
+Abruzzi, i. 159; ii. 230
+
+Accoramboni, Flaminio, i. 296
+  Vittoria, i. 135, 148, 289-296, 297
+
+Agrarian Law, i. 23
+
+Agrippa, i. 90, 271; ii. 102
+  the Younger, ii. 103
+
+Alaric, i. 252; ii. 297
+
+Alba Longa, i. 3, 78, 130
+
+Albergo dell' Orso, i. 288
+
+Alberic, ii. 29
+
+Albornoz, ii. 19, 20, 74
+
+Aldobrandini, i. 209; ii. 149
+  Olimpia, i. 209
+
+Alfonso, i. 185
+
+Aliturius, ii. 103
+
+Altieri, i. 226; ii. 45
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 132, 133, 138
+
+Amphitheatre, Flavian, i. 91, 179
+
+Amulius, i. 3
+
+Anacletus, ii. 295, 296, 304
+
+Anagni, i. 161, 165, 307; ii. 4, 5
+
+Ancus Martius, i. 4
+
+Angelico, Beato, ii. 158, 169, 190-192, 195, 285
+
+Anguillara, i. 278; ii. 138
+  Titta della, ii. 138, 139
+
+Anio, the, i. 93
+  Novus, i. 144
+  Vetus, i. 144
+
+Annibaleschi, Riccardo degli, i. 278
+
+Antiochus, ii. 120
+
+Antipope--
+  Anacletus, ii. 84
+  Boniface, ii. 28
+  Clement, i. 126
+  Gilbert, i. 127
+  John of Calabria, ii. 33-37
+
+Antonelli, Cardinal, ii. 217, 223, 224
+
+Antonina, i. 266
+
+Antonines, the, i. 113, 191, 271
+
+Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, i. 46, 96, 113, 114, 190, 191
+
+Appian Way, i. 22, 94
+
+Appius Claudius, i. 14, 29
+
+Apulia, Duke of, i. 126, 127; ii. 77
+
+Aqua Virgo, i. 155
+
+Aqueduct of Claudius, i. 144
+
+Arbiter, Petronius, i. 85
+
+Arch of--
+  Arcadius, i. 192
+  Claudius, i. 155
+  Domitian, i. 191, 205
+  Gratian, i. 191
+  Marcus Aurelius, i. 96, 191, 205
+  Portugal, i. 205
+  Septimius Severus, ii. 93
+  Valens, i. 191
+
+Archive House, ii. 75
+
+Argiletum, the, i. 72
+
+Ariosto, ii. 149, 174
+
+Aristius, i. 70, 71
+
+Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73, 76-89
+
+Arnulf, ii. 41
+
+Art, i. 87; ii 152
+  and morality, i. 260, 261; ii. 178, 179
+    religion, i. 260, 261
+  Barocco, i. 303, 316
+  Byzantine in Italy, ii. 155, 184, 185
+  development of taste in, ii. 198
+  factors in the progress of art, ii. 181
+    engraving, ii. 186
+    improved tools, ii. 181
+    individuality, i. 262; ii. 175-177
+  Greek influence on, i. 57-63
+  modes of expression of, ii. 181
+    fresco, ii. 181-183
+    oil painting, ii. 184-186
+  of the Renascence, i. 231, 262; ii. 154
+  phases of, in Italy, ii. 188
+  progress of, during the Middle Age, ii. 166, 180
+  transition from handicraft to, ii. 153
+
+Artois, Count of, i. 161
+
+Augustan Age, i. 57-77
+
+Augustulus, i. 30, 47, 53; ii. 64
+
+Augustus, i. 30, 43-48, 69, 82, 89, 90, 184, 219, 251, 252, 254, 270;
+    ii. 64, 75, 95,102, 291
+
+Aurelian, i. 177, 179, 180; ii. 150
+
+Avalos, Francesco, d', i. 174, 175
+
+Aventine, the, i. 23, 76; ii. 10, 40, 85, 119-121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129,
+132, 302
+
+Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. 6, 9
+
+
+B
+
+Bacchanalia, ii. 122
+
+Bacchic worship, i. 76; ii. 120
+
+Bajazet the Second, Sultan, i. 276
+
+Baracconi, i. 104, 141, 178, 188, 252, 264, 274, 304; ii. 41, 45, 128, 130,
+138, 323
+
+Barberi, i. 202
+
+Barberini, the, i. 157, 187, 226, 268, 301; ii. 7
+
+Barbo, i. 202; ii. 45
+
+Barcelona, i. 308
+
+Bargello, the, i. 129, 293, 296; ii. 42
+
+Basil and Constantine, ii. 33
+
+Basilica (Pagan)--
+  Julia, i. 66, 71, 106; ii. 92
+
+Basilicas (Christian) of--
+  Constantine, i. 90; ii. 292, 297
+  Liberius, i. 138
+  Philip and Saint James, i. 170
+  Saint John Lateran, i. 107, 112, 117, 278, 281
+  Santa Maria Maggiore, i. 107, 135, 139, 147, 148, 166, 208, 278; ii. 118
+  Santi Apostoli, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. 213
+  Sicininus, i. 134, 138
+
+Baths, i. 91
+  of Agrippa, i. 271
+  of Caracalla, ii. 119
+  of Constantine, i. 144, 188
+  of Diocletian, i. 107, 129, 145-147, 149, 289, 292
+  of Novatus, i. 145
+  of Philippus, i. 145
+  of public, i. 144
+  of Severus Alexander, ii. 28
+  of Titus, i. 55, 107, 152
+
+Befana, the, i. 298, 299, 300; ii. 25
+
+Belisarius, i. 266, 267, 269
+
+Benediction of 1846, the, i. 183
+
+Benevento, Cola da, i. 219, 220
+
+Bernard, ii. 77-80
+
+Bernardi, Gianbattista, ii. 54
+
+Bernini, i. 147, 301, 302, 303; ii. 24
+
+Bibbiena, Cardinal, ii. 146, 285
+  Maria, ii. 146
+
+Bismarck, ii. 224, 232, 236, 237
+
+Boccaccio, i. 211, 213
+  Vineyard, the, i. 189
+
+Bologna, i. 259; ii. 58
+
+Borghese, the, i. 206, 226
+  Scipio, i. 187
+
+Borgia, the, i. 209
+  Cæsar, i. 149, 151, 169, 213, 287; ii. 150, 171, 282, 283
+  Gandia, i. 149, 150, 151, 287
+  Lucrezia, i. 149, 177, 185, 287; ii. 129, 151, 174
+  Rodrigo, i. 287; ii. 242, 265, 282
+  Vanozza, i. 149, 151, 287
+
+Borgo, the Region, i. 101, 127; ii. 132, 147, 202-214, 269
+
+Borroinini, i. 301, 302; ii. 24
+
+Botticelli, ii. 188, 190, 195, 200, 276
+
+Bracci, ii. 318
+
+Bracciano, i. 282, 291, 292, 294
+  Duke of, i. 289
+
+Bramante, i. 305; ii. 144, 145, 274, 298, 322
+
+Brescia, i. 286
+
+Bridge. See _Ponte_
+  Ælian, the, i. 274
+  Cestian, ii. 105
+  Fabrician, ii. 105
+  Sublician, i. 6, 23, 67; ii. 127, 294.
+
+Brotherhood of Saint John Beheaded, ii. 129, 131
+
+Brothers of Prayer and Death, i. 123, 204, 242
+
+Brunelli, ii. 244
+
+Brutus, i. 6, 12, 18, 41, 58, 80; ii. 96
+
+Buffalmacco, ii. 196
+
+Bull-fights, i. 252
+
+Burgundians, i. 251
+
+
+C
+
+Cæsar, Julius, i. 29-33, 35-41, 250; ii. 102, 224, 297
+
+Cæsars, the, i. 44-46, 125, 249, 252, 253; ii. 224
+  Julian, i. 252
+  Palaces of, i. 4, 191; ii. 95
+
+Caetani, i. 51, 115, 159, 161, 163, 206, 277
+  Benedict, i. 160
+
+Caligula, i. 46, 252, ii. 96
+
+Campagna, the, i. 92, 94, 158, 237, 243, 253, 282, 312; ii. 88, 107, 120
+
+Campitelli, the Region, i. 101; ii. 64
+
+Campo--
+  dei Fiori, i. 297
+  Marzo (Campus Martius), i. 65, 112, 271
+  the Region, i. 101, 248, 250, 275; ii. 6, 44
+  Vaccino, i. 128-131, 173
+
+Canale, Carle, i. 287
+
+Cancelleria, i. 102, 305, 312, 315, 316; ii. 223
+
+Canidia, i. 64; ii. 293
+
+Canossa, i. 126; ii. 307
+
+Canova, ii. 320
+
+Capet, Hugh, ii. 29
+
+Capitol, the, i. 8, 14, 24, 29, 72, 107, 112, 167, 190, 204, 278, 282;
+  ii. 12, 13, 21, 22, 52, 64, 65, 67-75, 84, 121, 148, 302
+
+Capitoline hill, i. 106, 194
+
+Captains of the Regions, i. 110, 112, 114
+  Election of, i. 112
+
+Caracci, the, i. 264
+
+Carafa, the, ii. 46, 49, 50, 56, 111
+  Cardinal, i. 186, 188; ii. 56, 204
+
+Carnival, i. 107, 193-203, 241, 298; ii. 113
+  of Saturn, i. 194
+
+Carpineto, ii. 229, 230, 232, 239, 287
+
+Carthage, i. 20, 26, 88
+
+Castagno, Andrea, ii. 89, 185
+
+Castle of--
+  Grottaferrata, i. 314
+  Petrella, i. 286
+  the Piccolomini, i. 268
+  Sant' Angelo, i. 114, 116, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 259, 278, 284, 308,
+    314; ii. 17, 28, 37, 40, 56, 59, 60, 109, 152, 202-214, 216, 269
+
+Castracane, Castruccio, i. 165, 166, 170
+
+Catacombs, the, i. 139
+  of Saint Petronilla, ii. 125
+    Sebastian, ii. 296
+
+Catanei, Vanossa de, i. 287
+
+Catharine, Queen of Cyprus, ii. 305
+
+Cathedral of Siena, i. 232
+
+Catiline, i. 27; ii. 96, 294
+
+Cato, ii. 121
+
+Catullus, i. 86
+
+Cavour, Count, ii. 90, 224, 228, 237
+
+Cellini, Benvenuto, i. 311, 315; ii. 157, 195
+
+Cenci, the, ii. 1
+  Beatrice, i. 147, 285-287; ii. 2, 129, 151
+  Francesco, i, 285; ii. 2
+
+Centra Pio, ii. 238, 239
+
+Ceri, Renzo da, i. 310
+
+Cesarini, Giuliano, i. 174; ii. 54, 89
+
+Chapel, Sixtine. See under _Vatican_
+
+Charlemagne, i. 32, 49, 51, 53, 76, 109; ii. 297
+
+Charles of Anjou, i. ii. 160
+  Albert of Sardinia, ii. 221
+  the Fifth, i. 131, 174, 206, 220, 305, 306; ii. 138
+
+Chiesa. See _Church_
+  Nuova, i. 275
+
+Chigi, the, i. 258
+  Agostino, ii. 144, 146
+  Fabio, ii. 146
+
+Christianity in Rome, i. 176
+
+Christina, Queen of Sweden, ii. 150, 151, 304, 308
+
+Chrysostom, ii. 104, 105.
+
+Churches of,--
+  the Apostles, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. 213
+  Aracoeli, i. 52, 112, 167; ii. 57, 70, 75
+  Cardinal Mazarin, i. 186
+  the Gallows, i. 284
+  Holy Guardian Angel, i. 122
+  the Minerva, ii. 55
+  the Penitentiaries, ii. 216
+  the Portuguese, i. 250
+  Saint Adrian, i. 71
+    Agnes, i. 301, 304
+    Augustine, ii. 207
+    Bernard, i. 291
+    Callixtus, ii. 125
+    Charles, i. 251
+    Eustace, ii. 23, 24, 26, 39
+    George in Velabro, i. 195; ii. 10
+    Gregory on the Aventine, ii. 129
+    Ives, i. 251; ii. 23, 24
+    John of the Florentines, i. 273
+      Pine Cone, ii. 56
+  Peter's on the Janiculum, ii. 129
+  Sylvester, i. 176
+  Saints Nereus and Achillæus, ii. 125
+    Vincent and Anastasius, i. 186
+  San Clemente, i. 143
+    Giovanni in Laterano, i. 113
+    Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192
+      Miranda, i. 71
+    Marcello, i. 165, 192
+    Pietro in Montorio, ii. 151
+      Vincoli, i. 118, 283; ii. 322
+      Salvatore in Cacaberis, i. 112
+      Stefano Rotondo, i. 106
+  Sant' Angelo in Pescheria, i. 102; ii. 3, 10, 110
+  Santa Francesca Romana, i. 111
+    Maria de Crociferi, i. 267
+      degli Angeli, i. 146, 258, 259
+      dei Monti, i. 118
+      del Pianto, i. 113
+      di Grotto Pinta, i. 294
+      in Campo Marzo, ii. 23
+      in Via Lata, i. 142
+      Nuova, i. 111, 273
+      Transpontina, ii. 212
+      della Vittoria, i. 302
+    Prisca, ii. 124
+    Sabina, i. 278; ii. 40
+  Trinità dei Pellegrini, ii. 110
+
+Cicero, i. 45, 73; ii. 96, 294
+
+Cimabue, ii. 156, 157, 162, 163, 169, 188, 189
+
+Cinna, i. 25, 27
+
+Circolo, ii. 245
+
+Circus, the, i. 64, 253
+  Maximus, i. 64, 66; ii. 84, 119
+
+City of Augustus, i. 57-77
+  Making of the, i. 1-21
+  of Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+  of the Empire, i. 22-56
+  of the Middle Age, i. 47, 78-99, 92
+  of the Republic, i. 47
+    today, i. 55, 92
+
+Civilization, ii. 177
+  and bloodshed, ii. 218
+    morality, ii. 178
+    progress, ii. 177-180
+
+Claudius, i. 46, 255, 256;
+  ii. 102
+
+Cloelia, i. 13
+
+Coelian hill, i. 106
+
+Collegio Romano, i. 102;
+  ii. 45, 61
+
+Colonna, the, i. 51, 94, 104, 135, 153, 157-170, 172, 176, 187, 206, 217,
+    251, 252, 271, 272, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 2, 6, 8, 10, 16, 20, 37, 51, 54, 60, 106, 107, 126, 204
+  Giovanni, i. 104
+  Jacopo, i. 159, 165, 192
+  Lorenzo, ii. 126, 204-213
+  Marcantonio, i. 182; ii. 54
+  Pietro, i. 159
+  Pompeo, i. 305, 310-317; ii. 205
+  Prospero, ii. 205
+  Sciarra, i. 162-166, 192, 206, 213, 229, 279, 275, 281, 307
+  Stephen, i. 161, 165; ii. 13, 16
+    the Younger, i. 168
+  Vittoria, i. 157, 173-177; ii. 174
+  the Region, i. 101, 190-192; ii. 209
+  War between Orsini and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 12, 18, 126, 204-211
+
+Colosseum, i. 56, 86, 90, 96, 106, 107, 111, 125, 152, 153, 187, 191, 209,
+    278; ii. 25, 64, 66, 84, 97, 202, 203, 301
+
+Column of Piazza Colonna i. 190, 192
+
+Comitium, i. 112, 257, 268
+
+Commodus, i. 46, 55; ii. 97, 285
+
+Confraternities, i. 108, 204
+
+Conscript Fathers, i. 78, 112
+
+Constable of Bourbon, i. 52, 259, 273, 304, 309-311; ii. 308
+
+Constans, i. 135, 136
+
+Constantine, i. 90, 113, 163
+
+Constantinople, i. 95, 119
+
+Contests in the Forum, i. 27, 130
+
+Convent of Saint Catharine, i. 176
+
+Convent of Saint Sylvester, i. 176
+
+Corneto, Cardinal of, ii. 282, 283
+
+Cornomania, i. 141
+
+Cornutis, i. 87
+
+Coromania, i. 141, 144
+
+Corsini, the, ii. 150
+
+Corso, i. 96, 106, 108, 192, 196, 205, 206, 229, 251
+  Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275
+
+Corte Savella, i. 284; ii. 52
+
+Cosmas, the, ii. 156, 157
+
+Costa, Giovanni da, i. 205
+
+Court House, i. 71
+
+Crassus, i. 27, 31;
+  ii. 128
+
+Crawford, Thomas, i. 147
+
+Crescentius, ii. 40, 41
+
+Crescenzi, i. 114; ii. 27, 40, 209
+
+Crescenzio, ii. 28-40
+  Stefana, ii. 39
+
+Crispi, i. 116, 187
+
+Crusade, the Second, ii. 86, 105
+
+Crusades, the, i. 76
+
+Curatii, i. 3, 131
+
+Customs of early Rome, i. 9, 48
+  in dress, i. 48
+    religion, i. 48
+
+
+D
+
+Dante, i. 110; ii. 164, 175, 244
+
+Decameron, i. 239
+
+Decemvirs, i. 14; ii. 120
+
+Decrees, Semiamiran, i. 178
+
+Democracy, i. 108
+
+Development of Rome, i. 7, 18
+  some results of, i. 154
+  under Barons, i. 51
+    Decemvirs, i. 14
+    the Empire, i. 29, 30
+    Gallic invasion, i. 15-18
+    Kings, i. 2-7, 14-45
+    Middle Age, i. 47, 92, 210-247
+    Papal rule, i. 46-50
+    Republic, i. 7-14
+    Tribunes, i. 14
+
+Dictator of Rome, i. 29, 79
+
+Dietrich of Bern, ii. 297
+
+Dionysus, ii. 121
+
+Dolabella, i. 34
+
+Domenichino, ii. 147
+
+Domestic life in Rome, i. 9
+
+Dominicans, i. 158; ii. 45, 46, 49, 50, 60, 61
+
+Domitian, i. 45, 152, 205; ii. 104, 114, 124, 295
+
+Doria, the, i. 206; ii. 45
+  Albert, i. 207
+  Andrea, i. 207
+  Conrad, i. 207
+  Gian Andrea, i. 207
+  Lamba, i. 207
+  Paganino, i. 207
+
+Doria-Pamfili, i. 206-209
+
+Dress in early Rome, i. 48
+
+Drusus, ii. 102
+
+Duca, Antonio del, i. 146, 147
+  Giacomo del, i. 146
+
+Dürer, Albert, ii. 198
+
+
+E
+
+Education, ii. 179
+
+Egnatia, i. 75
+
+Elagabalus, i. 77, 177, 179; ii. 296, 297
+
+Election of the Pope, ii. 41, 42, 277
+
+Electoral Wards, i. 107
+
+Elizabeth, Queen of England, ii. 47
+
+Emperors, Roman, i. 46
+  of the East, i. 95, 126
+
+Empire of Constantinople, i. 46
+  of Rome, i. 15, 17, 22-28, 31, 45, 47, 53, 60, 72, 99
+
+Encyclicals, ii. 244
+
+Erasmus, ii. 151
+
+Esquiline, the, i. 26, 106, 139, 186; ii. 95, 131, 193
+
+Este, Ippolito d', i. 185
+
+Etruria, i. 12, 15
+
+Euodus, i. 255, 256
+
+Eustace, Saint, ii. 24, 25
+  square of, ii. 25, 42
+
+Eustachio. See _Sant' Eustachio_
+
+Eutichianus, ii. 296
+
+Eve of Saint John, i. 140
+  the Epiphany, 299
+
+
+F
+
+Fabius, i. 20
+
+Fabatosta, ii. 64, 84
+
+Farnese, the, ii. 151
+  Julia, ii. 324
+
+Farnesina, the, ii. 144, 149, 151
+
+Fathers, Roman, i. 13, 78, 79-84
+
+Ferdinand, ii. 205
+
+Ferrara, Duke of, i. 185
+
+Festivals, i. 193, 298
+  Aryan in origin, i. 173
+  Befana, i. 299-301
+  Carnival, i. 193-203
+  Church of the Apostle, i. 172, 173
+  Coromania, i. 141
+  Epifania, i. 298-301
+  Floralia, i. 141
+  Lupercalia, i. 194
+  May-day in the Campo Vaccino, i. 173
+  Saturnalia, i. 194
+  Saint John's Eve, i. 140
+
+Festus, ii. 128
+
+Feuds, family, i. 168
+
+Field of Mars. See _Campo Marzo_
+
+Finiguerra, Maso, ii. 186-188
+
+Flamen Dialis, i. 34
+
+Floralia. See _Festivals_
+
+Florence, i. 160
+
+Forli, Melozzo da, i. 171
+
+Fornarina, the, ii. 144, 146
+
+Forum, i, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 26, 27, 64, 72, 111, 126, 129, 194;
+    ii. 64, 92-94, 97, 102, 294, 295
+  of Augustus, i. 119
+  Trajan, i. 155, 171, 172, 191
+
+Fountains (Fontane) of--
+  Egeria, ii. 124
+  Trevi, i. 155, 156, 186, 267
+  Tullianum, i. 8
+
+Franconia, Duke of, ii. 36, 53
+
+Francis the First, i. 131, 174, 206, 219, 304
+
+Frangipani, i. 50, 94, 153;
+    ii. 77, 79, 84, 85
+
+Frederick, Barbarossa, ii. 34, 85, 87
+  of Naples, i. 151
+  the Second, ii. 34
+
+Fulvius, ii. 121
+
+
+G
+
+Gabrini, Lawrence, ii. 4
+  Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. 3-23, 308
+
+Gaeta, ii. 36
+
+Galba, ii. 295
+
+Galen, i. 55
+
+Galera, i. 282, 291
+
+Galileo, i. 268
+
+Gardens, i. 93
+  Cæsar's, i. 66, 68
+  of Lucullus, i. 254, 270
+  of the Pigna, ii. 273
+  Pincian, i. 255
+  the Vatican, ii. 243, 271, 287
+
+Gargonius, i. 65
+
+Garibaldi, ii. 90, 219, 220, 228, 237
+
+Gastaldi, Cardinal, i. 259
+
+Gate. See _Porta_
+  the Colline, i. 250
+  Lateran, i. 126, 154
+  Septimian, ii. 144, 147
+
+Gebhardt, Émile, i. 213
+
+Gemonian Steps, ii. 67, 294
+
+Genseric, i. 96; ii. 70
+
+George of Franzburg, i. 310
+
+Gherardesca, Ugolino della, ii. 160
+
+Ghetto, i. 102; ii. 2, 101, 110-118
+
+Ghibellines, the, i. 129, 153, 158; ii. 6
+
+Ghiberti, ii. 157.
+
+Ghirlandajo, ii. 157, 172, 276
+
+Giantism, i. 90-92, 210, 302
+
+Gibbon, i. 160
+
+Giotto, ii. 157, 160-165, 169, 188, 189, 200
+
+Gladstone, ii. 231, 232
+
+Golden Milestone, i. 72, 92, 194
+
+Goldoni, i. 265
+
+Goldsmithing, ii. 156, 157, 186, 187
+
+"Good Estate" of Rienzi, ii. 10-12
+
+Gordian, i. 91
+
+Goths, ii. 297, 307.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. 190, 195
+
+Gracchi, the, i. 22, 28
+  Caius, i. 23; ii. 84
+  Cornelia, i. 22, 24
+  Tiberius, i. 23; ii. 102
+
+Gratidianus, i. 27
+
+Guards, Noble, ii. 241, 243, 247, 248, 309, 310, 312
+  Palatine, ii. 247, 248
+  Swiss, ii. 246, 247, 310
+
+Guelphs, i. 159; ii. 42, 126, 138
+  and Ghibellines, i. 129, 153, 275; ii. 160, 162, 173
+
+Guiscard, Robert, i. 95, 126, 127, 129, 144, 252; ii. 70
+
+
+H
+
+Hadrian, i. 90, 180; i. 25, 202, 203
+
+Hannibal, i. 20
+
+Hasdrubal, i. 21
+
+Henry the Second, ii. 47
+  Fourth, i. 126, 127; ii. 307
+  Fifth, ii. 307
+  Seventh of Luxemburg, i. 273, 276-279; ii. 5
+  Eighth, i. 219; ii. 47, 274
+
+Hermann, i. 46
+
+Hermes of Olympia, i. 86
+
+Hermogenes, i. 67
+
+Hilda's Tower, i. 250
+
+Hildebrand, i. 52, 126-129; ii.
+
+Honorius, ii. 323, 324
+
+Horace, i. 44, 57-75, 85, 87;
+      ii. 293
+  and the Bore, i. 65-71
+  Camen Seculare of, i. 75
+  the Satires of, i. 73, 74
+
+Horatii, i. 3, 131
+
+Horatius, i. 5, 6, 13, 23;
+    ii. 127
+
+Horses of Monte Cavallo, i. 181
+
+Hospice of San Claudio, i. 251
+
+Hospital of--
+  Santo Spirito, i. 274; ii. 214, 215
+
+House of Parliament, i. 271
+
+Hugh of Burgundy, ii. 30
+  of Tuscany, ii. 30
+
+Huns' invasion, i. 15, 49, 132
+
+Huxley, ii. 225, 226
+
+
+I
+
+Imperia, ii. 144
+
+Infessura, Stephen, ii. 59, 60, 204-213
+
+Inn of--
+  The Bear, i. 288
+    Falcone, ii. 26
+    Lion, i. 287
+  Vanossa, i. 288
+
+Inquisition, i. 286; ii. 46, 49, 52, 53, 54
+
+Interminelli, Castruccio degli, i. 165
+
+Irene, Empress, i. 109
+
+Ischia, i. 175
+
+Island of Saint Bartholomew, i. 272; ii. 1
+
+Isola Sacra, i. 93
+
+Italian life during the Middle Age, i. 210, 247
+  from 17th to 18th centuries, i. 260, 263, 264
+
+
+J
+
+Janiculum, the, i. 15, 253, 270; ii. 268, 293, 294, 295
+
+Jesuit College, ii. 61
+
+Jesuits, ii. 45, 46, 61-63
+
+Jews, i. 96; ii. 101-119
+
+John of Cappadocia, i. 267, 268
+
+Josephus, ii. 103
+
+Juba, i. 40
+
+Jugurtha, i. 25
+
+Jupiter Capitolinus, ii. 324, 325
+  priest of, i. 80, 133
+
+Justinian, i. 267
+
+Juvenal, i. 112; ii. 105, 107, 124
+
+
+K
+
+Kings of Rome, i. 2-7
+
+
+L
+
+Lampridius, Ælius, i. 178
+
+Lanciani, i. 79, 177
+
+Lateran, the, i. 106, 112-114, 129, 140-142
+  Count of, i. 166
+
+Latin language, i. 47
+
+Latini Brunetto, ii. 163
+
+Laurentum, i. 55, 93
+
+Lazaret of Saint Martha, ii. 245
+
+League, Holy, i. 305, 306, 313, 314
+
+Lentulus, ii. 128
+
+Lepida, Domitia, i. 255, 256
+
+Letus, Pomponius, i. 139; ii. 210
+
+Lewis of Bavaria, i. 165, 167, 192, 275
+  the Seventh, ii. 86, 105
+      Eleventh, i. 104, 151
+      Fourteenth, i. 253
+
+Library of--
+  Collegio Romano, ii. 45
+  Vatican, ii. 275, 276, 282
+  Victor Emmanuel, ii. 45, 61
+
+Lieges, Bishop of, i. 280
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, ii. 231, 236
+
+Lippi, Filippo, ii. 190, 191, 192-195, 200
+
+Liszt, i. 185, 203; ii. 176
+
+Livia, i. 220, 252
+
+Livy, i. 44, 47
+
+Lombards, the, i. 251
+
+Lombardy, i. 309
+
+Lorrain, i. 264
+
+Loyola, Ignatius, ii. 46, 62
+
+Lucilius, i. 74
+
+Lucretia, i. 5, 12, 13
+
+Lucullus, i. 257, 270
+
+Lupercalia, i. 194
+
+Lupercus, i. 194
+
+
+M
+
+Macchiavelli, ii. 174
+
+Mæcenas, i. 62, 69, 74, 140; ii. 293
+
+Mænads, ii. 122
+
+Maldachini, Olimpia, i. 304, 305
+
+Mamertine Prison, i. 25; ii. 72, 293
+
+Mancini, Maria, i. 170, 187
+
+Mancino, Paul, ii. 210
+
+Manlius, Cnæus, ii. 121
+  Marcus, i. 29; ii. 71, 84
+  Titus, i. 80
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, ii. 157, 169, 188, 196-198
+
+Marcomanni, i. 190
+
+Marforio, i. 305
+
+Marino, i. 174
+
+Marius, Caius, i. 25, 29
+
+Marius and Sylla, i. 25, 29, 36, 45, 53; ii. 69
+
+Mark Antony, i. 30, 93, 195, 254
+
+Marozia, ii. 27, 28
+
+Marriage Laws, i. 79, 80
+
+Mary, Queen of Scots, ii. 47
+
+Masaccio, ii. 190
+
+Massimi, Pietro de', i. 317
+
+Massimo, i. 102, 317
+
+Mattei, the, ii. 137, 139, 140, 143
+  Alessandro, ii. 140-143
+  Curzio, ii. 140-143
+  Girolamo, ii. 141-143
+  Marcantonio, ii. 140, 141
+  Olimpia, ii. 141, 142
+  Piero, ii. 140, 141
+
+Matilda, Countess, ii. 307
+
+Mausoleum of--
+  Augustus, i. 158, 169, 205, 251, 252, 270, 271
+  Hadrian, i. 102, 252; ii. 28, 202, 270. See _Castle of Sant' Angelo_
+
+Maximilian, i. 151
+
+Mazarin, i. 170, 187
+
+Mazzini, ii. 219, 220
+
+Mediævalism, death of, ii. 225
+
+Medici, the, i. 110; ii. 276
+  Cosimo de', i. 289; ii. 194
+  Isabella de', i. 290, 291
+  John de', i. 313
+
+Messalina, i. 254, 272; ii. 255, 256, 257
+
+Michelangelo, i. 90, 146, 147, 173, 175, 177, 302, 303, 315;
+    ii. 129, 130, 157, 159, 166, 169, 171, 172, 175, 188, 200, 276-281,
+    284, 317-319, 322
+  "Last Judgment" by, i. 173; ii. 171, 276, 280, 315
+  "Moses" by, ii. 278, 286
+  "Pietà" by, ii. 286
+
+Middle Age, the, i. 47, 92, 210-247, 274; ii. 163, 166, 172-175, 180, 196
+
+Migliorati, Ludovico, i. 103
+
+Milan, i. 175
+  Duke of, i. 306
+
+Milestone, golden, i. 72
+
+Mithræum, i. 271
+
+Mithras, i. 76
+
+Mithridates, i. 26, 30, 37, 358
+
+Mocenni, Mario, ii. 249
+
+Monaldeschi, ii. 308
+
+Monastery of--
+  the Apostles, i. 182
+  Dominicans, ii. 45, 61
+  Grottaferrata, ii. 37
+  Saint Anastasia, ii. 38
+    Gregory, ii. 85
+  Sant' Onofrio, ii. 147
+
+Moncada, Ugo de, i. 307, 308
+
+Mons Vaticanus, ii. 268
+
+Montaigne, i. 288
+
+Montalto. See _Felice Peretti_
+
+Monte Briano, i. 274
+  Cavallo, i. 181, 188, 292, 293; ii. 205, 209
+  Citorio, i. 193, 252, 271
+  Giordano, i. 274, 281, 282, 288; ii. 206
+  Mario, i. 313; ii. 268
+
+Montefeltro, Guido da, ii. 160
+
+Monti--
+  the Region, i. 101, 106, 107, 111, 112, 125, 133, 134, 144, 150, 185,
+    305; ii. 133, 209
+  and Trastevere, i. 129, 145, 153; ii. 133, 209
+  by moonlight, i. 117
+
+Morrone, Pietro da, i. 159
+
+Muratori, i. 85, 132, 159, 277; ii. 40, 48, 76, 126, 324
+
+Museums of Rome, i. 66
+  Vatican, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287
+  Villa Borghese, i. 301
+
+Mustafa, ii. 247
+
+
+N
+
+Naples, i. 175, 182, 307, 308
+
+Napoleon, i. 32, 34, 53, 88, 109, 258; ii. 218, 221, 298
+  Louis, ii. 221, 223, 237
+
+Narcissus, i. 255
+
+Navicella, i. 106
+
+Nelson, i. 253
+
+Neri, Saint Philip, i. 318
+
+Nero, i. 46, 56, 188, 254, 257, 285; ii. 163, 211, 291
+
+Nilus, Saint, ii. 36, 37, 40
+
+Nogaret, i. 162, 164
+
+Northmen, i. 46, 49
+
+Numa, i. 3; ii. 268
+
+Nunnery of the Sacred Heart, i. 256
+
+
+O
+
+Octavius, i. 27, 30, 43, 89; ii. 291
+
+Odoacer, i. 47; ii. 297
+
+Olanda, Francesco d', i. 176
+
+Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, i. 186, 188
+
+Olympius, i. 136, 137, 138
+
+Opimius, i. 24
+
+Orgies of Bacchus, i. 76; ii. 120
+
+Orgies of the Mænads, ii. 121
+  on the Aventine, i. 76; ii. 121
+
+Orsini, the, i. 94, 149, 153, 159, 167-169, 183, 216, 217, 271, 274,
+    306-314; ii. 16, 126, 138, 204
+  Bertoldo, i. 168
+  Camillo, i. 311
+  Isabella, i. 291
+  Ludovico, i. 295
+  Matteo, i. 281
+  Napoleon, i. 161
+  Orsino, i. 166
+  Paolo Giordano, i. 283, 290-295
+  Porzia, i. 187
+  Troilo, i. 290, 291
+  Virginio, i. 295
+  war between Colonna and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 18, 126, 204
+
+Orsino, Deacon, i. 134, 135
+
+Orvieto, i. 314
+
+Otho, ii. 295
+  the Second, ii. 304
+
+Otto, the Great, i. 114; ii. 28, 30
+  Second, ii. 28
+  Third, ii. 29-37
+
+Ovid, i. 44, 63
+
+
+P
+
+Painting, ii. 181
+  in fresco, ii. 181-183
+    oil, ii. 184-186
+
+Palace (Palazzo)--
+  Annii, i. 113
+  Barberini, i. 106, 187
+  Borromeo, ii. 61
+  Braschi, i. 305
+  Cæsars, i. 4, 191; ii. 64
+  Colonna, i. 169, 189; ii. 205
+  Consulta, i. 181
+  Corsini, ii. 149, 308
+  Doria, i. 207, 226
+  Pamfili, i. 206, 208
+  Farnese, i. 102
+  Fiano, i. 205
+  della Finanze, i. 91
+  Gabrielli, i. 216
+  the Lateran, i. 127; ii. 30
+  Massimo alle Colonna, i. 316, 317
+  Mattei, ii. 140
+  Mazarini, i. 187
+  of Nero, i. 152
+  della Pilotta, i. 158
+  Priori, i. 160
+  Quirinale, i. 139, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 304
+  of the Renascence, i. 205
+  Rospigliosi, i. 181, 187, 188, 189
+  Ruspoli, i. 206
+  Santacroce, i. 237; ii. 23
+  of the Senator, i. 114
+  Serristori, ii. 214, 216
+  Theodoli, i. 169
+  di Venezia, i. 102, 192, 202
+
+Palatine, the, i. 2, 13, 67, 69, 194, 195; ii. 64, 119
+
+Palermo, i. 146
+
+Palestrina, i. 156, 157, 158, 161, 165, 166, 243, 282; ii. 13, 315
+
+Paliano, i. 282
+  Duke of, i. 157, 189
+
+Palladium, i. 77
+
+Pallavicini, i. 206, 258
+
+Palmaria, i. 267
+
+Pamfili, the, i. 206
+
+Pannartz, i. 317
+
+Pantheon, i. 90, 102, 195, 271, 278; ii. 44, 45, 146
+
+Parione, the Region, i. 101, 297, 312, 317; ii. 42
+  Square of, ii. 42
+
+Pasquino, the, i. 186, 305, 317
+
+Passavant, ii. 285
+
+Passeri, Bernardino, i. 313; ii. 308
+
+Patarina, i. 107, 202
+
+Patriarchal System, i. 223-228
+
+Pavia, i. 175
+
+Pecci, the, ii. 229
+  Joachim Vincent, ii. 229, 230.
+
+Peretti, the, i. 205
+  Felice, i. 149, 289-295
+  Francesco, i. 149, 289, 292
+  Vittoria. See _Accoramboni_
+
+Perugia, i. 159, 276, 277
+
+Perugino, ii. 157, 260, 276
+
+Pescara, i. 174
+
+Peter the Prefect, i. 114; ii. 230
+
+Petrarch, i. 161
+
+Petrella, i. 286
+
+Philip the Fair, i. 160, 276, 278
+  Second of Spain, ii. 47
+
+Phocas, column of, ii. 93.
+
+Piazza--
+  Barberini, i. 155
+  della Berlina Vecchia, i. 283
+    Chiesa Nuova, i. 155
+  del Colonna, i. 119, 190
+    Gesù, ii. 45
+  della Minerva, ii. 45
+    Moroni, i. 250
+    Navona, i. 102, 297, 298, 302, 303, 305; ii. 25, 46, 57
+    Pigna, ii. 55
+  of the Pantheon, i. 193; ii. 26
+    Pilotta, i. 158
+  del Popolo, i. 144, 206, 259, 273
+    Quirinale, i. 181
+    Romana, ii. 136
+  Sant' Eustachio, ii. 25
+  San Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192, 205, 250
+  Saint Peter's, ii. 251, 309
+  di Sciarra, i. 192
+    Spagna, i. 251; ii. 42
+  delle Terme, i. 144
+  di Termini, i. 144
+    Venezia, i. 206
+
+Pierleoni, the, ii. 77, 79, 82, 101, 105, 106, 109, 114
+
+Pigna, ii. 45
+  the Region, i, 101, 102; ii. 44
+
+Pilgrimages, ii. 245
+
+Pincian (hill), i. 119, 270, 272
+
+Pincio, the, i. 121, 189, 223, 253, 255, 256, 259, 264, 272
+
+Pintelli, Baccio, ii. 278, 279
+
+Pinturicchio, ii. 147
+
+Pliny, the Younger, i. 85, 87
+
+Pompey, i. 30
+
+Pons Æmilius, i. 67
+  Cestius, ii. 102, 105
+  Fabricius, ii. 105
+  Triumphalis, i. 102, 274
+
+Ponte. See also _Bridge_
+  Garibaldi, ii. 138
+  Rotto, i. 67
+  Sant' Angelo, i. 274, 283, 284, 287; ii. 42, 55, 270
+  Sisto, i. 307, 311; ii. 136
+  the Region, i. 274, 275
+
+Pontifex Maximus, i. 39, 48
+
+Pontiff, origin of title, ii. 127
+
+Pope--
+  Adrian the Fourth, ii. 87
+  Alexander the Sixth, i. 258; ii. 269, 282
+    Seventh, i. 259
+  Anastasius, ii. 88
+  Benedict the Sixth, ii. 28-30
+    Fourteenth, i. 186
+  Boniface the Eighth, i. 159, 160, 167, 213, 280, 306; ii. 304
+  Celestin the First, i. 164
+    Second, ii. 83
+  Clement the Fifth, i. 275, 276
+    Sixth, ii. 9, 17-19
+    Seventh, i. 306, 307, 310, 313, 314; ii. 308
+    Eighth, i. 286
+    Ninth, i. 187; ii. 110
+    Eleventh, i. 171
+    Thirteenth, ii. 320
+  Damascus, i. 133, 135, 136
+  Eugenius the Third, ii. 85
+    Fourth, ii. 7, 56
+  Ghisleri, ii. 52, 53
+  Gregory the Fifth, ii. 32-37
+    Seventh, i. 52, 126; ii. 307
+    Thirteenth, i. 183, 293
+    Sixteenth, i. 305; ii. 221, 223
+  Honorius the Third, ii. 126
+    Fourth, ii. 126
+  Innocent the Second, ii. 77, 79, 82, 105
+    Third, i. 153; ii. 6
+    Sixth, ii. 19
+    Eighth, i. 275
+    Tenth, i. 206, 209,302,303
+  Joan, i. 143
+  John the Twelfth, ii. 282
+    Thirteenth, i. 113
+    Fifteenth, ii. 29
+    Twenty-third, ii. 269
+  Julius the Second, i. 208, 258; ii. 276, 298, 304
+  Leo the Third, i. 109; ii. 146, 297
+    Fourth, ii. 242
+    Tenth, i. 304; ii. 276, 304
+    Twelfth, i. 202; ii. 111
+    Thirteenth, i. 77; ii. 218-267, 282, 287, 308, 312, 313
+  Liberius, i. 138
+  Lucius the Second, ii. 84, 85
+  Martin the First, i. 136
+  Nicholas the Fourth, i. 159, 274
+    Fifth, i. 52; ii. 58, 268, 269, 298, 304
+  Paschal the Second, i. 258; ii. 307
+  Paul the Second, i. 202, 205
+    Third, i. 219; ii. 41, 130, 304, 323, 324
+    Fourth, ii. 46, 47, 48-51, 111, 112
+    Fifth, ii. 289
+  Pelagius the First, i. 170, 171; ii. 307
+  Pius the Fourth, i. 147, 305
+    Sixth, i. 181, 182
+    Seventh, i. 53; ii. 221
+    Ninth, i. 76, 183, 315; ii. 66, 110, 111, 216, 221-225, 252, 253, 255,
+      257, 258, 265, 298, 308, 311
+  Silverius, i. 266
+  Sixtus the Fourth, i. 258, 275; ii. 127, 204-213, 274, 278, 321
+    Fifth, i. 52, 139, 149, 181, 184, 186, 205, 283; ii. 43, 157, 241,
+      304, 323
+  Sylvester, i. 113; ii. 297, 298
+  Symmachus, ii. 44
+  Urban the Second, i. 52
+    Sixth, ii. 322, 323
+    Eighth, i. 181, 187, 268, 301; ii. 132, 203, 298
+  Vigilius, ii. 307
+
+Popes, the, i. 125, 142, 273
+  at Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. 9
+  among sovereigns, ii. 228
+  election of, ii. 41, 42
+  hatred for, ii. 262-264
+  temporal power of, i. 168; ii. 255-259
+
+Poppæa, i. 103
+
+Porcari, the, ii. 56
+  Stephen, ii. 56-60, 204
+
+Porsena of Clusium, i. 5, 6, 12
+
+Porta. See also _Gate_--
+  Angelica, i. 120
+  Maggiore, i. 107
+  Metronia, i. 106
+  Mugonia, i. 10
+  Pia, i. 107, 147, 152; ii. 224
+  Pinciana, i. 193, 250, 264, 266, 269
+  del Popolo, i. 272, 299
+  Portese, ii. 132
+  Salaria, i. 106, 107, 193
+  San Giovanni, i. 107, 120
+    Lorenzo, i. 107
+    Sebastiano, ii. 119, 125
+    Spirito, i. 311; ii. 132, 152
+  Tiburtina, i. 107
+
+Portico of Neptune, i. 271
+  Octavia, ii. 3, 105
+
+Poussin, Nicholas, i. 264
+
+Præneste, i. 156
+
+Prætextatus, i. 134
+
+Prefect of Rome, i. 103, 114, 134
+
+Presepi, ii. 139
+
+Prince of Wales, i. 203
+
+Prior of the Regions, i. 112, 114
+
+Processions of--
+  the Brotherhood of Saint John, ii. 130
+  Captains of Regions, i. 112
+  Coromania, i. 141
+  Coronation of Lewis of Bavaria, i. 166, 167
+  Ides of May, ii. 127-129
+  the Triumph of Aurelian, i. 179
+
+Progress and civilization, i. 262; ii. 177-180
+  romance, i. 154
+
+Prosper of Cicigliano, ii. 213
+
+
+Q
+
+Quæstor, i. 58
+
+Quirinal, the (hill), i. 106, 119, 158, 182, 184, 186, 187; ii. 205
+
+
+R
+
+Rabble, Roman, i. 115, 128, 132, 153, 281; ii. 131
+
+Race course of Domitian, i. 270, 297
+
+Races, Carnival, i. 108, 202, 203
+
+Raimondi, ii. 315
+
+Rampolla, ii. 239, 249, 250
+
+Raphael, i. 260, 315; ii. 159, 169, 175, 188, 200, 281, 285, 322
+  in Trastevere, ii. 144-147
+  the "Transfiguration" by, ii. 146, 281
+
+Ravenna, i. 175
+
+Regions (Rioni), i. 100-105, 110-114, 166
+  Captains of, i. 110
+  devices of, i. 100
+  fighting ground of, i. 129
+  Prior, i. 112, 114
+  rivalry of, i. 108, 110, 125
+
+Regola, the Region, i. 101, 168; ii. 1-3
+
+Regulus, i. 20
+
+Religion, i. 48, 50, 75
+
+Religious epochs in Roman history, i. 76
+
+Renascence in Italy, i. 52, 77, 84, 98, 99, 188, 237, 240, 250, 258, 261,
+    262, 303; ii. 152-201, 280
+  art of, i. 231
+  frescoes of, i. 232
+  highest development of, i. 303, 315
+  leaders of, ii. 152, 157-159
+  manifestation of, ii. 197
+  palaces of, i. 205, 216
+  represented in "The Last Judgment," ii. 280
+  results of development of, ii. 199
+
+Reni, Guido, i. 264; ii. 317
+
+Republic, the, i. 6, 12, 15, 53, 110; ii. 291
+  and Arnold of Brescia, ii. 86
+    Porcari, ii. 56-60
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+  modern ideas of, ii. 219
+
+Revolts in Rome--
+  against the nobles, ii. 73
+  of the army, i. 25
+    Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73-89
+    Marius and Sylla, i. 25
+    Porcari, ii. 56-60
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8, 73
+    slaves, i. 24
+    Stefaneschi, i. 281-283; ii. 219-222
+
+Revolutionary idea, the, ii. 219-222
+
+Riario, the, ii. 149, 150, 151
+  Jerome, ii. 205
+
+Rienzi, Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. 3-23, 308
+
+Rioni. See _Regions_
+
+Ripa, the Region, i. 101; ii. 118
+
+Ripa Grande, ii. 127
+
+Ripetta, ii. 52
+
+Ristori, Mme., i. 169
+
+Robert of Naples, i. 278
+
+Roffredo, Count, i. 114, 115
+
+Rome--
+  a day in mediæval, i. 241-247
+  Bishop of, i. 133
+  charm of, i. 54, 98, 318
+  ecclesiastic, i. 124
+  lay, i. 124
+  a modern Capital, i. 123, 124
+  foundation of, i. 2
+  of the Augustan Age, i. 60-62
+      Barons, i. 50, 84, 104, 229-247; ii. 75
+      Cæsars, i. 84
+      Empire, i. 15, 17, 28, 31, 45, 47, 53, 60, 99
+      Kings, i. 2-7, 10, 11
+      Middle Age, i. 110, 210-247, 274; ii. 172-175
+      Napoleonic era, i. 229
+      Popes, i. 50, 77, 84, 104
+      Republic, i. 6, 12, 16, 53, 110
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+    today, i. 55
+  sack of, by Constable of Bourbon, i. 259, 273, 309-315
+  sack of, by Gauls, i. 15, 49, 252
+    Guiscard, i. 95, 126-129, 252
+  seen from dome of Saint Peter's, ii. 302
+  under Tribunes, i. 14
+    Decemvirs, i. 14
+    Dictator, i. 28
+
+Romulus, i. 2, 5, 30, 78, 228
+
+Rospigliosi, i. 206
+
+Rossi, Pellegrino, i. 316
+  Count, ii. 223
+
+Rostra, i. 27; ii. 93
+  Julia, i. 68; ii. 93
+
+Rota, ii. 215
+
+Rovere, the, i. 258; ii. 276, 279, 321
+
+Rudinì, i. 187
+
+Rudolph of Hapsburg, i. 161
+
+Rufillus, i. 65
+
+
+S
+
+Sacchi, Bartolommeo, i. 139, 147
+
+Saint Peter's Church, i. 166, 278; ii. 202, 212, 243, 246, 268, 289, 294,
+    295, 326
+  altar of, i. 96
+  architects of, ii. 304
+  bronze doors of, ii. 299, 300
+  builders of, ii. 304
+  Chapel of the Choir, ii. 310, 313, 314
+  Chapel of the Sacrament, ii. 274, 306, 308, 310, 312, 313
+  Choir of, ii. 313-316
+  Colonna Santa, ii. 319
+  dome of, i. 96; ii. 302
+  Piazza of, ii. 251
+  Sacristy of, i. 171
+
+Salvini, i. 169, 252
+  Giorgio, i. 313
+
+Santacroce Paolo, i. 286
+
+Sant' Angelo the Region, i. 101; ii. 101
+
+Santorio, Cardinal, i. 208
+
+San Vito, i. 282
+
+Saracens, i. 128, 144
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, ii. 157, 169
+
+Saturnalia, i. 125, 194, 195
+
+Saturninus, i. 25
+
+Satyricon, the, i. 85
+
+Savelli, the, i. 284; ii. 1, 16, 126, 206
+  John Philip, ii. 207-210
+
+Savonarola, i. 110
+
+Savoy, house of, i. 110; ii. 219, 220, 224
+
+Scævola, i. 13
+
+Schweinheim, i. 317
+
+Scipio, Cornelius, i. 20
+  of Africa, i. 20, 22, 29, 59, 76; ii. 121
+    Asia, i. 21; ii. 120
+
+Scotus, i. 182
+
+See, Holy, i. 159, 168; ii. 264-267, 277, 294
+
+Segni, Monseignor, i. 304
+
+Sejanuo, ii. 294
+
+Semiamira, i. 178
+
+Senate, Roman, i. 167, 168, 257
+  the Little, i. 177, 180
+
+Senators, i. 78, 112, 167
+
+Servius, i. 5, 15
+
+Severus--
+  Arch of, ii. 92
+  Septizonium of, i. 96, 127
+
+Sforza, i. 13; ii. 89
+
+Sforza, Catharine, i. 177; ii. 150
+  Francesco, i. 306
+
+Siena, i. 232, 268; ii. 229
+
+Signorelli, ii. 277
+
+Slaves, i. 81, 24
+
+Sosii Brothers, i. 72, 73
+
+Spencer, Herbert, ii. 225, 226
+
+Stefaneschi, Giovanni degli, i. 103, 282
+
+Stilicho, ii. 323
+
+Stradella, Alessandro, ii. 315
+
+Streets, See _Via_
+
+Subiaco, i. 282
+
+Suburra, i. 39; ii. 95
+
+Suetonius, i. 43
+
+Sylla, ii. 25-29, 36-42
+
+
+T
+
+Tacitus, i. 46, 254; ii. 103
+
+Tarentum, i. 18, 19
+
+Tarpeia, i. 29; ii. 68, 69
+
+Tarpeian Rock, ii. 67
+
+Tarquins, the, i. 6, 11, 12, 80, 248, 249, 269; ii. 69
+  Sextus, i. 5, 11
+
+Tasso, i. 188, 189; ii. 147-149
+  Bernardo, i. 188
+
+Tatius, i. 68, 69
+
+Tempietto, the, i. 264
+
+Temple of--
+  Castor, i. 27
+  Castor and Pollux, i. 68; ii. 92, 94
+  Ceres, ii. 119
+  Concord, i. 24; ii. 92
+  Flora, i. 155
+  Hercules, ii. 40
+  Isis and Serapis, i. 271
+  Julius Cæsar, i. 72
+  Minerva, i. 96
+  Saturn, i. 194, 201; ii. 94
+  the Sun, i. 177, 179, 180, 271
+  Venus and Rome, i. 110
+  Venus Victorius, i. 270
+  Vesta, i. 68
+
+Tenebræ, i. 117
+
+Tetricius, i. 179
+
+Theatre of--
+  Apollo, i. 286
+  Balbus, ii. 1
+  Marcellus, ii. 1, 101, 105, 106, 119
+  Pompey, i. 103, 153
+
+Thedoric of Verona, ii. 297
+
+Theodoli, the, i. 258
+
+Theodora Senatrix, i. 158, 266, 267; ii. 27-29, 203, 282
+
+Tiber, i. 23, 27, 66, 93, 94, 151, 158, 168, 189, 237, 248, 249, 254, 269,
+272, 288
+
+Tiberius, i. 254, 287; ii. 102
+
+Titian, i. 315; ii. 165, 166, 175, 188, 278
+
+Titus, i. 56, 86;
+    ii. 102, 295
+
+Tivoli, i. 180, 185; ii. 76, 85
+
+Torre (Tower)--
+  Anguillara, ii. 138, 139, 140
+  Borgia, ii. 269, 285
+  dei Conti, i. 118, 153
+  Milizie, i. 277
+  Millina, i. 274
+  di Nona, i. 274, 284, 287; ii. 52, 54, 72
+  Sanguigna, i. 274
+
+Torrione, ii. 241, 242
+
+Trajan, i. 85, 192; ii. 206
+
+Trastevere, the Region, i. 101, 127, 129, 278, 307, 311;
+    ii. 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 151
+
+Trevi, the Fountain, i. 155, 186
+  the Region, i. 155, 187; ii. 209
+
+Tribunes, i. 14
+
+Trinità de' Monti, i. 256, 264
+  dei Pellegrini, ii. 110
+
+Triumph, the, of Aurelian, i. 179
+
+Triumphal Road, i. 66, 69, 70, 71
+
+Tullianum, i. 8
+
+Tullus, i. 3
+  Domitius, i. 90
+
+Tuscany, Duke of, ii. 30
+
+Tusculum, i. 158
+
+
+U
+
+Unity, of Italy, i. 53, 77, 123, 184; ii. 224
+  under Augustus, i. 184
+    Victor Emmanuel, i. 184
+
+University, Gregorian, the, ii. 61
+  of the Sapienza, i. 251; ii. 24, 25
+
+Urbino, Duke of, i. 208, 217
+
+
+V
+
+Valens, i. 133
+
+Valentinian, i. 133
+
+Varus, i. 46
+
+Vatican, the, i. 127, 128, 147, 165, 189, 278, 281, 307;
+    ii. 44, 202, 207, 228, 243, 245, 249, 250, 252, 253, 269, 271
+  barracks of the Swiss Guard, ii. 275
+  chapels in,
+    Pauline, ii.
+    Nicholas, ii. 285
+    Sixtine, ii. 246, 274, 275, 276, 278-281, 285
+    fields, i. 274
+  Court of the Belvedere, ii. 269
+    Saint Damasus, ii. 273
+  finances of, ii. 253
+  gardens of, ii. 243, 271, 287
+    of the Pigna, ii. 273
+  library, ii. 275, 276, 282
+    Borgia apartments of, ii. 282
+  Loggia of the Beatification, ii. 245
+    Raphael, ii. 273, 274, 276, 285
+  Maestro di Camera, ii. 239, 248, 250
+  museums of, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287
+  picture galleries, ii. 273-284
+  Pontifical residence, ii. 249
+  private apartments, ii. 249
+  Sala Clementina, ii. 248
+    del Concistoro, ii. 246
+    Ducale, ii. 245, 247
+    Regia, ii. 246
+  throne room, ii. 247
+  Torre Borgia, ii. 269, 285
+
+Veii, i. 16, 17
+
+Velabrum, i. 67
+
+Veneziano, Domenico, ii. 185
+
+Venice, i. 193, 296, 306; ii. 35, 205
+
+Vercingetorix, ii. 294
+
+Vespasian, i. 46, 56; ii. 295
+
+Vespignani, ii. 241, 242
+
+Vesta, i. 57
+  temple of, i. 71, 77
+
+Vestals, i. 77, 80, 133, 152; ii. 99
+  house of, i. 69
+
+Via--
+  della Angelo Custode, i. 122
+  Appia, i. 22, 94
+  Arenula, ii. 45
+  Borgognona, i. 251
+  Campo Marzo, i. 150
+  di Caravita, ii. 45
+  del Corso, i. 155, 158, 192, 193, 251; ii. 45
+  della Dateria, i. 183
+  Dogana Vecchia, ii. 26
+  Flaminia, i. 193
+  Florida, ii. 45
+  Frattina, i. 250
+  de' Greci, i. 251
+  Lata, i. 193
+  Lungara, i. 274; ii. 144, 145, 147
+  Lungaretta, ii. 140
+  della Maestro, i. 283
+  Marforio, i. 106
+  di Monserrato, i. 283
+  Montebello, i. 107
+  Nazionale, i. 277
+  Nova, i. 69
+  di Parione, i. 297
+  de' Poli, i. 267
+  de Pontefici, i. 158
+  de Prefetti, ii. 6
+  Quattro Fontane, i. 155, 187
+  Sacra, i. 65, 71, 180
+  San Gregorio, i. 71
+  San Teodoro, i. 195
+  de' Schiavoni, i. 158
+  Sistina, i. 260
+  della Stelleta, i. 250
+  della Tritone, i. 106, 119-122, 155
+  Triumphalis, i. 66, 70, 71
+  Venti Settembre, i. 186
+  Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275
+
+Viale Castro Pretorio, i. 107
+
+Vicolo della Corda, i. 283
+
+Victor Emmanuel, i. 53, 166, 184; ii. 90, 221, 224, 225, 238
+  monument to, ii. 90
+
+Victoria, Queen of England, ii. 263
+
+Vigiles, cohort of the, i. 158, 170
+
+Villa Borghese, i. 223
+  Colonna, i. 181, 189
+  d'Este, i. 185
+  of Hadrian, i. 180
+    Ludovisi, i. 106, 193
+  Medici, i. 259, 262, 264, 265, 269, 313
+  Negroni, i. 148, 149, 289, 292
+  Publica, i. 250
+
+Villani, i. 160, 277; ii. 164
+
+Villas, in the Region of Monti, i. 149, 150
+
+Vinci, Lionardo da, i. 260, 315; ii. 147, 159, 169, 171, 175, 184, 188,
+    195, 200
+  "The Last Supper," by, ii. 171, 184
+
+Virgil, i. 44, 56, 63
+
+Virginia, i. 14
+
+Virginius, i. 15
+
+Volscians, ii. 230
+
+
+W
+
+Walls--
+  Aurelian, i. 93, 106, 110, 193, 271; ii. 119, 144
+  Servian, i. 5, 7, 15, 250, 270
+  of Urban the Eighth, ii. 132
+
+Water supply, i. 145
+
+William the Silent, ii. 263
+
+Witches on the Æsquiline, i. 140
+
+Women's life in Rome, i. 9
+
+
+Z
+
+Zama, i. 21, 59
+
+Zenobia of Palmyra, i. 179; ii. 150.
+
+Zouaves, the, ii. 216
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by 
+Francis Marion Crawford
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+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 92%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .tocnum  {position: absolute; top: auto; right: 15%;}
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span.i0     {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by Francis Marion Crawford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1
+       Studies from the Chronicles of Rome
+
+Author: Francis Marion Crawford
+
+Release Date: April 26, 2009 [EBook #28614]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, VOL. 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/front.jpg" width="650" height="476" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h1>AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS</h1>
+
+<h2>STUDIES</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE</h3>
+
+<h2>CHRONICLES OF ROME</h2>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD</h2>
+
+<h4>IN TWO VOLUMES</h4>
+
+<h4>VOL. I</h4>
+
+<p class="center">
+New York<br />
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+LONDON: MACMILLAN &amp; CO., LTD.<br />
+<br />
+1899<br />
+<br />
+<i>All rights reserved</i><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Copyright, 1898,<br />
+By The Macmillan Company.<br />
+<br />
+Set up and electrotyped October, 1898. Reprinted November,<br />
+December, 1898.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Norwood Press</i><br />
+<i>J. S. Cushing &amp; Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith</i><br />
+<i>Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</i><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>VOLUME I</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Making of the City</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Empire</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">The City of Augustus</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Middle Age</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Fourteen Regions</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region I&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Monti</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region II&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Trevi</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region III&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Colonna</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region IV&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Campo Marzo</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_243'>243</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region V &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ponte</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Region VI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Parione</span>      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES</h2>
+
+
+<p>VOLUME I</p>
+
+<p>
+Map of Rome      <span class="tocnum"><i><a href="#front">Frontispiece</a></i></span> <br />
+<br />
+<span class="tocnum">FACING PAGE</span><br />
+<br />
+The Wall of Romulus      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palace of the C&aelig;sars      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></span><br />
+<br />
+The Campagna and Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Temple of Castor and Pollux      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Basilica Constantine      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Baths of Diocletian      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fountain of Trevi      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Piazza Barberini      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Porta San Lorenzo      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_214'>214</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Villa Borghese      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_230'>230</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Piazza del Popolo      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_256'>256</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Island in the Tiber      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_280'>280</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palazzo Massimo alle Colonna      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_306'>306</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+VOLUME I<br />
+<span class="tocnum">PAGE</span><br />
+Palatine Hill and Mouth of the Cloaca Maxima      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ruins of the Servian Wall      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Etruscan Bridge at Veii      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tombs on the Appian Way      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Tiberius, showing the Temple of Concord      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
+<br />
+The Tarpeian Rock      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caius Julius C&aelig;sar      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Octavius Augustus C&aelig;sar     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Trajan, showing the Circus Maximus      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Antoninus Pius, in Honour of Faustina, with Reverse showing Vesta bearing the Palladium <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ponte Rotto, now destroyed      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Atrium of Vesta      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Gordian, showing the Colosseum      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
+<br />
+The Colosseum      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ruins of the Temple of Saturn      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Gordian, showing Roman Games      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ruins of the Julian Basilica      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_100'>100</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Brass of Titus, showing the Colosseum      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region I Monti, Device of      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Santa Francesca Romana      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br />
+<br />
+San Giovanni in Laterano      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Piazza Colonna      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Santa Maria Maggiore      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Porta Maggiore, supporting the Channels of the Aqueduct of Claudius and the Anio Novus  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Interior of the Colosseum      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region II Trevi, Device of      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Grand Hall of the Colonna Palace      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Interior of the Mausoleum of Augustus      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Forum of Trajan      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ruins of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palazzo del Quirinale      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region III Colonna, Device of      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Arch of Titus      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_191'>191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Twin Churches at the Entrance of the Corso      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span><br />
+<br />
+San Lorenzo in Lucina      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palazzo Doria-Pamfili      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_208'>208</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palazzo di Monte Citorio      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_223'>223</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palazzo di Venezia      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region IV Campo Marzo, Device of      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_248'>248</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Piazza di Spagna      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Trinit&agrave; de Monti      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Villa Medici      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_265'>265</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region V Ponte      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bridge of Sant' Angelo      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_285'>285</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Villa Negroni      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_292'>292</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Region VI Parione, Device of      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Piazza Navona      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_303'>303</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ponte Sisto      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br />
+<br />
+The Cancelleria      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_316'>316</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WORKS CONSULTED</h2>
+
+<h3>NOT INCLUDING CLASSIC WRITERS NOR ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIAS</h3>
+
+
+<p>
+1. <span class="smcap">Amp&egrave;re</span>&mdash;Histoire Romaine &agrave; Rome.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Amp&egrave;re</span>&mdash;L'Empire Remain &agrave; Rome.</span><br />
+<br />
+2. <span class="smcap">Baracconi</span>&mdash;I Rioni di Roma.<br />
+<br />
+3. <span class="smcap">Boissier</span>&mdash;Promenades Arch&eacute;ologiques.<br />
+<br />
+4. <span class="smcap">Bryce</span>&mdash;The Holy Roman Empire.<br />
+<br />
+5. <span class="smcap">Cellini</span>&mdash;Memoirs.<br />
+<br />
+6. <span class="smcap">Coppi</span>&mdash;Memoire Colonnesi.<br />
+<br />
+7. <span class="smcap">Fortunato</span>&mdash;Storia delle vite delle Imperatrici Romane.<br />
+<br />
+8. <span class="smcap">Gibbon</span>&mdash;Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.<br />
+<br />
+9. <span class="smcap">Gnoli</span>&mdash;Vittoria Accoramboni.<br />
+<br />
+10. <span class="smcap">Gregorovius</span>&mdash;Geschichte der Stadt Rom.<br />
+<br />
+11. <span class="smcap">Hare</span>&mdash;Walks in Rome.<br />
+<br />
+12. <span class="smcap">Josephus</span>&mdash;Life of.<br />
+<br />
+13. <span class="smcap">Lanciani</span>&mdash;Ancient Rome.<br />
+<br />
+14. <span class="smcap">Leti</span>&mdash;Vita di Sisto V.<br />
+<br />
+15. <span class="smcap">Muratori</span>&mdash;Scriptores Rerum Italicarum.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Muratori</span>&mdash;Annali d'Italia.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Muratori</span>&mdash;Antichit&agrave; Italiane.</span><br />
+<br />
+16. <span class="smcap">Ramsay and Lanciani</span>&mdash;A Manual of Roman Antiquities.<br />
+<br />
+17. <span class="smcap">Schneider</span>&mdash;Das Alte Rom.<br />
+<br />
+18. <span class="smcap">Silvagni</span>&mdash;La Corte e la Societ&agrave; Romana.<br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image9.jpg" width="450" height="271" alt="PALATINE HILL AND MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALATINE HILL AND MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>Ave Roma Immortalis</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+
+<p>The story of Rome is the most splendid romance in all history. A few
+shepherds tend their flocks among volcanic hills, listening by day and
+night to the awful warnings of the subterranean voice,&mdash;born in danger,
+reared in peril, living their lives under perpetual menace of
+destruction, from generation to generation. Then, at last, the deep
+voice swells to thunder, roaring up from the earth's heart, the
+lightning shoots madly round the mountain top, the ground rocks, and the
+air is darkened with ashes. The moment has come. One man is a leader,
+but not all will follow him. He leads his small band swiftly down from
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> heights, and they drive a flock and a little herd before them,
+while each man carries his few belongings as best he can, and there are
+few women in the company. The rest would not be saved, and they perish
+among their huts before another day is over.</p>
+
+<p>Down, always downwards, march the wanderers, rough, rugged, young with
+the terrible youth of those days, and wise only with the wisdom of
+nature. Down the steep mountain they go, down over the rich, rolling
+land, down through the deep forests, unhewn of man, down at last to the
+river, where seven low hills rise out of the wide plain. One of those
+hills the leader chooses, rounded and grassy; there they encamp, and
+they dig a trench and build huts. Pales, protectress of flocks, gives
+her name to the Palatine Hill. Rumon, the flowing river, names the
+village Rome, and Rome names the leader Romulus, the Man of the River,
+the Man of the Village by the River; and to our own time the
+twenty-first of April is kept and remembered, and even now honoured, for
+the very day on which the shepherds began to dig their trench on the
+Palatine, the date of the Foundation of Rome, from which seven hundred
+and fifty-four years were reckoned to the birth of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>And the shepherds called their leader King, though his kingship was over
+but few men. Yet they were such men as begin history, and in the scant
+company there were all the seeds of empire. First the profound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> faith of
+natural mankind, unquestioning, immovable, inseparable from every daily
+thought and action; then fierce strength, and courage, and love of life
+and of possession; last, obedience to the chosen leader, in clear
+liberty, when one should fail, to choose another. So the Romans began to
+win the world, and won it in about six hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>By their camp-fires, by their firesides in their little huts, they told
+old tales of their race, and round the truth grew up romantic legend,
+ever dear to the fighting man and to the husbandman alike, with strange
+tales of their first leader's birth, fit for poets, and woven to stir
+young hearts to daring, and young hands to smiting. Truth there was
+under their stories, but how much of it no man can tell: how Amulius of
+Alba Longa slew his sons, and slew also his daughter, loved of Mars,
+mother of twin sons left to die in the forest, like &OElig;dipus,
+father-slayers, as &OElig;dipus was, wolf-suckled, of whom one was born to
+kill the other and be the first King, and be taken up to Jupiter in
+storm and lightning at the last. The legend of wise Numa, next, taught
+by Egeria; her stony image still weeps trickling tears for her royal
+adept, and his earthen cup, jealously guarded, was worshipped for more
+than a thousand years; legends of the first Arval brotherhood, dim as
+the story of Melchisedec, King and priest, but lasting as Rome itself.
+Tales of King Tullus, when the three Horatii fought for Rome<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> against
+the three Curiatii, who smote for Alba and lost the day&mdash;Tullus
+Hostilius, grandson of that first Hostus who had fought against the
+Sabines; and always more legend, and more, and more, sometimes misty,
+sometimes clear and direct in action as a Greek tragedy. They hover upon
+the threshold of history, with faces of beauty or of terror, sublime,
+ridiculous, insignificant, some born of desperate, real deeds, many
+another, perhaps, first told by some black-haired shepherd mother to her
+wondering boys at evening, when the brazen pot simmered on the
+smouldering fire, and the father had not yet come home.</p>
+
+<p>But down beneath the legend lies the fact, in hewn stones already far in
+the third thousand of their years. Digging for truth, searchers have
+come here and there upon the first walls and gates of the Palatine
+village, straight, strong and deeply founded. The men who made them
+meant to hold their own, and their own was whatsoever they were able to
+take from others by force. They built their walls round a four-sided
+space, wide enough for them, scarcely big enough a thousand years later
+for the houses of their children's rulers, the palaces of the C&aelig;sars of
+which so much still stands today.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the man who built the first bridge across the river, of wooden
+piles and beams, bolted with bronze, because the Romans had no iron yet,
+and ever afterwards repaired with wood and bronze, for its sanctity, in
+perpetual veneration of Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome. That was the
+bridge Horatius kept against Porsena of Clusium, while the fathers hewed
+it down behind him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image14a.jpg" width="650" height="406" alt="WALL OF ROMULUS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WALL OF ROMULUS</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tarquin the first came next, a stranger of Greek blood, chosen, perhaps,
+because the factions in Rome could not agree. Then Servius, great and
+good, built his tremendous fortification, and the King of Italy today,
+driving through the streets in his carriage, may look upon the wall of
+the King who reigned in Rome more than two thousand and four hundred
+years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Under those six rulers, from Romulus to Servius, from the man of the
+River Village to the man of walls, Rome had grown from a sheepfold to a
+town, from a town to a walled city, from a city to a little nation,
+matched against all mankind, to win or die, inch by inch, sword in hand.
+She was a kingdom now, and her men were subjects; and still the third
+law of great races was strong and waking. Romans obeyed their leader so
+long as he could lead them well&mdash;no longer. The twilight of the Kings
+gathered suddenly, and their names were darkened, and their sun went
+down in shame and hate. In the confusion, tragic legend rises to tell
+the story. For the first time in Rome, a woman, famous in all history,
+turned the scale. The King's son, passionate, terrible, false, steals
+upon her in the dark. 'I am Sextus Tarquin, and there is a sword in my
+hand.' Yet she yielded to no fear of steel, but to the horror of
+unearned shame beyond death. On the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> next day, when she lay before her
+husband and her father and the strong Brutus, her story told, her deed
+done, splendidly dead by her own hand, they swore the oath in which the
+Republic was born. While father, husband and friend were stunned with
+grief, Brutus held up the dripping knife before their eyes. 'By this
+most chaste blood, I swear&mdash;Gods be my witnesses&mdash;that I will hunt down
+Tarquin the Proud, himself, his infamous wife and every child of his,
+with fire and sword, and with all my might, and neither he nor any other
+man shall ever again be King in Rome.' So they all swore, and bore the
+dead woman out into the market-place, and called on all men to stand by
+them.</p>
+
+<p>They kept their word, and the tale tells how the Tarquins were driven
+out to a perpetual exile, and by and by allied themselves with Porsena,
+and marched on Rome, and were stopped only at the Sublician bridge by
+brave Horatius.</p>
+
+<p>Chaos next. Then all at once the Republic stands out, born full grown
+and ready armed, stern, organized and grasping, but having already
+within itself the quickened opposites that were to fight for power so
+long and so fiercely,&mdash;the rich and the poor, the patrician and the
+plebeian, the might and the right.</p>
+
+<p>There is a wonder in that quick change from Kingdom to Commonwealth,
+which nothing can make clear, except, perhaps, modern history. Say that
+two thousand or more years hereafter men shall read of what<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> our
+grandfathers, our fathers and ourselves have seen done in France within
+a hundred years, out of two or three old books founded mostly on
+tradition; they may be confused by the sudden disappearance of kings, by
+the chaos, the wild wars and the unforeseen birth of a lasting republic,
+just as we are puzzled when we read of the same sequence in ancient
+Rome. Men who come after us will have more documents, too. It is not
+possible that all books and traces of written history should be
+destroyed throughout the world, as the Gauls burned everything in Rome,
+except the Capitol itself, held by the handful of men who had taken
+refuge there.</p>
+
+<p>So the Kingdom fell with a woman's death, and the Commonwealth was made
+by her avengers. Take the story as you will, for truth or truth's
+legend, it is for ever humanly true, and such deeds would rouse a nation
+today as they did then and as they set Rome on fire once more nearly
+sixty years later.</p>
+
+<p>But all the time Rome was growing as if the very stones had life to put
+out shoots and blossoms and bear fruit. Round about the city the great
+Servian wall had wound like a vast finger, in and out, grasping the
+seven hills, and taking in what would be a fair-sized city even in our
+day. They were the last defences Rome built for herself, for nearly nine
+hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can give a larger idea of Rome's greatness than that; not all
+the temples, monuments, palaces, public buildings of later years can
+tell half the certainty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> of her power expressed by that one fact&mdash;Rome
+needed no walls when once she had won the world.</p>
+
+<p>But it is very hard to guess at what the city was, in those grim times
+of the early fight for life. We know the walls, and there were nineteen
+gates in all, and there were paved roads; the wooden bridge, the Capitol
+with its first temple and first fortress, the first Forum with the
+Sacred Way, were all there, and the public fountain, called the
+Tullianum, and a few other sites are certain. The rest must be imagined.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image18.jpg" width="450" height="225" alt="RUINS OF THE SERVIAN WALL" title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF THE SERVIAN WALL</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rome was a brown city in those days, when there was no marble and little
+stucco: a brown city teeming with men and women clothed mostly in grey
+and brown and black woollen cloaks, like those the hill shepherds wear
+today, caught up under one arm and thrown far over the shoulder in dark
+folds. The low houses without any outer windows, entered by one rough
+door, were built<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> close together, and those near the Forum had shops
+outside them, low-browed places, dark but not deep, where the cloaked
+keeper sat behind a stone counter among his wares, waiting for custom,
+watching all that happened in the market-place, gathering in gossip from
+one buyer to exchange it for more with the next, altogether not unlike
+the small Eastern merchant of today.</p>
+
+<p>Yet during more than half the time, there were few young men, or men in
+prime, in the streets of Rome. They were fighting more than half the
+year, while their fathers and their children stayed behind with the
+women. The women sat spinning and weaving wool in their little brown
+houses; the boys played, fought, ran races naked in the streets; the
+small girls had their quiet games and, surely, their dolls, made of
+rags, stuffed with the soft wool waste from their mothers' spindles and
+looms. The old men, scarred and seamed in the battles of an age when
+fighting was all hand to hand, kept the shops, or sunned themselves in
+the market-place, shelling and chewing lupins to pass the time, as the
+Romans have always done, and telling old tales, or boasting to each
+other of their half-grown grandchildren, and of their full-grown sons,
+fighting far away in the hills and the plains that Rome might have more
+possession. Meanwhile the maidens went in pairs to the springs to fetch
+water, or down to the river in small companies to wash the woollen
+clothes and dry them in the shade of the old wild trees, lest in the sun
+they should shrink and thicken;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> black-haired, black-eyed, dark-skinned
+maids, all of them, strong and light of foot, fit to be mothers of more
+soldiers, to slay more enemies, and bring back more spoil. Then, as in
+our own times, the flocks of goats were driven in from the pastures at
+early morning and milked from door to door, for each household, and
+driven out again to the grass before the sun was high. In the old wall
+there was the Cattle Gate, the Porta Mugonia, named, as the learned say,
+from the lowing of the herds. Then, as in the hill towns not long ago,
+the serving women, who were slaves, sat cross-legged on the ground in
+the narrow court within the house, with the hand-mill of two stones
+between them, and ground the wheat to flour for the day's meal. There
+have been wonderful survivals of the first age even to our own time.</p>
+
+<p>But that which has not come down to us is the huge vitality of those men
+and women. The world's holders have never risen suddenly in hordes; they
+have always grown by degrees out of little nations, that could live
+through more than their neighbours. Calling up the vision of the first
+Rome, one must see, too, such human faces and figures of men as are
+hardly to be found among us nowadays,&mdash;the big features, the great,
+square, devouring jaws, the steadily bright eyes, the strongly built
+brows, coarse, shagged hair, big bones, iron muscles and starting
+sinews. There are savage countries that still breed such men. They may
+have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> their turn next, when we are worn out. Browning has made John the
+Smith a memorable type.</p>
+
+<p>Rome was a clean city in those days. One of the Tarquins had built the
+great arched drain which still stands unshaken and in use, and smaller
+ones led to it, draining the Forum and all the low part of the town. The
+people were clean, far beyond our ordinary idea of them, as is plain
+enough from the contemptuous way in which the Latin authors use their
+strong words for uncleanliness. A dirty man was an object of pity, and
+men sometimes went about in soiled clothes to excite the public
+sympathy, as beggars do today in all countries. Dirt meant abject
+poverty, and in a grasping, getting race, poverty was the exception,
+even while simplicity was the rule. For all was simple with them, their
+dress, their homes, their lives, their motives, and if one could see the
+Rome of Tarquin the Proud, this simplicity would be of all
+characteristics the most striking, compared with what we know of later
+Rome, and with what we see about us in our own times. Simplicity is not
+strength, but the condition in which strength is least hampered in its
+full action.</p>
+
+<p>It was easy to live simply in such a place and in such a climate, under
+a wise King. The check in the first straight run of Rome's history
+brought the Romans suddenly face to face with the first great
+complication of their career, which was the struggle between the rich
+and the poor; and again the half truth rises up to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> explain the fact.
+Men whose first instinct was to take and hold took from one another in
+peace when they could not take from their enemies in war, since they
+must needs be always taking from some one. So the few strong took all
+from the many weak, till the weak banded themselves together to resist
+the strong, and the struggle for life took a new direction.</p>
+
+<p>The grim figure of Lucius Junius Brutus rises as the incarnation of that
+character which, at great times, made history, but in peace made
+trouble. The man who avenged Lucretia, who drove out the Tarquins, and
+founded the Republic, is most often remembered as the father who sat
+unmoved in judgment on his two traitor sons, and looked on with stony
+eyes while they paid the price of their treason in torment and death.
+That one deed stands out, and we forget how he himself fell fighting for
+Rome's freedom.</p>
+
+<p>But still the evil grew at home, and the hideous law of creditor and
+debtor, which only fiercest avarice could have devised, ground the poor,
+who were obliged to borrow to pay the tax-gatherer, and made slaves of
+them almost to the ruin of the state.</p>
+
+<p>Just then Etruria wakes, shadowy, half Greek, the central power of
+Italy, between Rome and Gaul. Porsena, the Lar of Clusium, comes against
+the city with a great host in gilded arms. Terror descends like a dark
+mist over the young nation. The rich fear for their riches, the poor for
+their lives. In haste the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> fathers gather great supplies of corn against
+a siege; credit and debt are forgotten; patrician and plebeian join
+hands as Porsena reaches Janiculum, and three heroic figures of romance
+stand forth from a host of heroes. Horatius keeps the bridge, first with
+two comrades, then, at the last, alone in the glory of single-handed
+fight against an army, sure of immortality whether he live or die.
+Sc&aelig;vola, sworn with the three hundred to slay the Lar, stabs the wrong
+man, and burns his hand to the wrist to show what tortures he can bear
+unmoved. Cl&oelig;lia, the maiden hostage, rides her young steed at the
+yellow torrent, and swims the raging flood back to the Palatine.
+Cl&oelig;lia and Horatius get statues in the Forum; Sc&aelig;vola is endowed with
+great lands, which his race holds for centuries, and leaves a name so
+great that two thousand years later, Sforza, greatest leader of the
+Middle Age, coveting long ancestry, makes himself descend from the man
+who burned off his own hand.</p>
+
+<p>They are great figures, the two men and the noble girl, and real to us,
+in a way, because we can stand on the very ground they trod, where
+Horatius fought, where Sc&aelig;vola suffered and where Cl&oelig;lia took the
+river. They are nearer to us than Romulus, nearer even than Lucretia, as
+each figure, following the city's quick life, has more of reality about
+it, and not less of heroism.</p>
+
+<p>For two hundred years the Romans strove with each other in law making;
+the fathers for exclusive power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> and wealth, the plebeians for freedom,
+first, and then for office in the state; a time of fighting abroad for
+land, and of contention at home about its division. In fifty years the
+poor had their Tribunes, but it took them nearly three times as long,
+after that, to make themselves almost the fathers' equals in power.</p>
+
+<p>Once they tried a new kind of government by a board of ten, and it held
+for a while, till again a woman's life turned the tide of Roman history,
+and fair young Virginia, stabbed by her father in the Forum, left a name
+as lasting as any of that day.</p>
+
+<p>Romance again, but the true romance, above doubt, at last; not at all
+mythical, but full of fate's unanswerable logic, which makes dim stories
+clear to living eyes. You may see the actors in the Forum, where it all
+happened,&mdash;the lovely girl with frightened, wondering eyes; the father,
+desperate, white-lipped, shaking with the thing not yet done; Appius
+Claudius smiling among his friends and clients; the sullen crowd of
+strong plebeians, and the something in the chill autumn air that was a
+warning of fate and fateful change. Then the deed. A shriek at the edge
+of the throng; a long, thin knife, high in air, trembling before a
+thousand eyes; a harsh, heartbroken, vengeful voice; a confusion and a
+swaying of the multitude, and then the rising yell of men overlaid,
+ringing high in the air from the Capitol right across the Forum to the
+Palatine, and echoing back the doom of the Ten.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The deed is vivid still, and then there is sudden darkness. One thinks
+of how that man lived afterwards. Had Virginius a home, a wife, other
+children to mourn the dead one? Or was he a lonely man, ten times alone
+after that day, with the memory of one flashing moment always undimmed
+in a bright horror? Who knows? Did anyone care? Rome's story changed its
+course, turning aside at the river of Virginia's blood, and going on
+swiftly in another way.</p>
+
+<p>To defeat this time, straight to Rome's first and greatest humiliation;
+to the coming of the Gauls, sweeping everything before them, Etruscans,
+Italians, Romans, up to the gates of the city and over the great moat
+and wall of Servius, burning, destroying, killing everything, to the
+foot of the central rock; baffled at the last stronghold on a dark night
+by a flock of cackling geese, but not caring for so small a thing when
+they had swallowed up the rest, or not liking the Latin land, perhaps,
+and so, taking ransom for peace and marching away northwards again
+through the starved and harried hills and valleys of Etruria to their
+own country. And six centuries passed away before an enemy entered Rome
+again.</p>
+
+<p>But the Gauls left wreck and ruin and scarcely one stone upon another in
+the great desolation; they swept away all records of history, then and
+there, and the general destruction was absolute, so that the Rome of the
+Republic and of the Empire, the centre and capital<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> of the world, began
+to exist from that day. Unwillingly the people bore back Juno's image
+from Veii, where they had taken refuge and would have stayed, and built
+houses, and would have called that place Rome. But the nobles had their
+own way, and the great construction began, of which there was to be no
+end for many hundreds of years, in peace and war, mostly while hard
+fighting was going on abroad.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image26.jpg" width="450" height="305" alt="ETRUSCAN BRIDGE AT VEII" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ETRUSCAN BRIDGE AT VEII</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They built hurriedly at first, for shelter, and as best they could,
+crowding their little houses in narrow streets with small care for
+symmetry or adornment. The second Rome must have seemed but a poor
+village compared with the solidly built city which the Gauls had burnt,
+and it was long before the present could compare with the past. In haste
+men seized on fragments of all sorts, blocks of stone, cracked and
+defaced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> in the flames, charred beams that could still serve, a door
+here, a window there, and such bits of metal as they could pick up. An
+irregular, crowded town sprang up, and a few rough temples, no doubt as
+pied and meanly pieced as many of those early churches built of odds and
+ends of ruin, which stand to this day.</p>
+
+<p>It is not impossible that the motley character of Rome, of which all
+writers speak in one way or another, had its first cause in that second
+building of the city. Rome without ruins would hardly seem Rome at all,
+and all was ruined in that first inroad of the savage Gauls,&mdash;houses,
+temples, public places. When the Romans came back from Veii they must
+have found the Forum not altogether unlike what it is today, but
+blackened with smoke, half choked with mouldering humanity, strewn with
+charred timbers, broken roof tiles and the wreck of much household
+furniture; a sorrowful confusion reeking with vapours of death, and
+pestilential with decay. It was no wonder that the poor plebeians lost
+heart and would have chosen to go back to the clear streets and cleaner
+air of Veii. Their little houses were lost and untraceable in the
+universal chaos. But the rich man's ruins stood out in bolder relief; he
+had his lands still; he still had slaves; he could rebuild his home; and
+he had his way.</p>
+
+<p>But ever afterwards, though the Republic and the Empire spent the wealth
+of nations in beautifying the city, the trace of that first defeat
+remained. Dark and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> narrow lanes wound in and out, round the great
+public squares, and within earshot of the broad white streets, and the
+time-blackened houses of the poor stood huddled out of sight behind the
+palaces of the rich, making perpetual contrast of wealth and poverty,
+splendour and squalor, just as one may see today in Rome, in London, in
+Paris, in Constantinople, in all the mistress cities of the world that
+have long histories of triumph and defeat behind them.</p>
+
+<p>The first Rome sprang from the ashes of the Alban volcano, the second
+Rome rose from the ashes of herself, as she has risen again and again
+since then. But the Gauls had done Rome a service, too. In crushing her
+to the earth, they had crushed many of her enemies out of existence; and
+when she stood up to face the world once more, she fought not to beat
+the &AElig;quians or the Etruscans at her gates, but to conquer Italy. And by
+steady fighting she won it all, and brought home the spoils and divided
+the lands; here and there a battle lost, as in the bloody Caudine pass,
+but always more battles won, and more, and more, sternly relentless to
+revolt. Brutus had seen his own sons' heads fall at his own word; should
+Caius Pontius, the Samnite, be spared, because he was the bravest of the
+brave? To her faithful friends Rome was just, and now and then
+half-contemptuously generous.</p>
+
+<p>The idle Greek fine gentlemen of Tarentum sat in their theatre one day,
+overlooking the sea, shaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> by dyed awnings from the afternoon sun,
+listening entranced to some grand play,&mdash;the &OElig;dipus King, perhaps, or
+Alcestis, or Medea. Ten Roman trading ships came sailing round the
+point; and the wind failed, and they lay there with drooping sails,
+waiting for the land breeze that springs up at night. Perhaps some rough
+Latin sailor, as is the way today in calm weather when there is no work
+to be done, began to howl out one of those strange, endless songs which
+have been sung down to us, from ear to ear, out of the primeval Aryan
+darkness,&mdash;loud, long drawn out, exasperating in its unfinished cadence,
+jarring on the refined Greek ear, discordant with the actor's finely
+measured tones. In sudden rage at the noise&mdash;so it must have been&mdash;those
+delicate idlers sprang up and ran down to the harbour, and took the
+boats that lay there, and overwhelmed the unarmed Roman traders, slaying
+many of them. Foolish, cruel, almost comic. So a sensitive musician,
+driven half mad by a street organ, longs to rush out and break the thing
+to pieces, and kill the poor grinder for his barbarous noise.</p>
+
+<p>But when there was blood in the harbour of Tarentum, and some of the
+ships had escaped on their oars, the Greeks were afraid; and when the
+message of war came swiftly down to them from inexorable Rome, their
+terror grew, and they sent to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who had set up to be a
+conqueror, to come and conquer Rome for the sake of certain &aelig;sthetic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+fine gentlemen who could not bear to be disturbed at a good play on a
+spring afternoon. He came with all the pomp and splendour of Eastern
+warfare; he won a battle, and a battle, and half a battle, and then the
+Romans beat him at Beneventum, famous again and again, and utterly
+destroyed his army, and took back with them his gold and his jewels, and
+the tusks of his elephants, and the mastery of all Italy to boot, but
+not yet beyond dispute.</p>
+
+<p>Creeping down into Sicily, Rome met Carthage, both giants in those days,
+and the greatest and last struggle began, with half the known world and
+all the known sea for a battle-ground. Round and round the
+Mediterranean, by water and land, they fought for a hundred and eighteen
+years, through four generations of men, as we should reckon it, both
+grasping and strong, both relentless, both sworn to win or perish for
+ever, both doing great deeds that are remembered still. The mere name of
+Regulus is a legion of legends in itself; the name of Hannibal is in
+itself a history, that of Fabius Maximus a lesson; and while history
+lasts, Cornelius Scipio and Scipio the African will not be forgotten. It
+is the story of many and terrible defeats, from each of which Rome rose,
+fiercely young, to win a dozen terrible little victories. It is strange
+that we remember the lost days best; misty Thrasymene and Cann&aelig;'s
+fearful slaughter rise first in the memory. Then all at once, within ten
+years, the scale turns,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> and Caius Claudius Nero hurls Hasdrubal's
+disfigured head high over ditch and palisade into his brother's camp,
+right to his brother's feet. And five years later, the battle of Zama,
+won almost at the gates of Carthage; and then, almost the end, as great
+heartbroken Hannibal, defeated, ruined and exiled, drinks up the poison
+and rests at last, some forty years after he led his first army to
+victory. But he had been dead nearly forty years, when another Scipio at
+last tore down the walls of Carthage, and utterly destroyed the city to
+the foundations, for ever. And a dozen years later than that, Rome had
+conquered all the civilized world round about the Mediterranean sea,
+from Spain to Asia.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image32.jpg" width="450" height="238" alt="TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was a mother in Rome, not rich, but of great race, for she was
+daughter to Scipio of Africa; and she called her sons her jewels when
+other women showed their golden ornaments and their precious stones and
+boasted of their husbands' wealth. Cornelia's two sons, Tiberius and
+Caius, lost their lives successively in a struggle against the avarice
+of the rich men who ruled Rome, Italy and the world; against that
+grasping avarice which far surpassed the greed of any other race before
+the Romans, or after them, and which had suddenly taken new growth as
+the spoils of the East and South and West poured into the city. Yet the
+vast booty men could see was but an earnest of the wide lands which had
+fallen to Rome, called 'Public Lands' almost as if in derision, while
+they fell into the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> of the few and strong, by the hundred thousand
+acres at a time.</p>
+
+<p>Three hundred and fifty years before the Gracchi, when little conquests
+still seemed great, Spurius Cassius had died in defence of his Agrarian
+Law, at the hands of the savage rich who accused him of conspiring for a
+crown. Tiberius Gracchus set up the rights of the people to the public
+land, and perished.</p>
+
+<p>He fell within a stone's throw of the spot on which the great tribune,
+Nicholas Rienzi, died. The strong, small band of nobles, armed with
+staves and clubs, and with that supremacy of contemptuous bearing that
+cows the simple, plough their way through the rioting throng,
+murderously clubbing to right and left. Tiberius, retreating, stumbles
+against a corpse and his enemies are upon him; a stave swung high in
+air, a dull blow, and all is finished for that day, save to throw the
+body into the Tiber lest the people should make a revolution of its
+funeral.</p>
+
+<p>Next came Caius, a boy of six and twenty, fighting the same fight for a
+few years. On his head the nobles set a price&mdash;its weight in gold. He
+hides on the Aventine, and the Aventine is stormed. He escapes by the
+Sublician bridge and the bridge is held behind him by one friend, almost
+as Horatius held it against an army. Yet the nobles and their hired
+Cretan bowmen force the way and pursue him into Furina's grove. There a
+Greek slave ends him, and to get more gold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> fills the poor head with
+metal&mdash;and is paid in full. Three hundred died with Tiberius, three
+thousand were put to death for his brother's sake. With the goods of the
+slain and the dowries of their wives, Opimius built the Temple of
+Concord on the spot where the later one still stands in part, between
+the Comitium and the Capitol. The poor of Rome, and Cornelia, and the
+widows and children of the murdered men, knew what that 'Concord' meant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 293px;">
+<img src="images/image34.jpg" width="293" height="300" alt="BRASS OF TIBERIUS, SHOWING THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF TIBERIUS, SHOWING THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then followed revolution, war with runaway slaves, war with the
+immediate allies, then civil war, while wealth and love of wealth grew
+side by side, the one, insatiate, devouring the other.</p>
+
+<p>First the slaves made for Sicily, wild, mountainous, half-governed then
+as it is today, and they held much of it against their masters for five
+years. Within short memory, almost yesterday, a handful of outlaws has
+defied a powerful nation's best soldiers in the same mountains. It is
+small wonder that many thousand men, fighting for liberty and life,
+should have held out so long.</p>
+
+<p>And meanwhile Jugurtha of Numidia had for long years bought every Roman
+general sent against him,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> had come to Rome himself and bought the laws,
+and had gone back to his country with contemptuous leave-taking&mdash;'Thou
+city where all is sold!' And still he bought, till Caius Marius,
+high-hearted plebeian and great soldier, brought him back to die in the
+Mamertine prison.</p>
+
+<p>Then against wealth arose the last and greatest power of Rome, her
+terrible armies that set up whom they would, to have their will of
+Senate and fathers and people. First Marius, then Sylla whom he had
+taught to fight, and taught to beat him in the end, after Cinna had been
+murdered for his sake at Ancona.</p>
+
+<p>Marius and Sylla, the plebeian and the patrician, were matched at first
+as leader and lieutenant, then both as conquerors, then as alternate
+despots of Rome and mortal foes, till their long duel wrecked what had
+been and opened ways for what was to be.</p>
+
+<p>First, Sylla claims that he, and not Marius, took Jugurtha, when the
+Numidian ally betrayed him, though the King and his two sons marched in
+the train of the plebeian's triumph. Marius answers by a stupendous
+victory over the Cimbrians and Teutons, slays a hundred thousand in one
+battle, comes home, triumphs again, sets up his trophies in the city and
+builds a temple to Honour and Courage. Next, in greed of popular power,
+he perjures himself to support a pair of murderous demagogues, betrays
+them in turn to the patricians, and Saturninus is pounded to death with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+roof tiles in the Capitol. Then, being made leader in the war with the
+allies, already old for fighting, he fails at the outset, and his rival
+Sylla is General in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>Then riot on riot in the Forum, violence after violence in the struggle
+for the consulship, murder after murder, blood upon blood not yet dry.
+Sylla gets the expedition against Mithridates; Marius, at home,
+undermines his enemy's influence and forces the tribes to give him the
+command, and sends out his lieutenants to the East. Sylla's soldiers
+murder them, and Sylla marches back against Rome with six legions.
+Marius is unprepared; Sylla breaks into the city, torch in hand, at the
+head of his troops, burning and slaying; the rivals meet face to face in
+the Esquiline market-place, Roman fights Roman, and the plebeian loses
+the day and escapes to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of terror begins, and a great slaying. Sylla declares his
+rival an enemy of Rome, and Marius is found hiding in the marshes of
+Minturn&aelig;, is dragged out naked, covered with mud, a rope about his neck,
+and led into a little house of the town to be slain by a slave. 'Darest
+thou kill Caius Marius?' asks the old man with flashing eyes, and the
+slave executioner trembles before the unarmed prisoner. They let him go.
+He wanders to Africa and sits alone among the ruins of Carthage, while
+Sylla fights victoriously in the East. Rome, momentarily free of both,
+is torn by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> dissensions about the voting of the newly enfranchised.
+Instead of the greater rivals, Cinna and Octavius are matched for plebs
+and nobles. Knife-armed the parties fight it out in the Forum, the
+bodies of citizens lie in heaps, and the gutters are gorged with free
+blood, and again the patricians win the day. Cinna, fleeing from wrath,
+is deposed from office. Marius sees his chance again. Unshaven and
+unshorn since he left Rome last, he joins Cinna, leading six thousand
+fugitives, seizes and plunders the towns about Rome, while Cinna encamps
+beneath the walls. Together they enter Rome and nail Octavius' head to
+the Rostra. Then the vengeance of wholesale slaying, in another reign of
+terror, and Marius is despot of the city for a while, as Sylla had been
+before, till spent with age, his life goes out amid drunkenness and
+blood. The people tear down Sylla's house, burn his villa and drive out
+his wife and his children. Back he comes after four years, victorious,
+fighting his way right and left, against Lucanians and Samnites, back to
+Rome still fighting them, almost loses the battle, is saved by Crassus
+to take vengeance again, and again the long lists of the proscribed are
+written out and hung up in the Forum, and the city runs blood in a third
+Terror. Amid heaps of severed heads, Sylla sits before the temple of
+Castor and sells the lands of his dead enemies; and Catiline is first
+known to history as the executioner of Caius Gratidianus, whom he slices
+to death, piecemeal, beyond the Tiber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image38.jpg" width="450" height="584" alt="THE TARPEIAN ROCK" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE TARPEIAN ROCK</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sylla, cold, aristocratic, sublimely ironical monster, was Rome's first
+absolute and undisputed military lord. Tired of blood, he tried reform,
+invented an aristocratic constitution, saw that it must fail, and then,
+to the amazement of his friends and enemies, abdicated and withdrew to
+private life, protected by a hundred thousand veterans of his army, and
+many thousands of freedmen, to die at the last without violence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the chaos he left behind him, C&aelig;sar made the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The Gracchi, champions of the people, were foully done to death. Marius
+and Sylla, tearing the proud Republic to pieces for their own greatness,
+both died in their beds, the one of old age, the other of disease. There
+is no irony like that which often ended the lives of great Romans.
+Marcus Manlius, who saved the Capitol from the Gauls, was hurled to his
+death from the same rock, by the tribunes of the people, and Rome's
+citadel and sanctuary was desecrated by the blood of its preserver.
+Scipio of Africa breathed his last in exile, but Appius Claudius, the
+Decemvir, died rich and honoured.</p>
+
+<p>One asks, naturally enough, how Rome could hold the civilized nations in
+subjection while she was fighting out a civil war that lasted fifty
+years. We have but little idea of her great military organization, after
+arms became a profession and a career. We can but call up scattered
+pictures to show us rags and fragments of the immense host that
+patrolled the world with measured tread and matchless precision of
+serried rank, in tens and scores and hundreds of thousands, for
+centuries, shoulder to shoulder and flank to flank, learning its own
+strength by degrees, till it suddenly grasped all power, gave it to one
+man, and made Caius Julius C&aelig;sar Dictator of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest figure in all history suddenly springs out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> of the dim
+chaos and shines in undying glory, the figure of a man so great that the
+office he held means Empire, and the mere name he bore means Emperor
+today in four empires,&mdash;C&aelig;sar, Kaiser, Czar, Kais&aacute;r,&mdash;a man of so vast
+power that the history of humanity for centuries after him was the
+history of those who were chosen to fill his place&mdash;the history of
+nearly half the twelve centuries foretold by the augur Attus, from
+Romulus, first King, to Romulus Augustulus, last Emperor. He was a man
+whose deeds and laws have marked out the life of the world even to this
+far day. Before him and with him comes Pompey, with him and after him
+Mark Antony, next to him in line and greatness, Augustus&mdash;all dwarfs
+compared with him, while two of them were failures outright, and the
+third could never have reached power but in his steps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image41a.jpg" width="650" height="388" alt="PALACE OF THE C&AElig;SARS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALACE OF THE C&AElig;SARS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In that long tempest of parties wherein the Republic went down for ever,
+it is hard to trace the truth, or number the slain, or reckon up account
+of gain and loss. But when C&aelig;sar rises in the centre of the storm the
+end is sure and there can be no other, for he drives it before him like
+a captive whirlwind, to do his bidding and clear the earth for his
+coming. Other men, and great men, too, are overwhelmed by it, dashed
+down and stunned out of all sense and judgment, to be lost and forgotten
+like leaves in autumn, whirled away before the gale. Pompey, great
+general and great statesman, conqueror in Spain, subduer of Spartacus
+and the Gladiators, destroyer of pirates and final victor over
+Mithridates, comes back and lives as a simple citizen. Noble of birth,
+but not trusted by his peers, he joins with C&aelig;sar, leader of all the
+people, and with Crassus, for more power, and loses the world by giving
+C&aelig;sar an army, and Gaul to conquer. Crassus, brave general, too, is
+slain in battle in far Parthia, and Pompey steals a march by getting a
+long term in Spain. C&aelig;sar demands as much and is refused by Pompey's
+friends. Then the storm breaks and C&aelig;sar comes back from Gaul to cross
+the Rubicon, and take all Italy in sixty days. Pompey, ambitious,
+ill-starred, fights losing battles everywhere. Murdered at last in
+Egypt, he, too, is dead, and C&aelig;sar stands alone, master of Rome and of
+the world. One year he ruled, and then they slew him; but no one of them
+that struck him died a natural death.</p>
+
+<p>Creation presupposes chaos, and it is the divine prerogative of genius
+to evolve order from confusion. Julius C&aelig;sar found the world of his day
+consisting of disordered elements of strength, all at strife with each
+other in a central turmoil, skirted and surrounded by the relative peace
+of an ancient and long undisturbed barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>It was out of these elements that he created what has become modern
+Europe, and the direction which he gave to the evolution of mankind has
+never wholly changed since his day. Of all great conquerors he was the
+least cruel, for he never sacrificed human life without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> the direct
+intention of benefiting mankind by an increased social stability. Of all
+great lawgivers, he was the most wise and just, and the truths he set
+down in the Julian Code are the foundation of modern justice. Of all
+great men who have leaped upon the world as upon an unbroken horse, who
+have guided it with relentless hands, and ridden it breathless to the
+goal of glory, C&aelig;sar is the only one who turned the race into the track
+of civilization and, dying, left mankind a future in the memory of his
+past. He is the one great man of all, without whom it is impossible to
+imagine history. We cannot take him away and yet leave anything of what
+we have. The world could have been as it is without Alexander, without
+Charlemagne, without Napoleon; it could not have been the world we know
+without Caius Julius C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>That fact alone places him at the head of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>In C&aelig;sar's life there is the same matter for astonishment as in
+Napoleon's; there is the vast disproportion between beginnings and
+climax, between the relative modesty of early aims and the stupendous
+magnitude of the climacteric result. One asks how in a few years the
+impecunious son of the Corsican notary became the world's despot, and
+how the fashionable young spendthrift lawyer of Rome, dabbling in
+politics and almost ignorant of warfare, rose in a quarter of a century
+to be the world's conqueror, lawgiver and civilizer. The daily miracle
+of genius is the incalculable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> speed at which it simultaneously thinks
+and acts. Nothing is so logical as creation, and creation is the first
+sign as well as the only proof that genius is present.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto the life of C&aelig;sar has not been logically presented. His youth
+appears almost always to be totally disconnected from his maturity. The
+first success, the conquest of Gaul, comes as a surprise, because its
+preparation is not described. After it everything seems natural, and
+conquest follows victory as daylight follows dawn; but when we try to
+think backwards from that first expedition, we either see nothing
+clearly, or we find C&aelig;sar an insignificant unit in a general disorder,
+as hard to identify as an individual ant in a swarming ant-hill. In the
+lives of all 'great men,' which are almost always totally unlike the
+lives of the so-called 'great,'&mdash;those born, not to power, but in
+power,&mdash;there is a point which must inevitably be enigmatical. It may be
+called the Hour of Fate&mdash;the time when in the suddenly loosed play of
+many circumstances, strained like springs and held back upon themselves,
+a man who has been known to a few thousands finds himself the chief of
+millions and the despot of a nation.</p>
+
+<p>Things which are only steps to great men are magnified to attainments in
+ordinary lives, and remembered with pride. The man of genius is sure of
+the great result, if he can but get a fulcrum for his lever. What
+strikes one most in the careers of such men as C&aelig;sar and Napoleon is the
+tremendous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> advance realized at the first step&mdash;the difference between
+Napoleon's half-subordinate position before the first campaign in Italy
+and his dominion of France immediately after it, or the distance which
+separated C&aelig;sar, the impeached Consul, from C&aelig;sar, the conqueror of
+Gaul.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten that C&aelig;sar came of a family that had held great
+positions, and which, though impoverished, still had credit,
+subsequently stretched by C&aelig;sar to the extreme limit of its borrowing
+power. At sixteen, an age when Bonaparte was still an unknown student,
+C&aelig;sar was Flamen Dialis, or high priest of Jupiter, and at one and
+twenty, the 'ill-girt boy,' as Sylla called him from his way of wearing
+his toga, was important enough to be driven from Rome, a fugitive. His
+first attempt at a larger notoriety had failed, and Dolabella, whom he
+had impeached, had been acquitted through the influence of friends. Yet
+the young lawyer had found the opportunity of showing what he could do,
+and it was not without reason that Sylla said of him, 'You will find
+many a Marius in this one C&aelig;sar.'</p>
+
+<p>Twenty years passed before the prophecy began to be realized with the
+commencement of C&aelig;sar's career in Gaul, and more than once during that
+time his life seemed a failure in his own eyes, and he said scornfully
+and sadly of himself that he had done nothing to be remembered at an age
+when Alexander had already conquered the world.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Those twenty years which, to the thoughtful man, are by far the most
+interesting of all, appear in history as a confused and shapeless medley
+of political, military and forensic activity, strongly coloured by
+social scandals, which rested upon a foundation of truth, and darkened
+by accusations of worse kind, for which there is no sort of evidence,
+and which may be safely attributed to the jealousy of unscrupulous
+adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>The first account of him, which we have in the seventeenth year of his
+age, evokes a picture of youthful beauty. The boy who is to win the
+world is appointed high priest of Jove in Rome,&mdash;by what strong
+influence we know not,&mdash;and we fancy the splendid youth with his tall
+figure, full of elastic endurance, the brilliant face, the piercing,
+bold, black eyes; we see him with the small mitre set back upon the dark
+and curling locks that grow low on the forehead, as hair often does that
+is to fall early, clad in the purple robe of his high office, summoning
+all his young dignity to lend importance to his youthful grace as he
+moves up to Jove's high altar to perform his first solemn sacrifice with
+his young consort; for the high priesthood of Jove was held jointly by
+man and wife, and if the wife died the husband lost his office.</p>
+
+<p>He was about twenty when he cast his lot with the people, and within the
+year he fled from Sylla's persecution. The life of sudden changes and
+contrasts had begun. Straight from the sacred office, with all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> its
+pomp, and splendour, and solemnity, C&aelig;sar is a fugitive in the Sabine
+hills, homeless, wifeless, fever-stricken, a price on his head. Such
+quick chances of evil fell to many in the days of the great struggle
+between Marius and Sylla, between the people and the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>Then as Sylla yielded to the insistence of the young 'populist'
+nobleman's many friends, the quick reverse is turned to us. C&aelig;sar has a
+military command, sees some fighting and much idleness by the shores of
+the Bosphorus, in Bithynia&mdash;then in a fit of sudden energy, the
+soldier's spirit rises; he dashes to the attack on Mytilene, and shows
+himself a man.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;">
+<img src="images/image48.jpg" width="386" height="500" alt="CAIUS JULIUS C&AElig;SAR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CAIUS JULIUS C&AElig;SAR<br />
+
+After a statue in the Palazzo dei Conservatori</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One or two unimportant campaigns, as a subordinate officer, a civic
+crown won for personal bravery, an unsuccessful action brought against a
+citizen of high rank in the hope of forcing himself into notice, a trip
+to Rhodes made to escape the disgrace of failure, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> an adventure with
+pirates&mdash;there, in a few words, is the story of Julius C&aelig;sar's youth, as
+history tells it. But then suddenly, when his projected studies in quiet
+Rhodes were hardly begun, he crosses to the mainland, raises troops,
+seizes cities, drives Mithridates' governor out of the province, returns
+to Rome and is elected military tribune. The change is too quick, and
+one does not understand it. Truth should tell that those early years had
+been spent in the profound study of philosophy, history, biography,
+languages and mankind, of the genesis of events from the germ to the
+branching tree, of that chemistry of fate which brews effect out of
+cause, and distils the imperishable essence of glory from the rougher
+liquor of vulgar success.</p>
+
+<p>What strikes one most in the lives of the very great is that every
+action has a cumulative force beyond what it ever has in the existence
+of ordinary men. Success moves onward, passing through events on the
+same plane, as it were, and often losing brilliancy till it fades away,
+leaving those who have had it to outlive it in sorrow and weakness.
+Genius moves upward, treading events under its feet, scaling Olympus,
+making a ladder of mankind, outlasting its own activity for ever in a
+final and fixed glory more splendid than its own bright path. The really
+great man gathers power in action, the average successful man expends
+it.</p>
+
+<p>And so it must be understood that C&aelig;sar, in his early youth, was not
+wasting his gifts in what seemed to be a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> half-voluptuous,
+half-adventurous, wholly careless life, but was accumulating strength by
+absorbing into himself the forces with which he came in contact,
+exhausting the intelligence of his companions in order to stock his own,
+learning everything simultaneously, forgetting nothing he learned till
+he could use all he knew to the extreme limit of its value.</p>
+
+<p>There is something mysterious in the almost unlimited credit which C&aelig;sar
+seems to have enjoyed when still a very young man; and if the control of
+enormous sums of money by which he made himself beloved among the people
+explains, in a measure, his rapid rise from office to office, it is, on
+the other hand, hard to account for the trust which his creditors placed
+in his promises, and to explain why, when he was taken by pirates, the
+cities of Asia Minor should have voluntarily contributed money to make
+up the ransom demanded, seeing that he had never served in Asia, except
+as a subordinate. The only possible explanation is that while there, his
+real energies were devoted to the attainment of the greatest possible
+popularity in the shortest possible time, and that he was making himself
+beloved by the Asiatic cities, while his enemies said of him that he was
+wasting his time in idleness and dissipation.</p>
+
+<p>In any case, it was the control of money that most helped him in
+obtaining high offices in Rome, and from the very first he seems to have
+acted on the principle that in great enterprises economy spells ruin,
+and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> to check expenditure is to trip up success. And this is
+explained, if not justified, by his close association with the people,
+from his very childhood. Until he was made Pontifex Maximus he seems to
+have lived in a small house in the Suburra, in one of the most crowded
+and least fashionable quarters of Rome; and as a mere boy, it was his
+influence with the common people that roused Sylla's anxiety. To live
+with the people, to take their part against the nobles, to give them of
+all he had and of all he could borrow, were the chief rules of his
+conduct, and the fact that he obtained such enormous loans proves that
+there were rich lenders who were ready to risk fortunes upon his
+success. And it was in dealing with the Roman plebeian that he learned
+to command the Roman soldier, with the tact of a demagogue and the
+firmness of an autocrat. He knew that a man must give largely, even
+recklessly, to be beloved, and that in order to be respected he must be
+able to refuse coldly and without condition, and that in all ages the
+people are but as little children before genius, though they may rise
+against talent like wild beasts and tear it to death.</p>
+
+<p>He knew also that in youth ten failures are nothing compared with one
+success, while in the full meridian of power one failure undoes a score
+of victories; hence his recklessness at first, his magnificent caution
+in his latter days; his daring resistance of Sylla's power before he was
+twenty, and his mildness towards the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> ringleaders of popular
+conspiracies against him when he was near his end; his violence upon the
+son of King Juba, whom he seized by the beard in open court when he
+himself was but a young lawyer, and his moderation in bearing the most
+atrocious libels, to punish which might have only increased their force.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar's career divides itself not unnaturally into three periods,
+corresponding with his youth, his manhood and his maturity; with the
+absorption of force in gaining experience, the lavish expenditure of
+force in conquest, the calm employment of force in final supremacy. The
+man who never lost a battle in which he commanded in person, began life
+by failing in everything he attempted, and ended it as the foremost man
+of all humanity, past and to come, the greatest general, the greatest
+speaker, the greatest lawgiver, the greatest writer of Latin prose whom
+the great Roman people ever produced, and also the bravest man of his
+day, as he was the kindest. In an age when torture was a legitimate part
+of justice, he caused the pirates who had taken him, and whom he took in
+turn, to be mercifully put to death before he crucified their dead
+bodies for his oath's sake, and when his long-trusted servant tried to
+poison him he would not allow the wretch to be hurt save by the sudden
+stroke of instant death; nor ever in a long career of conquest did he
+inflict unnecessary pain. Never was man loved of women as he was, and
+his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> sins were many even for those days, yet in them we find no
+unkindness, and when his own wife should have been condemned for her
+love of Clodius, C&aelig;sar would not testify against her. He divorced her,
+he said, not because he knew anything, but because his family should be
+above suspicion. He plundered the world, but he gave it back its gold in
+splendid gifts and public works, keeping its glory alone for himself. He
+was hated by the few because he was beloved by the many, and it was not
+revenge, but envy, that slew the benefactor of mankind. The weaknesses
+of the supreme conqueror were love of woman and trust of man, and as the
+first Brutus made his name glorious by setting his people free, the
+second disgraced it and blackened the name of friendship with a stain
+that will outlast time, and by a deed second only in infamy to that of
+Judas Iscariot. The last cry of the murdered master was the cry of a
+broken heart&mdash;'And thou, too, Brutus, my son!' Alexander left chaos
+behind him; C&aelig;sar left Europe, and it may be truly said that the
+crowning manifestation of his sublime wisdom was his choice of
+Octavius&mdash;of the young Augustus&mdash;to complete the carving of a world
+which he himself had sketched and blocked out in the rough.</p>
+
+<p>The first period of his life ended with his election to the military
+tribuneship on his return to Rome after his Asian adventures, and his
+first acts were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> directed towards the reconstruction of what Sylla had
+destroyed, by re&euml;stablishing the authority of tribunes and recalling
+some of Sylla's victims from their political exile. From that time
+onward, in his second period, he was more or less continually in office.
+Successively a tribune, a qu&aelig;stor, governor of Farther Spain, &aelig;dile,
+pontifex maximus, pr&aelig;tor, governor of Spain again, and consul with the
+insignificant Bibulus, a man of so small importance that people used to
+date documents, by way of a jest, 'in the Consulship of Julius and
+C&aelig;sar.' Then he obtained Gaul for his province, and lived the life of a
+soldier for nine years, during which he created the army that gave him
+at last the mastery of Rome. And in the tenth year Rome was afraid, and
+his enemies tried to deprive him of his power and passed bills against
+him, and drove out the tribunes of the people who took his part; and if
+he had returned to Rome then, yielding up his province and his legions,
+as he was called upon to do, he would have been judged and destroyed by
+his enemies. But he knew that the people loved him, and he crossed the
+Rubicon in arms.</p>
+
+<p>This second period of his life closed with the last triumph decreed to
+him for his victories in Spain. The third and final period had covered
+but one year when his assassins cut it short.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing demonstrates C&aelig;sar's greatness so satisfactorily as this, that
+at his death Rome relapsed at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> once into civil war and strife as violent
+as that to which C&aelig;sar had put an end, and that the man who brought
+lasting peace and unity into the distracted state, was the man of
+C&aelig;sar's choice. But in endeavouring to realize his supreme wisdom,
+nothing helps us more than the pettiness of the accusations brought
+against him by such historians as Suetonius&mdash;that he once remained
+seated to receive the whole body of Conscript fathers, that he had a
+gilded chair in the Senate house, and appointed magistrates at his own
+pleasure to hold office for terms of years, that he laughed at an
+unfavourable omen and made himself dictator for life; and such things,
+says the historian, 'are of so much more importance than all his good
+qualities that he is considered to have abused his power and to have
+been justly assassinated.' But it is the people, not the historian, who
+make history, and when Caius Julius C&aelig;sar was dead, the people called
+him God.</p>
+
+<p>Beardless Octavius, his sister's daughter's son, barely eighteen years
+old, brings in by force the golden age of Rome. As Triumvir, with Antony
+and Lepidus, he hunts down the murderers first, then his rebellious
+colleagues, and wins the Empire back in thirteen years. He rules long
+and well, and very simply, as commanding general of the army and by no
+other power, taking all into his hands besides, the Senate, the chief
+priesthood, and the Majesty of Rome over the whole earth, for which he
+was called Augustus, the 'Majestic.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> And his strength lay in this, that
+by the army, he was master of Senate and people alike, so that they
+could no longer strive with each other in perpetual bloodshed, and the
+everlasting wars of Rome were fought against barbarians far away, while
+Rome at home was prosperous and calm and peaceful. Then Virgil sang, and
+Horace gave Latin life to Grecian verse, and smiled and laughed, and
+wept and dallied with love, while Livy wrote the story of greatness for
+us all to this day, and Ovid touched another note still unforgotten.
+Then temple rose by temple, and grand basilicas reared their height by
+the Sacred Way; the gold of the earth poured in and Art was queen and
+mistress of the age. Julius C&aelig;sar was master in Rome for one year.
+Augustus ruled nearly half a century. Four and forty years he was sole
+monarch after Antony's fall at Actium. About the thirtieth year of his
+reign, Christ was born.</p>
+
+<p>All men have an original claim to be judged by the standard of their own
+time. Counting one by one the victims of the proscription proclaimed by
+the triumvirate in which Augustus was the chief power, some historians
+have brought down his greatness in quick declination to the level of a
+cold-blooded and cruel selfishness; and they account for his subsequent
+just and merciful conduct on the ground that he foresaw political
+advantage in clemency, and extension of power in the exercise of
+justice. The death of Cicero, sacrificed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> to Antony's not unreasonable
+vengeance, is magnified into a crime that belittles the Augustan age.</p>
+
+<p>Yet compared with the wholesale murders done by Marius and Sylla, and by
+the patricians themselves in their struggles with the people, the few
+political executions ordered by Augustus sink into comparative
+insignificance, and it will generally be seen that those who most find
+fault with him are ready to extol the murderers of Julius C&aelig;sar as
+devoted patriots, if not as glorious martyrs to the divine cause of
+liberty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<img src="images/image57.jpg" width="307" height="500" alt="OCTAVIUS AUGUSTUS C&AElig;SAR" title="" />
+<span class="caption">OCTAVIUS AUGUSTUS C&AElig;SAR<br />
+
+After a bust in the British Museum</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is easier, perhaps, to describe the growth of Rome from the early
+Kings to Augustus, than to account for the change from the Rome of the
+Empire at the beginning of our era to the Rome of the Popes in the year
+eight hundred. Probably the easiest and truest way of looking at the
+transition is to regard it according to the periods of supremacy,
+decadence and ultimate disappearance from Rome of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> the Roman Army. For
+the Army made the Emperors, and the Emperors made the times. The great
+military organization had in it the elements of long life, together with
+all sudden and terrible possibilities. The Army made Tiberius, Caligula,
+Claudius and Nero, the Julian Emperors; then destroyed Nero and set up
+Vespasian after one or two experiments. The Army chose such men as
+Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, and such monsters as Domitian and Commodus;
+the Army conquered the world, held the world and gave the world to
+whomsoever it pleased. The Army and the Emperor, each the other's tool,
+governed Rome for good and ill, for ill and good, by fear and bounty and
+largely by amusement, but ultimately to their own and Rome's
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>For all the time the two great adversaries of the Empire, the spiritual
+and material, the Christian and the men of the North, were gaining
+strength and unity. Under Augustus, Christ was born. Under Augustus,
+Hermann the German chieftain destroyed Varus and his legions. By sheer
+strength and endurance, the Army widened and broadened the Empire,
+forcing back the Northmen upon themselves like a spring that gathers
+force by tension. Unnoticed, at first, Christianity quietly grew to
+power. Between Christians and Northmen, the Empire of Rome went down at
+last, leaving the Empire of Constantinople behind it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The great change was wrought in about five hundred years, by the Empire,
+from the City of the Republic to what had become the City of the Middle
+Age; between the reign of Augustus, first Emperor, and the deposition of
+the last Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by Odoacer, Rome's hired
+Pomeranian general.</p>
+
+<p>In that time Rome was transubstantiated in all its elements, in
+population, in language, in religion and in customs. To all intents and
+purposes, the original Latin race utterly disappeared, and the Latin
+tongue became the broken dialect of a mixed people, out of which the
+modern Italian speech was to grow, decadent in form, degenerate in
+strength but renascent in a grace and beauty which the Latin never
+possessed. First the vast population of slaves brought in their
+civilized and their barbarous words&mdash;Greek, Hebrew and Arabic, or
+Celtic, German and Slav; then came the Goth, and filled all Italy with
+himself and his rough language for a hundred years. The Latin of the
+Roman Mass is the Latin of slaves in Rome between the first and fifth
+centuries, from the time of the Apostles to that of Pope Gelasius, whose
+prayer for peace and rest is the last known addition to the Canon,
+according to most authorities. Compare it with the Latin of Livy and
+Tacitus; it is not the same language, for to read the one by no means
+implies an understanding of the other.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Or take the dress. It is told of Augustus, as a strange and almost
+unknown thing, that he wore breeches and stockings, or leg swathings,
+because he suffered continually with cold. Men went barelegged and
+wrapped themselves in the huge toga which came down to their feet. In
+the days of Augustulus the toga was almost forgotten; men wore leggings,
+tunics and the short Greek cloak.</p>
+
+<p>In the change of religion, too, all customs were transformed, private
+and public, in a way impossible to realize today. The Roman household,
+with the father as absolute head, lord and despot, gradually gave way to
+a sort of half-patriarchal, half-religious family life, resembling the
+first in principle but absolutely different from it in details and
+result, and which, in a measure, has survived in Italy to the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>In the lives of men, the terror of one man, as each despot lost power,
+began to give way to the fear of half-defined institutions, of the
+distant government in Constantinople and of the Church as a secular
+power, till the time came when the title of Emperor raised a smile,
+whereas the name of the Pope&mdash;of the 'Father-Bishop'&mdash;was spoken with
+reverence by Christians and with respect even by unbelievers. The time
+came when the army that had made Emperors and unmade them at its
+pleasure became a mere band of foreign mercenaries, who fought for wages
+and plunder when they could be induced to fight for Rome at all.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>So the change came. But in the long five hundred years of the Western
+Empire Rome had filled the world with the results of her own life and
+had founded modern Europe, from the Danube to England and from the Rhine
+to Gibraltar; so that when the tide set towards the south again, the
+Northmen brought back to Italy some of the spirit and some of the
+institutions which Rome had carried northwards to them in the days of
+conquest; and they came not altogether as strangers and barbarians, as
+the Huns had come, to ravage and destroy, and be themselves destroyed
+and scattered and forgotten, but, in a measure, as Europeans against
+Europeans, hoping to grasp the remnants of a civilized power. Theodoric
+tried to make a real kingdom, Totila and Teias fell fighting for one;
+the Franks established one in Gaul, and at last it was a Frank who gave
+the Empire life again, and conquests and laws, and was crowned by the
+Christian Pontifex Maximus in Rome when Julius C&aelig;sar had been dead more
+than eight hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest of the world's historians has told the story of the
+change, calling it the 'Decline and Fall of the Empire,' and describing
+it in some three thousand pages, of which scarcely one can be spared for
+the understanding of the whole. Thereby its magnitude may be gauged, but
+neither fairly judged nor accurately measured. The man who would grasp
+the whole meaning of Rome's name, must spend a lifetime<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> in study and
+look forward to disappointment in the end. It was Amp&egrave;re, I believe, who
+told a young student that he might get a superficial impression of the
+city in ten years, but that twenty would be necessary in order to know
+anything about it worthy to be written. And perhaps the largest part of
+the knowledge worth having lies in the change from the ancient capital
+of the Empire to the medi&aelig;val seat of ecclesiastic domination.</p>
+
+<p>And, indeed, nothing in all history is more extraordinary than the rise
+of Rome's second power under the Popes. In the ordinary course of human
+events, great nations appear to have had but one life. When that was
+lived out, and when they had passed through the artistic period so often
+coincident with early decadence, they were either swept away, or they
+sank to the insignificance of mere commercial prosperity, thereafter
+deriving their fashions, arts, tastes, and in fact almost everything
+except their wealth, from nations far gone in decay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image64a.jpg" width="650" height="391" alt="THE CAMPAGNA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE CAMPAGNA<br />
+
+And Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But in Rome it was otherwise. The growth of the faith which subjected
+the civilized world was a matter of first importance to civilization,
+and Rome was the centre of that growing. Moreover, that development and
+that faith had one head, chosen by election, and the headship itself
+became an object of the highest ambition, whereby the strength and
+genius of individuals and families were constantly called into activity,
+and both families and isolated individuals of foreign race were
+attracted to Rome. It was no small thing to hold the kings of the earth
+in spiritual subjection, to be the arbiter of the new Empire founded by
+Charlemagne, the director of the kingdoms built up in France and
+England, and, almost literally, the feudal lord over all other temporal
+powers. The force of a predominant idea gave Rome new life, vivifying
+new elements with the vitality of new ambitions. The theatre was the
+same. The actors and the play had changed. The world was no longer
+governed by one man as monarch; it was directed by one man, who was the
+chief personage in the vast and intricate feudal system by which strong
+men agreed to live, and to which they forced the weak to submit.</p>
+
+<p>The Barons came into existence, and Rome was a city of fortresses and
+towers, as well as churches. Orsini and Colonna, Caetani and
+Vitelleschi, Savelli and Frangipani, fought with each other for
+centuries among ruins, built strongholds of the stones of temples, and
+burned the marble treasures of the world to make lime. And fiercely they
+held their own. Nicholas Rienzi wanders amid the deserted places,
+deciphers the broken inscriptions, gathers a little crowd of plebeians
+about him and tells them of ancient Rome, and of the rights of the
+people in old times. All at once he rises, a grand shadow of a Roman, a
+true tribune, brave, impulsive, eloquent. A little while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> longer and he
+is half mad with vanity and ambition, a public fool in a high place,
+decking himself in silks and satins, and ornaments of gold, and the
+angry nobles slay him on the steps of the Arac&oelig;li, as other nobles
+long ago slew Tiberius Gracchus, a greater and a better man, almost on
+the same spot.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the great schism of the Church rages, before and after Rienzi.
+The Empire and its Kingdoms join issue with each other and with the
+Barons for the lordship of Christendom; there are two Popes, waging war
+with nations on both sides, and Rome is reduced to a town of barely
+twenty thousand souls. Then comes Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh,
+friend of the Great Countess, humbler of the Emperor, a restorer of
+things, the Julius C&aelig;sar of the Church, and from his day there is
+stability again, as Urban the Second follows, like an Augustus; Nicholas
+the Fifth, the next great Pontiff, comes in with the Renascence. Last of
+destroyers Charles, the wild Constable of Bourbon, marches in open
+rebellion against King, State and Church, friend to the Emperor,
+straight to his death at the walls, his work of destruction carried out
+to the terrible end by revengeful Spaniards who spare only the churches
+and the convents. Out of those ashes Rome rose again, for the last time,
+the Rome of Sixtus the Fifth, which is, substantially, the Rome we see
+today; less powerful in the world after that time, but more beautiful as
+she grew more peaceful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> by degrees; flourishing in a strange, motley
+way, like no other city in the world, as the Empire of the Hapsburgs and
+the Kingdoms of Europe learned to live apart from her, and she was
+concentrated again upon herself, still and always a factor among
+nations, and ever to be. But even in latter days, Napoleon could not do
+without her, and Francis the Second of Austria had to resign the Empire,
+in order that Pius the Seventh might call the self-crowned Corsican
+soldier, girt with Charlemagne's huge sword, the anointed Emperor of
+Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>Once more a new idea gives life to fragments hewn in pieces and
+scattered in confusion. A dream of unity disturbs Italy's sleep. Never,
+in truth, in all history, has Italy been united save by violence. By the
+sword the Republic brought Latins, Samnites and Etruscans into
+subjection; by sheer strength she crushed the rebellion of the slaves
+and then forced the Italian allies to a second submission; by terror
+Marius and Sylla ruled Rome and Italy; and it was the overwhelming power
+of a paid army that held the Italians in check under the Empire, till
+they broke away from each other as soon as the pressure was removed, to
+live in separate kingdoms and principalities for thirteen or fourteen
+hundred years, from Romulus Augustulus&mdash;or at least from Justinian&mdash;to
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, in whose veins ran not one drop of
+Italian blood.</p>
+
+<p>One asks whence came the idea of unity which has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> had such power to move
+these Italians, in modern times. The answer is plain and simple. Unity
+is the word; the interpretation of it is the name of Rome. The desire is
+for all the romance and the legends and the visions of supreme greatness
+which no other name can ever call up. What will be called hereafter the
+madness of the Italian people took possession of them on the day when
+Rome was theirs to do with as they pleased. Their financial ruin had its
+origin at that moment, when they became masters of the legendary
+Mistress of the world. What the end will be, no one can foretell, but
+the Rome of old was not made great by dreams. Her walls were founded in
+blood, and her temples were built with the wealth of conquered nations,
+by captives and slaves of subject races.</p>
+
+<p>The Rome we see today owes its mystery, its sadness and its charm to six
+and twenty centuries of history, mostly filled with battle, murder and
+sudden death, deeds horrible in that long-past present which we try to
+call up, but alternately grand, fascinating and touching now, as we
+shape our scant knowledge into visions and fill out our broken dreams
+with the stuff of fancy. In most men's minds, perhaps, the charm lies in
+that very confusion of suggestions, for few indeed know Rome so well as
+to divide clearly the truth from the legend in her composition. Such
+knowledge is perhaps altogether unattainable in any history; it is most
+surely so here, where city is built on city, monument upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> monument,
+road upon road, from the heart of the soil upwards&mdash;the hardened lava
+left by many eruptions of life; where the tablets of Clio have been
+shattered again and again, where fire has eaten, and sword has hacked,
+and hammer has bruised ages of records out of existence, where even the
+race and type of humanity have changed and have been forgotten twice and
+three times over.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, unless one have half a lifetime to spend in patient study and
+deep research, it is better, if one come to Rome, to feel much than to
+try and know a little, for in much feeling there is more human truth
+than in that dangerous little knowledge which dulls the heart and
+hampers the clear instincts of natural thought. Let him who comes hither
+be satisfied with a little history and much legend, with rough warp of
+fact and rich woof of old-time fancy, and not look too closely for the
+perfect sum of all, where more than half the parts have perished for
+ever.</p>
+
+<p>It matters not much whether we know the exact site of Virgil's
+Laurentum; it is more interesting to remember how Commodus, cruel,
+cowardly and selfish, fled thither from the great plague, caring not at
+all that his people perished by tens of thousands in the city, since he
+himself was safe, with the famous Galen to take care of him. We can
+leave the task of tracing the enclosures of Nero's golden house to
+learned arch&aelig;logists, and let our imagination find wonder and delight in
+their accounts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of its porticos three thousand feet long, its game park,
+its baths, its thousands of columns with their gilded capitals, and its
+walls encrusted with mother-of-pearl. And we may realize the depth of
+Rome's abhorrence for the dead tyrant, as we think of how Vespasian and
+his son Titus pulled down the enchanted palace for the people's sake,
+and built the Colosseum where the artificial lake had been, and their
+great baths on the very foundations of Nero's gorgeous dwelling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/image72.jpg" width="300" height="293" alt="BRASS OF TRAJAN, SHOWING THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF TRAJAN, SHOWING THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image73.jpg" width="450" height="199" alt="BRASS OF ANTONINUS PIUS, IN HONOUR OF FAUSTINA, WITH
+REVERSE SHOWING VESTA BEARING THE PALLADIUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF ANTONINUS PIUS, IN HONOUR OF FAUSTINA, WITH
+REVERSE SHOWING VESTA BEARING THE PALLADIUM</span>
+</div>
+<h2>III</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is impossible to conceive of the Augustan age without Horace, nor to
+imagine a possible Horace without Greece and Greek influence. At the
+same time Horace is in many ways the prototype of the old-fashioned,
+cultivated, gifted, idle, sarcastic, middle-class Roman official, making
+the most of life on a small salary and the friendship of a great
+personage; praising poverty, but making the most of the good things that
+fell in his way; extolling pristine austerity of life and yielding with
+a smile to every agreeable temptation; painting the idyllic life of a
+small gentleman farmer as the highest state of happiness, but secretly
+preferring the town; prudently avoiding marriage, but far too human to
+care for an existence in which woman had no share; more sensible in
+theory than in practice, and more religious in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> manner than in heart;
+full of quaint superstitions, queer odds and ends of knowledge, amusing
+anecdotes and pictures of personal experience; the whole compound
+permeated with a sort of indolent sadness at the unfulfilled promises of
+younger years, in which there had been more of impulse than of ambition,
+and more of ambition than real strength. The early struggles for Italian
+unity left many such half-disappointed patriots, and many less fortunate
+in their subsequent lives than Horace.</p>
+
+<p>Born in the far South, and the son of a freed slave, brought to Rome as
+a boy and carefully taught, then sent to Athens to study Greek, he was
+barely twenty years of age when he joined Brutus after C&aelig;sar's death,
+was with him in Asia, and, in the lack of educated officers perhaps,
+found himself one day, still a mere boy, tribune of a Legion&mdash;or, as we
+should say, in command of a brigade of six thousand men, fighting for
+what he believed to be the liberty of Rome, in the disastrous battle of
+Philippi. Brutus being dead, the dream of glory ended, after the
+amnesty, in a scribe's office under one of the qu&aelig;stors, and the
+would-be liberator of his country became a humble clerk in the Treasury,
+eking out his meagre salary with the sale of a few verses. Many an old
+soldier of Garibaldi's early republican dreams has ended in much the
+same way in our own times under the monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>But Horace was born to other things. Chaucer was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> a clerk in the Custom
+House, and found time to be the father of English poetry. Horace's daily
+work did not hinder him from becoming a poet. His love of Greek,
+acquired in Athens and Asia Minor, and the natural bent of his mind made
+him the greatest imitator and adapter of foreign verses that ever lived;
+and his character, by its eminently Italian combination of prim
+respectability and elastic morality, gave him a two-sided view of men
+and things that has left us representations of life in three dimensions
+instead of the flat, though often violent, pictures which prejudice
+loves best to paint.</p>
+
+<p>In his admiration of Greek poetry, Horace was not a discoverer; he was
+rather the highest expression of Rome's artistic want. If Scipio of
+Africa had never conquered the Carthaginians at Zama, he would be
+notable still as one of the first and most sincere lovers of Hellenic
+literature, and as one of the earliest imitators of Athenian manners.
+The great conqueror is remembered also as the first man in Rome who
+shaved every day, more than a hundred and fifty years before Horace's
+time. He was laughed at by some, despised by others and disliked by the
+majority for his cultivated tastes and his refined manners.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans had most gifts excepting those we call creative. Instead of
+creating, therefore, Rome took her art whole, and by force, from the
+most artistic nation the world ever produced. Sculptors, architects,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+painters and even poets, such as there were, came captive to Rome in
+gangs, were sold at auction as slaves, and became the property of the
+rich, to work all their lives at their several arts for their master's
+pleasure; and the State rifled Greece and Asia, and even the Greek Italy
+of the south, and brought back the masterpieces of an age to adorn
+Rome's public places. The Roman was the engineer, the maker of roads, of
+aqueducts, of fortifications, the layer out of cities, and the planner
+of harbours. In a word, the Roman made the solid and practical
+foundation, and then set the Greek slave to beautify it. When he had
+watched the slave at work for a century or two, he occasionally
+attempted to imitate him. That was as far as Rome ever went in original
+art.</p>
+
+<p>But her love of the beautiful, though often indiscriminating and lacking
+in taste, was profound and sincere. It does not appear that in all her
+conquests her armies ever wantonly destroyed beautiful things. On the
+contrary, her generals brought home all they could with uncommon care,
+and the consequence was that in Horace's day the public places of the
+city were vast open-air museums, and the great temples picture galleries
+of which we have not the like now in the whole world. And with those
+things came all the rest; the manners, the household life, the
+necessaries and the fancies of a conquering and already decadent nation,
+the thousands of slaves whose only duty was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> to amuse their owners and
+the public; the countless men and women and girls and boys, whose souls
+and bodies went to feed the corruption of the gorgeous capital, or to
+minister to its enormous luxuries; the companies of flute-players and
+dancing-girls, the sharp-tongued jesters, the coarse buffoons, the
+play-actors and the singers. And then, the endless small commerce of an
+idle and pleasure-seeking people, easily attracted by bright colours,
+new fashions and new toys; the drug-sellers and distillers of perfumes,
+the venders of Eastern silks and linens and lace, the barbers and
+hairdressers, the jewellers and tailors, the pastry cooks and makers of
+honey-sweetmeats; and everywhere the poor rabble of failures, like scum
+in the wake of a great ship; the beggars everywhere, and the pickpockets
+and the petty thieves. It is no wonder that Horace was fond of strolling
+in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast, the great and wonderful things of the Augustan city stand
+out in high relief, above the varied crowd that fills the streets, with
+all the dignity that centuries of power can lend. To the tawdry is
+opposed the splendid, the Roman general in his chiselled corselet and
+dyed mantle faces the Greek actor in his tinsel; the band of painted,
+half-clad, bedizened dancing-girls falls back cowering in awestruck
+silence as the noble Vestal passes by, high-browed, white-robed,
+untainted, the incarnation of purity in an age of vice. And the old
+Senator in his white cloak with its broad purple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> hem, his smooth-faced
+clients at his elbows, his silent slaves before him and behind, meets
+the low-chattering knot of Hebrew money-lenders, making the price of
+short loans for the day, and discussing the assets of a famous
+spendthrift, as their yellow-turbaned, bearded fathers had talked over
+the chances of Julius C&aelig;sar when he was as yet but a fashionable young
+lawyer of doubtful fortune, with an unlimited gift of persuasion and an
+equally unbounded talent for amusement.</p>
+
+<p>Between the contrasts lived men of such position as Horace occupied, but
+not many. For the great middle element of society is a growth of later
+centuries, and even Horace himself, as time went on, became attached to
+M&aelig;cenas and then, more or less, to the person of the Emperor, by a
+process of natural attraction, just as his butt, Tigellius, gravitated
+to the common herd that mourned his death. The 'golden mean' of which
+Horace wrote was a mere expression, taught him, perhaps, by his father,
+a part of his stock of maxims. Where there were only great people on the
+one side, and a rabble on the other, the man of genius necessarily rose
+to the level of the high, by his own instinct and their liking. What was
+best of Greek was for them, what was worst was for the populace.</p>
+
+<p>But the Greek was everywhere, with his keen weak face, his sly look and
+his skilful fingers. Scipio and Paulus Emilius had brought him, and he
+stayed in Rome till the Goth came, and afterwards. Greek<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> poetry, Greek
+philosophy, Greek sculpture, Greek painting, Greek music everywhere&mdash;to
+succeed at all in such society, Virgil and Horace and Ovid must needs
+make Greek of Latin, and bend the stiff syllables to Alcaics and
+Sapphics and Hexameters. The task looked easy enough, though it was
+within the powers of so very few. Thousands tried it, no doubt, when the
+three or four had set the fashion, and failed, as the second-rate fail,
+with some little brief success in their own day, turned into the total
+failure of complete disappearance when they had been dead awhile.</p>
+
+<p>Supreme of them all, for his humanity, Horace remains. Epic Virgil,
+appealing to the traditions of a living race of nobles and to the
+carefully hidden, sober vanity of the world's absolute monarch, does not
+appeal to modern man. The twilight of the gods has long deepened into
+night, and Ovid's tales of them and their goddesses move us by their own
+beauty rather than by our sympathy for them, though we feel the tender
+touch of the exiled man whose life was more than half love, in the
+marvellous Letters of Heroes' Sweethearts&mdash;in the complaint of Brise&iuml;s
+to Achilles, in the passionately sad appeal of Hermione to Orestes.
+Whoever has not read these things does not know the extreme limit of
+man's understanding of woman. Yet Horace, with little or nothing of such
+tenderness, has outdone Ovid and Virgil in this later age.</p>
+
+<p>He strolled through life, and all life was a play of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> which he became
+the easy-going but unforgetful critic. There was something good-natured
+even in his occasional outbursts of contempt and hatred for the things
+and the people he did not like. There was something at once caressing
+and good-humouredly sceptical in his way of addressing the gods,
+something charitable in his attacks on all that was ridiculous,&mdash;men,
+manners and fashions.</p>
+
+<p>He strolled wherever he would, alone; in the market, looking at
+everything and asking the price of what he saw, of vegetables and grain
+and the like; in the Forum, or the Circus, at evening, when 'society'
+was dining, and the poor people and slaves thronged the open places for
+rest and air, and there he used to listen to the fortune-tellers, and
+among them, no doubt, was that old hag, Canidia, immortalized in the
+huge joke of his comic resentment. He goes home to sup on lupins and
+fritters and leeks,&mdash;or says so,&mdash;though his stomach abhorred garlic;
+and his three slaves&mdash;the fewest a man could have&mdash;wait on him as he
+lies before the clean white marble table, leaning on his elbow. He does
+not forget the household gods, and pours a few drops upon the cement
+floor in libation to them, out of the little earthen saucer filled from
+the slim-necked bottle of Campanian earthenware. Then to sleep, careless
+of getting up early or late, just as he might feel, to stay at home and
+read or write, or to wander about the city, or to play the favourite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+left-handed game of ball in the Campus Marius before his bath and his
+light midday meal.</p>
+
+<p>With a little change here and there, it is the life of the idle
+middle-class Italian today, which will always be much the same, let the
+world wag and change as it will, with all its extravagances, its
+fashions and its madnesses. Now and then he exclaims that there is no
+average common sense left in the world, no half-way stopping-place
+between extremes. One man wears his tunic to his heels, another is girt
+up as if for a race; Rufillus smells of perfumery, Gargonius of anything
+but scent; and so on&mdash;and he cries out that when a fool tries to avoid a
+mistake he will run to any length in the opposite direction. And Horace
+had a most particular dislike for fools and bores, and has left us the
+most famous description of the latter ever set down by an accomplished
+observer.</p>
+
+<p>By chance, he says, he was walking one morning along the Sacred Street
+with one slave behind him, thinking of some trifle and altogether
+absorbed in it, when a man whom he barely knew by name came up with him
+in a great hurry and grasped his hand. 'How do you do, sweet friend?'
+asks the Bore. 'Pretty well, as times go,' answers Horace, stopping
+politely for a moment; and then beginning to move on, he sees to his
+horror that the Bore walks by his side. 'Can I do anything for you?'
+asks the poet, still civil, but hinting that he prefers his own
+company.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> The Bore plunges into the important business of praising
+himself, with a frankness not yet forgotten in his species, and Horace
+tries to get rid of him, walking very fast, then very slowly, then
+turning to whisper a word to his slave, and in his anxiety he feels the
+perspiration breaking out all over him, while his Tormentor chatters on,
+as they skirt the splendid Julian Basilica, gleaming in the morning sun.
+Horace looks nervously and eagerly to right and left, hoping to catch
+sight of a friend and deliverer. Not a friendly face was in sight, and
+the Bore knew it, and was pitilessly frank. 'Oh, I know you would like
+to get away from me!' he exclaimed. 'I shall not let you go so easily!
+Where are you going?' 'Across the Tiber,' answered Horace, inventing a
+distant visit. 'I am going to see someone who lives far off, in C&aelig;sar's
+gardens&mdash;a man you do not know. He is ill.' 'Very well,' said the other;
+'I have nothing to do, and am far from lazy. I will go all the way with
+you.' Horace hung his head, as a poor little Italian donkey does when a
+heavy load is piled upon his back, for he was fairly caught, and he
+thought of the long road before him, and he had moreover the unpleasant
+consciousness that the Bore was laughing at his imaginary errand, since
+they were walking in a direction exactly opposite from the Tiber, and
+would have to go all the way round the Palatine by the Triumphal Road
+and the Circus Maximus and then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> cross by the Sublician bridge, instead
+of turning back towards the Velabrum, the Provision Market and the
+Bridge of &AElig;milius, which we have known and crossed as the Ponte Rotto,
+but of which only one arch is left now, in midstream.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image83.jpg" width="500" height="251" alt="PONTE ROTTO, NOW DESTROYED" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PONTE ROTTO, NOW DESTROYED<br />
+
+After an engraving made about 1850</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then, pressing his advantage, the Bore began again. 'If I am any judge
+of myself,' he observed, 'you will make me one of your most intimate
+friends. I am sure nobody can write such good verses as fast as I can.
+As for my singing, I know it for a fact that Hermogenes is decidedly
+jealous of me!' 'Have you a mother, Sir?' asked Horace, gravely. 'Have
+you any relations to whom your safety is a matter of importance?' 'No,'
+answered the other, 'no one. I have buried them all!' 'Lucky people!'
+said the poet to himself, and he wished he were dead, too, at that
+moment, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> he thought of all the deaths he might have died. It was
+evidently not written that he should die of poison nor in battle, nor of
+a cough, nor of the liver, nor even of gout. He was to be slowly talked
+to death by a bore. By this time they were before the temple of Castor
+and Pollux, where the great Twin Brethren bathed their horses at
+Juturna's spring. The temple of Vesta was before them, and the Sacred
+Street turned at right angles to the left, crossing over between a row
+of shops on one side and the Julian Rostra on the other, to the Courts
+of Law. The Bore suddenly remembered that he was to appear in answer to
+an action on that very morning, and as it was already nine o'clock, he
+could not possibly walk all the way to C&aelig;sar's gardens and be back
+before noon, and if he was late, he must forfeit his bail, and the suit
+would go against him by default. On the other hand, he had succeeded in
+catching the great poet alone, after a hundred fruitless attempts, and
+the action was not a very important one, after all. He stopped short.
+'If you have the slightest regard for me,' he said, 'you will just go
+across with me to the Courts for a moment.' Horace looked at him
+curiously, seeing a chance of escape. 'You know where I am going,' he
+answered with a smile; 'and as for law, I do not know the first thing
+about it.' The Bore hesitated, considered what the loss of the suit must
+cost him, and what he might gain by pushing his acquaintance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> with the
+friend of M&aelig;cenas and Augustus. 'I am not sure,' he said doubtfully,
+'whether I had better give up your company, or my case,' 'My company, by
+all means!' cried Horace, with alacrity. 'No!' answered the other,
+looking at his victim thoughtfully, 'I think not!' And he began to move
+on again by the Nova Via towards the House of the Vestals. Having made
+up his mind to sacrifice his money, however, he lost no time before
+trying to get an equivalent for it. 'How do you stand with M&aelig;cenas?' he
+asked suddenly, fixing his small eyes on Horace's weary profile, and
+without waiting for an answer he ran on to praise the great man. 'He is
+keen and sensible,' he continued, 'and has not many intimate friends. No
+one knows how to take advantage of luck as he does. You would find me a
+valuable ally, if you would introduce me. I believe you might drive
+everybody else out of the field&mdash;with my help, of course.' 'You are
+quite mistaken there!' answered Horace, rather indignantly. 'He is not
+at all that kind of man! There is not a house in Rome where any sort of
+intrigue would be more utterly useless!' 'Really, I can hardly believe
+it!' 'It is a fact, nevertheless,' retorted Horace, stoutly. 'Well,'
+said the Bore, 'if it is, I am of course all the more anxious to know
+such a man!' Horace smiled quietly. 'You have only to wish it, my dear
+Sir,' he answered, with the faintest modulation of polite irony in his
+tone. 'With such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> gifts at your command, you will certainly charm him.
+Why, the very reason of his keeping most people at arm's length is that
+he knows how easily he yields!' 'In that case, I will show you what I
+can do,' replied the Bore, delighted. 'I shall bribe the slaves; I will
+not give it up, if I am not received at first! I will bide my time and
+catch him in the street, and follow him about. One gets nothing in life
+without taking trouble!' As the man was chattering on, Horace's quick
+eyes caught sight of an old friend at last, coming towards him from the
+corner of the Triumphal Road, for they had already almost passed the
+Palatine. Aristius, sauntering along and enjoying the morning air, with
+a couple of slaves at his heels, saw Horace's trouble in a moment, for
+he knew the Bore well enough, and realized at once that if he delivered
+his friend, he himself would be the next victim. He was far too clever
+for that, and with a cold-blooded smile pretended not to understand
+Horace's signals of distress. 'I forget what it was you wished to speak
+about with me so particularly, my dear Aristius,' said the poet, in
+despair. 'It was something very important, was it not?' 'Yes,' answered
+the other, with another grin, 'I remember very well; but this is an
+unlucky day, and I shall choose another time. Today is the thirtieth
+Sabbath,' he continued, inventing a purely imaginary Hebrew feast, 'and
+you surely would not risk a Jew's curse for a few moments of
+conversation, would you?' 'I have no religion!' exclaimed Horace,
+eagerly. 'No superstition! Nothing!' 'But I have,' retorted Aristius,
+still smiling. 'My health is not good&mdash;perhaps you did not know? I will
+tell you about it some other time.' And he turned on his heel, with a
+laugh, leaving Horace to his awful fate. Even the sunshine looked black.
+But salvation came suddenly in the shape of the man who had brought the
+action against the Bore, and who, on his way to the Court, saw his
+adversary going off in the opposite direction. 'Coward! Villain!' yelled
+the man, springing forward and catching the poet's tormentor by his
+cloak. 'Where are you going now? You are witness, Sir, that I am in my
+right,' he added, turning to look for Horace. But Horace had disappeared
+in the crowd that had collected to see the quarrel, and his gods had
+saved him after all.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/image86a.jpg" width="350" height="603" alt="TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A part of the life of the times is in the little story, and anyone may
+stroll today along the Sacred Street, past the Basilica and the sharp
+turn that leads to the block of old houses where the Court House stood,
+between St. Adrian's and San Lorenzo in Miranda. Anyone may see just how
+it happened, and many know exactly how Horace felt from the moment when
+the Bore buttonholed him at the corner of the Julian Basilica till his
+final deliverance near the corner of the Triumphal Road, which is now
+the Via di San Gregorio.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image88.jpg" width="450" height="301" alt="ATRIUM OF VESTA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ATRIUM OF VESTA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was much more resemblance to our modern life than one might think
+at first sight. Perhaps, after his timely escape, Horace turned back
+along the Sacred Street, followed by his single slave, and retraced his
+steps, past the temple of Vesta, the temple of Julius C&aelig;sar, skirting
+the Roman Forum to the Golden Milestone at the foot of the ascent to the
+Capitol, from which landmark all the distances in the Roman Empire were
+reckoned, the very centre of the known world. Thence, perhaps, he turned
+up towards the Argiletum, with something of that instinct which takes a
+modern man of letters to his publisher's when he is in the
+neighbourhood. There the 'Brothers Sosii' had their publishing
+establishment, among many others of the same nature,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> and employed a
+great staff of copyists in preparing volumes for sale. All the year
+round the skilled scribes sat within in rows, with pen and ink, working
+at the manufacture of books. The Sosii Brothers were rich, and probably
+owned their workmen as slaves, both the writers and those who prepared
+the delicate materials, the wonderful ink, of which we have not the like
+today, the fine sheets of papyrus,&mdash;Pliny tells how they were sometimes
+too rough, and how they sometimes soaked up the ink like a cloth, as
+happens with our own paper,&mdash;and the carefully cut pens of Egyptian reed
+on which so much of the neatness in writing depended, though Cicero says
+somewhere that he could write with any pen he chanced to take up.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural enough that Horace should look in to ask how his latest
+book was selling, or more probably his first, for he had written but a
+few Epodes and not many Satires at the time when he met the immortal
+Bore. Later in his life, his books were published in editions of a
+thousand, as is the modern custom in Paris, and were sold all over the
+Empire, like those of other famous authors. The Satires did him little
+credit, and probably brought him but little money at their first
+publication. It seems certain that they have come down to us through a
+single copy. The Greek form of the Odes pleased people better. Moreover,
+some of the early Satires made distinguished people shy of his
+acquaintance, and when he told the Bore that M&aelig;cenas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> was difficult of
+access he remembered that nine months had elapsed from the time of his
+own introduction to the great man until he had received the latter's
+first invitation to dinner. More than once he went almost too far in his
+attacks on men and things and then tried to remove the disagreeable
+impression he had produced, and wrote again of the same subject in a
+different spirit&mdash;notably when he attacked the works of the dead poet
+Lucilius and was afterwards obliged to explain himself.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt he often idled away a whole morning at his publisher's, looking
+over new books of other authors, and very probably borrowing them to
+take home with him, because he was poor, and he assuredly must have
+talked over with the Sosii the impression produced on the public by his
+latest poems. He was undoubtedly a qu&aelig;stor's scribe, but it is more than
+doubtful whether he ever went near the Treasury or did any kind of
+clerk's work. If he ever did, it is odd that he should never speak of
+it, nor take anecdotes from such an occupation and from the clerks with
+whom he must have been thrown, for he certainly used every other sort of
+social material in the Satires. Among the few allusions to anything of
+the kind in his works are his ridicule of the over-dressed pr&aelig;tor of the
+town of Fundi, who had been a government clerk in Rome, and in the same
+story, his jest at one of M&aelig;cenas' parasites, a freedman, and nominally
+a Treasury clerk, as Horace had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> been. In another Satire, the clerks in
+a body wish him to be present at one of their meetings.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps what strikes one most in the study of Horace, which means the
+study of the Augustan age, is the vivid contrast between the man who
+composed the Carmen S&aelig;culare, the sacred hymn sung on the Tenth
+anniversary of Augustus' accession to the imperial power, besides many
+odes that breathe a pristine reverence for the gods, and, on the other
+hand, the writer of satirical, playfully sceptical verses, who comments
+on the story of the incense melting without fire at the temple of
+Egnatia, with the famous and often-quoted 'Credat Jud&aelig;us'! The original
+Romans had been a believing people, most careful in all ceremonies and
+observances, visiting anything like sacrilege with a cool ferocity
+worthy of the Christian religious wars in later days. Horace, at one
+time or another, laughs at almost every god and goddess in the heathen
+calendar, and publishes his jests, in editions of a thousand copies,
+with perfect indifference and complete immunity from censorship, while
+apparently bestowing a certain amount of care on household sacrifices
+and the like.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is that the Romans were a religious people, whereas the
+Italians were not. It is a singular fact that Rome, when left long to
+herself, has always shown a tendency to become systematically devout,
+whereas most of the other Italian states have exhibited an equally
+strong inclination to a scepticism not unfrequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> mixed with the
+grossest superstition. It must be left to more profound students of
+humanity to decide whether certain places have a permanent influence in
+one determined direction upon the successive races that inhabit them;
+but it is quite undeniably true that the Romans of all ages have tended
+to religion of some sort in the most marked manner. In Roman history
+there is a succession of religious epochs not to be found in the annals
+of any other city. First, the early faith of the Kings, interrupted by
+the irruption of Greek influences which began approximately with Scipio
+Africanus; next, the wild Bacchic worship that produced the secret
+orgies on the Aventine, the discovery of which led to a religious
+persecution and the execution of thousands of persons on religious
+grounds; then the worship of the Egyptian deities, brought over to Rome
+in a new fit of belief, and at the same time, or soon afterwards, the
+mysterious adoration of the Persian Mithras, a gross and ignorant form
+of mysticism which, nevertheless, took hold of the people, at a time
+when other religions were almost reduced to a matter of form.</p>
+
+<p>Then, as all these many faiths lost vitality, Christianity arose, the
+terribly simple and earnest Christianity of the early centuries, sown
+first under the C&aelig;sars, in Rome's secure days, developing to a power
+when Rome was left to herself by the transference of the Empire to the
+East, culminating for the first time in the crowning of Charlemagne,
+again in the Crusades, sinking under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> the revival of mythology and
+Hellenism during the Renascence, rising again, by slow degrees, to the
+extreme level of devotion under Pius the Ninth and the French
+protectorate, sinking suddenly with the movement of Italian unity, and
+the coming of the Italians in 1870, then rising again, as we see it now,
+with undying energy, under Leo the Thirteenth, and showing itself in the
+building of new churches, in the magnificent restoration of old ones,
+and in the vast second growth of ecclesiastical institutions, which are
+once more turning Rome into a clerical city, now that she is again at
+peace with herself, under a constitutional monarchy, but threatened only
+too plainly by an impending anarchic revolution. It would be hard to
+find in the history of any other city a parallel to such periodical
+recurrences of religious domination. Nor, in times when belief has been
+at its lowest ebb, have outward religious practices anywhere continued
+to hold so important a place in men's lives as they have always held in
+Rome. Of all Rome's mad tyrants, Elagabalus alone dared to break into
+the temple of Vesta and carry out the sacred Palladium. During more than
+eleven hundred years, six Vestal Virgins guarded the sacred fire and the
+Holy Things of Rome, in peace and war, through kingdom, republic,
+revolution and empire. For fifteen hundred years since then, the bones
+of Saint Peter have been respected by the Emperors, by Goths, by Kings,
+revolutions and short-lived republics.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<img src="images/image94.jpg" width="297" height="300" alt="BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>IV</h2>
+
+
+<p>There was a surprising strength in those early institutions of which the
+fragmentary survival has made Rome what it is. Strongest of all,
+perhaps, was the patriarchal mode of life which the shepherds of Alba
+Longa brought with them when they fled from the volcano, and of which
+the most distinct traces remain to the present day, while its origin
+goes back to the original Aryan home. Upon that principle all the
+household life ultimately turned in Rome's greatest times. The Senators
+were Patres, conscript fathers, heads of strong houses; the Patricians
+were those who had known 'fathers,' that is, a known and noble descent.
+Horace called Senators simply 'Conscripts,' and the Roman nobles of
+today call themselves the 'Conscript' families. The chain of tradition
+is unbroken from Romulus to our own time, while everything else has
+changed in greater or less degree.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is hard for Anglo-Saxons to believe that, for more than a thousand
+years, a Roman father possessed the absolute legal right to try, condemn
+and execute any of his children, without witnesses, in his own house and
+without consulting anyone. Yet nothing is more certain. 'From the most
+remote ages,' says Professor Lanciani, the highest existing authority,
+'the power of a Roman father over his children, including those by
+adoption as well as by blood, was unlimited. A father might, without
+violating any law, scourge or imprison his son, or sell him for a slave,
+or put him to death, even after that son had risen to the highest
+honours in the state.' During the life of the father, a child, no matter
+of what age, could own no property independently, nor keep any private
+accounts, nor dispose of any little belongings, no matter how
+insignificant, without the father's consent, which was never anything
+more than an act of favour, and was revocable at any moment, without
+notice. If a son became a public magistrate, the power was suspended,
+but was again in force as soon as the period of office terminated. A man
+who had been Dictator of Rome became his father's slave and property
+again, as soon as his dictatorship ended.</p>
+
+<p>But if the son married with his father's consent, he was partly free,
+and became a 'father' in his turn, and absolute despot of his own
+household. So, if a daughter married, she passed from her father's
+dominion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> to that of her husband. A Priest of Jupiter for life was free.
+So was a Vestal Virgin. There was a complicated legal trick by which the
+father could liberate his son if he wished to do so for any reason, but
+he had no power to set any of his children free by a mere act of will,
+without legal formality. The bare fact that the men of a people should
+be not only trusted with such power, but that it should be forcibly
+thrust upon them, gives an idea of the Roman character, and it is
+natural enough that the condition of family life imposed by such laws
+should have had pronounced effects that may still be felt. As the Romans
+were a hardy race and long-lived, when they were not killed in battle,
+the majority of men were under the absolute control of their fathers
+till the age of forty or fifty years, unless they married with their
+parents' consent, in which case they advanced one step towards liberty,
+and at all events, could not be sold as slaves by their fathers, though
+they still had no right to buy or sell property nor to make a will.</p>
+
+<p>There are few instances of the law being abused, even in the most
+ferocious times. Brutus had the right to execute his sons, who conspired
+for the Tarquins, without any public trial. He preferred the latter.
+Titus Manlius caused his son to be publicly beheaded for disobeying a
+military order in challenging an enemy to single combat, slaying him,
+and bringing back the spoils. He might have cut off his head in private,
+so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> far as the law was concerned, for any reason whatsoever, great or
+small.</p>
+
+<p>As for the condition of real slaves, it was not so bad in early times as
+it became later, but the master's power was absolute to inflict torture
+and death in any shape. In slave-owning communities, barbarity has
+always been, to some extent, restrained by the actual value of the
+humanity in question, and slaves were not as cheap in Rome as might be
+supposed. A perfectly ignorant labourer of sound body was worth from
+eighty to a hundred dollars of our money, which meant much more in those
+days, though in later times twice that sum was sometimes paid for a
+single fine fish. The money value of the slave was, nevertheless, always
+a sort of guarantee of safety to himself; but men who had right of life
+and death over their own children, and who occasionally exercised it,
+were probably not, as a rule, very considerate to creatures who were
+bought and sold like cattle. Nevertheless, the number of slaves who were
+freed and enriched by their masters is really surprising.</p>
+
+<p>The point of all this, however, is that the head of a Roman family was,
+under protection of all laws and traditions, an absolute tyrant over his
+wife, his children, and his servants; and the Roman Senate was a chosen
+association of such tyrants. It is astonishing that they should have
+held so long to the forms of a republican government, and should never
+have completely lost their republican traditions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In this household tyranny, existing side by side with certain general
+ideas of liberty and constitutional government, under the ultimate
+domination of the Emperors' despotism as introduced by Augustus, is to
+be found the keynote of Rome's subsequent social life. Without those
+things, the condition of society in the Middle Age would be
+inexplicable, and the feudal system could never have developed. The old
+Roman principle that 'order should have precedence over order, not man
+over man,' rules most of Europe at the present day, though in Rome and
+Italy it is now completely eclipsed by a form of government which can
+only be defined as a monarchic democracy.</p>
+
+<p>The mere fact that under Augustus no man was eligible to the Senate who
+possessed less than a sum equal to a quarter of a million dollars, shows
+plainly enough what one of the most skilful despots who ever ruled
+mankind wisely, thought of the institution. It was intended to balance,
+by its solidity, the ever-unsettled instincts of the people, to prevent
+as far as possible the unwise passage of laws by popular acclamation,
+and, so to say, to regulate the pulse of the nation. It has been
+imitated, in one way or another, by all the nations we call civilized.</p>
+
+<p>But the father of the family was in his own person the despot, the
+senate, the magistrate and the executive of the law; his wife, his
+children and his slaves represented the people, constantly and eternally
+in real<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> or theoretical opposition, while he was protected by all the
+force of the most ferocious laws. A father could behead his son with
+impunity; but the son who killed his father was condemned to be all but
+beaten to death, and then to be sewn up in a leathern sack and drowned.
+The father could take everything from the son; but if the son took the
+smallest thing from his father he was a common thief and malefactor, and
+liable to be treated as one, at his father's pleasure. The conception of
+justice in Rome never rested upon any equality, but always upon the
+precedence of one order over another, from the highest to the lowest.
+There were orders even among the slaves, and one who had been allowed to
+save money out of his allowances could himself buy a slave to wait on
+him, if he chose.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the immediate origin of European caste, of different degrees of
+nobility, of the relative standing of the liberal professions, of the
+medi&aelig;val guilds of artisans and tradesmen, and of the numerous
+subdivisions of the agricultural classes, of which traces survive all
+over Europe. The tendency to caste is essentially and originally Aryan,
+and will never be wholly eliminated from any branch of the Aryan race.</p>
+
+<p>One may fairly compare the internal life of a great nation to a building
+which rises from its foundations story by story until the lower part can
+no longer carry the weight of the superstructure, and the first signs of
+weakness begin to show themselves in the oldest and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> lowest portion of
+the whole. Carefully repaired, when the weakness is noticed at all, it
+can bear a little more, and again a little, but at last the breaking
+strain is reached, the tall building totters, the highest pinnacles
+topple over, then the upper story collapses, and the end comes either in
+the crash of a great falling or, by degrees, in the irreparable ruin of
+ages. But when all is over, and wind and weather and time have swept
+away what they can, parts of the original foundation still stand up
+rough and heavy, on which a younger and smaller people must build their
+new dwelling, if they build at all.</p>
+
+<p>The aptness of the simile is still more apparent when we confront the
+material constructions of a nation with the degree of the nation's
+development or decadence at the time when the work was done.</p>
+
+<p>It is only by doing something of that sort that we can at all realize
+the connection between the settlement of the shepherds, the Rome of the
+C&aelig;sars, and the desolate and scantily populated fighting ground of the
+Barons, upon which, with the Renascence, the city of the later Popes
+began to rise under Nicholas the Fifth. And lastly, without a little of
+such general knowledge it would be utterly impossible to call up, even
+faintly, the lives of Romans in successive ages. Read the earlier parts
+of Livy's histories and try to picture the pristine simplicity of those
+primeval times. Read C&aelig;sar's Gallic War, the marvellously concise
+reports of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> the greatest man that ever lived, during ten years of his
+conquests. Read Horace, and attempt to see a little of what he describes
+in his good-natured, easy way. Read the correspondence of the younger
+Pliny when proconsul in Bithynia under Trajan, and follow the
+extraordinary details of administration which, with ten thousand others,
+the Spanish Emperor of Rome carried in his memory, and directed and
+decided. Take Petronius Arbiter's 'novel' next, the Satyricon, if you be
+not over-delicate in taste, and glance at the daily journal of a
+dissolute wretch wandering from one scene of incredible vice to another.
+And so on, through the later writers; and from among the vast annals of
+the industrious Muratori pick out bits of Roman life at different
+periods, and try to piece them together. At first sight it seems utterly
+impossible that one and the same people should have passed through such
+social changes and vicissitudes. Every educated man knows the main
+points through which the chain ran. Scholars have spent their lives in
+the attempt to restore even a few of the links and, for the most part,
+have lost their way in the dry quicksands that have swallowed up so
+much.</p>
+
+<p>'I have raised a monument more enduring than bronze!' exclaimed Horace,
+in one of his rare moments of pardonable vanity. The expression meant
+much more then than it does now. The golden age of Rome was an age of
+brazen statues apparently destined to last as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> long as history. Yet the
+marble outlasted the gilded metal, and Horace's verse outlived both, and
+the names of the artists of that day are mostly forgotten, while his is
+a household word. In conquering races, literature has generally attained
+higher excellence than painting or sculpture, or architecture, for the
+arts are the expression of a people's tastes, often incomprehensible to
+men who live a thousand years later; but literature, if it expresses
+anything, either by poetry, history, or fiction, shows the feeling of
+humanity; and the human being, as such, changes very little in twenty or
+thirty centuries. Achilles, in his wrath at being robbed of the lovely
+Brise&iuml;s, brings the age of Troy nearer to most men in its living
+vitality than the matchless Hermes of Olympia can ever bring the century
+of Greece's supremacy. One line of Catullus makes his time more alive
+today than the huge mass of the Colosseum can ever make Titus seem. We
+see the great stones piled up to heaven, but we do not see the men who
+hewed them, and lifted them, and set them in place. The true poet gives
+us the real man, and after all, men are more important than stones. Yet
+the work of men's hands explains the working of men's hearts, telling us
+not what they felt, but how the feelings which ever belong to all men
+more particularly affected the actors at one time or another during the
+action of the world's long play. Little things sometimes tell the
+longest stories.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image103.jpg" width="450" height="320" alt="THE COLOSSEUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE COLOSSEUM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pliny, suffering from sore eyes, going about in a closed carriage, or
+lying in the darkened basement portico of his house, obliged to dictate
+his letters, and unable to read, sends his thanks&mdash;by dictation&mdash;to his
+friend and colleague, Cornutus, for a fowl sent him, and says that
+although he is half blind, his eyes are sharp enough to see that it is a
+very fat one. The touch of human nature makes the whole picture live.
+Horace, journeying to Brindisi, and trying to sleep a little on a canal
+boat, is kept awake by mosquitoes and croaking frogs, and by the
+long-drawn-out, tipsy singing of a drunken sailor, who at last turns off
+the towing mule to graze, and goes to sleep till daylight. It is easier
+to see all this than to call up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> one instant of a chariot race in the
+great circus, or one of the ten thousand fights in the Colosseum,
+wherein gladiators fought and died, and left no word of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, without the setting, the play is imperfect, and we must have some
+of the one to understand the other. For human art is, in the first
+place, a progressive commentary on human nature, and again, in quick
+reaction, stimulates it with a suggestive force. Little as we really
+know of the imperial times, we cannot conceive of Rome without the
+Romans, nor of the Romans without Rome. They belonged together; when the
+seat of Empire became cosmopolitan, the great dominion began to be
+weakened; and when a homogeneous power dwelt in the city again, a new
+domination had its beginning, and was built up on the ruins of the old.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon is believed to have said that the object of art is to create
+and foster agreeable illusions. Admitting the general truth of the
+definition, it appears perfectly natural that since the Romans had
+little or no art of their own, they should have begun to import Greek
+art just when they did, after the successful issue of the Second Punic
+War. Up to that time the great struggle had lasted. When it was over,
+the rest was almost a foregone conclusion. Rome and Carthage had made a
+great part of the known world their fighting ground in the duel that
+lasted a hundred and eighteen years; and the known world was the portion
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> victor. Spoil first, for spoil's sake, he brought home; then
+spoil for the sake of art; then art for what itself could give him. In
+the fight for Empire, as in each man's struggle for life, success means
+leisure, and therefore civilization, which is the growth of people who
+have time at their disposal&mdash;time to 'create and foster agreeable
+illusions.' When the Romans conquered the Samnites they were the least
+artistic people in the world; when Augustus C&aelig;sar died, they possessed
+and valued the greater part of the world's artistic treasures, many of
+these already centuries old, and they owned literally, and as slaves, a
+majority of the best living artists. Augustus had been educated in
+Athens; he determined that Rome should be as Athens, magnified a hundred
+times. Athens had her thousand statues, Rome should have her ten
+thousand; Rome should have state libraries holding a score of volumes
+for every one that Greece could boast; Rome's temples should be
+galleries of rare paintings, ten for each that Athens had. Rome should
+be so great, so rich, so gorgeous, that Greece should be as nothing
+beside her; Egypt should dwindle to littleness, and the memory of
+Babylon should be forgotten. Greece had her Homer, her Sophocles, her
+Anacreon; Rome should have her immortals also.</p>
+
+<p>Greatly Augustus laboured for his thought, and grandly he carried out
+his plan. He became the greatest 'art-collector' in all history, and the
+men of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> time imitated him. Domitius Tullus, a Roman gentleman, had
+collected so much, that he was able to adorn certain extensive gardens,
+on the very day of the purchase, with an immense number of genuine
+ancient statues, which had been lying, half neglected, in a barn&mdash;or, as
+some read the passage, in other gardens of his.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image107a.jpg" width="650" height="398" alt="BASILICA CONSTANTINE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BASILICA CONSTANTINE</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Augustus succeeded in one way. Possibly he was successful in his own
+estimation. 'Have I not acted the play well?' they say he asked, just
+before he died. The keynote is there, whether he spoke the words or not.
+He did all from calculation, nothing from conviction. The artist, active
+and creative or passive and appreciative, calculates nothing except the
+means of expressing his conviction. And in the over-calculating of
+effects by Augustus and his successors, one of the most singular
+weaknesses of the Latin race was thrust forward; namely, that giantism
+or megalomania, which has so often stamped the principal works of the
+Latins in all ages&mdash;that effort to express greatness by size, which is
+so conspicuously absent from all that the Greeks have left us. Agrippa
+builds a threefold temple and Hadrian rears the Pantheon upon its
+charred ruins; Constantine builds his Basilica; Michelangelo says, 'I
+will set the Pantheon upon the Basilica of Constantine.' He does it, and
+the result is Saint Peter's, which covers more ground than that other
+piece of giantism, the Colosseum; in Rome's last and modern revival, the
+Palazzo delle Finanze is built, the Treasury of the poorest of the
+Powers, which, incredible as it may seem, fills a far greater area than
+either the Colosseum or the Church of Saint Peter's. What else is such
+constructive enormity but 'giantism'? For the great Cathedral of
+Christendom, it may be said, at least, that it has more than once in
+history been nearly filled by devout multitudes, numbering fifty or
+sixty thousand people; in the days of public baths, nearly sixty-three
+thousand Romans could bathe daily with every luxury of service; when
+bread and games were free, a hundred thousand men and women often sat
+down in the Flavian Amphitheatre to see men tear each other to pieces;
+of the modern Ministry of Finance there is nothing to be said. The Roman
+curses it for the millions it cost; but the stranger looks, smiles and
+passes by a blank and hideous building three hundred yards long. There
+is no reason why a nation should not wish to be great, but there is
+every reason why a small nation should not try to look big; and the
+enormous follies of modern Italy must be charitably attributed to a
+defect of judgment which has existed in the Latin peoples from the
+beginning, and has by no means disappeared today. The younger Gordian
+began a portico which was to cover forty-four thousand square yards, and
+intended to raise a statue of himself two hundred and nineteen feet
+high. The modern Treasury building covers about thirty thousand square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+yards, and goes far to rival the foolish Emperor's insane scheme.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image110.jpg" width="450" height="365" alt="RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF SATURN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF SATURN</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Great contrasts lie in the past, between his age and ours. One must
+guess at them at least, if one have but little knowledge, in order to
+understand at all the city of the Middle Age and the Rome we see today.
+Imagine it at its greatest, a capital inhabited by more than two
+millions of souls, filling all that is left to be seen within and
+without the walls, and half the Campagna besides, spreading out in a
+vast disc of seething life from the central Golden Milestone at the
+corner of the temple of Saturn&mdash;the god of remote<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> ages, and of earth's
+dim beginning; see, if you can, the splendid roads, where to right and
+left the ashes of the great rested in tombs gorgeous with marble and
+gold and bronze; see the endless villas and gardens and terraces lining
+both banks of the Tiber, with trees and flowers and marble palaces, from
+Rome to Ostia and the sea, and both banks of the Anio, from Rome to
+Tivoli in the hills; conceive of the vast commerce, even of the mere
+business of supply to feed two millions of mouths; picture the great
+harbour with its thousand vessels&mdash;and some of those that brought grain
+from Egypt were four hundred feet long; remember its vast granaries and
+store-barns and offices; think of the desolate Isola Sacra as a lovely
+garden, of the ruins of Laurentum as an imperial palace and park; reckon
+up roughly what all that meant of life, of power, of incalculable
+wealth. Mark Antony squandered, in his short lifetime, eight hundred
+millions of pounds sterling, four thousand millions of dollars. Guess,
+if possible, at the myriad million details of the vast city.</p>
+
+<p>Then let twelve hundred years pass in a dream, and look at the Rome of
+Rienzi. Some twenty thousand souls, the remnant and the one hundredth
+part of the two millions, dwell pitifully in the ruins of which the
+strongest men have fortified bits here and there. The walls of Aurelian,
+broken and war-worn and full of half-repaired breaches, enclose a
+desert, a world too wide for its inhabitants, a vast straggling
+heterogeneous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> mass of buildings in every stage of preservation and
+decay, splendid temples, mossy and ivy-grown, but scarcely injured by
+time, then wastes of broken brick and mortar; stern dark towers of
+Savelli, and Frangipani, and Orsini, and Colonna, dominating and
+threatening whole quarters of ruins; strange small churches built of
+odds and ends and remnants not too heavy for a few workmen to move;
+broken-down aqueducts sticking up here and there in a city that had to
+drink the muddy water of the Tiber because not a single channel remained
+whole to feed a single fountain, from the distant springs that had once
+filled baths for sixty thousand people every day. And round about all,
+the waste Campagna, scratched here and there by fever-stricken peasants
+to yield the little grain that so few men could need. The villas gone,
+the trees burned or cut down, the terraces slipped away into the rivers,
+the tombs of the Appian Way broken and falling to pieces, or transformed
+into rude fortresses held by wild-looking men in rusty armour, who
+sallied out to fight each other or, at rare intervals, to rob some train
+of wretched merchants, riding horses as rough and wild as themselves.
+Law gone, and order gone with it; wealth departed, and self-respect
+forgotten in abject poverty; each man defending his little with his own
+hand against the many who coveted it; Rome a den of robbers and thieves;
+the Pope, when there was one,&mdash;there was none in the year of Rienzi's
+birth,&mdash;either defended by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> one baron against another, or forced to fly
+for his life. Men brawling in the streets, ill clad, savage, ready with
+sword and knife and club for any imaginable violence. Women safe from
+none but their own husbands and sons, and not always from them. Children
+wild and untaught, growing up to be fierce and unlettered like their
+fathers. And in the midst of such a city, Cola di Rienzi, with great
+heart and scanty learning, labouring to decipher the inscriptions that
+told of dead and ruined greatness, dreaming of a republic, of a
+tribune's power, of the humiliation of the Barons, of a resurrection for
+Italy and of her sudden return to the dominion of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, then, was like a field long fallow, of rich soil, but long
+unploughed. Scarcely below the surface lay the treasures of ages,
+undreamt of by the few descendants of those who had brought them
+thither. Above ground, overgrown with wild creepers and flowers, there
+still stood some such monuments of magnificence as we find it hard to
+recall by mere words, not yet voluntarily destroyed, but already falling
+to pieces under the slow destruction of grinding time, when violence had
+spared them. Robert Guiscard had burned the city in 1084, but he had not
+destroyed everything. The Emperors of the East had plundered Rome long
+before that, carrying off works of art without end to adorn their city
+of Constantinople. Builders had burned a thousand marble statues to lime
+for their cement, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> the statues were ready to hand and easily broken
+up to be thrown into the kiln, so that it seemed a waste of time and
+tools to quarry out the blocks from the temples. The Barbarians of
+Genseric and the Jews of Trastevere had seized upon such of the four
+thousand bronze statues as the Emperors had left, and had melted many of
+them down for metal, often hiding them in strange places while waiting
+for an opportunity of heating the furnace. And some have been found,
+here and there, piled up in little vaults, most generally near the
+Tiber, by which it was always easy to ship the metal away. Already
+temples had been turned into churches, in a travesty only saved from the
+ridiculous by the high solemnity of the Christian faith. Other temples
+and buildings, here and there, had been partly stripped of columns and
+marble facings to make other churches even more nondescript than the
+first. Much of the old was still standing, but nothing of the old was
+whole. The Colosseum had not yet been turned into a quarry. The
+Septizonium of Septimius Severus, with its seven stories of columns and
+its lofty terrace, nearly half as high as the dome of Saint Peter's,
+though beginning to crumble, still crowned the south end of the
+Palatine; Minerva's temple was almost entire, and its huge architrave
+had not been taken to make the high altar of Saint Peter's; and the
+triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius was standing in what was perhaps not
+yet called the Corso in those days, but the Via Lata&mdash;'Broad Street.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The things that had not yet fallen, nor been torn down, were the more
+sadly grand by contrast with the chaos around them. There was also the
+difference between ruins then, and ruins now, which there is between a
+king just dead in his greatness, in whose features lingers the smile of
+a life so near that it seems ready to come back, and a dried mummy set
+up in a museum and carefully dusted for critics to study.</p>
+
+<p>In even stronger and rougher contrast, in the wreck of all that had
+been, there was the fierce reality of the daily fight for life amid the
+seething elements of the new things that were yet to be; the preparation
+for another time of domination and splendour; the deadly wrestling of
+men who meant to outlive one another by sheer strength and grim power of
+killing; the dark ignorance, darkest just before the waking of new
+thought, and art, and learning; the universal cruelty of all living
+things to each other, that had grown out of the black past; and, with
+all this, the undying belief in Rome's greatness, in Rome's future, in
+Rome's latent power to rule the world again.</p>
+
+<p>That was the beginning of the new story, for the old one was ended, the
+race of men who had lived it was gone, and their works were following
+them, to the universal dust. Out of the memories they left and the
+departed glory of the places wherein they had dwelt, the magic of the
+Middle Age was to weave another long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> romance, less grand but more
+stirring, less glorious but infinitely more human.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it is not altogether beyond the bounds of reason to say that
+Rome was masculine from Romulus to the dark age, and that with the first
+dawn of the Renascence she began to be feminine. As in old days the
+Republic and the Empire fought for power and conquest and got both by
+force, endurance and hardness of character, so, in her second life,
+others fought for Rome, and courted her, and coveted her, and sometimes
+oppressed her and treated her cruelly, and sometimes cherished her and
+adorned her, and gave her all they had. In a way, too, the elder
+patriots reverenced their city as a father, and those of after-times
+loved her as a woman, with a tender and romantic love.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, for it matters little how we explain what we feel.
+And assuredly we all feel that what we call the 'charm,' the feminine
+charm, of Rome, proceeds first from that misty time between two
+greatnesses, when her humanity was driven back upon itself, and simple
+passions, good and evil, suddenly felt and violently expressed, made up
+the whole life of a people that had ceased to rule by force, and had not
+yet reached power by diplomacy.</p>
+
+<p>It is fair, moreover, to dwell a little on that time, that we may not
+judge too hardly the men who came afterwards. If we have any virtues
+ourselves of which to boast, we owe them to a long growth of
+civilization,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> as a child owes its manners to its mother; the men of the
+Renascence had behind them chaos, the ruin of a slave-ridden,
+Hun-harried, worm-eaten Empire, in which law and order had gone down
+together, and the whole world seemed to the few good men who lived in it
+to be but one degree better than hell itself. Much may be forgiven them,
+and for what just things they did they should be honoured, for the
+hardship of having done right at all against such odds.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 308px;">
+<img src="images/image117.jpg" width="308" height="300" alt="BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING ROMAN GAMES" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING ROMAN GAMES</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/image118.jpg" width="500" height="264" alt="RUINS OF THE JULIAN BASILICA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF THE JULIAN BASILICA</span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>V</h2>
+
+
+<p>Here and there, in out-of-the-way places, overlooked in the modern rage
+for improvement, little marble tablets are set into the walls of old
+houses, bearing semi-heraldic devices such as a Crescent, a Column, a
+Griffin, a Stag, a Wheel and the like. Italian heraldry has always been
+eccentric, and has shown a tendency to display all sorts of strange
+things, such as comets, trees, landscapes and buildings in the
+escutcheon, and it would naturally occur to the stranger that the small
+marble shields, still visible here and there at the corners of old
+streets, must be the coats of arms of Roman families that held property
+in that particular neighbourhood. But this is not the case. They are the
+distinctive devices of the Fourteen Rioni, or wards,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> into which the
+city was divided, with occasional modifications, from the time of
+Augustus to the coming of Victor Emmanuel, and which with some further
+changes survive to the present day. The tablets themselves were put up
+by Pope Benedict the Fourteenth, who reigned from 1740 to 1758, and who
+finally brought them up to the ancient number of fourteen; but from the
+dark ages the devices themselves were borne upon flags on all public
+occasions by the people of the different Regions. For 'Rione' is only a
+corruption of the Latin 'Regio,' the same with our 'Region,' by which
+English word it will be convenient to speak of these divisions that
+played so large a part in the history of the city during many successive
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>For the sake of clearness, it is as well to enumerate them in their
+order and with the numbers that have always belonged to each. They are:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">I. Monti,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">II. Trevi,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">III. Colonna,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">IV. Campo Marzo,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">V. Ponte</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">VI. Parione,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">VII. Regola,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">VIII. Sant' Eustachio,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">IX. Pigna,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">X. Campitelli,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">XI. Sant' Angelo,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">XII. Ripa,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">XIII. Trastevere,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">XIV. Borgo.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Five of these names, that is to say, Ponte, Parione, Regola, Pigna and
+Sant' Angelo, indicate in a general way the part of the city designated
+by each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> Ponte, the Bridge, is the Region about the Bridge of Sant'
+Angelo, on the left bank at the sharp bend of the river seen from that
+point; but the original bridge which gave the name was the Pons
+Triumphalis, of which the foundations are still sometimes visible a
+little below the &AElig;lian bridge leading to the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
+Parione, the Sixth ward, is the next division to the preceding one,
+towards the interior of the city, on both sides of the modern Corso
+Vittorio Emmanuele, taking in the ancient palace of the Massimo family,
+the Cancelleria, famous as the most consistent piece of architecture in
+Rome, and the Piazza Navona. Regola is next, towards the river,
+comprising the Theatre of Pompey and the Palazzo Farnese. Pigna takes in
+the Pantheon, the Collegio Romano and the Palazzo di Venezia. Sant'
+Angelo has nothing to do with the castle or the bridge, but takes its
+name from the little church of Sant' Angelo in the Fishmarket, and
+includes the old Ghetto with some neighbouring streets. The rest explain
+themselves well enough to anyone who has even a very slight acquaintance
+with the city.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight these more or less arbitrary divisions may seem of little
+importance. It was, of course, necessary, even in early times, to divide
+the population and classify it for political and municipal purposes.
+There is no modern city in the world that is not thus managed by wards
+and districts, and the consideration of such management and of its means
+might appear to be a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> very flat and unprofitable study, tiresome alike
+to the reader and to the writer. And so it would be, if it were not true
+that the Fourteen Regions of Rome were fourteen elements of romance,
+each playing its part in due season, while all were frequently the stage
+at once, under the collective name of the people, in their ever-latent
+opposition and in their occasional violent outbreaks against the nobles
+and the popes, who alternately oppressed and spoiled them for private
+and public ends. In other words, the Regions with their elected captains
+under one chief captain were the survival of the Roman People, for ever
+at odds with the Roman Senate. In times when there was no government, in
+any reasonable sense of the word, the people tried to govern themselves,
+or at least to protect themselves as best they could by a rough system
+which was all that remained of the elaborate municipality of the Empire.
+Without the Regions the struggles of the Barons would probably have
+destroyed Rome altogether; nine out of the twenty-four Popes who reigned
+in the tenth century would not have been murdered and otherwise done to
+death; Peter the Prefect could not have dragged Pope John the Thirteenth
+a prisoner through the streets; Stefaneschi could never have terrorized
+the Barons, and half destroyed their castles in a week; Rienzi could not
+have made himself dictator; Ludovico Migliorati could not have murdered
+the eleven captains of Regions in his house and thrown their bodies to
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> people from the windows, for which Giovanni Colonna drove out the
+Pope and the cardinals, and sacked the Vatican; in a word, the
+strangest, wildest, bloodiest scenes of medi&aelig;val Rome could not have
+found a place in history. It is no wonder that to men born and bred in
+the city the Regions seem even now to be an integral factor in its
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>There were two other elements of power, namely, the Pope and the Barons.
+The three are almost perpetually at war, two on a side, against the
+third. Philippe de Commines, ambassador of Lewis the Eleventh in Rome,
+said that without the Orsini and the Colonna, the States of the Church
+would be the happiest country in the world. He forgot the People, and
+was doubtless too politic to speak of the Popes to his extremely devout
+sovereign. Take away the three elements of discord, and there would
+certainly have been peace in Rome, for there would have been no one to
+disturb the bats and the owls, when everybody was gone.</p>
+
+<p>The excellent advice of Amp&egrave;re, already quoted, is by no means easy to
+follow, since there are not many who have the time and the inclination
+to acquire a 'superficial knowledge' of Rome by a ten years' visit. If,
+therefore, we merely presuppose an average knowledge of history and a
+guide-book acquaintance with the chief points in the city, the simplest
+and most direct way of learning more about it is to take the Regions in
+their ancient order, as the learned Baracconi has done<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> in his
+invaluable little work, and to try as far as possible to make past deeds
+live again where they were done, with such description of the places
+themselves as may serve the main purpose best. To follow any other plan
+would be either to attempt a new history of the city of Rome, or to
+piece together a new arch&aelig;ological manual. In either case, even
+supposing that one could be successful where so much has already been
+done by the most learned, the end aimed at would be defeated, for
+romance would be stiffened to a record, and beauty would be dissected to
+an anatomical preparation.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 292px;">
+<img src="images/image123.jpg" width="292" height="300" alt="BRASS OF TITUS, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRASS OF TITUS, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image124.jpg" width="450" height="234" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION I MONTI</h2>
+
+
+<p>'Monti' means 'The Hills,' and the device of the Region represents
+three, figuring those enclosed within the boundaries of this district;
+namely, the Quirinal, the Esquiline and the Coelian. The line encircling
+them includes the most hilly part of the medi&aelig;val city; beginning at the
+Porta Salaria, it runs through the new quarter, formerly Villa Ludovisi,
+to the Piazza Barberini, thence by the Tritone to the Corso, by the Via
+Marforio, skirting the eastern side of the Capitoline Hill and the
+eastern side of the Roman Forum to the Colosseum, which it does not
+include; on almost to the Lateran, back again, so as to include the
+Basilica, by San Stefano Rotondo, and out by the Navicella to the now
+closed Porta Metronia. The remainder of the circuit is completed by the
+Aurelian wall, which is the present<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> wall of the city, though the modern
+Electoral Wards extend in some places beyond it. The modern gates
+included in this portion are the Porta Salaria, the Porta Pia, the new
+gate at the end of the Via Montebello, the next, an unnamed opening
+through which passes the Viale Castro Pretorio, then the Porta
+Tiburtina, the Porta San Lorenzo, the exit of the railway, Porta
+Maggiore, and lastly the Porta San Giovanni.</p>
+
+<p>The Region of the Hills takes in by far the largest area of the fourteen
+districts, but also that portion which in later times has been the least
+thickly populated, the wildest districts of medi&aelig;val and recent Rome,
+great open spaces now partially covered by new though hardly inhabited
+buildings, but which were very lately either fallow land or ploughed
+fields, or cultivated vineyards, out of which huge masses of ruins rose
+here and there in brown outline against the distant mountains, in the
+midst of which towered the enormous basilicas of Santa Maria Maggiore
+and Saint John Lateran, the half-utilized, half-consecrated remains of
+the Baths of Diocletian, the Baths of Titus, and over against the
+latter, just beyond the southwestern boundary, the gloomy Colosseum, and
+on the west the tall square tower of the Capitol with its deep-toned
+bell, the 'Patarina,' which at last was sounded only when the Pope was
+dead, and when Carnival was over on Shrove Tuesday night.</p>
+
+<p>It must first be remembered that each Region had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> a small independent
+existence, with night watchmen of its own, who dared not step beyond the
+limits of their beat; defined by parishes, there were separate charities
+for each Region, separate funds for giving dowries to poor girls,
+separate 'Confraternite' or pious societies to which laymen belonged,
+and, in a small way, a sort of distinct nationality. There was rivalry
+between each Region and its neighbours, and when the one encroached upon
+the other there was strife and bloodshed in the streets. In the public
+races, of which the last survived in the running of riderless horses
+through the Corso in Carnival, each Region had its colours, its right of
+place, and its separate triumph if it won in the contest. There was all
+that intricate opposition of small parties which arose in every medi&aelig;val
+city, when children followed their fathers' trades from generation to
+generation, and lived in their fathers' houses from one century to
+another; and there was all the individuality and the local tradition
+which never really hindered civilization, but were always an
+insurmountable barrier against progress.</p>
+
+<p>Some one has called democracy Rome's 'Original Sin.' It would be more
+just and true to say that most of Rome's misfortunes, and Italy's too,
+have been the result of the instinct to oppose all that is, whether good
+or bad, as soon as it has existed for a while; in short, the original
+sin of Italians is an original detestation of that unity of which the
+empty name has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> a fetish for ages. Rome, thrown back upon herself
+in the dark times, when she was shorn of her possessions, was a true
+picture of what Italy was before Rome's iron hand had bound the Italian
+peoples together by force, of what she became again as soon as that
+force was relaxed, of what she has grown to be once more, now that the
+delight of revolution has disappeared in the dismal swamp of financial
+disappointment, of what she will be to all time, because, from all time,
+she has been populated by races of different descent, who hated each
+other as only neighbours can.</p>
+
+<p>The redeeming feature of a factional life has sometimes been found in a
+readiness to unite against foreign oppression; it has often shown itself
+in an equal willingness to submit to one foreign ruler in order to get
+rid of another. Circumstances have made the result good or bad. In the
+year 799, the Romans attacked and wounded Pope Leo the Third in a solemn
+procession, almost killed him and drove him to flight, because he had
+sent the keys of the city to Charles the Great, in self-protection
+against the splendid, beautiful, gifted, black-hearted Irene, Empress of
+the East, who had put out her own son's eyes and taken the throne by
+force. Two years later the people of Rome shouted "Life and Victory to
+Charles the Emperor," when the same Pope Leo, his scars still fresh,
+crowned Charlemagne in Saint Peter's. One remembers, for that matter,
+that Napoleon Bonaparte, crowned in French Paris by another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> Pope, girt
+on the very sword of that same Frankish Charles, whose bones the French
+had scattered to the elements at Aix. Savonarola, of more than doubtful
+patriotism, to whom Saint Philip Neri prayed, but whom the English
+historian, Roscoe, flatly calls a traitor, would have taken Florence
+from the Italian Medici and given it to the French king. Dante was for
+German Emperors against Italian Popes. Modern Italy has driven out
+Bourbons and Austrians and given the crown of her Unity to a house of
+Kings, brave and honourable, but in whose veins there is no drop of
+Italian blood, any more than their old Dukedom of Savoy was ever Italian
+in any sense. The glory of history is rarely the glory of any ideal; it
+is more often the glory of success.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Republic was the result of internal opposition, and the
+instinct to oppose power, often rightly, sometimes wrongly, will be the
+last to survive in the Latin race. In the Middle Age, when Rome had
+shrunk from the boundaries of civilization to the narrow limits of the
+Aurelian walls, it produced the hatred between the Barons and the
+people, and within the people themselves, the less harmful rivalry of
+the Regions and their Captains.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image129.jpg" width="450" height="526" alt="SANTA FRANCESCA ROMANA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SANTA FRANCESCA ROMANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These Captains held office for three months only. At the expiration of
+the term, they and the people of their Region proceeded in procession,
+all bearing olive branches, to the temple of Venus and Rome, of which a
+part was early converted into the Church of Santa Maria Nuova, now known
+as Santa Francesca Romana, between the Forum and the Colosseum, and just
+within the limits of 'Monti.' Down from the hills on the one side the
+crowd came; up from the regions of the Tiber, round the Capitol from
+Colonna, and Trevi,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> and Campo Marzo, as ages before them the people had
+thronged to the Comitium, only a few hundred yards away. There, before
+the church in the ruins, each Region dropped the names of its own two
+candidates into the ballot box, and chance decided which of the two
+should be Captain next. In procession, then, all round the Capitol, they
+went to Arac&oelig;li, and the single Senator, the lone shadow of the
+Conscript Fathers, ratified each choice. Lastly, among themselves, they
+used to choose the Prior, or Chief Captain, until it became the custom
+that the captain of the First Region, Monti, should of right be head of
+all the rest, and in reality one of the principal powers in the city.</p>
+
+<p>And the principal church of Monti also held pre&euml;minence over others. The
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran was entitled 'Mother and Head of all
+Churches of the City and of the World'; and it took its distinctive name
+from a rich Roman family, whose splendid house stood on the same spot as
+far back as the early days of the Empire. Even Juvenal speaks of it.</p>
+
+<p>Overthrown by earthquake, erected again at once, twice burned and
+immediately rebuilt, five times the seat of Councils of the Church,
+enlarged even in our day at enormous cost, it seems destined to stand on
+the same spot for ages, and to perpetuate the memory of the Laterans to
+all time, playing monument to an obscure family of rich citizens, whose
+name should have been almost lost, but can never be forgotten now.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Constantine, sentimental before he was great, and great before he was a
+Christian, gave the house of the Roman gentleman to Pope Sylvester. He
+bought it, or it fell to the crown at the extinction of the family, for
+he was not the man to confiscate property for a whim; and within the
+palace he made a church, which was called by more than one name, till
+after nearly six hundred years it was finally dedicated to Saint John
+the Baptist; until then it had been generally called the church 'in the
+Lateran house,' and to this day it is San Giovanni in Laterano. Close by
+it, in the palace of the Annii, Marcus Aurelius, last of the so-called
+Antonines, and last of the great emperors, was born and educated; and in
+his honour was made the famous statue of him on horseback, which now
+stands in the square of the Capitol. The learned say that it was set up
+before the house where he was born, and so found itself also before the
+Lateran in later times, with the older Wolf, at the place of public
+justice and execution.</p>
+
+<p>In the wild days of the tenth century, when the world was boiling with
+faction, and trembling at the prospect of the Last Judgment, clearly
+predicted to overtake mankind in the thousandth year of the Christian
+era, the whole Roman people, without sanction of the Emperor and without
+precedent, chose John the Thirteenth to be their Pope. The Regions with
+their Captains had their way, and the new Pontiff was enthroned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> by
+their acclamation. Then came their disappointment, then their anger.
+Pope John, strong, high-handed, a man of order in days of chaos, ruled
+from the Lateran for one short year, with such wisdom as he possessed,
+such law as he chanced to have learnt, and all the strength he had.
+Neither Barons nor people wanted justice, much less learning. The Latin
+chronicle is brief: 'At that time, Count Roffredo and Peter the
+Prefect,'&mdash;he was the Prior of the Regions' Captains,&mdash;'with certain
+other Romans, seized Pope John, and first threw him into the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo, but at last drove him into exile in Campania for more than
+ten months. But when the Count had been murdered by one of the
+Crescenzi,'&mdash;in whose house Rienzi afterwards lived,&mdash;'the Pope was
+released and returned to his See.'</p>
+
+<p>Back came Otto the Great, Saxon Emperor, at Christmas time, as he came
+more than once, to put down revolution with a strong hand and avenge the
+wrongs of Pope John by executing all but one of the Captains of the
+Regions. Twelve of them he hanged. Peter the Prefect, or Prior, was
+bound naked upon an ass with an earthen jar over his head, flogged
+through the city, and cruelly put to death; and at last his torn body
+was hung by the hair to the head of the bronze horse whereon the stately
+figure of Marcus Aurelius sat in triumph before the door of the Pope's
+house, as it sits today on the Capitol before the Palace of the Senator.
+And Otto caused the body of murdered Roffredo to be dragged from its
+grave and quartered by the hangman and scattered abroad, a warning to
+the Regions and their leaders. They left Pope John in peace after that,
+and he lived five years and held a council in the Lateran, and died in
+his bed. Possibly after his rough experience, his rule was more gentle,
+and when he was dead he was spoken of as 'that most worthy Pontiff.' Who
+Count Roffredo was no one can tell surely, but his name belongs to the
+great house of Caetani.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image134a.jpg" width="650" height="402" alt="BASILICA OF ST JOHN LATERAN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BASILICA OF ST JOHN LATERAN</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is hard to see past terror in present peace; it is not easy to fancy
+the rough rabble of Rome in those days, strangely clad, more strangely
+armed, far out in the waste fields about the Lateran, surging up like
+demons in the lurid torchlight before the house of the Pope, pressing
+upon the mailed Count's stout horse, and thronging upon the heels of the
+Captains and the Prefect, pounding down the heavy doors with stones, and
+with deep shouts for every heavy blow, while white-robed John and his
+frightened priests cower together within, expecting death. Down goes the
+oak with a crash like artillery, that booms along the empty corridors; a
+moment's pause, and silence, and then the rush, headed by the Knight and
+the leaders who mean no murder, but mean to have their way, once and for
+ever, and buffet back their furious followers when they have reached the
+Pope's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> room, lest he should be torn in pieces. Then, the subsidence of
+the din, and the old man and his priests bound and dragged out and
+forced to go on foot by all the long dark way through the city to the
+black dungeons of Sant' Angelo beyond the rushing river.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image136.jpg" width="450" height="324" alt="SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It seems far away. Yet we who have seen the Roman people rise, overlaid
+with burdens and maddened by the news of a horrible defeat, can guess at
+what it must have been. Those who saw the sea of murderous pale faces,
+and heard the deep cry, 'Death to Crispi,' go howling and echoing
+through the city can guess what that must have been a thousand years
+ago, and many another night since then,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> when the Romans were roused and
+there was a smell of blood in the air.</p>
+
+<p>But today there is peace in the great Mother of Churches, with an
+atmosphere of solemn rest that one may not breathe in Saint Peter's nor
+perhaps anywhere else in Rome within consecrated walls. There is mystery
+in the enormous pillars that answer back the softest whispered word from
+niche to niche across the silent aisle; there is simplicity and dignity
+of peace in the lofty nave, far down and out of jarring distance from
+the over-gorgeous splendour of the modern transept. In Holy Week,
+towards evening at the Tenebr&aelig;, the divine tenor voice of Padre
+Giovanni, monk and singer, soft as a summer night, clear as a silver
+bell, touching as sadness itself, used to float through the dim air with
+a ring of Heaven in it, full of that strange fatefulness that followed
+his short life, till he died, nearly twenty years ago, foully poisoned
+by a layman singer in envy of a gift not matched in the memory of man.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, if one wanders upward towards the Monti when the moon is
+high, a far-off voice rings through the quiet air&mdash;one of those voices
+which hardly ever find their way to the theatre nowadays, and which,
+perhaps, would not satisfy the nervous taste of our Wagnerian times.
+Perhaps it sounds better in the moonlight, in those lonely, echoing
+streets, than it would on the stage. At all events, it is beautiful as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+one hears it, clear, strong, natural, ringing. It belongs to the place
+and hour, as the humming of honey bees to a field of flowers at noon, or
+the desolate moaning of the tide to a lonely ocean coast at night. It is
+not an exaggeration, nor a mere bit of ill nature, to say that there are
+thousands of fastidiously cultivated people today who would think it all
+theatrical in the extreme, and would be inclined to despise their own
+taste if they felt a secret pleasure in the scene and the song. But in
+Rome even such as they might condescend to the romantic for an hour,
+because in Rome such deeds have been dared, such loves have been loved,
+such deaths have been died, that any romance, no matter how wild, has
+larger probability in the light of what has actually been the lot of
+real men and women. So going alone through the winding moonlit ways
+about Tor de' Conti, Santa Maria dei Monti and San Pietro in Vincoli, a
+man need take no account of modern fashions in sensation; and if he will
+but let himself be charmed, the enchantment will take hold of him and
+lead him on through a city of dreams and visions, and memories strange
+and great, without end. Ever since Rome began there must have been just
+such silvery nights; just such a voice rang through the same air ages
+ago; just as now the velvet shadows fell pall-like and unrolled
+themselves along the grey pavement under the lofty columns of Mars the
+Avenger and beneath the wall of the Forum of Augustus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 205px;">
+<img src="images/image139.jpg" width="205" height="500" alt="PIAZZA COLONNA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA COLONNA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps it is true that the impressions which Rome makes upon a
+thoughtful man vary more according to the wind and the time of day than
+those he feels in other cities. Perhaps, too, there is no capital in all
+the world which has such contrasts to show within a mile of each
+other&mdash;one might almost say within a dozen steps. One of the most
+crowded thoroughfares of Rome, for instance, is the Via del Tritone,
+which is the only passage through the valley between the Pincian and the
+Quirinal hills, from the region of Piazza Colonna towards the railway
+station and the new quarter. During the busy hours of the day a carriage
+can rarely move through its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> narrower portions any faster than at a foot
+pace, and the insufficient pavements are thronged with pedestrians. In a
+measure, the Tritone in Rome corresponds to Galata bridge in
+Constantinople. In the course of the week most of the population of the
+city must have passed at least once through the crowded little street,
+which somehow in the rain of millions that lasted for two years, did not
+manage to attract to itself even the small sum which would have sufficed
+to widen it by a few yards. It is as though the contents of Rome were
+daily drawn through a keyhole. In the Tritone are to be seen magnificent
+equipages, jammed in the line between milk carts, omnibuses and
+dustmen's barrows, preceded by butcher's vans and followed by miserable
+cabs, smart dogcarts and high-wheeled country vehicles driven by rough,
+booted men wearing green-lined cloaks and looking like stage bandits;
+even saddle horses are led sometimes that way to save time; and on each
+side flow two streams of human beings of every type to be found between
+Porta Angelica and Porta San Giovanni. A prince of the Holy Roman Empire
+pushes past a troop of dirty school children, and is almost driven into
+an open barrel of salt codfish, in the door of a poor shop, by a
+black-faced charcoal man carrying a sack on his head more than half as
+high as himself. A party of jolly young German tourists in loose
+clothes, with red books in their hands, and their field-glasses hanging
+by straps across their shoulders, try to rid themselves of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> the
+flower-girls dressed in sham Sabine costumes, and utter exclamations of
+astonishment and admiration when they themselves are almost run down by
+a couple of the giant Royal Grenadiers, each six feet five or
+thereabouts, besides nine inches, or so, of crested helmet aloft,
+gorgeous, gigantic and spotless. Clerks by the dozen and liveried
+messengers of the ministries struggle in the press; ladies gather their
+skirts closely, and try to pick a dainty way where, indeed, there is
+nothing 'dain' (a word which Doctor Johnson confesses that he could not
+find in any dictionary, but which he thinks might be very useful);
+servant girls, smart children with nurses and hoops going up to the
+Pincio, black-browed washerwomen with big baskets of clothes on their
+heads, stumpy little infantry soldiers in grey uniforms, priests,
+friars, venders of boot-laces and thread, vegetable sellers pushing
+hand-carts of green things in and out among the horses and vehicles with
+amazing dexterity, and yelling their cries in super-humanly high
+voices&mdash;there is no end to the multitude. If the day is showery, it is a
+sight to see the confusion in the Tritone when umbrellas of every age,
+material and colour are all opened at once, while the people who have
+none crowd into the codfish shop and the liquor seller's and the
+tobacconist's, with traditional 'con permesso' of excuse for entering
+when they do not mean to buy anything; for the Romans are mostly civil
+people and fairly good-natured. But rain or shine, at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> busy hours,
+the place is always crowded to overflowing with every description of
+vehicle and every type of humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Out of Babel&mdash;a horizontal Babel&mdash;you may turn into the little church,
+dedicated to the 'Holy Guardian Angel.' It stands on the south side of
+the Tritone, in that part which is broader, and which a little while ago
+was still called the Via dell' Angelo Custode&mdash;Guardian Angel Street. It
+is an altogether insignificant little church, and strangers scarcely
+ever visit it. But going down the Tritone, when your ears are splitting,
+and your eyes are confused with the kaleidoscopic figures of the
+scurrying crowd, you may lift the heavy leathern curtain, and leave the
+hurly-burly outside, and find yourself all alone in the quiet presence
+of death, the end of all hurly-burly and confusion. It is quite possible
+that under the high, still light in the round church, with its four
+niche-like chapels, you may see, draped in black, that thing which no
+one ever mistakes for anything else; and round about the coffin a dozen
+tall wax candles may be burning with a steady yellow flame. Possibly, at
+the sound of the leathern curtain slapping the stone door-posts, as it
+falls behind you, a sad-looking sacristan may shuffle out of a dark
+corner to see who has come in; possibly not. He may be asleep, or he may
+be busy folding vestments in the sacristy. The dead need little
+protection from the living, nor does a sacristan readily put himself out
+for nothing. You may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> stand there undisturbed as long as you please, and
+see what all the world's noise comes to in the end. Or it may be, if the
+departed person belonged to a pious confraternity, that you chance upon
+the brothers of the society&mdash;clad in dark hoods with only holes for
+their eyes, and no man recognized by his neighbour&mdash;chanting penitential
+psalms and hymns for the one whom they all know because he is dead, and
+they are living.</p>
+
+<p>Such contrasts are not lacking in Rome. There are plenty of them
+everywhere in the world, perhaps, but they are more striking here, in
+proportion as the outward forms of religious practice are more ancient,
+unchanging and impressive. For there is nothing very impressive or
+unchanging about the daily outside world, especially in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, the worldly, is the capital of one of the smaller kingdoms of the
+world, which those who rule it are anxious to force into the position of
+a great power. One need not criticise their action too hardly; their
+motives can hardly be anything but patriotic, considering the fearful
+sacrifices they impose upon their country. But they are not the men who
+brought about Italian unity. They are the successors of those men; they
+are not satisfied with that unification, and they have dreamed a dream
+of ambition, beside which, considering the means at their disposal, the
+projects of Alexander, C&aelig;sar and Napoleon sink into comparative
+insignificance. At all events, the worldly, modern, outward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> Italian
+Rome is very far behind the great European capitals in development, not
+to say wealth and magnificence. 'Lay' Rome, if one may use the
+expression, is not in the least a remarkable city. 'Ecclesiastic' Rome
+is the stronghold of a most tremendous fact, from whatever point of view
+Christianity may be considered. If one could, in imagination, detach the
+head of the Catholic Church from the Church, one would be obliged to
+admit that no single living man possesses the far-reaching and lasting
+power which in each succeeding papal reign belongs to the Pope. Behind
+the Pope stands the fact which confers, maintains and extends that power
+from century to century; a power which is one of the hugest elements of
+the world's moral activity, both in its own direct action and in the
+counteraction and antagonism which it calls forth continually.</p>
+
+<p>It is the all-pervading presence of this greatest fact in Christendom
+which has carried on Rome's importance from the days of the C&aelig;sars,
+across the chasm of the dark ages, to the days of the modern popes; and
+its really enormous importance continually throws forward into cruel
+relief the puerilities and inanities of the daily outward world. It is
+the consciousness of that importance which makes old Roman society what
+it is, with its virtues, its vices, its prejudices and its strange,
+old-fashioned, close-fisted kindliness; which makes the contrast between
+the Saturnalia of Shrove<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> Tuesday night and the cross signed with ashes
+upon the forehead on Ash Wednesday morning, between the careless
+laughter of the Roman beauty in Carnival, and the tragic earnestness of
+the same lovely face when the great lady kneels in Lent, before the
+confessional, to receive upon her bent head the light touch of the
+penitentiary's wand, taking her turn, perhaps, with a score of women of
+the people. It is the knowledge of an always present power, active
+throughout the whole world, which throws deep, straight shadows, as it
+were, through the Roman character, just as in certain ancient families
+there is a secret that makes grave the lives of those who know it.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Forum and the land between it and the Colosseum, though
+strictly within the limits of Monti, were in reality a neutral ground,
+the chosen place for all struggles of rivalry between the Regions. The
+final destruction of its monuments dates from the sacking of Rome by
+Robert Guiscard with his Normans and Saracens in the year one thousand
+and eighty-four, when the great Duke of Apulia came in arms to succour
+Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh, against the Emperor Henry the
+Fourth, smarting under the bitter humiliation of Canossa; and against
+his Antipope Clement, more than a hundred years after Otto had come back
+in anger to avenge Pope John. There is no more striking picture of the
+fearful contest between the Church and the Empire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image146.jpg" width="450" height="294" alt="PIAZZA DI SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA DI SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Alexis, Emperor of the East, had sent Henry, Emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, one hundred and forty-four thousand pieces of gold, and one
+hundred pieces of woven scarlet, as an inducement to make war upon the
+Norman Duke, the Pope's friend. But the Romans feared Henry and sent
+ambassadors to him, and on the twenty-first of March, being the Thursday
+before Palm Sunday, the Lateran gate was opened for him to enter in
+triumph. The city was divided against itself, the nobles were for
+Hildebrand, the people were against him. The Emperor seized the Lateran
+palace and all the bridges. The Pope fled to the Castle of Sant' Angelo,
+an impregnable fortress in those times, ever ready and ever provisioned
+for a siege.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> Of the nobles Henry required fifty hostages as earnest of
+their neutrality. On the next day he threw his gold to the rabble and
+they elected his Antipope Gilbert, who called himself Clement the Third,
+and certain bishops from North Italy consecrated him in the Lateran on
+Palm Sunday.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Hildebrand secretly sent swift riders to Apulia, calling on
+Robert Guiscard for help, and still the nobles were faithful to him, and
+though Henry held the bridges, they were strong in Trastevere and the
+Borgo, which is the region between the Castle of Sant' Angelo and Saint
+Peter's. So it turned out that when Henry tried to bring his Antipope in
+solemn procession to enthrone him in the Pontifical chair, on Easter
+day, he found mailed knights and footmen waiting for him, and had to
+fight his way to the Vatican, and forty of his men were killed and
+wounded in the fray, while the armed nobles lost not one. Yet he reached
+the Vatican at last, and there he was crowned by the false Pope he had
+made, with the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The chronicler apologizes
+for calling him an emperor at all. Then he set to work to destroy the
+dwellings of the faithful nobles, and laid siege to the wonderful
+Septizonium of Severus, in which the true Pope's nephew had fortified
+himself, and began to batter it down with catapults and battering-rams.
+Presently came the message of vengeance, brought by one man outriding a
+host, while the rabble were still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> building a great wall to encircle
+Sant' Angelo and starve Hildebrand to death or submission, working day
+and night like madmen, tearing down everything at hand to pile the great
+stones one upon another. Swiftly came the terrible Norman from the
+south, with his six thousand horse, Normans and Saracens, and thirty
+thousand foot, forcing his march and hungry for the Emperor. But Henry
+fled, making pretext of great affairs in Lombardy, promising great and
+wonderful gifts to the Roman rabble, and entrusting to their care his
+imperial city.</p>
+
+<p>Like a destroying whirlwind of fire and steel Robert swept on to the
+gates and into Rome, burning and slaying as he rode, and sparing neither
+man, nor woman, nor child, till the red blood ran in rivers between
+walls of yellow flame. And he took Hildebrand from Sant' Angelo, and
+brought him back to the Lateran through the reeking ruins of the city in
+grim and fearful triumph of carnage and destruction.</p>
+
+<p>That was the end of the Roman Forum, and afterwards, when the
+blood-soaked ashes and heaps of red-hot rubbish had sunk down and
+hardened to a level surface, the place where the shepherd fathers of
+Alba Longa had pastured their flocks was called the Campo Vaccino, the
+Cattle Field, because it was turned into the market for beeves, and rows
+of trees were planted, and on one side there was a walk where ropes were
+made, even to our own time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It became also the fighting ground of the Regions. Among the strangest
+scenes in the story of the city are those regular encounters between the
+Regions of Monti and Trastevere which for centuries took place on feast
+days, by appointment, on the site of the Forum, or occasionally on the
+wide ground before the Baths of Diocletian. They were battles fought
+with stones, and far from bloodless. Monti was traditionally of the
+Imperial or Ghibelline party; Trastevere was Guelph and for the Popes.
+The enmity was natural and lasting, on a small scale, as it was
+throughout Italy. The challenge to the fray was regularly sent out by
+young boys as messengers, and the place and hour were named and the word
+passed in secret from mouth to mouth. It was even determined by
+agreement whether the stones were to be thrown by hand or whether the
+more deadly sling was to be used.</p>
+
+<p>At the appointed time, the combatants appear in the arena, sometimes as
+many as a hundred on a side, and the tournament begins, as in Homeric
+times, with taunts and abuse, which presently end in skirmishes between
+the boys who have come to look on. Scouts are placed at distant points
+to cry 'Fire' at the approach of the dreaded Bargello and his men, who
+are the only representatives of order in the city and not, indeed,
+anxious to face two hundred infuriated slingers for the sake of making
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>One boy throws a stone and runs away, followed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> the rest, all
+prudently retiring to a safe distance. The real combatants wrap their
+long cloaks about their left arms, as the old Romans used their togas on
+the same ground, to shield their heads from the blows; a sling whirls
+half a dozen times like lightning, and a smooth round stone flies like a
+bullet straight at an enemy's face, followed by a hundred more in a
+deadly hail, thick and fast. Men fall, blood flows, short deep curses
+ring through the sunny air, the fighters creep up to one another,
+dodging behind trees and broken ruins, till they are at cruelly short
+range; faster and faster fly the stones, and scores are lying prostrate,
+bleeding, groaning and cursing. Strength, courage, fierce endurance and
+luck have it at last, as in every battle. Down goes the leader of
+Trastevere, half dead, with an eye gone, down goes the next man to him,
+his teeth broken under his torn lips, down half a dozen more, dead or
+wounded, and the day is lost. Trastevere flies towards the bridge,
+pursued by Monti with hoots and yells and catcalls, and the thousands
+who have seen the fight go howling after them, women and children
+screaming, dogs racing and barking and biting at their heels. And far
+behind on the deserted Campo Vaccino, as the sun goes down, women weep
+and frightened children sob beside the young dead. But the next feast
+day would come, and a counter-victory and vengeance.</p>
+
+<p>That has always been the temper of the Romans;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> but few know how
+fiercely it used to show itself in those days. It would have been
+natural enough that men should meet in sudden anger and kill each other
+with such weapons as they chanced to have or could pick up, clubs,
+knives, stones, anything, when fighting was half the life of every grown
+man. It is harder to understand the murderous stone throwing by
+agreement and appointment. In principle, indeed, it approached the
+tournament, and the combat of champions representing two parties is an
+expression of the ancient instinct of the Latin peoples; so the Horatii
+and Curiatii fought for Rome and Alba&mdash;so Francis the First of France
+offered to fight the Emperor Charles the Fifth for settlement of all
+quarrels between the Kingdom and the Empire&mdash;and so the modern Frenchman
+and Italian are accustomed to settle their differences by an appeal to
+what they still call 'arms,' for the sake of what modern society is
+pleased to dignify by the name of 'honour.'</p>
+
+<p>But in the stone-throwing combats of Campo Vaccino there was something
+else. The games of the circus and the bloody shows of the amphitheatre
+were not forgotten. As will be seen hereafter, bull-fighting was a
+favourite sport in Rome as it is in Spain today, and the hand-to-hand
+fights between champions of the Regions were as much more exciting and
+delightful to the crowd as the blood of men is of more price than the
+blood of beasts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The habit of fighting for its own sake, with dangerous weapons, made the
+Roman rabble terrible when the fray turned quite to earnest; the deadly
+hail of stones, well aimed by sling and hand, was familiar to every
+Roman from his childhood, and the sight of naked steel at arm's length
+inspired no sudden, keen and unaccustomed terror, when men had little
+but life to lose and set small value on that, throwing it into the
+balance for a word, rising in arms for a name, doing deeds of blood and
+flame for a handful of gold or a day of power.</p>
+
+<p>Monti was both the battlefield of the Regions and also, in times early
+and late, the scene of the most splendid pageants of Church and State.
+There is a strange passage in the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus, a
+pagan Roman of Greek birth, contemporary with Pope Damasus in the latter
+part of the fourth century. Muratori quotes it, as showing what the
+Bishopric of Rome meant even in those days. It is worth reading, for a
+heathen's view of things under Valens and Valentinian, before the coming
+of the Huns and the breaking up of the Roman Empire, and, indeed, before
+the official disestablishment, as we should say, of the heathen
+religion; while the High Priest of Jupiter still offered sacrifices on
+the Capitol, and the six Vestal Virgins still guarded the Seven Holy
+Things of Rome, and held their vast lands and dwelt in their splendid
+palace in all freedom of high privilege, as of old.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'For my part,' says Ammianus, 'when I see the magnificence in which the
+Bishops live in Rome, I am not surprised that those who covet the
+dignity should use force and cunning to obtain it. For if they succeed,
+they are sure of becoming enormously rich by the gifts of the devout
+Roman matrons; they will drive about Rome in their carriages, as they
+please, gorgeously dressed, and they will not only keep an abundant
+table, but will give banquets so sumptuous as to outdo those of kings
+and emperors. They do not see that they could be truly happy if instead
+of making the greatness of Rome an excuse for their excesses, they would
+live as some of the Bishops of the Provinces do, who are sparing and
+frugal, poorly clad and modest, but who make the humility of their
+manners and the purity of their lives at once acceptable to their God
+and to their fellow worshippers.'</p>
+
+<p>So much Ammianus says. And Saint Jerome tells how Pr&aelig;textatus, Prefect
+of the City, when Pope Damasus tried to convert him, answered with a
+laugh, 'I will become a Christian if you will make me Bishop of Rome.'</p>
+
+<p>Yet Damasus, famous for the good Latin and beautiful carving of the many
+inscriptions he composed and set up, was undeniably also a good man in
+the evil days which foreshadowed the great schism.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image154.jpg" width="450" height="362" alt="SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>And here, in the year 366, in the Region of Monti, in the church where
+now stands Santa Maria Maggiore, a great and terrible name stands out
+for the first time in history. Orsino, Deacon of the Holy Roman Catholic
+and Apostolic Church, rouses a party of the people, declares the
+election of Damasus invalid, proclaims himself Pope in his stead, and
+officiates as Pontiff in the Basilica of Sicininus. Up from the deep
+city comes the roaring crowd, furious and hungry for fight; the great
+doors are closed and Orsino's followers gather round him as he stands on
+the steps of the altar; but they are few, and those for Damasus are
+many; down go the doors, burst inward with battering-rams, up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> shoot the
+flames to the roof, and the short, wild fray lasts while one may count
+five score, and is over. Orsino and a hundred and thirty-six of his men
+lie dead on the pavement, the fire licks the rafters, the crowd press
+outward, and the great roof falls crashing down into wide pools of
+blood. And after that Damasus reigns eighteen years in peace and
+splendour. No one knows whether the daring Deacon was of the race that
+made and unmade popes afterwards, and held half Italy with its
+fortresses, giving its daughters to kings and taking kings' daughters
+for its sons, till Vittoria Accoramboni of bad memory began to bring
+down a name that is yet great. But Orsino he was called, and he had in
+him much of the lawless strength of those namesakes of his who outfought
+all other barons but the Colonna, for centuries; and romance may well
+make him one of them.</p>
+
+<p>Three hundred years later, and a little nearer to us in the dim
+perspective of the dark ages, another scene is enacted in the same
+cathedral. Martin the First was afterwards canonized as Saint Martin for
+the persecutions he suffered at the hands of Constans, who feared and
+hated him and set up an antipope in his stead, and at last sent him
+prisoner to die a miserable death in the Crimea. Olympius, Exarch of
+Italy, was the chosen tool of the Emperor, sent again and again to Rome
+to destroy the brave Bishop and make way for the impostor. At last, says
+the greatest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> of Italian chroniclers, fearing the Roman people and their
+soldiers, he attempted to murder the Pope foully, in hideous sacrilege.
+To that end he pretended penitence, and begged to be allowed to receive
+the Eucharist from the Pope himself at solemn high Mass, secretly
+instructing one of his body-guards to stab the Bishop at the very moment
+when he should present Olympius with the consecrated bread.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the basilica they went, in grave and splendid procession. One may
+guess the picture, with its deep colour, with the strong faces of those
+men, the Eastern guards, the gorgeous robes, the gilded arms, the high
+sunlight crossing the low nave and falling through the yellow clouds of
+incense upon the venerable bearded head of the holy man whose death was
+purposed in the sacred office. First, the measured tread of the Exarch's
+band moving in order; then, the silence over all the kneeling throng,
+and upon it the bursting unison of the 'Gloria in Excelsis' from the
+choir. Chant upon chant as the Pontiff and his Ministers intone the
+Epistle and the Gospel and are taken up by the singers in chorus at the
+first words of the Creed. By and by, the Pope's voice alone, still clear
+and brave in the Preface. 'Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and all
+the company of Heaven,' he chants, and again the harmony of many voices
+singing 'Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Sabaoth.' Silence then, at the
+Consecration, and the dark-browed Exarch bowing to the pavement,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> beside
+the paid murderer whose hand is already on his dagger's hilt. 'O Lamb of
+God, that takest away the sins of the world,' sings the choir in its
+sad, high chant, and Saint Martin bows, standing, over the altar,
+himself communicating, while the Exarch holds his breath, and the slayer
+fixes his small, keen eyes on the embroidered vestments and guesses how
+they will look with a red splash upon them.</p>
+
+<p>As the soldier looks, the sunlight falls more brightly on the gold, the
+incense curls in mystic spiral wreaths, its strong perfume penetrates
+and dims his senses; little by little, his thoughts wander till they are
+strangely fixed on something far away, and he no longer sees Pope nor
+altar nor altar-piece beyond, and is wrapped in a sort of waking sleep
+that is blindness. Olympius kneels at the steps within the rail, and his
+heart beats loud as the grand figure of the Bishop bends over him, and
+the thin old hand with its strong blue veins offers the sacred bread to
+his open lips. He trembles, and tries to glance sideways to his left
+with downcast eyes, for the moment has come, and the blow must be struck
+then or never. Not a breath, not a movement in the church, not the
+faintest clink of all those gilded arms, as the Saint pronounces the few
+solemn words, then gravely and slowly turns, with his deacons to right
+and left of him, and ascends the altar steps once more, unhurt. A
+miracle, says the chronicler. A miracle, says the amazed soldier, and
+repeats it upon solemn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> oath. A miracle, says Olympius himself, penitent
+and converted from error, and ready to save the Pope by all means he
+has, as he was ready to slay him before. But he only, and the hired
+assassin beside him, had known what was to be, and the people say that
+the Exarch and the Pope were already reconciled and agreed against the
+Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>The vast church has had many names. It seems at one time to have been
+known as the Basilica of Sicininus, for so Ammianus Marcellinus still
+speaks of it. But just before that, there is the lovely legend of Pope
+Liberius' dream. To him and to the Roman patrician, John, came the
+Blessed Virgin in a dream, one night in high summer, commanding them to
+build her a church wheresoever they should find snow on the morrow. And
+together they found it, glistening in the morning sun, and they traced,
+on the white, the plan of the foundation, and together built the first
+church, calling it 'Our Lady of Snows,' for Damasus to burn when Orsino
+seized it,&mdash;but the people spoke of it as the Basilica of Liberius. It
+was called also 'Our Lady of the Manger,' from the relic held holy
+there; and Sixtus the Third named it 'Our Lady, Mother of God'; and
+under many popes it was rebuilt and grew, until at last, for its size,
+it was called, as it is today, 'The Greater Saint Mary's.' At one time,
+the popes lived near it, and in our own century, when the palace had
+long been transferred to the Quirinal, a mile to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> northward of the
+basilica, Papal Bulls were dated 'From Santa Maria Maggiore.'</p>
+
+<p>It is too gorgeous now, too overladen, too rich; and yet it is imposing.
+The first gold brought from South America gilds the profusely decorated
+roof, the dark red polished porphyry pillars of the high altar gleam in
+the warm haze of light, the endless marble columns rise in shining
+ranks, all is gold, marble and colour.</p>
+
+<p>Many dead lie there, great men and good; and one over whom a sort of
+mystery hangs, for he was Bartolommeo Sacchi, Cardinal Platina,
+historian of the Church, a chief member of the famous Roman Academy of
+the fifteenth century, and a medi&aelig;val pagan, accused with Pomponius
+Letus and others of worshipping false gods; tried, acquitted for lack of
+evidence; dead in the odour of sanctity; proved at last ten times a
+heathen, and a bad one, today, by inscriptions found in the remotest
+part of the Catacombs, where he and his companions met in darkest secret
+to perform their extravagant rites. He lies beneath the chapel of Sixtus
+the Fifth, but the stone that marked the spot is gone.</p>
+
+<p>Strange survivals of ideas and customs cling to some places like ghosts,
+and will not be driven away. The Esquiline was long ago the haunt of
+witches, who chanted their nightly incantations over the shallow graves
+where slaves were buried, and under the hideous crosses whereon dead
+malefactors had groaned away their last hours of life. M&aelig;cenas cleared
+the land<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> and beautified it with gardens, but still the witches came by
+stealth to their old haunts. The popes built churches and palaces on it,
+but the dark memories never vanished in the light; and even in our own
+days, on Saint John's Eve, which is the witches' night of the Latin
+race, as the Eve of May-day is the Walpurgis of the Northmen, the people
+went out in thousands, with torches and lights, and laughing tricks of
+exorcism, to scare away the powers of evil for the year.</p>
+
+<p>On that night the vast open spaces around the Lateran were thronged with
+men and women and children; against the witches' dreaded influence they
+carried each an onion, torn up by the roots with stalk and flower; all
+about, on the outskirts of the place, were kitchen booths, set up with
+boughs and bits of awnings, yellow with the glare of earthen and iron
+oil lamps, where snails&mdash;great counter-charms against spells&mdash;were fried
+and baked in oil, and sold with bread and wine, and eaten with more or
+less appetite, according to the strength of men's stomachs. All night,
+till the early summer dawn, the people came and went, and wandered round
+and round, and in and out, in parties and by families, to go laughing
+homeward at last, scarce knowing why they had gone there at all, unless
+it were because their fathers and mothers had done as they did for
+generations unnumbered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image162.jpg" width="650" height="392" alt="BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And the Lateran once had another half-heathen festival, on the Saturday
+after Easter, in memory of the ancient Floralia of the Romans, which had
+formerly been celebrated on the 28th of April. It was a most strange
+festival, now long forgotten, in which Christianity and paganism were
+blended together. Baracconi, from whom the following account is taken,
+quotes three sober writers as authority for his description. Yet there
+is a doubt about the very name of the feast, which is variously called
+the 'Coromania' and the 'Cornomania.'</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of the Saturday in Easter week, say these writers, the
+priests of the eighteen principal 'deaconries'&mdash;an ecclesiastical
+division of the city long ago abolished and now somewhat obscure&mdash;caused
+the bells to be rung, and the people assembled at their parish churches,
+where they were received by a 'mansionarius,'&mdash;probably meaning here 'a
+visitor of houses,'&mdash;and a layman, who was arrayed in a tunic, and
+crowned with the flowers of the cornel cherry. In his hand he carried a
+concave musical instrument of copper, by which hung many little bells.
+One of these mysterious personages, who evidently represented the pagan
+element in the ceremony, preceded each parish procession, being followed
+immediately by the parish priest, wearing the cope. From all parts of
+the city they went up to the Lateran, and waited before the palace of
+the Pope till all were assembled.</p>
+
+<p>The Pope descended the steps to receive the homage of the people.
+Immediately, those of each parish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> formed themselves into wide circles
+round their respective 'visitors' and priests, and the strange rite
+began. In the midst the priest stood still. Round and round him the lay
+'visitor' moved in a solemn dance, striking his copper bells
+rhythmically to his steps, while all the circle followed his gyrations,
+chanting a barbarous invocation, half Latin and half Greek: 'Hail,
+divinity of this spot! Receive our prayers in fortunate hour!' and many
+verses more to the same purpose, and quite beyond being construed
+grammatically.</p>
+
+<p>The dance is over with the song. One of the parish priests mounts upon
+an ass, backwards, facing the beast's tail, and a papal chamberlain
+leads the animal, holding over its head a basin containing twenty pieces
+of copper money. When they have passed three rows of benches&mdash;which
+benches, by the bye?&mdash;the priest leans back, puts his hand behind him
+into the basin, and pockets the coins.</p>
+
+<p>Then all the priests lay garlands at the feet of the Pope. But the
+priest of Santa Maria in Via Lata also lets a live fox out of a bag, and
+the little creature suddenly let loose flies for its life, through the
+parting crowd, out to the open country, seeking cover. It is like the
+Hebrew scapegoat. In return each priest receives a golden coin from the
+Pontiff's hand. The rite being finished, all return to their respective
+parishes, the dancing 'visitor' still leading the procession. Each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+priest is accompanied then by acolytes who bear holy water, branches of
+laurel, and baskets of little rolls, or of those big, sweet wafers,
+rolled into a cylinder and baked, which are called 'cialdoni,' and are
+eaten to this day by Romans with ice cream. From house to house they go;
+the priest blesses each dwelling, sprinkling water about with the
+laurel, and then burning the branch on the hearth and giving some of the
+rolls to the children. And all the time the dancer slowly dances and
+chants the strange words made up of some Hebrew, a little Chaldean and a
+leavening of nonsense.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Jaritan, jaritan, iarariasti<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Raphaym, akrhoin, azariasti!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One may leave the interpretation of the jargon to curious scholars. As
+for the rite itself, were it not attested by trustworthy writers, one
+would be inclined to treat it as a mere invention, no more to be
+believed than the legend of Pope Joan, who was supposed to have been
+stoned to death near San Clemente, on the way to the Lateran.</p>
+
+<p>An extraordinary number of traditions cling to the Region of Monti, and
+considering that in later times a great part of this quarter was a
+wilderness, the fact would seem strange. As for the 'Coromania' it seems
+to have disappeared after the devastation of Monti by Robert Guiscard in
+1084, and the general destruction of the city from the Lateran to the
+Capitol is attributed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> the Saracens who were with him. But a more
+logical cause of depopulation is found in the disappearance of water
+from the upper Region by the breaking of the aqueducts, from which alone
+it was derived. The consequence of this, in the Middle Age, was that the
+only obtainable water came from the river, and was naturally taken from
+it up-stream, towards the Piazza del Popolo, in the neighbourhood of
+which it was collected in tanks and kept until the mud sank to the
+bottom and it was approximately fit to drink.</p>
+
+<p>In Imperial times the greater number of the public baths were situated
+in the Monti. The great Piazza di Termini, now re-named Piazza delle
+Terme, before the railway station, took its name from the Baths of
+Diocletian&mdash;'Therm&aelig;,' 'Terme,' 'Termini.' The Baths of Titus, the Baths
+of Constantine, of Philippus, Novatus and others were all in Monti,
+supplied by the aqueduct of Claudius, the Anio Novus, the Aqua Marcia,
+Tepula, Julia, Marcia Nova and Anio Vetus. No people in the world were
+such bathers as the old Romans; yet few cities have ever suffered so
+much or so long from lack of good water as Rome in the Middle Age. The
+supply cut off, the whole use of the vast institutions was instantly
+gone, and the huge halls and porticos and playgrounds fell to ruin and
+base uses. Owing to their peculiar construction and being purposely made
+easy of access on all sides, like the temples, the buildings could not
+even be turned to account by the Barons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> for purposes of fortification,
+except as quarries for material with which to build their towers and
+bastions. The inner chambers became hiding-places for thieves, herdsmen
+in winter penned their flocks in the shelter of the great halls, grooms
+used the old playground as a track for breaking horses, and round and
+about the ruins, on feast days, the men of Monti and Trastevere chased
+one another in their murderous tournaments of stone throwing. A fanatic
+Sicilian priest saved the great hall of Diocletian's Baths from
+destruction in Michelangelo's time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image167.jpg" width="450" height="322" alt="PORTA MAGGIORE, SUPPORTING THE CHANNELS OF THE AQUEDUCT
+OF CLAUDIUS AND THE ANIO NOVUS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PORTA MAGGIORE, SUPPORTING THE CHANNELS OF THE AQUEDUCT
+OF CLAUDIUS AND THE ANIO NOVUS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The story is worth telling, for it is little known. In a little church
+in Palermo, in which the humble<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> priest Antonio Del Duca officiated, he
+discovered under the wall-plaster a beautiful fresco or mosaic of the
+Seven Archangels, with their names and attributes. Day after day he
+looked at the fair figures till they took possession of his mind and
+heart and soul, and inspired him with the apparently hopeless desire to
+erect a church in Rome in their honour. To Rome he came, persuaded of
+his righteous mission, to fail of course, after seven years of
+indefatigable effort. Back to Palermo then, to the contemplation of his
+beloved angels. And again they seemed to drive him to Rome. Scarcely had
+he returned when in a dream he seemed to see his ideal church among the
+ruins of the Baths of Diocletian, which had been built, as tradition
+said, by thousands of condemned Christians. To dream was to wake with
+new enthusiasm, to wake was to act. In an hour, in the early dawn, he
+was in the great hall which is now the Church of Santa Maria degli
+Angeli, 'Saint Mary of the Angels.'</p>
+
+<p>But it was long before his purpose was finally accomplished. Thirty
+years of his life he spent in unremitting labour for his purpose, and an
+accident at last determined his success. He had brought a nephew with
+him from Sicily, a certain Giacomo Del Duca, a sculptor, who was
+employed by Michelangelo to carve the great mask over the Porta Pia.
+Pope Pius the Fourth, for whom the gate was named, praised the stone
+face to Michelangelo, who told him who had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> made it. The name recalled
+the sculptor's uncle and his mad project, which appealed to
+Michelangelo's love of the gigantic. Even the coincidence of appellation
+pleased the Pope, for he himself had been christened Angelo, and his
+great architect and sculptor bore an archangel's name. So the work was
+done in short time, the great church was consecrated, and one of the
+noblest of Roman buildings was saved from ruin by the poor
+Sicilian,&mdash;and there, in 1896, the heir to the throne of Italy was
+married with great magnificence, that particular church being chosen
+because, as a historical monument, it is regarded as the property of the
+Italian State, and is therefore not under the immediate management of
+the Vatican. Probably not one in a thousand of the splendid throng that
+filled the church had heard the name of Antonio Del Duca, who lies
+buried before the high altar without a line to tell of all he did. So
+lies Bernini, somewhere in Santa Maria Maggiore, so lies Platina,&mdash;he,
+at least, the better for no epitaph,&mdash;and Beatrice Cenci and many
+others, rest unforgotten in nameless graves.</p>
+
+<p>From the church to the railway station stretch the ruins, continuous,
+massive, almost useless, yet dear to all who love old Rome. On the south
+side, there used to be a long row of buildings, ending in a tall old
+mansion of good architecture, which was the 'Casino' of the great old
+Villa Negroni. In that house, but recently gone, Thomas Crawford,
+sculptor, lived for many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> years, and in the long, low studio that stood
+before what is now the station, but was then a field, he modelled the
+great statue of Liberty that crowns the Capitol in Washington, and
+Washington's own monument which stands in Richmond, and many of his
+other works. My own early childhood was spent there, among the old-time
+gardens, and avenues of lordly cypresses and of bitter orange trees, and
+the moss-grown fountains, and long walks fragrant with half-wild roses
+and sweet flowers that no one thinks of planting now. Beyond, a wild
+waste of field and broken land led up to Santa Maria Maggiore; and the
+grand old bells sent their far voices ringing in deep harmony to our
+windows; and on the Eve of Saint Peter's day, when Saint Peter's was a
+dream of stars in the distance and the gorgeous fireworks gleamed in the
+dark sky above the Pincio, we used to climb the high tower above the
+house and watch the still illumination and the soaring rockets through a
+grated window, till the last one had burst and spent itself, and we
+crept down the steep stone steps, half frightened at the sound of our
+own voices in the ghostly place.</p>
+
+<p>And in that same villa once lived Vittoria Accoramboni, married to
+Francesco Peretti, nephew of Cardinal Montalto, who built the house, and
+was afterwards Sixtus the Fifth, and filled Rome with his works in the
+five years of his stirring reign. Hers also is a story worth telling,
+for few know it, even among Romans, and it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> a tale of bloodshed, and
+of murder, and of all crimes against God and man, and of the fall of the
+great house of Orsini. But it may better be told in another place, when
+we reach the Region where they lived and fought and ruled, by terror and
+the sword.</p>
+
+<p>Near the Baths of Diocletian, and most probably on the site of that same
+Villa Negroni, too, was that vineyard, or 'villa' as we should say,
+where C&aelig;sar Borgia and his elder brother, the Duke of Gandia, supped
+together for the last time with their mother Vanozza, on the night of
+the 14th of June, in the year 1497. There has always been a dark mystery
+about what followed. Many say that C&aelig;sar feared his brother's power and
+influence with the Pope. Not a few others suggest that the cause of the
+mutual hatred was a jealousy so horrible to think of that one may hardly
+find words for it, for its object was their own sister Lucrezia. However
+that may be, they supped together with their mother in her villa, after
+the manner of Romans in those times, and long before then, and long
+since. In the first days of summer heat, when the freshness of spring is
+gone and June grows sultry, the people of the city have ever loved to
+breathe a cooler air. In the Region of Monti there were a score of
+villas, and there were wide vineyards and little groves of trees, such
+as could grow where there was not much water, or none at all perhaps,
+saving what was collected in cisterns from the roofs of the few
+scattered houses, when it rained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the long June twilight the three met together, the mother and her two
+sons, and sat down under an arbour in the garden, for the air was dry
+with the south wind and there was no fear of fever. Screened lamps and
+wax torches shed changing tints of gold and yellow on the fine linen,
+and the deep-chiselled dishes and vessels of silver, and the tall
+glasses and beakers of many hues. Fruit was piled up in the midst, such
+as the season afforded, cherries and strawberries, and bright oranges
+from the south. One may fancy the dark-browed woman of forty years, in
+the beauty of maturity almost too ripe, with her black eyes and hair of
+auburn, her jewelled cap, her gold laces just open at her marble throat,
+her gleaming earrings, her sleeves slashed to show gauze-fine linen, her
+white, ring-laden fingers that delicately took the finely carved meats
+in her plate&mdash;before forks were used in Rome&mdash;and dabbled themselves
+clean from each touch in the scented water the little page poured over
+them. On her right, her eldest, Gandia, fair, weak-mouthed, sensually
+beautiful, splendid in velvet, and chain of gold, and deep-red silk, his
+blue eyes glancing now and then, half scornfully, half anxiously at his
+strong brother. And he, C&aelig;sar, the man of infamous memory, sitting there
+the very incarnation of bodily strength and mental daring; square as a
+gladiator, dark as a Moor, with deep and fiery eyes, now black, now red
+in the lamplight, the marvellous smile wreathing his thin lips now and
+then, and showing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> white, wolfish teeth, his sinewy brown hands direct
+in every little action, his soft voice the very music of a lie to those
+who knew the terrible brief tones it had in wrath.</p>
+
+<p>Long they sat, sipping the strong iced wine, toying with fruits and
+nuts, talking of State affairs, of the Pope, of Maximilian, the jousting
+Emperor,&mdash;discussing, perhaps, with a smile, his love of dress and the
+beautiful fluted armour which he first invented;&mdash;of Lewis the Eleventh
+of France, tottering to his grave, strangest compound of devotion,
+avarice and fear that ever filled a throne; of Frederick of Naples, to
+whom C&aelig;sar was to bear the crown within a few days; of Lucrezia's
+quarrel with her husband, which had brought her to Rome; and at her name
+C&aelig;sar's eyes blazed once and looked down at the strawberries on the
+silver dish, and Gandia turned pale, and felt the chill of the night
+air, and stately Vanozza rose slowly in the silence, and bade her evil
+sons good-night, for it was late.</p>
+
+<p>Two hours later, Gandia's thrice-stabbed corpse lay rolling and bobbing
+at the Tiber's edge, as dead things do in the water, caught by its silks
+and velvets in wild branches that dipped in the muddy stream; and the
+waning moon rose as the dawn forelightened.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image174.jpg" width="450" height="317" alt="INTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM" title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the secrets of old Rome could be known and told, they would fill the
+world with books. Every stone has tasted blood, every house has had its
+tragedy, every shrub and tree and blade of grass and wild flower has
+sucked life from death, and blossoms on a grave. There is no end of
+memories, in this one Region, as in all the rest. Far up by Porta Pia,
+over against the new Treasury, under a modern street, lie the bones of
+guilty Vestals, buried living, each in a little vault two fathoms deep,
+with the small dish and crust and the earthen lamp that soon flickered
+out in the close damp air; and there lies that innocent one, Domitian's
+victim, who shrank from the foul help of the headsman's hand, as her
+foot slipped on the fatal ladder, and fixed her pure eyes once upon the
+rabble, and turned and went down alone into the deadly darkness. Down by
+the Colosseum, where the ruins of Titus' Baths still stand in part,
+stood Nero's dwelling palace, above the artificial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> lake in which the
+Colosseum itself was built, and whose waters reflected the flames of the
+great fire. To northward, in a contrast that leaps ages, rise the huge
+walls of the Tor de' Conti, greatest of medi&aelig;val fortresses built within
+the city, the stronghold of a dim, great house, long passed away,
+kinsmen of Innocent the Third. What is left of it helps to enclose a
+peaceful nunnery.</p>
+
+<p>There were other towers, too, and fortresses, though none so strong as
+that, when it faced the Colosseum, filled then by the armed thousands of
+the great Frangipani. The desolate wastes of land in the Monti were ever
+good battlefields for the nobles and the people. But the stronger and
+wiser and greater Orsini fortified themselves in the town, in Pompey's
+theatre, while the Colonna held the midst, and the popes dwelt far aloof
+on the boundary, with the open country behind them for ready escape, and
+the changing, factious, fighting city before.</p>
+
+<p>The everlasting struggle, the furious jealousy, the always ready knife,
+kept the Regions distinct and individual and often at enmity with each
+other, most of all Monti and Trastevere, hereditary adversaries,
+Ghibelline and Guelph. Trastevere has something of that proud and
+violent character still. Monti lost it in the short eruption of
+'progress' and 'development.' In the wild rage of speculation which
+culminated in 1889, its desolate open lands, its ancient villas and its
+strange<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> old houses were the natural prey of a foolish greediness the
+like of which has never been seen before. Progress ate up romance, and
+hundreds of acres of wretched, cheaply built, hideous, unsafe buildings
+sprang up like the unhealthy growth of a foul disease, between the
+Lateran gate and the old inhabited districts. They are destined to a
+graceless and ignoble ruin. Ugly cracks in the miserable stucco show
+where the masonry is already parting, as the hollow foundations subside,
+and walls on which the paint is still almost fresh are shored up with
+dusty beams lest they should fall and crush the few paupers who dwell
+within. Filthy, half-washed clothes of beggars hang down from the
+windows, drying in the sun as they flap and flutter against pretentious
+moulded masks of empty plaster. Miserable children loiter in the
+high-arched gates, under which smart carriages were meant to drive, and
+gnaw their dirty fingers, or fight for a cold boiled chestnut one of
+them has saved. Squalor, misery, ruin and vile stucco, with a sprinkling
+of half-desperate humanity,&mdash;those are the elements of the modern
+picture,&mdash;that is what the 'great development' of modern Rome brought
+forth and left behind it. Peace to the past, and to its ashes of romance
+and beauty.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image177.jpg" width="450" height="315" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION II TREVI</h2>
+
+
+<p>In Imperial times, the street now called the Tritone, from the Triton on
+the fountain in Piazza Barberini, led up from the Portico of Vipsanius
+Agrippa's sister in the modern Corso to the temple of Flora at the
+beginning of the Quattro Fontane. It was met at right angles by a long
+street leading straight from the Forum of Trajan, and which struck it
+close to the Arch of Claudius. Then, as now, this point was the meeting
+of two principal thoroughfares, and it was called Trivium, or the
+'crossroads.' Trivium turned itself into the Italian 'Trevi,' called in
+some chronicles 'the Cross of Trevi.' The Arch of Claudius carried the
+Aqua Virgo, still officially called the Acqua Vergine, across the
+highway;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> the water, itself, came to be called the water 'of the
+crossroads' or 'of Trevi,' and 'Trevi' gave its name at last to the
+Region, long before the splendid fountain was built in the early part of
+the last century. The device of the Region seems to have nothing to do
+with the water, except, perhaps, that the idea of a triplicity is
+preserved in the three horizontally disposed rapiers.</p>
+
+<p>The legend that tells how the water was discovered gave it the first
+name it bore. A detachment of Roman soldiers, marching down from
+Pr&aelig;neste, or Palestrina, in the summer heat, were overcome by thirst,
+and could find neither stream nor well. A little girl, passing that way,
+led them aside from the high-road and brought them to a welling spring,
+clear and icy cold, known only to shepherds and peasants. They drank
+their fill and called it Aqua Virgo, the Maiden Water. And so it has
+remained for all ages. But it is commonly called 'Trevi' in Rome, by the
+people and by strangers, and the name has a ring of poetry, by its
+associations. For they say that whoever will go to the great fountain,
+when the high moon rays dance upon the rippling water, and drink, and
+toss a coin far out into the middle, in offering to the genius of the
+place, shall surely come back to Rome again, old or young, sooner or
+later. Many have performed the rite, some secretly, sadly, heartbroken,
+for love of Rome and what it holds, and others gayly, many together,
+laughing, while they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> half believe, and sometimes believing altogether
+while they laugh. And some who loved, and could meet only in Rome, have
+gone there together, and women's tears have sometimes dropped upon the
+silvered water that reflected the sad faces of grave men.</p>
+
+<p>The foremost memories of the past in Trevi centre about the ancient
+family of the Colonna, still numerous, distinguished and flourishing
+after a career of nearly a thousand years&mdash;longer than that, it may be,
+if one take into account the traditions of them that go back beyond the
+earliest authentic mention of their greatness; a race of singular
+independence and energy, which has given popes to Rome, and great
+patriots, and great generals as well, and neither least nor last,
+Vittoria, princess and poetess, whose name calls up the gentlest
+memories of Michelangelo's elder years.</p>
+
+<p>The Colonna were originally hill men. The earliest record of them tells
+that their great lands towards Palestrina were confiscated by the
+Church, in the eleventh century. The oldest of their titles is that of
+Duke of Paliano, a town still belonging to them, rising on an eminence
+out of the plain beyond the Alban hills. The greatest of their early
+fortresses was Palestrina, still the seat and title estate of the
+Barberini branch of the family. Their original stronghold in Rome was
+almost on the site of their present palace, being then situated on the
+opposite side of the Basilica of the Santi Apostoli, where the
+headquarters of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> Dominicans now are, and running upwards and
+backwards, thence, to the Piazza della Pilotta; but they held Rome by a
+chain of towers and fortifications, from the Quirinal to the Mausoleum
+of Augustus, now hidden among the later buildings, between the Corso,
+the Tiber, the Via de' Pontefici and the Via de' Schiavoni. The present
+palace and the basilica stood partly upon the site of the ancient
+quarters occupied by the first Cohort of the Vigiles, or city police, of
+whom about seven thousand preserved order when the population of ancient
+Rome exceeded two millions.</p>
+
+<p>The 'column,' from which the Colonna take their name, is generally
+supposed to have stood in the market-place of the village of that name
+in the higher part of the Campagna, between the Alban and the Samnite
+hills, on the way to Palestrina. It is a peaceful and vine-clad country,
+now. South of it rise the low heights of Tusculum, and it is more than
+probable that the Colonna were originally descended from the great
+counts who tyrannized over Rome from that strong point of vantage and,
+through them, from Theodora Senatrix. Be that as it may, their arms
+consist of a simple column, used on a shield, or as a crest, or as the
+badge of the family, and it is found in many a threadbare tapestry, in
+many a painting, in the frescos and carved ornaments of many a dim old
+church in Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image182a.jpg" width="650" height="396" alt="FOUNTAIN OF TREVI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">FOUNTAIN OF TREVI</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In their history, the first fact that stands out is their adherence to
+the Emperors, as Ghibellines, whereas their rivals, the Orsini, were
+Guelphs and supporters of the Church in most of the great contests of
+the Middle Age. The exceptions to the rule are found when the Colonna
+had a Pope of their own, or one who, like Nicholas the Fourth, was of
+their own making. 'That Pope,' says Muratori, 'had so boundlessly
+favoured the aggrandizement of the Colonna that his actions depended
+entirely upon their dictates, and a libel was published upon him,
+entitled the Source of Evil, illustrated by a caricature, in which the
+mitred head of the Pontiff was seen issuing from a tall column between
+two smaller ones, the latter intended to represent the two living
+cardinals of the house, Jacopo and Pietro.' Yet in the next reign, when
+they impeached the election of Boniface the Eighth, they found
+themselves in opposition to the Holy See, and they and theirs were
+almost utterly destroyed by the Pope's partisans and kinsmen, the
+powerful Caetani.</p>
+
+<p>Just before him, after the Holy See had been vacant for two years and
+nearly four months, because the Conclave of Perugia could not agree upon
+a Pope, a humble southern hermit of the Abruzzi, Pietro da Morrone, had
+been suddenly elevated to the Pontificate, to his own inexpressible
+surprise and confusion, and after a few months of honest, but utterly
+fruitless, effort to understand and do what was required of him, he had
+taken the wholly unprecedented step of abdicating the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> papacy. He was
+succeeded by Benedict Caetani, Boniface the Eighth, keen, learned,
+brave, unforgiving and the mortal foe of the Colonna; 'the magnanimous
+sinner,' as Gibbon quotes from a chronicle, 'who entered like a fox,
+reigned like a lion and died like a dog.' Yet the judgment is harsh, for
+though his sins were great, the expiation was fearful, and he was brave
+as few men have been.</p>
+
+<p>Samson slew a lion with his hands, and the Philistines with the jaw-bone
+of an ass. Men have always accepted the Bible's account of the
+slaughter. But when an ass, without the aid of any Samson, killed a lion
+in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Priori, in Florence, the event was
+looked upon as of evil portent, exceeding the laws of nature. For Pope
+Boniface had presented the Commonwealth of Florence with a young and
+handsome lion, which was chained up and kept in the court of the palace
+aforesaid. A donkey laden with firewood was driven in, and 'either from
+fear, or by a miracle,' as the chronicle says, at once assailed the lion
+with the utmost ferocity, and kicked him to death, in spite of the
+efforts of a number of men to drag the beast of burden off. Of the two
+hypotheses, the wise men of the day preferred the supernatural
+explanation, and one of them found an ancient Sibylline prophecy to the
+effect that 'when the tame beast should kill the king of beasts, the
+dissolution of the Church should begin.' Which saying, adds Villani, was
+presently fulfilled in Pope Boniface.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For the Pope had a mortal quarrel with Philip the Fair of France whom he
+had promised to make Emperor, and had then passed over in favour of
+Albert, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg; and Philip made a friend and ally of
+Stephen Colonna, the head of the great house, who was then in France,
+and drove Boniface's legate out of his kingdom, and allowed the Count of
+Artois to burn the papal letters. The Pope retorted by a Major
+Excommunication, and the quarrel became furious. The Colonna being under
+his hand, Boniface vented his anger upon them, drove them from Rome,
+destroyed their houses, levelled Palestrina to the ground, and ploughed
+up the land where it had stood. The six brothers of the house were
+exiles and wanderers. Old Stephen, the idol of Petrarch, alone and
+wretched, was surrounded by highwaymen, who asked who he was. 'Stephen
+Colonna,' he answered, 'a Roman citizen.' And the thieves fell back at
+the sound of the great name. Again, someone asked him with a sneer where
+all his strongholds were, since Palestrina was gone. 'Here,' he
+answered, unmoved, and laying his hand upon his heart. Of such stuff
+were the Pope's enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Nor could he crush them. Boniface was of Anagni, a city of prehistoric
+walls and ancient memories which belonged to the Caetani; and there, in
+the late summer, he was sojourning for rest and country air, with his
+cardinals and his court and his kinsmen about him. Among the cardinals
+was Napoleon Orsini.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image188.jpg" width="450" height="491" alt="GRAND HALL OF THE COLONNA PALACE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">GRAND HALL OF THE COLONNA PALACE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then came William of Nogaret, sent by the King of France, and Sciarra
+Colonna, the boldest man of his day, and many other nobles, with three
+hundred knights and many footmen. For a long time they had secretly
+plotted a master-stroke of violence, spending money freely among the
+people, and using all persuasion to bring the country to their side, yet
+with such skill and caution that not the slightest warning reached the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+Pope's ears. In calm security he rose early on the morning of the
+seventh of September. He believed his position assured, his friends
+loyal and the Colonna ruined for ever; and Colonna was at the gate.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly, from below the walls, a cry of words came up to the palace
+windows; long drawn out, distinct in the still mountain air. 'Long live
+the King of France! Death to Pope Boniface!' It was taken up by hundreds
+of voices, and repeated, loud, long and terrible, by the people of the
+town, by men going out to their work in the hills, by women loitering on
+their doorsteps, by children peering out, half frightened, from behind
+their mothers' scarlet woollen skirts, to see the armed men ride up the
+stony way. Cardinals, chamberlains, secretaries, men-at-arms, fled like
+sheep; and when Colonna reached the palace wall, only the Pope's own
+kinsmen remained within to help him as they could, barring the great
+doors and posting themselves with crossbows at the grated window. For
+the Caetani were always brave men.</p>
+
+<p>But Boniface knew that he was lost, and calmly, courageously, even
+grandly, he prepared to face death. 'Since I am betrayed,' he said, 'and
+am to die, I will at least die as a Pope should!' So he put on the great
+pontifical chasuble, and set the tiara of Constantine upon his head,
+and, taking the keys and the crosier in his hands, sat down on the papal
+throne to await death.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The palace gates were broken down, and then there was no more
+resistance, for the defenders were few. In a moment Colonna in his
+armour stood before the Pontiff in his robes; but he saw only the enemy
+of his race, who had driven out his great kinsmen, beggars and wanderers
+on the earth, and he lifted his visor and looked long at his victim, and
+then at last found words for his wrath, and bitter reproaches and taunts
+without end and savage curses in the broad-spoken Roman tongue. And
+William of Nogaret began to speak, too, and threatened to take Boniface
+to Lyons where a council of the Church should depose him and condemn him
+to ignominy. Boniface answered that he should expect nothing better than
+to be deposed and condemned by a man whose father and mother had been
+publicly burned for their crimes. And this was true of Nogaret, who was
+no gentleman. A legend says that Colonna struck the Pope in the face,
+and that he afterwards made him ride on an ass, sitting backwards, after
+the manner of the times. But no trustworthy chronicle tells of this. On
+the contrary, no one laid hands upon him while he was kept a prisoner
+under strict watch for three days, refusing to touch food; for even if
+he could have eaten he feared poison. And Colonna tried to force him to
+abdicate, as Pope Celestin had done before him, but he refused stoutly;
+and when the three days were over, Colonna went away, driven out, some
+say, by the people of Anagni who turned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> against him. But that is
+absurd, for Anagni is a little place and Colonna had a strong force of
+good soldiers with him. Possibly, seeing that the old man refused to
+eat, Sciarra feared lest he should be said to have starved the Pope to
+death. They went away and left him, carrying off his treasures with
+them, and he returned to Rome, half mad with anger, and fell into the
+hands of the Orsini cardinals, who judged him not sane and kept him a
+prisoner at the Vatican, where he died soon afterwards, consumed by his
+wrath. And before long the Colonna had their own again and rebuilt
+Palestrina and their palace in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five years later they were divided against each other, in the
+wild days when Lewis the Bavarian, excommunicated and at war with the
+Pope, was crowned and consecrated Emperor, by the efforts of an
+extraordinary man of genius, Castruccio degli Interminelli, known better
+as Castruccio Castracane, the Ghibelline lord of Lucca who made Italy
+ring with his deeds for twenty years, and died of a fever, in the height
+of his success and glory, at the age of forty-seven years. Sciarra
+Colonna was for him and for Lewis. Stephen, head of the house, was
+against them, and in those days when Rome was frantic for an Emperor,
+Stephen's son Jacopo had the quiet courage to bring out the Bull of
+Excommunication against the chosen Emperor and nail it to the door of
+San Marcello, in the Corso, in the heart of Rome and in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> sight of a
+thousand angry men, in protest against what they meant to do&mdash;against
+what was doing even at that moment. And he reached Palestrina in safety,
+shaking the dust of Rome from his feet.</p>
+
+<p>But on that bright winter's day, Lewis of Bavaria and his queen rode
+down from Santa Maria Maggiore by the long and winding ways towards
+Saint Peter's. The streets were all swept and strewn with yellow sand
+and box leaves and myrtle that made the air fragrant, and from every
+window and balcony gorgeous silks and tapestries were hung, and even
+ornaments of gold and silver and jewels. Before the procession rode
+standard-bearers, four for each Region, on horses most richly
+caparisoned. There rode Sciarra Colonna, and beside him, for once in
+history, Orsino Orsini, and others, all dressed in cloth of gold, and
+Castruccio Castracane, wearing that famous sword which in our own times
+was offered by Italy to King Victor Emmanuel; and many other Barons rode
+there in splendid array, and there was great concourse of the people. So
+they came to Saint Peter's; and because the Count of the Lateran should
+by right have been the Emperor's sponsor at the anointing, and had left
+Rome in anger and disdain, Lewis made Castruccio a knight of the Empire
+and Count of the Lateran in his stead, and sponsor; and two
+excommunicated Bishops consecrated the Emperor, and anointed him, and
+Sciarra Colonna crowned him and his queen. After which they feasted in
+the evening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> at the Arac&oelig;li, and slept in the Capitol, because they
+were all weary with the long ceremony, and it was too late to go home.
+The chronicler's comment is curious. 'Note,' he says, 'what presumption
+was this, of the aforesaid damned Bavarian, such as thou shalt not find
+in any ancient or recent history; for never did any Christian Emperor
+cause himself to be crowned save by the Pope or his legate, even though
+opposed to the Church, neither before then nor since, except this
+Bavarian.' But Sciarra and Castruccio had their way, and Lewis did what
+even Napoleon, master of the world by violent chance, would not do. And
+twenty years later, in the same chronicle, it is told how 'Lewis of
+Bavaria, who called himself Emperor, fell with his horse, and was killed
+suddenly, without penitence, excommunicated and damned by Holy Church.'
+It is a curious coincidence that Boniface the Eighth, Sciarra's
+prisoner, and Lewis the Bavarian, whom he crowned Emperor, both died on
+the eleventh of October, according to most authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate of Rome had dwindled to a pitiable office, held by one man.
+At or about this time, the Colonna and the Orsini agreed by a compromise
+that there should be two, chosen from their two houses. The Popes were
+in Avignon, and men who could make Emperors were more than able to do as
+they pleased with a town of twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants, so
+long as the latter had no leader. One may judge of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> what Rome was, when
+even pilgrims did not dare to go thither and visit the tomb of Saint
+Peter. The discord of the great houses made Rienzi's life a career; the
+defection of the Orsini from the Pope's party led to his flight; their
+battles suggested to the exiled Pope the idea of sending him back to
+Rome to break their power and restore a republic by which the Pope might
+restore himself; and the rage of their retainers expended itself in his
+violent death. For it was their retainers who fought for their masters,
+till the younger Stephen Colonna killed Bertoldo Orsini, the bravest man
+of his day, in an ambush, and the Orsini basely murdered a boy of the
+Colonna on the steps of a church. But Rienzi was of another Region, of
+the Regola by the Tiber, and it is not yet time to tell his story. And
+by and by, as the power of the Popes rose and they became again as the
+C&aelig;sars had been, Colonna and Orsini forgot their feuds, and were glad to
+stand on the Pope's right and left as hereditary 'Assistants of the Holy
+See.' In the petty ending of all old greatnesses in modern times, the
+result of the greatest feud that ever made two races mortal foes is
+merely that no prudent host dare ask the heads of the two houses to
+dinner together, lest a question of precedence should arise, such as no
+master of ceremonies would presume to settle. That is what it has come
+to. Once upon a time an Orsini quarrelled with a Colonna in the Corso,
+just where Aragno's caf&eacute; is now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> situated, and ran him through with his
+rapier, wounding him almost to death. He was carried into the palace of
+the Theodoli, close by, and the records of that family tell that within
+the hour eight hundred of the Colonna's retainers were in the house to
+guard him. In as short space, the Orsini called out three thousand men
+in arms, when C&aelig;sar Borgia's henchman claimed the payment of a tax.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image195.jpg" width="450" height="279" alt="INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS<br />
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Times have changed since then. The Mausoleum of Augustus, once a
+fortress, has been an open air theatre in our time, and there the great
+Salvini and Ristori often acted in their early youth; it is a circus
+now. And in less violent contrast, but with change as great from what it
+was, the palace of the Colonna suggests no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> thought of defence nowadays,
+and the wide gates and courtyard recall rather the splendours of the
+Constable and of his wife, Maria Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin,
+than the fiercer days when Castracane was Sciarra's guest on the other
+side of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The Basilica of the Apostles is said to have been built by Pelagius the
+First, who was made Pope in the year 555, and who dedicated it to Saint
+Philip and Saint James. Recent advances in the study of arch&aelig;ology make
+it seem more than probable that he adapted for the purpose a part of the
+ancient barracks of the Vigiles, of which the central portion appears
+almost to coincide with the present church, at a somewhat different
+angle; and in the same way it is likely that the remains of the north
+wing were rebuilt at a later period by the Colonna as a fortified
+palace. In those times men would not have neglected to utilize the
+massive substructures and walls. However that may be, the Colonna dwelt
+there at a very early date, and in eight hundred years or more have only
+removed their headquarters from one side of the church to the other. The
+latter has been changed and rebuilt, and altered again, like most of the
+great Roman sanctuaries, till it bears no resemblance to the original
+building. The present church is distinctly ugly, with the worst defects
+of the early eighteenth century; and that age was as deficient in
+cultivated taste as it was abhorrent of natural beauty. Some fragments
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> original frescos that adorned the apse are now preserved in a
+hall behind the main Sacristy of Saint Peter's. Against the flat walls,
+under the inquisition of the crudest daylight, the fragments of Melozzo
+da Forli's masterpiece are masterpieces still; the angelic faces,
+imprisoned in a place not theirs, reflect the sadness of art's
+captivity; and the irretrievable destruction of an inimitable past
+excites the pity and resentment of thoughtful men. The attempt to outdo
+the works of the great has exhibited the contemptible imbecility of the
+little, and the coarse-grained vanity of Clement the Eleventh has
+parodied the poetry of art in the bombastic prose of a vulgar tongue.
+Pope Pelagius took for his church the pillars and marbles of Trajan's
+Forum, in the belief that his acts were acceptable to God; but Clement
+had no such excuse, and the edifice which was a monument of faith has
+given place to the temple of a monumental vanity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image197.jpg" width="450" height="328" alt="FORUM OF TRAJAN" title="" />
+<span class="caption">FORUM OF TRAJAN</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that the Colonna rarely laid their dead in the Church
+of the Apostles, for it was virtually theirs by right of immediate
+neighbourhood, and during their domination they could easily have
+assumed actual possession of it as a private property. A very curious
+custom, which survived in the sixteenth century, and perhaps much later,
+bears witness to the close connection between their family and the
+church. At that time a gallery existed, accessible from the palace and
+looking down into the basilica, so that the family could assist at Mass
+without leaving their dwelling.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of the first of May, which is the traditional feast of
+this church, the poor of the neighbourhood assembled within. The windows
+of the palace gallery were then thrown open and a great number of fat
+fowls were thrown alive to the crowd, turkeys, geese and the like, to
+flutter down to the pavement and be caught by the luckiest of the people
+in a tumultuous scramble. When this was over, a young pig was swung out
+and lowered in slings by a purchase of which the block was seized to a
+roof beam. When just out of reach the rope was made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> fast, and the most
+active of the men jumped for the animal from below, till one was
+fortunate enough to catch it with his hands, when the rope was let go,
+and he carried off the prize. The custom was evidently similar to that
+of climbing the May-pole, which was set up on the same day in the Campo
+Vaccino. May-day was one of the oldest festivals of the Romans, for it
+was sacred to the tutelary Lares, or spirits of ancestors, and was kept
+holy, both publicly by the whole city as the habitation of the Roman
+people, and by each family in its private dwelling. It is of Aryan
+origin and is remembered in one way or another by all Aryan races in our
+own time, and it is not surprising that in the general conversion of
+Paganism to Christianity a new feast should have been intentionally made
+to coincide with an old one; but it is hard to understand the lack of
+all reverence for sacred places which could admit such a scene as the
+scrambling for live fowls and pigs in honour of the twelve Apostles, a
+pious exercise which is perhaps paralleled, though assuredly not
+equalled, in crudeness, by the old Highland custom of smoking tobacco in
+kirk throughout the sermon.</p>
+
+<p>At the very time when we have historical record of a Pope's presence as
+an amused spectator of the proceedings, Michelangelo had lately painted
+the ceiling of the Sixtine chapel, and had not yet begun his Last
+Judgment; and 'Diva' Vittoria Colonna, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> yet the friend of his later
+years, was perhaps even then composing those strangely passionate
+spiritual sonnets which appeal to the soul through the heart, by the
+womanly pride that strove to make the heart subject to the soul.</p>
+
+<p>The commonplace romance which has represented Vittoria Colonna and
+Michelangelo as in love with each other is as unworthy of both as it is
+wholly without foundation. They first met nine years before her death,
+when she was almost fifty and he was already sixty-four. She had then
+been widowed twelve years, and it was long since she had refused in
+Naples the princely suitors who made overtures for her hand. The true
+romance of her life was simpler, nobler and more enduring, for it began
+when she was a child, and it ended when she breathed her last in the
+house of Giuliano Cesarini, the kinsman of her people, whose descendant
+married her namesake in our own time.</p>
+
+<p>At the age of four, Vittoria was formally betrothed to Francesco
+d'Avalos, heir of Pescara, one of that fated race whose family history
+has furnished matter for more than one stirring tale. Vittoria was born
+in Marino, the Roman town and duchy which still gives its title to
+Prince Colonna's eldest son, and she was brought up in Rome and Naples,
+of which latter city her father was Grand Constable. Long before she was
+married, she saw her future husband and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> loved him at first sight, as
+she loved him to her dying day, so that although even greater offers
+were made for her, she steadfastly refused to marry any other man. They
+were united when she was seventeen years old, he loved her devotedly,
+and they spent many months together almost without other society in the
+island of Ischia. The Emperor Charles the Fifth was fighting his
+lifelong fight with Francis the First of France. Colonna and Pescara
+were for the Empire, and Francesco d'Avalos joined the imperial army; he
+was taken prisoner at Ravenna and carried captive to France; released,
+he again fought for Charles, who offered him the crown of the kingdom of
+Naples; but he refused it, and still he fought on, to fall at last at
+Pavia, in the strength of his mature manhood, and to die of his wounds
+in Milan when Vittoria was barely five and thirty years of age, still
+young, surpassingly beautiful, and gifted as few women have ever been.
+What their love was, their long correspondence tells,&mdash;a love passionate
+as youth and enduring as age, mutual, whole and faithful. For many years
+the heartbroken woman lived in Naples, where she had been most happy,
+feeding her soul with fire and tears. At last she returned to Rome, to
+her own people, in her forty-ninth year. There she was visited by the
+old Emperor for whom her husband had given his life, and there she met
+Michelangelo.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural enough that they should be friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> It is monstrous to
+suppose them lovers. The melancholy of their natures drew them together,
+and the sympathy of their tastes cemented the bond. To the woman-hating
+man of genius, this woman was a revelation and a wonder; to the great
+princess in her perpetual sorrow the greatest of creative minds was a
+solace and a constant intellectual delight. Their friendship was mutual,
+fitting and beautiful, which last is more than can be said for the
+absurd stories about their intercourse which are extant in print and
+have been made the subject of imaginary pictures by more than one
+painter. The tradition that they used to meet often in the little Church
+of Saint Sylvester, behind the Colonna gardens, rests upon the fact that
+they once held a consultation there in the presence of Francesco
+d'Olanda, a Portuguese artist, when Vittoria was planning the Convent of
+Saint Catherine, which she afterwards built not very far away. The truth
+is that she did not live in the palace of her kinsfolk after her return
+to Rome, but most probably in the convent attached to the other and
+greater Church of Saint Sylvester which stands in the square of that
+name not far from the Corso. The convent itself is said to have been
+originally built for the ladies of the Colonna who took the veil, and
+was only recently destroyed to make room for the modern Post-office, the
+church itself having passed into the hands of the English. The
+coincidence of the two churches being dedicated to the same saint
+doubtless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> helped the growth of the unjust fable. But in an age of great
+women, in the times of Lucrezia Borgia, great and bad, of Catherine
+Sforza, great and warlike, Vittoria Colonna was great and good; and the
+ascetic Michelangelo, discovering in her the realization of an ideal,
+laid at her feet the homage of a sexagenarian's friendship.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of the arch&aelig;ologists the opposing forces traverse and
+break ground, and rush upon each other again, 'hurtling together like
+wild boars,'&mdash;as Mallory describes the duels of his knights,&mdash;and when
+learned doctors disagree it is not the province of a searcher after
+romance to attempt a definition of exact truths. 'Some romances
+entertain the genius,' quotes Johnson, 'and strengthen it by the noble
+ideas which they give of things; but they corrupt the truth of history.'</p>
+
+<p>Professor Lanciani, who is probably the greatest authority, living or
+dead, on Roman antiquities, places the site of the temple of the Sun in
+the Colonna gardens, and another writer compares the latter to the
+hanging gardens of Babylon, supported entirely on ancient arches and
+substructures rising high above the natural soil below. But before
+Aurelian erected the splendid building to record his conquest of
+Palmyra, the same spot was the site of the 'Little Senate,' instituted
+by Elagabalus in mirthful humour, between an attack of sacrilegious
+folly and a fit of cruelty.</p>
+
+<p>The 'Little Senate' was a woman's senate; in other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> words, it was a
+regular assembly of the fashionable Roman matrons of the day, who met
+there in hours of idleness under the presidency of the Emperor's mother,
+Semiamira. &AElig;lius Lampridius, quoted by Baracconi, has a passage about
+it. 'From this Senate,' he says, 'issued the absurd laws for the
+matrons, entitled Semiamiran Senatorial Decrees, which determined for
+each matron how she might dress, to whom she must yield precedence, by
+whom she might be kissed, deciding which ladies might drive in chariots,
+and which in carts, and whether the latter should be drawn by
+caparisoned horses, or by asses, or by mules, or oxen; who should be
+allowed to be carried in a litter or a chair, which might be of leather
+or of bone with fittings of ivory or of silver, as the case might be;
+and it was even determined which ladies might wear shoes adorned only
+with gold, and which might have gems set in their boots.' Considering
+how little human nature has changed in eighteen hundred years it is easy
+enough to imagine what the debates in the 'Little Senate' must have been
+with Semiamira in the chair ruling everything 'out of order' which did
+not please her capricious fancy: the shrill discussions about a
+fashionable head-dress, the whispered intrigues for a jewel-studded
+slipper, the stormy divisions on the question of gold hairpins, and the
+atmosphere of beauty, perfumes, gossip, vanity and all feminine
+dissension. But the 'Little Senate' was short-lived.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Some fifty years after Elagabalus, Aurelian triumphed over Zenobia of
+Palmyra, and built his temple of the Sun. That triumph was the finest
+sight, perhaps, ever seen in imperial Rome. Twenty richly caparisoned
+elephants and two hundred captive wild beasts led the immense
+procession; eight hundred pairs of gladiators came next, the glory and
+strength of fighting manhood, with all their gleaming arms and
+accoutrements, marching by the huge Flavian Amphitheatre, where sooner
+or later they must fight each other to the death; then countless
+captives of the East and South and West and North, Syrian nobles, Gothic
+warriors, Persian dignitaries beside Frankish chieftains, and Tetricus,
+the great Gallic usurper, in the attire of his nation, with his young
+son whom he had dared to make a Senator in defiance of the Empire. Three
+royal equipages followed, rich with silver, gold and precious stones,
+one of them Zenobia's own, and she herself seated therein, young,
+beautiful, proud and vanquished, loaded from head to foot with gems,
+most bitterly against her will, her hands and feet bound with a golden
+chain, and about her neck another, long and heavy, of which the end was
+held by a Persian captive who walked beside the chariot and seemed to
+lead her. Then Aurelian, the untiring conqueror, in the car of the
+Gothic king, drawn by four great stags, which he himself was to
+sacrifice to Jove that day according to his vow, and a long line of
+wagons loaded down and groaning under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> the weight of the vast spoil; the
+Roman army, horse and foot, the Senate and the people, a million,
+perhaps, all following the indescribable magnificence of the great
+triumph, along the Sacred Way, that was yellow with fresh strewn sand
+and sweet with box and myrtle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image206.jpg" width="450" height="299" alt="RUINS OF HADRIAN&#39;S VILLA AT TIVOLI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF HADRIAN&#39;S VILLA AT TIVOLI</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But when it was over, Aurelian, who was generous when he was not
+violent, honoured Zenobia and endowed her with great fortune, and she
+lived for many years as a Roman Matron in Hadrian's villa at Tivoli. And
+the Emperor made light of the 'Little Senate' and built his Sun temple
+on the spot, with singular magnificence, enriching its decoration with
+pearls and precious stones and with fifteen thousand pounds in weight of
+pure gold. Much of that temple was still standing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> the seventeenth
+century and was destroyed by Urban the Eighth, the Pope who built the
+heavy round tower on the south side of the Quirinal palace, facing Monte
+Cavallo.</p>
+
+<p>Monte Cavallo itself was a part of the Colonna villa, and its name, only
+recently changed to Piazza del Quirinale, was given to it by the great
+horses that stand on each side of the fountain, and which were found
+long ago, according to tradition, between the Palazzo Rospigliosi and
+the Palazzo della Consulta. In the times of Sixtus the Fifth, they were
+in a pitiable state, their forelegs and tails gone, their necks broken,
+their heads propped up by bits of masonry. When he finished the Quirinal
+palace he restored them and set them up, side by side, before the
+entrance, and when Pius the Sixth changed their position and turned them
+round, the ever conservative and ever discontented Roman people were
+disgusted by the change. On the pedestal of one of them are the words,
+'Opus Phidiae,' 'the work of Phidias,' A punning placard was at once
+stuck upon the inscription with the legend, 'Opus Perfidiae Pii
+Sexti'&mdash;'the work of perfidy of Pius the Sixth.'</p>
+
+<p>The Quirinal palace cannot be said to have played a part in the history
+of Rome. Its existence is largely due to the common sense of Sixtus the
+Fifth, and to his love of good air. He was a shepherd by birth, and it
+is recorded that the first of his bitter disappointments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> was that the
+farmer whom he served set him to feed the pigs because he could not
+learn how to drive sheep to pasture; a disgrace which ultimately made
+him run away, when he fell in with a monk whose face he liked. He
+informed the astonished father that he meant to follow him everywhere,
+'to Hell, if he chose,'&mdash;which was a forcible if not a pious
+resolution,&mdash;and explained that the pigs would find their way home
+alone. Later, when he had quarrelled with all the monks in Naples,
+including his superiors, he came to Rome, and, being by that time very
+learned, he was employed to expound the 'Formalities' of Scotus to the
+'Signor' Marcantonio Colonna, abbot of the Monastery of the Apostles;
+and there he resided as a guest for a long time till his brilliant pupil
+was himself master of the subject, as well as a firm friend of the
+quarrelsome monk; and in their intercourse the seeds were no doubt sown
+of that implacable hatred against the Orsini which, under the great and
+just provocation of a kinsman's murder, ended in the exile and temporary
+ruin of the Colonna's rivals. No doubt, also, the abbot and the monk
+often strolled together in the Colonna gardens, and the future Pope
+breathed the high air of the Quirinal hill with a sense of relief, and
+dreamed of living up there, far above the city, literally in an
+atmosphere of his own. Therefore, when he was Pope, he made the great
+palace that crowns the eminence, completing and extending a much smaller
+building planned by the wise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> Gregory the Thirteenth, and ever since
+then, until 1870, the Popes lived there during some part of the year. It
+is modern, as age is reckoned in Rome, and it has modern associations in
+the memory of living men.</p>
+
+<p>It was from the great balcony of the Quirinal that Pius the Ninth
+pronounced his famous benediction to an enthusiastic and patriotic
+multitude in 1846. It will be remembered that a month after his
+election, Pius proclaimed a general amnesty in favour of all persons
+imprisoned for political crimes, and a decree by which all criminal
+prosecutions for political offences should be immediately discontinued,
+unless the persons accused were ecclesiastics, soldiers, or servants of
+the government, or criminals in the universal sense of the word.</p>
+
+<p>The announcement was received with a frenzy of enthusiasm, and Rome went
+mad with delight. Instinctively, the people began to move towards the
+Quirinal from all parts of the city, as soon as the proclamation was
+published; the stragglers became a band, and swelled to a crowd; music
+was heard, flags appeared and the crowd swelled to a multitude that
+thronged the streets, singing, cheering and shouting for joy as they
+pushed their way up to the palace, filling the square, the streets that
+led to it and the Via della Dateria below it, to overflowing. In answer
+to this popular demonstration the Pope appeared upon the great balcony
+above the main entrance; a shout louder than all the rest burst from
+below, the long drawn 'Viva!' of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> the southern races; he lifted his
+hand, and there was silence; and in the calm summer air his quiet eyes
+were raised towards the sky as he imparted his benediction to the people
+of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-four years later, when the Italians had taken Rome, a detachment
+of soldiers accompanied by a smith and his assistants marched up to the
+same gate. Not a soul was within, and they had instructions to enter and
+take possession of the palace. In the presence of a small and silent
+crowd of sullen-looking men of the people, the doors were forced.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between Unity under Augustus and Unity under Victor
+Emmanuel is that under the Empire the Romans took Italy, whereas under
+the Kingdom the Italians have taken Rome. Without pretending that there
+can be any moral distinction between the two, one may safely admit that
+there is a great and vital one between the two conditions of Rome, at
+the two periods of history, a distinction no less than that which
+separates the conqueror from the conquered, and the fruits of conquest
+from the consequences of subjection. But thinking men do not forget that
+they look at the past in one way and at the present in another; and that
+while the actions of a nation are dictated by the impulses of contagious
+sentiment, the judgments of history are too often based upon an all but
+commercial reckoning and balancing of profit and loss.</p>
+
+<p>When Sixtus the Fifth was building the Quirinal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> palace, he was not
+working in a wilderness resembling the deserted fields of the outlying
+Monti. The hill was covered with gardens and villas. Ippolito d'Este,
+the son of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, and of Lucrezia Borgia, had built
+himself a residence on the west side of the hill, surrounded by gardens.
+It was in the manner of his magnificent palace at Tivoli, that Villa
+d'Este of which the melancholy charm had such a mysterious attraction
+for Liszt, where the dark cypresses reflect their solemn beauty in the
+stagnant water, and a weed-grown terrace mourns the dead artist in the
+silence of decay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image211.jpg" width="450" height="348" alt="PALAZZO DEL QUIRINALE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALAZZO DEL QUIRINALE</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Further on, along the Via Venti Settembre, stretched the pleasure
+grounds of Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, who is remembered as the man who
+first recognized the merits of the beautiful mutilated group
+subsequently known as 'Pasquino,' and set it upon the pedestal which
+made it famous, and gave its name a place in all languages, by the witty
+lampoons and stinging satires almost daily affixed to the block of
+stone. Many other villas followed in the same direction, and in those
+insecure days not a few Romans, when the summer days grew hot, were
+content to move up from their palaces in the lower parts of the city to
+breathe the somewhat better air of the Quirinal and the Esquiline,
+instead of risking a journey to the country.</p>
+
+<p>Sixtus the Fifth died in the Quirinal palace, and twenty-one other Popes
+have died there since, all following the curious custom of bequeathing
+their hearts and viscera to the parish Church of the Saints Vincent and
+Anastasius, which is known as the Church of Cardinal Mazarin, because
+the tasteless front was built by him, though the rest existed much
+earlier. It stands opposite the fountain of Trevi, at one corner of the
+little square; the vault in which the urns were placed is just behind
+and below the high altar; but Benedict the Fourteenth built a special
+monument for them on the left of the apse, and a tablet on the right
+records the names of the Popes who left these strange legacies to the
+church.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In passing, one may remember that Mazarin himself was born in the Region
+of Trevi, the son of a Sicilian,&mdash;like Crispi and Rudin&igrave;. His father was
+employed at first as a butler and then as a steward by the Colonna,
+married an illegitimate daughter of the family, and lived to see his
+granddaughter, Maria Mancini, married to the head of the house, and his
+son a cardinal and despot of France, and himself, after the death of his
+first wife, the honoured husband of Porzia Orsini, so that he was the
+only man in history who was married both to an Orsini and to a Colonna.
+In the light of his father's extraordinary good fortune, the success of
+the son, though not less great, is at least less astonishing. The
+magnificent Rospigliosi palace, often ascribed by a mistake to Cardinal
+Scipio Borghese, was the Palazzo Mazarini and Mazarin's father died
+there; it was inherited by the Dukes of Nevers, through another niece of
+the Cardinal's, and was bought from them between 1667 and 1670, by
+Prince Rospigliosi, brother of Pope Clement the Ninth, then reigning.</p>
+
+<p>Urban the Eighth, the Barberini Pope, had already left his mark on the
+Quirinal hill. The great Barberini palace was built by him, it is said,
+of stones taken from the Colosseum, whereupon a Pasquinade announced
+that 'the Barberini had done what the Barbarians had not.' The
+Barbarians did not pull down the Colosseum, it is true, but they could
+assuredly not have built as Urban did, and in that particular instance,
+without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> wishing to justify the vandalisms of the centuries succeeding
+the Renascence, it may well be asked whether the Amphitheatre is not
+more picturesque in its half-ruined state, as it stands, and whether the
+city is not richer by a great work of art in the princely dwelling which
+faces the street of the Four Fountains.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many memories of the Quirinal there is one more mysterious
+than the rest. The great Baths of Constantine extended over the site of
+the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and the ruins were in part standing at the end
+of the sixteenth century. It is related by a writer of those days and an
+eye-witness of the fact, that a vault was discovered beneath the old
+baths, about eighty feet long by twenty wide, closed at one end by a
+wall thrown up with evident haste and lack of skill, and completely
+filled with human bodies that fell to dust at the first touch, evidently
+laid there all at the same time, just after death, and probably
+numbering at least a thousand. In vain one conjectures the reason of
+such wholesale burial&mdash;one of Nero's massacres, perhaps, or a plague. No
+one can tell.</p>
+
+<p>The invaluable Baracconi, often quoted, recalls the fact that Tasso,
+when a child, lived with his father in some house on the Monte Cavallo,
+when the execrable Carafa cardinal and his brother had temporarily
+succeeded in seizing all the Colonna property; and he gives a letter of
+Bernardo, the poet's father, written in July to his wife, who was away
+just then.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image214a.jpg" width="650" height="400" alt="PIAZZA BARBERINI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA BARBERINI</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>'I do not wish the children to go to the vineyard because they get too
+hot, and the air is bad there this summer, but in order that they may
+have a change, I took steps to have the use of the Boccaccio Vineyard
+[Villa Colonna], and the Duke of Paliano [then a Carafa, for the latter
+had stolen the title as well as the lands] has let me have it, and we
+have been here a week and shall stay all summer in this good air.'</p>
+
+<p>The words call up a picture of Tasso, a small boy, pale with the heat of
+a Roman summer, but restless and for ever running about, overheated and
+catching cold like all delicate children, which brings the unhappy poet
+a little nearer to us.</p>
+
+<p>Of those great villas and gardens there remain the Colonna, the
+Rospigliosi and the Quirinal, by far the largest of the three, and
+enclosing between four walls an area almost, if not quite, equal to the
+Pincio. The great palace where twenty-two popes died is inhabited by the
+royal family of Italy and crowns the height, as the Vatican, far away
+across the Tiber, is also on an eminence of its own. They face each
+other, like two principles in natural and eternal opposition,&mdash;Rome the
+conqueror of the world, and Italy the conqueror of Rome. And he who
+loves the land for its own sake can only pray that if they must oppose
+each other for ever in heart, they may abide in that state of civilized
+though unreconciled peace, which is the nation's last and only hope of
+prosperity.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image216.jpg" width="450" height="251" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION III COLONNA</h2>
+
+
+<p>When the present Queen of Italy first came to Rome as Princess Margaret,
+and drove through the city to obtain a general impression of it, she
+reached the Piazza Colonna and asked what the column might be which is
+the most conspicuous landmark in that part of Rome and gives a name to
+the square, and to the whole Region. The answer of the elderly officer
+who accompanied the Princess and her ladies is historical. 'That
+column,' he answered, 'is the Column of Piazza Colonna'&mdash;'the Column of
+Column Square,' as we might say&mdash;and that was all he could tell
+concerning it, for his business was not arch&aelig;ology, but soldiering. The
+column was erected by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, whose equestrian
+statue stands on the Capitol, to commemorate his victory over the
+Marcomanni.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image217.jpg" width="450" height="319" alt="ARCH OF TITUS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ARCH OF TITUS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that so many of the monuments still preserved
+comparatively intact should have been set up by the adoptive line of the
+so-called Antonines, from Trajan to Marcus Aurelius, and that the two
+monster columns, the one in Piazza Colonna and the one in Trajan's
+Forum, should be the work of the last and the first of those emperors,
+respectively. Among other memorials of them are the Colosseum, the Arch
+of Titus and the statue mentioned above. The lofty Septizonium is
+levelled to the ground, the Palaces of the C&aelig;sars are a mountain of
+ruins, the triumphal arches of Marcus Aurelius and of Domitian have
+disappeared with those of Gratian, of Valens, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> Arcadius and of many
+others; but the two gigantic columns still stand erect with their
+sculptured tales of victory and triumph almost unbroken, surmounted by
+the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, whose memory was sacred to
+all Christians long before the monuments were erected, and to whom,
+respectively, they have been dedicated by a later age.</p>
+
+<p>There may have been a connection, too, in the minds of the people,
+between the 'Column of Piazza Colonna' and the Column of the Colonna
+family, since a great part of this Region had fallen under the
+domination of the noble house, and was held by them with a chain of
+towers and fortifications; but the pillar which is the device of the
+Region terminates in the statue of the Apostle Peter, whereas the one
+which figures in the shield of Colonna is crowned with a royal crown, in
+memory of the coronation of Lewis the Bavarian by Sciarra, who himself
+generally lived in a palace facing the small square which bears his
+name, and which is only a widening of the Corso just north of San
+Marcello, the scene of Jacopo Colonna's brave protest against his
+kinsman's mistaken imperialism.</p>
+
+<p>The straight Corso itself, or what is the most important part of it to
+Romans, runs through the Region from San Lorenzo in Lucina to Piazza di
+Sciarra, and beyond that, southwards, it forms the western boundary of
+Trevi as far as the Palazzo di Venezia, and the Ripresa de' Barberi&mdash;the
+'Catching of the Racers.' West of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> Corso, the Region takes in the
+Monte Citorio and the Piazza of the Pantheon, but not the Pantheon
+itself, and eastwards it embraces the new quarter which was formerly the
+Villa Ludovisi, and follows the Aurelian wall, from Porta Salaria to
+Porta Pinciana. Corso means a 'course,' and the Venetian Paul the
+Second, who found Rome dull compared with Venice, gave it the name when
+he made it a race-course for the Carnival, towards the close of the
+fifteenth century. Before that it was Via Lata,&mdash;'Broad Street,'&mdash;and
+was a straight continuation of the Via Flaminia, the main northern
+highway from the city. For centuries it has been the chief playground of
+the Roman Carnival, a festival of which, perhaps, nothing but the memory
+will remain in a few years, when the world will wonder how it could be
+possible that the population of the grave old city should have gone mad
+each year for ten days and behaved itself by day and night like a crowd
+of schoolboys let loose.</p>
+
+<p>'Carnival' is supposed to be derived from 'Carnelevamen,' a 'solace for
+the flesh.' Byron alone is responsible for the barbarous derivation
+'Carne Vale,' farewell meat&mdash;a philological impossibility. In the minds
+of the people it is probably most often translated as 'Meat Time,' a
+name which had full meaning in times when occasional strict fasting and
+frequent abstinence were imposed on Romans almost by law. Its beginnings
+are lost in the dawnless night of time&mdash;of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> Time, who was Kronos, of
+Kronos who was Saturn, of Saturn who gave his mysterious name to the
+Saturnalia in which Carnival had its origin. His temple stood at the
+foot of the Capitol hill, facing the corner of the Forum, and there are
+remains of it today, tall columns in a row, with architrave and frieze
+and cornice; from the golden milestone close at hand, as from the
+beginning of time, were measured the ways of the world to the ends of
+the earth; and the rites performed within it were older than any others,
+and different, for here the pious Roman worshipped with uncovered head,
+whereas in all other temples he drew up his robes as a veil lest any
+sight of evil omen should meet his eyes, and here waxen tapers were
+first burned in Rome in honour of a god. And those same tapers played a
+part, to the end, on the last night of Carnival. But in the coincidence
+of old feasts with new ones, the festival of Lupercus falls nearer to
+the time of Ash Wednesday, for the Lupercalia were celebrated on the
+fifteenth of February, whereas the Carnival of Saturn began on the
+seventeenth of December.</p>
+
+<p>Lupercus was but a little god, yet he was great among the shepherds in
+Rome's pastoral beginnings, for he was the driver away of wolves, and on
+his day the early settlers ran round and round their sheepfold on the
+Palatine, all dressed in skins of fresh-slain goats, praising the Faun
+god, and calling upon him to protect their flocks. And in truth, as the
+winter, when wolves are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> hungry and daring, was over, his protection was
+a foregone conclusion till the cold days came again. The grotto
+dedicated to him was on the northwest slope of the Palatine, nearly
+opposite the Church of Saint George in Velabro, across the Via di San
+Teodoro; and all that remains of the great festival in which Mark Antony
+and the rest ran like wild men through the streets of Rome, smiting men
+and women with the purifying leathern thong, and offering at last that
+crown which C&aelig;sar thrice refused, is merged and forgotten, with the
+Saturnalia, in the ten days' feasting and rioting that change to the
+ashes and sadness of Lent, as the darkest night follows the brightest
+day. For the Romans always loved strong contrasts.</p>
+
+<p>Carnival, in the wider sense, begins at Christmas and ends when Lent
+begins; but to most people it means but the last ten days of the season,
+when festivities crowd upon each other till pleasure fights for minutes
+as for jewels; when tables are spread all night and lights are put out
+at dawn; when society dances itself into distraction and poor men make
+such feasting as they can; when no one works who can help it, and no
+work done is worth having, because it is done for double price and half
+its value; when affairs of love are hastened to solution or catastrophe,
+and affairs of state are treated with the scorn they merit in the eyes
+of youth, because the only sense is laughter, and the only wisdom,
+folly. That is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> Carnival, personified by the people as a riotous old
+red-cheeked, bottle-nosed hunchback, animated by the spirit of fun.</p>
+
+<p>In a still closer sense, Carnival is the Carnival in the Corso, or was;
+for it is dead beyond resuscitation, and such efforts as are made to
+give it life again are but foolish incantations that call up sad ghosts
+of joy, spiritless and witless. But within living memory, it was very
+different. In those days which can never come back, the Corso was a
+sight to see and not to be forgotten. The small citizens who had small
+houses in the street let every window to the topmost story for the whole
+ten days; the rich whose palaces faced the favoured line threw open
+their doors to their friends; every window was decorated, from every
+balcony gorgeous hangings, or rich carpets, or even richer tapestries
+hung down; the street was strewn thick with yellow sand, and wheresoever
+there was an open space wooden seats were built up, row above row, where
+one might hire a place to see the show and join in throwing flowers, and
+the lime-covered 'confetti' that stung like small shot and whitened
+everything like meal, and forced everyone in the street or within reach
+of it to wear a shield of thin wire netting to guard the face, and thick
+gloves to shield the hands; or, in older times, a mask, black, white, or
+red, or modelled and painted with extravagant features, like evil beings
+in a dream.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image223.jpg" width="450" height="272" alt="TWIN CHURCHES AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE CORSO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TWIN CHURCHES AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE CORSO<br />
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early afternoon of each day except Sunday it all began, day after
+day the same, save that the fun grew wilder and often rougher as the
+doom of Ash Wednesday drew near. First when the people had gathered in
+their places, high and low, and already thronged the street from side to
+side, there was a distant rattle of scabbards and a thunder of hoofs,
+and all fell back, crowding and climbing upon one another, to let a
+score of cavalrymen trot through, clearing the way for the carriages of
+the 'Senator' and Municipality, which drove from end to end of the Corso
+with their scarlet and yellow liveries, before any other vehicles were
+allowed to pass, or any pelting with 'confetti' began. But on the
+instant when they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> had gone by, the showers began, right, left, upwards,
+downwards, like little storms of flowers and snow in the afternoon
+sunshine, and the whole air was filled with the laughter and laughing
+chatter of twenty thousand men and women and children&mdash;such a sound as
+could be heard nowhere else in the world. Many have heard a great host
+cheer, many have heard the battle-cries of armies, many have heard the
+terrible deep yell that goes up from an angry multitude in times of
+revolution; but only those who remember the Carnival as it used to be
+have heard a whole city laugh, and the memory is worth having, for it is
+like no other. The sound used to flow along in great waves, following
+the sights that passed, and swelling with them to a peal that was like a
+cheer, and ebbing then to a steady, even ripple of enjoyment that never
+ceased till it rose again in sheer joy of something new to see. Nothing
+can give an idea of the picture in times when Rome was still Roman; no
+power of description can call up the crowd that thronged and jammed the
+long, narrow street, till the slowly moving carriages and cars seemed to
+force their way through the stiffly packed mass of humanity as a strong
+vessel ploughs her course up-stream through packed ice in winter. Yet no
+one was hurt, and an order reigned which could never have been produced
+by any means except the most thorough good temper and the determination
+of each individual to do no harm to his neighbour, though all respect of
+individuals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> was as completely gone as in any anarchy of revolution. The
+more respectable a man looked who ventured into the press in ordinary
+clothes, the more certainly he became at once the general mark for
+hail-storms of 'confetti.' No uniform nor distinguishing badge was
+respected, excepting those of the squad of cavalrymen who cleared the
+way, and the liveries of the Municipality's coaches. Men and women were
+travestied and disguised in every conceivable way, as Punch and Judy, as
+judges and lawyers with enormous square black caps, black robes and
+bands, or in dresses of the eighteenth century, or as Harlequins, or
+even as bears and monkeys, singly, or in twos and threes, or in little
+companies of fifteen or twenty, all dressed precisely alike and
+performing comic evolutions with military exactness. Everyone carried a
+capacious pouch, or a fishing-basket, or some receptacle of the kind for
+the white 'confetti,' and arms and hands were ceaselessly swung in air,
+flinging vast quantities of the snowy stuff at long range and short. At
+every corner and in every side street, men sold it out of huge baskets,
+by the five, and ten, and twenty pounds, weighing it out with the
+ancient steelyard balance. Every balcony was lined with long troughs of
+it, constantly replenished by the house servants; every carriage and car
+had a full supply. And through all the air the odd, clean odour of the
+fresh plaster mingled with the fragrance of the box-leaves and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+perfume of countless flowers. For flowers were thrown, too, in every
+way, loose and scattered, or in hard little bunches, the 'mazzetti,'
+that almost hurt when they struck the mark, and in beautiful nosegays,
+rarely flung at random when a pretty face was within sight at a window.
+The cars, often charmingly decorated, were filled with men and women
+representing some period of fashion, or some incident in history, or
+some allegorical subject, and were sometimes two or three stories high,
+and covered all over with garlands of flowers and box and myrtle. In the
+intervals between them endless open carriages moved along, lined with
+white, filled with white dominos, drawn by horses all protected and
+covered with white cotton robes, against the whiter 'confetti'&mdash;everyone
+fighting mock battles with everyone else, till it seemed impossible that
+anything could be left to throw, and the long perspective of the narrow
+street grew dim between the high palaces, and misty and purple in the
+evening light.</p>
+
+<p>A gun fired somewhere far away as a signal warned the carriages to turn
+out, and make way for the race that was to follow. The last moments were
+the hottest and the wildest, as flowers, 'confetti,' sugar plums with
+comet-like tails, wreaths, garlands, everything, went flying through the
+air in a final and reckless profusion, and as the last car rolled away
+the laughter and shouting ceased, and all was hushed in the expectation
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> the day's last sight. Again, the clatter of hoofs and scabbards, as
+the dragoons cleared the way; twenty thousand heads and necks craning to
+look northward, as the people pushed back to the side pavements;
+silence, and the inevitable yellow dog that haunts all race-courses,
+scampering over the white street, scared by the shouts, and catcalls,
+and bursts of spasmodic laughter; then a far sound of flying hoofs, a
+dead silence, and the quick breathing of suppressed excitement; louder
+and louder the hoofs, deader the hush; and then, in the dash of a
+second, in the scud of a storm, in a whirlwind of light and colour and
+sparkling gold leaf, with straining necks, and flashing eyes, and wide
+red nostrils flecked with foam, the racing colts flew by as fleet as
+darting lightning, riderless and swift as rock-swallows by the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Then, if it were the last night of Carnival, as the purple air grew
+brown in the dusk, myriads of those wax tapers first used in Saturn's
+temple of old lit up the street like magic and the last game of all
+began, for every man and woman and child strove to put out another's
+candle, and the long, laughing cry, 'No taper! No taper! Senza moccolo!'
+went ringing up to the darkling sky. Long canes with cloths or damp
+sponges or extinguishers fixed to them started up from nowhere, down
+from everywhere, from window and balcony to the street below, and from
+the street to the low balconies above. Put out at every instant,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> the
+little candles were instantly relighted, till they were consumed down to
+the hand; and as they burned low, another cry went up, 'Carnival is
+dead! Carnival is dead!' But he was not really dead till midnight, when
+the last play of the season had been acted in the playhouses, the last
+dance danced, the last feast eaten amid song and laughter, and the
+solemn Patarina of the Capitol tolled out the midnight warning like a
+funeral knell. That was the end.</p>
+
+<p>The riderless race was at least four hundred years old when it was given
+up. The horses were always called B&aacute;rberi, with the accent on the first
+syllable, and there has been much discussion about the origin of the
+name. Some say that it meant horses from Barbary, but then it should be
+pronounced Barb&eacute;ri, accented on the penultimate. Others think it stood
+for B&aacute;rbari&mdash;barbarian, that is, unridden. The Romans never misplace an
+accent, and rarely mistake the proper quantity of a syllable long or
+short. For my own part, though no scholar has as yet suggested it, I
+believe that the common people, always fond of easy witticisms and
+catchwords, coined the appellation, with an eye to the meaning of both
+the other derivations, out of Barbo, the family name of Pope Paul the
+Second, who first instituted the Carnival races, and set the winning
+post under the balcony of the huge Palazzo di Venezia, which he had
+built beside the Church of Saint Mark, to the honour and glory of his
+native city.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He made men run foot-races, too: men, youths and boys, of all ages; and
+the poor Jews, in heavy cloth garments, were first fed and stuffed with
+cakes and then made to run, too. The jests of the Middle Age were savage
+compared with the roughest play of later times.</p>
+
+<p>The pictures of old Rome are fading fast. I can remember, when a little
+boy, seeing the great Carnival of 1859, when the Prince of Wales was in
+Rome, and the masks which had been forbidden since the revolution were
+allowed again in his honour; and before the flower throwing began, I saw
+Liszt, the pianist, not yet in orders, but dressed in a close-fitting
+and very fashionable grey frock-coat, with a grey high hat, young then,
+tall, athletic and erect; he came out suddenly from a doorway, looked to
+the right and left in evident fear of being made a mark for 'confetti,'
+crossed the street hurriedly and disappeared&mdash;not at all the
+silver-haired, priestly figure the world knew so well in later days. And
+by and by the Prince of Wales came by in a simple open carriage, a thin
+young man in a black coat, with a pale, face and a quiet smile, looking
+all about him with an almost boyish interest, and bowing to the right
+and left.</p>
+
+<p>Then in deep contrast of sadness, out of the past years comes a great
+funeral by night, down the Corso; hundreds of brown, white-bearded
+friars, two and two with huge wax candles, singing the ancient chant of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+the penitential psalms; hundreds of hooded lay brethren of the
+Confraternities, some in black, some in white, with round holes for
+their eyes that flashed through, now and then, in the yellow glare of
+the flaming tapers; hundreds of little street boys beside them in the
+shadow, holding up big horns of grocers' paper to catch the dripping
+wax; and then, among priests in cotta and stole, the open bier carried
+on men's shoulders, and on it the peaceful figure of a dead girl,
+white-robed, blossom crowned, delicate as a frozen flower in the cold
+winter air. She had died of an innocent love, they said, and she was
+borne in through the gates of the Santi Apostoli to her rest in the
+solemn darkness. Nor has anyone been buried in that way since then.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image230.jpg" width="450" height="340" alt="SAN LORENZO IN LUCINA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SAN LORENZO IN LUCINA</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the days of Paul the Second, what might be called living Rome, taken
+in the direction of the Corso, began at the Arch of Marcus Aurelius,
+long attributed to Domitian, which stood at the corner of the small
+square called after San Lorenzo in Lucina. Beyond that point, northwards
+and eastwards, the city was a mere desert, and on the west side the
+dwelling-houses fell away towards the Mausoleum of Augustus, the
+fortress of the Colonna. The arch itself used to be called the Arch of
+Portugal, because a Portuguese Cardinal, Giovanni da Costa, lived in the
+Fiano palace at the corner of the Corso. No one would suppose that very
+modern-looking building, with its smooth front and conventional
+balconies, to be six hundred years old, the ancient habitation of all
+the successive Cardinals of Saint Lawrence. Its only other interest,
+perhaps, lies in the fact that it formed part of the great estates
+bestowed by Sixtus the Fifth on his nephews, and was nevertheless sold
+over their children's heads for debt, fifty-five years after his death.
+The swineherd's race was prodigal, excepting the 'Great Friar' himself,
+and, like the Prodigal Son, it was not long before the Peretti were
+reduced to eating the husks.</p>
+
+<p>It was natural that the palaces of the Renascence should rise along the
+only straight street of any length in what was then the inhabited part
+of the city, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> that the great old Roman Barons, the Colonna, the
+Orsini, the Caetani, should continue to live in their strongholds, where
+they had always dwelt. The Caetani, indeed, once bought from a
+Florentine banker what is now the Ruspoli palace, and Sciarra Colonna
+had lived far down the Corso; but with these two exceptions, the
+princely habitations between the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza di
+Venezia are almost all the property of families once thought foreigners
+in Rome. The greatest, the most magnificent private dwelling in the
+world is the Doria Pamfili palace, as the Doria themselves were the most
+famous, and became the most powerful of those many nobles who, in the
+course of centuries, settled in the capital and became Romans, not only
+in name but in fact&mdash;Doria, Borghese, Rospigliosi, Pallavicini and
+others of less enduring fame or reputation, who came in the train or
+alliance of a Pope, and remained in virtue of accumulated riches and
+acquired honour.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred and fifty years have passed since a council of learned
+doctors and casuists decided for Pope Innocent the Tenth the precise
+limit of his just power to enrich his nephews and relations, the
+Pamfili, by an alliance with whom the original Doria of Genoa added
+another name to their own, and inherited the vast estates. But nearly
+four hundred years before Innocent, the Doria had been high admirals and
+almost despots of Genoa. For they were a race of seamen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> from the first,
+in a republic where seamanship was the first essential to distinction.
+Albert Doria overcame the Pisans off Meloria in 1284, slaying five
+thousand, and taking eleven thousand prisoners. Conrad, his son, was
+'Captain of the Genoese Freedom,' and 'Captain of the People.' Lamba
+Doria vanquished the Venetians under the brave Andrea Dandolo, and
+Paganino Doria conquered them again under another Andrea Dandolo; and
+then an Andrea Doria took service with the Pope, and became the greatest
+sailor in Europe, the hero of a hundred sea-fights, at one time the ally
+of Francis the First of France, and the most dangerous opponent of
+Gonzalvo da Cordova, then high admiral of the Empire under Charles the
+Fifth, a destroyer of pirates, by turns the idol, the enemy and the
+despot of his own city, Genoa, and altogether such a type of a
+soldier-sailor of fortune as the world has not seen before or since. And
+there were others after him, notably Gian Andrea Doria, remembered by
+the great victory over the Turks at Lepanto, whence he brought home
+those gorgeous Eastern spoils of tapestry and embroideries which hang in
+the Doria palace today.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image234.jpg" width="450" height="351" alt="PALAZZO DORIA PAMFILI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALAZZO DORIA PAMFILI</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The history of the palace itself is not without interest, for it shows
+how property, which was not in the possession of the original Barons,
+sometimes passed from hand to hand, changing names with each new owner,
+in the rise and fall of fortunes in those times. The first building
+seems to have belonged to the Chapter of Santa Maria Maggiore, which
+somehow ceded it to Cardinal Santorio, who spent an immense sum in
+rebuilding, extending and beautifying it. When it was almost finished,
+Julius the Second came to see it, and after expressing the highest
+admiration for the work, observed that such a habitation was less
+fitting for a prince of the church than for a secular duke&mdash;meaning, by
+the latter, his own nephew, Francesco della Rovere, then Duke of Urbino;
+and the unfortunate Santorio, who had succeeded in preserving his
+possessions under the domination of the Borgia, was forced to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> offer the
+most splendid palace in Rome as a gift to the person designated by his
+master. He died of a broken heart within the year. A hundred years
+later, the Florentine Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement the Eighth, bought
+it from the Dukes of Urbino for twelve thousand measures of grain,
+furnished them for the purpose by their uncle, and finally, when it had
+fallen in inheritance to Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini, Innocent the Tenth
+married her to his nephew, Camillo Pamfili, from whom, by the fusion of
+the two families, it at last came into the hands of the Doria-Pamfili.</p>
+
+<p>The Doria palace is almost two-thirds of the size of Saint Peter's, and
+within the ground plan of Saint Peter's the Colosseum could stand. It
+used to be said that a thousand persons lived under the roof outside of
+the gallery and the private apartments, which alone surpass in extent
+the majority of royal residences. Without some such comparison mere
+words can convey nothing to a mind unaccustomed to such size and space,
+and when the idea is grasped, one asks, naturally enough, how the people
+lived who built such houses&mdash;the people whose heirs, far reduced in
+splendour, if not in fortune, are driven to let four-fifths of their
+family mansion, because they find it impossible to occupy more rooms
+than suffice the Emperor of Germany or the Queen of England. One often
+hears foreign visitors, ignorant of the real size of palaces in Rome,
+observe, with contempt, that the Roman princes 'let their palaces.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> It
+would be more reasonable to inquire what use could be made of such
+buildings, if they were not let, or how any family could be expected to
+inhabit a thousand rooms, and, ultimately, for what purpose such
+monstrous residences were ever built at all.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing that suggests itself in answer to the latter question as
+the cause of such boundless extravagance is the inherited giantism of
+the Latins, to which reference has been more than once made in these
+pages, and to which the existence of many of the principal buildings in
+Rome must be ascribed. Next, we may consider that at one time or
+another, each of the greater Roman palaces has been, in all essentials,
+the court of a pope or of a reigning feudal prince. Lastly, it must be
+remembered that each palace was the seat of management of all its
+owner's estates, and that such administration in those times required a
+number of scribes and an amount of labour altogether out of proportion
+with the income derived from the land.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight the study of Italian life in the Middle Age does not seem
+very difficult, because it is so interesting. But when one has read the
+old chronicles that have survived, and the histories of those times, one
+is amazed to see how much we are told about people and their actions,
+and how very little about the way in which people lived. It is easier to
+learn the habits of the Egyptians, or the Greeks, or the ancient Romans,
+or the Assyrians, than to get<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> at the daily life of an Italian family
+between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, from such books as we
+have. There are two reasons for this. One is the scarcity of literature,
+excepting historical chronicles, until the time of Boccaccio and the
+Italian storytellers. The other is the fact that what we call the Middle
+Age was an age of transition from barbarism to the civilization of the
+Renascence, and the Renascence was reached by sweeping away all the
+barbarous things that had gone before it.</p>
+
+<p>One must have lived a lifetime in Italy to be able to call up a fairly
+vivid picture of the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries. One
+must have actually seen the grand old castles and gloomy monasteries,
+and feudal villages of Calabria and Sicily, where all things are least
+changed from what they were, and one should understand something of the
+nature of the Italian people, where the original people have survived;
+one must try also to realize the violence of those passions which are
+ugly excrescences on Italian character even now, and which were once the
+main movers of that character.</p>
+
+<p>There are extant many inventories of lordly residences of earlier times
+in Italy, for the inventory was taken every time the property changed
+hands by inheritance or sale. Everyone of these inventories begins at
+the main gate of the stronghold, and the first item is 'Rope for giving
+the cord.' Now 'to give the cord'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> was a torture, and all feudal lords
+had the right to inflict it. The victim's hands were tied behind his
+back, the rope was made fast to his bound wrists, and he was hoisted
+some twenty feet or so to the heavy iron ring which is fixed in the
+middle of the arch of every old Italian castle gateway; he was then
+allowed to drop suddenly till his feet, to which heavy weights were
+sometimes attached, were a few inches from the ground, so that the
+strain of his whole weight fell upon his arms, twisted them backwards,
+and generally dislocated them at the shoulders. And this was usually
+done three times, and sometimes twenty times, in succession, to the same
+prisoner, either as a punishment or by way of examination, to extract a
+confession of the truth. As the rope of torture was permanently rove
+through the pulley over the front door, it must have been impossible not
+to see it and remember what it meant every time one went in or out. And
+such quick reminders of danger and torture, and sudden, painful death,
+give the pitch and key of daily existence in the Middle Age. Every man's
+life was in his hand until it was in his enemy's. Every man might be
+forced, at a moment's notice, to defend not only his honour, and his
+belongings, and his life, but his women and children, too,&mdash;not against
+public enemies only, but far more often against private spite and
+personal hatred. Nowadays, when most men only stake their money on their
+convictions, it is hard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> to realize how men reasoned who staked their
+lives at every turn; or to guess, for instance, at what women felt whose
+husbands and sons, going out for a stroll of an afternoon, in the
+streets of Rome, might as likely as not be brought home dead of a dozen
+sword-wounds before evening. A husband, a father, was stabbed in the
+dark by treachery; try and imagine the daily and year-long sensations of
+the widowed mother, bringing up her only son deliberately to kill her
+husband's murderer; teaching him to look upon vengeance as the first,
+most real and most honourable aim of life, from the time he was old
+enough to speak, to the time when he should be strong enough to kill.
+Everything was earnest then. One should remember that most of the
+stories told by Boccaccio, Sacchetti and Bandello&mdash;the stories from
+which Shakespeare got his Italian plays, his Romeo and Juliet, his
+Merchant of Venice&mdash;were not inventions, but were founded on the truth.
+Everyone has read about C&aelig;sar Borgia, his murders, his treacheries and
+his end, and he is held up to us as a type of monstrous wickedness. But
+a learned Frenchman, &Eacute;mile Gebhart, has recently written a rather
+convincing treatise, to show that C&aelig;sar Borgia was not a monster at all,
+nor even much of an exception to the general rule among the Italian
+despots of his day, and his day was civilized compared with that of
+Rienzi, of Boniface the Eighth, of Sciarra Colonna.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In order to understand anything about the real life of the Middle Age,
+one should begin at the beginning; one should see the dwellings, the
+castles, and the palaces with their furniture and arrangements, one
+should realize the stern necessities as well as the few luxuries of that
+time. And one should make acquaintance with the people themselves, from
+the grey-haired old baron, the head of the house, down to the scullery
+man and the cellarer's boy and the stable lads. And then, knowing
+something of the people and their homes, one might begin to learn
+something about their household occupations, their tremendously tragic
+interests and their few and simple amusements.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<img src="images/image242a.jpg" width="369" height="600" alt="PORTA SAN LORENZO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PORTA SAN LORENZO</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first thing that strikes one about the dwellings is the enormous
+strength of those that remain. The main idea, in those days, when a man
+built a house, was to fortify himself and his belongings against attacks
+from the outside, and every other consideration was secondary to that.
+That is true not only of the Barons' castles in the country and of their
+fortified palaces in town,&mdash;which were castles, too, for that
+matter,&mdash;but of the dwellings of all classes of people who could afford
+to live independently, that is, who were not serfs and retainers of the
+rich. We talk of fire-proof buildings nowadays, which are mere shells of
+iron and brick and stone that shrivel up like writing-paper in a great
+fire. The only really fire-proof buildings were those of the Middle Age,
+which consisted of nothing but stone and mortar throughout, stone walls,
+stone vaults, stone floors, and often stone tables and stone seats. I
+once visited the ancient castle of Muro, in the Basilicata, one of the
+southern provinces in Italy, where Queen Joanna the First paid her life
+for her sins at last, and died under the feather pillow that was forced
+down upon her face by two Hungarian soldiers. It is as wild and lonely a
+place as you will meet with in Europe, and yet the great castle has
+never been a ruin, nor at any time uninhabited, since it was built in
+the eleventh century, over eight hundred years ago. Nor has the lower
+part of it ever needed repair. The walls are in places twenty-five feet
+thick, of solid stone and mortar, so that the embrasure by which each
+narrow window is reached is like a tunnel cut through rock, while the
+deep prisons below are hewn out of the rock itself. Up to what we should
+call the third story, every room is vaulted. Above that the floors are
+laid on beams, and the walls are not more than eight feet
+thick&mdash;comparatively flimsy for such a place! Nine-tenths of it was
+built for strength&mdash;the small remainder for comfort; there is not a
+single large hall in all the great fortress, and the courtyard within
+the main gate is a gloomy, ill-shaped little paved space, barely big
+enough to give fifty men standing room. Nothing can give any idea of the
+crookedness of it all, of the small dark corridors, the narrow winding
+steps, the dusky inclined ascents, paved with broad flagstones that
+echo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> the lightest tread, and that must have rung and roared like sea
+caves to the tramp of armed men. And so it was in the cities, too. In
+Rome, bits of the old strongholds survive still. There were more of them
+thirty years ago. Even the more modern palaces of the late Renascence
+are built in such a way that they must have afforded a safe refuge
+against everything except artillery. The strong iron-studded doors and
+the heavily grated windows of the ground floor would stand a siege from
+the street. The Palazzo Gabrielli, for two or three centuries the chief
+dwelling of the Orsini, is built in the midst of the city like a great
+fortification, with escarpments and buttresses and loop-holes; and at
+the main gate there is still a portcullis which sinks into the ground by
+a system of chains and balance weights and is kept in working order even
+now.</p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Age, each town palace had one or more towers, tall, square
+and solid, which were used as lookouts and as a refuge in case the rest
+of the palace should be taken by an enemy. The general principle of all
+medi&aelig;val towers was that they were entered through a small window at a
+great height above the ground, by means of a jointed wooden ladder. Once
+inside, the people drew the ladder up after them and took it in with
+them, in separate pieces. When that was done, they were comparatively
+safe, before the age of gunpowder. There were no windows to break, it
+was impossible to get in, and the besieged party<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> could easily keep
+anyone from scaling the tower, by pouring boiling oil or melted lead
+from above, or with stones and missiles, so that as long as provisions
+and water held out, the besiegers could do nothing. As for water, the
+great rainwater cistern was always in the foundations of the tower
+itself, immediately under the prison, which got neither light nor air
+excepting from a hole in the floor above. Walls from fifteen to twenty
+feet thick could not be battered down with any engines then in
+existence. Altogether, the tower was a safe place in times of danger. It
+is said that at one time there were over four hundred of these in Rome,
+belonging to the nobles, great and small.</p>
+
+<p>The small class of well-to-do commoners, the merchants and goldsmiths,
+such as they were, who stood between the nobles and the poor people,
+imitated the nobles as much as they could, and strengthened their houses
+by every means. For their dwellings were their warehouses, and in times
+of disturbance the first instinct of the people was to rob the
+merchants, unless they chanced to be strong enough to rob the nobles, as
+sometimes happened. But in Rome the merchants were few, and were very
+generally retainers or dependants of the great houses. It is frequent in
+the chronicles to find a man mentioned as the 'merchant' of the Colonna
+family, or of the Orsini, or of one of the independent Italian princes,
+like the Duke of Urbino. Such a man acted as agent to sell the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> produce
+of a great estate; part of his business was to lend money to the owner,
+and he also imported from abroad the scanty merchandise which could be
+imported at all. About half of it usually fell into the hands of
+highwaymen before it reached the city, and the price of luxuries was
+proportionately high. Such men, of course, lived well, though there was
+a wide difference between their mode of life and that of the nobles, not
+so much in matters of abundance and luxury, as in principle. The chief
+rule was that the wives and daughters of the middle class did a certain
+amount of housekeeping work, whereas the wives and daughters of the
+nobles did not. The burgher's wife kept house herself, overlooked the
+cooking, and sometimes cooked a choice dish with her own hands, and
+taught her daughters to do so. A merchant might have a considerable
+retinue of men, for his service and protection, and they carried staves
+when they accompanied their master abroad, and lanterns at night. But
+the baron's men were men-at-arms,&mdash;practically soldiers,&mdash;who wore his
+colours, and carried swords and pikes, and lit the way for their lord at
+night with torches, always the privilege of the nobles. As a matter of
+fact, they were generally the most dangerous cutthroats whom the
+nobleman was able to engage, highwaymen, brigands and outlaws, whom he
+protected against the semblance of the law; whereas the merchant's
+train<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> consisted of honest men who worked for him in his warehouse, or
+they were countrymen from his farms, if he had any.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to give any adequate idea of those great medi&aelig;val
+establishments, except by their analogy with the later ones that came
+after them. They were enormous in extent, and singularly uncomfortable
+in their internal arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>A curious book, published in 1543, and therefore at the first
+culmination of the Renascence, has lately been reprinted. It is entitled
+'Concerning the management of a Roman Nobleman's Court,' and was
+dedicated to 'The magnificent and Honourable Messer Cola da Benevento,'
+forty years after the death of the Borgia Pope and during the reign of
+Paul the Third, Farnese, who granted the writer a copyright for ten
+years. The little volume is full of interesting details, and the
+attendant gentlemen and servants enumerated give some idea of what
+according to the author was not considered extravagant for a nobleman of
+the sixteenth century. There were to be two chief chamberlains, a
+general controller of the estates, a chief steward, four chaplains, a
+master of the horse, a private secretary and an assistant secretary, an
+auditor, a lawyer and four literary personages, 'Letterati,' who, among
+them, must know 'the four principal languages of the world, namely,
+Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Italian.' The omission of every other living
+language<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> but the latter, when Francis the First, Charles the Fifth and
+Henry the Eighth were reigning, is pristinely Roman in its contempt of
+'barbarians.' There were also to be six gentlemen of the chambers, a
+private master of the table, a chief carver and ten waiting men, a
+butler of the pantry with an assistant, a butler of the wines, six head
+grooms, a marketer with an assistant, a storekeeper, a cellarer, a
+carver for the serving gentlemen, a chief cook, an under cook and
+assistant, a chief scullery man, a water carrier, a sweeper,&mdash;and last
+in the list, a physician, whom the author puts at the end of the list,
+'not because a doctor is not worthy of honour, but in order not to seem
+to expect any infirmity for his lordship or his household.'</p>
+
+<p>This was considered a 'sufficient household' for a nobleman, but by no
+means an extravagant one, and many of the officials enumerated were
+provided with one or more servants, while no mention is made of any
+ladies in the establishment nor of the numerous retinue they required.
+But one remembers the six thousand servants of Augustus, all honourably
+buried in one place, and the six hundred who waited on Livia alone; and
+the modest one hundred and seven which were reckoned 'sufficient' for
+the Lord Cola of Benevento sink into comparative insignificance. For
+Livia, besides endless keepers of her robes and folders of her
+clothes&mdash;a special office&mdash;and hairdressers, perfumers, jewellers and
+shoe keepers, had a special<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> adorner of her ears, a keeper of her chair
+and a governess for her favourite lap-dog.</p>
+
+<p>The little book contains the most complete details concerning daily
+expenditure for food and drink for the head of the house and his
+numerous gentlemen, which amounted in a year to the really not
+extravagant sum of four thousand scudi, or dollars, over fourteen
+hundred being spent on wine alone. The allowance was a jug&mdash;rather more
+than a quart&mdash;of pure wine daily to each of the 'gentlemen,' and the
+same measure diluted with one-third of water to all the rest. Sixteen
+ounces of beef, mutton, or veal were reckoned for every person, and each
+received twenty ounces of bread of more or less fine quality, according
+to his station; and an average of twenty scudi was allowed daily as
+given away in charity,&mdash;which was not ungenerous, either, for such a
+household. The olive oil used for the table and for lamps was the same,
+and was measured together, and the household received each a pound of
+cheese, monthly, besides a multitude of other eatables, all of which are
+carefully enumerated and valued. Among other items of a different nature
+are 'four or five large wax candles daily, for his lordship,' and wax
+for torches 'to accompany the dishes brought to his table, and to
+accompany his lordship and the gentlemen out of doors at night,' and
+'candles for the altar,' and tallow candles for use about the house. As
+for salaries and wages, the controller and chief steward received<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> ten
+scudi, each month, whereas the chaplain only got two, and the 'literary
+men,' who were expected to know Hebrew, Greek and Latin, were each paid
+one hundred scudi yearly. The physician was required to be not only
+'learned, faithful, diligent and affectionate,' but also 'fortunate' in
+his profession. Considering the medical practices of those days, a
+doctor could certainly not hope to heal his patients without the element
+of luck.</p>
+
+<p>The old-fashioned Roman character is careful, if not avaricious, with
+occasional flashes of astonishing extravagance, and its idea of riches
+is so closely associated with that of power as to make the display of a
+numerous retinue its first and most congenial means of exhibiting great
+wealth; so that to this day a Roman in reduced fortune will live very
+poorly before he will consent to exist without the two or three
+superfluous footmen who loiter all day in his hall, or the handsome
+equipage in which his wife and daughters are accustomed to take the
+daily drive, called from ancient times the 'trottata,' or 'trot,' in the
+Villa Borghese, or the Corso, or on the Pincio, and gravely provided for
+in the terms of the marriage contract. At a period when servants were
+necessary, not only for show but also for personal protection, it is not
+surprising that the nobles should have kept an extravagant number of
+them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image253.jpg" width="450" height="274" alt="PALAZZO DI MONTE CITORIO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALAZZO DI MONTE CITORIO<br />
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then also, to account for the size of Roman palaces, there was the
+patriarchal system of life, now rapidly falling into disuse. The
+so-called 'noble floor' of every mansion is supposed to be reserved
+exclusively for the father and mother of the family, and the order of
+arranging the rooms is as much a matter of rigid rule as in the houses
+of the ancient Romans, where the vestibule preceded the atrium, the
+atrium the peristyle, and the latter the last rooms which looked upon
+the garden. So in the later palace, the door from the first landing of
+the grand staircase opens upon an outer hall, uncarpeted, but crossed by
+a strip of matting, and furnished only with a huge table and
+old-fashioned chests, made with high backs, on which are painted or
+carved the arms of the family. Here, at least two or three footmen are
+supposed to be in perpetual readiness to answer the door, the lineally
+descended representatives of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> armed footmen who lounged there four
+hundred years ago. Next to the hall comes the antechamber, sometimes
+followed by a second, and here is erected the 'baldacchino,' the
+coloured canopy which marks the privilege of the sixty 'conscript
+families' of Rome, who rank as princes. It recalls the times when,
+having powers of justice, and of life and death, the lords sat in state
+under the overhanging silks, embroidered with their coats of arms, to
+administer the law. Beyond the antechamber comes the long succession of
+state apartments, lofty, ponderously decorated, heavily furnished with
+old-fashioned gilt or carved chairs that stand symmetrically against the
+walls, and on the latter are hung pictures, priceless works of old
+masters beside crude portraits of the last century, often arranged much
+more with regard to the frames than to the paintings. Stiff-legged
+pier-tables of marble and alabaster face the windows or are placed
+between them; thick curtains that can be drawn quite back cover the
+doors; strips of hemp carpet lead straight from one door to another; the
+light is dim and cold, half shut out by the window curtains, and gets a
+peculiar quality of sadness and chilliness, which is essentially
+characteristic of every old Roman house, where the reception rooms are
+only intended to be used at night, and the sunny side is exclusively
+appropriated to the more intimate life of the owners. There may be
+three, four, six, ten of those big drawing-rooms in succession, each
+covering about as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> much space as a small house in New York or London,
+before one comes to the closed door that gives access to the princess'
+boudoir, beyond which, generally returning in a direction parallel with
+the reception rooms, is her bedroom, and the prince's, and the latter's
+study, and then the private dining-room, the state dining-room, the
+great ballroom, with clear-story windows, and as many more rooms as the
+size of the apartment will admit. In the great palaces, the picture
+gallery takes a whole wing and sometimes two, the library being
+generally situated on a higher story.</p>
+
+<p>The patriarchal system required that all the married sons, with their
+wives and children and servants, should be lodged in the same building
+with their parents. The eldest invariably lived on the second floor, the
+second son on the third, which is the highest, though there is generally
+a low rambling attic, occupied by servants, and sometimes by the
+chaplain, the librarian and the steward, in better rooms. When there
+were more than two married sons, which hardly ever happened under the
+old system of primogeniture, they divided the apartments between them as
+best they could. The unmarried younger children had to put up with what
+was left. Moreover, in the greatest houses, where there was usually a
+cardinal of the name, one wing of the first floor was entirely given up
+to him; and instead of the canopy in the antechamber, flanked by the
+hereditary coloured umbrellas carried on state occasions by two lackeys
+behind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> the family coach, the prince of the Church was entitled to a
+throne room, as all cardinals are. The eldest son's apartment was
+generally more or less a repetition of the state one below, but the
+rooms were lower, the decorations less elaborate, though seldom less
+stiff in character, and a large part of the available space was given up
+to the children.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from all this that even in modern times a large family might
+take up a great deal of room. Looking back across two or three
+centuries, therefore, to the days when every princely household was a
+court, and was called a court, it is easier to understand the existence
+of such phenomenally vast mansions as the Doria palace, or those of the
+Borghese, the Altieri, the Barberini and others, who lived in almost
+royal state, and lodged hundreds upon hundreds of retainers in their
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>And not only did all the members of the family live under one roof, as a
+few of them still live, but the custom of dining together at one huge
+table was universal. A daily dinner of twenty persons&mdash;grandparents,
+parents and children, down to the youngest that is old enough to sit up
+to its plate in a high chair, would be a serious matter to most European
+households. But in Rome it was looked upon as a matter of course, and
+was managed through the steward by a contract with the cook, who was
+bound to provide a certain number of dishes daily for the fixed meals,
+but nothing else&mdash;not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> so much as an egg or a slice of toast beyond
+that. This system still prevails in many households, and as it is to be
+expected that meals at unusual hours may sometimes be required, an
+elaborate system of accounts is kept by the steward and his clerks, and
+the smallest things ordered by any of the sons or daughters are charged
+against an allowance usually made them, while separate reckonings are
+kept for the daughters-in-law, for whom certain regular pin-money is
+provided out of their own dowries at the marriage settlement, all of
+which goes through the steward's hands. The same settlement, even in
+recent years, stipulated for a fixed number of dishes of meat daily,
+generally only two, I believe, for a certain number of new gowns and
+other clothes, and for a great variety of details, besides the use of a
+carriage every day, to be harnessed not more than twice, that is, either
+in the morning and afternoon, or once in the daytime and once at night.
+Everything,&mdash;a cup of tea, a glass of lemonade,&mdash;if not mentioned in the
+marriage settlement, had to be paid for separately. The justice of such
+an arrangement&mdash;for it is just&mdash;is only equalled by its inconvenience,
+for it requires the machinery of a hotel, combined with an honesty not
+usual in hotels. Undoubtedly, the whole system is directly descended
+from the practice of the ancients, which made every father of a family
+the absolute despot of his household, and made it impossible for a son
+to hold property or have any individual independence during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> his
+father's life, and it has not been perceptibly much modified since the
+Middle Age, until the last few years. Its existence shows in the
+strongest light the main difference between the Latin and the
+Anglo-Saxon races, in the marked tendency of the one to submit to
+despotic government, and of the other to govern itself; of the one to
+stay at home under paternal authority, and of the other to leave the
+father's house and plunder the world for itself; of the sons of the one
+to accept wives given them, and of the other's children to marry as they
+please.</p>
+
+<p>Roman family life, from Romulus to the year 1870, was centred in the
+head of the house, whose position was altogether unassailable, whose
+requirements were necessities, and whose word was law. Next to him in
+place came the heir, who was brought up with a view to his exercising
+the same powers in his turn. After him, but far behind him in
+importance, if he promised to be strong, came the other sons, who, if
+they took wives at all, were expected to marry heiresses, and one of
+whom, almost as a matter of course, was brought up to be a churchman.
+The rest, if there were any, generally followed the career of arms, and
+remained unmarried; for heiresses of noble birth were few, and their
+guardians married them to eldest sons of great houses whenever possible,
+while the strength of caste prejudice made alliances of nobles with the
+daughters of rich plebeians extremely unusual.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is possible to trace the daily life of a Roman family in the Middle
+Age from its regular routine of today, as out of what anyone may see in
+Italy the habits of the ancients can be reconstructed with more than
+approximate exactness. And yet it is out of the question to fix the
+period of the general transformation which ultimately turned the Rome of
+the Barons into the Rome of Napoleon's time, and converted the
+high-handed men of Sciarra Colonna's age into the effeminate fops of
+1800, when a gentleman of noble lineage, having received a box on the
+ear from another at high noon in the Corso, willingly followed the
+advice of his confessor, who counselled him to bear the affront with
+Christian meekness and present his other cheek to the smiter. Customs
+have remained, fashions have altogether changed; the outward forms of
+early living have survived, the spirit of life is quite another; and
+though some families still follow the patriarchal mode of existence, the
+patriarchs are gone, the law no longer lends itself to support household
+tyranny, and the subdivision of estates under the Napoleonic code is
+guiding an already existing democracy to the untried issue of a
+problematic socialism. Without attempting to establish a comparison upon
+the basis of a single cause, where so many are at work, it is
+permissible to note that while in England and Germany a more or less
+voluntary system of primogeniture is admitted and largely followed from
+choice, and while in the United States men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> are almost everywhere
+entirely free to dispose of their property as they please, and while the
+population and wealth of those countries are rapidly increasing, France,
+enforcing the division of estates among children, though she is
+accumulating riches, is faced by the terrible fact of a steadily
+diminishing census; and Italy, under the same laws, is not only rapidly
+approaching national bankruptcy, but is in parts already depopulated by
+an emigration so extensive that it can only be compared with the
+westward migration of the Aryan tribes. The forced subdivision of
+property from generation to generation is undeniably a socialistic
+measure, since it must, in the end, destroy both aristocracy and
+plutocracy; and it is surely a notable point that the two great European
+nations which have adopted it as a fundamental principle of good
+government should both be on the road to certain destruction, while
+those powers that have wholly and entirely rejected any such measure are
+filling the world with themselves and absorbing its wealth at an
+enormous and alarming rate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image260a.jpg" width="650" height="392" alt="VILLA BORGHESE" title="" />
+<span class="caption">VILLA BORGHESE</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The art of the Renascence has left us splendid pictures of medi&aelig;val
+public life, which are naturally accepted as equally faithful
+representations of the life of every day. Princes and knights, in
+gorgeous robes and highly polished armour, ride on faultlessly
+caparisoned milk-white steeds; wondrous ladies wear not less wonderful
+gowns, fitted with a perfection which women seek in vain today, and
+embroidered with pearls and precious stones that might ransom a rajah;
+young pages, with glorious golden hair, stand ready at the elbows of
+their lords and ladies, or kneel in graceful attitude to deliver a
+letter, or stoop to bear a silken train, clad in garments which the
+modern costumer strives in vain to copy. After three or four centuries,
+the colours of those painted silks and satins are still richer than
+anything the loom can weave. In the great fresco, each individual of the
+multitude that fills a public place, or defiles in open procession under
+the noonday light, is not only a masterpiece of fashion, but a model of
+neatness; linen, delicate as woven gossamer, falls into folds as finely
+exact as an engraver's point could draw; velvet shoes tread without
+speck or spot upon the well-scoured pavement of a public street;
+men-at-arms grasp weapons and hold bridles with hands as carefully
+tended as any idle fine gentleman's, and there is neither fleck nor
+breath of dimness on the mirror-like steel of their armour; the very
+flowers, the roses and lilies that strew the way, are the perfection of
+fresh-cut hothouse blossoms; and when birds and beasts chance to be
+necessary to the composition of the picture, they are represented with
+no less care for a more than possible neatness, their coats are combed
+and curled, their attitudes are studied and graceful, they wear
+carefully made collars, ornamented with chased silver and gold.</p>
+
+<p>Centuries have dimmed the wall-painting, sunshine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> has faded it, mould
+has mottled the broad surfaces of red and blue and green, and a later
+age has done away with the dresses represented; yet, when the frescos in
+the library of the Cathedral at Siena, for instance, were newly
+finished, they were the fashion-plates of the year and month, executed
+by a great artist, it is true, grouped with matchless skill and drawn
+with supreme mastery of art, but as far from representing the ordinary
+scenes of daily life as those terrible coloured prints published
+nowadays for tailors, in which a number of beautiful young gentlemen, in
+perfectly new clothes, lounge in stage attitudes on the one side, and an
+equal number of equally beautiful young butlers, coachmen, grooms and
+pages, in equally perfect liveries, appear to be discussing the
+&aelig;sthetics of an ideal and highly salaried service, at the other end of
+the same room. In the comparison there is all the brutal profanity of
+truth that shocks the reverence of romance; but in the respective
+relations of the great artist's masterpiece and of the poor modern
+lithograph to the realities of each period, there is the clue to the
+daily life of the Middle Age.</p>
+
+<p>Living was outwardly rough as compared with the representations of it,
+though it was far more refined than in any other part of Europe, and
+Italy long set the fashion to the world in habits and manners. People
+kept their fine clothes for great occasions, there was a keeper of robes
+in every large household, and there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> were rooms set apart for the
+purpose. In every-day life, the Barons wore patched hose and leathern
+jerkins, stained and rusted by the joints of the armour that was so
+often buckled over them, or they went about their dwellings in long
+dressing-gowns which hid many shortcomings. When gowns, and hose, and
+jerkins were well worn, they were cut down for the boys of the family,
+and the fine dresses, only put on for great days, were preserved as
+heirlooms from generation to generation, whether they fitted the
+successive wearers or not. The beautiful tight-fitting hose which, in
+the paintings of the time, seem to fit like theatrical tights, were
+neither woven nor knitted, but were made of stout cloth, and must often
+have been baggy at the knees in spite of the most skilful cutting; and
+the party-coloured hose, having one leg of one piece of stuff and one of
+another, and sometimes each leg of two or more colours, were very likely
+first invented from motives of economy, to use up cuttings and leavings.
+Clothes were looked upon as permanent and very desirable property, and
+kings did not despise a gift of fine scarlet cloth, in the piece, to
+make them a gown or a cloak. As for linen, as late as the sixteenth
+century, the English thought the French nobles very extravagant because
+they put on a clean shirt once a fortnight and changed their ruffles
+once a week.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image264.jpg" width="450" height="327" alt="PALAZZO DI VENEZIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALAZZO DI VENEZIA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val Roman nobles were most of them great farmers as well as
+fighters. Then, as now, land was the ultimate form of property, and its
+produce the usual form of wealth; and then, as now, many families were
+'land-poor,' in the sense of owning tracts of country which yielded
+little or no income but represented considerable power, and furnished
+the owners with most of the necessaries of life, such rents as were
+collected being usually paid in kind, in oil and wine, in grain, fruit
+and vegetables, and even in salt meat, and horses, cattle for
+slaughtering and beasts of burden, not to speak of wool, hemp and flax,
+as well as firewood. But money was scarce and, consequently, all the
+things which only money could buy, so that a gown was a possession, and
+a corselet or a good sword a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> treasure. The small farmer of our times
+knows what it means to have plenty to eat and little to wear. His
+position is not essentially different from that of the average landed
+gentry in the Middle Age, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. In
+times when superiority lay in physical strength, courage, horsemanship
+and skill in the use of arms, the so-called gentleman was not
+distinguished from the plebeian by the newness or neatness of his
+clothes so much as by the nature and quality of the weapons he wore when
+he went abroad in peace or war, and very generally by being mounted on a
+good horse.</p>
+
+<p>In his home he was simple, even primitive. He desired space more than
+comfort, and comfort more than luxury. His furniture consisted almost
+entirely of beds, chests and benches, with few tables except such as
+were needed for eating. Beds were supported by boards laid on trestles,
+raised very high above the floor to be beyond the reach of rats, mice
+and other creatures. The lower mattress was filled with the dried leaves
+of the maize, and the upper one contained wool, with which the pillows
+also were stuffed. The floors of dwelling rooms were generally either
+paved with bricks or made of a sort of cement, composed of lime, sand
+and crushed brick, the whole being beaten down with iron pounders, while
+in the moist state, during three days. There were no carpets, and fresh
+rushes were strewn everywhere on the floors, which in summer were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> first
+watered, like a garden path, to lay the dust. There was no glass in the
+windows of ordinary rooms, and the consequence was that during the
+daytime people lived almost in the open air, in winter as well as
+summer; sunshine was a necessity of existence, and sheltered courts and
+cloistered walks were built like reservoirs for the light and heat.</p>
+
+<p>In the rooms, ark-shaped chests stood against the walls, to contain the
+ordinary clothes not kept in the general 'guardaroba.' In the deep
+embrasures of the windows there were stone seats, but there were few
+chairs, or none at all, in the bedrooms. At the head of each bed hung a
+rough little cross of dark wood&mdash;later, as carving became more general,
+a crucifix&mdash;and a bit of an olive branch preserved from Palm Sunday
+throughout the year. The walls themselves were scrupulously whitewashed;
+the ceilings were of heavy beams, supporting lighter cross-beams, on
+which in turn thick boards were laid to carry the cement floor of the
+room overhead.</p>
+
+<p>Many hundred men-at-arms could be drawn up in the courtyards, and their
+horses stalled in the spacious stables. The kitchens, usually situated
+on the ground floor, were large enough to provide meals for half a
+thousand retainers, if necessary; and the cellars and underground
+prisons were a vast labyrinth of vaulted chambers, which not
+unfrequently communicated with the Tiber by secret passages. In
+restoring the palace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> of the Santacroce, a few years ago, a number of
+skeletons were discovered, some still wearing armour, and all most
+evidently the remains of men who had died violent deaths. One of them
+was found with a dagger driven through the skull and helmet. The hand
+that drove it must have been strong beyond the hands of common men.</p>
+
+<p>The grand staircase led up from the sunny court to the state apartments,
+such as they were in those days. There, at least, there were sometimes
+carpets, luxuries of enormous value, and even before the Renascence the
+white walls were hung with tapestries, at least in part. In those times,
+too, there were large fireplaces in almost every room, for fuel was
+still plentiful in the Campagna and in the near mountains; and where the
+houses were practically open to the air all day, fires were an absolute
+necessity. Even in ancient times it is recorded that the Roman Senate,
+amidst the derisive jests of the plebeians, once had to adjourn on
+account of the extreme cold. People rose early in the Middle Age, dined
+at noon, slept in the afternoon when the weather was warm, and supped,
+as a rule, at 'one hour of the night,' that is to say an hour after 'Ave
+Maria,' which was rung half an hour after sunset, and was the end of the
+day of twenty-four hours. Noon was taken from the sun, but did not fall
+at a regular hour of the clock, and never fell at twelve. In winter, for
+instance, if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> Ave Maria bell rang at half-past five of our modern
+time, the noon of the following day fell at 'half-past eighteen o'clock'
+by the medi&aelig;val clocks. In summer, it might fall as early as three
+quarters past fifteen; and this manner of reckoning time was common in
+Rome thirty-five years ago, and is not wholly unpractised in some parts
+of Italy still.</p>
+
+<p>It was always an Italian habit, and a very healthy one, to get out of
+doors immediately on rising, and to put off making anything like a
+careful toilet till a much later hour. Breakfast, as we understand it,
+is an unknown meal in Italy, even now. Most people drink a cup of black
+coffee, standing; many eat a morsel of bread or biscuit with it and get
+out of doors as soon as they can; but the greediness of an Anglo-Saxon
+breakfast disgusts all Latins alike, and two set meals daily are thought
+to be enough for anyone, as indeed they are. The hard-working Italian
+hill peasant will sometimes toast himself a piece of corn bread before
+going to work, and eat it with a few drops of olive oil; and in the
+absence of tea or coffee, the people of the Middle Age often drank a
+mouthful of wine on rising to 'move the blood,' as they said. But that
+was all.</p>
+
+<p>Every medi&aelig;val palace had its chapel, which was sometimes an adjacent
+church communicating with the house, and in many families it is even now
+the custom to hear the short low Mass at a very early hour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> But
+probably nothing can give an adequate idea of the idleness of the Middle
+Age, when the day was once begun. Before the Renascence, there was no
+such thing as study, and there were hardly any pastimes except gambling
+and chess, both of which the girls and youths of the Decameron seem to
+have included in one contemptuous condemnation when they elected to
+spend their time in telling stories. The younger men of the household,
+of course, when not actually fighting, passed a certain number of hours
+in the practice of horsemanship and arms; but the only real excitement
+they knew was in love and war, the latter including everything between
+the battles of the Popes and Emperors, and the street brawls of private
+enemies, which generally drew blood and often ended in a death.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear that the idea of 'housekeeping' as the chief
+occupation of the Baron's wife ever entered into the Roman mind. In
+northern countries there has always been more equality between men and
+women, more respect for woman as an intelligent being, and less care for
+her as a valuable possession to be guarded against possible attacks from
+without. In Rome and the south of Italy the women in a great household
+were carefully separated from the men, and beyond the outer halls in
+which visitors were received, business transacted and politics
+discussed, there were closed doors, securely locked, leading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> to the
+women's apartments beyond. In every Roman palace and fortress there was
+a revolving 'dumb-waiter' between the women's quarters and the men's,
+called the 'wheel,' and used as a means of communication. Through this
+the household supplies were daily handed in, for the cooking was very
+generally done by women, and through the same machine the prepared food
+was passed out to the men, the wheel being so arranged that men and
+women could not see each other, though they might hear each other speak.
+To all intents and purposes the system was oriental and the women were
+shut up in a harem. The use of the dumb-waiter survived the revolution
+in manners under the Renascence, and the wheel itself remains as a
+curiosity of past times in more than one Roman dwelling today. It had
+its uses and was not a piece of senseless tyranny. In order to keep up
+an armed force for all emergencies the Baron took under his protection
+as men-at-arms the most desperate ruffians, outlaws and outcasts whom he
+could collect, mostly men under sentence of banishment or death for
+highway robbery and murder, whose only chance of escaping torture and
+death lay in risking life and limb for a master strong enough to defy
+the law, the 'bargello' and the executioner, in his own house or castle,
+where such henchmen were lodged and fed, and were controlled by nothing
+but fear of the Baron himself, of his sons, when they were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> grown up,
+and of his poorer kinsmen who lived with him. There were no crimes which
+such malefactors had not committed, or were not ready to commit for a
+word, or even for a jest. The women, on the other hand, were in the
+first place the ladies and daughters of the house, and of kinsmen,
+brought up in almost conventual solitude, when they were not actually
+educated in convents; and, secondly, young girls from the Baron's
+estates who served for a certain length of time, and were then generally
+married to respectable retainers. The position of twenty or thirty women
+and girls under the same roof with several hundreds of the most
+atrocious cutthroats of any age was undeniably such as to justify the
+most tyrannical measures for their protection.</p>
+
+<p>There are traces, even now, of the enforced privacy in which they lived.
+For instance, no Roman lady of today will ever show herself at a window
+that looks on the street, except during Carnival, and in most houses
+something of the old arrangement of rooms is still preserved, whereby
+the men and women occupy different parts of the house.</p>
+
+<p>One must try to call up the pictures of one day, to get any idea of
+those times; one must try and see the grey dawn stealing down the dark,
+unwindowed lower walls of the fortress that flanks the Church of the
+Holy Apostles,&mdash;the narrow and murky street below, the broad, dim space
+beyond, the mystery of the winding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> distances whence comes the first
+sound of the day, the far, high cry of the waterman driving his little
+donkey with its heavy load of water-casks. The beast stumbles along in
+the foul gloom, through the muddy ruts, over heaps of garbage at the
+corners, picking its way as best it can, till it starts with a snort and
+almost falls with its knees upon a dead man, whose thrice-stabbed body
+lies right across the way. The waterman, ragged, sandal-shod, stops,
+crosses himself, and drags his beast back hurriedly with a muttered
+exclamation of mingled horror, disgust and fear for himself, and makes
+for the nearest corner, stumbling along in his haste lest he should be
+found with the corpse and taken for the murderer. As the dawn
+forelightens, and the cries go up from the city, the black-hooded
+Brothers of Prayer and Death come in a little troop, their lantern still
+burning as they carry their empty stretcher, seeking for dead men; and
+they take up the poor nameless body and bear it away quickly from the
+sight of the coming day.</p>
+
+<p>Then, as they disappear, the great bell of the Apostles' Church begins
+to toll the morning Angelus, half an hour before sunrise,&mdash;three
+strokes, then four, then five, then one, according to ancient custom,
+and then after a moment's silence, the swinging peal rings out, taken up
+and answered from end to end of the half-wasted city. A troop of
+men-at-arms ride up to the great closed gate 'in rusty armour marvellous
+ill-favoured,'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> as Shakespeare's stage direction has it, mud-splashed,
+their brown cloaks half concealing their dark and war-worn mail, their
+long swords hanging down and clanking against their huge stirrups, their
+beasts jaded and worn and filthy from the night raid in the Campagna, or
+the long gallop from Palestrina. The leader pounds three times at the
+iron-studded door with the hilt of his dagger, a sleepy porter,
+grey-bearded and cloaked, slowly swings back one half of the gate and
+the ruffians troop in, followed by the waterman who has gone round the
+fortress to avoid the dead body. The gate shuts again, with a long
+thundering rumble. High up, wooden shutters, behind which there is no
+glass, are thrown open upon the courtyard, and one window after another
+is opened to the morning air; on one side, girls and women look out,
+muffled in dark shawls; from the other grim, unwashed, bearded men call
+down to their companions, who have dismounted and are unsaddling their
+weary horses, and measuring out a little water to them, where water is a
+thing of price.</p>
+
+<p>The leader goes up into the house to his master, to tell him of the
+night's doings, and while he speaks the Baron sits in a great wooden
+chair, in his long gown of heavy cloth, edged with coarse fox's fur, his
+feet in fur slippers, and a shabby cap upon his head, but a manly and
+stern figure, all the same, slowly munching a piece of toasted bread and
+sipping a few drops of old white wine from a battered silver cup.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then Mass in the church, the Baron, his kinsmen, the ladies and the
+women kneeling in the high gallery above the altar, the men-at-arms and
+men-servants and retainers crouching below on the stone pavement; a
+dusky multitude, with a gleam of steel here and there, and red flashing
+eyes turned up with greedy longing towards the half-veiled faces of the
+women, met perhaps, now and then, by a furtive answering glance from
+under a veil or hoodlike shawl, for every woman's head is covered, but
+of the men only the old lord wears his cap, which he devoutly lifts at
+'Gloria Patri' and 'Verbum Caro,' and at 'Sanctus' and at the
+consecration. It is soon over, and the day is begun, for the sun is
+fully risen and streams through the open unglazed windows as the maids
+sprinkle water on the brick floors, and sweep and strew fresh rushes,
+and roll back the mattresses on the trestle beds, which are not made
+again till evening. In the great courtyard, the men lead out the horses
+and mount them bareback and ride out in a troop, each with his sword by
+his side, to water them at the river, half a mile away, for not a single
+public fountain is left in Rome; and the grooms clean out the stables,
+while the peasants come in from the country, driving mules laden with
+provisions for the great household, and far away, behind barred doors,
+the women light the fires in the big kitchen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Later again, the children of the noble house are taught to ride and
+fence in the open court; splendid boys with flowing hair, bright as gold
+or dark as night, dressed in rough hose and leathern jerkin,
+bright-eyed, fearless, masterful already in their play as a lion's
+whelps, watched from an upper window by their lady mother and their
+little sisters, and not soon tired of saddle or sword&mdash;familiar with the
+grooms and men by the great common instinct of fighting, but as far from
+vulgar as Polonius bade Laertes learn to be.</p>
+
+<p>So morning warms to broad noon, and hunger makes it dinner-time, and the
+young kinsmen who have strolled abroad come home, one of them with his
+hand bound up in a white rag that has drops of blood on it, for he has
+picked a quarrel in the street and steel has been out, as usual, though
+no one has been killed, because the 'bargello' and his men were in
+sight, down there near the Orsini's theatre-fortress. And at dinner when
+the priest has blessed the table, the young men laugh about the
+scrimmage, while the Baron himself, who has killed a dozen men in
+battle, with his own hand, rebukes his sons and nephews with all the
+useless austerity which worn-out age wears in the face of unbroken
+youth. The meal is long, and they eat much, for there will be nothing
+more till night; they eat meat broth, thick with many vegetables and
+broken bread and lumps of boiled meat, and there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> are roasted meats and
+huge earthen bowls of salad, and there is cheese in great blocks, and
+vast quantities of bread, with wine in abundance, poured for each man by
+the butler into little earthen jugs from big earthenware flagons. They
+eat from trenchers of wood, well scoured with ashes; forks they have
+none, and most of the men use their own knives or daggers when they are
+not satisfied with the carving done for them by the carver. Each man,
+when he has picked a bone, throws it under the table to the house-dogs
+lying in wait on the floor, and from time to time a basin is passed and
+a little water poured upon the fingers. The Baron has a napkin of his
+own; there is one napkin for all the other men; the women generally eat
+by themselves in their own apartments, the so-called 'gentlemen' in the
+'tinello,' and the men-at-arms and grooms, and all the rest, in the big
+lower halls near the kitchens, whence their food is passed out to them
+through the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>After dinner, if it be summer and the weather hot, the gates are barred,
+the windows shut, and the whole household sleeps. Early or late, as the
+case may be, the lords and ladies and children take the air, guarded by
+scores of mounted men, riding towards that part of the city where they
+may neither meet their enemies nor catch a fever in the warm months. In
+rainy weather they pass the time as they can, with telling of many
+tales, short, dramatic and strong as the framework of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> good play, with
+music, sometimes, and with songs, and with discussing of such news as
+there may be in such times. And at dusk the great bells ring to
+even-song, the oil lamp is swung up in the great staircase, the windows
+and gates are shut again, the torches and candles and little lamps are
+lit for supper, and at last, with rushlights, each finds the way along
+the ghostly corridors to bed and sleep. That was the day's round, and
+there was little to vary it in more peaceful times.</p>
+
+<p>Over all life there was the hopeless, resentful dulness that oppressed
+men and women till it drove them half mad, to the doing of desperate
+things in love and war; there was the everlasting restraint of danger
+without and of forced idleness within&mdash;danger so constant that it ceased
+to be exciting and grew tiresome, idleness so oppressive that battle,
+murder and sudden death were a relief from the inactivity of sluggish
+peace; a state in which the mind was no longer a moving power in man,
+but only by turns the smelting pot and the anvil of half-smothered
+passions that now and then broke out with fire and flame and sword to
+slash and burn the world with a history of unimaginable horror.</p>
+
+<p>That was the Middle Age in Italy. A poorer race would have gone down
+therein to a bloody destruction; but it was out of the Middle Age that
+the Italians were born again in the Renascence. It deserved the name.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image278.jpg" width="450" height="244" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION IV CAMPO MARZO</h2>
+
+
+<p>It was harvest time when the Romans at last freed themselves from the
+very name of Tarquin. In all the great field, between the Tiber and the
+City, the corn stood high and ripe, waiting for the sickle, while Brutus
+did justice upon his two sons, and upon the sons of his sister, and upon
+those 'very noble youths,' still the Tarquins' friends, who laid down
+their lives for their mistaken loyalty and friendship, and for whose
+devotion no historian has ever been brave enough, or generous enough, to
+say a word. It has been said that revolution is patriotism when it
+succeeds, treason when it fails, and in the converse, more than one
+brave man has died a traitor's death for keeping faith with a fallen
+king. Successful revolution denied those young royalists the charitable
+handful of earth and the four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> words of peace&mdash;'sit eis terra
+levis'&mdash;that should have laid their unquiet ghosts, and the brutal
+cynicism of history has handed down their names to the perpetual
+execration of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The corn stood high in the broad field which the Tarquins had taken from
+Mars and had ploughed and tilled for generations. The people went out
+and reaped the crop, and bound it in sheaves to be threshed for the
+public bread, but their new masters told them that it would be impious
+to eat what had been meant for kings, and they did as was commanded to
+them, meekly, and threw all into the river. Sheaf upon sheaf, load upon
+load, the yellow stream swept away the yellow ears and stalks, down to
+the shallows, where the whole mass stuck fast, and the seeds took root
+in the watery mud, and the stalks rotted in great heaps, and the island
+of the Tiber was first raised above the level of the water. Then the
+people burned the stubble and gave back the land to Mars, calling it the
+Campus Martius, after him.</p>
+
+<p>There the young Romans learned the use of arms, and were taught to ride;
+and under sheds there stood those rows of wooden horses, upon which
+youths learned to vault, without step or stirrup, in their armour and
+sword in hand. There they ran foot-races in the clouds of dust whirled
+up from the dry ground, and threw the discus by the twisted thong as the
+young men of the hills do today, and the one who could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> reach the goal
+with the smallest number of throws was the winner,&mdash;there, under the
+summer sun and in the biting wind of winter, half naked, and tough as
+wolves, the boys of Rome laboured to grow up and be Roman men.</p>
+
+<p>There, also, the great assemblies were held, the public meetings and the
+elections, when the people voted by passing into the wooden lists that
+were called 'Sheepfolds,' till Julius C&aelig;sar planned the great marble
+portico for voting, and Agrippa finished it, making it nearly a mile
+round; and behind it, on the west side, a huge space was kept open for
+centuries, called the Villa Publica, where the censors numbered the
+people. The ancient Campus took in a wide extent of land, for it
+included everything outside the Servian wall, from the Colline Gate to
+the river. All that visibly bears its name today is a narrow street that
+runs southward from the western end of San Lorenzo in Lucina. The Region
+of Campo Marzo, however, is still one of the largest in the city,
+including all that lies within the walls from Porta Pinciana, by Capo le
+Case, Via Frattina, Via di Campo Marzo and Via della Stelletta, past the
+Church of the Portuguese and the Palazzo Moroni,&mdash;known by Hawthorne's
+novel as 'Hilda's Tower,'&mdash;and thence to the banks of the Tiber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image281.jpg" width="450" height="540" alt="PIAZZA DI SPAGNA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA DI SPAGNA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the Renascence until the recent extension of the city on the south
+and southeast, this Region was the more modern part of Rome. In the
+Middle Age it was held by the Colonna, who had fortified the tomb of
+Augustus and one or two other ruins. Later it became the strangers'
+quarter. The Lombards established themselves near the Church of Saint
+Charles, in the Corso; the English, near Saint Ives, the little church
+with the strange spiral tower, built against the University of the
+Sapienza; the Greeks lived in the Via de' Greci; the Burgundians in the
+Via Borgognona, and thence to San Claudio, where they had their Hospice;
+and so on, almost every nationality being established in a colony of its
+own; and the English visitors of today are still inclined to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> think the
+Piazza di Spagna the most central point of Rome, whereas to Romans it
+seems to be very much out of the way.</p>
+
+<p>The tomb of Augustus, which served as the model for the greater
+Mausoleum of Hadrian, dominated the Campus Martius, and its main walls
+are still standing, though hidden by many modern houses. The tomb of the
+Julian C&aelig;sars rose on white marble foundations, a series of concentric
+terraces, planted with cypress trees, to the great bronze statue of
+Augustus that crowned the summit. Here rested the ashes of Augustus, of
+the young Marcellus, of Livia, of Tiberius, of Caligula, and of many
+others whose bodies were burned in the family Ustrinum near the tomb
+itself. Plundered by Alaric, and finally ruined by Robert Guiscard, when
+he burnt the city, it became a fortress under the Colonna, and is
+included, with the fortress of Monte Citorio, in a transfer of property
+made by one member of the family to another in the year 1252. Ruined at
+last, it became a bull ring in the last century and in the beginning of
+this one, when Leo the Twelfth forbade bull-fighting. Then it was a
+theatre, the scene of Salvini's early triumphs. Today it is a circus,
+dignified by the name of the reigning sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Few people know that bull-fights were common in Rome eighty years ago.
+The indefatigable Baracconi once talked with the son of the last
+bull-fighter. So far as one may judge, it appears that during the
+Middle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> Age, and much later, it was the practice of butchers to bait
+animals in their own yards, before slaughtering them, in the belief that
+the cruel treatment made the meat more tender, and they admitted the
+people to see the sport. From this to a regular arena was but a step,
+and no more suitable place than the tomb of the C&aelig;sars could be found
+for the purpose. A regular manager took possession of it, provided the
+victims, both bulls and Roman buffaloes, and hired the fighters. It does
+not appear that the beasts were killed during the entertainment, and one
+of the principal attractions was the riding of the maddened bull three
+times round the circus; savage dogs were also introduced, but in all
+other respects the affair was much like a Spanish bull-fight, and quite
+as popular; when the chosen bulls were led in from the Campagna, the
+Roman princes used to ride far out to meet them with long files of
+mounted servants in gala liveries, coming back at night in torchlight
+procession. And again, after the fight was over, the circus was
+illuminated, and there was a small display of Bengal lights, while the
+fashionable world of Rome met and gossiped away the evening in the
+arena, happily thoughtless and forgetful of all the spot had been and
+had meant in history.</p>
+
+<p>The new Rome sinks out of sight below the level of the old, as one
+climbs the heights of the Janiculum on the west of the city, or the
+gardens of the Pincio on the east. The old monuments and the old
+churches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> still rise above the dreary wastes of modern streets, and from
+the spot whence Messalina looked down upon the cypresses of the first
+Emperor's mausoleum, the traveller of today descries the cheap metallic
+roof which makes a circus of the ancient tomb.</p>
+
+<p>For it was in the gardens of Lucullus that Mark Antony's
+great-grandchild felt the tribune's sword in her throat, and in the neat
+drives and walks of the Pincio, where pretty women in smart carriages
+laugh over today's gossip and tomorrow's fashion, and the immaculate
+dandy idles away an hour and a cigarette, the memory of Messalina calls
+up a tragedy of shades. Less than thirty years after Augustus had
+breathed out his old age in peace, Rome was ruled again by terror and
+blood, and the triumph of a woman's sins was the beginning of the end of
+the Julian race. The great historian who writes of her guesses that
+posterity may call the truth a fable, and tells the tale so tersely and
+soberly from first to last, that the strength of his words suggests a
+whole mystery of evil. Without Tiberius, there could have been no
+Messalina, nor, without her, could Nero have been possible; and the
+worst of the three is the woman&mdash;the archpriestess of all conceivable
+crime. Tacitus gives Tiberius one redeeming touch. Often the old Emperor
+came almost to Rome, even to the gardens by the Tiber, and then turned
+back to the rocks of Capri and the solitude of the sea, in mortal shame
+of his monstrous deeds, as if not daring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> to show himself in the city.
+With Nero, the measure was full, and the world rose and destroyed him.
+Messalina knew no shame, and the Romans submitted to her, and but for a
+court intrigue and a frightened favourite she might have lived out her
+life unhurt. In the eyes of the historian and of the people of her time
+her greatest misdeed was that while her husband Claudius, the Emperor,
+was alive she publicly celebrated her marriage with the handsome Silius,
+using all outward legal forms. Our modern laws of divorce have so far
+accustomed our minds to such deeds that, although we miss the legal
+formalities which would necessarily precede such an act in our time, we
+secretly wonder at the effect it produced upon the men of that day, and
+are inclined to smile at the epithets of 'impious' and 'sacrilegious'
+which it called down upon Messalina, whose many other frightful crimes
+had elicited much more moderate condemnation. Claudius, himself no
+novice or beginner in horrors, hesitated long after he knew the truth,
+and it was the favourite Narcissus who took upon himself to order the
+Empress' death. Euodus, his freedman, and a tribune of the guard were
+sent to make an end of her. Swiftly they went up to the gardens&mdash;the
+gardens of the Pincian&mdash;and there they found her, beautiful, dark,
+dishevelled, stretched upon the marble floor, her mother Lepida
+crouching beside her, her mother, who in the bloom of her daughter's
+evil life had turned from her,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> but in her extreme need was overcome
+with pity. There knelt Domitia Lepida, urging the terror-mad woman not
+to wait the executioner, since life was over and nothing remained but to
+lend death the dignity of suicide. But the dishonoured self was empty of
+courage, and long-drawn weeping choked her useless lamentations. Then
+suddenly the doors were flung open with a crash, and the stern tribune
+stood silent in the hall, while the freedman Euodus screamed out curses,
+after the way of triumphant slaves. From her mother's hand the lost
+Empress took the knife at last and trembling laid it to her breast and
+throat, with weakly frantic fingers that could not hurt herself; the
+silent tribune killed her with one straight thrust, and when they
+brought the news to Claudius sitting at supper, and told him that
+Messalina had perished, his face did not change, and he said nothing as
+he held out his cup to be filled.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 642px;">
+<img src="images/image288a.jpg" width="642" height="388" alt="PIAZZA DEL POPOLO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA DEL POPOLO</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>She died somewhere on the Pincian hill. Romance would choose the spot
+exactly where the nunnery of the Sacred Heart stands, at the Trinit&agrave; de'
+Monti, looking down De Sanctis' imposing 'Spanish' steps; and the house
+in which the noble girls of modern Rome are sent to school may have
+risen upon the foundations of Messalina's last abode. Or it may be that
+the place was further west, in the high grounds of the French Academy,
+or on the site of the academy itself, at the gates of the public garden,
+just where the old stone fountain bubbles and murmurs under the shade of
+the thick ilex trees. Most of that land once belonged to Lucullus, the
+conqueror of Mithridates, the Academic philosopher, the arch feaster,
+and the man who first brought cherries to Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image289.jpg" width="450" height="348" alt="TRINIT&Agrave; DE&#39; MONTI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRINIT&Agrave; DE&#39; MONTI</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The last descendant of Julia, the last sterile monster of the Julian
+race, Nero, was buried at the foot of the same hill. Alive, he was
+condemned by the Senate to be beaten to death in the Comitium; dead by
+his own hand, he received imperial honours, and his ashes rested for a
+thousand years where they had been laid by his two old nurses and a
+woman who had loved him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> And during ten centuries the people believed
+that his terrible ghost haunted the hill, attended and served by
+thousands of demon crows that rested in the branches of the trees about
+his tomb, and flew forth to do evil at his bidding, till at last Pope
+Paschal the Second cut down with his own hands the walnut trees which
+crowned the summit, and commanded that the mausoleum should be
+destroyed, and the ashes of Nero scattered to the winds, that he might
+build a parish church on the spot and dedicate it to Saint Mary. It is
+said, too, that the Romans took the marble urn in which the ashes had
+been, and used it as a public measure for salt in the old market-place
+of the Capitol. A number of the rich Romans of the Renascence afterwards
+contributed money to the restoration of the church and built themselves
+chapels within it, as tombs for their descendants, so that it is the
+burial-place of many of those wealthy families that settled in Rome and
+took possession of the Corso when the Barons still held the less central
+parts of the city with their medi&aelig;val fortresses. Sixtus the Fourth and
+Julius the Second are buried in Saint Peter's, but their chapel was
+here, and here lie others of the della Rovere race, and many of the
+Chigi and Pallavicini and Theodoli; and here, in strange coincidence,
+Alexander the Sixth, the worst of the Popes, erected a high altar on the
+very spot where the worst of the Emperors had been buried. It is gone
+now, but the strange fact is not forgotten.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Far across the beautiful square, at the entrance to the Corso, twin
+churches seem to guard the way like sentinels, built, it is said, to
+replace two chapels which once stood at the head of the bridge of Sant'
+Angelo; demolished because, when Rome was sacked by the Constable of
+Bourbon, they had been held as important points by the Spanish soldiers
+in besieging the Castle, and it was not thought wise to leave such
+useful outworks for any possible enemy in the future. Alexander the
+Seventh, the Chigi Pope, died, and left the work unfinished; and a folk
+story tells how a poor old woman who lived near by saved what she could
+for many years, and, dying, left one hundred and fifty scudi to help the
+completion of the buildings; and Cardinal Gastaldi, who had been refused
+the privilege of placing his arms upon a church which he had desired to
+build in Bologna, and was looking about for an opportunity of
+perpetuating his name, finished the two churches, his attention having
+been first called to them by the old woman's humble bequest.</p>
+
+<p>As for the Pincio itself, and the ascent to it from the Piazza del
+Popolo, all that land was but a grass-grown hillside, crowned by a few
+small and scattered villas and scantily furnished with trees, until the
+beginning of the present century; and the public gardens of the earlier
+time were those of the famous and beautiful Villa Medici, which Napoleon
+the First bestowed upon the French Academy. It was there that the
+fashionable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> Romans of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used to
+meet, and walk, and be carried about in gilded sedan-chairs, and flirt,
+and gossip, and exchange views on politics and opinions about the latest
+scandal. That was indeed a very strange society, further from us in many
+ways than the world of the Renascence, or even of the Crusades; for the
+Middle Age was strong in the sincerity of its beliefs, as we are
+powerful in the cynicism of our single-hearted faith in riches; but the
+fabric of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was founded upon the
+abuse of an already declining power; it was built up in the most
+extraordinary and elaborate affectation, and it was guarded by a system
+of dissimulation which outdid that of our own day by many degrees, and
+possibly surpassed the hypocrisy of any preceding age.</p>
+
+<p>No one, indeed, can successfully uphold the idea that the high
+development of art in any shape is of necessity coincident with a strong
+growth of religion or moral conviction. Perugino made no secret of being
+an atheist; Lionardo da Vinci was a scientific sceptic; Raphael was an
+amiable rake, no better and no worse than the majority of those gifted
+pupils to whom he was at once a model of perfection and an example of
+free living; and those who maintain that art is always the expression of
+a people's religion have but an imperfect acquaintance with the age of
+Praxiteles, Apelles and Zeuxis. Yet the idea itself has a foundation,
+lying in something<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> which is as hard to define as it is impossible to
+ignore; for if art be not a growth out of faith, it is always the result
+of a faith that has been, since although it is possible to conceive of
+religion without art, it is out of the question to think of art as a
+whole, without a religious origin; and as the majority of writers find
+it easier to describe scenes and emotions, when a certain lapse of time
+has given them what painters call atmospheric perspective, so the
+Renascence began when memory already clothed the ferocious realism of
+medi&aelig;val Christianity in the softer tones of gentle chivalry and tender
+romance. It is often said, half in jest, that, in order to have
+intellectual culture, a man must at least have forgotten Latin, if he
+cannot remember it, because the fact of having learned it leaves
+something behind that cannot be acquired in any other way. Similarly, I
+think that art of all sorts has reached its highest level in successive
+ages when it has aimed at recalling, by an illusion, a once vivid
+reality from a not too distant past. And so when it gives itself up to
+the realism of the present, it impresses the senses rather than the
+thoughts, and misses its object, which is to bring within our mental
+reach what is beyond our physical grasp; and when, on the other hand, it
+goes back too far, it fails in execution, because its models are not
+only out of sight, but out of mind, and it cannot touch us because we
+can no longer feel even a romantic interest in the real or imaginary
+events which it attempts to describe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The subject is too high to be lightly touched, and too wide to be
+touched more than lightly here; but in this view of it may perhaps be
+found some explanation of the miserable poverty of Italian art in the
+eighteenth century, foreshadowed by the decadence of the seventeenth,
+which again is traceable to the dissipation of force and the
+disappearance of individuality that followed the Renascence, as
+inevitably as old age follows youth. Besides all necessary gifts of
+genius, the development of art seems to require that a race should not
+only have leisure for remembering, but should also have something to
+remember which may be worthy of being recalled and perhaps of being
+imitated. Progress may be the road to wealth and health, and to such
+happiness as may be derived from both; but the advance of civilization
+is the path of thought, and its landmarks are not inventions nor
+discoveries, but those very great creations of the mind which ennoble
+the heart in all ages; and as the idea of progress is inseparable from
+that of growing riches, so is the true conception of civilization
+indivisible from thoughts of beauty and nobility. In the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, Italy had almost altogether lost sight of these;
+art was execrable, fashion was hideous, morality meant hypocrisy; the
+surest way to power lay in the most despicable sort of intrigue, and
+inward and spiritual faith was as rare as outward and visible devoutness
+was general.</p>
+
+<p>That was the society which frequented the Villa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> Medici on fine
+afternoons, and it is hard to see wherein its charm lay, if, indeed, it
+had any. Instead of originality, its conversation teemed with artificial
+conventionalisms; instead of nature, it exhibited itself in the disguise
+of fashions more inconvenient, uncomfortable and ridiculous than those
+of any previous or later times; it delighted in the impossibly
+nonsensical 'pastoral' verses which we find too silly to read; and in
+place of wit, it clothed gross and cruel sayings in a thin remnant of
+worn-out classicism. It had not the frankly wicked recklessness of the
+French aristocracy between Lewis the Fourteenth and the Revolution, nor
+the changing contrasts of brutality, genius, affectation and Puritanical
+austerity which marked England's ascent, from the death of Edward the
+Sixth to the victories of Nelson and Wellington; still less had it any
+of those real motives for existence which carried Germany through her
+long struggle for life. It had little which we are accustomed to respect
+in men and women, and yet it had something which we lack today, and
+which we unconsciously envy&mdash;it had a colour of its own. Wandering under
+the ancient ilexes of those sad and beautiful gardens, meeting here and
+there a few silent and soberly clad strangers, one cannot but long for
+the brilliancy of two centuries ago, when the walks were gay with
+brilliant dresses, and gilded chairs, and servants in liveries of
+scarlet and green and gold, and noble ladies, tottering a few steps on
+their ridiculous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> high heels, and men bewigged and becurled, their
+useless little hats under their arms, and their embroidered coat tails
+flapping against their padded, silk-stockinged calves; and red-legged,
+unpriestly Cardinals who were not priests even in name, but only the lay
+life-peers of the Church; and grave Bishops with their secretaries; and
+laughing abb&eacute;s, whose clerical dress was the accustomed uniform of
+government office, which they still wore when they were married, and
+were fathers of families. There is little besides colour to recommend
+the picture, but at least there is that.</p>
+
+<p>The Pincian hill has always been the favourite home of artists of all
+kinds, and many lived at one time or another in the little villas that
+once stood there, and in the houses in the Via Sistina and southward,
+and up towards the Porta Pinciana. Guido Reni, the Caracci, Salvator
+Rosa, Poussin, Claude Lorrain, have all left the place the association
+of their presence, and the Zuccheri brothers built themselves the house
+which still bears their name, just below the one at the corner of the
+Trinit&agrave; de' Monti, known to all foreigners as the 'Tempietto' or little
+temple. But the Villa Medici stands as it did long ago, its walls
+uninjured, its trees grander than ever, its walks unchanged.
+Soft-hearted Baracconi, in love with those times more than with the
+Middle Age, speaks half tenderly of the people who used to meet there,
+calling them collectively a gay and light-hearted society, gentle, idle,
+full of graceful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> thoughts and delicate perceptions, brilliant
+reflections and light charms; he regrets the gilded chairs, the huge
+built-up wigs, the small sword of the 'cavalier servente,' and the
+abb&eacute;'s silk mantle, the semi-platonic friendships, the jests borrowed
+from Goldoni, the 'pastoral' scandal, and exchange of compliments and
+madrigals and epigrams, and all the brilliant powdered train of that
+extinct world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image297.jpg" width="450" height="299" alt="VILLA MEDICI" title="" />
+<span class="caption">VILLA MEDICI</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whatever life may have been in those times, that world died in a pretty
+tableau, after the manner of Watteau's paintings; it meant little and
+accomplished little, and though its bright colouring brings it for a
+moment to the foreground, it has really not much to do with the Rome we
+know nor with the Rome one thinks of in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> the past, always great, always
+sad, always tragic, as no other city in the world can ever be.</p>
+
+<p>Ignorance, tradition, imagination, romance,&mdash;call it what you will,&mdash;has
+chosen the long-closed Pincian Gate for the last station of blind
+Belisarius. There, says the tale, the ancient conqueror, the banisher
+and maker of Popes, the favourite and the instrument of imperial
+Theodora, stood begging his bread at the gate of the city he had won and
+lost, leaning upon the arm of the fair girl child who would not leave
+him, and stretching forth his hand to those that passed by, with a
+feeble prayer for alms, pathetic as &OElig;dipus in the utter ruin of his
+life and fortune. A truer story tells how Pope Silverius, humble and
+gentle, and hated by Theodora, went up to the Pincian villa to answer
+the accusation of conspiring with the Goths, when he himself had opened
+the gates of Rome to Belisarius; and how he was led into the great hall
+where the warrior's wife, Theodora's friend, the beautiful and evil
+Antonina, lay with half-closed eyes upon her splendid couch, while
+Belisarius sat beside her feet, toying with her jewels. There the
+husband and wife accused the Pope, and judged him without hearing, and
+condemned him without right; and they caused him to be stripped of his
+robes, and clad as a poor monk and driven out to far exile, that they
+might set up the Empress Theodora's Pope in his place; and with him they
+drove out many Roman nobles.</p>
+
+<p>And it is said that when Silverius was dead of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> broken heart in the
+little island of Palmaria, Belisarius repented of his deeds and built
+the small Church of Santa Maria de' Crociferi, behind the fountain of
+Trevi, in partial expiation of his fault, and there, to prove the truth
+of the story, the tablet that tells of his repentance has stood nearly
+fourteen hundred years and may be read today, on the east wall, towards
+the Via de' Poli. The man who conquered Africa for Justinian, seized
+Sicily, took Rome, defended it successfully against the Goths, reduced
+Ravenna, took Rome from the Goths again, and finally rescued
+Constantinople, was disgraced more than once; but he was not blinded,
+nor did he die in exile or in prison, for at the end he breathed his
+last in the enjoyment of his freedom and his honours; and the story of
+his blindness is the fabrication of an ignorant Greek monk who lived six
+hundred years later and confounded Justinian's great general with the
+romantic and unhappy John of Cappadocia, who lived at the same time, was
+a general at the same time, and incurred the displeasure of that same
+pious, proud, avaricious Theodora, actress, penitent and Empress, whose
+paramount beauty held the Emperor in thrall for life, and whose
+surpassing cruelty imprinted an indelible seal of horror upon his
+glorious reign&mdash;of her who, when she delivered a man to death,
+admonished the executioner with an oath, saying, 'By Him who liveth for
+ever, if thou failest, I will cause thee to be flayed alive.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Another figure rises at the window of the Tuscan Ambassador's great
+villa, with the face of a man concerning whom legend has also found much
+to invent and little to say that is true, a man of whom modern science
+has rightly made a hero, but whom prejudice and ignorance have wrongly
+crowned as a martyr&mdash;Galileo Galilei. Tradition represents him as
+languishing, laden with chains, in the more or less mythical prisons of
+the Inquisition; history tells very plainly that his first confinement
+consisted in being the honoured guest of the Tuscan Ambassador in the
+latter's splendid residence in Rome, and that his last imprisonment was
+a relegation to the beautiful castle of the Piccolomini near Siena, than
+which the heart of man could hardly desire a more lovely home. History
+affirms beyond doubt, moreover, that Galileo was the personal friend of
+that learned and not illiberal Barberini, Pope Urban the Eighth, under
+whose long reign the Copernican system was put on trial, who believed in
+that system as Galileo did, who read his books and talked with him; and
+who, when the stupid technicalities of the ecclesiastic courts declared
+the laws of the universe to be nonsense, gave his voice against the
+decision, though he could not officially annul it without scandal. 'It
+was not my intention,' said the Pope in the presence of witnesses, 'to
+condemn Galileo. If the matter had depended upon me, the decree of the
+Index which condemned his doctrines should never have been pronounced.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That Galileo's life was saddened by the result of the absurd trial, and
+that he was nominally a prisoner for a long time, is not to be denied.
+But that he suffered the indignities and torments recorded in legend is
+no more true than that Belisarius begged his bread at the Porta
+Pinciana. He lived in comfort and in honour with the Ambassador in the
+Villa Medici, and many a time from those lofty windows, unchanged since
+before his day, he must have watched the earth turning with him from the
+sun at evening, and meditated upon the emptiness of the ancient phrase
+that makes the sun 'set' when the day is done&mdash;thinking of the world,
+perhaps, as turning upon its other side, with tired eyes, and ready for
+rest and darkness and refreshment, after long toil and heat.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>One may stand under those old trees before the Villa Medici, beside the
+ancient fountain facing Saint Peter's distant dome, and dream the great
+review of history, and call up a vast, changing picture at one's feet
+between the heights and the yellow river. First, the broad corn-field of
+the Tarquin Kings, rich and ripe under the evening breeze of summer that
+runs along swiftly, bending the golden surface in soft moving waves from
+the Tiber's edge to the foot of the wooded slope. Then, the hurried
+harvesting, the sheaves cast into the river, the dry, stiff stubble
+baking in the sun, and presently the men of Rome coming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> forth in
+procession from the dark Servian wall on the left to dedicate the field
+to the War God with prayer and chant and smoking sacrifice. By and by
+the stubble trodden down under horses' hoofs, the dusty plain the
+exercising ground of young conquerors, the voting place, later, of a
+strong Republic, whither the centuries went out to choose their consuls,
+to decide upon peace or war, to declare the voice of the people in grave
+matters, while the great signal flag waved on the Janiculum, well in
+sight though far away, to fall suddenly at the approach of any foe and
+suspend the 'comitia' on the instant. And in the flat and dusty plain,
+buildings begin to rise; first, the Altar of Mars and the holy place of
+the infernal gods, Dis and Proserpine; later, the great 'Sheepfold,' the
+lists and hustings for the voting, and, encroaching a little upon the
+training ground, the temple of Venus Victorious and the huge theatre of
+Pompey, wherein the Orsini held their own so long; but in the times of
+Lucullus, when his gardens and his marvellous villa covered the Pincian
+hill, the plain was still a wide field, and still the field of Mars,
+without the walls, broken by few landmarks, and trodden to deep white
+dust by the scampering hoofs of half-drilled cavalry. Under the
+Emperors, then, first beautified in part, as C&aelig;sar traces the great
+Septa for the voting, and Augustus erects the Altar of Peace and builds
+up his cypress-clad tomb, crowned by his own image, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> Agrippa raises
+his triple temple, and Hadrian builds the Pantheon upon its ruins, while
+the obelisk that now stands on Monte Citorio before the House of
+Parliament points out the brass-figured hours on the broad marble floor
+of the first Emperor's sun-clock and marks the high noon of Rome's
+glory&mdash;and the Portico of Neptune and many other splendid works spring
+up. Isis and Serapis have a temple next, and Domitian's race-course
+appears behind Agrippa's Baths, straight and white. By and by the
+Antonines raise columns and triumphal arches, but always to southward,
+leaving the field of Mars a field still, for its old uses, and the tired
+recruits, sweating from exercise, gather under the high shade of
+Augustus' tomb at midday for an hour's rest.</p>
+
+<p>Last of all, the great temple of the Sun, with its vast portico, and the
+Mithr&aelig;um at the other end, and when the walls of Aurelian are built, and
+when ruin comes upon Rome from the north, the Campus Martius is still
+almost an open stretch of dusty earth on which soldiers have learned
+their trade through a thousand years of hard training.</p>
+
+<p>Not till the poor days when the waterless, ruined city sends its people
+down from the heights to drink of the muddy stream does Campo Marzo
+become a town, and then, around the castle-tomb of the Colonna and the
+castle-theatre of the Orsini the wretched houses begin to rise here and
+there, thickening to a low, dark forest of miserable dwellings threaded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+through and through, up and down and crosswise, by narrow and crooked
+streets, out of which by degrees the lofty churches and palaces of the
+later age are to spring up. From a training ground it has become a
+fighting ground, a labyrinth of often barricaded ways and lanes, deeper
+and darker towards the water-gates cut in the wall that runs along the
+Tiber, from Porta del Popolo nearly to the island of Saint Bartholomew,
+and almost all that is left of Rome is crowded and huddled into the
+narrow pen overshadowed and dominated here and there by black fortresses
+and brown brick towers. The man who then might have looked down from the
+Pincian hill would have seen that sight; houses little better than those
+of the poorest mountain village in the Southern Italy of today, black
+with smoke, black with dirt, blacker with patches made by shadowy
+windows that had no glass. A silent town, too, surly and defensive; now
+and then the call of the water-carrier disturbs the stillness, more
+rarely, the cry of a wandering peddler; and sometimes a distant sound of
+hoofs, a far clash of iron and steel, and the echoing yell of furious
+fighting men&mdash;'Orsini!' 'Colonna!'&mdash;the long-drawn syllables coming up
+distinct through the evening air to the garden where Messalina died,
+while the sun sets red behind the spire of old Saint Peter's across the
+river, and gilds the huge girth of dark Sant' Angelo to a rusty red,
+like battered iron bathed in blood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Back come the Popes from Avignon, and streets grow wider and houses
+cleaner and men richer&mdash;all for the Bourbon's Spaniards to sack, and
+burn, and destroy before the last city grows up, and the rounded domes
+raise their helmet-like heads out of the chaos, and the broad Piazza del
+Popolo is cleared, and old Saint Peter's goes down in dust to make way
+for the Cathedral of all Christendom as it stands. Then far away, on
+Saint Peter's evening, when it is dusk, the great dome, and the small
+domes, and the colonnades, and the broad fa&ccedil;ade are traced in silver
+lights that shine out quietly as the air darkens. The solemn bells toll
+the first hour of the June night; the city is hushed, and all at once
+the silver lines are turned to gold, as the red flame runs in magic
+change from the topmost cross down the dome, in rivers, to the roof, and
+the pillars and the columns of the square below&mdash;the grandest
+illumination of the grandest church the world has ever seen.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image306.jpg" width="450" height="292" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION V PONTE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Region of Ponte, 'the Bridge,' takes its name from the ancient
+Triumphal Bridge which led from the city to the Vatican Fields, and at
+low water some fragments of the original piers may be seen in the river
+at the bend just below Ponte Sant' Angelo, between the Church of Saint
+John of the Florentines on the one bank, and the Hospital of Santo
+Spirito on the other. In the Middle Age, according to Baracconi and
+others, the broken arches still extended into the stream, and upon them
+was built a small fortress, the outpost of the Orsini on that side. The
+device, however, appears to represent a portion of the later Bridge of
+Sant' Angelo, built upon the foundations of the &AElig;lian Bridge of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+Hadrian, which connected his tomb with the Campus Martius. The Region
+consists of the northwest point of the city, bounded by the Tiber, from
+Monte Brianzo round the bend, and down stream to the new Lungara bridge,
+and on the land side by a very irregular line running across the Corso
+Vittorio Emanuele, close to the Chiesa Nuova, and then eastward and
+northward in a zigzag, so as to take in most of the fortresses of the
+Orsini family, Monte Giordano, Tor Millina, Tor Sanguigna, and the now
+demolished Torre di Nona. The Sixth and Seventh Regions adjacent to the
+Fifth and to each other would have to be included in order to take in
+all that part of Rome once held by the only family that rivalled, and
+sometimes surpassed, the Colonna in power.</p>
+
+<p>As has been said before, the original difference between the two was
+that the Colonna were Ghibellines and for the Emperors, while the Orsini
+were Guelphs and generally adhered to the Popes. In the violent changes
+of the Middle Age, it happened indeed that the Colonna had at least one
+Pope of their own, and that more than one, such as Nicholas the Fourth,
+favoured their race to the point of exciting popular indignation. But,
+on the whole, they kept to their parties. When Lewis the Bavarian was to
+be crowned by force, Sciarra Colonna crowned him; when Henry the Seventh
+of Luxemburg had come to Rome for the same purpose, a few years earlier,
+the Orsini<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> had been obliged to be satisfied with a sort of second-rate
+coronation at Saint John Lateran's; and when the struggle between the
+two families was at its height, nearly two centuries later, and Sixtus
+the Fourth 'assumed the part of mediator,' as the chronicle expresses
+it, one of his first acts of mediation was to cut off the head of a
+Colonna, and his next was to lay regular siege to the strongholds of the
+family in the Roman hills; but before he had brought this singular
+process of mediation to an issue he suddenly died, the Colonna returned
+to their dwellings in Rome 'with great clamour and triumph,' got the
+better of the Orsini, and proceeded to elect a Pope after their own
+hearts, in the person of Cardinal Cibo, of Genoa, known as Innocent the
+Eighth. He it is who lies under the beautiful bronze monument in the
+inner left aisle of Saint Peter's, which shows him holding in his hand a
+model of the spear-head that pierced Christ's side, a relic believed to
+have been sent to the Pope as a gift by Sultan Bajazet the Second.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the hatred between Colonna and Orsini is unknown, for the
+archives of the former have as yet thrown no light upon the subject, and
+those of the latter were almost entirely destroyed by fire in the last
+century. In the year 1305, Pope Clement the Fifth was elected Pope at
+Perugia. He was a Frenchman, and was Archbishop of Bordeaux, the
+candidate of Philip the Fair, whose tutor had been a Colonna, and he
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> chosen by the opposing factions of two Orsini cardinals because the
+people of Perugia were tired of a quarrel that had lasted eleven months,
+and had adopted the practical and always infallible expedient of
+deliberately starving the conclave to a vote. Muratori calls it a
+scandalous and illicit election, which brought about the ruin of Italy
+and struck a memorable blow at the power of the Holy See. Though not a
+great man, Philip the Fair was one of the cleverest that ever lived.
+Before the election he had made his bishop swear upon the Sacred Host to
+accept his conditions, without expressing them all; and the most
+important proved to be the transference of the Papal See to France. The
+new Pope obeyed his master, established himself in Avignon, and the King
+to all intents and purposes had taken the Pontificate captive and lost
+no time in using it for his own ends against the Empire, his hereditary
+foe. Such, in a few words, is the history of that memorable transaction;
+and but for the previous quarrels of Colonna, Caetani and Orsini, it
+could never have taken place. The Orsini repented bitterly of what they
+had done, for one of Clement the Fifth's first acts was to 'annul
+altogether all sentences whatsoever pronounced against the Colonna.'</p>
+
+<p>But the Pope being gone, the Barons had Rome in their power and used it
+for a battlefield. Four years later, we find in Villani the first record
+of a skirmish fought between Orsini and Colonna. In the month of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+October, 1309, says the chronicler, certain of the Orsini and of the
+Colonna met outside the walls of Rome with their followers, to the
+number of four hundred horse, and fought together, and the Colonna won;
+and there died the Count of Anguillara, and six of the Orsini were
+taken, and Messer Riccardo degli Annibaleschi who was in their company.</p>
+
+<p>Three years afterwards, Henry of Luxemburg alternately feasted and
+fought his way to Rome to be crowned Emperor in spite of Philip the
+Fair, the Tuscan league and Robert, King of Naples, who sent a thousand
+horsemen out of the south to hinder the coronation. In a day Rome was
+divided into two great camps. Colonna held for the Emperor the Lateran,
+Santa Maria Maggiore, the Colosseum, the Torre delle Milizie,&mdash;the brick
+tower on the lower part of the modern Via Nazionale,&mdash;the Pantheon, as
+an advanced post in one direction, and Santa Sabina, a church that was
+almost a fortress, on the south, by the Tiber,&mdash;a chain of fortresses
+which would be formidable in any modern revolution. Against Henry,
+however, the Orsini held the Vatican and Saint Peter's, the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo and all Trastevere, their fortresses in the Region of
+Ponte, and, moreover, the Capitol itself. The parties were well matched,
+for, though Henry entered Rome on the seventh of May, the struggle
+lasted till the twenty-ninth of June.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have seen revolutions can guess at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> desperate fighting in
+the barricaded streets, and at the well-guarded bridges from one end of
+the city to the other. Backwards and forwards the battle raged for days
+and weeks, by day and night, with small time for rest and refreshment.
+Forward rode the Colonna, the stolid Germans, Henry himself, the eagle
+of the Empire waving in the dim streets beside the flag that displayed
+the simple column in a plain field. It is not hard to hear and see it
+all again&mdash;the clanging gallop of armoured knights, princes, nobles and
+bishops, with visors down, and long swords and maces in their hands, the
+high, fierce cries of the light-armed footmen, the bowmen and the
+slingers, the roar of the rabble rout behind, the shrill voices of women
+at upper windows, peering down for the face of brother, husband, or
+lover in the dashing press below,&mdash;the dust, the heat, the fierce June
+sunshine blazing on broad steel, and the deep, black shadows putting out
+all light as the bands rush past. Then, on a sudden, the answering shout
+of the Orsini, the standard of the Bear, the Bourbon lilies of Anjou,
+the scarlet and white colours of the Guelph house, the great black
+horses, and the dark mail&mdash;the enemies surging together in the street
+like swift rivers of loose iron meeting in a stone channel, with a
+rending crash and the quick hammering of steel raining desperate blows
+on steel&mdash;horses rearing their height, footmen crushed, knights reeling
+in the saddle, sparks flying, steel-clad arms and long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> swords whirling
+in great circles through the air. Foremost of all in fight the Bishop of
+Li&egrave;ge, his purple mantle flying back from his corselet, trampling down
+everything, sworn to win the barricade or die, riding at it like a
+madman, forcing his horse up to it over the heaps of quivering bodies
+that made a causeway, leaping it alone at last, like a demon in air, and
+standing in the thick of the Orsini, slaying to right and left.</p>
+
+<p>In an instant they had him down and bound and prisoner, one man against
+a thousand; and they fastened him behind a man-at-arms, on the crupper,
+to take him into Sant' Angelo alive. But a soldier, whose brother he had
+slain a moment earlier, followed stealthily on foot and sought the joint
+in the back of the armour, and ran in his pike quickly, and killed
+him&mdash;'whereof,' says the chronicle, 'was great pity, for the Bishop was
+a man of high courage and authority.' But on the other side of the
+barricade, those who had followed him so far, and lost him, felt their
+hearts sink, for not one of them could do what he had done; and after
+that, though they fought a whole month longer, they had but little hope
+of ever getting to the Vatican. So the Colonna took Henry up to the
+Lateran, where they were masters, and he was crowned there by three
+cardinals in the Pope's stead, while the Orsini remained grimly
+intrenched in their own quarter, and each party held its own, even after
+Henry had prudently retired to Tivoli, in the hills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image314a.jpg" width="650" height="412" alt="ISLAND IN THE TIBER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">ISLAND IN THE TIBER</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At last the great houses made a truce and a compromise, by which they
+attempted to govern Rome jointly, and chose Sciarra&mdash;the same who had
+taken Pope Boniface prisoner in Anagni&mdash;and Matteo Orsini of Monte
+Giordano, to be Senators together; and there was peace between them for
+a time, in the year in which Rienzi was born. But in that very year, as
+though foreshadowing his destiny, the rabble of Rome rose up, and chose
+a dictator; and somehow, by surprise or treachery, he got possession of
+the Barons' chief fortresses, and of Sant' Angelo, and set up the
+standard of terror against the nobles. In a few days he sacked and
+burned their strongholds, and the high and mighty lords who had made the
+reigning Pope, and had fought to an issue for the Crown of the Holy
+Roman Empire, were conquered, humiliated and imprisoned by an upstart
+plebeian of Trastevere. The portcullis of Monte Giordano was lifted, and
+the mysterious gates were thrown wide to the curiosity of a populace
+drunk with victory; Giovanni degli Stefaneschi issued edicts of
+sovereign power from the sacred precincts of the Capitol; and the
+vagabond thieves of Rome feasted in the lordly halls of the Colonna
+palace. But though the tribune and the people could seize Rome,
+outnumbering the nobles as ten to one, they had neither the means nor
+the organization to besiege the fortified towns of the great houses,
+which hemmed in the city and the Campagna on every side. Thither the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+nobles retired to recruit fresh armies among their retainers, to forge
+new swords in their own smithies, and to concert new plans for
+recovering their ancient domination; and thence they returned in their
+strength, from their towers and their towns and fortresses, from
+Palestrina and Subiaco, Genazzano, San Vito and Paliano on the south,
+and from Bracciano and Galera and Anguillara, and all the Orsini castles
+on the north, to teach the people of Rome the great truth of those days,
+that 'aristocracy' meant not the careless supremacy of the nobly born,
+but the power of the strongest hands and the coolest heads to take and
+hold. Back came Colonna and Orsini, and the people, who a few months
+earlier had acclaimed their dictator in a fit of justifiable ill-temper
+against their masters, opened the gates for the nobles again, and no man
+lifted a hand to help Giovanni degli Stefaneschi, when the men-at-arms
+bound him and dragged him off to prison. Strange to say, no further
+vengeance was taken upon him, and for once in their history, the nobles
+shed no blood in revenge for a mortal injury.</p>
+
+<p>No man could count the tragedies that swept over the Region of Ponte
+from the first outbreak of war between the Orsini and the Colonna, till
+Paolo Giordano Orsini, the last of the elder branch, breathed out his
+life in exile under the ban of Sixtus the Fifth, three hundred years
+later. There was no end of them till then, and there was little
+interruption of them while they lasted;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> there is no stone left standing
+from those days in that great quarter that may not have been splashed
+with their fierce blood, nor is there, perhaps, a church or chapel
+within their old holding into which an Orsini has not been borne dead or
+dying from some deadly fight. Even today it is gloomy, and the broad
+modern street, which swept down a straight harvest of memories through
+the quarter to the very Bridge of Sant' Angelo, has left the medi&aelig;val
+shadows on each side as dark as ever. Of the three parts of the city,
+which still recall the Middle Age most vividly, namely, the
+neighbourhood of San Pietro in Vincoli, in the first Region, the by-ways
+of Trastevere and the Region of Ponte, the latter is by far the most
+interesting. It was the abode of the Orsini; it was also the chief place
+of business for the bankers and money-changers who congregated there
+under the comparatively secure protection of the Guelph lords; and it
+was the quarter of prisons, of tortures, and of executions both secret
+and public. The names of the streets had terrible meaning: there was the
+Vicolo della Corda, and the Corda was the rope by which criminals were
+hoisted twenty feet in the air, and allowed to drop till their toes were
+just above the ground; there was the Piazza della Berlina Vecchia, the
+place of the Old Pillory; there was a little church known as the 'Church
+of the Gallows'; and there was a lane ominously called Vicolo dello
+Mastro; the Mastro was the Master of judicial executions, in other
+words, the Executioner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> himself. Before the Castle of Sant' Angelo stood
+the permanent gallows, rarely long unoccupied, and from an upper window
+of the dark Torre di Nona, on the hither side of the bridge, a rope hung
+swinging slowly in the wind, sometimes with a human body at the end of
+it, sometimes without. It was the place, and that was the manner, of
+executions that took place in the night. In Via di Monserrato stood the
+old fortress of the Savelli, long ago converted into a prison, and
+called the Corte Savella, the most terrible of all Roman dungeons for
+the horror of damp darkness, for ever associated with Beatrice Cenci's
+trial and death. Through those very streets she was taken in the cart to
+the little open space before the bridge, where she laid down her life
+upon the scaffold three hundred years ago, and left her story of
+offended innocence, of revenge and of expiation, which will not be
+forgotten while Rome is remembered.</p>
+
+<p>Beatrice Cenci's story has been often told, but nowhere more clearly and
+justly than in Shelley's famous letter, written to explain his play.
+There are several manuscript accounts of the last scene at the Ponte
+Sant' Angelo, and I myself have lately read one, written by a
+contemporary and not elsewhere mentioned, but differing only from the
+rest in the horrible realism with which the picture is presented. The
+truth is plain enough; the unspeakable crimes of Francesco Cenci, his
+more than inhuman cruelty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> to his children and his wives, his monstrous
+lust and devilish nature, outdo anything to be found in any history of
+the world, not excepting the private lives of Tiberius, Nero, or
+Commodus. His daughter and his second wife killed him in his sleep. His
+death was merciful and swift, in an age when far less crimes were
+visited with tortures at the very name of which we shudder. They were
+driven to absolute desperation, and the world has forgiven them their
+one quick blow, struck for freedom, for woman's honour and for life
+itself in the dim castle of Petrella. Tormented with rack and cord they
+all confessed the deed, save Beatrice, whom no bodily pain could move;
+and if Paolo Santacroce had not murdered his mother for her money before
+their death was determined, Clement the Eighth would have pardoned them.
+But the times were evil, an example was called for, Santacroce had
+escaped to Brescia, and the Pope's heart was hardened against the Cenci.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image321.jpg" width="450" height="311" alt="BRIDGE OF SANT&#39; ANGELO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRIDGE OF SANT&#39; ANGELO</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They died bravely, there at the head of the bridge, in the calm May
+morning, in the midst of a vast and restless crowd, among whom more than
+one person was killed by accident, as by the falling of a pot of flowers
+from a high window, and by the breaking down of a balcony over a shop,
+where too many had crowded in to see. The old house opposite looked down
+upon the scene, and the people watched Beatrice Cenci die from those
+same arched windows. Above the sea of faces, high on the wooden
+scaffold, rises the tall figure of a lovely girl, her hair gleaming in
+the sunshine like threads of dazzling gold, her marvellous blue eyes
+turned up to Heaven, her fresh young dimpled face not pale with fear,
+her exquisite lips moving softly as she repeats the De Profundis of her
+last appeal to God. Let the axe not fall. Let her stand there for ever
+in the spotless purity that cost her life on earth and set her name for
+ever among the high constellated stars of maidenly romance.</p>
+
+<p>Close by the bridge, just opposite the Torre di Nona, stood the 'Lion
+Inn,' once kept by the beautiful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> Vanozza de Catanei, the mother of
+Rodrigo Borgia's children, of C&aelig;sar, and Gandia, and Lucrezia, and the
+place was her property still when she was nominally married to her
+second husband, Carlo Canale, the keeper of the prison across the way.
+In the changing vicissitudes of the city, the Torre di Nona made way for
+the once famous Apollo Theatre, built upon the lower dungeons and
+foundations, and Faust's demon companion rose to the stage out of the
+depths that had heard the groans of tortured criminals; the theatre
+itself disappeared a few years ago in the works for improving the
+Tiber's banks, and a name is all that remains of a fact that made men
+tremble. In the late destruction, the old houses opposite were not
+altogether pulled down, but were sliced, as it were, through their roofs
+and rooms, at a safe angle; and there, no doubt, are still standing
+portions of Vanozza's inn, while far below, the cellars where she kept
+her wine free of excise, by papal privilege, are still as cool and
+silent as ever.</p>
+
+<p>Not far beyond her hostelry stands another Inn, famous from early days
+and still open to such travellers as deign to accept its poor
+hospitality. It is an inn for the people now, for wine carters, and the
+better sort of hill peasants; it was once the best and most fashionable
+in Rome, and there the great Montaigne once dwelt, and is believed to
+have written at least a part of his famous Essay on Vanity. It is the
+Albergo dell'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> Orso, the 'Bear Inn,' and perhaps it is not a coincidence
+that Vanozza's sign of the Lion should have faced the approach to the
+Leonine City beyond the Tiber, and that the sign of the Bear, 'The
+Orsini Arms,' as an English innkeeper would christen it, should have
+been the principal resort of the kind in a quarter which was
+three-fourths the property and altogether the possession of the great
+house that overshadowed it, from Monte Giordano on the one side, and
+from Pompey's Theatre on the other.</p>
+
+<p>The temporary fall of the Orsini at the end of the sixteenth century
+came about by one of the most extraordinary concatenations of events to
+be found in the chronicles. The story has filled more than one volume
+and is nevertheless very far from complete; nor is it possible, since
+the destruction of the Orsini archives, to reconstruct it with absolute
+accuracy. Briefly told, it is this.</p>
+
+<p>Felice Peretti, monk and Cardinal of Montalto, and still nominally one
+of the so-called 'poor cardinals' who received from the Pope a daily
+allowance known as 'the Dish,' had nevertheless accumulated a good deal
+of property before he became Pope under the name of Sixtus the Fifth,
+and had brought some of his relatives to Rome. Among these was his well
+beloved nephew, Francesco Peretti, for whom he naturally sought an
+advantageous marriage. There was at that time in Rome a notary, named
+Accoramboni, a native<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> of the Marches of Ancona and a man of some wealth
+and of good repute. He had one daughter, Vittoria, a girl of excessive
+vanity, as ambitious as she was vain and as singularly beautiful as she
+was ambitious. But she was also clever in a remarkable degree, and seems
+to have had no difficulty in hiding her bad qualities. Francesco Peretti
+fell in love with her, the Cardinal approved the match, though he was a
+man not easily deceived, and the two were married and settled in the
+Villa Negroni, which the Cardinal had built near the Baths of
+Diocletian. Having attained her first object, Vittoria took less pains
+to play the saint, and began to dress with unbecoming magnificence and
+to live on a very extravagant scale. Her name became a byword in Rome
+and her lovely face was one of the city's sights. The Cardinal,
+devotedly attached to his nephew, disapproved of the latter's young wife
+and regretted the many gifts he had bestowed upon her. Like most clever
+men, too, he was more than reasonably angry at having been deceived in
+his judgment of a girl's character. So far, there is nothing not
+commonplace about the tale.</p>
+
+<p>At that time Paolo Giordano Orsini, the head of the house, Duke of
+Bracciano and lord of a hundred domains, was one of the greatest
+personages in Italy. No longer young and already enormously fat, he was
+married to Isabella de' Medici, the daughter of Cosimo, reigning in
+Florence. She was a beautiful and evil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> woman, and those who have
+endeavoured to make a martyr of her forget the nameless doings of her
+youth. Giordano was weak and extravagant, and paid little attention to
+his wife. She consoled herself with his kinsman, the young and handsome
+Troilo Orsini, who was as constantly at her side as an official
+'cavalier servente' of later days. But the fat Giordano, indolent and
+pleasure seeking, saw nothing. Nor is there anything much more than
+vulgar and commonplace in all this.</p>
+
+<p>Paolo Giordano meets Vittoria Peretti in Rome, and the two commonplaces
+begin the tragedy. On his part, love at first sight; ridiculous, at
+first, when one thinks of his vast bulk and advancing years, terrible,
+by and by, as the hereditary passions of his fierce race could be,
+backed by the almost boundless power which a great Italian lord
+possessed in his surroundings. Vittoria, tired of her dull and virtuous
+husband and of the lectures and parsimony of his uncle, and not dreaming
+that the latter was soon to be Pope, saw herself in a dream of glory
+controlling every mood and action of the greatest noble in the land. And
+she met Giordano again and again, and he pleaded and implored, and was
+alternately ridiculous and almost pathetic in his hopeless passion for
+the notary's daughter. But she had no thought of yielding to his
+entreaties. She would have marriage, or nothing. Neither words nor gifts
+could move her.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>She had a husband, he had a wife; and she demanded that he should marry
+her, and was grimly silent as to the means. Until she was married to him
+he should not so much as touch the tips of her jewelled fingers, nor
+have a lock of her hair to wear in his bosom. He was blindly in love,
+and he was Paolo Giordano Orsini. It was not likely that he should
+hesitate. He who had seen nothing of his wife's doings, suddenly saw his
+kinsman, Troilo, and Isabella was doomed. Troilo fled to Paris, and
+Orsini took Isabella from Bracciano to the lonely castle of Galera.
+There he told her his mind and strangled her, as was his right, being
+feudal lord and master with powers of life and death. Then from
+Bracciano he sent messengers to kill Francesco Peretti. One of them had
+a slight acquaintance with the Cardinal's nephew.</p>
+
+<p>They came to the Villa Negroni by night, and called him out, saying that
+his best friend was in need of him, and was waiting for him at Monte
+Cavallo. He hesitated, for it was very late. They had torches and
+weapons, and would protect him, they said. Still he wavered. Then
+Vittoria, his wife, scoffed at him, and called him coward, and thrust
+him out to die; for she knew. The men walked beside him with their
+torches, talking as they went. They passed the deserted land in the
+Baths of Diocletian, and turned at Saint Bernard's Church to go towards
+the Quirinal. Then they put out the lights and killed him quickly in the
+dark.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>His body lay there all night, and when it was told the next day that
+Montalto's nephew had been murdered, the two men said that they had left
+him at Monte Cavallo and that he must have been killed as he came home
+alone. The Cardinal buried him without a word, and though he guessed the
+truth he asked neither vengeance nor justice of the Pope.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image328.jpg" width="450" height="294" alt="VILLA NEGRONI
+
+From a print of the last century" title="" />
+<span class="caption">VILLA NEGRONI
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gregory the Thirteenth guessed it, too, and when Orsini would have
+married Vittoria, the Pope forbade the banns and interdicted their union
+for ever. That much he dared to do against the greatest peer in the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>To this, Orsini replied by plighting his faith to Vittoria with a ring,
+in the presence of a serving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> woman, an irregular ceremony which he
+afterwards described as a marriage, and he thereupon took his bride and
+her mother under his protection. The Pope retorted by a determined
+effort to arrest the murderers of Francesco; the Bargello and his men
+went in the evening to the Orsini palace at Pompey's Theatre and
+demanded that Giordano should give up the criminals; the porter replied
+that the Duke was asleep; the Orsini men-at-arms lunged out with their
+weapons, looked on during the interview, and considering the presence of
+the Bargello derogatory to their master, drove him away, killing one of
+his men and wounding several others. Thereupon Pope Gregory forbade the
+Duke from seeing Vittoria or communicating with her by messengers, on
+pain of a fine of ten thousand gold ducats, an order to which Orsini
+would have paid no attention but which Vittoria was too prudent to
+disregard, and she retired to her brother's house, leaving the Duke in a
+state of frenzied rage that threatened insanity. Then the Pope seemed to
+waver again, and then again learning that the lovers saw each other
+constantly in spite of his commands, he suddenly had Vittoria seized and
+imprisoned in Sant' Angelo. It is impossible to follow the long struggle
+that ensued. It lasted four years, at the end of which time the Duke and
+Vittoria were living at Bracciano, where the Orsini was absolute lord
+and master and beyond the jurisdiction of the Church&mdash;two hours' ride<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+from the gates of Rome. But no further formality of marriage had taken
+place and Vittoria was not satisfied. Then Gregory the Thirteenth died.</p>
+
+<p>During the vacancy of the Holy See, all interdictions of the late Pope
+were suspended. Instantly Giordano determined to be married, and came to
+Rome with Vittoria. They believed that the Conclave would last some time
+and were making their arrangements without haste, living in Pompey's
+Theatre, when a messenger brought word that Cardinal Montalto would
+surely be elected Pope within a few hours. In the fortress is the small
+family church of Santa Maria di Grotta Pinta. The Duke sent down word to
+his chaplain that the latter must marry him at once. That night a
+retainer of the house had been found murdered at the gate; his body lay
+on a trestle bier before the altar of the chapel when the Duke's message
+came; the Duke himself and Vittoria were already in the little winding
+stair that leads down from the apartments; there was not a moment to be
+lost; the frightened chaplain and the messenger hurriedly raised a
+marble slab which closed an unused vault, dropped the murdered man's
+body into the chasm, and had scarcely replaced the stone when the ducal
+pair entered the church. The priest married them before the altar in
+fear and trembling, and when they were gone entered the whole story in
+the little register in the sacristy. The leaf is extant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Within a few hours, Montalto was Pope, the humble cardinal was changed
+in a moment to the despotic pontiff, whose nephew's murder was
+unavenged; instead of the vacillating Gregory, Orsini had to face the
+terrible Sixtus, and his defeat and exile were foregone conclusions. He
+could no longer hold his own and he took refuge in the States of Venice,
+where his kinsman, Ludovico, was a fortunate general. He made a will
+which divided his personal estate between Vittoria and his son,
+Virginio, greatly to the woman's advantage; and overcome by the
+infirmity of his monstrous size, spent by the terrible passions of his
+later years, and broken in heart by an edict of exile which he could no
+longer defy, he died at Sal&ograve; within seven months of his great enemy's
+coronation, in the forty-ninth year of his age.</p>
+
+<p>Vittoria retired to Padua, and the authorities declared the inheritance
+valid, but Ludovico Orsini's long standing hatred of her was inflamed to
+madness by the conditions of the will. Six weeks after the Duke's death,
+at evening, Vittoria was in her chamber; her boy brother, Flaminio, was
+singing a Miserere to his lute by the fire in the great hall. A sound of
+quick feet, the glare of torches, and Ludovico's masked men filled the
+house. Vittoria died bravely with one deep stab in her heart. The boy,
+Flaminio, was torn to pieces with seventy-four wounds.</p>
+
+<p>But Venice would permit no such outrageous deeds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> Ludovico was besieged
+in his house, by horse and foot and artillery, and was taken alive with
+many of his men and swiftly conveyed to Venice; and a week had not
+passed from the day of the murder before he was strangled by the
+Bargello in the latter's own room, with the red silk cord by which it
+was a noble's privilege to die. The first one broke, and they had to
+take another, but Ludovico Orsini did not wince. An hour later his body
+was borne out with forty torches, in solemn procession, to lie in state
+in Saint Mark's Church. His men were done to death with hideous tortures
+in the public square. So ended the story of Vittoria Accoramboni.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image333.jpg" width="450" height="325" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>REGION VI PARIONE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The principal point of this Region is Piazza Navona, which exactly
+coincides with Domitian's race-course, and the Region consists of an
+irregular triangle of which the huge square is at the northern angle,
+the western one being the Piazza della Chiesa Nuova and the southern
+extremity the theatre of Pompey, so often referred to in these pages as
+one of the Orsini's strongholds and containing the little church in
+which Paolo Giordano married Vittoria Accoramboni, close to the Campo
+dei Fiori which was the place of public executions by fire. The name
+Parione is said to be derived from the Latin 'Paries,' a wall, applied
+to a massive remnant of ancient masonry which once stood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> somewhere in
+the Via di Parione. It matters little; nor can we find any satisfactory
+explanation of the gryphon which serves as a device for the whole
+quarter, included during the Middle Age, with Ponte and Regola, in the
+large portion of the city dominated by the Orsini.</p>
+
+<p>The Befana, which is a corruption of Epifania, the Feast of the
+Epiphany, is and always has been the season of giving presents in Rome,
+corresponding with our Christmas; and the Befana is personated as a
+gruff old woman who brings gifts to little children after the manner of
+our Saint Nicholas. But in the minds of Romans, from earliest childhood,
+the name is associated with the night fair, opened on the eve of the
+Epiphany in Piazza Navona, and which was certainly one of the most
+extraordinary popular festivals ever invented to amuse children and make
+children of grown people, a sort of foreshadowing of Carnival, but
+having at the same time a flavour and a colour of its own, unlike
+anything else in the world.</p>
+
+<p>During the days after Christmas a regular line of booths is erected,
+encircling the whole circus-shaped space. It is a peculiarity of Roman
+festivals that all the material for adornment is kept together from year
+to year, ready for use at a moment's notice, and when one sees the
+enormous amount of lumber required for the Carnival, for the fireworks
+on the Pincio, or for the Befana, one cannot help wondering where it is
+all kept.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> From year to year it lies somewhere, in those vast
+subterranean places and great empty houses used for that especial
+purpose, of which only Romans guess the extent. When needed, it is
+suddenly produced without confusion, marked and numbered, ready to be
+put together and regilt or repainted, or hung with the acres of
+draperies which Latins know so well how to display in everything
+approaching to public pageantry.</p>
+
+<p>At dark, on the Eve of the Epiphany, the Befana begins. The hundreds of
+booths are choked with toys and gleam with thousands of little lights,
+the open spaces are thronged by a moving crowd, the air splits with the
+infernal din of ten thousand whistles and tin trumpets. Noise is the
+first consideration for a successful befana, noise of any kind, shrill,
+gruff, high, low&mdash;any sort of noise; and the first purchase of everyone
+who comes must be a tin horn, a pipe, or one of those grotesque little
+figures of painted earthenware, representing some characteristic type of
+Roman life and having a whistle attached to it, so cleverly modelled in
+the clay as to produce the most hideous noises without even the addition
+of a wooden plug. But anything will do. On a memorable night nearly
+thirty years ago, the whole cornopean stop of an organ was sold in the
+fair, amounting to seventy or eighty pipes with their reeds. The
+instrument in the old English Protestant Church outside of Porta del
+Popolo had been improved, and the organist, who was a practical
+Anglo-Saxon, conceived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> the original and economical idea of selling the
+useless pipes at the night fair for the benefit of the church. The
+braying of the high, cracked reeds was frightful and never to be
+forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>Round and round the square, three generations of families, children,
+parents and even grandparents, move in a regular stream, closer and
+closer towards midnight and supper-time; nor is the place deserted till
+three o'clock in the morning. Toys everywhere, original with an
+attractive ugliness, nine-tenths of them made of earthenware dashed with
+a kind of bright and harmless paint of which every Roman child remembers
+the taste for life; and old and young and middle-aged all blow their
+whistles and horns with solemnly ridiculous pertinacity, pausing only to
+make some little purchase at the booths, or to exchange a greeting with
+passing friends, followed by an especially vigorous burst of noise as
+the whistles are brought close to each other's ears, and the party that
+can make the more atrocious din drives the other half deafened from the
+field. And the old women who help to keep the booths sit warming their
+skinny hands over earthen pots of coals and looking on without a smile
+on their Sibylline faces, while their sons and daughters sell clay
+hunchbacks and little old women of clay, the counterparts of their
+mothers, to the passing customers. Thousands upon thousands of people
+throng the place, and it is warm with the presence of so much humanity,
+even under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> clear winter sky. And there is no confusion, no
+accident, no trouble, there are no drunken men and no pickpockets. But
+Romans are not like other people.</p>
+
+<p>In a few days all is cleared away again, and Bernini's great fountain
+faces Borromini's big Church of Saint Agnes, in the silence; and the
+officious guide tells the credulous foreigner how the figure of the Nile
+in the group is veiling his head to hide the sight of the hideous
+architecture, and how the face of the Danube expresses the River God's
+terror lest the tower should fall upon him; and how the architect
+retorted upon the sculptor by placing Saint Agnes on the summit of the
+church, in the act of reassuring the Romans as to the safety of her
+shrine; and again, how Bernini's enemies said that the obelisk of the
+fountain was tottering, till he came alone on foot and tied four lengths
+of twine to the four corners of the pedestal, and fastened the strings
+to the nearest houses, in derision, and went away laughing. It was at
+that time that he modelled four grinning masks for the corners of his
+sedan-chair, so that they seemed to be making scornful grimaces at his
+detractors as he was carried along. He could afford to laugh. He had
+been the favourite of Urban the Eighth who, when Cardinal Barberini, had
+actually held the looking-glass by the aid of which the handsome young
+sculptor modelled his own portrait in the figure of David with the
+sling, now in the Museum of Villa Borghese. After a brief<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> period of
+disgrace under the next reign, brought about by the sharpness of his
+Neapolitan tongue, Bernini was restored to the favour of Innocent the
+Tenth, the Pamfili Pope, to please whose economical tastes he executed
+the fountain in Piazza Navona, after a design greatly reduced in extent
+as well as in beauty, compared with the first he had sketched. But an
+account of Bernini would lead far and profit little; the catalogue of
+his works would fill a small volume; and after all, he was successful
+only in an age when art had fallen low. In place of Michelangelo's
+universal genius, Bernini possessed a born Neapolitan's universal
+facility. He could do something of everything, circumstances gave him
+enormous opportunities, and there were few things which he did not
+attempt, from classic sculpture to the final architecture of Saint
+Peter's and the fortifications of Sant' Angelo. He was afflicted by the
+hereditary giantism of the Latins, and was often moved by motives of
+petty spite against his inferior rival, Borromini. His best work is the
+statue of Saint Teresa in Santa Maria della Vittoria, a figure which has
+recently excited the ecstatic admiration of a French critic, expressed
+in language that betrays at once the fault of the conception, the taste
+of the age in which Bernini lived, and the unhealthy nature of the
+sculptor's prolific talent. Only the seventeenth century could have
+represented such a disquieting fusion of the sensuous and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> the
+spiritual, and it was reserved for the decadence of our own days to find
+words that could describe it. Bernini has been praised as the
+Michelangelo of his day, but no one has yet been bold enough, or foolish
+enough, to call Michelangelo the Bernini of the sixteenth century.
+Barely sixty years elapsed between the death of the one and birth of the
+other, and the space of a single lifetime separates the zenith of the
+Renascence from the nadir of Barocco art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image339.jpg" width="450" height="401" alt="PIAZZA NAVONA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PIAZZA NAVONA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The names of Bernini and of Piazza Navona recall Innocent the Tenth, who
+built the palace beside the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> Church of Saint Agnes, his meannesses, his
+nepotism, his weakness, and his miserable end; how his relatives
+stripped him of all they could lay hands on, and how at the last, when
+he died in the only shirt he possessed, covered by a single ragged
+blanket, his sister-in-law, Olimpia Maldachini, dragged from beneath his
+pallet bed the two small chests of money which he had succeeded in
+concealing to the end. A brass candlestick with a single burning taper
+stood beside him in his last moments, and before he was quite dead, a
+servant stole it and put a wooden one in its place. When he was dead at
+the Quirinal, his body was carried to Saint Peter's in a bier so short
+that the poor Pope's feet stuck out over the end, and three days later,
+no one could be found to pay for the burial. Olimpia declared that she
+was a starving widow and could do nothing; the corpse was thrust into a
+place where the masons of the Vatican kept their tools, and one of the
+workmen, out of charity or superstition, lit a tallow candle beside it.
+In the end, the maggiordomo paid for a deal coffin, and Monsignor Segni
+gave five scudi&mdash;an English pound&mdash;to have the body taken away and
+buried. It was slung between two mules and taken by night to the Church
+of Saint Agnes, where in the changing course of human and domestic
+events, it ultimately got an expensive monument in the worst possible
+taste. The learned and sometimes witty Baracconi, who has set down the
+story, notes the fact that Leo the Tenth, Pius the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> Fourth and Gregory
+the Sixteenth fared little better in their obsequies, and he comments
+upon the democratic spirit of a city in which such things can happen.</p>
+
+<p>Close to the Piazza Navona stands the famous mutilated group, known as
+Pasquino, of which the mere name conveys a better idea of the Roman
+character than volumes of description, for it was here that the
+pasquinades were published, by affixing them to a pedestal at the corner
+of the Palazzo Braschi. And one of Pasquino's bitterest jests was
+directed against Olimpia Maldachini. Her name was cut in two, to make a
+good Latin pun: 'Olim pia, nunc impia,' 'once pious, now impious,' or
+'Olimpia, now impious,' as one chose to join or separate the syllables.
+Whole books have been filled with the short and pithy imaginary
+conversations between Marforio, the statue of a river god which used to
+stand in the Monti, and Pasquino, beneath whom the Roman children used
+to be told that the book of all wisdom was buried for ever.</p>
+
+<p>In the Region of Parione stands the famous Cancelleria, a masterpiece of
+Bramante's architecture, celebrated for many events in the later history
+of Rome, and successively the princely residence of several cardinals,
+chief of whom was that strong Pompeo Colonna, the ally of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth, who was responsible for the sacking of Rome by the
+Constable of Bourbon, who ultimately ruined the Holy League, and imposed
+his terrible terms of peace upon Clement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> the Seventh, a prisoner in
+Sant' Angelo. Considering the devastation and the horrors which were the
+result of that contest, and its importance in Rome's history, it is
+worth while to tell the story again. Connected with it was the last
+great struggle between Orsini and Colonna, Orsini, as usual, siding for
+the Pope, and therefore for the Holy League, and Colonna for the
+Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Charles the Fifth had vanquished Francis the First at Pavia, in the year
+1525, and had taken the French King prisoner. A year later the Holy
+League was formed, between Pope Clement the Seventh, the King of France,
+the Republics of Venice and Florence, and Francesco Sforza, Duke of
+Milan. Its object was to fight the Emperor, to sustain Sforza, and to
+seize the Kingdom of Naples by force. Immediately upon the proclamation
+of the League, the Emperor's ambassadors left Rome, the Colonna retired
+to their strongholds, and the Emperor made preparations to send Charles,
+Duke of Bourbon, the disgraced relative of King Francis, to storm Rome
+and reduce the imprisoned Pope to submission. The latter's first and
+nearest source of fear lay in the Colonna, who held the fortresses and
+passes between Rome and the Neapolitan frontier, and his first instinct
+was to attack them with the help of the Orsini. But neither side was
+ready for the fight, and the timid Pontiff eagerly accepted the promise
+of peace made by the Colonna in order to gain time, and he dismissed the
+forces he had hastily raised against them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/image342a.jpg" width="650" height="464" alt="PALAZZO MASSIMO ALLE COLONNA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PALAZZO MASSIMO ALLE COLONNA</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image343.jpg" width="450" height="281" alt="PONTE SISTO
+
+From a print of the last century" title="" />
+<span class="caption">PONTE SISTO
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They, in the mean time, treated with Moncada, Regent of Naples for the
+Emperor, and at once seized Anagni, put several thousand men in the
+field, marched upon Rome with incredible speed, seized three gates in
+the night, and entered the city in triumph on the following morning. The
+Pope and the Orsini, completely taken by surprise, offered little or no
+resistance. According to some writers, it was Pompeo Colonna's daring
+plan to murder the Pope, force his own election to the Pontificate by
+arms, destroy the Orsini, and open Rome to Charles the Fifth; and when
+the Colonna advanced on the same day, by Ponte Sisto, to Trastevere, and
+threatened to attack Saint Peter's and the Vatican, Clement the Seventh,
+remembering Sciarra and Pope Boniface, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> on the point of imitating
+the latter and arraying himself in his Pontifical robes to await his
+enemy with such dignity as he could command. But the remonstrances of
+the more prudent cardinals prevailed, and about noon they conveyed him
+safely to Sant' Angelo by the secret covered passage, leaving the
+Colonna to sack Trastevere and even Saint Peter's itself, though they
+dared not come too near to Sant' Angelo for fear of its cannons. The
+tumult over at last, Don Ugo de Moncada, in the Emperor's name, took
+possession of the Pope's two nephews as hostages for his own safety,
+entered Sant' Angelo under a truce, and stated the Emperor's conditions
+of peace. These were, to all intents and purposes, that the Pope should
+withdraw his troops, wherever he had any, and that the Emperor should be
+free to advance wherever he pleased, except through the Papal States,
+that the Pope should give hostages for his good faith, and that he
+should grant a free pardon to all the Colonna, who vaguely agreed to
+withdraw their forces into the Kingdom of Naples. To this humiliating
+peace, or armistice, for it was nothing more, the Pope was forced by the
+prospect of starvation, and he would even have agreed to sail to
+Barcelona in order to confer with the Emperor; but from this he was
+ultimately dissuaded by Henry the Eighth of England and the King of
+France, 'who sent him certain sums of money and promised him their
+support.' The consequence was that he broke the truce as soon as he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+dared, deprived the Cardinal of his hat, and, with the help of the
+Orsini, attacked the Colonna by surprise on their estates, giving orders
+to burn their castles and raze their fortresses to the ground. Four
+villages were burned before the surprised party could recover itself;
+but with some assistance from the imperial troops they were soon able to
+face their enemies on equal terms, and the little war raged fiercely
+during several months, with varying success and all possible cruelty on
+both sides.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Charles, Duke of Bourbon, known as the Constable, and more or
+less in the pay of the Emperor, had gathered an army in Lombardy. His
+force consisted of the most atrocious ruffians of the time,&mdash;Lutheran
+Germans, superstitious Spaniards, revolutionary Italians, and such other
+nondescripts as would join his standard,&mdash;all fellows who had in reality
+neither country nor conscience, and were ready to serve any soldier of
+fortune who promised them plunder and license. The predominating element
+was Spanish, but there was not much to choose among them all so far as
+their instincts were concerned. Charles was penniless, as usual; he
+offered his horde of cutthroats the rich spoils of Tuscany and Rome,
+they swore to follow him to death and perdition, and he began his
+southward march. The Emperor looked on with an approving eye, and the
+Pope was overcome by abject terror. In the vain hope of saving himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+and the city he concluded a truce with the Viceroy of Naples, agreeing
+to pay sixty thousand ducats, to give back everything taken from the
+Colonna, and to restore Pompeo to the honours of the cardinalate. The
+conditions of the armistice were forthwith carried out, by the
+disbanding of the Pope's hired soldiers and the payment of the
+indemnity, and Clement the Seventh enjoyed during a few weeks the
+pleasant illusion of fancied safety.</p>
+
+<p>He awoke from the dream, in horror and fear, to find that the Constable
+considered himself in no way bound by a peace concluded with the
+Emperor's Viceroy, and was advancing rapidly upon Rome, ravaging and
+burning everything in his way. Hasty preparations for defence were made;
+a certain Renzo da Ceri armed such men as he could enlist with such
+weapons as he could find, and sent out a little force of grooms and
+artificers to face the Constable's ruthless Spaniards and the fierce
+Germans of his companion freebooter, George of Fransperg, or Franzberg,
+who carried about a silken cord by which he swore to strangle the Pope
+with his own hands. The enemy reached the walls of Rome on the night of
+the fifth of May; devastation and famine lay behind them in their track,
+the plunder of the Church was behind the walls, and far from northward
+came rumours of the army of the League on its way to cut off their
+retreat. They resolved to win the spoil or die, and at dawn the
+Constable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> clad in a white cloak, led the assault and set up the first
+scaling ladder, close to the Porta San Spirito. In the very act a bullet
+struck him in a vital part and he fell headlong to the earth. Benvenuto
+Cellini claimed the credit of the shot, but it is more than probable
+that it sped from another hand, that of Bernardino Passeri; it matters
+little now, it mattered less then, as the infuriated Spaniards stormed
+the walls in the face of Camillo Orsini's desperate and hopeless
+resistance, yelling 'Blood and the Bourbon,' for a war-cry.</p>
+
+<p>Once more the wretched Pope fled along the secret corridor with his
+cardinals, his prelates and his servants; for although he might yet have
+escaped from the doomed city, messengers had brought word that Cardinal
+Pompeo Colonna had ten thousand men-at-arms in the Campagna, ready to
+cut off his flight, and he was condemned to be a terrified spectator of
+Rome's destruction from the summit of a fortress which he dared not
+surrender and could hardly hope to defend. Seven thousand Romans were
+slaughtered in the storming of the walls; the enemy gained all
+Trastevere at a blow and the sack began; the torrent of fury poured
+across Ponte Sisto into Rome itself, thousands upon thousands of
+steel-clad madmen, drunk with blood and mad with the glitter of gold, a
+storm of unimaginable terror. Cardinals, Princes and Ambassadors were
+dragged from their palaces, and when greedy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> hands had gathered up all
+that could be taken away, fire consumed the rest, and the miserable
+captives were tortured into promising fabulous ransoms for life and
+limb. Abbots, priors and heads of religious orders were treated with
+like barbarity, and the few who escaped the clutches of the bloodthirsty
+Spanish soldiers fell into the reeking hands of the brutal German
+adventurers. The enormous sum of six million ducats was gathered
+together in value of gold and silver bullion and of precious things, and
+as much more was extorted as promised ransom from the gentlemen and
+churchmen and merchants of Rome by the savage tortures of the lash, the
+iron boot and the rack. The churches were stripped of all consecrated
+vessels, the Sacred Wafers were scattered abroad by the Catholic
+Spaniards and trampled in the bloody ooze that filled the ways, the
+convents were stormed by a rabble in arms and the nuns were distributed
+as booty among their fiendish captors, mothers and children were
+slaughtered in the streets and drunken Spaniards played dice for the
+daughters of honourable citizens.</p>
+
+<p>From the surrounding Campagna the Colonna entered the city in arms,
+orderly, silent and sober, and from their well-guarded fortresses they
+contemplated the ruin they had brought upon Rome. Cardinal Pompeo
+installed himself in his palace of the Cancelleria in the Region of
+Parione, and gave shelter to such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> of his friends as might be useful to
+him thereafter. In revenge upon John de' Medici, the Captain of the
+Black Bands, whose assistance the Pope had invoked, the Cardinal caused
+the Villa Medici on Monte Mario to be burned to the ground, and Clement
+the Seventh watched the flames from the ramparts of Sant' Angelo. One
+good action is recorded of the savage churchman. He ransomed and
+protected in his house the wife and the daughter of that Giorgio
+Santacroce who had murdered the Cardinal's father by night, when the
+Cardinal himself was an infant in arms, more than forty years earlier;
+and he helped some of his friends to escape by a chimney from the room
+in which they had been confined and tortured into promising a ransom
+they could not pay. But beyond those few acts he did little to mitigate
+the horrors of the month-long sack, and nothing to relieve the city from
+the yoke of its terrible captors. The Holy League sent a small force to
+the Pope's assistance and it reached the gates of Rome; but the
+Spaniards were in possession of immense stores of ammunition and
+provisions, they had more horses than they needed and more arms than
+they could bear; the forces of the League had traversed a country in
+which not a blade of grass had been left undevoured nor a measure of
+corn uneaten; and the avengers of the dead Constable, securely fortified
+within the walls, looked down with contempt upon an army already
+decimated by sickness and starvation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At this juncture, Clement the Seventh resolved to abandon further
+resistance and sue for peace. The guns of Sant' Angelo had all but fired
+their last shot, and the supply of food was nearly exhausted, when the
+Pope sent for Cardinal Colonna; the churchman consented to a parley, and
+the man who had suffered confiscation and disgrace entered the castle as
+the arbiter of destiny. He was received as the mediator of peace and a
+benefactor of humanity, and when he stated his terms they were not
+refused. The Pope and the thirteen Cardinals who were with him were to
+remain prisoners until the payment of four hundred thousand ducats of
+gold, after which they were to be conducted to Naples to await the
+further pleasure of the Emperor; the Colonna were to be absolutely and
+freely pardoned for all they had done; in the hope of some subsequent
+assistance the Pope promised to make Cardinal Colonna the Legate of the
+Marches. As a hostage for the performance of these and other conditions,
+Cardinal Orsini was delivered over to his enemy, who conducted him as
+his prisoner to the Castle of Grottaferrata, and the Colonna secretly
+agreed to allow the Pope to go free from Sant' Angelo. On the night of
+December the ninth, seven months after the storming of the city, the
+head of the Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church fled from the
+castle in the humble garb of a market gardener, and made good his escape
+to Orvieto and to the protection of the Holy League.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a pestilence had broken out in Rome, and the spectre of a
+mysterious and mortal sickness distracted those who had survived the
+terrors of sword and flame. The Spanish and German soldiery either fell
+victims to the plague or deserted in haste and fear; and though Cardinal
+Pompeo's peace contained no promise that the city should be evacuated,
+it was afterwards stated upon credible authority that, within two years
+from their coming, not one of the barbarous horde was left alive within
+the walls. When all was over the city was little more than a heap of
+ruins, but the Colonna had been victorious, and were sated with revenge.
+This, in brief, is the history of the storming and sacking of Rome which
+took place in the year 1527, at the highest development of the
+Renascence, in the youth of Benvenuto Cellini, when Michelangelo had not
+yet painted the Last Judgment, when Titian was just fifty years old, and
+when Raphael and Lionardo da Vinci were but lately dead; and the
+contrast between the sublimity of art and the barbarity of human nature
+in that day is only paralleled in the annals of our own century, at once
+the bloodiest and the most civilized in the history of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Cancelleria, wherein Pompeo Colonna sheltered the wife and daughter
+of his father's murderer, is remembered for some modern political
+events: for the opening of the first representative parliament under
+Pius the Ninth, in 1848, for the assassination of the Pope's minister,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
+Pellegrino Rossi, on the steps of the entrance in the same year, and as
+the place where the so-called Roman Republic was proclaimed in 1849. But
+it is most of all interesting for the nobility of its proportions and
+the simplicity of its architecture. It is undeniably, and almost
+undeniedly, the best building in Rome today, though that may not be
+saying much in a city which has been more exclusively the prey of the
+Barocco than any other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/image352.jpg" width="450" height="275" alt="THE CANCELLERIA" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE CANCELLERIA<br />
+
+From a print of the last century</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Palace of the Massimo, once built to follow the curve of a narrow
+winding street, but now facing the same great thoroughfare as the
+Cancelleria, has something of the same quality, with a wholly different
+character. It is smaller and more gloomy, and its columns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> are almost
+black with age; it was here, in 1455, that Pannartz and Schweinheim, two
+of those nomadic German scholars who have not yet forgotten the road to
+Italy, established their printing-press in the house of Pietro de'
+Massimi, and here took place one of those many romantic tragedies which
+darkened the end of the sixteenth century. For a certain Signore
+Massimo, in the year 1585, had been married and had eight sons, mostly
+grown men, when he fell in love with a light-hearted lady of more wit
+than virtue, and announced that he would make her his wife, though his
+sons warned him that they would not bear the slight upon their mother's
+memory. The old man, infatuated and beside himself with love, would not
+listen to them, but published the banns, married the woman, and brought
+her home for his wife.</p>
+
+<p>One of the sons, the youngest, was too timid to join the rest; but on
+the next morning the seven others went to the bridal apartment, and
+killed their step-mother when their father was away. But he came back
+before she was quite dead, and he took the Crucifix from the wall by the
+bed and cursed his children. And the curse was fulfilled upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Parione is the heart of Medi&aelig;val Rome, the very centre of that black
+cloud of mystery which hangs over the city of the Middle Age. A history
+might be composed out of Pasquin's sayings, volumes have been written
+about Cardinal Pompeo Colonna and the ruin he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> wrought, whole books have
+been filled with the life and teachings and miracles of Saint Philip
+Neri, who belonged to this quarter, erected here his great oratory, and
+is believed to have recalled from the dead a youth of the house of
+Massimo in that same gloomy palace.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Rome is a tale of murder and sudden death, varied,
+changing, never repeated in the same way; there is blood on every
+threshold; a tragedy lies buried in every church and chapel; and again
+we ask in vain wherein lies the magic of the city that has fed on terror
+and grown old in carnage, the charm that draws men to her, the power
+that holds, the magic that enthralls men soul and body, as Lady Venus
+cast her spells upon Tannh&auml;user in her mountain of old. Yet none deny
+it, and as centuries roll on, the poets, the men of letters, the
+musicians, the artists of all ages, have come to her from far countries
+and have dwelt here while they might, some for long years, some for the
+few months they could spare; and all of them have left something, a
+verse, a line, a sketch, a song that breathes the threefold mystery of
+love, eternity and death.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+<h2>Index</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+A<br />
+<br />
+Abruzzi, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>; ii. 230<br />
+<br />
+Accoramboni, Flaminio, i. <a href='#Page_296'>296</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittoria, i. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>-296, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Agrarian Law, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a><br />
+<br />
+Agrippa, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>; ii. 102<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Younger, ii. 103</span><br />
+<br />
+Alaric, i. <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>; ii. 297<br />
+<br />
+Alba Longa, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br />
+<br />
+Albergo dell' Orso, i. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a><br />
+<br />
+Alberic, ii. 29<br />
+<br />
+Albornoz, ii. 19, 20, 74<br />
+<br />
+Aldobrandini, i. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>; ii. 149<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olimpia, i. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Alfonso, i. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a><br />
+<br />
+Aliturius, ii. 103<br />
+<br />
+Altieri, i. <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>; ii. 45<br />
+<br />
+Ammianus Marcellinus, i. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a><br />
+<br />
+Amphitheatre, Flavian, i. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a><br />
+<br />
+Amulius, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<br />
+Anacletus, ii. 295, 296, 304<br />
+<br />
+Anagni, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>; ii. 4, 5<br />
+<br />
+Ancus Martius, i. <a href='#Page_4'>4</a><br />
+<br />
+Angelico, Beato, ii. 158, 169, 190-192, 195, 285<br />
+<br />
+Anguillara, i. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; ii. 138<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Titta della, ii. 138, 139</span><br />
+<br />
+Anio, the, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Novus, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vetus, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Annibaleschi, Riccardo degli, i. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a><br />
+<br />
+Antiochus, ii. 120<br />
+<br />
+Antipope&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anacletus, ii. 84</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boniface, ii. 28</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement, i. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gilbert, i. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John of Calabria, ii. 33-37</span><br />
+<br />
+Antonelli, Cardinal, ii. 217, 223, 224<br />
+<br />
+Antonina, i. <a href='#Page_266'>266</a><br />
+<br />
+Antonines, the, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a><br />
+<br />
+Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a><br />
+<br />
+Appian Way, i. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+Appius Claudius, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br />
+<br />
+Apulia, Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; ii. 77<br />
+<br />
+Aqua Virgo, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a><br />
+<br />
+Aqueduct of Claudius, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a><br />
+<br />
+Arbiter, Petronius, i. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br />
+<br />
+Arch of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arcadius, i. <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Claudius, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domitian, i. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gratian, i. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcus Aurelius, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Septimius Severus, ii. 93</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valens, i. <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Archive House, ii. 75<br />
+<br />
+Argiletum, the, i. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a><br />
+<br />
+Ariosto, ii. 149, 174<br />
+<br />
+Aristius, i. <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a><br />
+<br />
+Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73, 76-89<br />
+<br />
+Arnulf, ii. 41<br />
+<br />
+Art, i. <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>; ii 152<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and morality, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>; ii. 178, 179</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barocco, i. <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine in Italy, ii. 155, 184, 185</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of taste in, ii. 198</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">factors in the progress of art, ii. 181</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">engraving, ii. 186</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">improved tools, ii. 181</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individuality, i. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>; ii. 175-177</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek influence on, i. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-63</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modes of expression of, ii. 181</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fresco, ii. 181-183</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oil painting, ii. 184-186</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Renascence, i. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>; ii. 154</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phases of, in Italy, ii. 188</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress of, during the Middle Age, ii. 166, 180</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transition from handicraft to, ii. 153</span><br />
+<br />
+Artois, Count of, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a><br />
+<br />
+Augustan Age, i. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-77<br />
+<br />
+Augustulus, i. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; ii. 64<br />
+<br />
+Augustus, i. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>-48, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 64, 75, 95,102, 291</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>Aurelian, i. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>; ii. 150<br />
+<br />
+Avalos, Francesco, d', i. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Aventine, the, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii. 10, 40, 85, 119-121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 132, 302<br />
+<br />
+Avignon, i. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; ii. 6, 9<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+B<br />
+<br />
+Bacchanalia, ii. 122<br />
+<br />
+Bacchic worship, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii. 120<br />
+<br />
+Bajazet the Second, Sultan, i. <a href='#Page_276'>276</a><br />
+<br />
+Baracconi, i. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>; ii. 41, 45, 128, 130, 138, 323<br />
+<br />
+Barberi, i. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a><br />
+<br />
+Barberini, the, i. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>; ii. 7<br />
+<br />
+Barbo, i. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>; ii. 45<br />
+<br />
+Barcelona, i. <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br />
+<br />
+Bargello, the, i. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>; ii. 42<br />
+<br />
+Basil and Constantine, ii. 33<br />
+<br />
+Basilica (Pagan)&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, i. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>; ii. 92</span><br />
+<br />
+Basilicas (Christian) of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantine, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>; ii. 292, 297</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberius, i. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philip and Saint James, i. <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint John Lateran, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Maria Maggiore, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; ii. 118</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santi Apostoli, i. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>-172, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>; ii. 213</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sicininus, i. <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Baths, i. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Agrippa, i. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Caracalla, ii. 119</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Constantine, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Diocletian, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>-147, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Novatus, i. <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Philippus, i. <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of public, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Severus Alexander, ii. 28</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Titus, i. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Befana, the, i. <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>; ii. 25<br />
+<br />
+Belisarius, i. <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a><br />
+<br />
+Benediction of 1846, the, i. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a><br />
+<br />
+Benevento, Cola da, i. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a><br />
+<br />
+Bernard, ii. 77-80<br />
+<br />
+Bernardi, Gianbattista, ii. 54<br />
+<br />
+Bernini, i. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>; ii. 24<br />
+<br />
+Bibbiena, Cardinal, ii. 146, 285<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maria, ii. 146</span><br />
+<br />
+Bismarck, ii. 224, 232, 236, 237<br />
+<br />
+Boccaccio, i. <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vineyard, the, i. <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bologna, i. <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>; ii. 58<br />
+<br />
+Borghese, the, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scipio, i. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Borgia, the, i. <a href='#Page_209'>209</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C&aelig;sar, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 150, 171, 282, 283</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandia, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lucrezia, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 129, 151, 174</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rodrigo, i. <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 242, 265, 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanozza, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Borgo, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; ii. 132, 147, 202-214, 269<br />
+<br />
+Borroinini, i. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii. 24<br />
+<br />
+Botticelli, ii. 188, 190, 195, 200, 276<br />
+<br />
+Bracci, ii. 318<br />
+<br />
+Bracciano, i. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bramante, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>; ii. 144, 145, 274, 298, 322<br />
+<br />
+Brescia, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a><br />
+<br />
+Bridge. See <i>Ponte</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&AElig;lian, the, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cestian, ii. 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabrician, ii. 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sublician, i. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; ii. 127, 294.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brotherhood of Saint John Beheaded, ii. 129, 131<br />
+<br />
+Brothers of Prayer and Death, i. <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a><br />
+<br />
+Brunelli, ii. 244<br />
+<br />
+Brutus, i. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>; ii. 96<br />
+<br />
+Buffalmacco, ii. 196<br />
+<br />
+Bull-fights, i. <a href='#Page_252'>252</a><br />
+<br />
+Burgundians, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+C<br />
+<br />
+C&aelig;sar, Julius, i. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>-33, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>-41, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>; ii. 102, 224, 297<br />
+<br />
+C&aelig;sars, the, i. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>-46, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>; ii. 224<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julian, i. <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palaces of, i. <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>; ii. 95</span><br />
+<br />
+Caetani, i. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Benedict, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caligula, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, ii. 96<br />
+<br />
+Campagna, the, i. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>; ii. 88, 107, 120<br />
+<br />
+Campitelli, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>; ii. 64<br />
+<br />
+Campo&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Fiori, i. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marzo (Campus Martius), i. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>; ii. 6, 44</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vaccino, i. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>-131, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Canale, Carle, i. <a href='#Page_287'>287</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>Cancelleria, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>; ii. 223<br />
+<br />
+Canidia, i. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; ii. 293<br />
+<br />
+Canossa, i. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>; ii. 307<br />
+<br />
+Canova, ii. 320<br />
+<br />
+Capet, Hugh, ii. 29<br />
+<br />
+Capitol, the, i. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ii. 12, 13, 21, 22, 52, 64, 65, 67-75, 84, 121, 148, 302</span><br />
+<br />
+Capitoline hill, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Captains of the Regions, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Election of, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Caracci, the, i. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a><br />
+<br />
+Carafa, the, ii. 46, 49, 50, 56, 111<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cardinal, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>; ii. 56, 204</span><br />
+<br />
+Carnival, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-203, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>; ii. 113<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Saturn, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Carpineto, ii. 229, 230, 232, 239, 287<br />
+<br />
+Carthage, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a><br />
+<br />
+Castagno, Andrea, ii. 89, 185<br />
+<br />
+Castle of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grottaferrata, i. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petrella, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Piccolomini, i. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 17, 28, 37, 40, 56, 59, 60, 109, 152, 202-214, 216, 269</span><br />
+<br />
+Castracane, Castruccio, i. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a><br />
+<br />
+Catacombs, the, i. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Saint Petronilla, ii. 125</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sebastian, ii. 296</span><br />
+<br />
+Catanei, Vanossa de, i. <a href='#Page_287'>287</a><br />
+<br />
+Catharine, Queen of Cyprus, ii. 305<br />
+<br />
+Cathedral of Siena, i. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a><br />
+<br />
+Catiline, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>; ii. 96, 294<br />
+<br />
+Cato, ii. 121<br />
+<br />
+Catullus, i. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a><br />
+<br />
+Cavour, Count, ii. 90, 224, 228, 237<br />
+<br />
+Cellini, Benvenuto, i. <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>; ii. 157, 195<br />
+<br />
+Cenci, the, ii. 1<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beatrice, i. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>-287; ii. 2, 129, 151</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>; ii. 2</span><br />
+<br />
+Centra Pio, ii. 238, 239<br />
+<br />
+Ceri, Renzo da, i. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a><br />
+<br />
+Cesarini, Giuliano, i. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>; ii. 54, 89<br />
+<br />
+Chapel, Sixtine. See under <i>Vatican</i><br />
+<br />
+Charlemagne, i. <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>; ii. 297<br />
+<br />
+Charles of Anjou, i. ii. 160<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albert of Sardinia, ii. 221</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Fifth, i. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>; ii. 138</span><br />
+<br />
+Chiesa. See <i>Church</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuova, i. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chigi, the, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agostino, ii. 144, 146</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabio, ii. 146</span><br />
+<br />
+Christianity in Rome, i. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a><br />
+<br />
+Christina, Queen of Sweden, ii. 150, 151, 304, 308<br />
+<br />
+Chrysostom, ii. 104, 105.<br />
+<br />
+Churches of,&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Apostles, i. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>-172, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>; ii. 213</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arac&oelig;li, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>; ii. 57, 70, 75</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cardinal Mazarin, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Gallows, i. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Holy Guardian Angel, i. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Minerva, ii. 55</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Penitentiaries, ii. 216</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Portuguese, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Adrian, i. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agnes, i. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Augustine, ii. 207</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bernard, i. <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Callixtus, ii. 125</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Charles, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eustace, ii. 23, 24, 26, 39</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">George in Velabro, i. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>; ii. 10</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gregory on the Aventine, ii. 129</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ives, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>; ii. 23, 24</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">John of the Florentines, i. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pine Cone, ii. 56</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peter's on the Janiculum, ii. 129</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sylvester, i. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saints Nereus and Achill&aelig;us, ii. 125</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vincent and Anastasius, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Clemente, i. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giovanni in Laterano, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lorenzo in Lucina, i. <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Miranda, i. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marcello, i. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pietro in Montorio, ii. 151</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Vincoli, i. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>; ii. 322</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Salvatore in Cacaberis, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Stefano Rotondo, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo in Pescheria, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>; ii. 3, 10, 110</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Francesca Romana, i. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maria de Crociferi, i. <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">degli Angeli, i. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">dei Monti, i. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">del Pianto, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">di Grotto Pinta, i. <a href='#Page_294'>294</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">in Campo Marzo, ii. 23</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">in Via Lata, i. <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Nuova, i. <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, 273</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Transpontina, ii. 212</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">della Vittoria, i. <a href='#Page_302'>302</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prisca, ii. 124</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sabina, i. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; ii. 40</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trinit&agrave; dei Pellegrini, ii. 110</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>Cicero, i. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>; ii. 96, 294<br />
+<br />
+Cimabue, ii. 156, 157, 162, 163, 169, 188, 189<br />
+<br />
+Cinna, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a><br />
+<br />
+Circolo, ii. 245<br />
+<br />
+Circus, the, i. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maximus, i. <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; ii. 84, 119</span><br />
+<br />
+City of Augustus, i. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-77<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Making of the, i. <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-21</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Rienzi, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; ii. 6-8</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Empire, i. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-56</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Middle Age, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>-99, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Republic, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">today, i. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Civilization, ii. 177<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and bloodshed, ii. 218</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">morality, ii. 178</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">progress, ii. 177-180</span><br />
+<br />
+Claudius, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ii. 102</span><br />
+<br />
+Cl&oelig;lia, i. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a><br />
+<br />
+C&oelig;lian hill, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Collegio Romano, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ii. 45, 61</span><br />
+<br />
+Colonna, the, i. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>-170, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-283, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-315;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 2, 6, 8, 10, 16, 20, 37, 51, 54, 60, 106, 107, 126, 204</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giovanni, i. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacopo, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lorenzo, ii. 126, 204-213</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio, i. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>; ii. 54</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pietro, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pompeo, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>-317; ii. 205</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prospero, ii. 205</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sciarra, i. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-166, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>; ii. 13, 16</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Younger, i. <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittoria, i. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>-177; ii. 174</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>-192; ii. 209</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">War between Orsini and, i. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-283, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-315;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 12, 18, 126, 204-211</span><br />
+<br />
+Colosseum, i. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ii. 25, 64, 66, 84, 97, 202, 203, 301</span><br />
+<br />
+Column of Piazza Colonna i. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a><br />
+<br />
+Comitium, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br />
+<br />
+Commodus, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>; ii. 97, 285<br />
+<br />
+Confraternities, i. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a><br />
+<br />
+Conscript Fathers, i. <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a><br />
+<br />
+Constable of Bourbon, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>-311; ii. 308<br />
+<br />
+Constans, i. <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a><br />
+<br />
+Constantine, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a><br />
+<br />
+Constantinople, i. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+Contests in the Forum, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a><br />
+<br />
+Convent of Saint Catharine, i. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a><br />
+<br />
+Convent of Saint Sylvester, i. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a><br />
+<br />
+Corneto, Cardinal of, ii. 282, 283<br />
+<br />
+Cornomania, i. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a><br />
+<br />
+Cornutis, i. <a href='#Page_87'>87</a><br />
+<br />
+Coromania, i. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a><br />
+<br />
+Corsini, the, ii. 150<br />
+<br />
+Corso, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittorio Emanuele, i. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Corte Savella, i. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>; ii. 52<br />
+<br />
+Cosmas, the, ii. 156, 157<br />
+<br />
+Costa, Giovanni da, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br />
+<br />
+Court House, i. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a><br />
+<br />
+Crassus, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ii. 128</span><br />
+<br />
+Crawford, Thomas, i. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br />
+<br />
+Crescentius, ii. 40, 41<br />
+<br />
+Crescenzi, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>; ii. 27, 40, 209<br />
+<br />
+Crescenzio, ii. 28-40<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stefana, ii. 39</span><br />
+<br />
+Crispi, i. <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Crusade, the Second, ii. 86, 105<br />
+<br />
+Crusades, the, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a><br />
+<br />
+Curatii, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Customs of early Rome, i. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in dress, i. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">religion, i. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+D<br />
+<br />
+Dante, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>; ii. 164, 175, 244<br />
+<br />
+Decameron, i. <a href='#Page_239'>239</a><br />
+<br />
+Decemvirs, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>; ii. 120<br />
+<br />
+Decrees, Semiamiran, i. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a><br />
+<br />
+Democracy, i. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a><br />
+<br />
+Development of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some results of, i. <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Barons, i. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemvirs, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the Empire, i. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gallic invasion, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>-18</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kings, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>-7, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Middle Age, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>-247</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Papal rule, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>-50</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Republic, i. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>-14</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tribunes, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Dictator of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a><br />
+<br />
+Dietrich of Bern, ii. 297<br />
+<br />
+Dionysus, ii. 121<br />
+<br />
+Dolabella, i. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a><br />
+<br />
+Domenichino, ii. 147<br />
+<br />
+Domestic life in Rome, i. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a><br />
+<br />
+Dominicans, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>; ii. 45, 46, 49, 50, 60, 61<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>Domitian, i. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>; ii. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a><br />
+<br />
+Doria, the, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>; ii. 45<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albert, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andrea, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conrad, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gian Andrea, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamba, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paganino, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Doria-Pamfili, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>-209<br />
+<br />
+Dress in early Rome, i. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Drusus, ii. 102<br />
+<br />
+Duca, Antonio del, i. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giacomo del, i. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br />
+<br />
+D&uuml;rer, Albert, ii. 198<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+E<br />
+<br />
+Education, ii. 179<br />
+<br />
+Egnatia, i. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a><br />
+<br />
+Elagabalus, i. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>; ii. 296, 297<br />
+<br />
+Election of the Pope, ii. 41, 42, 277<br />
+<br />
+Electoral Wards, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Elizabeth, Queen of England, ii. 47<br />
+<br />
+Emperors, Roman, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the East, i. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Empire of Constantinople, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-28, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Encyclicals, ii. 244<br />
+<br />
+Erasmus, ii. 151<br />
+<br />
+Esquiline, the, i. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>; ii. 95, 131, 193<br />
+<br />
+Este, Ippolito d', i. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a><br />
+<br />
+Etruria, i. <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a><br />
+<br />
+Euodus, i. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a><br />
+<br />
+Eustace, Saint, ii. 24, 25<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">square of, ii. 25, 42</span><br />
+<br />
+Eustachio. See <i>Sant' Eustachio</i><br />
+<br />
+Eutichianus, ii. 296<br />
+<br />
+Eve of Saint John, i. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Epiphany, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+F<br />
+<br />
+Fabius, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a><br />
+<br />
+Fabatosta, ii. 64, 84<br />
+<br />
+Farnese, the, ii. 151<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, ii. 324</span><br />
+<br />
+Farnesina, the, ii. 144, 149, 151<br />
+<br />
+Fathers, Roman, i. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>-84<br />
+<br />
+Ferdinand, ii. 205<br />
+<br />
+Ferrara, Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a><br />
+<br />
+Festivals, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aryan in origin, i. <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Befana, i. <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>-301</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carnival, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>-203</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church of the Apostle, i. <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coromania, i. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Epifania, i. <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>-301</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Floralia, i. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lupercalia, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May-day in the Campo Vaccino, i. <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saturnalia, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint John's Eve, i. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Festus, ii. 128<br />
+<br />
+Feuds, family, i. <a href='#Page_168'>168</a><br />
+<br />
+Field of Mars. See <i>Campo Marzo</i><br />
+<br />
+Finiguerra, Maso, ii. 186-188<br />
+<br />
+Flamen Dialis, i. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a><br />
+<br />
+Floralia. See <i>Festivals</i><br />
+<br />
+Florence, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a><br />
+<br />
+Forli, Melozzo da, i. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a><br />
+<br />
+Fornarina, the, ii. 144, 146<br />
+<br />
+Forum, i, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 64, 92-94, 97, 102, 294, 295</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Augustus, i. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trajan, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fountains (Fontane) of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egeria, ii. 124</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trevi, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tullianum, i. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Franconia, Duke of, ii. 36, 53<br />
+<br />
+Francis the First, i. <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a><br />
+<br />
+Frangipani, i. <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 77, 79, 84, 85</span><br />
+<br />
+Frederick, Barbarossa, ii. 34, 85, 87<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Naples, i. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Second, ii. 34</span><br />
+<br />
+Fulvius, ii. 121<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+G<br />
+<br />
+Gabrini, Lawrence, ii. 4<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>; ii. 3-23, 308</span><br />
+<br />
+Gaeta, ii. 36<br />
+<br />
+Galba, ii. 295<br />
+<br />
+Galen, i. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a><br />
+<br />
+Galera, i. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a><br />
+<br />
+Galileo, i. <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br />
+<br />
+Gardens, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C&aelig;sar's, i. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lucullus, i. <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pigna, ii. 273</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pincian, i. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Vatican, ii. 243, 271, 287</span><br />
+<br />
+Gargonius, i. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Garibaldi, ii. 90, 219, 220, 228, 237<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>Gastaldi, Cardinal, i. <a href='#Page_259'>259</a><br />
+<br />
+Gate. See <i>Porta</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Colline, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lateran, i. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Septimian, ii. 144, 147</span><br />
+<br />
+Gebhardt, &Eacute;mile, i. <a href='#Page_213'>213</a><br />
+<br />
+Gemonian Steps, ii. 67, 294<br />
+<br />
+Genseric, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>; ii. 70<br />
+<br />
+George of Franzburg, i. <a href='#Page_310'>310</a><br />
+<br />
+Gherardesca, Ugolino della, ii. 160<br />
+<br />
+Ghetto, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>; ii. 2, 101, 110-118<br />
+<br />
+Ghibellines, the, i. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>; ii. 6<br />
+<br />
+Ghiberti, ii. 157.<br />
+<br />
+Ghirlandajo, ii. 157, 172, 276<br />
+<br />
+Giantism, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>-92, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a><br />
+<br />
+Gibbon, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a><br />
+<br />
+Giotto, ii. 157, 160-165, 169, 188, 189, 200<br />
+<br />
+Gladstone, ii. 231, 232<br />
+<br />
+Golden Milestone, i. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Goldoni, i. <a href='#Page_265'>265</a><br />
+<br />
+Goldsmithing, ii. 156, 157, 186, 187<br />
+<br />
+"Good Estate" of Rienzi, ii. 10-12<br />
+<br />
+Gordian, i. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a><br />
+<br />
+Goths, ii. 297, 307.<br />
+<br />
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. 190, 195<br />
+<br />
+Gracchi, the, i. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caius, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; ii. 84</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cornelia, i. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiberius, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; ii. 102</span><br />
+<br />
+Gratidianus, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a><br />
+<br />
+Guards, Noble, ii. 241, 243, 247, 248, 309, 310, 312<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palatine, ii. 247, 248</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swiss, ii. 246, 247, 310</span><br />
+<br />
+Guelphs, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>; ii. 42, 126, 138<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Ghibellines, i. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>; ii. 160, 162, 173</span><br />
+<br />
+Guiscard, Robert, i. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>; ii. 70<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H<br />
+<br />
+Hadrian, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>; ii. 25, 202, 203<br />
+<br />
+Hannibal, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a><br />
+<br />
+Hasdrubal, i. <a href='#Page_21'>21</a><br />
+<br />
+Henry the Second, ii. 47<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fourth, i. <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; ii. 307</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fifth, ii. 307</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seventh of Luxemburg, i. <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>-279; ii. 5</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eighth, i. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>; ii. 47, 274</span><br />
+<br />
+Hermann, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Hermes of Olympia, i. <a href='#Page_86'>86</a><br />
+<br />
+Hermogenes, i. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<br />
+Hilda's Tower, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a><br />
+<br />
+Hildebrand, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-129; ii.<br />
+<br />
+Honorius, ii. 323, 324<br />
+<br />
+Horace, i. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-75, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">ii. 293</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the Bore, i. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>-71</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Camen Seculare of, i. <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Satires of, i. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Horatii, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Horatius, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 127</span><br />
+<br />
+Horses of Monte Cavallo, i. 181<br />
+<br />
+Hospice of San Claudio, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a><br />
+<br />
+Hospital of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santo Spirito, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>; ii. 214, 215</span><br />
+<br />
+House of Parliament, i. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a><br />
+<br />
+Hugh of Burgundy, ii. 30<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Tuscany, ii. 30</span><br />
+<br />
+Huns' invasion, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+Huxley, ii. 225, 226<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+I<br />
+<br />
+Imperia, ii. 144<br />
+<br />
+Infessura, Stephen, ii. 59, 60, 204-213<br />
+<br />
+Inn of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Bear, i. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Falcone, ii. 26</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lion, i. <a href='#Page_287'>287</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanossa, i. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Inquisition, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>; ii. 46, 49, 52, 53, 54<br />
+<br />
+Interminelli, Castruccio degli, i. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a><br />
+<br />
+Irene, Empress, i. <a href='#Page_109'>109</a><br />
+<br />
+Ischia, i. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Island of Saint Bartholomew, i. <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii. 1<br />
+<br />
+Isola Sacra, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Italian life during the Middle Age, i. <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from 17th to 18th centuries, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+J<br />
+<br />
+Janiculum, the, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>; ii. 268, 293, 294, 295<br />
+<br />
+Jesuit College, ii. 61<br />
+<br />
+Jesuits, ii. 45, 46, 61-63<br />
+<br />
+Jews, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>; ii. 101-119<br />
+<br />
+John of Cappadocia, i. <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a><br />
+<br />
+Josephus, ii. 103<br />
+<br />
+Juba, i. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a><br />
+<br />
+Jugurtha, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br />
+<br />
+Jupiter Capitolinus, ii. 324, 325<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">priest of, i. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Justinian, i. <a href='#Page_267'>267</a><br />
+<br />
+Juvenal, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; ii. 105, 107, 124<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+K<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>Kings of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>-7<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+L<br />
+<br />
+Lampridius, &AElig;lius, i. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a><br />
+<br />
+Lanciani, i. <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a><br />
+<br />
+Lateran, the, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>-114, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>-142<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Count of, i. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Latin language, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a><br />
+<br />
+Latini Brunetto, ii. 163<br />
+<br />
+Laurentum, i. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Lazaret of Saint Martha, ii. 245<br />
+<br />
+League, Holy, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a><br />
+<br />
+Lentulus, ii. 128<br />
+<br />
+Lepida, Domitia, i. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a><br />
+<br />
+Letus, Pomponius, i. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>; ii. 210<br />
+<br />
+Lewis of Bavaria, i. <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Seventh, ii. 86, 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Eleventh, i. <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Fourteenth, i. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Library of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collegio Romano, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vatican, ii. 275, 276, 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Victor Emmanuel, ii. 45, 61</span><br />
+<br />
+Lieges, Bishop of, i. <a href='#Page_280'>280</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincoln, Abraham, ii. 231, 236<br />
+<br />
+Lippi, Filippo, ii. 190, 191, 192-195, 200<br />
+<br />
+Liszt, i. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>; ii. 176<br />
+<br />
+Livia, i. <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a><br />
+<br />
+Livy, i. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a><br />
+<br />
+Lombards, the, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a><br />
+<br />
+Lombardy, i. <a href='#Page_309'>309</a><br />
+<br />
+Lorrain, i. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a><br />
+<br />
+Loyola, Ignatius, ii. 46, 62<br />
+<br />
+Lucilius, i. <a href='#Page_74'>74</a><br />
+<br />
+Lucretia, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a><br />
+<br />
+Lucullus, i. <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a><br />
+<br />
+Lupercalia, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+Lupercus, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+M<br />
+<br />
+Macchiavelli, ii. 174<br />
+<br />
+M&aelig;cenas, i. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>; ii. 293<br />
+<br />
+M&aelig;nads, ii. 122<br />
+<br />
+Maldachini, Olimpia, i. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a><br />
+<br />
+Mamertine Prison, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>; ii. 72, 293<br />
+<br />
+Mancini, Maria, i. <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Mancino, Paul, ii. 210<br />
+<br />
+Manlius, Cn&aelig;us, ii. 121<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcus, i. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; ii. 71, 84</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Titus, i. <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mantegna, Andrea, ii. 157, 169, 188, 196-198<br />
+<br />
+Marcomanni, i. <a href='#Page_190'>190</a><br />
+<br />
+Marforio, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a><br />
+<br />
+Marino, i. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br />
+<br />
+Marius, Caius, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br />
+<br />
+Marius and Sylla, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; ii. 69<br />
+<br />
+Mark Antony, i. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a><br />
+<br />
+Marozia, ii. 27, 28<br />
+<br />
+Marriage Laws, i. <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a><br />
+<br />
+Mary, Queen of Scots, ii. 47<br />
+<br />
+Masaccio, ii. 190<br />
+<br />
+Massimi, Pietro de', i. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br />
+<br />
+Massimo, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br />
+<br />
+Mattei, the, ii. 137, 139, 140, 143<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alessandro, ii. 140-143</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Curzio, ii. 140-143</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Girolamo, ii. 141-143</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio, ii. 140, 141</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olimpia, ii. 141, 142</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piero, ii. 140, 141</span><br />
+<br />
+Matilda, Countess, ii. 307<br />
+<br />
+Mausoleum of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Augustus, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hadrian, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>; ii. 28, 202, 270. See <i>Castle of Sant' Angelo</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Maximilian, i. <a href='#Page_151'>151</a><br />
+<br />
+Mazarin, i. <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Mazzini, ii. 219, 220<br />
+<br />
+Medi&aelig;valism, death of, ii. 225<br />
+<br />
+Medici, the, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>; ii. 276<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cosimo de', i. <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>; ii. 194</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella de', i. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John de', i. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Messalina, i. <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii. 255, 256, 257<br />
+<br />
+Michelangelo, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 129, 130, 157, 159, 166, 169, 171, 172, 175, 188, 200, 276-281, 284, 317-319, 322</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Last Judgment" by, i. 173; ii. 171, 276, 280, 315</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Moses" by, ii. 278, 286</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Piet&agrave;" by, ii. 286</span><br />
+<br />
+Middle Age, the, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>-247, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>; ii. 163, 166, 172-175, 180, 196<br />
+<br />
+Migliorati, Ludovico, i. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br />
+<br />
+Milan, i. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Milestone, golden, i. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a><br />
+<br />
+Mithr&aelig;um, i. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a><br />
+<br />
+Mithras, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a><br />
+<br />
+Mithridates, i. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a><br />
+<br />
+Mocenni, Mario, ii. 249<br />
+<br />
+Monaldeschi, ii. 308<br />
+<br />
+Monastery of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Apostles, i. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominicans, ii. 45, 61</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grottaferrata, ii. 37</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Anastasia, ii. 38</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gregory, ii. 85</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Onofrio, ii. 147</span><br />
+<br />
+Moncada, Ugo de, i. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br />
+<br />
+Mons Vaticanus, ii. 268<br />
+<br />
+Montaigne, i. <a href='#Page_288'>288</a><br />
+<br />
+Montalto. See <i>Felice Peretti</i><br />
+<br />
+Monte Briano, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cavallo, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>; ii. 205, 209</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Citorio, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giordano, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>; ii. 206</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mario, i. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>; ii. 268</span><br />
+<br />
+Montefeltro, Guido da, ii. 160<br />
+<br />
+Monti&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 133, 209</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Trastevere, i. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>; ii. 133, 209</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by moonlight, i. <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Morrone, Pietro da, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a><br />
+<br />
+Muratori, i. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; ii. 40, 48, 76, 126, 324<br />
+<br />
+Museums of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vatican, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Villa Borghese, i. <a href='#Page_301'>301</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mustafa, ii. 247<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+N<br />
+<br />
+Naples, i. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a><br />
+<br />
+Napoleon, i. <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>; ii. 218, 221, 298<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis, ii. 221, 223, 237</span><br />
+<br />
+Narcissus, i. <a href='#Page_255'>255</a><br />
+<br />
+Navicella, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Nelson, i. <a href='#Page_253'>253</a><br />
+<br />
+Neri, Saint Philip, i. <a href='#Page_318'>318</a><br />
+<br />
+Nero, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>; ii. 163, 211, 291<br />
+<br />
+Nilus, Saint, ii. 36, 37, 40<br />
+<br />
+Nogaret, i. <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a><br />
+<br />
+Northmen, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+Numa, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; ii. 268<br />
+<br />
+Nunnery of the Sacred Heart, i. <a href='#Page_256'>256</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+O<br />
+<br />
+Octavius, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; ii. 291<br />
+<br />
+Odoacer, i. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>; ii. 297<br />
+<br />
+Olanda, Francesco d', i. <a href='#Page_176'>176</a><br />
+<br />
+Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a><br />
+<br />
+Olympius, i. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a><br />
+<br />
+Opimius, i. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a><br />
+<br />
+Orgies of Bacchus, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii. 120<br />
+<br />
+Orgies of the M&aelig;nads, ii. 121<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the Aventine, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii. 121</span><br />
+<br />
+Orsini, the, i. <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>-169, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-314;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 16, 126, 138, 204</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bertoldo, i. <a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Camillo, i. <a href='#Page_311'>311</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella, i. <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ludovico, i. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Matteo, i. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Orsino, i. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paolo Giordano, i. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>-295</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porzia, i. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Troilo, i. <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virginio, i. <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war between Colonna and, i. <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-283, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>-315;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 18, 126, 204</span><br />
+<br />
+Orsino, Deacon, i. <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a><br />
+<br />
+Orvieto, i. <a href='#Page_314'>314</a><br />
+<br />
+Otho, ii. 295<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Second, ii. 304</span><br />
+<br />
+Otto, the Great, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>; ii. 28, 30<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second, ii. 28</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Third, ii. 29-37</span><br />
+<br />
+Ovid, i. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+P<br />
+<br />
+Painting, ii. 181<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in fresco, ii. 181-183</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oil, ii. 184-186</span><br />
+<br />
+Palace (Palazzo)&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Annii, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barberini, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borromeo, ii. 61</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Braschi, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C&aelig;sars, i. <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>; ii. 64</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna, i. <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; ii. 205</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consulta, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corsini, ii. 149, 308</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Doria, i. <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pamfili, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Farnese, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fiano, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Finanze, i. <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gabrielli, i. <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Lateran, i. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>; ii. 30</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Massimo alle Colonna, i. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mattei, ii. 140</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazarini, i. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Nero, i. <a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Pilotta, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Priori, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quirinale, i. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Renascence, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rospigliosi, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruspoli, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santacroce, i. <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; ii. 23</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Senator, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Serristori, ii. 214, 216</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Theodoli, i. <a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Venezia, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palatine, the, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>; ii. 64, 119<br />
+<br />
+Palermo, i. <a href='#Page_146'>146</a><br />
+<br />
+Palestrina, i. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>; ii. 13, 315<br />
+<br />
+Paliano, i. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palladium, i. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a><br />
+<br />
+Pallavicini, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a><br />
+<br />
+Palmaria, i. <a href='#Page_267'>267</a><br />
+<br />
+Pamfili, the, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a><br />
+<br />
+Pannartz, i. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br />
+<br />
+Pantheon, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; ii. 44, 45, 146<br />
+<br />
+Parione, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>; ii. 42<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Square of, ii. 42</span><br />
+<br />
+Pasquino, the, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br />
+<br />
+Passavant, ii. 285<br />
+<br />
+Passeri, Bernardino, i. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>; ii. 308<br />
+<br />
+Patarina, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a><br />
+<br />
+Patriarchal System, i. <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-228<br />
+<br />
+Pavia, i. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Pecci, the, ii. 229<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joachim Vincent, ii. 229, 230.</span><br />
+<br />
+Peretti, the, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Felice, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>-295</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left:  1em;">Vittoria. See <i>Accoramboni</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Perugia, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a><br />
+<br />
+Perugino, ii. 157, 260, 276<br />
+<br />
+Pescara, i. <a href='#Page_174'>174</a><br />
+<br />
+Peter the Prefect, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>; ii. 230<br />
+<br />
+Petrarch, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a><br />
+<br />
+Petrella, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a><br />
+<br />
+Philip the Fair, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second of Spain, ii. 47</span><br />
+<br />
+Phocas, column of, ii. 93.<br />
+<br />
+Piazza&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barberini, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Berlina Vecchia, i. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chiesa Nuova, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Colonna, i. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ges&ugrave;, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Minerva, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moroni, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Navona, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>; ii. 25, 46, 57</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pigna, ii. 55</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Pantheon, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>; ii. 26</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pilotta, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Popolo, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quirinale, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Romana, ii. 136</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Eustachio, ii. 25</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Lorenzo in Lucina, i. <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Peter's, ii. 251, 309</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Sciarra, i. <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spagna, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>; ii. 42</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">delle Terme, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Termini, i. <a href='#Page_144'>144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezia, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pierleoni, the, ii. 77, 79, 82, 101, 105, 106, 109, 114<br />
+<br />
+Pigna, ii. 45<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>; ii. 44</span><br />
+<br />
+Pilgrimages, ii. 245<br />
+<br />
+Pincian (hill), i. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a><br />
+<br />
+Pincio, the, i. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a><br />
+<br />
+Pintelli, Baccio, ii. 278, 279<br />
+<br />
+Pinturicchio, ii. 147<br />
+<br />
+Pliny, the Younger, i. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a><br />
+<br />
+Pompey, i. <a href='#Page_30'>30</a><br />
+<br />
+Pons &AElig;milius, i. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cestius, ii. 102, 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fabricius, ii. 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumphalis, i. <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ponte. See also <i>Bridge</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Garibaldi, ii. 138</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotto, i. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant' Angelo, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 42, 55, 270</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sisto, i. <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>; ii. 136</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pontifex Maximus, i. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Pontiff, origin of title, ii. 127<br />
+<br />
+Pope&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adrian the Fourth, ii. 87</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander the Sixth, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>; ii. 269, 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anastasius, ii. 88</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Benedict the Sixth, ii. 28-30</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourteenth, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boniface the Eighth, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>; ii. 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Celestin the First, i. <a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, ii. 83</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement the Fifth, i. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. 9, 17-19</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>; ii. 308</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ninth, i. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>; ii. 110</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eleventh, i. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, ii. 320</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damascus, i. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eugenius the Third, ii. 85</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. 7, 56</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ghisleri, ii. 52, 53</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gregory the Fifth, ii. 32-37</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>; ii. 307</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixteenth, i. <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>; ii. 221, 223</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honorius the Third, ii. 126</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. 126</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Innocent the Second, ii. 77, 79, 82, 105</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third, i. <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>; ii. 6</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. 19</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenth, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>,302, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joan, i. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John the Twelfth, ii. 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifteenth, ii. 29</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Twenty-third, ii. 269</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julius the Second, i. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>; ii. 276, 298, 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leo the Third, i. <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>; ii. 146, 297</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. 242</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenth, i. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>; ii. 276, 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Twelfth, i. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>; ii. 111</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thirteenth, i. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; ii. 218-267, 282, 287, 308, 312, 313</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberius, i. <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lucius the Second, ii. 84, 85</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martin the First, i. <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicholas the Fourth, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>; ii. 58, 268, 269, 298, 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paschal the Second, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>; ii. 307</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul the Second, i. <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Third, i. <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>; ii. 41, 130, 304, 323, 324</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fourth, ii. 46, 47, 48-51, 111, 112</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, ii. 289</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pelagius the First, i. <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>; ii. 307</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pius the Fourth, i. <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seventh, i. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; ii. 221</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ninth, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>; ii. 66, 110, 111, 216, 221-225, 252, 253, 255, 257, 258, 265, 298, 308, 311</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Silverius, i. <a href='#Page_266'>266</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sixtus the Fourth, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>; ii. 127, 204-213, 274, 278, 321</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fifth, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>; ii. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sylvester, i. <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>; ii. 297, 298</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Symmachus, ii. 44</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Urban the Second, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixth, ii. 322, 323</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eighth, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>; ii. 132, 203, 298</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vigilius, ii. 307</span><br />
+<br />
+Popes, the, i. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Avignon, i. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; ii. 9</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among sovereigns, ii. 228</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">election of, ii. 41, 42</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred for, ii. 262-264</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporal power of, i. <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>; ii. 255-259</span><br />
+<br />
+Popp&aelig;a, i. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br />
+<br />
+Porcari, the, ii. 56<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stephen, ii. 56-60, 204</span><br />
+<br />
+Porsena of Clusium, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a><br />
+<br />
+Porta. See also <i>Gate</i>&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angelica, i. <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maggiore, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metronia, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mugonia, i. <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pia, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>; ii. <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pinciana, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Popolo, i. <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portese, ii. 132</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salaria, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Giovanni, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lorenzo, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sebastiano, ii. 119, 125</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spirito, i. <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>; ii. 132, 152</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tiburtina, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Portico of Neptune, i. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Octavia, ii. 3, 105</span><br />
+<br />
+Poussin, Nicholas, i. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a><br />
+<br />
+Pr&aelig;neste, i. <a href='#Page_156'>156</a><br />
+<br />
+Pr&aelig;textatus, i. <a href='#Page_134'>134</a><br />
+<br />
+Prefect of Rome, i. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a><br />
+<br />
+Presepi, ii. 139<br />
+<br />
+Prince of Wales, i. <a href='#Page_203'>203</a><br />
+<br />
+Prior of the Regions, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Processions of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Brotherhood of Saint John, ii. 130</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captains of Regions, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coromania, i. <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coronation of Lewis of Bavaria, i. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ides of May, ii. 127-129</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Triumph of Aurelian, i. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Progress and civilization, i. <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>; ii. 177-180<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">romance, i. <a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Prosper of Cicigliano, ii. 213<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Q<br />
+<br />
+Qu&aelig;stor, i. <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br />
+<br />
+Quirinal, the (hill), i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>; ii. 205<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+R<br />
+<br />
+Rabble, Roman, i. <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>; ii. 131<br />
+<br />
+Race course of Domitian, i. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a><br />
+<br />
+Races, Carnival, i. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a><br />
+<br />
+Raimondi, ii. 315<br />
+<br />
+Rampolla, ii. 239, 249, 250<br />
+<br />
+Raphael, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>; ii. 159, 169, 175, 188, 200, 281, 285, 322<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Trastevere, ii. 144-147</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Transfiguration" by, ii. 146, 281</span><br />
+<br />
+Ravenna, i. <a href='#Page_175'>175</a><br />
+<br />
+Regions (Rioni), i. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>-105, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>-114, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Captains of, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devices of, i. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fighting ground of, i. <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prior, i. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rivalry of, i. <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Regola, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>; ii. 1-3<br />
+<br />
+Regulus, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a><br />
+<br />
+Religion, i. <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a><br />
+<br />
+Religious epochs in Roman history, i. <a href='#Page_76'>76</a><br />
+<br />
+Renascence in Italy, i. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>; ii. 152-201, 280<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">art of, i. <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frescoes of, i. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">highest development of, i. <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaders of, ii. 152, 157-159</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manifestation of, ii. 197</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">palaces of, i. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in "The Last Judgment," ii. 280</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of development of, ii. 199</span><br />
+<br />
+Reni, Guido, i. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>; ii. 317<br />
+<br />
+Republic, the, i. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>; ii. 291<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Arnold of Brescia, ii. 86</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porcari, ii. 56-60</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; ii. 6-8</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modern ideas of, ii. 219</span><br />
+<br />
+Revolts in Rome&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">against the nobles, ii. 73</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the army, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73-89</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marius and Sylla, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porcari, ii. 56-60</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; ii. 6-8, 73</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">slaves, i. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stefaneschi, i. <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>-283; ii. 219-222</span><br />
+<br />
+Revolutionary idea, the, ii. 219-222<br />
+<br />
+Riario, the, ii. 149, 150, 151<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jerome, ii. 205</span><br />
+<br />
+Rienzi, Nicholas, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>; ii. 3-23, 308<br />
+<br />
+Rioni. See <i>Regions</i><br />
+<br />
+Ripa, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>; ii. 118<br />
+<br />
+Ripa Grande, ii. 127<br />
+<br />
+Ripetta, ii. 52<br />
+<br />
+Ristori, Mme., i. <a href='#Page_169'>169</a><br />
+<br />
+Robert of Naples, i. <a href='#Page_278'>278</a><br />
+<br />
+Roffredo, Count, i. <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a><br />
+<br />
+Rome&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a day in medi&aelig;val, i. <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-247</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bishop of, i. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">charm of, i. <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ecclesiastic, i. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lay, i. <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a modern Capital, i. <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foundation of, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Augustan Age, i. <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>-62</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Barons, i. <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>-247; ii. 75</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">C&aelig;sars, i. <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Empire, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Kings, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>-7, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Middle Age, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>-247, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>; ii. 172-175</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Napoleonic era, i. <a href='#Page_229'>229</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Popes, i. <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Republic, i. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rienzi, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; ii. 6-8</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">today, i. <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sack of, by Constable of Bourbon, i. <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>-315</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sack of, by Gauls, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Guiscard, i. <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-129, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seen from dome of Saint Peter's, ii. 302</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Tribunes, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decemvirs, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dictator, i. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Romulus, i. <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a><br />
+<br />
+Rospigliosi, i. <a href='#Page_206'>206</a><br />
+<br />
+Rossi, Pellegrino, i. <a href='#Page_316'>316</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Count, ii. 223</span><br />
+<br />
+Rostra, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>; ii. 93<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julia, i. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>; ii. 93</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>Rota, ii. 215<br />
+<br />
+Rovere, the, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>; ii. 276, 279, 321<br />
+<br />
+Rudin&igrave;, i. <a href='#Page_187'>187</a><br />
+<br />
+Rudolph of Hapsburg, i. <a href='#Page_161'>161</a><br />
+<br />
+Rufillus, i. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+S<br />
+<br />
+Sacchi, Bartolommeo, i. <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a><br />
+<br />
+Saint Peter's Church, i. <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; ii. 202, 212, 243, 246, 268, 289, 294, 295, 326<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">altar of, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architects of, ii. 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bronze doors of, ii. 299, 300</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">builders of, ii. 304</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapel of the Choir, ii. 310, 313, 314</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapel of the Sacrament, ii. 274, 306, 308, 310, 312, 313</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Choir of, ii. 313-316</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna Santa, ii. 319</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dome of, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>; ii. 302</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piazza of, ii. 251</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sacristy of, i. <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Salvini, i. <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giorgio, i. <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Santacroce Paolo, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a><br />
+<br />
+Sant' Angelo the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>; ii. 101<br />
+<br />
+Santorio, Cardinal, i. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a><br />
+<br />
+San Vito, i. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br />
+<br />
+Saracens, i. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a><br />
+<br />
+Sarto, Andrea del, ii. 157, 169<br />
+<br />
+Saturnalia, i. <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a><br />
+<br />
+Saturninus, i. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br />
+<br />
+Satyricon, the, i. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a><br />
+<br />
+Savelli, the, i. <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>; ii. 1, 16, 126, 206<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Philip, ii. 207-210</span><br />
+<br />
+Savonarola, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a><br />
+<br />
+Savoy, house of, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>; ii. 219, 220, 224<br />
+<br />
+Sc&aelig;vola, i. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a><br />
+<br />
+Schweinheim, i. <a href='#Page_317'>317</a><br />
+<br />
+Scipio, Cornelius, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Africa, i. <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii. 121</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Asia, i. <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; ii. 120</span><br />
+<br />
+Scotus, i. <a href='#Page_182'>182</a><br />
+<br />
+See, Holy, i. <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>; ii. 264-267, 277, 294<br />
+<br />
+Segni, Monseignor, i. <a href='#Page_304'>304</a><br />
+<br />
+Sejanuo, ii. 294<br />
+<br />
+Semiamira, i. <a href='#Page_178'>178</a><br />
+<br />
+Senate, Roman, i. <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Little, i. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Senators, i. <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a><br />
+<br />
+Servius, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a><br />
+<br />
+Severus&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arch of, ii. 92</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Septizonium of, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sforza, i. <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; ii. 89<br />
+<br />
+Sforza, Catharine, i. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; ii. 150<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, i. <a href='#Page_306'>306</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Siena, i. <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>; ii. 229<br />
+<br />
+Signorelli, ii. 277<br />
+<br />
+Slaves, i. <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a><br />
+<br />
+Sosii Brothers, i. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a><br />
+<br />
+Spencer, Herbert, ii. 225, 226<br />
+<br />
+Stefaneschi, Giovanni degli, i. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br />
+<br />
+Stilicho, ii. 323<br />
+<br />
+Stradella, Alessandro, ii. 315<br />
+<br />
+Streets, See <i>Via</i><br />
+<br />
+Subiaco, i. <a href='#Page_282'>282</a><br />
+<br />
+Suburra, i. <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>; ii. 95<br />
+<br />
+Suetonius, i. <a href='#Page_43'>43</a><br />
+<br />
+Sylla, ii. 25-29, 36-42<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+T<br />
+<br />
+Tacitus, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>; ii. 103<br />
+<br />
+Tarentum, i. <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarpeia, i. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; ii. 68, 69<br />
+<br />
+Tarpeian Rock, ii. 67<br />
+<br />
+Tarquins, the, i. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>; ii. 69<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sextus, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tasso, i. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; ii. 147-149<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bernardo, i. <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tatius, i. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempietto, the, i. <a href='#Page_264'>264</a><br />
+<br />
+Temple of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castor, i. <a href='#Page_27'>27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castor and Pollux, i. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>; ii. 92, 94</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceres, ii. 119</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Concord, i. <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>; ii. 92</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flora, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hercules, ii. 40</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isis and Serapis, i. <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julius C&aelig;sar, i. <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minerva, i. <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saturn, i. <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>; ii. 94</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Sun, i. <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venus and Rome, i. <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venus Victorius, i. <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vesta, i. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tenebr&aelig;, i. <a href='#Page_117'>117</a><br />
+<br />
+Tetricius, i. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a><br />
+<br />
+Theatre of&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apollo, i. <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balbus, ii. 1</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcellus, ii. 1, 101, 105, 106, 119</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pompey, i. <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Thedoric of Verona, ii. 297<br />
+<br />
+Theodoli, the, i. <a href='#Page_258'>258</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>Theodora Senatrix, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>; ii. 27-29, 203, 282<br />
+<br />
+Tiber, i. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a><br />
+<br />
+Tiberius, i. <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 102<br />
+<br />
+Titian, i. <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>; ii. 165, 166, 175, 188, 278<br />
+<br />
+Titus, i. <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 102, 295</span><br />
+<br />
+Tivoli, i. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; ii. 76, 85<br />
+<br />
+Torre (Tower)&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anguillara, ii. 138, 139, 140</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borgia, ii. 269, 285</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Conti, i. <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milizie, i. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Millina, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Nona, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii. 52, 54, 72</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanguigna, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Torrione, ii. 241, 242<br />
+<br />
+Trajan, i. <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>; ii. 206<br />
+<br />
+Trastevere, the Region, i. <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 151</span><br />
+<br />
+Trevi, the Fountain, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Region, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>; ii. 209</span><br />
+<br />
+Tribunes, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a><br />
+<br />
+Trinit&agrave; de' Monti, i. <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dei Pellegrini, ii. 110</span><br />
+<br />
+Triumph, the, of Aurelian, i. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a><br />
+<br />
+Triumphal Road, i. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a><br />
+<br />
+Tullianum, i. <a href='#Page_8'>8</a><br />
+<br />
+Tullus, i. <a href='#Page_3'>3</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Domitius, i. <a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tuscany, Duke of, ii. 30<br />
+<br />
+Tusculum, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+U<br />
+<br />
+Unity, of Italy, i. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; ii. 224<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Augustus, i. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Victor Emmanuel, i. <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></span><br />
+<br />
+University, Gregorian, the, ii. 61<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Sapienza, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>; ii. 24, 25</span><br />
+<br />
+Urbino, Duke of, i. <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+V<br />
+<br />
+Valens, i. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a><br />
+<br />
+Valentinian, i. <a href='#Page_133'>133</a><br />
+<br />
+Varus, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Vatican, the, i. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ii. 44, 202, 207, 228, 243, 245, 249, 250, 252, 253, 269, 271</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">barracks of the Swiss Guard, ii. 275</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chapels in,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pauline, ii.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nicholas, ii. 285</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sixtine, ii. 246, 274, 275, 276, 278-281, 285</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fields, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Court of the Belvedere, ii. 269</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Saint Damasus, ii. 273</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of, ii. 253</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gardens of, ii. 243, 271, 287</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of the Pigna, ii. 273</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">library, ii. 275, 276, 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Borgia apartments of, ii. 282</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loggia of the Beatification, ii. 245</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raphael, ii. 273, 274, 276, 285</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maestro di Camera, ii. 239, 248, 250</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">museums of, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture galleries, ii. 273-284</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pontifical residence, ii. 249</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">private apartments, ii. 249</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sala Clementina, ii. 248</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">del Concistoro, ii. 246</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ducale, ii. 245, 247</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Regia, ii. 246</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">throne room, ii. 247</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Torre Borgia, ii. 269, 285</span><br />
+<br />
+Veii, i. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a><br />
+<br />
+Velabrum, i. <a href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<br />
+Veneziano, Domenico, ii. 185<br />
+<br />
+Venice, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>; ii. 35, 205<br />
+<br />
+Vercingetorix, ii. 294<br />
+<br />
+Vespasian, i. <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>; ii. 295<br />
+<br />
+Vespignani, ii. 241, 242<br />
+<br />
+Vesta, i. <a href='#Page_57'>57</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temple of, i. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Vestals, i. <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>; ii. 99<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">house of, i. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Via&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Angelo Custode, i. <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appia, i. <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arenula, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borgognona, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Campo Marzo, i. <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Caravita, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Corso, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>; ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Dateria, i. <a href='#Page_183'>183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dogana Vecchia, ii. 26</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flaminia, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Florida, ii. 45</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Frattina, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Greci, i. <a href='#Page_251'>251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lata, i. <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lungara, i. <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>; ii. 144, 145, 147</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lungaretta, ii. 140</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Maestro, i. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marforio, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Monserrato, i. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montebello, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nazionale, i. <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nova, i. <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Parione, i. <a href='#Page_297'>297</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Poli, i. <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Pontefici, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Prefetti, ii. 6</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quattro Fontane, i. <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sacra, i. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Gregorio, i. <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Teodoro, i. <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de' Schiavoni, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sistina, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Stelleta, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Tritone, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>-122, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumphalis, i. <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venti Settembre, i. <a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittorio Emanuele, i. <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Viale Castro Pretorio, i. <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Vicolo della Corda, i. <a href='#Page_283'>283</a><br />
+<br />
+Victor Emmanuel, i. <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; ii. 90, 221, 224, 225, 238<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">monument to, ii. 90</span><br />
+<br />
+Victoria, Queen of England, ii. 263<br />
+<br />
+Vigiles, cohort of the, i. <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a><br />
+<br />
+Villa Borghese, i. <a href='#Page_223'>223</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colonna, i. <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">d'Este, i. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Hadrian, i. <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ludovisi, i. <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medici, i. <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negroni, i. <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Publica, i. <a href='#Page_250'>250</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Villani, i. <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; ii. 164<br />
+<br />
+Villas, in the Region of Monti, i. <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a><br />
+<br />
+Vinci, Lionardo da, i. <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>; ii. 147, 159, 169, 171, 175, 184, 188, 195, 200<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The Last Supper," by, ii. 171, 184</span><br />
+<br />
+Virgil, i. <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a><br />
+<br />
+Virginia, i. <a href='#Page_14'>14</a><br />
+<br />
+Virginius, i. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a><br />
+<br />
+Volscians, ii. 230<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+W<br />
+<br />
+Walls&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aurelian, i. <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>; ii. 119, 144</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Servian, i. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Urban the Eighth, ii. 132</span><br />
+<br />
+Water supply, i. <a href='#Page_145'>145</a><br />
+<br />
+William the Silent, ii. 263<br />
+<br />
+Witches on the &AElig;squiline, i. <a href='#Page_140'>140</a><br />
+<br />
+Women's life in Rome, i. <a href='#Page_9'>9</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Z<br />
+<br />
+Zama, i. <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a><br />
+<br />
+Zenobia of Palmyra, i. <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>; ii. 150.<br />
+<br />
+Zouaves, the, ii. 216<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by 
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+Project Gutenberg's Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by Francis Marion Crawford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1
+       Studies from the Chronicles of Rome
+
+Author: Francis Marion Crawford
+
+Release Date: April 26, 2009 [EBook #28614]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS, VOL. 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS
+
+STUDIES FROM THE CHRONICLES OF ROME
+
+BY
+
+FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES
+
+VOL. I
+
+New York
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+
+1899
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Copyright, 1898,
+By The Macmillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped October, 1898. Reprinted November,
+December, 1898.
+
+_Norwood Press_
+_J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith_
+_Norwood, Mass., U.S.A._
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+VOLUME I
+
+                              PAGE
+
+THE MAKING OF THE CITY           1
+
+THE EMPIRE                      22
+
+THE CITY OF AUGUSTUS            57
+
+THE MIDDLE AGE                  78
+
+THE FOURTEEN REGIONS           100
+
+REGION I MONTI                 106
+
+REGION II TREVI                155
+
+REGION III COLONNA             190
+
+REGION IV CAMPO MARZO          243
+
+REGION V PONTE                 274
+
+REGION VI PARIONE              297
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES
+
+
+VOLUME I
+
+Map of Rome                                    _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                FACING PAGE
+
+The Wall of Romulus                                       4
+
+Palace of the Caesars                                     30
+
+The Campagna and Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct          50
+
+Temple of Castor and Pollux                              70
+
+Basilica Constantine                                     90
+
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran                          114
+
+Baths of Diocletian                                     140
+
+Fountain of Trevi                                       158
+
+Piazza Barberini                                        188
+
+Porta San Lorenzo                                       214
+
+Villa Borghese                                          230
+
+Piazza del Popolo                                       256
+
+Island in the Tiber                                     280
+
+Palazzo Massimo alle Colonna                            306
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
+
+
+VOLUME I
+                                                       PAGE
+Palatine Hill and Mouth of the Cloaca Maxima              1
+
+Ruins of the Servian Wall                                 8
+
+Etruscan Bridge at Veii                                  16
+
+Tombs on the Appian Way                                  22
+
+Brass of Tiberius, showing the Temple of Concord         24
+
+The Tarpeian Rock                                        28
+
+Caius Julius Caesar                                       36
+
+Octavius Augustus Caesar                                  45
+
+Brass of Trajan, showing the Circus Maximus              56
+
+Brass of Antoninus Pius, in Honour of Faustina, with
+Reverse showing Vesta bearing the Palladium              57
+
+Ponte Rotto, now destroyed                               67
+
+Atrium of Vesta                                          72
+
+Brass of Gordian, showing the Colosseum                  78
+
+The Colosseum                                            87
+
+Ruins of the Temple of Saturn                            92
+
+Brass of Gordian, showing Roman Games                    99
+
+Ruins of the Julian Basilica                            100
+
+Brass of Titus, showing the Colosseum                   105
+
+Region I Monti, Device of                               106
+
+Santa Francesca Romana                                  111
+
+San Giovanni in Laterano                                116
+
+Piazza Colonna                                          119
+
+Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano                      126
+
+Santa Maria Maggiore                                    134
+
+Porta Maggiore, supporting the Channels of the Aqueduct
+of Claudius and the Anio Novus                          145
+
+Interior of the Colosseum                               152
+
+Region II Trevi, Device of                              155
+
+Grand Hall of the Colonna Palace                        162
+
+Interior of the Mausoleum of Augustus                   169
+
+Forum of Trajan                                         171
+
+Ruins of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli                      180
+
+Palazzo del Quirinale                                   185
+
+Region III Colonna, Device of                           190
+
+Arch of Titus                                           191
+
+Twin Churches at the Entrance of the Corso              197
+
+San Lorenzo in Lucina                                   204
+
+Palazzo Doria-Pamfili                                   208
+
+Palazzo di Monte Citorio                                223
+
+Palazzo di Venezia                                      234
+
+Region IV Campo Marzo, Device of                        248
+
+Piazza di Spagna                                        251
+
+Trinita de Monti                                        257
+
+Villa Medici                                            265
+
+Region V Ponte                                          274
+
+Bridge of Sant' Angelo                                  285
+
+Villa Negroni                                           292
+
+Region VI Parione, Device of                            297
+
+Piazza Navona                                           303
+
+Ponte Sisto                                             307
+
+The Cancelleria                                         316
+
+
+
+
+WORKS CONSULTED
+
+NOT INCLUDING CLASSIC WRITERS NOR ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
+
+
+1. AMPERE--Histoire Romaine a Rome.
+   AMPERE--L'Empire Remain a Rome.
+
+2. BARACCONI--I Rioni di Roma.
+
+3. BOISSIER--Promenades Archeologiques.
+
+4. BRYCE--The Holy Roman Empire.
+
+5. CELLINI--Memoirs.
+
+6. COPPI--Memoire Colonnesi.
+
+7. FORTUNATO--Storia delle vite delle Imperatrici Romane.
+
+8. GIBBON--Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+9. GNOLI--Vittoria Accoramboni.
+
+10. GREGOROVIUS--Geschichte der Stadt Rom.
+
+11. HARE--Walks in Rome.
+
+12. JOSEPHUS--Life of.
+
+13. LANCIANI--Ancient Rome.
+
+14. LETI--Vita di Sisto V.
+
+15. MURATORI--Scriptores Rerum Italicarum.
+    MURATORI--Annali d'Italia.
+    MURATORI--Antichita Italiane.
+
+16. RAMSAY AND LANCIANI--A Manual of Roman Antiquities.
+
+17. SCHNEIDER--Das Alte Rom.
+
+18. SILVAGNI--La Corte e la Societa Romana.
+
+[Illustration: PALATINE HILL AND MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA]
+
+
+
+
+Ave Roma Immortalis
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+The story of Rome is the most splendid romance in all history. A few
+shepherds tend their flocks among volcanic hills, listening by day and
+night to the awful warnings of the subterranean voice,--born in danger,
+reared in peril, living their lives under perpetual menace of
+destruction, from generation to generation. Then, at last, the deep
+voice swells to thunder, roaring up from the earth's heart, the
+lightning shoots madly round the mountain top, the ground rocks, and the
+air is darkened with ashes. The moment has come. One man is a leader,
+but not all will follow him. He leads his small band swiftly down from
+the heights, and they drive a flock and a little herd before them,
+while each man carries his few belongings as best he can, and there are
+few women in the company. The rest would not be saved, and they perish
+among their huts before another day is over.
+
+Down, always downwards, march the wanderers, rough, rugged, young with
+the terrible youth of those days, and wise only with the wisdom of
+nature. Down the steep mountain they go, down over the rich, rolling
+land, down through the deep forests, unhewn of man, down at last to the
+river, where seven low hills rise out of the wide plain. One of those
+hills the leader chooses, rounded and grassy; there they encamp, and
+they dig a trench and build huts. Pales, protectress of flocks, gives
+her name to the Palatine Hill. Rumon, the flowing river, names the
+village Rome, and Rome names the leader Romulus, the Man of the River,
+the Man of the Village by the River; and to our own time the
+twenty-first of April is kept and remembered, and even now honoured, for
+the very day on which the shepherds began to dig their trench on the
+Palatine, the date of the Foundation of Rome, from which seven hundred
+and fifty-four years were reckoned to the birth of Christ.
+
+And the shepherds called their leader King, though his kingship was over
+but few men. Yet they were such men as begin history, and in the scant
+company there were all the seeds of empire. First the profound faith of
+natural mankind, unquestioning, immovable, inseparable from every daily
+thought and action; then fierce strength, and courage, and love of life
+and of possession; last, obedience to the chosen leader, in clear
+liberty, when one should fail, to choose another. So the Romans began to
+win the world, and won it in about six hundred years.
+
+By their camp-fires, by their firesides in their little huts, they told
+old tales of their race, and round the truth grew up romantic legend,
+ever dear to the fighting man and to the husbandman alike, with strange
+tales of their first leader's birth, fit for poets, and woven to stir
+young hearts to daring, and young hands to smiting. Truth there was
+under their stories, but how much of it no man can tell: how Amulius of
+Alba Longa slew his sons, and slew also his daughter, loved of Mars,
+mother of twin sons left to die in the forest, like Oedipus,
+father-slayers, as Oedipus was, wolf-suckled, of whom one was born to
+kill the other and be the first King, and be taken up to Jupiter in
+storm and lightning at the last. The legend of wise Numa, next, taught
+by Egeria; her stony image still weeps trickling tears for her royal
+adept, and his earthen cup, jealously guarded, was worshipped for more
+than a thousand years; legends of the first Arval brotherhood, dim as
+the story of Melchisedec, King and priest, but lasting as Rome itself.
+Tales of King Tullus, when the three Horatii fought for Rome against
+the three Curiatii, who smote for Alba and lost the day--Tullus
+Hostilius, grandson of that first Hostus who had fought against the
+Sabines; and always more legend, and more, and more, sometimes misty,
+sometimes clear and direct in action as a Greek tragedy. They hover upon
+the threshold of history, with faces of beauty or of terror, sublime,
+ridiculous, insignificant, some born of desperate, real deeds, many
+another, perhaps, first told by some black-haired shepherd mother to her
+wondering boys at evening, when the brazen pot simmered on the
+smouldering fire, and the father had not yet come home.
+
+But down beneath the legend lies the fact, in hewn stones already far in
+the third thousand of their years. Digging for truth, searchers have
+come here and there upon the first walls and gates of the Palatine
+village, straight, strong and deeply founded. The men who made them
+meant to hold their own, and their own was whatsoever they were able to
+take from others by force. They built their walls round a four-sided
+space, wide enough for them, scarcely big enough a thousand years later
+for the houses of their children's rulers, the palaces of the Caesars of
+which so much still stands today.
+
+Then came the man who built the first bridge across the river, of wooden
+piles and beams, bolted with bronze, because the Romans had no iron yet,
+and ever afterwards repaired with wood and bronze, for its sanctity, in
+perpetual veneration of Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome. That was the
+bridge Horatius kept against Porsena of Clusium, while the fathers hewed
+it down behind him.
+
+[Illustration: WALL OF ROMULUS]
+
+Tarquin the first came next, a stranger of Greek blood, chosen, perhaps,
+because the factions in Rome could not agree. Then Servius, great and
+good, built his tremendous fortification, and the King of Italy today,
+driving through the streets in his carriage, may look upon the wall of
+the King who reigned in Rome more than two thousand and four hundred
+years ago.
+
+Under those six rulers, from Romulus to Servius, from the man of the
+River Village to the man of walls, Rome had grown from a sheepfold to a
+town, from a town to a walled city, from a city to a little nation,
+matched against all mankind, to win or die, inch by inch, sword in hand.
+She was a kingdom now, and her men were subjects; and still the third
+law of great races was strong and waking. Romans obeyed their leader so
+long as he could lead them well--no longer. The twilight of the Kings
+gathered suddenly, and their names were darkened, and their sun went
+down in shame and hate. In the confusion, tragic legend rises to tell
+the story. For the first time in Rome, a woman, famous in all history,
+turned the scale. The King's son, passionate, terrible, false, steals
+upon her in the dark. 'I am Sextus Tarquin, and there is a sword in my
+hand.' Yet she yielded to no fear of steel, but to the horror of
+unearned shame beyond death. On the next day, when she lay before her
+husband and her father and the strong Brutus, her story told, her deed
+done, splendidly dead by her own hand, they swore the oath in which the
+Republic was born. While father, husband and friend were stunned with
+grief, Brutus held up the dripping knife before their eyes. 'By this
+most chaste blood, I swear--Gods be my witnesses--that I will hunt down
+Tarquin the Proud, himself, his infamous wife and every child of his,
+with fire and sword, and with all my might, and neither he nor any other
+man shall ever again be King in Rome.' So they all swore, and bore the
+dead woman out into the market-place, and called on all men to stand by
+them.
+
+They kept their word, and the tale tells how the Tarquins were driven
+out to a perpetual exile, and by and by allied themselves with Porsena,
+and marched on Rome, and were stopped only at the Sublician bridge by
+brave Horatius.
+
+Chaos next. Then all at once the Republic stands out, born full grown
+and ready armed, stern, organized and grasping, but having already
+within itself the quickened opposites that were to fight for power so
+long and so fiercely,--the rich and the poor, the patrician and the
+plebeian, the might and the right.
+
+There is a wonder in that quick change from Kingdom to Commonwealth,
+which nothing can make clear, except, perhaps, modern history. Say that
+two thousand or more years hereafter men shall read of what our
+grandfathers, our fathers and ourselves have seen done in France within
+a hundred years, out of two or three old books founded mostly on
+tradition; they may be confused by the sudden disappearance of kings, by
+the chaos, the wild wars and the unforeseen birth of a lasting republic,
+just as we are puzzled when we read of the same sequence in ancient
+Rome. Men who come after us will have more documents, too. It is not
+possible that all books and traces of written history should be
+destroyed throughout the world, as the Gauls burned everything in Rome,
+except the Capitol itself, held by the handful of men who had taken
+refuge there.
+
+So the Kingdom fell with a woman's death, and the Commonwealth was made
+by her avengers. Take the story as you will, for truth or truth's
+legend, it is for ever humanly true, and such deeds would rouse a nation
+today as they did then and as they set Rome on fire once more nearly
+sixty years later.
+
+But all the time Rome was growing as if the very stones had life to put
+out shoots and blossoms and bear fruit. Round about the city the great
+Servian wall had wound like a vast finger, in and out, grasping the
+seven hills, and taking in what would be a fair-sized city even in our
+day. They were the last defences Rome built for herself, for nearly nine
+hundred years.
+
+Nothing can give a larger idea of Rome's greatness than that; not all
+the temples, monuments, palaces, public buildings of later years can
+tell half the certainty of her power expressed by that one fact--Rome
+needed no walls when once she had won the world.
+
+But it is very hard to guess at what the city was, in those grim times
+of the early fight for life. We know the walls, and there were nineteen
+gates in all, and there were paved roads; the wooden bridge, the Capitol
+with its first temple and first fortress, the first Forum with the
+Sacred Way, were all there, and the public fountain, called the
+Tullianum, and a few other sites are certain. The rest must be imagined.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE SERVIAN WALL]
+
+Rome was a brown city in those days, when there was no marble and little
+stucco: a brown city teeming with men and women clothed mostly in grey
+and brown and black woollen cloaks, like those the hill shepherds wear
+today, caught up under one arm and thrown far over the shoulder in dark
+folds. The low houses without any outer windows, entered by one rough
+door, were built close together, and those near the Forum had shops
+outside them, low-browed places, dark but not deep, where the cloaked
+keeper sat behind a stone counter among his wares, waiting for custom,
+watching all that happened in the market-place, gathering in gossip from
+one buyer to exchange it for more with the next, altogether not unlike
+the small Eastern merchant of today.
+
+Yet during more than half the time, there were few young men, or men in
+prime, in the streets of Rome. They were fighting more than half the
+year, while their fathers and their children stayed behind with the
+women. The women sat spinning and weaving wool in their little brown
+houses; the boys played, fought, ran races naked in the streets; the
+small girls had their quiet games and, surely, their dolls, made of
+rags, stuffed with the soft wool waste from their mothers' spindles and
+looms. The old men, scarred and seamed in the battles of an age when
+fighting was all hand to hand, kept the shops, or sunned themselves in
+the market-place, shelling and chewing lupins to pass the time, as the
+Romans have always done, and telling old tales, or boasting to each
+other of their half-grown grandchildren, and of their full-grown sons,
+fighting far away in the hills and the plains that Rome might have more
+possession. Meanwhile the maidens went in pairs to the springs to fetch
+water, or down to the river in small companies to wash the woollen
+clothes and dry them in the shade of the old wild trees, lest in the sun
+they should shrink and thicken; black-haired, black-eyed, dark-skinned
+maids, all of them, strong and light of foot, fit to be mothers of more
+soldiers, to slay more enemies, and bring back more spoil. Then, as in
+our own times, the flocks of goats were driven in from the pastures at
+early morning and milked from door to door, for each household, and
+driven out again to the grass before the sun was high. In the old wall
+there was the Cattle Gate, the Porta Mugonia, named, as the learned say,
+from the lowing of the herds. Then, as in the hill towns not long ago,
+the serving women, who were slaves, sat cross-legged on the ground in
+the narrow court within the house, with the hand-mill of two stones
+between them, and ground the wheat to flour for the day's meal. There
+have been wonderful survivals of the first age even to our own time.
+
+But that which has not come down to us is the huge vitality of those men
+and women. The world's holders have never risen suddenly in hordes; they
+have always grown by degrees out of little nations, that could live
+through more than their neighbours. Calling up the vision of the first
+Rome, one must see, too, such human faces and figures of men as are
+hardly to be found among us nowadays,--the big features, the great,
+square, devouring jaws, the steadily bright eyes, the strongly built
+brows, coarse, shagged hair, big bones, iron muscles and starting
+sinews. There are savage countries that still breed such men. They may
+have their turn next, when we are worn out. Browning has made John the
+Smith a memorable type.
+
+Rome was a clean city in those days. One of the Tarquins had built the
+great arched drain which still stands unshaken and in use, and smaller
+ones led to it, draining the Forum and all the low part of the town. The
+people were clean, far beyond our ordinary idea of them, as is plain
+enough from the contemptuous way in which the Latin authors use their
+strong words for uncleanliness. A dirty man was an object of pity, and
+men sometimes went about in soiled clothes to excite the public
+sympathy, as beggars do today in all countries. Dirt meant abject
+poverty, and in a grasping, getting race, poverty was the exception,
+even while simplicity was the rule. For all was simple with them, their
+dress, their homes, their lives, their motives, and if one could see the
+Rome of Tarquin the Proud, this simplicity would be of all
+characteristics the most striking, compared with what we know of later
+Rome, and with what we see about us in our own times. Simplicity is not
+strength, but the condition in which strength is least hampered in its
+full action.
+
+It was easy to live simply in such a place and in such a climate, under
+a wise King. The check in the first straight run of Rome's history
+brought the Romans suddenly face to face with the first great
+complication of their career, which was the struggle between the rich
+and the poor; and again the half truth rises up to explain the fact.
+Men whose first instinct was to take and hold took from one another in
+peace when they could not take from their enemies in war, since they
+must needs be always taking from some one. So the few strong took all
+from the many weak, till the weak banded themselves together to resist
+the strong, and the struggle for life took a new direction.
+
+The grim figure of Lucius Junius Brutus rises as the incarnation of that
+character which, at great times, made history, but in peace made
+trouble. The man who avenged Lucretia, who drove out the Tarquins, and
+founded the Republic, is most often remembered as the father who sat
+unmoved in judgment on his two traitor sons, and looked on with stony
+eyes while they paid the price of their treason in torment and death.
+That one deed stands out, and we forget how he himself fell fighting for
+Rome's freedom.
+
+But still the evil grew at home, and the hideous law of creditor and
+debtor, which only fiercest avarice could have devised, ground the poor,
+who were obliged to borrow to pay the tax-gatherer, and made slaves of
+them almost to the ruin of the state.
+
+Just then Etruria wakes, shadowy, half Greek, the central power of
+Italy, between Rome and Gaul. Porsena, the Lar of Clusium, comes against
+the city with a great host in gilded arms. Terror descends like a dark
+mist over the young nation. The rich fear for their riches, the poor for
+their lives. In haste the fathers gather great supplies of corn against
+a siege; credit and debt are forgotten; patrician and plebeian join
+hands as Porsena reaches Janiculum, and three heroic figures of romance
+stand forth from a host of heroes. Horatius keeps the bridge, first with
+two comrades, then, at the last, alone in the glory of single-handed
+fight against an army, sure of immortality whether he live or die.
+Scaevola, sworn with the three hundred to slay the Lar, stabs the wrong
+man, and burns his hand to the wrist to show what tortures he can bear
+unmoved. Cloelia, the maiden hostage, rides her young steed at the
+yellow torrent, and swims the raging flood back to the Palatine.
+Cloelia and Horatius get statues in the Forum; Scaevola is endowed with
+great lands, which his race holds for centuries, and leaves a name so
+great that two thousand years later, Sforza, greatest leader of the
+Middle Age, coveting long ancestry, makes himself descend from the man
+who burned off his own hand.
+
+They are great figures, the two men and the noble girl, and real to us,
+in a way, because we can stand on the very ground they trod, where
+Horatius fought, where Scaevola suffered and where Cloelia took the
+river. They are nearer to us than Romulus, nearer even than Lucretia, as
+each figure, following the city's quick life, has more of reality about
+it, and not less of heroism.
+
+For two hundred years the Romans strove with each other in law making;
+the fathers for exclusive power and wealth, the plebeians for freedom,
+first, and then for office in the state; a time of fighting abroad for
+land, and of contention at home about its division. In fifty years the
+poor had their Tribunes, but it took them nearly three times as long,
+after that, to make themselves almost the fathers' equals in power.
+
+Once they tried a new kind of government by a board of ten, and it held
+for a while, till again a woman's life turned the tide of Roman history,
+and fair young Virginia, stabbed by her father in the Forum, left a name
+as lasting as any of that day.
+
+Romance again, but the true romance, above doubt, at last; not at all
+mythical, but full of fate's unanswerable logic, which makes dim stories
+clear to living eyes. You may see the actors in the Forum, where it all
+happened,--the lovely girl with frightened, wondering eyes; the father,
+desperate, white-lipped, shaking with the thing not yet done; Appius
+Claudius smiling among his friends and clients; the sullen crowd of
+strong plebeians, and the something in the chill autumn air that was a
+warning of fate and fateful change. Then the deed. A shriek at the edge
+of the throng; a long, thin knife, high in air, trembling before a
+thousand eyes; a harsh, heartbroken, vengeful voice; a confusion and a
+swaying of the multitude, and then the rising yell of men overlaid,
+ringing high in the air from the Capitol right across the Forum to the
+Palatine, and echoing back the doom of the Ten.
+
+The deed is vivid still, and then there is sudden darkness. One thinks
+of how that man lived afterwards. Had Virginius a home, a wife, other
+children to mourn the dead one? Or was he a lonely man, ten times alone
+after that day, with the memory of one flashing moment always undimmed
+in a bright horror? Who knows? Did anyone care? Rome's story changed its
+course, turning aside at the river of Virginia's blood, and going on
+swiftly in another way.
+
+To defeat this time, straight to Rome's first and greatest humiliation;
+to the coming of the Gauls, sweeping everything before them, Etruscans,
+Italians, Romans, up to the gates of the city and over the great moat
+and wall of Servius, burning, destroying, killing everything, to the
+foot of the central rock; baffled at the last stronghold on a dark night
+by a flock of cackling geese, but not caring for so small a thing when
+they had swallowed up the rest, or not liking the Latin land, perhaps,
+and so, taking ransom for peace and marching away northwards again
+through the starved and harried hills and valleys of Etruria to their
+own country. And six centuries passed away before an enemy entered Rome
+again.
+
+But the Gauls left wreck and ruin and scarcely one stone upon another in
+the great desolation; they swept away all records of history, then and
+there, and the general destruction was absolute, so that the Rome of the
+Republic and of the Empire, the centre and capital of the world, began
+to exist from that day. Unwillingly the people bore back Juno's image
+from Veii, where they had taken refuge and would have stayed, and built
+houses, and would have called that place Rome. But the nobles had their
+own way, and the great construction began, of which there was to be no
+end for many hundreds of years, in peace and war, mostly while hard
+fighting was going on abroad.
+
+[Illustration: ETRUSCAN BRIDGE AT VEII]
+
+They built hurriedly at first, for shelter, and as best they could,
+crowding their little houses in narrow streets with small care for
+symmetry or adornment. The second Rome must have seemed but a poor
+village compared with the solidly built city which the Gauls had burnt,
+and it was long before the present could compare with the past. In haste
+men seized on fragments of all sorts, blocks of stone, cracked and
+defaced in the flames, charred beams that could still serve, a door
+here, a window there, and such bits of metal as they could pick up. An
+irregular, crowded town sprang up, and a few rough temples, no doubt as
+pied and meanly pieced as many of those early churches built of odds and
+ends of ruin, which stand to this day.
+
+It is not impossible that the motley character of Rome, of which all
+writers speak in one way or another, had its first cause in that second
+building of the city. Rome without ruins would hardly seem Rome at all,
+and all was ruined in that first inroad of the savage Gauls,--houses,
+temples, public places. When the Romans came back from Veii they must
+have found the Forum not altogether unlike what it is today, but
+blackened with smoke, half choked with mouldering humanity, strewn with
+charred timbers, broken roof tiles and the wreck of much household
+furniture; a sorrowful confusion reeking with vapours of death, and
+pestilential with decay. It was no wonder that the poor plebeians lost
+heart and would have chosen to go back to the clear streets and cleaner
+air of Veii. Their little houses were lost and untraceable in the
+universal chaos. But the rich man's ruins stood out in bolder relief; he
+had his lands still; he still had slaves; he could rebuild his home; and
+he had his way.
+
+But ever afterwards, though the Republic and the Empire spent the wealth
+of nations in beautifying the city, the trace of that first defeat
+remained. Dark and narrow lanes wound in and out, round the great
+public squares, and within earshot of the broad white streets, and the
+time-blackened houses of the poor stood huddled out of sight behind the
+palaces of the rich, making perpetual contrast of wealth and poverty,
+splendour and squalor, just as one may see today in Rome, in London, in
+Paris, in Constantinople, in all the mistress cities of the world that
+have long histories of triumph and defeat behind them.
+
+The first Rome sprang from the ashes of the Alban volcano, the second
+Rome rose from the ashes of herself, as she has risen again and again
+since then. But the Gauls had done Rome a service, too. In crushing her
+to the earth, they had crushed many of her enemies out of existence; and
+when she stood up to face the world once more, she fought not to beat
+the AEquians or the Etruscans at her gates, but to conquer Italy. And by
+steady fighting she won it all, and brought home the spoils and divided
+the lands; here and there a battle lost, as in the bloody Caudine pass,
+but always more battles won, and more, and more, sternly relentless to
+revolt. Brutus had seen his own sons' heads fall at his own word; should
+Caius Pontius, the Samnite, be spared, because he was the bravest of the
+brave? To her faithful friends Rome was just, and now and then
+half-contemptuously generous.
+
+The idle Greek fine gentlemen of Tarentum sat in their theatre one day,
+overlooking the sea, shaded by dyed awnings from the afternoon sun,
+listening entranced to some grand play,--the Oedipus King, perhaps, or
+Alcestis, or Medea. Ten Roman trading ships came sailing round the
+point; and the wind failed, and they lay there with drooping sails,
+waiting for the land breeze that springs up at night. Perhaps some rough
+Latin sailor, as is the way today in calm weather when there is no work
+to be done, began to howl out one of those strange, endless songs which
+have been sung down to us, from ear to ear, out of the primeval Aryan
+darkness,--loud, long drawn out, exasperating in its unfinished cadence,
+jarring on the refined Greek ear, discordant with the actor's finely
+measured tones. In sudden rage at the noise--so it must have been--those
+delicate idlers sprang up and ran down to the harbour, and took the
+boats that lay there, and overwhelmed the unarmed Roman traders, slaying
+many of them. Foolish, cruel, almost comic. So a sensitive musician,
+driven half mad by a street organ, longs to rush out and break the thing
+to pieces, and kill the poor grinder for his barbarous noise.
+
+But when there was blood in the harbour of Tarentum, and some of the
+ships had escaped on their oars, the Greeks were afraid; and when the
+message of war came swiftly down to them from inexorable Rome, their
+terror grew, and they sent to Pyrrhus of Epirus, who had set up to be a
+conqueror, to come and conquer Rome for the sake of certain aesthetic
+fine gentlemen who could not bear to be disturbed at a good play on a
+spring afternoon. He came with all the pomp and splendour of Eastern
+warfare; he won a battle, and a battle, and half a battle, and then the
+Romans beat him at Beneventum, famous again and again, and utterly
+destroyed his army, and took back with them his gold and his jewels, and
+the tusks of his elephants, and the mastery of all Italy to boot, but
+not yet beyond dispute.
+
+Creeping down into Sicily, Rome met Carthage, both giants in those days,
+and the greatest and last struggle began, with half the known world and
+all the known sea for a battle-ground. Round and round the
+Mediterranean, by water and land, they fought for a hundred and eighteen
+years, through four generations of men, as we should reckon it, both
+grasping and strong, both relentless, both sworn to win or perish for
+ever, both doing great deeds that are remembered still. The mere name of
+Regulus is a legion of legends in itself; the name of Hannibal is in
+itself a history, that of Fabius Maximus a lesson; and while history
+lasts, Cornelius Scipio and Scipio the African will not be forgotten. It
+is the story of many and terrible defeats, from each of which Rome rose,
+fiercely young, to win a dozen terrible little victories. It is strange
+that we remember the lost days best; misty Thrasymene and Cannae's
+fearful slaughter rise first in the memory. Then all at once, within ten
+years, the scale turns, and Caius Claudius Nero hurls Hasdrubal's
+disfigured head high over ditch and palisade into his brother's camp,
+right to his brother's feet. And five years later, the battle of Zama,
+won almost at the gates of Carthage; and then, almost the end, as great
+heartbroken Hannibal, defeated, ruined and exiled, drinks up the poison
+and rests at last, some forty years after he led his first army to
+victory. But he had been dead nearly forty years, when another Scipio at
+last tore down the walls of Carthage, and utterly destroyed the city to
+the foundations, for ever. And a dozen years later than that, Rome had
+conquered all the civilized world round about the Mediterranean sea,
+from Spain to Asia.
+
+[Illustration: TOMBS ON THE APPIAN WAY]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+There was a mother in Rome, not rich, but of great race, for she was
+daughter to Scipio of Africa; and she called her sons her jewels when
+other women showed their golden ornaments and their precious stones and
+boasted of their husbands' wealth. Cornelia's two sons, Tiberius and
+Caius, lost their lives successively in a struggle against the avarice
+of the rich men who ruled Rome, Italy and the world; against that
+grasping avarice which far surpassed the greed of any other race before
+the Romans, or after them, and which had suddenly taken new growth as
+the spoils of the East and South and West poured into the city. Yet the
+vast booty men could see was but an earnest of the wide lands which had
+fallen to Rome, called 'Public Lands' almost as if in derision, while
+they fell into the power of the few and strong, by the hundred thousand
+acres at a time.
+
+Three hundred and fifty years before the Gracchi, when little conquests
+still seemed great, Spurius Cassius had died in defence of his Agrarian
+Law, at the hands of the savage rich who accused him of conspiring for a
+crown. Tiberius Gracchus set up the rights of the people to the public
+land, and perished.
+
+He fell within a stone's throw of the spot on which the great tribune,
+Nicholas Rienzi, died. The strong, small band of nobles, armed with
+staves and clubs, and with that supremacy of contemptuous bearing that
+cows the simple, plough their way through the rioting throng,
+murderously clubbing to right and left. Tiberius, retreating, stumbles
+against a corpse and his enemies are upon him; a stave swung high in
+air, a dull blow, and all is finished for that day, save to throw the
+body into the Tiber lest the people should make a revolution of its
+funeral.
+
+Next came Caius, a boy of six and twenty, fighting the same fight for a
+few years. On his head the nobles set a price--its weight in gold. He
+hides on the Aventine, and the Aventine is stormed. He escapes by the
+Sublician bridge and the bridge is held behind him by one friend, almost
+as Horatius held it against an army. Yet the nobles and their hired
+Cretan bowmen force the way and pursue him into Furina's grove. There a
+Greek slave ends him, and to get more gold fills the poor head with
+metal--and is paid in full. Three hundred died with Tiberius, three
+thousand were put to death for his brother's sake. With the goods of the
+slain and the dowries of their wives, Opimius built the Temple of
+Concord on the spot where the later one still stands in part, between
+the Comitium and the Capitol. The poor of Rome, and Cornelia, and the
+widows and children of the murdered men, knew what that 'Concord' meant.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TIBERIUS, SHOWING THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD]
+
+Then followed revolution, war with runaway slaves, war with the
+immediate allies, then civil war, while wealth and love of wealth grew
+side by side, the one, insatiate, devouring the other.
+
+First the slaves made for Sicily, wild, mountainous, half-governed then
+as it is today, and they held much of it against their masters for five
+years. Within short memory, almost yesterday, a handful of outlaws has
+defied a powerful nation's best soldiers in the same mountains. It is
+small wonder that many thousand men, fighting for liberty and life,
+should have held out so long.
+
+And meanwhile Jugurtha of Numidia had for long years bought every Roman
+general sent against him, had come to Rome himself and bought the laws,
+and had gone back to his country with contemptuous leave-taking--'Thou
+city where all is sold!' And still he bought, till Caius Marius,
+high-hearted plebeian and great soldier, brought him back to die in the
+Mamertine prison.
+
+Then against wealth arose the last and greatest power of Rome, her
+terrible armies that set up whom they would, to have their will of
+Senate and fathers and people. First Marius, then Sylla whom he had
+taught to fight, and taught to beat him in the end, after Cinna had been
+murdered for his sake at Ancona.
+
+Marius and Sylla, the plebeian and the patrician, were matched at first
+as leader and lieutenant, then both as conquerors, then as alternate
+despots of Rome and mortal foes, till their long duel wrecked what had
+been and opened ways for what was to be.
+
+First, Sylla claims that he, and not Marius, took Jugurtha, when the
+Numidian ally betrayed him, though the King and his two sons marched in
+the train of the plebeian's triumph. Marius answers by a stupendous
+victory over the Cimbrians and Teutons, slays a hundred thousand in one
+battle, comes home, triumphs again, sets up his trophies in the city and
+builds a temple to Honour and Courage. Next, in greed of popular power,
+he perjures himself to support a pair of murderous demagogues, betrays
+them in turn to the patricians, and Saturninus is pounded to death with
+roof tiles in the Capitol. Then, being made leader in the war with the
+allies, already old for fighting, he fails at the outset, and his rival
+Sylla is General in his stead.
+
+Then riot on riot in the Forum, violence after violence in the struggle
+for the consulship, murder after murder, blood upon blood not yet dry.
+Sylla gets the expedition against Mithridates; Marius, at home,
+undermines his enemy's influence and forces the tribes to give him the
+command, and sends out his lieutenants to the East. Sylla's soldiers
+murder them, and Sylla marches back against Rome with six legions.
+Marius is unprepared; Sylla breaks into the city, torch in hand, at the
+head of his troops, burning and slaying; the rivals meet face to face in
+the Esquiline market-place, Roman fights Roman, and the plebeian loses
+the day and escapes to the sea.
+
+The reign of terror begins, and a great slaying. Sylla declares his
+rival an enemy of Rome, and Marius is found hiding in the marshes of
+Minturnae, is dragged out naked, covered with mud, a rope about his neck,
+and led into a little house of the town to be slain by a slave. 'Darest
+thou kill Caius Marius?' asks the old man with flashing eyes, and the
+slave executioner trembles before the unarmed prisoner. They let him go.
+He wanders to Africa and sits alone among the ruins of Carthage, while
+Sylla fights victoriously in the East. Rome, momentarily free of both,
+is torn by dissensions about the voting of the newly enfranchised.
+Instead of the greater rivals, Cinna and Octavius are matched for plebs
+and nobles. Knife-armed the parties fight it out in the Forum, the
+bodies of citizens lie in heaps, and the gutters are gorged with free
+blood, and again the patricians win the day. Cinna, fleeing from wrath,
+is deposed from office. Marius sees his chance again. Unshaven and
+unshorn since he left Rome last, he joins Cinna, leading six thousand
+fugitives, seizes and plunders the towns about Rome, while Cinna encamps
+beneath the walls. Together they enter Rome and nail Octavius' head to
+the Rostra. Then the vengeance of wholesale slaying, in another reign of
+terror, and Marius is despot of the city for a while, as Sylla had been
+before, till spent with age, his life goes out amid drunkenness and
+blood. The people tear down Sylla's house, burn his villa and drive out
+his wife and his children. Back he comes after four years, victorious,
+fighting his way right and left, against Lucanians and Samnites, back to
+Rome still fighting them, almost loses the battle, is saved by Crassus
+to take vengeance again, and again the long lists of the proscribed are
+written out and hung up in the Forum, and the city runs blood in a third
+Terror. Amid heaps of severed heads, Sylla sits before the temple of
+Castor and sells the lands of his dead enemies; and Catiline is first
+known to history as the executioner of Caius Gratidianus, whom he slices
+to death, piecemeal, beyond the Tiber.
+
+[Illustration: THE TARPEIAN ROCK]
+
+Sylla, cold, aristocratic, sublimely ironical monster, was Rome's first
+absolute and undisputed military lord. Tired of blood, he tried reform,
+invented an aristocratic constitution, saw that it must fail, and then,
+to the amazement of his friends and enemies, abdicated and withdrew to
+private life, protected by a hundred thousand veterans of his army, and
+many thousands of freedmen, to die at the last without violence.
+
+Of the chaos he left behind him, Caesar made the Roman Empire.
+
+The Gracchi, champions of the people, were foully done to death. Marius
+and Sylla, tearing the proud Republic to pieces for their own greatness,
+both died in their beds, the one of old age, the other of disease. There
+is no irony like that which often ended the lives of great Romans.
+Marcus Manlius, who saved the Capitol from the Gauls, was hurled to his
+death from the same rock, by the tribunes of the people, and Rome's
+citadel and sanctuary was desecrated by the blood of its preserver.
+Scipio of Africa breathed his last in exile, but Appius Claudius, the
+Decemvir, died rich and honoured.
+
+One asks, naturally enough, how Rome could hold the civilized nations in
+subjection while she was fighting out a civil war that lasted fifty
+years. We have but little idea of her great military organization, after
+arms became a profession and a career. We can but call up scattered
+pictures to show us rags and fragments of the immense host that
+patrolled the world with measured tread and matchless precision of
+serried rank, in tens and scores and hundreds of thousands, for
+centuries, shoulder to shoulder and flank to flank, learning its own
+strength by degrees, till it suddenly grasped all power, gave it to one
+man, and made Caius Julius Caesar Dictator of the earth.
+
+The greatest figure in all history suddenly springs out of the dim
+chaos and shines in undying glory, the figure of a man so great that the
+office he held means Empire, and the mere name he bore means Emperor
+today in four empires,--Caesar, Kaiser, Czar, Kaisar,--a man of so vast
+power that the history of humanity for centuries after him was the
+history of those who were chosen to fill his place--the history of
+nearly half the twelve centuries foretold by the augur Attus, from
+Romulus, first King, to Romulus Augustulus, last Emperor. He was a man
+whose deeds and laws have marked out the life of the world even to this
+far day. Before him and with him comes Pompey, with him and after him
+Mark Antony, next to him in line and greatness, Augustus--all dwarfs
+compared with him, while two of them were failures outright, and the
+third could never have reached power but in his steps.
+
+[Illustration: PALACE OF THE CAESARS]
+
+In that long tempest of parties wherein the Republic went down for ever,
+it is hard to trace the truth, or number the slain, or reckon up account
+of gain and loss. But when Caesar rises in the centre of the storm the
+end is sure and there can be no other, for he drives it before him like
+a captive whirlwind, to do his bidding and clear the earth for his
+coming. Other men, and great men, too, are overwhelmed by it, dashed
+down and stunned out of all sense and judgment, to be lost and forgotten
+like leaves in autumn, whirled away before the gale. Pompey, great
+general and great statesman, conqueror in Spain, subduer of Spartacus
+and the Gladiators, destroyer of pirates and final victor over
+Mithridates, comes back and lives as a simple citizen. Noble of birth,
+but not trusted by his peers, he joins with Caesar, leader of all the
+people, and with Crassus, for more power, and loses the world by giving
+Caesar an army, and Gaul to conquer. Crassus, brave general, too, is
+slain in battle in far Parthia, and Pompey steals a march by getting a
+long term in Spain. Caesar demands as much and is refused by Pompey's
+friends. Then the storm breaks and Caesar comes back from Gaul to cross
+the Rubicon, and take all Italy in sixty days. Pompey, ambitious,
+ill-starred, fights losing battles everywhere. Murdered at last in
+Egypt, he, too, is dead, and Caesar stands alone, master of Rome and of
+the world. One year he ruled, and then they slew him; but no one of them
+that struck him died a natural death.
+
+Creation presupposes chaos, and it is the divine prerogative of genius
+to evolve order from confusion. Julius Caesar found the world of his day
+consisting of disordered elements of strength, all at strife with each
+other in a central turmoil, skirted and surrounded by the relative peace
+of an ancient and long undisturbed barbarism.
+
+It was out of these elements that he created what has become modern
+Europe, and the direction which he gave to the evolution of mankind has
+never wholly changed since his day. Of all great conquerors he was the
+least cruel, for he never sacrificed human life without the direct
+intention of benefiting mankind by an increased social stability. Of all
+great lawgivers, he was the most wise and just, and the truths he set
+down in the Julian Code are the foundation of modern justice. Of all
+great men who have leaped upon the world as upon an unbroken horse, who
+have guided it with relentless hands, and ridden it breathless to the
+goal of glory, Caesar is the only one who turned the race into the track
+of civilization and, dying, left mankind a future in the memory of his
+past. He is the one great man of all, without whom it is impossible to
+imagine history. We cannot take him away and yet leave anything of what
+we have. The world could have been as it is without Alexander, without
+Charlemagne, without Napoleon; it could not have been the world we know
+without Caius Julius Caesar.
+
+That fact alone places him at the head of mankind.
+
+In Caesar's life there is the same matter for astonishment as in
+Napoleon's; there is the vast disproportion between beginnings and
+climax, between the relative modesty of early aims and the stupendous
+magnitude of the climacteric result. One asks how in a few years the
+impecunious son of the Corsican notary became the world's despot, and
+how the fashionable young spendthrift lawyer of Rome, dabbling in
+politics and almost ignorant of warfare, rose in a quarter of a century
+to be the world's conqueror, lawgiver and civilizer. The daily miracle
+of genius is the incalculable speed at which it simultaneously thinks
+and acts. Nothing is so logical as creation, and creation is the first
+sign as well as the only proof that genius is present.
+
+Hitherto the life of Caesar has not been logically presented. His youth
+appears almost always to be totally disconnected from his maturity. The
+first success, the conquest of Gaul, comes as a surprise, because its
+preparation is not described. After it everything seems natural, and
+conquest follows victory as daylight follows dawn; but when we try to
+think backwards from that first expedition, we either see nothing
+clearly, or we find Caesar an insignificant unit in a general disorder,
+as hard to identify as an individual ant in a swarming ant-hill. In the
+lives of all 'great men,' which are almost always totally unlike the
+lives of the so-called 'great,'--those born, not to power, but in
+power,--there is a point which must inevitably be enigmatical. It may be
+called the Hour of Fate--the time when in the suddenly loosed play of
+many circumstances, strained like springs and held back upon themselves,
+a man who has been known to a few thousands finds himself the chief of
+millions and the despot of a nation.
+
+Things which are only steps to great men are magnified to attainments in
+ordinary lives, and remembered with pride. The man of genius is sure of
+the great result, if he can but get a fulcrum for his lever. What
+strikes one most in the careers of such men as Caesar and Napoleon is the
+tremendous advance realized at the first step--the difference between
+Napoleon's half-subordinate position before the first campaign in Italy
+and his dominion of France immediately after it, or the distance which
+separated Caesar, the impeached Consul, from Caesar, the conqueror of
+Gaul.
+
+It must not be forgotten that Caesar came of a family that had held great
+positions, and which, though impoverished, still had credit,
+subsequently stretched by Caesar to the extreme limit of its borrowing
+power. At sixteen, an age when Bonaparte was still an unknown student,
+Caesar was Flamen Dialis, or high priest of Jupiter, and at one and
+twenty, the 'ill-girt boy,' as Sylla called him from his way of wearing
+his toga, was important enough to be driven from Rome, a fugitive. His
+first attempt at a larger notoriety had failed, and Dolabella, whom he
+had impeached, had been acquitted through the influence of friends. Yet
+the young lawyer had found the opportunity of showing what he could do,
+and it was not without reason that Sylla said of him, 'You will find
+many a Marius in this one Caesar.'
+
+Twenty years passed before the prophecy began to be realized with the
+commencement of Caesar's career in Gaul, and more than once during that
+time his life seemed a failure in his own eyes, and he said scornfully
+and sadly of himself that he had done nothing to be remembered at an age
+when Alexander had already conquered the world.
+
+Those twenty years which, to the thoughtful man, are by far the most
+interesting of all, appear in history as a confused and shapeless medley
+of political, military and forensic activity, strongly coloured by
+social scandals, which rested upon a foundation of truth, and darkened
+by accusations of worse kind, for which there is no sort of evidence,
+and which may be safely attributed to the jealousy of unscrupulous
+adversaries.
+
+The first account of him, which we have in the seventeenth year of his
+age, evokes a picture of youthful beauty. The boy who is to win the
+world is appointed high priest of Jove in Rome,--by what strong
+influence we know not,--and we fancy the splendid youth with his tall
+figure, full of elastic endurance, the brilliant face, the piercing,
+bold, black eyes; we see him with the small mitre set back upon the dark
+and curling locks that grow low on the forehead, as hair often does that
+is to fall early, clad in the purple robe of his high office, summoning
+all his young dignity to lend importance to his youthful grace as he
+moves up to Jove's high altar to perform his first solemn sacrifice with
+his young consort; for the high priesthood of Jove was held jointly by
+man and wife, and if the wife died the husband lost his office.
+
+He was about twenty when he cast his lot with the people, and within the
+year he fled from Sylla's persecution. The life of sudden changes and
+contrasts had begun. Straight from the sacred office, with all its
+pomp, and splendour, and solemnity, Caesar is a fugitive in the Sabine
+hills, homeless, wifeless, fever-stricken, a price on his head. Such
+quick chances of evil fell to many in the days of the great struggle
+between Marius and Sylla, between the people and the nobles.
+
+Then as Sylla yielded to the insistence of the young 'populist'
+nobleman's many friends, the quick reverse is turned to us. Caesar has a
+military command, sees some fighting and much idleness by the shores of
+the Bosphorus, in Bithynia--then in a fit of sudden energy, the
+soldier's spirit rises; he dashes to the attack on Mytilene, and shows
+himself a man.
+
+[Illustration: CAIUS JULIUS CAESAR
+
+After a statue in the Palazzo dei Conservatori]
+
+One or two unimportant campaigns, as a subordinate officer, a civic
+crown won for personal bravery, an unsuccessful action brought against a
+citizen of high rank in the hope of forcing himself into notice, a trip
+to Rhodes made to escape the disgrace of failure, and an adventure with
+pirates--there, in a few words, is the story of Julius Caesar's youth, as
+history tells it. But then suddenly, when his projected studies in quiet
+Rhodes were hardly begun, he crosses to the mainland, raises troops,
+seizes cities, drives Mithridates' governor out of the province, returns
+to Rome and is elected military tribune. The change is too quick, and
+one does not understand it. Truth should tell that those early years had
+been spent in the profound study of philosophy, history, biography,
+languages and mankind, of the genesis of events from the germ to the
+branching tree, of that chemistry of fate which brews effect out of
+cause, and distils the imperishable essence of glory from the rougher
+liquor of vulgar success.
+
+What strikes one most in the lives of the very great is that every
+action has a cumulative force beyond what it ever has in the existence
+of ordinary men. Success moves onward, passing through events on the
+same plane, as it were, and often losing brilliancy till it fades away,
+leaving those who have had it to outlive it in sorrow and weakness.
+Genius moves upward, treading events under its feet, scaling Olympus,
+making a ladder of mankind, outlasting its own activity for ever in a
+final and fixed glory more splendid than its own bright path. The really
+great man gathers power in action, the average successful man expends
+it.
+
+And so it must be understood that Caesar, in his early youth, was not
+wasting his gifts in what seemed to be a half-voluptuous,
+half-adventurous, wholly careless life, but was accumulating strength by
+absorbing into himself the forces with which he came in contact,
+exhausting the intelligence of his companions in order to stock his own,
+learning everything simultaneously, forgetting nothing he learned till
+he could use all he knew to the extreme limit of its value.
+
+There is something mysterious in the almost unlimited credit which Caesar
+seems to have enjoyed when still a very young man; and if the control of
+enormous sums of money by which he made himself beloved among the people
+explains, in a measure, his rapid rise from office to office, it is, on
+the other hand, hard to account for the trust which his creditors placed
+in his promises, and to explain why, when he was taken by pirates, the
+cities of Asia Minor should have voluntarily contributed money to make
+up the ransom demanded, seeing that he had never served in Asia, except
+as a subordinate. The only possible explanation is that while there, his
+real energies were devoted to the attainment of the greatest possible
+popularity in the shortest possible time, and that he was making himself
+beloved by the Asiatic cities, while his enemies said of him that he was
+wasting his time in idleness and dissipation.
+
+In any case, it was the control of money that most helped him in
+obtaining high offices in Rome, and from the very first he seems to have
+acted on the principle that in great enterprises economy spells ruin,
+and that to check expenditure is to trip up success. And this is
+explained, if not justified, by his close association with the people,
+from his very childhood. Until he was made Pontifex Maximus he seems to
+have lived in a small house in the Suburra, in one of the most crowded
+and least fashionable quarters of Rome; and as a mere boy, it was his
+influence with the common people that roused Sylla's anxiety. To live
+with the people, to take their part against the nobles, to give them of
+all he had and of all he could borrow, were the chief rules of his
+conduct, and the fact that he obtained such enormous loans proves that
+there were rich lenders who were ready to risk fortunes upon his
+success. And it was in dealing with the Roman plebeian that he learned
+to command the Roman soldier, with the tact of a demagogue and the
+firmness of an autocrat. He knew that a man must give largely, even
+recklessly, to be beloved, and that in order to be respected he must be
+able to refuse coldly and without condition, and that in all ages the
+people are but as little children before genius, though they may rise
+against talent like wild beasts and tear it to death.
+
+He knew also that in youth ten failures are nothing compared with one
+success, while in the full meridian of power one failure undoes a score
+of victories; hence his recklessness at first, his magnificent caution
+in his latter days; his daring resistance of Sylla's power before he was
+twenty, and his mildness towards the ringleaders of popular
+conspiracies against him when he was near his end; his violence upon the
+son of King Juba, whom he seized by the beard in open court when he
+himself was but a young lawyer, and his moderation in bearing the most
+atrocious libels, to punish which might have only increased their force.
+
+Caesar's career divides itself not unnaturally into three periods,
+corresponding with his youth, his manhood and his maturity; with the
+absorption of force in gaining experience, the lavish expenditure of
+force in conquest, the calm employment of force in final supremacy. The
+man who never lost a battle in which he commanded in person, began life
+by failing in everything he attempted, and ended it as the foremost man
+of all humanity, past and to come, the greatest general, the greatest
+speaker, the greatest lawgiver, the greatest writer of Latin prose whom
+the great Roman people ever produced, and also the bravest man of his
+day, as he was the kindest. In an age when torture was a legitimate part
+of justice, he caused the pirates who had taken him, and whom he took in
+turn, to be mercifully put to death before he crucified their dead
+bodies for his oath's sake, and when his long-trusted servant tried to
+poison him he would not allow the wretch to be hurt save by the sudden
+stroke of instant death; nor ever in a long career of conquest did he
+inflict unnecessary pain. Never was man loved of women as he was, and
+his sins were many even for those days, yet in them we find no
+unkindness, and when his own wife should have been condemned for her
+love of Clodius, Caesar would not testify against her. He divorced her,
+he said, not because he knew anything, but because his family should be
+above suspicion. He plundered the world, but he gave it back its gold in
+splendid gifts and public works, keeping its glory alone for himself. He
+was hated by the few because he was beloved by the many, and it was not
+revenge, but envy, that slew the benefactor of mankind. The weaknesses
+of the supreme conqueror were love of woman and trust of man, and as the
+first Brutus made his name glorious by setting his people free, the
+second disgraced it and blackened the name of friendship with a stain
+that will outlast time, and by a deed second only in infamy to that of
+Judas Iscariot. The last cry of the murdered master was the cry of a
+broken heart--'And thou, too, Brutus, my son!' Alexander left chaos
+behind him; Caesar left Europe, and it may be truly said that the
+crowning manifestation of his sublime wisdom was his choice of
+Octavius--of the young Augustus--to complete the carving of a world
+which he himself had sketched and blocked out in the rough.
+
+The first period of his life ended with his election to the military
+tribuneship on his return to Rome after his Asian adventures, and his
+first acts were directed towards the reconstruction of what Sylla had
+destroyed, by reestablishing the authority of tribunes and recalling
+some of Sylla's victims from their political exile. From that time
+onward, in his second period, he was more or less continually in office.
+Successively a tribune, a quaestor, governor of Farther Spain, aedile,
+pontifex maximus, praetor, governor of Spain again, and consul with the
+insignificant Bibulus, a man of so small importance that people used to
+date documents, by way of a jest, 'in the Consulship of Julius and
+Caesar.' Then he obtained Gaul for his province, and lived the life of a
+soldier for nine years, during which he created the army that gave him
+at last the mastery of Rome. And in the tenth year Rome was afraid, and
+his enemies tried to deprive him of his power and passed bills against
+him, and drove out the tribunes of the people who took his part; and if
+he had returned to Rome then, yielding up his province and his legions,
+as he was called upon to do, he would have been judged and destroyed by
+his enemies. But he knew that the people loved him, and he crossed the
+Rubicon in arms.
+
+This second period of his life closed with the last triumph decreed to
+him for his victories in Spain. The third and final period had covered
+but one year when his assassins cut it short.
+
+Nothing demonstrates Caesar's greatness so satisfactorily as this, that
+at his death Rome relapsed at once into civil war and strife as violent
+as that to which Caesar had put an end, and that the man who brought
+lasting peace and unity into the distracted state, was the man of
+Caesar's choice. But in endeavouring to realize his supreme wisdom,
+nothing helps us more than the pettiness of the accusations brought
+against him by such historians as Suetonius--that he once remained
+seated to receive the whole body of Conscript fathers, that he had a
+gilded chair in the Senate house, and appointed magistrates at his own
+pleasure to hold office for terms of years, that he laughed at an
+unfavourable omen and made himself dictator for life; and such things,
+says the historian, 'are of so much more importance than all his good
+qualities that he is considered to have abused his power and to have
+been justly assassinated.' But it is the people, not the historian, who
+make history, and when Caius Julius Caesar was dead, the people called
+him God.
+
+Beardless Octavius, his sister's daughter's son, barely eighteen years
+old, brings in by force the golden age of Rome. As Triumvir, with Antony
+and Lepidus, he hunts down the murderers first, then his rebellious
+colleagues, and wins the Empire back in thirteen years. He rules long
+and well, and very simply, as commanding general of the army and by no
+other power, taking all into his hands besides, the Senate, the chief
+priesthood, and the Majesty of Rome over the whole earth, for which he
+was called Augustus, the 'Majestic.' And his strength lay in this, that
+by the army, he was master of Senate and people alike, so that they
+could no longer strive with each other in perpetual bloodshed, and the
+everlasting wars of Rome were fought against barbarians far away, while
+Rome at home was prosperous and calm and peaceful. Then Virgil sang, and
+Horace gave Latin life to Grecian verse, and smiled and laughed, and
+wept and dallied with love, while Livy wrote the story of greatness for
+us all to this day, and Ovid touched another note still unforgotten.
+Then temple rose by temple, and grand basilicas reared their height by
+the Sacred Way; the gold of the earth poured in and Art was queen and
+mistress of the age. Julius Caesar was master in Rome for one year.
+Augustus ruled nearly half a century. Four and forty years he was sole
+monarch after Antony's fall at Actium. About the thirtieth year of his
+reign, Christ was born.
+
+All men have an original claim to be judged by the standard of their own
+time. Counting one by one the victims of the proscription proclaimed by
+the triumvirate in which Augustus was the chief power, some historians
+have brought down his greatness in quick declination to the level of a
+cold-blooded and cruel selfishness; and they account for his subsequent
+just and merciful conduct on the ground that he foresaw political
+advantage in clemency, and extension of power in the exercise of
+justice. The death of Cicero, sacrificed to Antony's not unreasonable
+vengeance, is magnified into a crime that belittles the Augustan age.
+
+Yet compared with the wholesale murders done by Marius and Sylla, and by
+the patricians themselves in their struggles with the people, the few
+political executions ordered by Augustus sink into comparative
+insignificance, and it will generally be seen that those who most find
+fault with him are ready to extol the murderers of Julius Caesar as
+devoted patriots, if not as glorious martyrs to the divine cause of
+liberty.
+
+[Illustration: OCTAVIUS AUGUSTUS CAESAR
+
+After a bust in the British Museum]
+
+It is easier, perhaps, to describe the growth of Rome from the early
+Kings to Augustus, than to account for the change from the Rome of the
+Empire at the beginning of our era to the Rome of the Popes in the year
+eight hundred. Probably the easiest and truest way of looking at the
+transition is to regard it according to the periods of supremacy,
+decadence and ultimate disappearance from Rome of the Roman Army. For
+the Army made the Emperors, and the Emperors made the times. The great
+military organization had in it the elements of long life, together with
+all sudden and terrible possibilities. The Army made Tiberius, Caligula,
+Claudius and Nero, the Julian Emperors; then destroyed Nero and set up
+Vespasian after one or two experiments. The Army chose such men as
+Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, and such monsters as Domitian and Commodus;
+the Army conquered the world, held the world and gave the world to
+whomsoever it pleased. The Army and the Emperor, each the other's tool,
+governed Rome for good and ill, for ill and good, by fear and bounty and
+largely by amusement, but ultimately to their own and Rome's
+destruction.
+
+For all the time the two great adversaries of the Empire, the spiritual
+and material, the Christian and the men of the North, were gaining
+strength and unity. Under Augustus, Christ was born. Under Augustus,
+Hermann the German chieftain destroyed Varus and his legions. By sheer
+strength and endurance, the Army widened and broadened the Empire,
+forcing back the Northmen upon themselves like a spring that gathers
+force by tension. Unnoticed, at first, Christianity quietly grew to
+power. Between Christians and Northmen, the Empire of Rome went down at
+last, leaving the Empire of Constantinople behind it.
+
+The great change was wrought in about five hundred years, by the Empire,
+from the City of the Republic to what had become the City of the Middle
+Age; between the reign of Augustus, first Emperor, and the deposition of
+the last Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by Odoacer, Rome's hired
+Pomeranian general.
+
+In that time Rome was transubstantiated in all its elements, in
+population, in language, in religion and in customs. To all intents and
+purposes, the original Latin race utterly disappeared, and the Latin
+tongue became the broken dialect of a mixed people, out of which the
+modern Italian speech was to grow, decadent in form, degenerate in
+strength but renascent in a grace and beauty which the Latin never
+possessed. First the vast population of slaves brought in their
+civilized and their barbarous words--Greek, Hebrew and Arabic, or
+Celtic, German and Slav; then came the Goth, and filled all Italy with
+himself and his rough language for a hundred years. The Latin of the
+Roman Mass is the Latin of slaves in Rome between the first and fifth
+centuries, from the time of the Apostles to that of Pope Gelasius, whose
+prayer for peace and rest is the last known addition to the Canon,
+according to most authorities. Compare it with the Latin of Livy and
+Tacitus; it is not the same language, for to read the one by no means
+implies an understanding of the other.
+
+Or take the dress. It is told of Augustus, as a strange and almost
+unknown thing, that he wore breeches and stockings, or leg swathings,
+because he suffered continually with cold. Men went barelegged and
+wrapped themselves in the huge toga which came down to their feet. In
+the days of Augustulus the toga was almost forgotten; men wore leggings,
+tunics and the short Greek cloak.
+
+In the change of religion, too, all customs were transformed, private
+and public, in a way impossible to realize today. The Roman household,
+with the father as absolute head, lord and despot, gradually gave way to
+a sort of half-patriarchal, half-religious family life, resembling the
+first in principle but absolutely different from it in details and
+result, and which, in a measure, has survived in Italy to the present
+time.
+
+In the lives of men, the terror of one man, as each despot lost power,
+began to give way to the fear of half-defined institutions, of the
+distant government in Constantinople and of the Church as a secular
+power, till the time came when the title of Emperor raised a smile,
+whereas the name of the Pope--of the 'Father-Bishop'--was spoken with
+reverence by Christians and with respect even by unbelievers. The time
+came when the army that had made Emperors and unmade them at its
+pleasure became a mere band of foreign mercenaries, who fought for wages
+and plunder when they could be induced to fight for Rome at all.
+
+So the change came. But in the long five hundred years of the Western
+Empire Rome had filled the world with the results of her own life and
+had founded modern Europe, from the Danube to England and from the Rhine
+to Gibraltar; so that when the tide set towards the south again, the
+Northmen brought back to Italy some of the spirit and some of the
+institutions which Rome had carried northwards to them in the days of
+conquest; and they came not altogether as strangers and barbarians, as
+the Huns had come, to ravage and destroy, and be themselves destroyed
+and scattered and forgotten, but, in a measure, as Europeans against
+Europeans, hoping to grasp the remnants of a civilized power. Theodoric
+tried to make a real kingdom, Totila and Teias fell fighting for one;
+the Franks established one in Gaul, and at last it was a Frank who gave
+the Empire life again, and conquests and laws, and was crowned by the
+Christian Pontifex Maximus in Rome when Julius Caesar had been dead more
+than eight hundred years.
+
+One of the greatest of the world's historians has told the story of the
+change, calling it the 'Decline and Fall of the Empire,' and describing
+it in some three thousand pages, of which scarcely one can be spared for
+the understanding of the whole. Thereby its magnitude may be gauged, but
+neither fairly judged nor accurately measured. The man who would grasp
+the whole meaning of Rome's name, must spend a lifetime in study and
+look forward to disappointment in the end. It was Ampere, I believe, who
+told a young student that he might get a superficial impression of the
+city in ten years, but that twenty would be necessary in order to know
+anything about it worthy to be written. And perhaps the largest part of
+the knowledge worth having lies in the change from the ancient capital
+of the Empire to the mediaeval seat of ecclesiastic domination.
+
+And, indeed, nothing in all history is more extraordinary than the rise
+of Rome's second power under the Popes. In the ordinary course of human
+events, great nations appear to have had but one life. When that was
+lived out, and when they had passed through the artistic period so often
+coincident with early decadence, they were either swept away, or they
+sank to the insignificance of mere commercial prosperity, thereafter
+deriving their fashions, arts, tastes, and in fact almost everything
+except their wealth, from nations far gone in decay.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAMPAGNA
+
+And Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct]
+
+But in Rome it was otherwise. The growth of the faith which subjected
+the civilized world was a matter of first importance to civilization,
+and Rome was the centre of that growing. Moreover, that development and
+that faith had one head, chosen by election, and the headship itself
+became an object of the highest ambition, whereby the strength and
+genius of individuals and families were constantly called into activity,
+and both families and isolated individuals of foreign race were
+attracted to Rome. It was no small thing to hold the kings of the earth
+in spiritual subjection, to be the arbiter of the new Empire founded by
+Charlemagne, the director of the kingdoms built up in France and
+England, and, almost literally, the feudal lord over all other temporal
+powers. The force of a predominant idea gave Rome new life, vivifying
+new elements with the vitality of new ambitions. The theatre was the
+same. The actors and the play had changed. The world was no longer
+governed by one man as monarch; it was directed by one man, who was the
+chief personage in the vast and intricate feudal system by which strong
+men agreed to live, and to which they forced the weak to submit.
+
+The Barons came into existence, and Rome was a city of fortresses and
+towers, as well as churches. Orsini and Colonna, Caetani and
+Vitelleschi, Savelli and Frangipani, fought with each other for
+centuries among ruins, built strongholds of the stones of temples, and
+burned the marble treasures of the world to make lime. And fiercely they
+held their own. Nicholas Rienzi wanders amid the deserted places,
+deciphers the broken inscriptions, gathers a little crowd of plebeians
+about him and tells them of ancient Rome, and of the rights of the
+people in old times. All at once he rises, a grand shadow of a Roman, a
+true tribune, brave, impulsive, eloquent. A little while longer and he
+is half mad with vanity and ambition, a public fool in a high place,
+decking himself in silks and satins, and ornaments of gold, and the
+angry nobles slay him on the steps of the Aracoeli, as other nobles
+long ago slew Tiberius Gracchus, a greater and a better man, almost on
+the same spot.
+
+Meanwhile the great schism of the Church rages, before and after Rienzi.
+The Empire and its Kingdoms join issue with each other and with the
+Barons for the lordship of Christendom; there are two Popes, waging war
+with nations on both sides, and Rome is reduced to a town of barely
+twenty thousand souls. Then comes Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh,
+friend of the Great Countess, humbler of the Emperor, a restorer of
+things, the Julius Caesar of the Church, and from his day there is
+stability again, as Urban the Second follows, like an Augustus; Nicholas
+the Fifth, the next great Pontiff, comes in with the Renascence. Last of
+destroyers Charles, the wild Constable of Bourbon, marches in open
+rebellion against King, State and Church, friend to the Emperor,
+straight to his death at the walls, his work of destruction carried out
+to the terrible end by revengeful Spaniards who spare only the churches
+and the convents. Out of those ashes Rome rose again, for the last time,
+the Rome of Sixtus the Fifth, which is, substantially, the Rome we see
+today; less powerful in the world after that time, but more beautiful as
+she grew more peaceful by degrees; flourishing in a strange, motley
+way, like no other city in the world, as the Empire of the Hapsburgs and
+the Kingdoms of Europe learned to live apart from her, and she was
+concentrated again upon herself, still and always a factor among
+nations, and ever to be. But even in latter days, Napoleon could not do
+without her, and Francis the Second of Austria had to resign the Empire,
+in order that Pius the Seventh might call the self-crowned Corsican
+soldier, girt with Charlemagne's huge sword, the anointed Emperor of
+Christendom.
+
+Once more a new idea gives life to fragments hewn in pieces and
+scattered in confusion. A dream of unity disturbs Italy's sleep. Never,
+in truth, in all history, has Italy been united save by violence. By the
+sword the Republic brought Latins, Samnites and Etruscans into
+subjection; by sheer strength she crushed the rebellion of the slaves
+and then forced the Italian allies to a second submission; by terror
+Marius and Sylla ruled Rome and Italy; and it was the overwhelming power
+of a paid army that held the Italians in check under the Empire, till
+they broke away from each other as soon as the pressure was removed, to
+live in separate kingdoms and principalities for thirteen or fourteen
+hundred years, from Romulus Augustulus--or at least from Justinian--to
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, in whose veins ran not one drop of
+Italian blood.
+
+One asks whence came the idea of unity which has had such power to move
+these Italians, in modern times. The answer is plain and simple. Unity
+is the word; the interpretation of it is the name of Rome. The desire is
+for all the romance and the legends and the visions of supreme greatness
+which no other name can ever call up. What will be called hereafter the
+madness of the Italian people took possession of them on the day when
+Rome was theirs to do with as they pleased. Their financial ruin had its
+origin at that moment, when they became masters of the legendary
+Mistress of the world. What the end will be, no one can foretell, but
+the Rome of old was not made great by dreams. Her walls were founded in
+blood, and her temples were built with the wealth of conquered nations,
+by captives and slaves of subject races.
+
+The Rome we see today owes its mystery, its sadness and its charm to six
+and twenty centuries of history, mostly filled with battle, murder and
+sudden death, deeds horrible in that long-past present which we try to
+call up, but alternately grand, fascinating and touching now, as we
+shape our scant knowledge into visions and fill out our broken dreams
+with the stuff of fancy. In most men's minds, perhaps, the charm lies in
+that very confusion of suggestions, for few indeed know Rome so well as
+to divide clearly the truth from the legend in her composition. Such
+knowledge is perhaps altogether unattainable in any history; it is most
+surely so here, where city is built on city, monument upon monument,
+road upon road, from the heart of the soil upwards--the hardened lava
+left by many eruptions of life; where the tablets of Clio have been
+shattered again and again, where fire has eaten, and sword has hacked,
+and hammer has bruised ages of records out of existence, where even the
+race and type of humanity have changed and have been forgotten twice and
+three times over.
+
+Therefore, unless one have half a lifetime to spend in patient study and
+deep research, it is better, if one come to Rome, to feel much than to
+try and know a little, for in much feeling there is more human truth
+than in that dangerous little knowledge which dulls the heart and
+hampers the clear instincts of natural thought. Let him who comes hither
+be satisfied with a little history and much legend, with rough warp of
+fact and rich woof of old-time fancy, and not look too closely for the
+perfect sum of all, where more than half the parts have perished for
+ever.
+
+It matters not much whether we know the exact site of Virgil's
+Laurentum; it is more interesting to remember how Commodus, cruel,
+cowardly and selfish, fled thither from the great plague, caring not at
+all that his people perished by tens of thousands in the city, since he
+himself was safe, with the famous Galen to take care of him. We can
+leave the task of tracing the enclosures of Nero's golden house to
+learned archaelogists, and let our imagination find wonder and delight in
+their accounts of its porticos three thousand feet long, its game park,
+its baths, its thousands of columns with their gilded capitals, and its
+walls encrusted with mother-of-pearl. And we may realize the depth of
+Rome's abhorrence for the dead tyrant, as we think of how Vespasian and
+his son Titus pulled down the enchanted palace for the people's sake,
+and built the Colosseum where the artificial lake had been, and their
+great baths on the very foundations of Nero's gorgeous dwelling.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TRAJAN, SHOWING THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS]
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF ANTONINUS PIUS, IN HONOUR OF FAUSTINA, WITH
+REVERSE SHOWING VESTA BEARING THE PALLADIUM]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+It is impossible to conceive of the Augustan age without Horace, nor to
+imagine a possible Horace without Greece and Greek influence. At the
+same time Horace is in many ways the prototype of the old-fashioned,
+cultivated, gifted, idle, sarcastic, middle-class Roman official, making
+the most of life on a small salary and the friendship of a great
+personage; praising poverty, but making the most of the good things that
+fell in his way; extolling pristine austerity of life and yielding with
+a smile to every agreeable temptation; painting the idyllic life of a
+small gentleman farmer as the highest state of happiness, but secretly
+preferring the town; prudently avoiding marriage, but far too human to
+care for an existence in which woman had no share; more sensible in
+theory than in practice, and more religious in manner than in heart;
+full of quaint superstitions, queer odds and ends of knowledge, amusing
+anecdotes and pictures of personal experience; the whole compound
+permeated with a sort of indolent sadness at the unfulfilled promises of
+younger years, in which there had been more of impulse than of ambition,
+and more of ambition than real strength. The early struggles for Italian
+unity left many such half-disappointed patriots, and many less fortunate
+in their subsequent lives than Horace.
+
+Born in the far South, and the son of a freed slave, brought to Rome as
+a boy and carefully taught, then sent to Athens to study Greek, he was
+barely twenty years of age when he joined Brutus after Caesar's death,
+was with him in Asia, and, in the lack of educated officers perhaps,
+found himself one day, still a mere boy, tribune of a Legion--or, as we
+should say, in command of a brigade of six thousand men, fighting for
+what he believed to be the liberty of Rome, in the disastrous battle of
+Philippi. Brutus being dead, the dream of glory ended, after the
+amnesty, in a scribe's office under one of the quaestors, and the
+would-be liberator of his country became a humble clerk in the Treasury,
+eking out his meagre salary with the sale of a few verses. Many an old
+soldier of Garibaldi's early republican dreams has ended in much the
+same way in our own times under the monarchy.
+
+But Horace was born to other things. Chaucer was a clerk in the Custom
+House, and found time to be the father of English poetry. Horace's daily
+work did not hinder him from becoming a poet. His love of Greek,
+acquired in Athens and Asia Minor, and the natural bent of his mind made
+him the greatest imitator and adapter of foreign verses that ever lived;
+and his character, by its eminently Italian combination of prim
+respectability and elastic morality, gave him a two-sided view of men
+and things that has left us representations of life in three dimensions
+instead of the flat, though often violent, pictures which prejudice
+loves best to paint.
+
+In his admiration of Greek poetry, Horace was not a discoverer; he was
+rather the highest expression of Rome's artistic want. If Scipio of
+Africa had never conquered the Carthaginians at Zama, he would be
+notable still as one of the first and most sincere lovers of Hellenic
+literature, and as one of the earliest imitators of Athenian manners.
+The great conqueror is remembered also as the first man in Rome who
+shaved every day, more than a hundred and fifty years before Horace's
+time. He was laughed at by some, despised by others and disliked by the
+majority for his cultivated tastes and his refined manners.
+
+The Romans had most gifts excepting those we call creative. Instead of
+creating, therefore, Rome took her art whole, and by force, from the
+most artistic nation the world ever produced. Sculptors, architects,
+painters and even poets, such as there were, came captive to Rome in
+gangs, were sold at auction as slaves, and became the property of the
+rich, to work all their lives at their several arts for their master's
+pleasure; and the State rifled Greece and Asia, and even the Greek Italy
+of the south, and brought back the masterpieces of an age to adorn
+Rome's public places. The Roman was the engineer, the maker of roads, of
+aqueducts, of fortifications, the layer out of cities, and the planner
+of harbours. In a word, the Roman made the solid and practical
+foundation, and then set the Greek slave to beautify it. When he had
+watched the slave at work for a century or two, he occasionally
+attempted to imitate him. That was as far as Rome ever went in original
+art.
+
+But her love of the beautiful, though often indiscriminating and lacking
+in taste, was profound and sincere. It does not appear that in all her
+conquests her armies ever wantonly destroyed beautiful things. On the
+contrary, her generals brought home all they could with uncommon care,
+and the consequence was that in Horace's day the public places of the
+city were vast open-air museums, and the great temples picture galleries
+of which we have not the like now in the whole world. And with those
+things came all the rest; the manners, the household life, the
+necessaries and the fancies of a conquering and already decadent nation,
+the thousands of slaves whose only duty was to amuse their owners and
+the public; the countless men and women and girls and boys, whose souls
+and bodies went to feed the corruption of the gorgeous capital, or to
+minister to its enormous luxuries; the companies of flute-players and
+dancing-girls, the sharp-tongued jesters, the coarse buffoons, the
+play-actors and the singers. And then, the endless small commerce of an
+idle and pleasure-seeking people, easily attracted by bright colours,
+new fashions and new toys; the drug-sellers and distillers of perfumes,
+the venders of Eastern silks and linens and lace, the barbers and
+hairdressers, the jewellers and tailors, the pastry cooks and makers of
+honey-sweetmeats; and everywhere the poor rabble of failures, like scum
+in the wake of a great ship; the beggars everywhere, and the pickpockets
+and the petty thieves. It is no wonder that Horace was fond of strolling
+in Rome.
+
+In contrast, the great and wonderful things of the Augustan city stand
+out in high relief, above the varied crowd that fills the streets, with
+all the dignity that centuries of power can lend. To the tawdry is
+opposed the splendid, the Roman general in his chiselled corselet and
+dyed mantle faces the Greek actor in his tinsel; the band of painted,
+half-clad, bedizened dancing-girls falls back cowering in awestruck
+silence as the noble Vestal passes by, high-browed, white-robed,
+untainted, the incarnation of purity in an age of vice. And the old
+Senator in his white cloak with its broad purple hem, his smooth-faced
+clients at his elbows, his silent slaves before him and behind, meets
+the low-chattering knot of Hebrew money-lenders, making the price of
+short loans for the day, and discussing the assets of a famous
+spendthrift, as their yellow-turbaned, bearded fathers had talked over
+the chances of Julius Caesar when he was as yet but a fashionable young
+lawyer of doubtful fortune, with an unlimited gift of persuasion and an
+equally unbounded talent for amusement.
+
+Between the contrasts lived men of such position as Horace occupied, but
+not many. For the great middle element of society is a growth of later
+centuries, and even Horace himself, as time went on, became attached to
+Maecenas and then, more or less, to the person of the Emperor, by a
+process of natural attraction, just as his butt, Tigellius, gravitated
+to the common herd that mourned his death. The 'golden mean' of which
+Horace wrote was a mere expression, taught him, perhaps, by his father,
+a part of his stock of maxims. Where there were only great people on the
+one side, and a rabble on the other, the man of genius necessarily rose
+to the level of the high, by his own instinct and their liking. What was
+best of Greek was for them, what was worst was for the populace.
+
+But the Greek was everywhere, with his keen weak face, his sly look and
+his skilful fingers. Scipio and Paulus Emilius had brought him, and he
+stayed in Rome till the Goth came, and afterwards. Greek poetry, Greek
+philosophy, Greek sculpture, Greek painting, Greek music everywhere--to
+succeed at all in such society, Virgil and Horace and Ovid must needs
+make Greek of Latin, and bend the stiff syllables to Alcaics and
+Sapphics and Hexameters. The task looked easy enough, though it was
+within the powers of so very few. Thousands tried it, no doubt, when the
+three or four had set the fashion, and failed, as the second-rate fail,
+with some little brief success in their own day, turned into the total
+failure of complete disappearance when they had been dead awhile.
+
+Supreme of them all, for his humanity, Horace remains. Epic Virgil,
+appealing to the traditions of a living race of nobles and to the
+carefully hidden, sober vanity of the world's absolute monarch, does not
+appeal to modern man. The twilight of the gods has long deepened into
+night, and Ovid's tales of them and their goddesses move us by their own
+beauty rather than by our sympathy for them, though we feel the tender
+touch of the exiled man whose life was more than half love, in the
+marvellous Letters of Heroes' Sweethearts--in the complaint of Briseis
+to Achilles, in the passionately sad appeal of Hermione to Orestes.
+Whoever has not read these things does not know the extreme limit of
+man's understanding of woman. Yet Horace, with little or nothing of such
+tenderness, has outdone Ovid and Virgil in this later age.
+
+He strolled through life, and all life was a play of which he became
+the easy-going but unforgetful critic. There was something good-natured
+even in his occasional outbursts of contempt and hatred for the things
+and the people he did not like. There was something at once caressing
+and good-humouredly sceptical in his way of addressing the gods,
+something charitable in his attacks on all that was ridiculous,--men,
+manners and fashions.
+
+He strolled wherever he would, alone; in the market, looking at
+everything and asking the price of what he saw, of vegetables and grain
+and the like; in the Forum, or the Circus, at evening, when 'society'
+was dining, and the poor people and slaves thronged the open places for
+rest and air, and there he used to listen to the fortune-tellers, and
+among them, no doubt, was that old hag, Canidia, immortalized in the
+huge joke of his comic resentment. He goes home to sup on lupins and
+fritters and leeks,--or says so,--though his stomach abhorred garlic;
+and his three slaves--the fewest a man could have--wait on him as he
+lies before the clean white marble table, leaning on his elbow. He does
+not forget the household gods, and pours a few drops upon the cement
+floor in libation to them, out of the little earthen saucer filled from
+the slim-necked bottle of Campanian earthenware. Then to sleep, careless
+of getting up early or late, just as he might feel, to stay at home and
+read or write, or to wander about the city, or to play the favourite
+left-handed game of ball in the Campus Marius before his bath and his
+light midday meal.
+
+With a little change here and there, it is the life of the idle
+middle-class Italian today, which will always be much the same, let the
+world wag and change as it will, with all its extravagances, its
+fashions and its madnesses. Now and then he exclaims that there is no
+average common sense left in the world, no half-way stopping-place
+between extremes. One man wears his tunic to his heels, another is girt
+up as if for a race; Rufillus smells of perfumery, Gargonius of anything
+but scent; and so on--and he cries out that when a fool tries to avoid a
+mistake he will run to any length in the opposite direction. And Horace
+had a most particular dislike for fools and bores, and has left us the
+most famous description of the latter ever set down by an accomplished
+observer.
+
+By chance, he says, he was walking one morning along the Sacred Street
+with one slave behind him, thinking of some trifle and altogether
+absorbed in it, when a man whom he barely knew by name came up with him
+in a great hurry and grasped his hand. 'How do you do, sweet friend?'
+asks the Bore. 'Pretty well, as times go,' answers Horace, stopping
+politely for a moment; and then beginning to move on, he sees to his
+horror that the Bore walks by his side. 'Can I do anything for you?'
+asks the poet, still civil, but hinting that he prefers his own
+company. The Bore plunges into the important business of praising
+himself, with a frankness not yet forgotten in his species, and Horace
+tries to get rid of him, walking very fast, then very slowly, then
+turning to whisper a word to his slave, and in his anxiety he feels the
+perspiration breaking out all over him, while his Tormentor chatters on,
+as they skirt the splendid Julian Basilica, gleaming in the morning sun.
+Horace looks nervously and eagerly to right and left, hoping to catch
+sight of a friend and deliverer. Not a friendly face was in sight, and
+the Bore knew it, and was pitilessly frank. 'Oh, I know you would like
+to get away from me!' he exclaimed. 'I shall not let you go so easily!
+Where are you going?' 'Across the Tiber,' answered Horace, inventing a
+distant visit. 'I am going to see someone who lives far off, in Caesar's
+gardens--a man you do not know. He is ill.' 'Very well,' said the other;
+'I have nothing to do, and am far from lazy. I will go all the way with
+you.' Horace hung his head, as a poor little Italian donkey does when a
+heavy load is piled upon his back, for he was fairly caught, and he
+thought of the long road before him, and he had moreover the unpleasant
+consciousness that the Bore was laughing at his imaginary errand, since
+they were walking in a direction exactly opposite from the Tiber, and
+would have to go all the way round the Palatine by the Triumphal Road
+and the Circus Maximus and then cross by the Sublician bridge, instead
+of turning back towards the Velabrum, the Provision Market and the
+Bridge of AEmilius, which we have known and crossed as the Ponte Rotto,
+but of which only one arch is left now, in midstream.
+
+[Illustration: PONTE ROTTO, NOW DESTROYED
+
+After an engraving made about 1850]
+
+Then, pressing his advantage, the Bore began again. 'If I am any judge
+of myself,' he observed, 'you will make me one of your most intimate
+friends. I am sure nobody can write such good verses as fast as I can.
+As for my singing, I know it for a fact that Hermogenes is decidedly
+jealous of me!' 'Have you a mother, Sir?' asked Horace, gravely. 'Have
+you any relations to whom your safety is a matter of importance?' 'No,'
+answered the other, 'no one. I have buried them all!' 'Lucky people!'
+said the poet to himself, and he wished he were dead, too, at that
+moment, and he thought of all the deaths he might have died. It was
+evidently not written that he should die of poison nor in battle, nor of
+a cough, nor of the liver, nor even of gout. He was to be slowly talked
+to death by a bore. By this time they were before the temple of Castor
+and Pollux, where the great Twin Brethren bathed their horses at
+Juturna's spring. The temple of Vesta was before them, and the Sacred
+Street turned at right angles to the left, crossing over between a row
+of shops on one side and the Julian Rostra on the other, to the Courts
+of Law. The Bore suddenly remembered that he was to appear in answer to
+an action on that very morning, and as it was already nine o'clock, he
+could not possibly walk all the way to Caesar's gardens and be back
+before noon, and if he was late, he must forfeit his bail, and the suit
+would go against him by default. On the other hand, he had succeeded in
+catching the great poet alone, after a hundred fruitless attempts, and
+the action was not a very important one, after all. He stopped short.
+'If you have the slightest regard for me,' he said, 'you will just go
+across with me to the Courts for a moment.' Horace looked at him
+curiously, seeing a chance of escape. 'You know where I am going,' he
+answered with a smile; 'and as for law, I do not know the first thing
+about it.' The Bore hesitated, considered what the loss of the suit must
+cost him, and what he might gain by pushing his acquaintance with the
+friend of Maecenas and Augustus. 'I am not sure,' he said doubtfully,
+'whether I had better give up your company, or my case,' 'My company, by
+all means!' cried Horace, with alacrity. 'No!' answered the other,
+looking at his victim thoughtfully, 'I think not!' And he began to move
+on again by the Nova Via towards the House of the Vestals. Having made
+up his mind to sacrifice his money, however, he lost no time before
+trying to get an equivalent for it. 'How do you stand with Maecenas?' he
+asked suddenly, fixing his small eyes on Horace's weary profile, and
+without waiting for an answer he ran on to praise the great man. 'He is
+keen and sensible,' he continued, 'and has not many intimate friends. No
+one knows how to take advantage of luck as he does. You would find me a
+valuable ally, if you would introduce me. I believe you might drive
+everybody else out of the field--with my help, of course.' 'You are
+quite mistaken there!' answered Horace, rather indignantly. 'He is not
+at all that kind of man! There is not a house in Rome where any sort of
+intrigue would be more utterly useless!' 'Really, I can hardly believe
+it!' 'It is a fact, nevertheless,' retorted Horace, stoutly. 'Well,'
+said the Bore, 'if it is, I am of course all the more anxious to know
+such a man!' Horace smiled quietly. 'You have only to wish it, my dear
+Sir,' he answered, with the faintest modulation of polite irony in his
+tone. 'With such gifts at your command, you will certainly charm him.
+Why, the very reason of his keeping most people at arm's length is that
+he knows how easily he yields!' 'In that case, I will show you what I
+can do,' replied the Bore, delighted. 'I shall bribe the slaves; I will
+not give it up, if I am not received at first! I will bide my time and
+catch him in the street, and follow him about. One gets nothing in life
+without taking trouble!' As the man was chattering on, Horace's quick
+eyes caught sight of an old friend at last, coming towards him from the
+corner of the Triumphal Road, for they had already almost passed the
+Palatine. Aristius, sauntering along and enjoying the morning air, with
+a couple of slaves at his heels, saw Horace's trouble in a moment, for
+he knew the Bore well enough, and realized at once that if he delivered
+his friend, he himself would be the next victim. He was far too clever
+for that, and with a cold-blooded smile pretended not to understand
+Horace's signals of distress. 'I forget what it was you wished to speak
+about with me so particularly, my dear Aristius,' said the poet, in
+despair. 'It was something very important, was it not?' 'Yes,' answered
+the other, with another grin, 'I remember very well; but this is an
+unlucky day, and I shall choose another time. Today is the thirtieth
+Sabbath,' he continued, inventing a purely imaginary Hebrew feast, 'and
+you surely would not risk a Jew's curse for a few moments of
+conversation, would you?' 'I have no religion!' exclaimed Horace,
+eagerly. 'No superstition! Nothing!' 'But I have,' retorted Aristius,
+still smiling. 'My health is not good--perhaps you did not know? I will
+tell you about it some other time.' And he turned on his heel, with a
+laugh, leaving Horace to his awful fate. Even the sunshine looked black.
+But salvation came suddenly in the shape of the man who had brought the
+action against the Bore, and who, on his way to the Court, saw his
+adversary going off in the opposite direction. 'Coward! Villain!' yelled
+the man, springing forward and catching the poet's tormentor by his
+cloak. 'Where are you going now? You are witness, Sir, that I am in my
+right,' he added, turning to look for Horace. But Horace had disappeared
+in the crowd that had collected to see the quarrel, and his gods had
+saved him after all.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX]
+
+A part of the life of the times is in the little story, and anyone may
+stroll today along the Sacred Street, past the Basilica and the sharp
+turn that leads to the block of old houses where the Court House stood,
+between St. Adrian's and San Lorenzo in Miranda. Anyone may see just how
+it happened, and many know exactly how Horace felt from the moment when
+the Bore buttonholed him at the corner of the Julian Basilica till his
+final deliverance near the corner of the Triumphal Road, which is now
+the Via di San Gregorio.
+
+[Illustration: ATRIUM OF VESTA]
+
+There was much more resemblance to our modern life than one might think
+at first sight. Perhaps, after his timely escape, Horace turned back
+along the Sacred Street, followed by his single slave, and retraced his
+steps, past the temple of Vesta, the temple of Julius Caesar, skirting
+the Roman Forum to the Golden Milestone at the foot of the ascent to the
+Capitol, from which landmark all the distances in the Roman Empire were
+reckoned, the very centre of the known world. Thence, perhaps, he turned
+up towards the Argiletum, with something of that instinct which takes a
+modern man of letters to his publisher's when he is in the
+neighbourhood. There the 'Brothers Sosii' had their publishing
+establishment, among many others of the same nature, and employed a
+great staff of copyists in preparing volumes for sale. All the year
+round the skilled scribes sat within in rows, with pen and ink, working
+at the manufacture of books. The Sosii Brothers were rich, and probably
+owned their workmen as slaves, both the writers and those who prepared
+the delicate materials, the wonderful ink, of which we have not the like
+today, the fine sheets of papyrus,--Pliny tells how they were sometimes
+too rough, and how they sometimes soaked up the ink like a cloth, as
+happens with our own paper,--and the carefully cut pens of Egyptian reed
+on which so much of the neatness in writing depended, though Cicero says
+somewhere that he could write with any pen he chanced to take up.
+
+It was natural enough that Horace should look in to ask how his latest
+book was selling, or more probably his first, for he had written but a
+few Epodes and not many Satires at the time when he met the immortal
+Bore. Later in his life, his books were published in editions of a
+thousand, as is the modern custom in Paris, and were sold all over the
+Empire, like those of other famous authors. The Satires did him little
+credit, and probably brought him but little money at their first
+publication. It seems certain that they have come down to us through a
+single copy. The Greek form of the Odes pleased people better. Moreover,
+some of the early Satires made distinguished people shy of his
+acquaintance, and when he told the Bore that Maecenas was difficult of
+access he remembered that nine months had elapsed from the time of his
+own introduction to the great man until he had received the latter's
+first invitation to dinner. More than once he went almost too far in his
+attacks on men and things and then tried to remove the disagreeable
+impression he had produced, and wrote again of the same subject in a
+different spirit--notably when he attacked the works of the dead poet
+Lucilius and was afterwards obliged to explain himself.
+
+No doubt he often idled away a whole morning at his publisher's, looking
+over new books of other authors, and very probably borrowing them to
+take home with him, because he was poor, and he assuredly must have
+talked over with the Sosii the impression produced on the public by his
+latest poems. He was undoubtedly a quaestor's scribe, but it is more than
+doubtful whether he ever went near the Treasury or did any kind of
+clerk's work. If he ever did, it is odd that he should never speak of
+it, nor take anecdotes from such an occupation and from the clerks with
+whom he must have been thrown, for he certainly used every other sort of
+social material in the Satires. Among the few allusions to anything of
+the kind in his works are his ridicule of the over-dressed praetor of the
+town of Fundi, who had been a government clerk in Rome, and in the same
+story, his jest at one of Maecenas' parasites, a freedman, and nominally
+a Treasury clerk, as Horace had been. In another Satire, the clerks in
+a body wish him to be present at one of their meetings.
+
+Perhaps what strikes one most in the study of Horace, which means the
+study of the Augustan age, is the vivid contrast between the man who
+composed the Carmen Saeculare, the sacred hymn sung on the Tenth
+anniversary of Augustus' accession to the imperial power, besides many
+odes that breathe a pristine reverence for the gods, and, on the other
+hand, the writer of satirical, playfully sceptical verses, who comments
+on the story of the incense melting without fire at the temple of
+Egnatia, with the famous and often-quoted 'Credat Judaeus'! The original
+Romans had been a believing people, most careful in all ceremonies and
+observances, visiting anything like sacrilege with a cool ferocity
+worthy of the Christian religious wars in later days. Horace, at one
+time or another, laughs at almost every god and goddess in the heathen
+calendar, and publishes his jests, in editions of a thousand copies,
+with perfect indifference and complete immunity from censorship, while
+apparently bestowing a certain amount of care on household sacrifices
+and the like.
+
+The fact is that the Romans were a religious people, whereas the
+Italians were not. It is a singular fact that Rome, when left long to
+herself, has always shown a tendency to become systematically devout,
+whereas most of the other Italian states have exhibited an equally
+strong inclination to a scepticism not unfrequently mixed with the
+grossest superstition. It must be left to more profound students of
+humanity to decide whether certain places have a permanent influence in
+one determined direction upon the successive races that inhabit them;
+but it is quite undeniably true that the Romans of all ages have tended
+to religion of some sort in the most marked manner. In Roman history
+there is a succession of religious epochs not to be found in the annals
+of any other city. First, the early faith of the Kings, interrupted by
+the irruption of Greek influences which began approximately with Scipio
+Africanus; next, the wild Bacchic worship that produced the secret
+orgies on the Aventine, the discovery of which led to a religious
+persecution and the execution of thousands of persons on religious
+grounds; then the worship of the Egyptian deities, brought over to Rome
+in a new fit of belief, and at the same time, or soon afterwards, the
+mysterious adoration of the Persian Mithras, a gross and ignorant form
+of mysticism which, nevertheless, took hold of the people, at a time
+when other religions were almost reduced to a matter of form.
+
+Then, as all these many faiths lost vitality, Christianity arose, the
+terribly simple and earnest Christianity of the early centuries, sown
+first under the Caesars, in Rome's secure days, developing to a power
+when Rome was left to herself by the transference of the Empire to the
+East, culminating for the first time in the crowning of Charlemagne,
+again in the Crusades, sinking under the revival of mythology and
+Hellenism during the Renascence, rising again, by slow degrees, to the
+extreme level of devotion under Pius the Ninth and the French
+protectorate, sinking suddenly with the movement of Italian unity, and
+the coming of the Italians in 1870, then rising again, as we see it now,
+with undying energy, under Leo the Thirteenth, and showing itself in the
+building of new churches, in the magnificent restoration of old ones,
+and in the vast second growth of ecclesiastical institutions, which are
+once more turning Rome into a clerical city, now that she is again at
+peace with herself, under a constitutional monarchy, but threatened only
+too plainly by an impending anarchic revolution. It would be hard to
+find in the history of any other city a parallel to such periodical
+recurrences of religious domination. Nor, in times when belief has been
+at its lowest ebb, have outward religious practices anywhere continued
+to hold so important a place in men's lives as they have always held in
+Rome. Of all Rome's mad tyrants, Elagabalus alone dared to break into
+the temple of Vesta and carry out the sacred Palladium. During more than
+eleven hundred years, six Vestal Virgins guarded the sacred fire and the
+Holy Things of Rome, in peace and war, through kingdom, republic,
+revolution and empire. For fifteen hundred years since then, the bones
+of Saint Peter have been respected by the Emperors, by Goths, by Kings,
+revolutions and short-lived republics.
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+There was a surprising strength in those early institutions of which the
+fragmentary survival has made Rome what it is. Strongest of all,
+perhaps, was the patriarchal mode of life which the shepherds of Alba
+Longa brought with them when they fled from the volcano, and of which
+the most distinct traces remain to the present day, while its origin
+goes back to the original Aryan home. Upon that principle all the
+household life ultimately turned in Rome's greatest times. The Senators
+were Patres, conscript fathers, heads of strong houses; the Patricians
+were those who had known 'fathers,' that is, a known and noble descent.
+Horace called Senators simply 'Conscripts,' and the Roman nobles of
+today call themselves the 'Conscript' families. The chain of tradition
+is unbroken from Romulus to our own time, while everything else has
+changed in greater or less degree.
+
+It is hard for Anglo-Saxons to believe that, for more than a thousand
+years, a Roman father possessed the absolute legal right to try, condemn
+and execute any of his children, without witnesses, in his own house and
+without consulting anyone. Yet nothing is more certain. 'From the most
+remote ages,' says Professor Lanciani, the highest existing authority,
+'the power of a Roman father over his children, including those by
+adoption as well as by blood, was unlimited. A father might, without
+violating any law, scourge or imprison his son, or sell him for a slave,
+or put him to death, even after that son had risen to the highest
+honours in the state.' During the life of the father, a child, no matter
+of what age, could own no property independently, nor keep any private
+accounts, nor dispose of any little belongings, no matter how
+insignificant, without the father's consent, which was never anything
+more than an act of favour, and was revocable at any moment, without
+notice. If a son became a public magistrate, the power was suspended,
+but was again in force as soon as the period of office terminated. A man
+who had been Dictator of Rome became his father's slave and property
+again, as soon as his dictatorship ended.
+
+But if the son married with his father's consent, he was partly free,
+and became a 'father' in his turn, and absolute despot of his own
+household. So, if a daughter married, she passed from her father's
+dominion to that of her husband. A Priest of Jupiter for life was free.
+So was a Vestal Virgin. There was a complicated legal trick by which the
+father could liberate his son if he wished to do so for any reason, but
+he had no power to set any of his children free by a mere act of will,
+without legal formality. The bare fact that the men of a people should
+be not only trusted with such power, but that it should be forcibly
+thrust upon them, gives an idea of the Roman character, and it is
+natural enough that the condition of family life imposed by such laws
+should have had pronounced effects that may still be felt. As the Romans
+were a hardy race and long-lived, when they were not killed in battle,
+the majority of men were under the absolute control of their fathers
+till the age of forty or fifty years, unless they married with their
+parents' consent, in which case they advanced one step towards liberty,
+and at all events, could not be sold as slaves by their fathers, though
+they still had no right to buy or sell property nor to make a will.
+
+There are few instances of the law being abused, even in the most
+ferocious times. Brutus had the right to execute his sons, who conspired
+for the Tarquins, without any public trial. He preferred the latter.
+Titus Manlius caused his son to be publicly beheaded for disobeying a
+military order in challenging an enemy to single combat, slaying him,
+and bringing back the spoils. He might have cut off his head in private,
+so far as the law was concerned, for any reason whatsoever, great or
+small.
+
+As for the condition of real slaves, it was not so bad in early times as
+it became later, but the master's power was absolute to inflict torture
+and death in any shape. In slave-owning communities, barbarity has
+always been, to some extent, restrained by the actual value of the
+humanity in question, and slaves were not as cheap in Rome as might be
+supposed. A perfectly ignorant labourer of sound body was worth from
+eighty to a hundred dollars of our money, which meant much more in those
+days, though in later times twice that sum was sometimes paid for a
+single fine fish. The money value of the slave was, nevertheless, always
+a sort of guarantee of safety to himself; but men who had right of life
+and death over their own children, and who occasionally exercised it,
+were probably not, as a rule, very considerate to creatures who were
+bought and sold like cattle. Nevertheless, the number of slaves who were
+freed and enriched by their masters is really surprising.
+
+The point of all this, however, is that the head of a Roman family was,
+under protection of all laws and traditions, an absolute tyrant over his
+wife, his children, and his servants; and the Roman Senate was a chosen
+association of such tyrants. It is astonishing that they should have
+held so long to the forms of a republican government, and should never
+have completely lost their republican traditions.
+
+In this household tyranny, existing side by side with certain general
+ideas of liberty and constitutional government, under the ultimate
+domination of the Emperors' despotism as introduced by Augustus, is to
+be found the keynote of Rome's subsequent social life. Without those
+things, the condition of society in the Middle Age would be
+inexplicable, and the feudal system could never have developed. The old
+Roman principle that 'order should have precedence over order, not man
+over man,' rules most of Europe at the present day, though in Rome and
+Italy it is now completely eclipsed by a form of government which can
+only be defined as a monarchic democracy.
+
+The mere fact that under Augustus no man was eligible to the Senate who
+possessed less than a sum equal to a quarter of a million dollars, shows
+plainly enough what one of the most skilful despots who ever ruled
+mankind wisely, thought of the institution. It was intended to balance,
+by its solidity, the ever-unsettled instincts of the people, to prevent
+as far as possible the unwise passage of laws by popular acclamation,
+and, so to say, to regulate the pulse of the nation. It has been
+imitated, in one way or another, by all the nations we call civilized.
+
+But the father of the family was in his own person the despot, the
+senate, the magistrate and the executive of the law; his wife, his
+children and his slaves represented the people, constantly and eternally
+in real or theoretical opposition, while he was protected by all the
+force of the most ferocious laws. A father could behead his son with
+impunity; but the son who killed his father was condemned to be all but
+beaten to death, and then to be sewn up in a leathern sack and drowned.
+The father could take everything from the son; but if the son took the
+smallest thing from his father he was a common thief and malefactor, and
+liable to be treated as one, at his father's pleasure. The conception of
+justice in Rome never rested upon any equality, but always upon the
+precedence of one order over another, from the highest to the lowest.
+There were orders even among the slaves, and one who had been allowed to
+save money out of his allowances could himself buy a slave to wait on
+him, if he chose.
+
+Hence the immediate origin of European caste, of different degrees of
+nobility, of the relative standing of the liberal professions, of the
+mediaeval guilds of artisans and tradesmen, and of the numerous
+subdivisions of the agricultural classes, of which traces survive all
+over Europe. The tendency to caste is essentially and originally Aryan,
+and will never be wholly eliminated from any branch of the Aryan race.
+
+One may fairly compare the internal life of a great nation to a building
+which rises from its foundations story by story until the lower part can
+no longer carry the weight of the superstructure, and the first signs of
+weakness begin to show themselves in the oldest and lowest portion of
+the whole. Carefully repaired, when the weakness is noticed at all, it
+can bear a little more, and again a little, but at last the breaking
+strain is reached, the tall building totters, the highest pinnacles
+topple over, then the upper story collapses, and the end comes either in
+the crash of a great falling or, by degrees, in the irreparable ruin of
+ages. But when all is over, and wind and weather and time have swept
+away what they can, parts of the original foundation still stand up
+rough and heavy, on which a younger and smaller people must build their
+new dwelling, if they build at all.
+
+The aptness of the simile is still more apparent when we confront the
+material constructions of a nation with the degree of the nation's
+development or decadence at the time when the work was done.
+
+It is only by doing something of that sort that we can at all realize
+the connection between the settlement of the shepherds, the Rome of the
+Caesars, and the desolate and scantily populated fighting ground of the
+Barons, upon which, with the Renascence, the city of the later Popes
+began to rise under Nicholas the Fifth. And lastly, without a little of
+such general knowledge it would be utterly impossible to call up, even
+faintly, the lives of Romans in successive ages. Read the earlier parts
+of Livy's histories and try to picture the pristine simplicity of those
+primeval times. Read Caesar's Gallic War, the marvellously concise
+reports of the greatest man that ever lived, during ten years of his
+conquests. Read Horace, and attempt to see a little of what he describes
+in his good-natured, easy way. Read the correspondence of the younger
+Pliny when proconsul in Bithynia under Trajan, and follow the
+extraordinary details of administration which, with ten thousand others,
+the Spanish Emperor of Rome carried in his memory, and directed and
+decided. Take Petronius Arbiter's 'novel' next, the Satyricon, if you be
+not over-delicate in taste, and glance at the daily journal of a
+dissolute wretch wandering from one scene of incredible vice to another.
+And so on, through the later writers; and from among the vast annals of
+the industrious Muratori pick out bits of Roman life at different
+periods, and try to piece them together. At first sight it seems utterly
+impossible that one and the same people should have passed through such
+social changes and vicissitudes. Every educated man knows the main
+points through which the chain ran. Scholars have spent their lives in
+the attempt to restore even a few of the links and, for the most part,
+have lost their way in the dry quicksands that have swallowed up so
+much.
+
+'I have raised a monument more enduring than bronze!' exclaimed Horace,
+in one of his rare moments of pardonable vanity. The expression meant
+much more then than it does now. The golden age of Rome was an age of
+brazen statues apparently destined to last as long as history. Yet the
+marble outlasted the gilded metal, and Horace's verse outlived both, and
+the names of the artists of that day are mostly forgotten, while his is
+a household word. In conquering races, literature has generally attained
+higher excellence than painting or sculpture, or architecture, for the
+arts are the expression of a people's tastes, often incomprehensible to
+men who live a thousand years later; but literature, if it expresses
+anything, either by poetry, history, or fiction, shows the feeling of
+humanity; and the human being, as such, changes very little in twenty or
+thirty centuries. Achilles, in his wrath at being robbed of the lovely
+Briseis, brings the age of Troy nearer to most men in its living
+vitality than the matchless Hermes of Olympia can ever bring the century
+of Greece's supremacy. One line of Catullus makes his time more alive
+today than the huge mass of the Colosseum can ever make Titus seem. We
+see the great stones piled up to heaven, but we do not see the men who
+hewed them, and lifted them, and set them in place. The true poet gives
+us the real man, and after all, men are more important than stones. Yet
+the work of men's hands explains the working of men's hearts, telling us
+not what they felt, but how the feelings which ever belong to all men
+more particularly affected the actors at one time or another during the
+action of the world's long play. Little things sometimes tell the
+longest stories.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+Pliny, suffering from sore eyes, going about in a closed carriage, or
+lying in the darkened basement portico of his house, obliged to dictate
+his letters, and unable to read, sends his thanks--by dictation--to his
+friend and colleague, Cornutus, for a fowl sent him, and says that
+although he is half blind, his eyes are sharp enough to see that it is a
+very fat one. The touch of human nature makes the whole picture live.
+Horace, journeying to Brindisi, and trying to sleep a little on a canal
+boat, is kept awake by mosquitoes and croaking frogs, and by the
+long-drawn-out, tipsy singing of a drunken sailor, who at last turns off
+the towing mule to graze, and goes to sleep till daylight. It is easier
+to see all this than to call up one instant of a chariot race in the
+great circus, or one of the ten thousand fights in the Colosseum,
+wherein gladiators fought and died, and left no word of themselves.
+
+Yet, without the setting, the play is imperfect, and we must have some
+of the one to understand the other. For human art is, in the first
+place, a progressive commentary on human nature, and again, in quick
+reaction, stimulates it with a suggestive force. Little as we really
+know of the imperial times, we cannot conceive of Rome without the
+Romans, nor of the Romans without Rome. They belonged together; when the
+seat of Empire became cosmopolitan, the great dominion began to be
+weakened; and when a homogeneous power dwelt in the city again, a new
+domination had its beginning, and was built up on the ruins of the old.
+
+Napoleon is believed to have said that the object of art is to create
+and foster agreeable illusions. Admitting the general truth of the
+definition, it appears perfectly natural that since the Romans had
+little or no art of their own, they should have begun to import Greek
+art just when they did, after the successful issue of the Second Punic
+War. Up to that time the great struggle had lasted. When it was over,
+the rest was almost a foregone conclusion. Rome and Carthage had made a
+great part of the known world their fighting ground in the duel that
+lasted a hundred and eighteen years; and the known world was the portion
+of the victor. Spoil first, for spoil's sake, he brought home; then
+spoil for the sake of art; then art for what itself could give him. In
+the fight for Empire, as in each man's struggle for life, success means
+leisure, and therefore civilization, which is the growth of people who
+have time at their disposal--time to 'create and foster agreeable
+illusions.' When the Romans conquered the Samnites they were the least
+artistic people in the world; when Augustus Caesar died, they possessed
+and valued the greater part of the world's artistic treasures, many of
+these already centuries old, and they owned literally, and as slaves, a
+majority of the best living artists. Augustus had been educated in
+Athens; he determined that Rome should be as Athens, magnified a hundred
+times. Athens had her thousand statues, Rome should have her ten
+thousand; Rome should have state libraries holding a score of volumes
+for every one that Greece could boast; Rome's temples should be
+galleries of rare paintings, ten for each that Athens had. Rome should
+be so great, so rich, so gorgeous, that Greece should be as nothing
+beside her; Egypt should dwindle to littleness, and the memory of
+Babylon should be forgotten. Greece had her Homer, her Sophocles, her
+Anacreon; Rome should have her immortals also.
+
+Greatly Augustus laboured for his thought, and grandly he carried out
+his plan. He became the greatest 'art-collector' in all history, and the
+men of his time imitated him. Domitius Tullus, a Roman gentleman, had
+collected so much, that he was able to adorn certain extensive gardens,
+on the very day of the purchase, with an immense number of genuine
+ancient statues, which had been lying, half neglected, in a barn--or, as
+some read the passage, in other gardens of his.
+
+[Illustration: BASILICA CONSTANTINE]
+
+Augustus succeeded in one way. Possibly he was successful in his own
+estimation. 'Have I not acted the play well?' they say he asked, just
+before he died. The keynote is there, whether he spoke the words or not.
+He did all from calculation, nothing from conviction. The artist, active
+and creative or passive and appreciative, calculates nothing except the
+means of expressing his conviction. And in the over-calculating of
+effects by Augustus and his successors, one of the most singular
+weaknesses of the Latin race was thrust forward; namely, that giantism
+or megalomania, which has so often stamped the principal works of the
+Latins in all ages--that effort to express greatness by size, which is
+so conspicuously absent from all that the Greeks have left us. Agrippa
+builds a threefold temple and Hadrian rears the Pantheon upon its
+charred ruins; Constantine builds his Basilica; Michelangelo says, 'I
+will set the Pantheon upon the Basilica of Constantine.' He does it, and
+the result is Saint Peter's, which covers more ground than that other
+piece of giantism, the Colosseum; in Rome's last and modern revival, the
+Palazzo delle Finanze is built, the Treasury of the poorest of the
+Powers, which, incredible as it may seem, fills a far greater area than
+either the Colosseum or the Church of Saint Peter's. What else is such
+constructive enormity but 'giantism'? For the great Cathedral of
+Christendom, it may be said, at least, that it has more than once in
+history been nearly filled by devout multitudes, numbering fifty or
+sixty thousand people; in the days of public baths, nearly sixty-three
+thousand Romans could bathe daily with every luxury of service; when
+bread and games were free, a hundred thousand men and women often sat
+down in the Flavian Amphitheatre to see men tear each other to pieces;
+of the modern Ministry of Finance there is nothing to be said. The Roman
+curses it for the millions it cost; but the stranger looks, smiles and
+passes by a blank and hideous building three hundred yards long. There
+is no reason why a nation should not wish to be great, but there is
+every reason why a small nation should not try to look big; and the
+enormous follies of modern Italy must be charitably attributed to a
+defect of judgment which has existed in the Latin peoples from the
+beginning, and has by no means disappeared today. The younger Gordian
+began a portico which was to cover forty-four thousand square yards, and
+intended to raise a statue of himself two hundred and nineteen feet
+high. The modern Treasury building covers about thirty thousand square
+yards, and goes far to rival the foolish Emperor's insane scheme.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF SATURN]
+
+Great contrasts lie in the past, between his age and ours. One must
+guess at them at least, if one have but little knowledge, in order to
+understand at all the city of the Middle Age and the Rome we see today.
+Imagine it at its greatest, a capital inhabited by more than two
+millions of souls, filling all that is left to be seen within and
+without the walls, and half the Campagna besides, spreading out in a
+vast disc of seething life from the central Golden Milestone at the
+corner of the temple of Saturn--the god of remote ages, and of earth's
+dim beginning; see, if you can, the splendid roads, where to right and
+left the ashes of the great rested in tombs gorgeous with marble and
+gold and bronze; see the endless villas and gardens and terraces lining
+both banks of the Tiber, with trees and flowers and marble palaces, from
+Rome to Ostia and the sea, and both banks of the Anio, from Rome to
+Tivoli in the hills; conceive of the vast commerce, even of the mere
+business of supply to feed two millions of mouths; picture the great
+harbour with its thousand vessels--and some of those that brought grain
+from Egypt were four hundred feet long; remember its vast granaries and
+store-barns and offices; think of the desolate Isola Sacra as a lovely
+garden, of the ruins of Laurentum as an imperial palace and park; reckon
+up roughly what all that meant of life, of power, of incalculable
+wealth. Mark Antony squandered, in his short lifetime, eight hundred
+millions of pounds sterling, four thousand millions of dollars. Guess,
+if possible, at the myriad million details of the vast city.
+
+Then let twelve hundred years pass in a dream, and look at the Rome of
+Rienzi. Some twenty thousand souls, the remnant and the one hundredth
+part of the two millions, dwell pitifully in the ruins of which the
+strongest men have fortified bits here and there. The walls of Aurelian,
+broken and war-worn and full of half-repaired breaches, enclose a
+desert, a world too wide for its inhabitants, a vast straggling
+heterogeneous mass of buildings in every stage of preservation and
+decay, splendid temples, mossy and ivy-grown, but scarcely injured by
+time, then wastes of broken brick and mortar; stern dark towers of
+Savelli, and Frangipani, and Orsini, and Colonna, dominating and
+threatening whole quarters of ruins; strange small churches built of
+odds and ends and remnants not too heavy for a few workmen to move;
+broken-down aqueducts sticking up here and there in a city that had to
+drink the muddy water of the Tiber because not a single channel remained
+whole to feed a single fountain, from the distant springs that had once
+filled baths for sixty thousand people every day. And round about all,
+the waste Campagna, scratched here and there by fever-stricken peasants
+to yield the little grain that so few men could need. The villas gone,
+the trees burned or cut down, the terraces slipped away into the rivers,
+the tombs of the Appian Way broken and falling to pieces, or transformed
+into rude fortresses held by wild-looking men in rusty armour, who
+sallied out to fight each other or, at rare intervals, to rob some train
+of wretched merchants, riding horses as rough and wild as themselves.
+Law gone, and order gone with it; wealth departed, and self-respect
+forgotten in abject poverty; each man defending his little with his own
+hand against the many who coveted it; Rome a den of robbers and thieves;
+the Pope, when there was one,--there was none in the year of Rienzi's
+birth,--either defended by one baron against another, or forced to fly
+for his life. Men brawling in the streets, ill clad, savage, ready with
+sword and knife and club for any imaginable violence. Women safe from
+none but their own husbands and sons, and not always from them. Children
+wild and untaught, growing up to be fierce and unlettered like their
+fathers. And in the midst of such a city, Cola di Rienzi, with great
+heart and scanty learning, labouring to decipher the inscriptions that
+told of dead and ruined greatness, dreaming of a republic, of a
+tribune's power, of the humiliation of the Barons, of a resurrection for
+Italy and of her sudden return to the dominion of the world.
+
+Rome, then, was like a field long fallow, of rich soil, but long
+unploughed. Scarcely below the surface lay the treasures of ages,
+undreamt of by the few descendants of those who had brought them
+thither. Above ground, overgrown with wild creepers and flowers, there
+still stood some such monuments of magnificence as we find it hard to
+recall by mere words, not yet voluntarily destroyed, but already falling
+to pieces under the slow destruction of grinding time, when violence had
+spared them. Robert Guiscard had burned the city in 1084, but he had not
+destroyed everything. The Emperors of the East had plundered Rome long
+before that, carrying off works of art without end to adorn their city
+of Constantinople. Builders had burned a thousand marble statues to lime
+for their cement, for the statues were ready to hand and easily broken
+up to be thrown into the kiln, so that it seemed a waste of time and
+tools to quarry out the blocks from the temples. The Barbarians of
+Genseric and the Jews of Trastevere had seized upon such of the four
+thousand bronze statues as the Emperors had left, and had melted many of
+them down for metal, often hiding them in strange places while waiting
+for an opportunity of heating the furnace. And some have been found,
+here and there, piled up in little vaults, most generally near the
+Tiber, by which it was always easy to ship the metal away. Already
+temples had been turned into churches, in a travesty only saved from the
+ridiculous by the high solemnity of the Christian faith. Other temples
+and buildings, here and there, had been partly stripped of columns and
+marble facings to make other churches even more nondescript than the
+first. Much of the old was still standing, but nothing of the old was
+whole. The Colosseum had not yet been turned into a quarry. The
+Septizonium of Septimius Severus, with its seven stories of columns and
+its lofty terrace, nearly half as high as the dome of Saint Peter's,
+though beginning to crumble, still crowned the south end of the
+Palatine; Minerva's temple was almost entire, and its huge architrave
+had not been taken to make the high altar of Saint Peter's; and the
+triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius was standing in what was perhaps not
+yet called the Corso in those days, but the Via Lata--'Broad Street.'
+
+The things that had not yet fallen, nor been torn down, were the more
+sadly grand by contrast with the chaos around them. There was also the
+difference between ruins then, and ruins now, which there is between a
+king just dead in his greatness, in whose features lingers the smile of
+a life so near that it seems ready to come back, and a dried mummy set
+up in a museum and carefully dusted for critics to study.
+
+In even stronger and rougher contrast, in the wreck of all that had
+been, there was the fierce reality of the daily fight for life amid the
+seething elements of the new things that were yet to be; the preparation
+for another time of domination and splendour; the deadly wrestling of
+men who meant to outlive one another by sheer strength and grim power of
+killing; the dark ignorance, darkest just before the waking of new
+thought, and art, and learning; the universal cruelty of all living
+things to each other, that had grown out of the black past; and, with
+all this, the undying belief in Rome's greatness, in Rome's future, in
+Rome's latent power to rule the world again.
+
+That was the beginning of the new story, for the old one was ended, the
+race of men who had lived it was gone, and their works were following
+them, to the universal dust. Out of the memories they left and the
+departed glory of the places wherein they had dwelt, the magic of the
+Middle Age was to weave another long romance, less grand but more
+stirring, less glorious but infinitely more human.
+
+Perhaps it is not altogether beyond the bounds of reason to say that
+Rome was masculine from Romulus to the dark age, and that with the first
+dawn of the Renascence she began to be feminine. As in old days the
+Republic and the Empire fought for power and conquest and got both by
+force, endurance and hardness of character, so, in her second life,
+others fought for Rome, and courted her, and coveted her, and sometimes
+oppressed her and treated her cruelly, and sometimes cherished her and
+adorned her, and gave her all they had. In a way, too, the elder
+patriots reverenced their city as a father, and those of after-times
+loved her as a woman, with a tender and romantic love.
+
+Be that as it may, for it matters little how we explain what we feel.
+And assuredly we all feel that what we call the 'charm,' the feminine
+charm, of Rome, proceeds first from that misty time between two
+greatnesses, when her humanity was driven back upon itself, and simple
+passions, good and evil, suddenly felt and violently expressed, made up
+the whole life of a people that had ceased to rule by force, and had not
+yet reached power by diplomacy.
+
+It is fair, moreover, to dwell a little on that time, that we may not
+judge too hardly the men who came afterwards. If we have any virtues
+ourselves of which to boast, we owe them to a long growth of
+civilization, as a child owes its manners to its mother; the men of the
+Renascence had behind them chaos, the ruin of a slave-ridden,
+Hun-harried, worm-eaten Empire, in which law and order had gone down
+together, and the whole world seemed to the few good men who lived in it
+to be but one degree better than hell itself. Much may be forgiven them,
+and for what just things they did they should be honoured, for the
+hardship of having done right at all against such odds.
+
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF GORDIAN, SHOWING ROMAN GAMES]
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE JULIAN BASILICA]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+
+Here and there, in out-of-the-way places, overlooked in the modern rage
+for improvement, little marble tablets are set into the walls of old
+houses, bearing semi-heraldic devices such as a Crescent, a Column, a
+Griffin, a Stag, a Wheel and the like. Italian heraldry has always been
+eccentric, and has shown a tendency to display all sorts of strange
+things, such as comets, trees, landscapes and buildings in the
+escutcheon, and it would naturally occur to the stranger that the small
+marble shields, still visible here and there at the corners of old
+streets, must be the coats of arms of Roman families that held property
+in that particular neighbourhood. But this is not the case. They are the
+distinctive devices of the Fourteen Rioni, or wards, into which the
+city was divided, with occasional modifications, from the time of
+Augustus to the coming of Victor Emmanuel, and which with some further
+changes survive to the present day. The tablets themselves were put up
+by Pope Benedict the Fourteenth, who reigned from 1740 to 1758, and who
+finally brought them up to the ancient number of fourteen; but from the
+dark ages the devices themselves were borne upon flags on all public
+occasions by the people of the different Regions. For 'Rione' is only a
+corruption of the Latin 'Regio,' the same with our 'Region,' by which
+English word it will be convenient to speak of these divisions that
+played so large a part in the history of the city during many successive
+centuries.
+
+For the sake of clearness, it is as well to enumerate them in their
+order and with the numbers that have always belonged to each. They are:
+
+     I. Monti,
+     II. Trevi,
+     III. Colonna,
+     IV. Campo Marzo,
+     V. Ponte
+     VI. Parione,
+     VII. Regola,
+     VIII. Sant' Eustachio,
+     IX. Pigna,
+     X. Campitelli,
+     XI. Sant' Angelo,
+     XII. Ripa,
+     XIII. Trastevere,
+     XIV. Borgo.
+
+Five of these names, that is to say, Ponte, Parione, Regola, Pigna and
+Sant' Angelo, indicate in a general way the part of the city designated
+by each. Ponte, the Bridge, is the Region about the Bridge of Sant'
+Angelo, on the left bank at the sharp bend of the river seen from that
+point; but the original bridge which gave the name was the Pons
+Triumphalis, of which the foundations are still sometimes visible a
+little below the AElian bridge leading to the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
+Parione, the Sixth ward, is the next division to the preceding one,
+towards the interior of the city, on both sides of the modern Corso
+Vittorio Emmanuele, taking in the ancient palace of the Massimo family,
+the Cancelleria, famous as the most consistent piece of architecture in
+Rome, and the Piazza Navona. Regola is next, towards the river,
+comprising the Theatre of Pompey and the Palazzo Farnese. Pigna takes in
+the Pantheon, the Collegio Romano and the Palazzo di Venezia. Sant'
+Angelo has nothing to do with the castle or the bridge, but takes its
+name from the little church of Sant' Angelo in the Fishmarket, and
+includes the old Ghetto with some neighbouring streets. The rest explain
+themselves well enough to anyone who has even a very slight acquaintance
+with the city.
+
+At first sight these more or less arbitrary divisions may seem of little
+importance. It was, of course, necessary, even in early times, to divide
+the population and classify it for political and municipal purposes.
+There is no modern city in the world that is not thus managed by wards
+and districts, and the consideration of such management and of its means
+might appear to be a very flat and unprofitable study, tiresome alike
+to the reader and to the writer. And so it would be, if it were not true
+that the Fourteen Regions of Rome were fourteen elements of romance,
+each playing its part in due season, while all were frequently the stage
+at once, under the collective name of the people, in their ever-latent
+opposition and in their occasional violent outbreaks against the nobles
+and the popes, who alternately oppressed and spoiled them for private
+and public ends. In other words, the Regions with their elected captains
+under one chief captain were the survival of the Roman People, for ever
+at odds with the Roman Senate. In times when there was no government, in
+any reasonable sense of the word, the people tried to govern themselves,
+or at least to protect themselves as best they could by a rough system
+which was all that remained of the elaborate municipality of the Empire.
+Without the Regions the struggles of the Barons would probably have
+destroyed Rome altogether; nine out of the twenty-four Popes who reigned
+in the tenth century would not have been murdered and otherwise done to
+death; Peter the Prefect could not have dragged Pope John the Thirteenth
+a prisoner through the streets; Stefaneschi could never have terrorized
+the Barons, and half destroyed their castles in a week; Rienzi could not
+have made himself dictator; Ludovico Migliorati could not have murdered
+the eleven captains of Regions in his house and thrown their bodies to
+the people from the windows, for which Giovanni Colonna drove out the
+Pope and the cardinals, and sacked the Vatican; in a word, the
+strangest, wildest, bloodiest scenes of mediaeval Rome could not have
+found a place in history. It is no wonder that to men born and bred in
+the city the Regions seem even now to be an integral factor in its
+existence.
+
+There were two other elements of power, namely, the Pope and the Barons.
+The three are almost perpetually at war, two on a side, against the
+third. Philippe de Commines, ambassador of Lewis the Eleventh in Rome,
+said that without the Orsini and the Colonna, the States of the Church
+would be the happiest country in the world. He forgot the People, and
+was doubtless too politic to speak of the Popes to his extremely devout
+sovereign. Take away the three elements of discord, and there would
+certainly have been peace in Rome, for there would have been no one to
+disturb the bats and the owls, when everybody was gone.
+
+The excellent advice of Ampere, already quoted, is by no means easy to
+follow, since there are not many who have the time and the inclination
+to acquire a 'superficial knowledge' of Rome by a ten years' visit. If,
+therefore, we merely presuppose an average knowledge of history and a
+guide-book acquaintance with the chief points in the city, the simplest
+and most direct way of learning more about it is to take the Regions in
+their ancient order, as the learned Baracconi has done in his
+invaluable little work, and to try as far as possible to make past deeds
+live again where they were done, with such description of the places
+themselves as may serve the main purpose best. To follow any other plan
+would be either to attempt a new history of the city of Rome, or to
+piece together a new archaeological manual. In either case, even
+supposing that one could be successful where so much has already been
+done by the most learned, the end aimed at would be defeated, for
+romance would be stiffened to a record, and beauty would be dissected to
+an anatomical preparation.
+
+
+[Illustration: BRASS OF TITUS, SHOWING THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION I MONTI
+
+
+'Monti' means 'The Hills,' and the device of the Region represents
+three, figuring those enclosed within the boundaries of this district;
+namely, the Quirinal, the Esquiline and the Coelian. The line encircling
+them includes the most hilly part of the mediaeval city; beginning at the
+Porta Salaria, it runs through the new quarter, formerly Villa Ludovisi,
+to the Piazza Barberini, thence by the Tritone to the Corso, by the Via
+Marforio, skirting the eastern side of the Capitoline Hill and the
+eastern side of the Roman Forum to the Colosseum, which it does not
+include; on almost to the Lateran, back again, so as to include the
+Basilica, by San Stefano Rotondo, and out by the Navicella to the now
+closed Porta Metronia. The remainder of the circuit is completed by the
+Aurelian wall, which is the present wall of the city, though the modern
+Electoral Wards extend in some places beyond it. The modern gates
+included in this portion are the Porta Salaria, the Porta Pia, the new
+gate at the end of the Via Montebello, the next, an unnamed opening
+through which passes the Viale Castro Pretorio, then the Porta
+Tiburtina, the Porta San Lorenzo, the exit of the railway, Porta
+Maggiore, and lastly the Porta San Giovanni.
+
+The Region of the Hills takes in by far the largest area of the fourteen
+districts, but also that portion which in later times has been the least
+thickly populated, the wildest districts of mediaeval and recent Rome,
+great open spaces now partially covered by new though hardly inhabited
+buildings, but which were very lately either fallow land or ploughed
+fields, or cultivated vineyards, out of which huge masses of ruins rose
+here and there in brown outline against the distant mountains, in the
+midst of which towered the enormous basilicas of Santa Maria Maggiore
+and Saint John Lateran, the half-utilized, half-consecrated remains of
+the Baths of Diocletian, the Baths of Titus, and over against the
+latter, just beyond the southwestern boundary, the gloomy Colosseum, and
+on the west the tall square tower of the Capitol with its deep-toned
+bell, the 'Patarina,' which at last was sounded only when the Pope was
+dead, and when Carnival was over on Shrove Tuesday night.
+
+It must first be remembered that each Region had a small independent
+existence, with night watchmen of its own, who dared not step beyond the
+limits of their beat; defined by parishes, there were separate charities
+for each Region, separate funds for giving dowries to poor girls,
+separate 'Confraternite' or pious societies to which laymen belonged,
+and, in a small way, a sort of distinct nationality. There was rivalry
+between each Region and its neighbours, and when the one encroached upon
+the other there was strife and bloodshed in the streets. In the public
+races, of which the last survived in the running of riderless horses
+through the Corso in Carnival, each Region had its colours, its right of
+place, and its separate triumph if it won in the contest. There was all
+that intricate opposition of small parties which arose in every mediaeval
+city, when children followed their fathers' trades from generation to
+generation, and lived in their fathers' houses from one century to
+another; and there was all the individuality and the local tradition
+which never really hindered civilization, but were always an
+insurmountable barrier against progress.
+
+Some one has called democracy Rome's 'Original Sin.' It would be more
+just and true to say that most of Rome's misfortunes, and Italy's too,
+have been the result of the instinct to oppose all that is, whether good
+or bad, as soon as it has existed for a while; in short, the original
+sin of Italians is an original detestation of that unity of which the
+empty name has been a fetish for ages. Rome, thrown back upon herself
+in the dark times, when she was shorn of her possessions, was a true
+picture of what Italy was before Rome's iron hand had bound the Italian
+peoples together by force, of what she became again as soon as that
+force was relaxed, of what she has grown to be once more, now that the
+delight of revolution has disappeared in the dismal swamp of financial
+disappointment, of what she will be to all time, because, from all time,
+she has been populated by races of different descent, who hated each
+other as only neighbours can.
+
+The redeeming feature of a factional life has sometimes been found in a
+readiness to unite against foreign oppression; it has often shown itself
+in an equal willingness to submit to one foreign ruler in order to get
+rid of another. Circumstances have made the result good or bad. In the
+year 799, the Romans attacked and wounded Pope Leo the Third in a solemn
+procession, almost killed him and drove him to flight, because he had
+sent the keys of the city to Charles the Great, in self-protection
+against the splendid, beautiful, gifted, black-hearted Irene, Empress of
+the East, who had put out her own son's eyes and taken the throne by
+force. Two years later the people of Rome shouted "Life and Victory to
+Charles the Emperor," when the same Pope Leo, his scars still fresh,
+crowned Charlemagne in Saint Peter's. One remembers, for that matter,
+that Napoleon Bonaparte, crowned in French Paris by another Pope, girt
+on the very sword of that same Frankish Charles, whose bones the French
+had scattered to the elements at Aix. Savonarola, of more than doubtful
+patriotism, to whom Saint Philip Neri prayed, but whom the English
+historian, Roscoe, flatly calls a traitor, would have taken Florence
+from the Italian Medici and given it to the French king. Dante was for
+German Emperors against Italian Popes. Modern Italy has driven out
+Bourbons and Austrians and given the crown of her Unity to a house of
+Kings, brave and honourable, but in whose veins there is no drop of
+Italian blood, any more than their old Dukedom of Savoy was ever Italian
+in any sense. The glory of history is rarely the glory of any ideal; it
+is more often the glory of success.
+
+The Roman Republic was the result of internal opposition, and the
+instinct to oppose power, often rightly, sometimes wrongly, will be the
+last to survive in the Latin race. In the Middle Age, when Rome had
+shrunk from the boundaries of civilization to the narrow limits of the
+Aurelian walls, it produced the hatred between the Barons and the
+people, and within the people themselves, the less harmful rivalry of
+the Regions and their Captains.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA FRANCESCA ROMANA]
+
+These Captains held office for three months only. At the expiration of
+the term, they and the people of their Region proceeded in procession,
+all bearing olive branches, to the temple of Venus and Rome, of which a
+part was early converted into the Church of Santa Maria Nuova, now known
+as Santa Francesca Romana, between the Forum and the Colosseum, and just
+within the limits of 'Monti.' Down from the hills on the one side the
+crowd came; up from the regions of the Tiber, round the Capitol from
+Colonna, and Trevi, and Campo Marzo, as ages before them the people had
+thronged to the Comitium, only a few hundred yards away. There, before
+the church in the ruins, each Region dropped the names of its own two
+candidates into the ballot box, and chance decided which of the two
+should be Captain next. In procession, then, all round the Capitol, they
+went to Aracoeli, and the single Senator, the lone shadow of the
+Conscript Fathers, ratified each choice. Lastly, among themselves, they
+used to choose the Prior, or Chief Captain, until it became the custom
+that the captain of the First Region, Monti, should of right be head of
+all the rest, and in reality one of the principal powers in the city.
+
+And the principal church of Monti also held preeminence over others. The
+Basilica of Saint John Lateran was entitled 'Mother and Head of all
+Churches of the City and of the World'; and it took its distinctive name
+from a rich Roman family, whose splendid house stood on the same spot as
+far back as the early days of the Empire. Even Juvenal speaks of it.
+
+Overthrown by earthquake, erected again at once, twice burned and
+immediately rebuilt, five times the seat of Councils of the Church,
+enlarged even in our day at enormous cost, it seems destined to stand on
+the same spot for ages, and to perpetuate the memory of the Laterans to
+all time, playing monument to an obscure family of rich citizens, whose
+name should have been almost lost, but can never be forgotten now.
+
+Constantine, sentimental before he was great, and great before he was a
+Christian, gave the house of the Roman gentleman to Pope Sylvester. He
+bought it, or it fell to the crown at the extinction of the family, for
+he was not the man to confiscate property for a whim; and within the
+palace he made a church, which was called by more than one name, till
+after nearly six hundred years it was finally dedicated to Saint John
+the Baptist; until then it had been generally called the church 'in the
+Lateran house,' and to this day it is San Giovanni in Laterano. Close by
+it, in the palace of the Annii, Marcus Aurelius, last of the so-called
+Antonines, and last of the great emperors, was born and educated; and in
+his honour was made the famous statue of him on horseback, which now
+stands in the square of the Capitol. The learned say that it was set up
+before the house where he was born, and so found itself also before the
+Lateran in later times, with the older Wolf, at the place of public
+justice and execution.
+
+In the wild days of the tenth century, when the world was boiling with
+faction, and trembling at the prospect of the Last Judgment, clearly
+predicted to overtake mankind in the thousandth year of the Christian
+era, the whole Roman people, without sanction of the Emperor and without
+precedent, chose John the Thirteenth to be their Pope. The Regions with
+their Captains had their way, and the new Pontiff was enthroned by
+their acclamation. Then came their disappointment, then their anger.
+Pope John, strong, high-handed, a man of order in days of chaos, ruled
+from the Lateran for one short year, with such wisdom as he possessed,
+such law as he chanced to have learnt, and all the strength he had.
+Neither Barons nor people wanted justice, much less learning. The Latin
+chronicle is brief: 'At that time, Count Roffredo and Peter the
+Prefect,'--he was the Prior of the Regions' Captains,--'with certain
+other Romans, seized Pope John, and first threw him into the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo, but at last drove him into exile in Campania for more than
+ten months. But when the Count had been murdered by one of the
+Crescenzi,'--in whose house Rienzi afterwards lived,--'the Pope was
+released and returned to his See.'
+
+Back came Otto the Great, Saxon Emperor, at Christmas time, as he came
+more than once, to put down revolution with a strong hand and avenge the
+wrongs of Pope John by executing all but one of the Captains of the
+Regions. Twelve of them he hanged. Peter the Prefect, or Prior, was
+bound naked upon an ass with an earthen jar over his head, flogged
+through the city, and cruelly put to death; and at last his torn body
+was hung by the hair to the head of the bronze horse whereon the stately
+figure of Marcus Aurelius sat in triumph before the door of the Pope's
+house, as it sits today on the Capitol before the Palace of the Senator.
+And Otto caused the body of murdered Roffredo to be dragged from its
+grave and quartered by the hangman and scattered abroad, a warning to
+the Regions and their leaders. They left Pope John in peace after that,
+and he lived five years and held a council in the Lateran, and died in
+his bed. Possibly after his rough experience, his rule was more gentle,
+and when he was dead he was spoken of as 'that most worthy Pontiff.' Who
+Count Roffredo was no one can tell surely, but his name belongs to the
+great house of Caetani.
+
+[Illustration: BASILICA OF ST JOHN LATERAN]
+
+It is hard to see past terror in present peace; it is not easy to fancy
+the rough rabble of Rome in those days, strangely clad, more strangely
+armed, far out in the waste fields about the Lateran, surging up like
+demons in the lurid torchlight before the house of the Pope, pressing
+upon the mailed Count's stout horse, and thronging upon the heels of the
+Captains and the Prefect, pounding down the heavy doors with stones, and
+with deep shouts for every heavy blow, while white-robed John and his
+frightened priests cower together within, expecting death. Down goes the
+oak with a crash like artillery, that booms along the empty corridors; a
+moment's pause, and silence, and then the rush, headed by the Knight and
+the leaders who mean no murder, but mean to have their way, once and for
+ever, and buffet back their furious followers when they have reached the
+Pope's room, lest he should be torn in pieces. Then, the subsidence of
+the din, and the old man and his priests bound and dragged out and
+forced to go on foot by all the long dark way through the city to the
+black dungeons of Sant' Angelo beyond the rushing river.
+
+[Illustration: SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO]
+
+It seems far away. Yet we who have seen the Roman people rise, overlaid
+with burdens and maddened by the news of a horrible defeat, can guess at
+what it must have been. Those who saw the sea of murderous pale faces,
+and heard the deep cry, 'Death to Crispi,' go howling and echoing
+through the city can guess what that must have been a thousand years
+ago, and many another night since then, when the Romans were roused and
+there was a smell of blood in the air.
+
+But today there is peace in the great Mother of Churches, with an
+atmosphere of solemn rest that one may not breathe in Saint Peter's nor
+perhaps anywhere else in Rome within consecrated walls. There is mystery
+in the enormous pillars that answer back the softest whispered word from
+niche to niche across the silent aisle; there is simplicity and dignity
+of peace in the lofty nave, far down and out of jarring distance from
+the over-gorgeous splendour of the modern transept. In Holy Week,
+towards evening at the Tenebrae, the divine tenor voice of Padre
+Giovanni, monk and singer, soft as a summer night, clear as a silver
+bell, touching as sadness itself, used to float through the dim air with
+a ring of Heaven in it, full of that strange fatefulness that followed
+his short life, till he died, nearly twenty years ago, foully poisoned
+by a layman singer in envy of a gift not matched in the memory of man.
+
+Sometimes, if one wanders upward towards the Monti when the moon is
+high, a far-off voice rings through the quiet air--one of those voices
+which hardly ever find their way to the theatre nowadays, and which,
+perhaps, would not satisfy the nervous taste of our Wagnerian times.
+Perhaps it sounds better in the moonlight, in those lonely, echoing
+streets, than it would on the stage. At all events, it is beautiful as
+one hears it, clear, strong, natural, ringing. It belongs to the place
+and hour, as the humming of honey bees to a field of flowers at noon, or
+the desolate moaning of the tide to a lonely ocean coast at night. It is
+not an exaggeration, nor a mere bit of ill nature, to say that there are
+thousands of fastidiously cultivated people today who would think it all
+theatrical in the extreme, and would be inclined to despise their own
+taste if they felt a secret pleasure in the scene and the song. But in
+Rome even such as they might condescend to the romantic for an hour,
+because in Rome such deeds have been dared, such loves have been loved,
+such deaths have been died, that any romance, no matter how wild, has
+larger probability in the light of what has actually been the lot of
+real men and women. So going alone through the winding moonlit ways
+about Tor de' Conti, Santa Maria dei Monti and San Pietro in Vincoli, a
+man need take no account of modern fashions in sensation; and if he will
+but let himself be charmed, the enchantment will take hold of him and
+lead him on through a city of dreams and visions, and memories strange
+and great, without end. Ever since Rome began there must have been just
+such silvery nights; just such a voice rang through the same air ages
+ago; just as now the velvet shadows fell pall-like and unrolled
+themselves along the grey pavement under the lofty columns of Mars the
+Avenger and beneath the wall of the Forum of Augustus.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA COLONNA]
+
+Perhaps it is true that the impressions which Rome makes upon a
+thoughtful man vary more according to the wind and the time of day than
+those he feels in other cities. Perhaps, too, there is no capital in all
+the world which has such contrasts to show within a mile of each
+other--one might almost say within a dozen steps. One of the most
+crowded thoroughfares of Rome, for instance, is the Via del Tritone,
+which is the only passage through the valley between the Pincian and the
+Quirinal hills, from the region of Piazza Colonna towards the railway
+station and the new quarter. During the busy hours of the day a carriage
+can rarely move through its narrower portions any faster than at a foot
+pace, and the insufficient pavements are thronged with pedestrians. In a
+measure, the Tritone in Rome corresponds to Galata bridge in
+Constantinople. In the course of the week most of the population of the
+city must have passed at least once through the crowded little street,
+which somehow in the rain of millions that lasted for two years, did not
+manage to attract to itself even the small sum which would have sufficed
+to widen it by a few yards. It is as though the contents of Rome were
+daily drawn through a keyhole. In the Tritone are to be seen magnificent
+equipages, jammed in the line between milk carts, omnibuses and
+dustmen's barrows, preceded by butcher's vans and followed by miserable
+cabs, smart dogcarts and high-wheeled country vehicles driven by rough,
+booted men wearing green-lined cloaks and looking like stage bandits;
+even saddle horses are led sometimes that way to save time; and on each
+side flow two streams of human beings of every type to be found between
+Porta Angelica and Porta San Giovanni. A prince of the Holy Roman Empire
+pushes past a troop of dirty school children, and is almost driven into
+an open barrel of salt codfish, in the door of a poor shop, by a
+black-faced charcoal man carrying a sack on his head more than half as
+high as himself. A party of jolly young German tourists in loose
+clothes, with red books in their hands, and their field-glasses hanging
+by straps across their shoulders, try to rid themselves of the
+flower-girls dressed in sham Sabine costumes, and utter exclamations of
+astonishment and admiration when they themselves are almost run down by
+a couple of the giant Royal Grenadiers, each six feet five or
+thereabouts, besides nine inches, or so, of crested helmet aloft,
+gorgeous, gigantic and spotless. Clerks by the dozen and liveried
+messengers of the ministries struggle in the press; ladies gather their
+skirts closely, and try to pick a dainty way where, indeed, there is
+nothing 'dain' (a word which Doctor Johnson confesses that he could not
+find in any dictionary, but which he thinks might be very useful);
+servant girls, smart children with nurses and hoops going up to the
+Pincio, black-browed washerwomen with big baskets of clothes on their
+heads, stumpy little infantry soldiers in grey uniforms, priests,
+friars, venders of boot-laces and thread, vegetable sellers pushing
+hand-carts of green things in and out among the horses and vehicles with
+amazing dexterity, and yelling their cries in super-humanly high
+voices--there is no end to the multitude. If the day is showery, it is a
+sight to see the confusion in the Tritone when umbrellas of every age,
+material and colour are all opened at once, while the people who have
+none crowd into the codfish shop and the liquor seller's and the
+tobacconist's, with traditional 'con permesso' of excuse for entering
+when they do not mean to buy anything; for the Romans are mostly civil
+people and fairly good-natured. But rain or shine, at the busy hours,
+the place is always crowded to overflowing with every description of
+vehicle and every type of humanity.
+
+Out of Babel--a horizontal Babel--you may turn into the little church,
+dedicated to the 'Holy Guardian Angel.' It stands on the south side of
+the Tritone, in that part which is broader, and which a little while ago
+was still called the Via dell' Angelo Custode--Guardian Angel Street. It
+is an altogether insignificant little church, and strangers scarcely
+ever visit it. But going down the Tritone, when your ears are splitting,
+and your eyes are confused with the kaleidoscopic figures of the
+scurrying crowd, you may lift the heavy leathern curtain, and leave the
+hurly-burly outside, and find yourself all alone in the quiet presence
+of death, the end of all hurly-burly and confusion. It is quite possible
+that under the high, still light in the round church, with its four
+niche-like chapels, you may see, draped in black, that thing which no
+one ever mistakes for anything else; and round about the coffin a dozen
+tall wax candles may be burning with a steady yellow flame. Possibly, at
+the sound of the leathern curtain slapping the stone door-posts, as it
+falls behind you, a sad-looking sacristan may shuffle out of a dark
+corner to see who has come in; possibly not. He may be asleep, or he may
+be busy folding vestments in the sacristy. The dead need little
+protection from the living, nor does a sacristan readily put himself out
+for nothing. You may stand there undisturbed as long as you please, and
+see what all the world's noise comes to in the end. Or it may be, if the
+departed person belonged to a pious confraternity, that you chance upon
+the brothers of the society--clad in dark hoods with only holes for
+their eyes, and no man recognized by his neighbour--chanting penitential
+psalms and hymns for the one whom they all know because he is dead, and
+they are living.
+
+Such contrasts are not lacking in Rome. There are plenty of them
+everywhere in the world, perhaps, but they are more striking here, in
+proportion as the outward forms of religious practice are more ancient,
+unchanging and impressive. For there is nothing very impressive or
+unchanging about the daily outside world, especially in Rome.
+
+Rome, the worldly, is the capital of one of the smaller kingdoms of the
+world, which those who rule it are anxious to force into the position of
+a great power. One need not criticise their action too hardly; their
+motives can hardly be anything but patriotic, considering the fearful
+sacrifices they impose upon their country. But they are not the men who
+brought about Italian unity. They are the successors of those men; they
+are not satisfied with that unification, and they have dreamed a dream
+of ambition, beside which, considering the means at their disposal, the
+projects of Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon sink into comparative
+insignificance. At all events, the worldly, modern, outward Italian
+Rome is very far behind the great European capitals in development, not
+to say wealth and magnificence. 'Lay' Rome, if one may use the
+expression, is not in the least a remarkable city. 'Ecclesiastic' Rome
+is the stronghold of a most tremendous fact, from whatever point of view
+Christianity may be considered. If one could, in imagination, detach the
+head of the Catholic Church from the Church, one would be obliged to
+admit that no single living man possesses the far-reaching and lasting
+power which in each succeeding papal reign belongs to the Pope. Behind
+the Pope stands the fact which confers, maintains and extends that power
+from century to century; a power which is one of the hugest elements of
+the world's moral activity, both in its own direct action and in the
+counteraction and antagonism which it calls forth continually.
+
+It is the all-pervading presence of this greatest fact in Christendom
+which has carried on Rome's importance from the days of the Caesars,
+across the chasm of the dark ages, to the days of the modern popes; and
+its really enormous importance continually throws forward into cruel
+relief the puerilities and inanities of the daily outward world. It is
+the consciousness of that importance which makes old Roman society what
+it is, with its virtues, its vices, its prejudices and its strange,
+old-fashioned, close-fisted kindliness; which makes the contrast between
+the Saturnalia of Shrove Tuesday night and the cross signed with ashes
+upon the forehead on Ash Wednesday morning, between the careless
+laughter of the Roman beauty in Carnival, and the tragic earnestness of
+the same lovely face when the great lady kneels in Lent, before the
+confessional, to receive upon her bent head the light touch of the
+penitentiary's wand, taking her turn, perhaps, with a score of women of
+the people. It is the knowledge of an always present power, active
+throughout the whole world, which throws deep, straight shadows, as it
+were, through the Roman character, just as in certain ancient families
+there is a secret that makes grave the lives of those who know it.
+
+The Roman Forum and the land between it and the Colosseum, though
+strictly within the limits of Monti, were in reality a neutral ground,
+the chosen place for all struggles of rivalry between the Regions. The
+final destruction of its monuments dates from the sacking of Rome by
+Robert Guiscard with his Normans and Saracens in the year one thousand
+and eighty-four, when the great Duke of Apulia came in arms to succour
+Hildebrand, Pope Gregory the Seventh, against the Emperor Henry the
+Fourth, smarting under the bitter humiliation of Canossa; and against
+his Antipope Clement, more than a hundred years after Otto had come back
+in anger to avenge Pope John. There is no more striking picture of the
+fearful contest between the Church and the Empire.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DI SAN GIOVANNI IN LATERANO]
+
+Alexis, Emperor of the East, had sent Henry, Emperor of the Holy Roman
+Empire, one hundred and forty-four thousand pieces of gold, and one
+hundred pieces of woven scarlet, as an inducement to make war upon the
+Norman Duke, the Pope's friend. But the Romans feared Henry and sent
+ambassadors to him, and on the twenty-first of March, being the Thursday
+before Palm Sunday, the Lateran gate was opened for him to enter in
+triumph. The city was divided against itself, the nobles were for
+Hildebrand, the people were against him. The Emperor seized the Lateran
+palace and all the bridges. The Pope fled to the Castle of Sant' Angelo,
+an impregnable fortress in those times, ever ready and ever provisioned
+for a siege. Of the nobles Henry required fifty hostages as earnest of
+their neutrality. On the next day he threw his gold to the rabble and
+they elected his Antipope Gilbert, who called himself Clement the Third,
+and certain bishops from North Italy consecrated him in the Lateran on
+Palm Sunday.
+
+Meanwhile Hildebrand secretly sent swift riders to Apulia, calling on
+Robert Guiscard for help, and still the nobles were faithful to him, and
+though Henry held the bridges, they were strong in Trastevere and the
+Borgo, which is the region between the Castle of Sant' Angelo and Saint
+Peter's. So it turned out that when Henry tried to bring his Antipope in
+solemn procession to enthrone him in the Pontifical chair, on Easter
+day, he found mailed knights and footmen waiting for him, and had to
+fight his way to the Vatican, and forty of his men were killed and
+wounded in the fray, while the armed nobles lost not one. Yet he reached
+the Vatican at last, and there he was crowned by the false Pope he had
+made, with the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The chronicler apologizes
+for calling him an emperor at all. Then he set to work to destroy the
+dwellings of the faithful nobles, and laid siege to the wonderful
+Septizonium of Severus, in which the true Pope's nephew had fortified
+himself, and began to batter it down with catapults and battering-rams.
+Presently came the message of vengeance, brought by one man outriding a
+host, while the rabble were still building a great wall to encircle
+Sant' Angelo and starve Hildebrand to death or submission, working day
+and night like madmen, tearing down everything at hand to pile the great
+stones one upon another. Swiftly came the terrible Norman from the
+south, with his six thousand horse, Normans and Saracens, and thirty
+thousand foot, forcing his march and hungry for the Emperor. But Henry
+fled, making pretext of great affairs in Lombardy, promising great and
+wonderful gifts to the Roman rabble, and entrusting to their care his
+imperial city.
+
+Like a destroying whirlwind of fire and steel Robert swept on to the
+gates and into Rome, burning and slaying as he rode, and sparing neither
+man, nor woman, nor child, till the red blood ran in rivers between
+walls of yellow flame. And he took Hildebrand from Sant' Angelo, and
+brought him back to the Lateran through the reeking ruins of the city in
+grim and fearful triumph of carnage and destruction.
+
+That was the end of the Roman Forum, and afterwards, when the
+blood-soaked ashes and heaps of red-hot rubbish had sunk down and
+hardened to a level surface, the place where the shepherd fathers of
+Alba Longa had pastured their flocks was called the Campo Vaccino, the
+Cattle Field, because it was turned into the market for beeves, and rows
+of trees were planted, and on one side there was a walk where ropes were
+made, even to our own time.
+
+It became also the fighting ground of the Regions. Among the strangest
+scenes in the story of the city are those regular encounters between the
+Regions of Monti and Trastevere which for centuries took place on feast
+days, by appointment, on the site of the Forum, or occasionally on the
+wide ground before the Baths of Diocletian. They were battles fought
+with stones, and far from bloodless. Monti was traditionally of the
+Imperial or Ghibelline party; Trastevere was Guelph and for the Popes.
+The enmity was natural and lasting, on a small scale, as it was
+throughout Italy. The challenge to the fray was regularly sent out by
+young boys as messengers, and the place and hour were named and the word
+passed in secret from mouth to mouth. It was even determined by
+agreement whether the stones were to be thrown by hand or whether the
+more deadly sling was to be used.
+
+At the appointed time, the combatants appear in the arena, sometimes as
+many as a hundred on a side, and the tournament begins, as in Homeric
+times, with taunts and abuse, which presently end in skirmishes between
+the boys who have come to look on. Scouts are placed at distant points
+to cry 'Fire' at the approach of the dreaded Bargello and his men, who
+are the only representatives of order in the city and not, indeed,
+anxious to face two hundred infuriated slingers for the sake of making
+peace.
+
+One boy throws a stone and runs away, followed by the rest, all
+prudently retiring to a safe distance. The real combatants wrap their
+long cloaks about their left arms, as the old Romans used their togas on
+the same ground, to shield their heads from the blows; a sling whirls
+half a dozen times like lightning, and a smooth round stone flies like a
+bullet straight at an enemy's face, followed by a hundred more in a
+deadly hail, thick and fast. Men fall, blood flows, short deep curses
+ring through the sunny air, the fighters creep up to one another,
+dodging behind trees and broken ruins, till they are at cruelly short
+range; faster and faster fly the stones, and scores are lying prostrate,
+bleeding, groaning and cursing. Strength, courage, fierce endurance and
+luck have it at last, as in every battle. Down goes the leader of
+Trastevere, half dead, with an eye gone, down goes the next man to him,
+his teeth broken under his torn lips, down half a dozen more, dead or
+wounded, and the day is lost. Trastevere flies towards the bridge,
+pursued by Monti with hoots and yells and catcalls, and the thousands
+who have seen the fight go howling after them, women and children
+screaming, dogs racing and barking and biting at their heels. And far
+behind on the deserted Campo Vaccino, as the sun goes down, women weep
+and frightened children sob beside the young dead. But the next feast
+day would come, and a counter-victory and vengeance.
+
+That has always been the temper of the Romans; but few know how
+fiercely it used to show itself in those days. It would have been
+natural enough that men should meet in sudden anger and kill each other
+with such weapons as they chanced to have or could pick up, clubs,
+knives, stones, anything, when fighting was half the life of every grown
+man. It is harder to understand the murderous stone throwing by
+agreement and appointment. In principle, indeed, it approached the
+tournament, and the combat of champions representing two parties is an
+expression of the ancient instinct of the Latin peoples; so the Horatii
+and Curiatii fought for Rome and Alba--so Francis the First of France
+offered to fight the Emperor Charles the Fifth for settlement of all
+quarrels between the Kingdom and the Empire--and so the modern Frenchman
+and Italian are accustomed to settle their differences by an appeal to
+what they still call 'arms,' for the sake of what modern society is
+pleased to dignify by the name of 'honour.'
+
+But in the stone-throwing combats of Campo Vaccino there was something
+else. The games of the circus and the bloody shows of the amphitheatre
+were not forgotten. As will be seen hereafter, bull-fighting was a
+favourite sport in Rome as it is in Spain today, and the hand-to-hand
+fights between champions of the Regions were as much more exciting and
+delightful to the crowd as the blood of men is of more price than the
+blood of beasts.
+
+The habit of fighting for its own sake, with dangerous weapons, made the
+Roman rabble terrible when the fray turned quite to earnest; the deadly
+hail of stones, well aimed by sling and hand, was familiar to every
+Roman from his childhood, and the sight of naked steel at arm's length
+inspired no sudden, keen and unaccustomed terror, when men had little
+but life to lose and set small value on that, throwing it into the
+balance for a word, rising in arms for a name, doing deeds of blood and
+flame for a handful of gold or a day of power.
+
+Monti was both the battlefield of the Regions and also, in times early
+and late, the scene of the most splendid pageants of Church and State.
+There is a strange passage in the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus, a
+pagan Roman of Greek birth, contemporary with Pope Damasus in the latter
+part of the fourth century. Muratori quotes it, as showing what the
+Bishopric of Rome meant even in those days. It is worth reading, for a
+heathen's view of things under Valens and Valentinian, before the coming
+of the Huns and the breaking up of the Roman Empire, and, indeed, before
+the official disestablishment, as we should say, of the heathen
+religion; while the High Priest of Jupiter still offered sacrifices on
+the Capitol, and the six Vestal Virgins still guarded the Seven Holy
+Things of Rome, and held their vast lands and dwelt in their splendid
+palace in all freedom of high privilege, as of old.
+
+'For my part,' says Ammianus, 'when I see the magnificence in which the
+Bishops live in Rome, I am not surprised that those who covet the
+dignity should use force and cunning to obtain it. For if they succeed,
+they are sure of becoming enormously rich by the gifts of the devout
+Roman matrons; they will drive about Rome in their carriages, as they
+please, gorgeously dressed, and they will not only keep an abundant
+table, but will give banquets so sumptuous as to outdo those of kings
+and emperors. They do not see that they could be truly happy if instead
+of making the greatness of Rome an excuse for their excesses, they would
+live as some of the Bishops of the Provinces do, who are sparing and
+frugal, poorly clad and modest, but who make the humility of their
+manners and the purity of their lives at once acceptable to their God
+and to their fellow worshippers.'
+
+So much Ammianus says. And Saint Jerome tells how Praetextatus, Prefect
+of the City, when Pope Damasus tried to convert him, answered with a
+laugh, 'I will become a Christian if you will make me Bishop of Rome.'
+
+Yet Damasus, famous for the good Latin and beautiful carving of the many
+inscriptions he composed and set up, was undeniably also a good man in
+the evil days which foreshadowed the great schism.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE]
+
+And here, in the year 366, in the Region of Monti, in the church where
+now stands Santa Maria Maggiore, a great and terrible name stands out
+for the first time in history. Orsino, Deacon of the Holy Roman Catholic
+and Apostolic Church, rouses a party of the people, declares the
+election of Damasus invalid, proclaims himself Pope in his stead, and
+officiates as Pontiff in the Basilica of Sicininus. Up from the deep
+city comes the roaring crowd, furious and hungry for fight; the great
+doors are closed and Orsino's followers gather round him as he stands on
+the steps of the altar; but they are few, and those for Damasus are
+many; down go the doors, burst inward with battering-rams, up shoot the
+flames to the roof, and the short, wild fray lasts while one may count
+five score, and is over. Orsino and a hundred and thirty-six of his men
+lie dead on the pavement, the fire licks the rafters, the crowd press
+outward, and the great roof falls crashing down into wide pools of
+blood. And after that Damasus reigns eighteen years in peace and
+splendour. No one knows whether the daring Deacon was of the race that
+made and unmade popes afterwards, and held half Italy with its
+fortresses, giving its daughters to kings and taking kings' daughters
+for its sons, till Vittoria Accoramboni of bad memory began to bring
+down a name that is yet great. But Orsino he was called, and he had in
+him much of the lawless strength of those namesakes of his who outfought
+all other barons but the Colonna, for centuries; and romance may well
+make him one of them.
+
+Three hundred years later, and a little nearer to us in the dim
+perspective of the dark ages, another scene is enacted in the same
+cathedral. Martin the First was afterwards canonized as Saint Martin for
+the persecutions he suffered at the hands of Constans, who feared and
+hated him and set up an antipope in his stead, and at last sent him
+prisoner to die a miserable death in the Crimea. Olympius, Exarch of
+Italy, was the chosen tool of the Emperor, sent again and again to Rome
+to destroy the brave Bishop and make way for the impostor. At last, says
+the greatest of Italian chroniclers, fearing the Roman people and their
+soldiers, he attempted to murder the Pope foully, in hideous sacrilege.
+To that end he pretended penitence, and begged to be allowed to receive
+the Eucharist from the Pope himself at solemn high Mass, secretly
+instructing one of his body-guards to stab the Bishop at the very moment
+when he should present Olympius with the consecrated bread.
+
+Up to the basilica they went, in grave and splendid procession. One may
+guess the picture, with its deep colour, with the strong faces of those
+men, the Eastern guards, the gorgeous robes, the gilded arms, the high
+sunlight crossing the low nave and falling through the yellow clouds of
+incense upon the venerable bearded head of the holy man whose death was
+purposed in the sacred office. First, the measured tread of the Exarch's
+band moving in order; then, the silence over all the kneeling throng,
+and upon it the bursting unison of the 'Gloria in Excelsis' from the
+choir. Chant upon chant as the Pontiff and his Ministers intone the
+Epistle and the Gospel and are taken up by the singers in chorus at the
+first words of the Creed. By and by, the Pope's voice alone, still clear
+and brave in the Preface. 'Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and all
+the company of Heaven,' he chants, and again the harmony of many voices
+singing 'Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Sabaoth.' Silence then, at the
+Consecration, and the dark-browed Exarch bowing to the pavement, beside
+the paid murderer whose hand is already on his dagger's hilt. 'O Lamb of
+God, that takest away the sins of the world,' sings the choir in its
+sad, high chant, and Saint Martin bows, standing, over the altar,
+himself communicating, while the Exarch holds his breath, and the slayer
+fixes his small, keen eyes on the embroidered vestments and guesses how
+they will look with a red splash upon them.
+
+As the soldier looks, the sunlight falls more brightly on the gold, the
+incense curls in mystic spiral wreaths, its strong perfume penetrates
+and dims his senses; little by little, his thoughts wander till they are
+strangely fixed on something far away, and he no longer sees Pope nor
+altar nor altar-piece beyond, and is wrapped in a sort of waking sleep
+that is blindness. Olympius kneels at the steps within the rail, and his
+heart beats loud as the grand figure of the Bishop bends over him, and
+the thin old hand with its strong blue veins offers the sacred bread to
+his open lips. He trembles, and tries to glance sideways to his left
+with downcast eyes, for the moment has come, and the blow must be struck
+then or never. Not a breath, not a movement in the church, not the
+faintest clink of all those gilded arms, as the Saint pronounces the few
+solemn words, then gravely and slowly turns, with his deacons to right
+and left of him, and ascends the altar steps once more, unhurt. A
+miracle, says the chronicler. A miracle, says the amazed soldier, and
+repeats it upon solemn oath. A miracle, says Olympius himself, penitent
+and converted from error, and ready to save the Pope by all means he
+has, as he was ready to slay him before. But he only, and the hired
+assassin beside him, had known what was to be, and the people say that
+the Exarch and the Pope were already reconciled and agreed against the
+Emperor.
+
+The vast church has had many names. It seems at one time to have been
+known as the Basilica of Sicininus, for so Ammianus Marcellinus still
+speaks of it. But just before that, there is the lovely legend of Pope
+Liberius' dream. To him and to the Roman patrician, John, came the
+Blessed Virgin in a dream, one night in high summer, commanding them to
+build her a church wheresoever they should find snow on the morrow. And
+together they found it, glistening in the morning sun, and they traced,
+on the white, the plan of the foundation, and together built the first
+church, calling it 'Our Lady of Snows,' for Damasus to burn when Orsino
+seized it,--but the people spoke of it as the Basilica of Liberius. It
+was called also 'Our Lady of the Manger,' from the relic held holy
+there; and Sixtus the Third named it 'Our Lady, Mother of God'; and
+under many popes it was rebuilt and grew, until at last, for its size,
+it was called, as it is today, 'The Greater Saint Mary's.' At one time,
+the popes lived near it, and in our own century, when the palace had
+long been transferred to the Quirinal, a mile to northward of the
+basilica, Papal Bulls were dated 'From Santa Maria Maggiore.'
+
+It is too gorgeous now, too overladen, too rich; and yet it is imposing.
+The first gold brought from South America gilds the profusely decorated
+roof, the dark red polished porphyry pillars of the high altar gleam in
+the warm haze of light, the endless marble columns rise in shining
+ranks, all is gold, marble and colour.
+
+Many dead lie there, great men and good; and one over whom a sort of
+mystery hangs, for he was Bartolommeo Sacchi, Cardinal Platina,
+historian of the Church, a chief member of the famous Roman Academy of
+the fifteenth century, and a mediaeval pagan, accused with Pomponius
+Letus and others of worshipping false gods; tried, acquitted for lack of
+evidence; dead in the odour of sanctity; proved at last ten times a
+heathen, and a bad one, today, by inscriptions found in the remotest
+part of the Catacombs, where he and his companions met in darkest secret
+to perform their extravagant rites. He lies beneath the chapel of Sixtus
+the Fifth, but the stone that marked the spot is gone.
+
+Strange survivals of ideas and customs cling to some places like ghosts,
+and will not be driven away. The Esquiline was long ago the haunt of
+witches, who chanted their nightly incantations over the shallow graves
+where slaves were buried, and under the hideous crosses whereon dead
+malefactors had groaned away their last hours of life. Maecenas cleared
+the land and beautified it with gardens, but still the witches came by
+stealth to their old haunts. The popes built churches and palaces on it,
+but the dark memories never vanished in the light; and even in our own
+days, on Saint John's Eve, which is the witches' night of the Latin
+race, as the Eve of May-day is the Walpurgis of the Northmen, the people
+went out in thousands, with torches and lights, and laughing tricks of
+exorcism, to scare away the powers of evil for the year.
+
+On that night the vast open spaces around the Lateran were thronged with
+men and women and children; against the witches' dreaded influence they
+carried each an onion, torn up by the roots with stalk and flower; all
+about, on the outskirts of the place, were kitchen booths, set up with
+boughs and bits of awnings, yellow with the glare of earthen and iron
+oil lamps, where snails--great counter-charms against spells--were fried
+and baked in oil, and sold with bread and wine, and eaten with more or
+less appetite, according to the strength of men's stomachs. All night,
+till the early summer dawn, the people came and went, and wandered round
+and round, and in and out, in parties and by families, to go laughing
+homeward at last, scarce knowing why they had gone there at all, unless
+it were because their fathers and mothers had done as they did for
+generations unnumbered.
+
+[Illustration: BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN]
+
+And the Lateran once had another half-heathen festival, on the Saturday
+after Easter, in memory of the ancient Floralia of the Romans, which had
+formerly been celebrated on the 28th of April. It was a most strange
+festival, now long forgotten, in which Christianity and paganism were
+blended together. Baracconi, from whom the following account is taken,
+quotes three sober writers as authority for his description. Yet there
+is a doubt about the very name of the feast, which is variously called
+the 'Coromania' and the 'Cornomania.'
+
+On the afternoon of the Saturday in Easter week, say these writers, the
+priests of the eighteen principal 'deaconries'--an ecclesiastical
+division of the city long ago abolished and now somewhat obscure--caused
+the bells to be rung, and the people assembled at their parish churches,
+where they were received by a 'mansionarius,'--probably meaning here 'a
+visitor of houses,'--and a layman, who was arrayed in a tunic, and
+crowned with the flowers of the cornel cherry. In his hand he carried a
+concave musical instrument of copper, by which hung many little bells.
+One of these mysterious personages, who evidently represented the pagan
+element in the ceremony, preceded each parish procession, being followed
+immediately by the parish priest, wearing the cope. From all parts of
+the city they went up to the Lateran, and waited before the palace of
+the Pope till all were assembled.
+
+The Pope descended the steps to receive the homage of the people.
+Immediately, those of each parish formed themselves into wide circles
+round their respective 'visitors' and priests, and the strange rite
+began. In the midst the priest stood still. Round and round him the lay
+'visitor' moved in a solemn dance, striking his copper bells
+rhythmically to his steps, while all the circle followed his gyrations,
+chanting a barbarous invocation, half Latin and half Greek: 'Hail,
+divinity of this spot! Receive our prayers in fortunate hour!' and many
+verses more to the same purpose, and quite beyond being construed
+grammatically.
+
+The dance is over with the song. One of the parish priests mounts upon
+an ass, backwards, facing the beast's tail, and a papal chamberlain
+leads the animal, holding over its head a basin containing twenty pieces
+of copper money. When they have passed three rows of benches--which
+benches, by the bye?--the priest leans back, puts his hand behind him
+into the basin, and pockets the coins.
+
+Then all the priests lay garlands at the feet of the Pope. But the
+priest of Santa Maria in Via Lata also lets a live fox out of a bag, and
+the little creature suddenly let loose flies for its life, through the
+parting crowd, out to the open country, seeking cover. It is like the
+Hebrew scapegoat. In return each priest receives a golden coin from the
+Pontiff's hand. The rite being finished, all return to their respective
+parishes, the dancing 'visitor' still leading the procession. Each
+priest is accompanied then by acolytes who bear holy water, branches of
+laurel, and baskets of little rolls, or of those big, sweet wafers,
+rolled into a cylinder and baked, which are called 'cialdoni,' and are
+eaten to this day by Romans with ice cream. From house to house they go;
+the priest blesses each dwelling, sprinkling water about with the
+laurel, and then burning the branch on the hearth and giving some of the
+rolls to the children. And all the time the dancer slowly dances and
+chants the strange words made up of some Hebrew, a little Chaldean and a
+leavening of nonsense.
+
+    Jaritan, jaritan, iarariasti
+    Raphaym, akrhoin, azariasti!
+
+One may leave the interpretation of the jargon to curious scholars. As
+for the rite itself, were it not attested by trustworthy writers, one
+would be inclined to treat it as a mere invention, no more to be
+believed than the legend of Pope Joan, who was supposed to have been
+stoned to death near San Clemente, on the way to the Lateran.
+
+An extraordinary number of traditions cling to the Region of Monti, and
+considering that in later times a great part of this quarter was a
+wilderness, the fact would seem strange. As for the 'Coromania' it seems
+to have disappeared after the devastation of Monti by Robert Guiscard in
+1084, and the general destruction of the city from the Lateran to the
+Capitol is attributed to the Saracens who were with him. But a more
+logical cause of depopulation is found in the disappearance of water
+from the upper Region by the breaking of the aqueducts, from which alone
+it was derived. The consequence of this, in the Middle Age, was that the
+only obtainable water came from the river, and was naturally taken from
+it up-stream, towards the Piazza del Popolo, in the neighbourhood of
+which it was collected in tanks and kept until the mud sank to the
+bottom and it was approximately fit to drink.
+
+In Imperial times the greater number of the public baths were situated
+in the Monti. The great Piazza di Termini, now re-named Piazza delle
+Terme, before the railway station, took its name from the Baths of
+Diocletian--'Thermae,' 'Terme,' 'Termini.' The Baths of Titus, the Baths
+of Constantine, of Philippus, Novatus and others were all in Monti,
+supplied by the aqueduct of Claudius, the Anio Novus, the Aqua Marcia,
+Tepula, Julia, Marcia Nova and Anio Vetus. No people in the world were
+such bathers as the old Romans; yet few cities have ever suffered so
+much or so long from lack of good water as Rome in the Middle Age. The
+supply cut off, the whole use of the vast institutions was instantly
+gone, and the huge halls and porticos and playgrounds fell to ruin and
+base uses. Owing to their peculiar construction and being purposely made
+easy of access on all sides, like the temples, the buildings could not
+even be turned to account by the Barons for purposes of fortification,
+except as quarries for material with which to build their towers and
+bastions. The inner chambers became hiding-places for thieves, herdsmen
+in winter penned their flocks in the shelter of the great halls, grooms
+used the old playground as a track for breaking horses, and round and
+about the ruins, on feast days, the men of Monti and Trastevere chased
+one another in their murderous tournaments of stone throwing. A fanatic
+Sicilian priest saved the great hall of Diocletian's Baths from
+destruction in Michelangelo's time.
+
+[Illustration: PORTA MAGGIORE, SUPPORTING THE CHANNELS OF THE AQUEDUCT
+OF CLAUDIUS AND THE ANIO NOVUS]
+
+The story is worth telling, for it is little known. In a little church
+in Palermo, in which the humble priest Antonio Del Duca officiated, he
+discovered under the wall-plaster a beautiful fresco or mosaic of the
+Seven Archangels, with their names and attributes. Day after day he
+looked at the fair figures till they took possession of his mind and
+heart and soul, and inspired him with the apparently hopeless desire to
+erect a church in Rome in their honour. To Rome he came, persuaded of
+his righteous mission, to fail of course, after seven years of
+indefatigable effort. Back to Palermo then, to the contemplation of his
+beloved angels. And again they seemed to drive him to Rome. Scarcely had
+he returned when in a dream he seemed to see his ideal church among the
+ruins of the Baths of Diocletian, which had been built, as tradition
+said, by thousands of condemned Christians. To dream was to wake with
+new enthusiasm, to wake was to act. In an hour, in the early dawn, he
+was in the great hall which is now the Church of Santa Maria degli
+Angeli, 'Saint Mary of the Angels.'
+
+But it was long before his purpose was finally accomplished. Thirty
+years of his life he spent in unremitting labour for his purpose, and an
+accident at last determined his success. He had brought a nephew with
+him from Sicily, a certain Giacomo Del Duca, a sculptor, who was
+employed by Michelangelo to carve the great mask over the Porta Pia.
+Pope Pius the Fourth, for whom the gate was named, praised the stone
+face to Michelangelo, who told him who had made it. The name recalled
+the sculptor's uncle and his mad project, which appealed to
+Michelangelo's love of the gigantic. Even the coincidence of appellation
+pleased the Pope, for he himself had been christened Angelo, and his
+great architect and sculptor bore an archangel's name. So the work was
+done in short time, the great church was consecrated, and one of the
+noblest of Roman buildings was saved from ruin by the poor
+Sicilian,--and there, in 1896, the heir to the throne of Italy was
+married with great magnificence, that particular church being chosen
+because, as a historical monument, it is regarded as the property of the
+Italian State, and is therefore not under the immediate management of
+the Vatican. Probably not one in a thousand of the splendid throng that
+filled the church had heard the name of Antonio Del Duca, who lies
+buried before the high altar without a line to tell of all he did. So
+lies Bernini, somewhere in Santa Maria Maggiore, so lies Platina,--he,
+at least, the better for no epitaph,--and Beatrice Cenci and many
+others, rest unforgotten in nameless graves.
+
+From the church to the railway station stretch the ruins, continuous,
+massive, almost useless, yet dear to all who love old Rome. On the south
+side, there used to be a long row of buildings, ending in a tall old
+mansion of good architecture, which was the 'Casino' of the great old
+Villa Negroni. In that house, but recently gone, Thomas Crawford,
+sculptor, lived for many years, and in the long, low studio that stood
+before what is now the station, but was then a field, he modelled the
+great statue of Liberty that crowns the Capitol in Washington, and
+Washington's own monument which stands in Richmond, and many of his
+other works. My own early childhood was spent there, among the old-time
+gardens, and avenues of lordly cypresses and of bitter orange trees, and
+the moss-grown fountains, and long walks fragrant with half-wild roses
+and sweet flowers that no one thinks of planting now. Beyond, a wild
+waste of field and broken land led up to Santa Maria Maggiore; and the
+grand old bells sent their far voices ringing in deep harmony to our
+windows; and on the Eve of Saint Peter's day, when Saint Peter's was a
+dream of stars in the distance and the gorgeous fireworks gleamed in the
+dark sky above the Pincio, we used to climb the high tower above the
+house and watch the still illumination and the soaring rockets through a
+grated window, till the last one had burst and spent itself, and we
+crept down the steep stone steps, half frightened at the sound of our
+own voices in the ghostly place.
+
+And in that same villa once lived Vittoria Accoramboni, married to
+Francesco Peretti, nephew of Cardinal Montalto, who built the house, and
+was afterwards Sixtus the Fifth, and filled Rome with his works in the
+five years of his stirring reign. Hers also is a story worth telling,
+for few know it, even among Romans, and it is a tale of bloodshed, and
+of murder, and of all crimes against God and man, and of the fall of the
+great house of Orsini. But it may better be told in another place, when
+we reach the Region where they lived and fought and ruled, by terror and
+the sword.
+
+Near the Baths of Diocletian, and most probably on the site of that same
+Villa Negroni, too, was that vineyard, or 'villa' as we should say,
+where Caesar Borgia and his elder brother, the Duke of Gandia, supped
+together for the last time with their mother Vanozza, on the night of
+the 14th of June, in the year 1497. There has always been a dark mystery
+about what followed. Many say that Caesar feared his brother's power and
+influence with the Pope. Not a few others suggest that the cause of the
+mutual hatred was a jealousy so horrible to think of that one may hardly
+find words for it, for its object was their own sister Lucrezia. However
+that may be, they supped together with their mother in her villa, after
+the manner of Romans in those times, and long before then, and long
+since. In the first days of summer heat, when the freshness of spring is
+gone and June grows sultry, the people of the city have ever loved to
+breathe a cooler air. In the Region of Monti there were a score of
+villas, and there were wide vineyards and little groves of trees, such
+as could grow where there was not much water, or none at all perhaps,
+saving what was collected in cisterns from the roofs of the few
+scattered houses, when it rained.
+
+In the long June twilight the three met together, the mother and her two
+sons, and sat down under an arbour in the garden, for the air was dry
+with the south wind and there was no fear of fever. Screened lamps and
+wax torches shed changing tints of gold and yellow on the fine linen,
+and the deep-chiselled dishes and vessels of silver, and the tall
+glasses and beakers of many hues. Fruit was piled up in the midst, such
+as the season afforded, cherries and strawberries, and bright oranges
+from the south. One may fancy the dark-browed woman of forty years, in
+the beauty of maturity almost too ripe, with her black eyes and hair of
+auburn, her jewelled cap, her gold laces just open at her marble throat,
+her gleaming earrings, her sleeves slashed to show gauze-fine linen, her
+white, ring-laden fingers that delicately took the finely carved meats
+in her plate--before forks were used in Rome--and dabbled themselves
+clean from each touch in the scented water the little page poured over
+them. On her right, her eldest, Gandia, fair, weak-mouthed, sensually
+beautiful, splendid in velvet, and chain of gold, and deep-red silk, his
+blue eyes glancing now and then, half scornfully, half anxiously at his
+strong brother. And he, Caesar, the man of infamous memory, sitting there
+the very incarnation of bodily strength and mental daring; square as a
+gladiator, dark as a Moor, with deep and fiery eyes, now black, now red
+in the lamplight, the marvellous smile wreathing his thin lips now and
+then, and showing white, wolfish teeth, his sinewy brown hands direct
+in every little action, his soft voice the very music of a lie to those
+who knew the terrible brief tones it had in wrath.
+
+Long they sat, sipping the strong iced wine, toying with fruits and
+nuts, talking of State affairs, of the Pope, of Maximilian, the jousting
+Emperor,--discussing, perhaps, with a smile, his love of dress and the
+beautiful fluted armour which he first invented;--of Lewis the Eleventh
+of France, tottering to his grave, strangest compound of devotion,
+avarice and fear that ever filled a throne; of Frederick of Naples, to
+whom Caesar was to bear the crown within a few days; of Lucrezia's
+quarrel with her husband, which had brought her to Rome; and at her name
+Caesar's eyes blazed once and looked down at the strawberries on the
+silver dish, and Gandia turned pale, and felt the chill of the night
+air, and stately Vanozza rose slowly in the silence, and bade her evil
+sons good-night, for it was late.
+
+Two hours later, Gandia's thrice-stabbed corpse lay rolling and bobbing
+at the Tiber's edge, as dead things do in the water, caught by its silks
+and velvets in wild branches that dipped in the muddy stream; and the
+waning moon rose as the dawn forelightened.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM]
+
+If the secrets of old Rome could be known and told, they would fill the
+world with books. Every stone has tasted blood, every house has had its
+tragedy, every shrub and tree and blade of grass and wild flower has
+sucked life from death, and blossoms on a grave. There is no end of
+memories, in this one Region, as in all the rest. Far up by Porta Pia,
+over against the new Treasury, under a modern street, lie the bones of
+guilty Vestals, buried living, each in a little vault two fathoms deep,
+with the small dish and crust and the earthen lamp that soon flickered
+out in the close damp air; and there lies that innocent one, Domitian's
+victim, who shrank from the foul help of the headsman's hand, as her
+foot slipped on the fatal ladder, and fixed her pure eyes once upon the
+rabble, and turned and went down alone into the deadly darkness. Down by
+the Colosseum, where the ruins of Titus' Baths still stand in part,
+stood Nero's dwelling palace, above the artificial lake in which the
+Colosseum itself was built, and whose waters reflected the flames of the
+great fire. To northward, in a contrast that leaps ages, rise the huge
+walls of the Tor de' Conti, greatest of mediaeval fortresses built within
+the city, the stronghold of a dim, great house, long passed away,
+kinsmen of Innocent the Third. What is left of it helps to enclose a
+peaceful nunnery.
+
+There were other towers, too, and fortresses, though none so strong as
+that, when it faced the Colosseum, filled then by the armed thousands of
+the great Frangipani. The desolate wastes of land in the Monti were ever
+good battlefields for the nobles and the people. But the stronger and
+wiser and greater Orsini fortified themselves in the town, in Pompey's
+theatre, while the Colonna held the midst, and the popes dwelt far aloof
+on the boundary, with the open country behind them for ready escape, and
+the changing, factious, fighting city before.
+
+The everlasting struggle, the furious jealousy, the always ready knife,
+kept the Regions distinct and individual and often at enmity with each
+other, most of all Monti and Trastevere, hereditary adversaries,
+Ghibelline and Guelph. Trastevere has something of that proud and
+violent character still. Monti lost it in the short eruption of
+'progress' and 'development.' In the wild rage of speculation which
+culminated in 1889, its desolate open lands, its ancient villas and its
+strange old houses were the natural prey of a foolish greediness the
+like of which has never been seen before. Progress ate up romance, and
+hundreds of acres of wretched, cheaply built, hideous, unsafe buildings
+sprang up like the unhealthy growth of a foul disease, between the
+Lateran gate and the old inhabited districts. They are destined to a
+graceless and ignoble ruin. Ugly cracks in the miserable stucco show
+where the masonry is already parting, as the hollow foundations subside,
+and walls on which the paint is still almost fresh are shored up with
+dusty beams lest they should fall and crush the few paupers who dwell
+within. Filthy, half-washed clothes of beggars hang down from the
+windows, drying in the sun as they flap and flutter against pretentious
+moulded masks of empty plaster. Miserable children loiter in the
+high-arched gates, under which smart carriages were meant to drive, and
+gnaw their dirty fingers, or fight for a cold boiled chestnut one of
+them has saved. Squalor, misery, ruin and vile stucco, with a sprinkling
+of half-desperate humanity,--those are the elements of the modern
+picture,--that is what the 'great development' of modern Rome brought
+forth and left behind it. Peace to the past, and to its ashes of romance
+and beauty.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION II TREVI
+
+
+In Imperial times, the street now called the Tritone, from the Triton on
+the fountain in Piazza Barberini, led up from the Portico of Vipsanius
+Agrippa's sister in the modern Corso to the temple of Flora at the
+beginning of the Quattro Fontane. It was met at right angles by a long
+street leading straight from the Forum of Trajan, and which struck it
+close to the Arch of Claudius. Then, as now, this point was the meeting
+of two principal thoroughfares, and it was called Trivium, or the
+'crossroads.' Trivium turned itself into the Italian 'Trevi,' called in
+some chronicles 'the Cross of Trevi.' The Arch of Claudius carried the
+Aqua Virgo, still officially called the Acqua Vergine, across the
+highway; the water, itself, came to be called the water 'of the
+crossroads' or 'of Trevi,' and 'Trevi' gave its name at last to the
+Region, long before the splendid fountain was built in the early part of
+the last century. The device of the Region seems to have nothing to do
+with the water, except, perhaps, that the idea of a triplicity is
+preserved in the three horizontally disposed rapiers.
+
+The legend that tells how the water was discovered gave it the first
+name it bore. A detachment of Roman soldiers, marching down from
+Praeneste, or Palestrina, in the summer heat, were overcome by thirst,
+and could find neither stream nor well. A little girl, passing that way,
+led them aside from the high-road and brought them to a welling spring,
+clear and icy cold, known only to shepherds and peasants. They drank
+their fill and called it Aqua Virgo, the Maiden Water. And so it has
+remained for all ages. But it is commonly called 'Trevi' in Rome, by the
+people and by strangers, and the name has a ring of poetry, by its
+associations. For they say that whoever will go to the great fountain,
+when the high moon rays dance upon the rippling water, and drink, and
+toss a coin far out into the middle, in offering to the genius of the
+place, shall surely come back to Rome again, old or young, sooner or
+later. Many have performed the rite, some secretly, sadly, heartbroken,
+for love of Rome and what it holds, and others gayly, many together,
+laughing, while they half believe, and sometimes believing altogether
+while they laugh. And some who loved, and could meet only in Rome, have
+gone there together, and women's tears have sometimes dropped upon the
+silvered water that reflected the sad faces of grave men.
+
+The foremost memories of the past in Trevi centre about the ancient
+family of the Colonna, still numerous, distinguished and flourishing
+after a career of nearly a thousand years--longer than that, it may be,
+if one take into account the traditions of them that go back beyond the
+earliest authentic mention of their greatness; a race of singular
+independence and energy, which has given popes to Rome, and great
+patriots, and great generals as well, and neither least nor last,
+Vittoria, princess and poetess, whose name calls up the gentlest
+memories of Michelangelo's elder years.
+
+The Colonna were originally hill men. The earliest record of them tells
+that their great lands towards Palestrina were confiscated by the
+Church, in the eleventh century. The oldest of their titles is that of
+Duke of Paliano, a town still belonging to them, rising on an eminence
+out of the plain beyond the Alban hills. The greatest of their early
+fortresses was Palestrina, still the seat and title estate of the
+Barberini branch of the family. Their original stronghold in Rome was
+almost on the site of their present palace, being then situated on the
+opposite side of the Basilica of the Santi Apostoli, where the
+headquarters of the Dominicans now are, and running upwards and
+backwards, thence, to the Piazza della Pilotta; but they held Rome by a
+chain of towers and fortifications, from the Quirinal to the Mausoleum
+of Augustus, now hidden among the later buildings, between the Corso,
+the Tiber, the Via de' Pontefici and the Via de' Schiavoni. The present
+palace and the basilica stood partly upon the site of the ancient
+quarters occupied by the first Cohort of the Vigiles, or city police, of
+whom about seven thousand preserved order when the population of ancient
+Rome exceeded two millions.
+
+The 'column,' from which the Colonna take their name, is generally
+supposed to have stood in the market-place of the village of that name
+in the higher part of the Campagna, between the Alban and the Samnite
+hills, on the way to Palestrina. It is a peaceful and vine-clad country,
+now. South of it rise the low heights of Tusculum, and it is more than
+probable that the Colonna were originally descended from the great
+counts who tyrannized over Rome from that strong point of vantage and,
+through them, from Theodora Senatrix. Be that as it may, their arms
+consist of a simple column, used on a shield, or as a crest, or as the
+badge of the family, and it is found in many a threadbare tapestry, in
+many a painting, in the frescos and carved ornaments of many a dim old
+church in Rome.
+
+[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF TREVI]
+
+In their history, the first fact that stands out is their adherence to
+the Emperors, as Ghibellines, whereas their rivals, the Orsini, were
+Guelphs and supporters of the Church in most of the great contests of
+the Middle Age. The exceptions to the rule are found when the Colonna
+had a Pope of their own, or one who, like Nicholas the Fourth, was of
+their own making. 'That Pope,' says Muratori, 'had so boundlessly
+favoured the aggrandizement of the Colonna that his actions depended
+entirely upon their dictates, and a libel was published upon him,
+entitled the Source of Evil, illustrated by a caricature, in which the
+mitred head of the Pontiff was seen issuing from a tall column between
+two smaller ones, the latter intended to represent the two living
+cardinals of the house, Jacopo and Pietro.' Yet in the next reign, when
+they impeached the election of Boniface the Eighth, they found
+themselves in opposition to the Holy See, and they and theirs were
+almost utterly destroyed by the Pope's partisans and kinsmen, the
+powerful Caetani.
+
+Just before him, after the Holy See had been vacant for two years and
+nearly four months, because the Conclave of Perugia could not agree upon
+a Pope, a humble southern hermit of the Abruzzi, Pietro da Morrone, had
+been suddenly elevated to the Pontificate, to his own inexpressible
+surprise and confusion, and after a few months of honest, but utterly
+fruitless, effort to understand and do what was required of him, he had
+taken the wholly unprecedented step of abdicating the papacy. He was
+succeeded by Benedict Caetani, Boniface the Eighth, keen, learned,
+brave, unforgiving and the mortal foe of the Colonna; 'the magnanimous
+sinner,' as Gibbon quotes from a chronicle, 'who entered like a fox,
+reigned like a lion and died like a dog.' Yet the judgment is harsh, for
+though his sins were great, the expiation was fearful, and he was brave
+as few men have been.
+
+Samson slew a lion with his hands, and the Philistines with the jaw-bone
+of an ass. Men have always accepted the Bible's account of the
+slaughter. But when an ass, without the aid of any Samson, killed a lion
+in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Priori, in Florence, the event was
+looked upon as of evil portent, exceeding the laws of nature. For Pope
+Boniface had presented the Commonwealth of Florence with a young and
+handsome lion, which was chained up and kept in the court of the palace
+aforesaid. A donkey laden with firewood was driven in, and 'either from
+fear, or by a miracle,' as the chronicle says, at once assailed the lion
+with the utmost ferocity, and kicked him to death, in spite of the
+efforts of a number of men to drag the beast of burden off. Of the two
+hypotheses, the wise men of the day preferred the supernatural
+explanation, and one of them found an ancient Sibylline prophecy to the
+effect that 'when the tame beast should kill the king of beasts, the
+dissolution of the Church should begin.' Which saying, adds Villani, was
+presently fulfilled in Pope Boniface.
+
+For the Pope had a mortal quarrel with Philip the Fair of France whom he
+had promised to make Emperor, and had then passed over in favour of
+Albert, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg; and Philip made a friend and ally of
+Stephen Colonna, the head of the great house, who was then in France,
+and drove Boniface's legate out of his kingdom, and allowed the Count of
+Artois to burn the papal letters. The Pope retorted by a Major
+Excommunication, and the quarrel became furious. The Colonna being under
+his hand, Boniface vented his anger upon them, drove them from Rome,
+destroyed their houses, levelled Palestrina to the ground, and ploughed
+up the land where it had stood. The six brothers of the house were
+exiles and wanderers. Old Stephen, the idol of Petrarch, alone and
+wretched, was surrounded by highwaymen, who asked who he was. 'Stephen
+Colonna,' he answered, 'a Roman citizen.' And the thieves fell back at
+the sound of the great name. Again, someone asked him with a sneer where
+all his strongholds were, since Palestrina was gone. 'Here,' he
+answered, unmoved, and laying his hand upon his heart. Of such stuff
+were the Pope's enemies.
+
+Nor could he crush them. Boniface was of Anagni, a city of prehistoric
+walls and ancient memories which belonged to the Caetani; and there, in
+the late summer, he was sojourning for rest and country air, with his
+cardinals and his court and his kinsmen about him. Among the cardinals
+was Napoleon Orsini.
+
+[Illustration: GRAND HALL OF THE COLONNA PALACE]
+
+Then came William of Nogaret, sent by the King of France, and Sciarra
+Colonna, the boldest man of his day, and many other nobles, with three
+hundred knights and many footmen. For a long time they had secretly
+plotted a master-stroke of violence, spending money freely among the
+people, and using all persuasion to bring the country to their side, yet
+with such skill and caution that not the slightest warning reached the
+Pope's ears. In calm security he rose early on the morning of the
+seventh of September. He believed his position assured, his friends
+loyal and the Colonna ruined for ever; and Colonna was at the gate.
+
+Suddenly, from below the walls, a cry of words came up to the palace
+windows; long drawn out, distinct in the still mountain air. 'Long live
+the King of France! Death to Pope Boniface!' It was taken up by hundreds
+of voices, and repeated, loud, long and terrible, by the people of the
+town, by men going out to their work in the hills, by women loitering on
+their doorsteps, by children peering out, half frightened, from behind
+their mothers' scarlet woollen skirts, to see the armed men ride up the
+stony way. Cardinals, chamberlains, secretaries, men-at-arms, fled like
+sheep; and when Colonna reached the palace wall, only the Pope's own
+kinsmen remained within to help him as they could, barring the great
+doors and posting themselves with crossbows at the grated window. For
+the Caetani were always brave men.
+
+But Boniface knew that he was lost, and calmly, courageously, even
+grandly, he prepared to face death. 'Since I am betrayed,' he said, 'and
+am to die, I will at least die as a Pope should!' So he put on the great
+pontifical chasuble, and set the tiara of Constantine upon his head,
+and, taking the keys and the crosier in his hands, sat down on the papal
+throne to await death.
+
+The palace gates were broken down, and then there was no more
+resistance, for the defenders were few. In a moment Colonna in his
+armour stood before the Pontiff in his robes; but he saw only the enemy
+of his race, who had driven out his great kinsmen, beggars and wanderers
+on the earth, and he lifted his visor and looked long at his victim, and
+then at last found words for his wrath, and bitter reproaches and taunts
+without end and savage curses in the broad-spoken Roman tongue. And
+William of Nogaret began to speak, too, and threatened to take Boniface
+to Lyons where a council of the Church should depose him and condemn him
+to ignominy. Boniface answered that he should expect nothing better than
+to be deposed and condemned by a man whose father and mother had been
+publicly burned for their crimes. And this was true of Nogaret, who was
+no gentleman. A legend says that Colonna struck the Pope in the face,
+and that he afterwards made him ride on an ass, sitting backwards, after
+the manner of the times. But no trustworthy chronicle tells of this. On
+the contrary, no one laid hands upon him while he was kept a prisoner
+under strict watch for three days, refusing to touch food; for even if
+he could have eaten he feared poison. And Colonna tried to force him to
+abdicate, as Pope Celestin had done before him, but he refused stoutly;
+and when the three days were over, Colonna went away, driven out, some
+say, by the people of Anagni who turned against him. But that is
+absurd, for Anagni is a little place and Colonna had a strong force of
+good soldiers with him. Possibly, seeing that the old man refused to
+eat, Sciarra feared lest he should be said to have starved the Pope to
+death. They went away and left him, carrying off his treasures with
+them, and he returned to Rome, half mad with anger, and fell into the
+hands of the Orsini cardinals, who judged him not sane and kept him a
+prisoner at the Vatican, where he died soon afterwards, consumed by his
+wrath. And before long the Colonna had their own again and rebuilt
+Palestrina and their palace in Rome.
+
+Twenty-five years later they were divided against each other, in the
+wild days when Lewis the Bavarian, excommunicated and at war with the
+Pope, was crowned and consecrated Emperor, by the efforts of an
+extraordinary man of genius, Castruccio degli Interminelli, known better
+as Castruccio Castracane, the Ghibelline lord of Lucca who made Italy
+ring with his deeds for twenty years, and died of a fever, in the height
+of his success and glory, at the age of forty-seven years. Sciarra
+Colonna was for him and for Lewis. Stephen, head of the house, was
+against them, and in those days when Rome was frantic for an Emperor,
+Stephen's son Jacopo had the quiet courage to bring out the Bull of
+Excommunication against the chosen Emperor and nail it to the door of
+San Marcello, in the Corso, in the heart of Rome and in the sight of a
+thousand angry men, in protest against what they meant to do--against
+what was doing even at that moment. And he reached Palestrina in safety,
+shaking the dust of Rome from his feet.
+
+But on that bright winter's day, Lewis of Bavaria and his queen rode
+down from Santa Maria Maggiore by the long and winding ways towards
+Saint Peter's. The streets were all swept and strewn with yellow sand
+and box leaves and myrtle that made the air fragrant, and from every
+window and balcony gorgeous silks and tapestries were hung, and even
+ornaments of gold and silver and jewels. Before the procession rode
+standard-bearers, four for each Region, on horses most richly
+caparisoned. There rode Sciarra Colonna, and beside him, for once in
+history, Orsino Orsini, and others, all dressed in cloth of gold, and
+Castruccio Castracane, wearing that famous sword which in our own times
+was offered by Italy to King Victor Emmanuel; and many other Barons rode
+there in splendid array, and there was great concourse of the people. So
+they came to Saint Peter's; and because the Count of the Lateran should
+by right have been the Emperor's sponsor at the anointing, and had left
+Rome in anger and disdain, Lewis made Castruccio a knight of the Empire
+and Count of the Lateran in his stead, and sponsor; and two
+excommunicated Bishops consecrated the Emperor, and anointed him, and
+Sciarra Colonna crowned him and his queen. After which they feasted in
+the evening at the Aracoeli, and slept in the Capitol, because they
+were all weary with the long ceremony, and it was too late to go home.
+The chronicler's comment is curious. 'Note,' he says, 'what presumption
+was this, of the aforesaid damned Bavarian, such as thou shalt not find
+in any ancient or recent history; for never did any Christian Emperor
+cause himself to be crowned save by the Pope or his legate, even though
+opposed to the Church, neither before then nor since, except this
+Bavarian.' But Sciarra and Castruccio had their way, and Lewis did what
+even Napoleon, master of the world by violent chance, would not do. And
+twenty years later, in the same chronicle, it is told how 'Lewis of
+Bavaria, who called himself Emperor, fell with his horse, and was killed
+suddenly, without penitence, excommunicated and damned by Holy Church.'
+It is a curious coincidence that Boniface the Eighth, Sciarra's
+prisoner, and Lewis the Bavarian, whom he crowned Emperor, both died on
+the eleventh of October, according to most authorities.
+
+The Senate of Rome had dwindled to a pitiable office, held by one man.
+At or about this time, the Colonna and the Orsini agreed by a compromise
+that there should be two, chosen from their two houses. The Popes were
+in Avignon, and men who could make Emperors were more than able to do as
+they pleased with a town of twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants, so
+long as the latter had no leader. One may judge of what Rome was, when
+even pilgrims did not dare to go thither and visit the tomb of Saint
+Peter. The discord of the great houses made Rienzi's life a career; the
+defection of the Orsini from the Pope's party led to his flight; their
+battles suggested to the exiled Pope the idea of sending him back to
+Rome to break their power and restore a republic by which the Pope might
+restore himself; and the rage of their retainers expended itself in his
+violent death. For it was their retainers who fought for their masters,
+till the younger Stephen Colonna killed Bertoldo Orsini, the bravest man
+of his day, in an ambush, and the Orsini basely murdered a boy of the
+Colonna on the steps of a church. But Rienzi was of another Region, of
+the Regola by the Tiber, and it is not yet time to tell his story. And
+by and by, as the power of the Popes rose and they became again as the
+Caesars had been, Colonna and Orsini forgot their feuds, and were glad to
+stand on the Pope's right and left as hereditary 'Assistants of the Holy
+See.' In the petty ending of all old greatnesses in modern times, the
+result of the greatest feud that ever made two races mortal foes is
+merely that no prudent host dare ask the heads of the two houses to
+dinner together, lest a question of precedence should arise, such as no
+master of ceremonies would presume to settle. That is what it has come
+to. Once upon a time an Orsini quarrelled with a Colonna in the Corso,
+just where Aragno's cafe is now situated, and ran him through with his
+rapier, wounding him almost to death. He was carried into the palace of
+the Theodoli, close by, and the records of that family tell that within
+the hour eight hundred of the Colonna's retainers were in the house to
+guard him. In as short space, the Orsini called out three thousand men
+in arms, when Caesar Borgia's henchman claimed the payment of a tax.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Times have changed since then. The Mausoleum of Augustus, once a
+fortress, has been an open air theatre in our time, and there the great
+Salvini and Ristori often acted in their early youth; it is a circus
+now. And in less violent contrast, but with change as great from what it
+was, the palace of the Colonna suggests no thought of defence nowadays,
+and the wide gates and courtyard recall rather the splendours of the
+Constable and of his wife, Maria Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin,
+than the fiercer days when Castracane was Sciarra's guest on the other
+side of the church.
+
+The Basilica of the Apostles is said to have been built by Pelagius the
+First, who was made Pope in the year 555, and who dedicated it to Saint
+Philip and Saint James. Recent advances in the study of archaeology make
+it seem more than probable that he adapted for the purpose a part of the
+ancient barracks of the Vigiles, of which the central portion appears
+almost to coincide with the present church, at a somewhat different
+angle; and in the same way it is likely that the remains of the north
+wing were rebuilt at a later period by the Colonna as a fortified
+palace. In those times men would not have neglected to utilize the
+massive substructures and walls. However that may be, the Colonna dwelt
+there at a very early date, and in eight hundred years or more have only
+removed their headquarters from one side of the church to the other. The
+latter has been changed and rebuilt, and altered again, like most of the
+great Roman sanctuaries, till it bears no resemblance to the original
+building. The present church is distinctly ugly, with the worst defects
+of the early eighteenth century; and that age was as deficient in
+cultivated taste as it was abhorrent of natural beauty. Some fragments
+of the original frescos that adorned the apse are now preserved in a
+hall behind the main Sacristy of Saint Peter's. Against the flat walls,
+under the inquisition of the crudest daylight, the fragments of Melozzo
+da Forli's masterpiece are masterpieces still; the angelic faces,
+imprisoned in a place not theirs, reflect the sadness of art's
+captivity; and the irretrievable destruction of an inimitable past
+excites the pity and resentment of thoughtful men. The attempt to outdo
+the works of the great has exhibited the contemptible imbecility of the
+little, and the coarse-grained vanity of Clement the Eleventh has
+parodied the poetry of art in the bombastic prose of a vulgar tongue.
+Pope Pelagius took for his church the pillars and marbles of Trajan's
+Forum, in the belief that his acts were acceptable to God; but Clement
+had no such excuse, and the edifice which was a monument of faith has
+given place to the temple of a monumental vanity.
+
+[Illustration: FORUM OF TRAJAN]
+
+It is remarkable that the Colonna rarely laid their dead in the Church
+of the Apostles, for it was virtually theirs by right of immediate
+neighbourhood, and during their domination they could easily have
+assumed actual possession of it as a private property. A very curious
+custom, which survived in the sixteenth century, and perhaps much later,
+bears witness to the close connection between their family and the
+church. At that time a gallery existed, accessible from the palace and
+looking down into the basilica, so that the family could assist at Mass
+without leaving their dwelling.
+
+On the afternoon of the first of May, which is the traditional feast of
+this church, the poor of the neighbourhood assembled within. The windows
+of the palace gallery were then thrown open and a great number of fat
+fowls were thrown alive to the crowd, turkeys, geese and the like, to
+flutter down to the pavement and be caught by the luckiest of the people
+in a tumultuous scramble. When this was over, a young pig was swung out
+and lowered in slings by a purchase of which the block was seized to a
+roof beam. When just out of reach the rope was made fast, and the most
+active of the men jumped for the animal from below, till one was
+fortunate enough to catch it with his hands, when the rope was let go,
+and he carried off the prize. The custom was evidently similar to that
+of climbing the May-pole, which was set up on the same day in the Campo
+Vaccino. May-day was one of the oldest festivals of the Romans, for it
+was sacred to the tutelary Lares, or spirits of ancestors, and was kept
+holy, both publicly by the whole city as the habitation of the Roman
+people, and by each family in its private dwelling. It is of Aryan
+origin and is remembered in one way or another by all Aryan races in our
+own time, and it is not surprising that in the general conversion of
+Paganism to Christianity a new feast should have been intentionally made
+to coincide with an old one; but it is hard to understand the lack of
+all reverence for sacred places which could admit such a scene as the
+scrambling for live fowls and pigs in honour of the twelve Apostles, a
+pious exercise which is perhaps paralleled, though assuredly not
+equalled, in crudeness, by the old Highland custom of smoking tobacco in
+kirk throughout the sermon.
+
+At the very time when we have historical record of a Pope's presence as
+an amused spectator of the proceedings, Michelangelo had lately painted
+the ceiling of the Sixtine chapel, and had not yet begun his Last
+Judgment; and 'Diva' Vittoria Colonna, not yet the friend of his later
+years, was perhaps even then composing those strangely passionate
+spiritual sonnets which appeal to the soul through the heart, by the
+womanly pride that strove to make the heart subject to the soul.
+
+The commonplace romance which has represented Vittoria Colonna and
+Michelangelo as in love with each other is as unworthy of both as it is
+wholly without foundation. They first met nine years before her death,
+when she was almost fifty and he was already sixty-four. She had then
+been widowed twelve years, and it was long since she had refused in
+Naples the princely suitors who made overtures for her hand. The true
+romance of her life was simpler, nobler and more enduring, for it began
+when she was a child, and it ended when she breathed her last in the
+house of Giuliano Cesarini, the kinsman of her people, whose descendant
+married her namesake in our own time.
+
+At the age of four, Vittoria was formally betrothed to Francesco
+d'Avalos, heir of Pescara, one of that fated race whose family history
+has furnished matter for more than one stirring tale. Vittoria was born
+in Marino, the Roman town and duchy which still gives its title to
+Prince Colonna's eldest son, and she was brought up in Rome and Naples,
+of which latter city her father was Grand Constable. Long before she was
+married, she saw her future husband and loved him at first sight, as
+she loved him to her dying day, so that although even greater offers
+were made for her, she steadfastly refused to marry any other man. They
+were united when she was seventeen years old, he loved her devotedly,
+and they spent many months together almost without other society in the
+island of Ischia. The Emperor Charles the Fifth was fighting his
+lifelong fight with Francis the First of France. Colonna and Pescara
+were for the Empire, and Francesco d'Avalos joined the imperial army; he
+was taken prisoner at Ravenna and carried captive to France; released,
+he again fought for Charles, who offered him the crown of the kingdom of
+Naples; but he refused it, and still he fought on, to fall at last at
+Pavia, in the strength of his mature manhood, and to die of his wounds
+in Milan when Vittoria was barely five and thirty years of age, still
+young, surpassingly beautiful, and gifted as few women have ever been.
+What their love was, their long correspondence tells,--a love passionate
+as youth and enduring as age, mutual, whole and faithful. For many years
+the heartbroken woman lived in Naples, where she had been most happy,
+feeding her soul with fire and tears. At last she returned to Rome, to
+her own people, in her forty-ninth year. There she was visited by the
+old Emperor for whom her husband had given his life, and there she met
+Michelangelo.
+
+It was natural enough that they should be friends. It is monstrous to
+suppose them lovers. The melancholy of their natures drew them together,
+and the sympathy of their tastes cemented the bond. To the woman-hating
+man of genius, this woman was a revelation and a wonder; to the great
+princess in her perpetual sorrow the greatest of creative minds was a
+solace and a constant intellectual delight. Their friendship was mutual,
+fitting and beautiful, which last is more than can be said for the
+absurd stories about their intercourse which are extant in print and
+have been made the subject of imaginary pictures by more than one
+painter. The tradition that they used to meet often in the little Church
+of Saint Sylvester, behind the Colonna gardens, rests upon the fact that
+they once held a consultation there in the presence of Francesco
+d'Olanda, a Portuguese artist, when Vittoria was planning the Convent of
+Saint Catherine, which she afterwards built not very far away. The truth
+is that she did not live in the palace of her kinsfolk after her return
+to Rome, but most probably in the convent attached to the other and
+greater Church of Saint Sylvester which stands in the square of that
+name not far from the Corso. The convent itself is said to have been
+originally built for the ladies of the Colonna who took the veil, and
+was only recently destroyed to make room for the modern Post-office, the
+church itself having passed into the hands of the English. The
+coincidence of the two churches being dedicated to the same saint
+doubtless helped the growth of the unjust fable. But in an age of great
+women, in the times of Lucrezia Borgia, great and bad, of Catherine
+Sforza, great and warlike, Vittoria Colonna was great and good; and the
+ascetic Michelangelo, discovering in her the realization of an ideal,
+laid at her feet the homage of a sexagenarian's friendship.
+
+In the battle of the archaeologists the opposing forces traverse and
+break ground, and rush upon each other again, 'hurtling together like
+wild boars,'--as Mallory describes the duels of his knights,--and when
+learned doctors disagree it is not the province of a searcher after
+romance to attempt a definition of exact truths. 'Some romances
+entertain the genius,' quotes Johnson, 'and strengthen it by the noble
+ideas which they give of things; but they corrupt the truth of history.'
+
+Professor Lanciani, who is probably the greatest authority, living or
+dead, on Roman antiquities, places the site of the temple of the Sun in
+the Colonna gardens, and another writer compares the latter to the
+hanging gardens of Babylon, supported entirely on ancient arches and
+substructures rising high above the natural soil below. But before
+Aurelian erected the splendid building to record his conquest of
+Palmyra, the same spot was the site of the 'Little Senate,' instituted
+by Elagabalus in mirthful humour, between an attack of sacrilegious
+folly and a fit of cruelty.
+
+The 'Little Senate' was a woman's senate; in other words, it was a
+regular assembly of the fashionable Roman matrons of the day, who met
+there in hours of idleness under the presidency of the Emperor's mother,
+Semiamira. AElius Lampridius, quoted by Baracconi, has a passage about
+it. 'From this Senate,' he says, 'issued the absurd laws for the
+matrons, entitled Semiamiran Senatorial Decrees, which determined for
+each matron how she might dress, to whom she must yield precedence, by
+whom she might be kissed, deciding which ladies might drive in chariots,
+and which in carts, and whether the latter should be drawn by
+caparisoned horses, or by asses, or by mules, or oxen; who should be
+allowed to be carried in a litter or a chair, which might be of leather
+or of bone with fittings of ivory or of silver, as the case might be;
+and it was even determined which ladies might wear shoes adorned only
+with gold, and which might have gems set in their boots.' Considering
+how little human nature has changed in eighteen hundred years it is easy
+enough to imagine what the debates in the 'Little Senate' must have been
+with Semiamira in the chair ruling everything 'out of order' which did
+not please her capricious fancy: the shrill discussions about a
+fashionable head-dress, the whispered intrigues for a jewel-studded
+slipper, the stormy divisions on the question of gold hairpins, and the
+atmosphere of beauty, perfumes, gossip, vanity and all feminine
+dissension. But the 'Little Senate' was short-lived.
+
+Some fifty years after Elagabalus, Aurelian triumphed over Zenobia of
+Palmyra, and built his temple of the Sun. That triumph was the finest
+sight, perhaps, ever seen in imperial Rome. Twenty richly caparisoned
+elephants and two hundred captive wild beasts led the immense
+procession; eight hundred pairs of gladiators came next, the glory and
+strength of fighting manhood, with all their gleaming arms and
+accoutrements, marching by the huge Flavian Amphitheatre, where sooner
+or later they must fight each other to the death; then countless
+captives of the East and South and West and North, Syrian nobles, Gothic
+warriors, Persian dignitaries beside Frankish chieftains, and Tetricus,
+the great Gallic usurper, in the attire of his nation, with his young
+son whom he had dared to make a Senator in defiance of the Empire. Three
+royal equipages followed, rich with silver, gold and precious stones,
+one of them Zenobia's own, and she herself seated therein, young,
+beautiful, proud and vanquished, loaded from head to foot with gems,
+most bitterly against her will, her hands and feet bound with a golden
+chain, and about her neck another, long and heavy, of which the end was
+held by a Persian captive who walked beside the chariot and seemed to
+lead her. Then Aurelian, the untiring conqueror, in the car of the
+Gothic king, drawn by four great stags, which he himself was to
+sacrifice to Jove that day according to his vow, and a long line of
+wagons loaded down and groaning under the weight of the vast spoil; the
+Roman army, horse and foot, the Senate and the people, a million,
+perhaps, all following the indescribable magnificence of the great
+triumph, along the Sacred Way, that was yellow with fresh strewn sand
+and sweet with box and myrtle.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF HADRIAN'S VILLA AT TIVOLI]
+
+But when it was over, Aurelian, who was generous when he was not
+violent, honoured Zenobia and endowed her with great fortune, and she
+lived for many years as a Roman Matron in Hadrian's villa at Tivoli. And
+the Emperor made light of the 'Little Senate' and built his Sun temple
+on the spot, with singular magnificence, enriching its decoration with
+pearls and precious stones and with fifteen thousand pounds in weight of
+pure gold. Much of that temple was still standing in the seventeenth
+century and was destroyed by Urban the Eighth, the Pope who built the
+heavy round tower on the south side of the Quirinal palace, facing Monte
+Cavallo.
+
+Monte Cavallo itself was a part of the Colonna villa, and its name, only
+recently changed to Piazza del Quirinale, was given to it by the great
+horses that stand on each side of the fountain, and which were found
+long ago, according to tradition, between the Palazzo Rospigliosi and
+the Palazzo della Consulta. In the times of Sixtus the Fifth, they were
+in a pitiable state, their forelegs and tails gone, their necks broken,
+their heads propped up by bits of masonry. When he finished the Quirinal
+palace he restored them and set them up, side by side, before the
+entrance, and when Pius the Sixth changed their position and turned them
+round, the ever conservative and ever discontented Roman people were
+disgusted by the change. On the pedestal of one of them are the words,
+'Opus Phidiae,' 'the work of Phidias,' A punning placard was at once
+stuck upon the inscription with the legend, 'Opus Perfidiae Pii
+Sexti'--'the work of perfidy of Pius the Sixth.'
+
+The Quirinal palace cannot be said to have played a part in the history
+of Rome. Its existence is largely due to the common sense of Sixtus the
+Fifth, and to his love of good air. He was a shepherd by birth, and it
+is recorded that the first of his bitter disappointments was that the
+farmer whom he served set him to feed the pigs because he could not
+learn how to drive sheep to pasture; a disgrace which ultimately made
+him run away, when he fell in with a monk whose face he liked. He
+informed the astonished father that he meant to follow him everywhere,
+'to Hell, if he chose,'--which was a forcible if not a pious
+resolution,--and explained that the pigs would find their way home
+alone. Later, when he had quarrelled with all the monks in Naples,
+including his superiors, he came to Rome, and, being by that time very
+learned, he was employed to expound the 'Formalities' of Scotus to the
+'Signor' Marcantonio Colonna, abbot of the Monastery of the Apostles;
+and there he resided as a guest for a long time till his brilliant pupil
+was himself master of the subject, as well as a firm friend of the
+quarrelsome monk; and in their intercourse the seeds were no doubt sown
+of that implacable hatred against the Orsini which, under the great and
+just provocation of a kinsman's murder, ended in the exile and temporary
+ruin of the Colonna's rivals. No doubt, also, the abbot and the monk
+often strolled together in the Colonna gardens, and the future Pope
+breathed the high air of the Quirinal hill with a sense of relief, and
+dreamed of living up there, far above the city, literally in an
+atmosphere of his own. Therefore, when he was Pope, he made the great
+palace that crowns the eminence, completing and extending a much smaller
+building planned by the wise Gregory the Thirteenth, and ever since
+then, until 1870, the Popes lived there during some part of the year. It
+is modern, as age is reckoned in Rome, and it has modern associations in
+the memory of living men.
+
+It was from the great balcony of the Quirinal that Pius the Ninth
+pronounced his famous benediction to an enthusiastic and patriotic
+multitude in 1846. It will be remembered that a month after his
+election, Pius proclaimed a general amnesty in favour of all persons
+imprisoned for political crimes, and a decree by which all criminal
+prosecutions for political offences should be immediately discontinued,
+unless the persons accused were ecclesiastics, soldiers, or servants of
+the government, or criminals in the universal sense of the word.
+
+The announcement was received with a frenzy of enthusiasm, and Rome went
+mad with delight. Instinctively, the people began to move towards the
+Quirinal from all parts of the city, as soon as the proclamation was
+published; the stragglers became a band, and swelled to a crowd; music
+was heard, flags appeared and the crowd swelled to a multitude that
+thronged the streets, singing, cheering and shouting for joy as they
+pushed their way up to the palace, filling the square, the streets that
+led to it and the Via della Dateria below it, to overflowing. In answer
+to this popular demonstration the Pope appeared upon the great balcony
+above the main entrance; a shout louder than all the rest burst from
+below, the long drawn 'Viva!' of the southern races; he lifted his
+hand, and there was silence; and in the calm summer air his quiet eyes
+were raised towards the sky as he imparted his benediction to the people
+of Rome.
+
+Twenty-four years later, when the Italians had taken Rome, a detachment
+of soldiers accompanied by a smith and his assistants marched up to the
+same gate. Not a soul was within, and they had instructions to enter and
+take possession of the palace. In the presence of a small and silent
+crowd of sullen-looking men of the people, the doors were forced.
+
+The difference between Unity under Augustus and Unity under Victor
+Emmanuel is that under the Empire the Romans took Italy, whereas under
+the Kingdom the Italians have taken Rome. Without pretending that there
+can be any moral distinction between the two, one may safely admit that
+there is a great and vital one between the two conditions of Rome, at
+the two periods of history, a distinction no less than that which
+separates the conqueror from the conquered, and the fruits of conquest
+from the consequences of subjection. But thinking men do not forget that
+they look at the past in one way and at the present in another; and that
+while the actions of a nation are dictated by the impulses of contagious
+sentiment, the judgments of history are too often based upon an all but
+commercial reckoning and balancing of profit and loss.
+
+When Sixtus the Fifth was building the Quirinal palace, he was not
+working in a wilderness resembling the deserted fields of the outlying
+Monti. The hill was covered with gardens and villas. Ippolito d'Este,
+the son of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, and of Lucrezia Borgia, had built
+himself a residence on the west side of the hill, surrounded by gardens.
+It was in the manner of his magnificent palace at Tivoli, that Villa
+d'Este of which the melancholy charm had such a mysterious attraction
+for Liszt, where the dark cypresses reflect their solemn beauty in the
+stagnant water, and a weed-grown terrace mourns the dead artist in the
+silence of decay.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DEL QUIRINALE]
+
+Further on, along the Via Venti Settembre, stretched the pleasure
+grounds of Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, who is remembered as the man who
+first recognized the merits of the beautiful mutilated group
+subsequently known as 'Pasquino,' and set it upon the pedestal which
+made it famous, and gave its name a place in all languages, by the witty
+lampoons and stinging satires almost daily affixed to the block of
+stone. Many other villas followed in the same direction, and in those
+insecure days not a few Romans, when the summer days grew hot, were
+content to move up from their palaces in the lower parts of the city to
+breathe the somewhat better air of the Quirinal and the Esquiline,
+instead of risking a journey to the country.
+
+Sixtus the Fifth died in the Quirinal palace, and twenty-one other Popes
+have died there since, all following the curious custom of bequeathing
+their hearts and viscera to the parish Church of the Saints Vincent and
+Anastasius, which is known as the Church of Cardinal Mazarin, because
+the tasteless front was built by him, though the rest existed much
+earlier. It stands opposite the fountain of Trevi, at one corner of the
+little square; the vault in which the urns were placed is just behind
+and below the high altar; but Benedict the Fourteenth built a special
+monument for them on the left of the apse, and a tablet on the right
+records the names of the Popes who left these strange legacies to the
+church.
+
+In passing, one may remember that Mazarin himself was born in the Region
+of Trevi, the son of a Sicilian,--like Crispi and Rudini. His father was
+employed at first as a butler and then as a steward by the Colonna,
+married an illegitimate daughter of the family, and lived to see his
+granddaughter, Maria Mancini, married to the head of the house, and his
+son a cardinal and despot of France, and himself, after the death of his
+first wife, the honoured husband of Porzia Orsini, so that he was the
+only man in history who was married both to an Orsini and to a Colonna.
+In the light of his father's extraordinary good fortune, the success of
+the son, though not less great, is at least less astonishing. The
+magnificent Rospigliosi palace, often ascribed by a mistake to Cardinal
+Scipio Borghese, was the Palazzo Mazarini and Mazarin's father died
+there; it was inherited by the Dukes of Nevers, through another niece of
+the Cardinal's, and was bought from them between 1667 and 1670, by
+Prince Rospigliosi, brother of Pope Clement the Ninth, then reigning.
+
+Urban the Eighth, the Barberini Pope, had already left his mark on the
+Quirinal hill. The great Barberini palace was built by him, it is said,
+of stones taken from the Colosseum, whereupon a Pasquinade announced
+that 'the Barberini had done what the Barbarians had not.' The
+Barbarians did not pull down the Colosseum, it is true, but they could
+assuredly not have built as Urban did, and in that particular instance,
+without wishing to justify the vandalisms of the centuries succeeding
+the Renascence, it may well be asked whether the Amphitheatre is not
+more picturesque in its half-ruined state, as it stands, and whether the
+city is not richer by a great work of art in the princely dwelling which
+faces the street of the Four Fountains.
+
+Among the many memories of the Quirinal there is one more mysterious
+than the rest. The great Baths of Constantine extended over the site of
+the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and the ruins were in part standing at the end
+of the sixteenth century. It is related by a writer of those days and an
+eye-witness of the fact, that a vault was discovered beneath the old
+baths, about eighty feet long by twenty wide, closed at one end by a
+wall thrown up with evident haste and lack of skill, and completely
+filled with human bodies that fell to dust at the first touch, evidently
+laid there all at the same time, just after death, and probably
+numbering at least a thousand. In vain one conjectures the reason of
+such wholesale burial--one of Nero's massacres, perhaps, or a plague. No
+one can tell.
+
+The invaluable Baracconi, often quoted, recalls the fact that Tasso,
+when a child, lived with his father in some house on the Monte Cavallo,
+when the execrable Carafa cardinal and his brother had temporarily
+succeeded in seizing all the Colonna property; and he gives a letter of
+Bernardo, the poet's father, written in July to his wife, who was away
+just then.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA BARBERINI]
+
+'I do not wish the children to go to the vineyard because they get too
+hot, and the air is bad there this summer, but in order that they may
+have a change, I took steps to have the use of the Boccaccio Vineyard
+[Villa Colonna], and the Duke of Paliano [then a Carafa, for the latter
+had stolen the title as well as the lands] has let me have it, and we
+have been here a week and shall stay all summer in this good air.'
+
+The words call up a picture of Tasso, a small boy, pale with the heat of
+a Roman summer, but restless and for ever running about, overheated and
+catching cold like all delicate children, which brings the unhappy poet
+a little nearer to us.
+
+Of those great villas and gardens there remain the Colonna, the
+Rospigliosi and the Quirinal, by far the largest of the three, and
+enclosing between four walls an area almost, if not quite, equal to the
+Pincio. The great palace where twenty-two popes died is inhabited by the
+royal family of Italy and crowns the height, as the Vatican, far away
+across the Tiber, is also on an eminence of its own. They face each
+other, like two principles in natural and eternal opposition,--Rome the
+conqueror of the world, and Italy the conqueror of Rome. And he who
+loves the land for its own sake can only pray that if they must oppose
+each other for ever in heart, they may abide in that state of civilized
+though unreconciled peace, which is the nation's last and only hope of
+prosperity.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION III COLONNA
+
+
+When the present Queen of Italy first came to Rome as Princess Margaret,
+and drove through the city to obtain a general impression of it, she
+reached the Piazza Colonna and asked what the column might be which is
+the most conspicuous landmark in that part of Rome and gives a name to
+the square, and to the whole Region. The answer of the elderly officer
+who accompanied the Princess and her ladies is historical. 'That
+column,' he answered, 'is the Column of Piazza Colonna'--'the Column of
+Column Square,' as we might say--and that was all he could tell
+concerning it, for his business was not archaeology, but soldiering. The
+column was erected by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, whose equestrian
+statue stands on the Capitol, to commemorate his victory over the
+Marcomanni.
+
+[Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS]
+
+It is remarkable that so many of the monuments still preserved
+comparatively intact should have been set up by the adoptive line of the
+so-called Antonines, from Trajan to Marcus Aurelius, and that the two
+monster columns, the one in Piazza Colonna and the one in Trajan's
+Forum, should be the work of the last and the first of those emperors,
+respectively. Among other memorials of them are the Colosseum, the Arch
+of Titus and the statue mentioned above. The lofty Septizonium is
+levelled to the ground, the Palaces of the Caesars are a mountain of
+ruins, the triumphal arches of Marcus Aurelius and of Domitian have
+disappeared with those of Gratian, of Valens, of Arcadius and of many
+others; but the two gigantic columns still stand erect with their
+sculptured tales of victory and triumph almost unbroken, surmounted by
+the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, whose memory was sacred to
+all Christians long before the monuments were erected, and to whom,
+respectively, they have been dedicated by a later age.
+
+There may have been a connection, too, in the minds of the people,
+between the 'Column of Piazza Colonna' and the Column of the Colonna
+family, since a great part of this Region had fallen under the
+domination of the noble house, and was held by them with a chain of
+towers and fortifications; but the pillar which is the device of the
+Region terminates in the statue of the Apostle Peter, whereas the one
+which figures in the shield of Colonna is crowned with a royal crown, in
+memory of the coronation of Lewis the Bavarian by Sciarra, who himself
+generally lived in a palace facing the small square which bears his
+name, and which is only a widening of the Corso just north of San
+Marcello, the scene of Jacopo Colonna's brave protest against his
+kinsman's mistaken imperialism.
+
+The straight Corso itself, or what is the most important part of it to
+Romans, runs through the Region from San Lorenzo in Lucina to Piazza di
+Sciarra, and beyond that, southwards, it forms the western boundary of
+Trevi as far as the Palazzo di Venezia, and the Ripresa de' Barberi--the
+'Catching of the Racers.' West of the Corso, the Region takes in the
+Monte Citorio and the Piazza of the Pantheon, but not the Pantheon
+itself, and eastwards it embraces the new quarter which was formerly the
+Villa Ludovisi, and follows the Aurelian wall, from Porta Salaria to
+Porta Pinciana. Corso means a 'course,' and the Venetian Paul the
+Second, who found Rome dull compared with Venice, gave it the name when
+he made it a race-course for the Carnival, towards the close of the
+fifteenth century. Before that it was Via Lata,--'Broad Street,'--and
+was a straight continuation of the Via Flaminia, the main northern
+highway from the city. For centuries it has been the chief playground of
+the Roman Carnival, a festival of which, perhaps, nothing but the memory
+will remain in a few years, when the world will wonder how it could be
+possible that the population of the grave old city should have gone mad
+each year for ten days and behaved itself by day and night like a crowd
+of schoolboys let loose.
+
+'Carnival' is supposed to be derived from 'Carnelevamen,' a 'solace for
+the flesh.' Byron alone is responsible for the barbarous derivation
+'Carne Vale,' farewell meat--a philological impossibility. In the minds
+of the people it is probably most often translated as 'Meat Time,' a
+name which had full meaning in times when occasional strict fasting and
+frequent abstinence were imposed on Romans almost by law. Its beginnings
+are lost in the dawnless night of time--of Time, who was Kronos, of
+Kronos who was Saturn, of Saturn who gave his mysterious name to the
+Saturnalia in which Carnival had its origin. His temple stood at the
+foot of the Capitol hill, facing the corner of the Forum, and there are
+remains of it today, tall columns in a row, with architrave and frieze
+and cornice; from the golden milestone close at hand, as from the
+beginning of time, were measured the ways of the world to the ends of
+the earth; and the rites performed within it were older than any others,
+and different, for here the pious Roman worshipped with uncovered head,
+whereas in all other temples he drew up his robes as a veil lest any
+sight of evil omen should meet his eyes, and here waxen tapers were
+first burned in Rome in honour of a god. And those same tapers played a
+part, to the end, on the last night of Carnival. But in the coincidence
+of old feasts with new ones, the festival of Lupercus falls nearer to
+the time of Ash Wednesday, for the Lupercalia were celebrated on the
+fifteenth of February, whereas the Carnival of Saturn began on the
+seventeenth of December.
+
+Lupercus was but a little god, yet he was great among the shepherds in
+Rome's pastoral beginnings, for he was the driver away of wolves, and on
+his day the early settlers ran round and round their sheepfold on the
+Palatine, all dressed in skins of fresh-slain goats, praising the Faun
+god, and calling upon him to protect their flocks. And in truth, as the
+winter, when wolves are hungry and daring, was over, his protection was
+a foregone conclusion till the cold days came again. The grotto
+dedicated to him was on the northwest slope of the Palatine, nearly
+opposite the Church of Saint George in Velabro, across the Via di San
+Teodoro; and all that remains of the great festival in which Mark Antony
+and the rest ran like wild men through the streets of Rome, smiting men
+and women with the purifying leathern thong, and offering at last that
+crown which Caesar thrice refused, is merged and forgotten, with the
+Saturnalia, in the ten days' feasting and rioting that change to the
+ashes and sadness of Lent, as the darkest night follows the brightest
+day. For the Romans always loved strong contrasts.
+
+Carnival, in the wider sense, begins at Christmas and ends when Lent
+begins; but to most people it means but the last ten days of the season,
+when festivities crowd upon each other till pleasure fights for minutes
+as for jewels; when tables are spread all night and lights are put out
+at dawn; when society dances itself into distraction and poor men make
+such feasting as they can; when no one works who can help it, and no
+work done is worth having, because it is done for double price and half
+its value; when affairs of love are hastened to solution or catastrophe,
+and affairs of state are treated with the scorn they merit in the eyes
+of youth, because the only sense is laughter, and the only wisdom,
+folly. That is Carnival, personified by the people as a riotous old
+red-cheeked, bottle-nosed hunchback, animated by the spirit of fun.
+
+In a still closer sense, Carnival is the Carnival in the Corso, or was;
+for it is dead beyond resuscitation, and such efforts as are made to
+give it life again are but foolish incantations that call up sad ghosts
+of joy, spiritless and witless. But within living memory, it was very
+different. In those days which can never come back, the Corso was a
+sight to see and not to be forgotten. The small citizens who had small
+houses in the street let every window to the topmost story for the whole
+ten days; the rich whose palaces faced the favoured line threw open
+their doors to their friends; every window was decorated, from every
+balcony gorgeous hangings, or rich carpets, or even richer tapestries
+hung down; the street was strewn thick with yellow sand, and wheresoever
+there was an open space wooden seats were built up, row above row, where
+one might hire a place to see the show and join in throwing flowers, and
+the lime-covered 'confetti' that stung like small shot and whitened
+everything like meal, and forced everyone in the street or within reach
+of it to wear a shield of thin wire netting to guard the face, and thick
+gloves to shield the hands; or, in older times, a mask, black, white, or
+red, or modelled and painted with extravagant features, like evil beings
+in a dream.
+
+[Illustration: TWIN CHURCHES AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE CORSO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+In the early afternoon of each day except Sunday it all began, day after
+day the same, save that the fun grew wilder and often rougher as the
+doom of Ash Wednesday drew near. First when the people had gathered in
+their places, high and low, and already thronged the street from side to
+side, there was a distant rattle of scabbards and a thunder of hoofs,
+and all fell back, crowding and climbing upon one another, to let a
+score of cavalrymen trot through, clearing the way for the carriages of
+the 'Senator' and Municipality, which drove from end to end of the Corso
+with their scarlet and yellow liveries, before any other vehicles were
+allowed to pass, or any pelting with 'confetti' began. But on the
+instant when they had gone by, the showers began, right, left, upwards,
+downwards, like little storms of flowers and snow in the afternoon
+sunshine, and the whole air was filled with the laughter and laughing
+chatter of twenty thousand men and women and children--such a sound as
+could be heard nowhere else in the world. Many have heard a great host
+cheer, many have heard the battle-cries of armies, many have heard the
+terrible deep yell that goes up from an angry multitude in times of
+revolution; but only those who remember the Carnival as it used to be
+have heard a whole city laugh, and the memory is worth having, for it is
+like no other. The sound used to flow along in great waves, following
+the sights that passed, and swelling with them to a peal that was like a
+cheer, and ebbing then to a steady, even ripple of enjoyment that never
+ceased till it rose again in sheer joy of something new to see. Nothing
+can give an idea of the picture in times when Rome was still Roman; no
+power of description can call up the crowd that thronged and jammed the
+long, narrow street, till the slowly moving carriages and cars seemed to
+force their way through the stiffly packed mass of humanity as a strong
+vessel ploughs her course up-stream through packed ice in winter. Yet no
+one was hurt, and an order reigned which could never have been produced
+by any means except the most thorough good temper and the determination
+of each individual to do no harm to his neighbour, though all respect of
+individuals was as completely gone as in any anarchy of revolution. The
+more respectable a man looked who ventured into the press in ordinary
+clothes, the more certainly he became at once the general mark for
+hail-storms of 'confetti.' No uniform nor distinguishing badge was
+respected, excepting those of the squad of cavalrymen who cleared the
+way, and the liveries of the Municipality's coaches. Men and women were
+travestied and disguised in every conceivable way, as Punch and Judy, as
+judges and lawyers with enormous square black caps, black robes and
+bands, or in dresses of the eighteenth century, or as Harlequins, or
+even as bears and monkeys, singly, or in twos and threes, or in little
+companies of fifteen or twenty, all dressed precisely alike and
+performing comic evolutions with military exactness. Everyone carried a
+capacious pouch, or a fishing-basket, or some receptacle of the kind for
+the white 'confetti,' and arms and hands were ceaselessly swung in air,
+flinging vast quantities of the snowy stuff at long range and short. At
+every corner and in every side street, men sold it out of huge baskets,
+by the five, and ten, and twenty pounds, weighing it out with the
+ancient steelyard balance. Every balcony was lined with long troughs of
+it, constantly replenished by the house servants; every carriage and car
+had a full supply. And through all the air the odd, clean odour of the
+fresh plaster mingled with the fragrance of the box-leaves and the
+perfume of countless flowers. For flowers were thrown, too, in every
+way, loose and scattered, or in hard little bunches, the 'mazzetti,'
+that almost hurt when they struck the mark, and in beautiful nosegays,
+rarely flung at random when a pretty face was within sight at a window.
+The cars, often charmingly decorated, were filled with men and women
+representing some period of fashion, or some incident in history, or
+some allegorical subject, and were sometimes two or three stories high,
+and covered all over with garlands of flowers and box and myrtle. In the
+intervals between them endless open carriages moved along, lined with
+white, filled with white dominos, drawn by horses all protected and
+covered with white cotton robes, against the whiter 'confetti'--everyone
+fighting mock battles with everyone else, till it seemed impossible that
+anything could be left to throw, and the long perspective of the narrow
+street grew dim between the high palaces, and misty and purple in the
+evening light.
+
+A gun fired somewhere far away as a signal warned the carriages to turn
+out, and make way for the race that was to follow. The last moments were
+the hottest and the wildest, as flowers, 'confetti,' sugar plums with
+comet-like tails, wreaths, garlands, everything, went flying through the
+air in a final and reckless profusion, and as the last car rolled away
+the laughter and shouting ceased, and all was hushed in the expectation
+of the day's last sight. Again, the clatter of hoofs and scabbards, as
+the dragoons cleared the way; twenty thousand heads and necks craning to
+look northward, as the people pushed back to the side pavements;
+silence, and the inevitable yellow dog that haunts all race-courses,
+scampering over the white street, scared by the shouts, and catcalls,
+and bursts of spasmodic laughter; then a far sound of flying hoofs, a
+dead silence, and the quick breathing of suppressed excitement; louder
+and louder the hoofs, deader the hush; and then, in the dash of a
+second, in the scud of a storm, in a whirlwind of light and colour and
+sparkling gold leaf, with straining necks, and flashing eyes, and wide
+red nostrils flecked with foam, the racing colts flew by as fleet as
+darting lightning, riderless and swift as rock-swallows by the sea.
+
+Then, if it were the last night of Carnival, as the purple air grew
+brown in the dusk, myriads of those wax tapers first used in Saturn's
+temple of old lit up the street like magic and the last game of all
+began, for every man and woman and child strove to put out another's
+candle, and the long, laughing cry, 'No taper! No taper! Senza moccolo!'
+went ringing up to the darkling sky. Long canes with cloths or damp
+sponges or extinguishers fixed to them started up from nowhere, down
+from everywhere, from window and balcony to the street below, and from
+the street to the low balconies above. Put out at every instant, the
+little candles were instantly relighted, till they were consumed down to
+the hand; and as they burned low, another cry went up, 'Carnival is
+dead! Carnival is dead!' But he was not really dead till midnight, when
+the last play of the season had been acted in the playhouses, the last
+dance danced, the last feast eaten amid song and laughter, and the
+solemn Patarina of the Capitol tolled out the midnight warning like a
+funeral knell. That was the end.
+
+The riderless race was at least four hundred years old when it was given
+up. The horses were always called Barberi, with the accent on the first
+syllable, and there has been much discussion about the origin of the
+name. Some say that it meant horses from Barbary, but then it should be
+pronounced Barberi, accented on the penultimate. Others think it stood
+for Barbari--barbarian, that is, unridden. The Romans never misplace an
+accent, and rarely mistake the proper quantity of a syllable long or
+short. For my own part, though no scholar has as yet suggested it, I
+believe that the common people, always fond of easy witticisms and
+catchwords, coined the appellation, with an eye to the meaning of both
+the other derivations, out of Barbo, the family name of Pope Paul the
+Second, who first instituted the Carnival races, and set the winning
+post under the balcony of the huge Palazzo di Venezia, which he had
+built beside the Church of Saint Mark, to the honour and glory of his
+native city.
+
+He made men run foot-races, too: men, youths and boys, of all ages; and
+the poor Jews, in heavy cloth garments, were first fed and stuffed with
+cakes and then made to run, too. The jests of the Middle Age were savage
+compared with the roughest play of later times.
+
+The pictures of old Rome are fading fast. I can remember, when a little
+boy, seeing the great Carnival of 1859, when the Prince of Wales was in
+Rome, and the masks which had been forbidden since the revolution were
+allowed again in his honour; and before the flower throwing began, I saw
+Liszt, the pianist, not yet in orders, but dressed in a close-fitting
+and very fashionable grey frock-coat, with a grey high hat, young then,
+tall, athletic and erect; he came out suddenly from a doorway, looked to
+the right and left in evident fear of being made a mark for 'confetti,'
+crossed the street hurriedly and disappeared--not at all the
+silver-haired, priestly figure the world knew so well in later days. And
+by and by the Prince of Wales came by in a simple open carriage, a thin
+young man in a black coat, with a pale, face and a quiet smile, looking
+all about him with an almost boyish interest, and bowing to the right
+and left.
+
+Then in deep contrast of sadness, out of the past years comes a great
+funeral by night, down the Corso; hundreds of brown, white-bearded
+friars, two and two with huge wax candles, singing the ancient chant of
+the penitential psalms; hundreds of hooded lay brethren of the
+Confraternities, some in black, some in white, with round holes for
+their eyes that flashed through, now and then, in the yellow glare of
+the flaming tapers; hundreds of little street boys beside them in the
+shadow, holding up big horns of grocers' paper to catch the dripping
+wax; and then, among priests in cotta and stole, the open bier carried
+on men's shoulders, and on it the peaceful figure of a dead girl,
+white-robed, blossom crowned, delicate as a frozen flower in the cold
+winter air. She had died of an innocent love, they said, and she was
+borne in through the gates of the Santi Apostoli to her rest in the
+solemn darkness. Nor has anyone been buried in that way since then.
+
+[Illustration: SAN LORENZO IN LUCINA]
+
+In the days of Paul the Second, what might be called living Rome, taken
+in the direction of the Corso, began at the Arch of Marcus Aurelius,
+long attributed to Domitian, which stood at the corner of the small
+square called after San Lorenzo in Lucina. Beyond that point, northwards
+and eastwards, the city was a mere desert, and on the west side the
+dwelling-houses fell away towards the Mausoleum of Augustus, the
+fortress of the Colonna. The arch itself used to be called the Arch of
+Portugal, because a Portuguese Cardinal, Giovanni da Costa, lived in the
+Fiano palace at the corner of the Corso. No one would suppose that very
+modern-looking building, with its smooth front and conventional
+balconies, to be six hundred years old, the ancient habitation of all
+the successive Cardinals of Saint Lawrence. Its only other interest,
+perhaps, lies in the fact that it formed part of the great estates
+bestowed by Sixtus the Fifth on his nephews, and was nevertheless sold
+over their children's heads for debt, fifty-five years after his death.
+The swineherd's race was prodigal, excepting the 'Great Friar' himself,
+and, like the Prodigal Son, it was not long before the Peretti were
+reduced to eating the husks.
+
+It was natural that the palaces of the Renascence should rise along the
+only straight street of any length in what was then the inhabited part
+of the city, and that the great old Roman Barons, the Colonna, the
+Orsini, the Caetani, should continue to live in their strongholds, where
+they had always dwelt. The Caetani, indeed, once bought from a
+Florentine banker what is now the Ruspoli palace, and Sciarra Colonna
+had lived far down the Corso; but with these two exceptions, the
+princely habitations between the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza di
+Venezia are almost all the property of families once thought foreigners
+in Rome. The greatest, the most magnificent private dwelling in the
+world is the Doria Pamfili palace, as the Doria themselves were the most
+famous, and became the most powerful of those many nobles who, in the
+course of centuries, settled in the capital and became Romans, not only
+in name but in fact--Doria, Borghese, Rospigliosi, Pallavicini and
+others of less enduring fame or reputation, who came in the train or
+alliance of a Pope, and remained in virtue of accumulated riches and
+acquired honour.
+
+Two hundred and fifty years have passed since a council of learned
+doctors and casuists decided for Pope Innocent the Tenth the precise
+limit of his just power to enrich his nephews and relations, the
+Pamfili, by an alliance with whom the original Doria of Genoa added
+another name to their own, and inherited the vast estates. But nearly
+four hundred years before Innocent, the Doria had been high admirals and
+almost despots of Genoa. For they were a race of seamen from the first,
+in a republic where seamanship was the first essential to distinction.
+Albert Doria overcame the Pisans off Meloria in 1284, slaying five
+thousand, and taking eleven thousand prisoners. Conrad, his son, was
+'Captain of the Genoese Freedom,' and 'Captain of the People.' Lamba
+Doria vanquished the Venetians under the brave Andrea Dandolo, and
+Paganino Doria conquered them again under another Andrea Dandolo; and
+then an Andrea Doria took service with the Pope, and became the greatest
+sailor in Europe, the hero of a hundred sea-fights, at one time the ally
+of Francis the First of France, and the most dangerous opponent of
+Gonzalvo da Cordova, then high admiral of the Empire under Charles the
+Fifth, a destroyer of pirates, by turns the idol, the enemy and the
+despot of his own city, Genoa, and altogether such a type of a
+soldier-sailor of fortune as the world has not seen before or since. And
+there were others after him, notably Gian Andrea Doria, remembered by
+the great victory over the Turks at Lepanto, whence he brought home
+those gorgeous Eastern spoils of tapestry and embroideries which hang in
+the Doria palace today.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DORIA PAMFILI]
+
+The history of the palace itself is not without interest, for it shows
+how property, which was not in the possession of the original Barons,
+sometimes passed from hand to hand, changing names with each new owner,
+in the rise and fall of fortunes in those times. The first building
+seems to have belonged to the Chapter of Santa Maria Maggiore, which
+somehow ceded it to Cardinal Santorio, who spent an immense sum in
+rebuilding, extending and beautifying it. When it was almost finished,
+Julius the Second came to see it, and after expressing the highest
+admiration for the work, observed that such a habitation was less
+fitting for a prince of the church than for a secular duke--meaning, by
+the latter, his own nephew, Francesco della Rovere, then Duke of Urbino;
+and the unfortunate Santorio, who had succeeded in preserving his
+possessions under the domination of the Borgia, was forced to offer the
+most splendid palace in Rome as a gift to the person designated by his
+master. He died of a broken heart within the year. A hundred years
+later, the Florentine Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement the Eighth, bought
+it from the Dukes of Urbino for twelve thousand measures of grain,
+furnished them for the purpose by their uncle, and finally, when it had
+fallen in inheritance to Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini, Innocent the Tenth
+married her to his nephew, Camillo Pamfili, from whom, by the fusion of
+the two families, it at last came into the hands of the Doria-Pamfili.
+
+The Doria palace is almost two-thirds of the size of Saint Peter's, and
+within the ground plan of Saint Peter's the Colosseum could stand. It
+used to be said that a thousand persons lived under the roof outside of
+the gallery and the private apartments, which alone surpass in extent
+the majority of royal residences. Without some such comparison mere
+words can convey nothing to a mind unaccustomed to such size and space,
+and when the idea is grasped, one asks, naturally enough, how the people
+lived who built such houses--the people whose heirs, far reduced in
+splendour, if not in fortune, are driven to let four-fifths of their
+family mansion, because they find it impossible to occupy more rooms
+than suffice the Emperor of Germany or the Queen of England. One often
+hears foreign visitors, ignorant of the real size of palaces in Rome,
+observe, with contempt, that the Roman princes 'let their palaces.' It
+would be more reasonable to inquire what use could be made of such
+buildings, if they were not let, or how any family could be expected to
+inhabit a thousand rooms, and, ultimately, for what purpose such
+monstrous residences were ever built at all.
+
+The first thing that suggests itself in answer to the latter question as
+the cause of such boundless extravagance is the inherited giantism of
+the Latins, to which reference has been more than once made in these
+pages, and to which the existence of many of the principal buildings in
+Rome must be ascribed. Next, we may consider that at one time or
+another, each of the greater Roman palaces has been, in all essentials,
+the court of a pope or of a reigning feudal prince. Lastly, it must be
+remembered that each palace was the seat of management of all its
+owner's estates, and that such administration in those times required a
+number of scribes and an amount of labour altogether out of proportion
+with the income derived from the land.
+
+At first sight the study of Italian life in the Middle Age does not seem
+very difficult, because it is so interesting. But when one has read the
+old chronicles that have survived, and the histories of those times, one
+is amazed to see how much we are told about people and their actions,
+and how very little about the way in which people lived. It is easier to
+learn the habits of the Egyptians, or the Greeks, or the ancient Romans,
+or the Assyrians, than to get at the daily life of an Italian family
+between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, from such books as we
+have. There are two reasons for this. One is the scarcity of literature,
+excepting historical chronicles, until the time of Boccaccio and the
+Italian storytellers. The other is the fact that what we call the Middle
+Age was an age of transition from barbarism to the civilization of the
+Renascence, and the Renascence was reached by sweeping away all the
+barbarous things that had gone before it.
+
+One must have lived a lifetime in Italy to be able to call up a fairly
+vivid picture of the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth centuries. One
+must have actually seen the grand old castles and gloomy monasteries,
+and feudal villages of Calabria and Sicily, where all things are least
+changed from what they were, and one should understand something of the
+nature of the Italian people, where the original people have survived;
+one must try also to realize the violence of those passions which are
+ugly excrescences on Italian character even now, and which were once the
+main movers of that character.
+
+There are extant many inventories of lordly residences of earlier times
+in Italy, for the inventory was taken every time the property changed
+hands by inheritance or sale. Everyone of these inventories begins at
+the main gate of the stronghold, and the first item is 'Rope for giving
+the cord.' Now 'to give the cord' was a torture, and all feudal lords
+had the right to inflict it. The victim's hands were tied behind his
+back, the rope was made fast to his bound wrists, and he was hoisted
+some twenty feet or so to the heavy iron ring which is fixed in the
+middle of the arch of every old Italian castle gateway; he was then
+allowed to drop suddenly till his feet, to which heavy weights were
+sometimes attached, were a few inches from the ground, so that the
+strain of his whole weight fell upon his arms, twisted them backwards,
+and generally dislocated them at the shoulders. And this was usually
+done three times, and sometimes twenty times, in succession, to the same
+prisoner, either as a punishment or by way of examination, to extract a
+confession of the truth. As the rope of torture was permanently rove
+through the pulley over the front door, it must have been impossible not
+to see it and remember what it meant every time one went in or out. And
+such quick reminders of danger and torture, and sudden, painful death,
+give the pitch and key of daily existence in the Middle Age. Every man's
+life was in his hand until it was in his enemy's. Every man might be
+forced, at a moment's notice, to defend not only his honour, and his
+belongings, and his life, but his women and children, too,--not against
+public enemies only, but far more often against private spite and
+personal hatred. Nowadays, when most men only stake their money on their
+convictions, it is hard to realize how men reasoned who staked their
+lives at every turn; or to guess, for instance, at what women felt whose
+husbands and sons, going out for a stroll of an afternoon, in the
+streets of Rome, might as likely as not be brought home dead of a dozen
+sword-wounds before evening. A husband, a father, was stabbed in the
+dark by treachery; try and imagine the daily and year-long sensations of
+the widowed mother, bringing up her only son deliberately to kill her
+husband's murderer; teaching him to look upon vengeance as the first,
+most real and most honourable aim of life, from the time he was old
+enough to speak, to the time when he should be strong enough to kill.
+Everything was earnest then. One should remember that most of the
+stories told by Boccaccio, Sacchetti and Bandello--the stories from
+which Shakespeare got his Italian plays, his Romeo and Juliet, his
+Merchant of Venice--were not inventions, but were founded on the truth.
+Everyone has read about Caesar Borgia, his murders, his treacheries and
+his end, and he is held up to us as a type of monstrous wickedness. But
+a learned Frenchman, Emile Gebhart, has recently written a rather
+convincing treatise, to show that Caesar Borgia was not a monster at all,
+nor even much of an exception to the general rule among the Italian
+despots of his day, and his day was civilized compared with that of
+Rienzi, of Boniface the Eighth, of Sciarra Colonna.
+
+In order to understand anything about the real life of the Middle Age,
+one should begin at the beginning; one should see the dwellings, the
+castles, and the palaces with their furniture and arrangements, one
+should realize the stern necessities as well as the few luxuries of that
+time. And one should make acquaintance with the people themselves, from
+the grey-haired old baron, the head of the house, down to the scullery
+man and the cellarer's boy and the stable lads. And then, knowing
+something of the people and their homes, one might begin to learn
+something about their household occupations, their tremendously tragic
+interests and their few and simple amusements.
+
+[Illustration: PORTA SAN LORENZO]
+
+The first thing that strikes one about the dwellings is the enormous
+strength of those that remain. The main idea, in those days, when a man
+built a house, was to fortify himself and his belongings against attacks
+from the outside, and every other consideration was secondary to that.
+That is true not only of the Barons' castles in the country and of their
+fortified palaces in town,--which were castles, too, for that
+matter,--but of the dwellings of all classes of people who could afford
+to live independently, that is, who were not serfs and retainers of the
+rich. We talk of fire-proof buildings nowadays, which are mere shells of
+iron and brick and stone that shrivel up like writing-paper in a great
+fire. The only really fire-proof buildings were those of the Middle Age,
+which consisted of nothing but stone and mortar throughout, stone walls,
+stone vaults, stone floors, and often stone tables and stone seats. I
+once visited the ancient castle of Muro, in the Basilicata, one of the
+southern provinces in Italy, where Queen Joanna the First paid her life
+for her sins at last, and died under the feather pillow that was forced
+down upon her face by two Hungarian soldiers. It is as wild and lonely a
+place as you will meet with in Europe, and yet the great castle has
+never been a ruin, nor at any time uninhabited, since it was built in
+the eleventh century, over eight hundred years ago. Nor has the lower
+part of it ever needed repair. The walls are in places twenty-five feet
+thick, of solid stone and mortar, so that the embrasure by which each
+narrow window is reached is like a tunnel cut through rock, while the
+deep prisons below are hewn out of the rock itself. Up to what we should
+call the third story, every room is vaulted. Above that the floors are
+laid on beams, and the walls are not more than eight feet
+thick--comparatively flimsy for such a place! Nine-tenths of it was
+built for strength--the small remainder for comfort; there is not a
+single large hall in all the great fortress, and the courtyard within
+the main gate is a gloomy, ill-shaped little paved space, barely big
+enough to give fifty men standing room. Nothing can give any idea of the
+crookedness of it all, of the small dark corridors, the narrow winding
+steps, the dusky inclined ascents, paved with broad flagstones that
+echo the lightest tread, and that must have rung and roared like sea
+caves to the tramp of armed men. And so it was in the cities, too. In
+Rome, bits of the old strongholds survive still. There were more of them
+thirty years ago. Even the more modern palaces of the late Renascence
+are built in such a way that they must have afforded a safe refuge
+against everything except artillery. The strong iron-studded doors and
+the heavily grated windows of the ground floor would stand a siege from
+the street. The Palazzo Gabrielli, for two or three centuries the chief
+dwelling of the Orsini, is built in the midst of the city like a great
+fortification, with escarpments and buttresses and loop-holes; and at
+the main gate there is still a portcullis which sinks into the ground by
+a system of chains and balance weights and is kept in working order even
+now.
+
+In the Middle Age, each town palace had one or more towers, tall, square
+and solid, which were used as lookouts and as a refuge in case the rest
+of the palace should be taken by an enemy. The general principle of all
+mediaeval towers was that they were entered through a small window at a
+great height above the ground, by means of a jointed wooden ladder. Once
+inside, the people drew the ladder up after them and took it in with
+them, in separate pieces. When that was done, they were comparatively
+safe, before the age of gunpowder. There were no windows to break, it
+was impossible to get in, and the besieged party could easily keep
+anyone from scaling the tower, by pouring boiling oil or melted lead
+from above, or with stones and missiles, so that as long as provisions
+and water held out, the besiegers could do nothing. As for water, the
+great rainwater cistern was always in the foundations of the tower
+itself, immediately under the prison, which got neither light nor air
+excepting from a hole in the floor above. Walls from fifteen to twenty
+feet thick could not be battered down with any engines then in
+existence. Altogether, the tower was a safe place in times of danger. It
+is said that at one time there were over four hundred of these in Rome,
+belonging to the nobles, great and small.
+
+The small class of well-to-do commoners, the merchants and goldsmiths,
+such as they were, who stood between the nobles and the poor people,
+imitated the nobles as much as they could, and strengthened their houses
+by every means. For their dwellings were their warehouses, and in times
+of disturbance the first instinct of the people was to rob the
+merchants, unless they chanced to be strong enough to rob the nobles, as
+sometimes happened. But in Rome the merchants were few, and were very
+generally retainers or dependants of the great houses. It is frequent in
+the chronicles to find a man mentioned as the 'merchant' of the Colonna
+family, or of the Orsini, or of one of the independent Italian princes,
+like the Duke of Urbino. Such a man acted as agent to sell the produce
+of a great estate; part of his business was to lend money to the owner,
+and he also imported from abroad the scanty merchandise which could be
+imported at all. About half of it usually fell into the hands of
+highwaymen before it reached the city, and the price of luxuries was
+proportionately high. Such men, of course, lived well, though there was
+a wide difference between their mode of life and that of the nobles, not
+so much in matters of abundance and luxury, as in principle. The chief
+rule was that the wives and daughters of the middle class did a certain
+amount of housekeeping work, whereas the wives and daughters of the
+nobles did not. The burgher's wife kept house herself, overlooked the
+cooking, and sometimes cooked a choice dish with her own hands, and
+taught her daughters to do so. A merchant might have a considerable
+retinue of men, for his service and protection, and they carried staves
+when they accompanied their master abroad, and lanterns at night. But
+the baron's men were men-at-arms,--practically soldiers,--who wore his
+colours, and carried swords and pikes, and lit the way for their lord at
+night with torches, always the privilege of the nobles. As a matter of
+fact, they were generally the most dangerous cutthroats whom the
+nobleman was able to engage, highwaymen, brigands and outlaws, whom he
+protected against the semblance of the law; whereas the merchant's
+train consisted of honest men who worked for him in his warehouse, or
+they were countrymen from his farms, if he had any.
+
+It is not easy to give any adequate idea of those great mediaeval
+establishments, except by their analogy with the later ones that came
+after them. They were enormous in extent, and singularly uncomfortable
+in their internal arrangement.
+
+A curious book, published in 1543, and therefore at the first
+culmination of the Renascence, has lately been reprinted. It is entitled
+'Concerning the management of a Roman Nobleman's Court,' and was
+dedicated to 'The magnificent and Honourable Messer Cola da Benevento,'
+forty years after the death of the Borgia Pope and during the reign of
+Paul the Third, Farnese, who granted the writer a copyright for ten
+years. The little volume is full of interesting details, and the
+attendant gentlemen and servants enumerated give some idea of what
+according to the author was not considered extravagant for a nobleman of
+the sixteenth century. There were to be two chief chamberlains, a
+general controller of the estates, a chief steward, four chaplains, a
+master of the horse, a private secretary and an assistant secretary, an
+auditor, a lawyer and four literary personages, 'Letterati,' who, among
+them, must know 'the four principal languages of the world, namely,
+Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Italian.' The omission of every other living
+language but the latter, when Francis the First, Charles the Fifth and
+Henry the Eighth were reigning, is pristinely Roman in its contempt of
+'barbarians.' There were also to be six gentlemen of the chambers, a
+private master of the table, a chief carver and ten waiting men, a
+butler of the pantry with an assistant, a butler of the wines, six head
+grooms, a marketer with an assistant, a storekeeper, a cellarer, a
+carver for the serving gentlemen, a chief cook, an under cook and
+assistant, a chief scullery man, a water carrier, a sweeper,--and last
+in the list, a physician, whom the author puts at the end of the list,
+'not because a doctor is not worthy of honour, but in order not to seem
+to expect any infirmity for his lordship or his household.'
+
+This was considered a 'sufficient household' for a nobleman, but by no
+means an extravagant one, and many of the officials enumerated were
+provided with one or more servants, while no mention is made of any
+ladies in the establishment nor of the numerous retinue they required.
+But one remembers the six thousand servants of Augustus, all honourably
+buried in one place, and the six hundred who waited on Livia alone; and
+the modest one hundred and seven which were reckoned 'sufficient' for
+the Lord Cola of Benevento sink into comparative insignificance. For
+Livia, besides endless keepers of her robes and folders of her
+clothes--a special office--and hairdressers, perfumers, jewellers and
+shoe keepers, had a special adorner of her ears, a keeper of her chair
+and a governess for her favourite lap-dog.
+
+The little book contains the most complete details concerning daily
+expenditure for food and drink for the head of the house and his
+numerous gentlemen, which amounted in a year to the really not
+extravagant sum of four thousand scudi, or dollars, over fourteen
+hundred being spent on wine alone. The allowance was a jug--rather more
+than a quart--of pure wine daily to each of the 'gentlemen,' and the
+same measure diluted with one-third of water to all the rest. Sixteen
+ounces of beef, mutton, or veal were reckoned for every person, and each
+received twenty ounces of bread of more or less fine quality, according
+to his station; and an average of twenty scudi was allowed daily as
+given away in charity,--which was not ungenerous, either, for such a
+household. The olive oil used for the table and for lamps was the same,
+and was measured together, and the household received each a pound of
+cheese, monthly, besides a multitude of other eatables, all of which are
+carefully enumerated and valued. Among other items of a different nature
+are 'four or five large wax candles daily, for his lordship,' and wax
+for torches 'to accompany the dishes brought to his table, and to
+accompany his lordship and the gentlemen out of doors at night,' and
+'candles for the altar,' and tallow candles for use about the house. As
+for salaries and wages, the controller and chief steward received ten
+scudi, each month, whereas the chaplain only got two, and the 'literary
+men,' who were expected to know Hebrew, Greek and Latin, were each paid
+one hundred scudi yearly. The physician was required to be not only
+'learned, faithful, diligent and affectionate,' but also 'fortunate' in
+his profession. Considering the medical practices of those days, a
+doctor could certainly not hope to heal his patients without the element
+of luck.
+
+The old-fashioned Roman character is careful, if not avaricious, with
+occasional flashes of astonishing extravagance, and its idea of riches
+is so closely associated with that of power as to make the display of a
+numerous retinue its first and most congenial means of exhibiting great
+wealth; so that to this day a Roman in reduced fortune will live very
+poorly before he will consent to exist without the two or three
+superfluous footmen who loiter all day in his hall, or the handsome
+equipage in which his wife and daughters are accustomed to take the
+daily drive, called from ancient times the 'trottata,' or 'trot,' in the
+Villa Borghese, or the Corso, or on the Pincio, and gravely provided for
+in the terms of the marriage contract. At a period when servants were
+necessary, not only for show but also for personal protection, it is not
+surprising that the nobles should have kept an extravagant number of
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DI MONTE CITORIO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Then also, to account for the size of Roman palaces, there was the
+patriarchal system of life, now rapidly falling into disuse. The
+so-called 'noble floor' of every mansion is supposed to be reserved
+exclusively for the father and mother of the family, and the order of
+arranging the rooms is as much a matter of rigid rule as in the houses
+of the ancient Romans, where the vestibule preceded the atrium, the
+atrium the peristyle, and the latter the last rooms which looked upon
+the garden. So in the later palace, the door from the first landing of
+the grand staircase opens upon an outer hall, uncarpeted, but crossed by
+a strip of matting, and furnished only with a huge table and
+old-fashioned chests, made with high backs, on which are painted or
+carved the arms of the family. Here, at least two or three footmen are
+supposed to be in perpetual readiness to answer the door, the lineally
+descended representatives of the armed footmen who lounged there four
+hundred years ago. Next to the hall comes the antechamber, sometimes
+followed by a second, and here is erected the 'baldacchino,' the
+coloured canopy which marks the privilege of the sixty 'conscript
+families' of Rome, who rank as princes. It recalls the times when,
+having powers of justice, and of life and death, the lords sat in state
+under the overhanging silks, embroidered with their coats of arms, to
+administer the law. Beyond the antechamber comes the long succession of
+state apartments, lofty, ponderously decorated, heavily furnished with
+old-fashioned gilt or carved chairs that stand symmetrically against the
+walls, and on the latter are hung pictures, priceless works of old
+masters beside crude portraits of the last century, often arranged much
+more with regard to the frames than to the paintings. Stiff-legged
+pier-tables of marble and alabaster face the windows or are placed
+between them; thick curtains that can be drawn quite back cover the
+doors; strips of hemp carpet lead straight from one door to another; the
+light is dim and cold, half shut out by the window curtains, and gets a
+peculiar quality of sadness and chilliness, which is essentially
+characteristic of every old Roman house, where the reception rooms are
+only intended to be used at night, and the sunny side is exclusively
+appropriated to the more intimate life of the owners. There may be
+three, four, six, ten of those big drawing-rooms in succession, each
+covering about as much space as a small house in New York or London,
+before one comes to the closed door that gives access to the princess'
+boudoir, beyond which, generally returning in a direction parallel with
+the reception rooms, is her bedroom, and the prince's, and the latter's
+study, and then the private dining-room, the state dining-room, the
+great ballroom, with clear-story windows, and as many more rooms as the
+size of the apartment will admit. In the great palaces, the picture
+gallery takes a whole wing and sometimes two, the library being
+generally situated on a higher story.
+
+The patriarchal system required that all the married sons, with their
+wives and children and servants, should be lodged in the same building
+with their parents. The eldest invariably lived on the second floor, the
+second son on the third, which is the highest, though there is generally
+a low rambling attic, occupied by servants, and sometimes by the
+chaplain, the librarian and the steward, in better rooms. When there
+were more than two married sons, which hardly ever happened under the
+old system of primogeniture, they divided the apartments between them as
+best they could. The unmarried younger children had to put up with what
+was left. Moreover, in the greatest houses, where there was usually a
+cardinal of the name, one wing of the first floor was entirely given up
+to him; and instead of the canopy in the antechamber, flanked by the
+hereditary coloured umbrellas carried on state occasions by two lackeys
+behind the family coach, the prince of the Church was entitled to a
+throne room, as all cardinals are. The eldest son's apartment was
+generally more or less a repetition of the state one below, but the
+rooms were lower, the decorations less elaborate, though seldom less
+stiff in character, and a large part of the available space was given up
+to the children.
+
+It is clear from all this that even in modern times a large family might
+take up a great deal of room. Looking back across two or three
+centuries, therefore, to the days when every princely household was a
+court, and was called a court, it is easier to understand the existence
+of such phenomenally vast mansions as the Doria palace, or those of the
+Borghese, the Altieri, the Barberini and others, who lived in almost
+royal state, and lodged hundreds upon hundreds of retainers in their
+homes.
+
+And not only did all the members of the family live under one roof, as a
+few of them still live, but the custom of dining together at one huge
+table was universal. A daily dinner of twenty persons--grandparents,
+parents and children, down to the youngest that is old enough to sit up
+to its plate in a high chair, would be a serious matter to most European
+households. But in Rome it was looked upon as a matter of course, and
+was managed through the steward by a contract with the cook, who was
+bound to provide a certain number of dishes daily for the fixed meals,
+but nothing else--not so much as an egg or a slice of toast beyond
+that. This system still prevails in many households, and as it is to be
+expected that meals at unusual hours may sometimes be required, an
+elaborate system of accounts is kept by the steward and his clerks, and
+the smallest things ordered by any of the sons or daughters are charged
+against an allowance usually made them, while separate reckonings are
+kept for the daughters-in-law, for whom certain regular pin-money is
+provided out of their own dowries at the marriage settlement, all of
+which goes through the steward's hands. The same settlement, even in
+recent years, stipulated for a fixed number of dishes of meat daily,
+generally only two, I believe, for a certain number of new gowns and
+other clothes, and for a great variety of details, besides the use of a
+carriage every day, to be harnessed not more than twice, that is, either
+in the morning and afternoon, or once in the daytime and once at night.
+Everything,--a cup of tea, a glass of lemonade,--if not mentioned in the
+marriage settlement, had to be paid for separately. The justice of such
+an arrangement--for it is just--is only equalled by its inconvenience,
+for it requires the machinery of a hotel, combined with an honesty not
+usual in hotels. Undoubtedly, the whole system is directly descended
+from the practice of the ancients, which made every father of a family
+the absolute despot of his household, and made it impossible for a son
+to hold property or have any individual independence during his
+father's life, and it has not been perceptibly much modified since the
+Middle Age, until the last few years. Its existence shows in the
+strongest light the main difference between the Latin and the
+Anglo-Saxon races, in the marked tendency of the one to submit to
+despotic government, and of the other to govern itself; of the one to
+stay at home under paternal authority, and of the other to leave the
+father's house and plunder the world for itself; of the sons of the one
+to accept wives given them, and of the other's children to marry as they
+please.
+
+Roman family life, from Romulus to the year 1870, was centred in the
+head of the house, whose position was altogether unassailable, whose
+requirements were necessities, and whose word was law. Next to him in
+place came the heir, who was brought up with a view to his exercising
+the same powers in his turn. After him, but far behind him in
+importance, if he promised to be strong, came the other sons, who, if
+they took wives at all, were expected to marry heiresses, and one of
+whom, almost as a matter of course, was brought up to be a churchman.
+The rest, if there were any, generally followed the career of arms, and
+remained unmarried; for heiresses of noble birth were few, and their
+guardians married them to eldest sons of great houses whenever possible,
+while the strength of caste prejudice made alliances of nobles with the
+daughters of rich plebeians extremely unusual.
+
+It is possible to trace the daily life of a Roman family in the Middle
+Age from its regular routine of today, as out of what anyone may see in
+Italy the habits of the ancients can be reconstructed with more than
+approximate exactness. And yet it is out of the question to fix the
+period of the general transformation which ultimately turned the Rome of
+the Barons into the Rome of Napoleon's time, and converted the
+high-handed men of Sciarra Colonna's age into the effeminate fops of
+1800, when a gentleman of noble lineage, having received a box on the
+ear from another at high noon in the Corso, willingly followed the
+advice of his confessor, who counselled him to bear the affront with
+Christian meekness and present his other cheek to the smiter. Customs
+have remained, fashions have altogether changed; the outward forms of
+early living have survived, the spirit of life is quite another; and
+though some families still follow the patriarchal mode of existence, the
+patriarchs are gone, the law no longer lends itself to support household
+tyranny, and the subdivision of estates under the Napoleonic code is
+guiding an already existing democracy to the untried issue of a
+problematic socialism. Without attempting to establish a comparison upon
+the basis of a single cause, where so many are at work, it is
+permissible to note that while in England and Germany a more or less
+voluntary system of primogeniture is admitted and largely followed from
+choice, and while in the United States men are almost everywhere
+entirely free to dispose of their property as they please, and while the
+population and wealth of those countries are rapidly increasing, France,
+enforcing the division of estates among children, though she is
+accumulating riches, is faced by the terrible fact of a steadily
+diminishing census; and Italy, under the same laws, is not only rapidly
+approaching national bankruptcy, but is in parts already depopulated by
+an emigration so extensive that it can only be compared with the
+westward migration of the Aryan tribes. The forced subdivision of
+property from generation to generation is undeniably a socialistic
+measure, since it must, in the end, destroy both aristocracy and
+plutocracy; and it is surely a notable point that the two great European
+nations which have adopted it as a fundamental principle of good
+government should both be on the road to certain destruction, while
+those powers that have wholly and entirely rejected any such measure are
+filling the world with themselves and absorbing its wealth at an
+enormous and alarming rate.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA BORGHESE]
+
+The art of the Renascence has left us splendid pictures of mediaeval
+public life, which are naturally accepted as equally faithful
+representations of the life of every day. Princes and knights, in
+gorgeous robes and highly polished armour, ride on faultlessly
+caparisoned milk-white steeds; wondrous ladies wear not less wonderful
+gowns, fitted with a perfection which women seek in vain today, and
+embroidered with pearls and precious stones that might ransom a rajah;
+young pages, with glorious golden hair, stand ready at the elbows of
+their lords and ladies, or kneel in graceful attitude to deliver a
+letter, or stoop to bear a silken train, clad in garments which the
+modern costumer strives in vain to copy. After three or four centuries,
+the colours of those painted silks and satins are still richer than
+anything the loom can weave. In the great fresco, each individual of the
+multitude that fills a public place, or defiles in open procession under
+the noonday light, is not only a masterpiece of fashion, but a model of
+neatness; linen, delicate as woven gossamer, falls into folds as finely
+exact as an engraver's point could draw; velvet shoes tread without
+speck or spot upon the well-scoured pavement of a public street;
+men-at-arms grasp weapons and hold bridles with hands as carefully
+tended as any idle fine gentleman's, and there is neither fleck nor
+breath of dimness on the mirror-like steel of their armour; the very
+flowers, the roses and lilies that strew the way, are the perfection of
+fresh-cut hothouse blossoms; and when birds and beasts chance to be
+necessary to the composition of the picture, they are represented with
+no less care for a more than possible neatness, their coats are combed
+and curled, their attitudes are studied and graceful, they wear
+carefully made collars, ornamented with chased silver and gold.
+
+Centuries have dimmed the wall-painting, sunshine has faded it, mould
+has mottled the broad surfaces of red and blue and green, and a later
+age has done away with the dresses represented; yet, when the frescos in
+the library of the Cathedral at Siena, for instance, were newly
+finished, they were the fashion-plates of the year and month, executed
+by a great artist, it is true, grouped with matchless skill and drawn
+with supreme mastery of art, but as far from representing the ordinary
+scenes of daily life as those terrible coloured prints published
+nowadays for tailors, in which a number of beautiful young gentlemen, in
+perfectly new clothes, lounge in stage attitudes on the one side, and an
+equal number of equally beautiful young butlers, coachmen, grooms and
+pages, in equally perfect liveries, appear to be discussing the
+aesthetics of an ideal and highly salaried service, at the other end of
+the same room. In the comparison there is all the brutal profanity of
+truth that shocks the reverence of romance; but in the respective
+relations of the great artist's masterpiece and of the poor modern
+lithograph to the realities of each period, there is the clue to the
+daily life of the Middle Age.
+
+Living was outwardly rough as compared with the representations of it,
+though it was far more refined than in any other part of Europe, and
+Italy long set the fashion to the world in habits and manners. People
+kept their fine clothes for great occasions, there was a keeper of robes
+in every large household, and there were rooms set apart for the
+purpose. In every-day life, the Barons wore patched hose and leathern
+jerkins, stained and rusted by the joints of the armour that was so
+often buckled over them, or they went about their dwellings in long
+dressing-gowns which hid many shortcomings. When gowns, and hose, and
+jerkins were well worn, they were cut down for the boys of the family,
+and the fine dresses, only put on for great days, were preserved as
+heirlooms from generation to generation, whether they fitted the
+successive wearers or not. The beautiful tight-fitting hose which, in
+the paintings of the time, seem to fit like theatrical tights, were
+neither woven nor knitted, but were made of stout cloth, and must often
+have been baggy at the knees in spite of the most skilful cutting; and
+the party-coloured hose, having one leg of one piece of stuff and one of
+another, and sometimes each leg of two or more colours, were very likely
+first invented from motives of economy, to use up cuttings and leavings.
+Clothes were looked upon as permanent and very desirable property, and
+kings did not despise a gift of fine scarlet cloth, in the piece, to
+make them a gown or a cloak. As for linen, as late as the sixteenth
+century, the English thought the French nobles very extravagant because
+they put on a clean shirt once a fortnight and changed their ruffles
+once a week.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO DI VENEZIA]
+
+The mediaeval Roman nobles were most of them great farmers as well as
+fighters. Then, as now, land was the ultimate form of property, and its
+produce the usual form of wealth; and then, as now, many families were
+'land-poor,' in the sense of owning tracts of country which yielded
+little or no income but represented considerable power, and furnished
+the owners with most of the necessaries of life, such rents as were
+collected being usually paid in kind, in oil and wine, in grain, fruit
+and vegetables, and even in salt meat, and horses, cattle for
+slaughtering and beasts of burden, not to speak of wool, hemp and flax,
+as well as firewood. But money was scarce and, consequently, all the
+things which only money could buy, so that a gown was a possession, and
+a corselet or a good sword a treasure. The small farmer of our times
+knows what it means to have plenty to eat and little to wear. His
+position is not essentially different from that of the average landed
+gentry in the Middle Age, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. In
+times when superiority lay in physical strength, courage, horsemanship
+and skill in the use of arms, the so-called gentleman was not
+distinguished from the plebeian by the newness or neatness of his
+clothes so much as by the nature and quality of the weapons he wore when
+he went abroad in peace or war, and very generally by being mounted on a
+good horse.
+
+In his home he was simple, even primitive. He desired space more than
+comfort, and comfort more than luxury. His furniture consisted almost
+entirely of beds, chests and benches, with few tables except such as
+were needed for eating. Beds were supported by boards laid on trestles,
+raised very high above the floor to be beyond the reach of rats, mice
+and other creatures. The lower mattress was filled with the dried leaves
+of the maize, and the upper one contained wool, with which the pillows
+also were stuffed. The floors of dwelling rooms were generally either
+paved with bricks or made of a sort of cement, composed of lime, sand
+and crushed brick, the whole being beaten down with iron pounders, while
+in the moist state, during three days. There were no carpets, and fresh
+rushes were strewn everywhere on the floors, which in summer were first
+watered, like a garden path, to lay the dust. There was no glass in the
+windows of ordinary rooms, and the consequence was that during the
+daytime people lived almost in the open air, in winter as well as
+summer; sunshine was a necessity of existence, and sheltered courts and
+cloistered walks were built like reservoirs for the light and heat.
+
+In the rooms, ark-shaped chests stood against the walls, to contain the
+ordinary clothes not kept in the general 'guardaroba.' In the deep
+embrasures of the windows there were stone seats, but there were few
+chairs, or none at all, in the bedrooms. At the head of each bed hung a
+rough little cross of dark wood--later, as carving became more general,
+a crucifix--and a bit of an olive branch preserved from Palm Sunday
+throughout the year. The walls themselves were scrupulously whitewashed;
+the ceilings were of heavy beams, supporting lighter cross-beams, on
+which in turn thick boards were laid to carry the cement floor of the
+room overhead.
+
+Many hundred men-at-arms could be drawn up in the courtyards, and their
+horses stalled in the spacious stables. The kitchens, usually situated
+on the ground floor, were large enough to provide meals for half a
+thousand retainers, if necessary; and the cellars and underground
+prisons were a vast labyrinth of vaulted chambers, which not
+unfrequently communicated with the Tiber by secret passages. In
+restoring the palace of the Santacroce, a few years ago, a number of
+skeletons were discovered, some still wearing armour, and all most
+evidently the remains of men who had died violent deaths. One of them
+was found with a dagger driven through the skull and helmet. The hand
+that drove it must have been strong beyond the hands of common men.
+
+The grand staircase led up from the sunny court to the state apartments,
+such as they were in those days. There, at least, there were sometimes
+carpets, luxuries of enormous value, and even before the Renascence the
+white walls were hung with tapestries, at least in part. In those times,
+too, there were large fireplaces in almost every room, for fuel was
+still plentiful in the Campagna and in the near mountains; and where the
+houses were practically open to the air all day, fires were an absolute
+necessity. Even in ancient times it is recorded that the Roman Senate,
+amidst the derisive jests of the plebeians, once had to adjourn on
+account of the extreme cold. People rose early in the Middle Age, dined
+at noon, slept in the afternoon when the weather was warm, and supped,
+as a rule, at 'one hour of the night,' that is to say an hour after 'Ave
+Maria,' which was rung half an hour after sunset, and was the end of the
+day of twenty-four hours. Noon was taken from the sun, but did not fall
+at a regular hour of the clock, and never fell at twelve. In winter, for
+instance, if the Ave Maria bell rang at half-past five of our modern
+time, the noon of the following day fell at 'half-past eighteen o'clock'
+by the mediaeval clocks. In summer, it might fall as early as three
+quarters past fifteen; and this manner of reckoning time was common in
+Rome thirty-five years ago, and is not wholly unpractised in some parts
+of Italy still.
+
+It was always an Italian habit, and a very healthy one, to get out of
+doors immediately on rising, and to put off making anything like a
+careful toilet till a much later hour. Breakfast, as we understand it,
+is an unknown meal in Italy, even now. Most people drink a cup of black
+coffee, standing; many eat a morsel of bread or biscuit with it and get
+out of doors as soon as they can; but the greediness of an Anglo-Saxon
+breakfast disgusts all Latins alike, and two set meals daily are thought
+to be enough for anyone, as indeed they are. The hard-working Italian
+hill peasant will sometimes toast himself a piece of corn bread before
+going to work, and eat it with a few drops of olive oil; and in the
+absence of tea or coffee, the people of the Middle Age often drank a
+mouthful of wine on rising to 'move the blood,' as they said. But that
+was all.
+
+Every mediaeval palace had its chapel, which was sometimes an adjacent
+church communicating with the house, and in many families it is even now
+the custom to hear the short low Mass at a very early hour. But
+probably nothing can give an adequate idea of the idleness of the Middle
+Age, when the day was once begun. Before the Renascence, there was no
+such thing as study, and there were hardly any pastimes except gambling
+and chess, both of which the girls and youths of the Decameron seem to
+have included in one contemptuous condemnation when they elected to
+spend their time in telling stories. The younger men of the household,
+of course, when not actually fighting, passed a certain number of hours
+in the practice of horsemanship and arms; but the only real excitement
+they knew was in love and war, the latter including everything between
+the battles of the Popes and Emperors, and the street brawls of private
+enemies, which generally drew blood and often ended in a death.
+
+It does not appear that the idea of 'housekeeping' as the chief
+occupation of the Baron's wife ever entered into the Roman mind. In
+northern countries there has always been more equality between men and
+women, more respect for woman as an intelligent being, and less care for
+her as a valuable possession to be guarded against possible attacks from
+without. In Rome and the south of Italy the women in a great household
+were carefully separated from the men, and beyond the outer halls in
+which visitors were received, business transacted and politics
+discussed, there were closed doors, securely locked, leading to the
+women's apartments beyond. In every Roman palace and fortress there was
+a revolving 'dumb-waiter' between the women's quarters and the men's,
+called the 'wheel,' and used as a means of communication. Through this
+the household supplies were daily handed in, for the cooking was very
+generally done by women, and through the same machine the prepared food
+was passed out to the men, the wheel being so arranged that men and
+women could not see each other, though they might hear each other speak.
+To all intents and purposes the system was oriental and the women were
+shut up in a harem. The use of the dumb-waiter survived the revolution
+in manners under the Renascence, and the wheel itself remains as a
+curiosity of past times in more than one Roman dwelling today. It had
+its uses and was not a piece of senseless tyranny. In order to keep up
+an armed force for all emergencies the Baron took under his protection
+as men-at-arms the most desperate ruffians, outlaws and outcasts whom he
+could collect, mostly men under sentence of banishment or death for
+highway robbery and murder, whose only chance of escaping torture and
+death lay in risking life and limb for a master strong enough to defy
+the law, the 'bargello' and the executioner, in his own house or castle,
+where such henchmen were lodged and fed, and were controlled by nothing
+but fear of the Baron himself, of his sons, when they were grown up,
+and of his poorer kinsmen who lived with him. There were no crimes which
+such malefactors had not committed, or were not ready to commit for a
+word, or even for a jest. The women, on the other hand, were in the
+first place the ladies and daughters of the house, and of kinsmen,
+brought up in almost conventual solitude, when they were not actually
+educated in convents; and, secondly, young girls from the Baron's
+estates who served for a certain length of time, and were then generally
+married to respectable retainers. The position of twenty or thirty women
+and girls under the same roof with several hundreds of the most
+atrocious cutthroats of any age was undeniably such as to justify the
+most tyrannical measures for their protection.
+
+There are traces, even now, of the enforced privacy in which they lived.
+For instance, no Roman lady of today will ever show herself at a window
+that looks on the street, except during Carnival, and in most houses
+something of the old arrangement of rooms is still preserved, whereby
+the men and women occupy different parts of the house.
+
+One must try to call up the pictures of one day, to get any idea of
+those times; one must try and see the grey dawn stealing down the dark,
+unwindowed lower walls of the fortress that flanks the Church of the
+Holy Apostles,--the narrow and murky street below, the broad, dim space
+beyond, the mystery of the winding distances whence comes the first
+sound of the day, the far, high cry of the waterman driving his little
+donkey with its heavy load of water-casks. The beast stumbles along in
+the foul gloom, through the muddy ruts, over heaps of garbage at the
+corners, picking its way as best it can, till it starts with a snort and
+almost falls with its knees upon a dead man, whose thrice-stabbed body
+lies right across the way. The waterman, ragged, sandal-shod, stops,
+crosses himself, and drags his beast back hurriedly with a muttered
+exclamation of mingled horror, disgust and fear for himself, and makes
+for the nearest corner, stumbling along in his haste lest he should be
+found with the corpse and taken for the murderer. As the dawn
+forelightens, and the cries go up from the city, the black-hooded
+Brothers of Prayer and Death come in a little troop, their lantern still
+burning as they carry their empty stretcher, seeking for dead men; and
+they take up the poor nameless body and bear it away quickly from the
+sight of the coming day.
+
+Then, as they disappear, the great bell of the Apostles' Church begins
+to toll the morning Angelus, half an hour before sunrise,--three
+strokes, then four, then five, then one, according to ancient custom,
+and then after a moment's silence, the swinging peal rings out, taken up
+and answered from end to end of the half-wasted city. A troop of
+men-at-arms ride up to the great closed gate 'in rusty armour marvellous
+ill-favoured,' as Shakespeare's stage direction has it, mud-splashed,
+their brown cloaks half concealing their dark and war-worn mail, their
+long swords hanging down and clanking against their huge stirrups, their
+beasts jaded and worn and filthy from the night raid in the Campagna, or
+the long gallop from Palestrina. The leader pounds three times at the
+iron-studded door with the hilt of his dagger, a sleepy porter,
+grey-bearded and cloaked, slowly swings back one half of the gate and
+the ruffians troop in, followed by the waterman who has gone round the
+fortress to avoid the dead body. The gate shuts again, with a long
+thundering rumble. High up, wooden shutters, behind which there is no
+glass, are thrown open upon the courtyard, and one window after another
+is opened to the morning air; on one side, girls and women look out,
+muffled in dark shawls; from the other grim, unwashed, bearded men call
+down to their companions, who have dismounted and are unsaddling their
+weary horses, and measuring out a little water to them, where water is a
+thing of price.
+
+The leader goes up into the house to his master, to tell him of the
+night's doings, and while he speaks the Baron sits in a great wooden
+chair, in his long gown of heavy cloth, edged with coarse fox's fur, his
+feet in fur slippers, and a shabby cap upon his head, but a manly and
+stern figure, all the same, slowly munching a piece of toasted bread and
+sipping a few drops of old white wine from a battered silver cup.
+
+Then Mass in the church, the Baron, his kinsmen, the ladies and the
+women kneeling in the high gallery above the altar, the men-at-arms and
+men-servants and retainers crouching below on the stone pavement; a
+dusky multitude, with a gleam of steel here and there, and red flashing
+eyes turned up with greedy longing towards the half-veiled faces of the
+women, met perhaps, now and then, by a furtive answering glance from
+under a veil or hoodlike shawl, for every woman's head is covered, but
+of the men only the old lord wears his cap, which he devoutly lifts at
+'Gloria Patri' and 'Verbum Caro,' and at 'Sanctus' and at the
+consecration. It is soon over, and the day is begun, for the sun is
+fully risen and streams through the open unglazed windows as the maids
+sprinkle water on the brick floors, and sweep and strew fresh rushes,
+and roll back the mattresses on the trestle beds, which are not made
+again till evening. In the great courtyard, the men lead out the horses
+and mount them bareback and ride out in a troop, each with his sword by
+his side, to water them at the river, half a mile away, for not a single
+public fountain is left in Rome; and the grooms clean out the stables,
+while the peasants come in from the country, driving mules laden with
+provisions for the great household, and far away, behind barred doors,
+the women light the fires in the big kitchen.
+
+Later again, the children of the noble house are taught to ride and
+fence in the open court; splendid boys with flowing hair, bright as gold
+or dark as night, dressed in rough hose and leathern jerkin,
+bright-eyed, fearless, masterful already in their play as a lion's
+whelps, watched from an upper window by their lady mother and their
+little sisters, and not soon tired of saddle or sword--familiar with the
+grooms and men by the great common instinct of fighting, but as far from
+vulgar as Polonius bade Laertes learn to be.
+
+So morning warms to broad noon, and hunger makes it dinner-time, and the
+young kinsmen who have strolled abroad come home, one of them with his
+hand bound up in a white rag that has drops of blood on it, for he has
+picked a quarrel in the street and steel has been out, as usual, though
+no one has been killed, because the 'bargello' and his men were in
+sight, down there near the Orsini's theatre-fortress. And at dinner when
+the priest has blessed the table, the young men laugh about the
+scrimmage, while the Baron himself, who has killed a dozen men in
+battle, with his own hand, rebukes his sons and nephews with all the
+useless austerity which worn-out age wears in the face of unbroken
+youth. The meal is long, and they eat much, for there will be nothing
+more till night; they eat meat broth, thick with many vegetables and
+broken bread and lumps of boiled meat, and there are roasted meats and
+huge earthen bowls of salad, and there is cheese in great blocks, and
+vast quantities of bread, with wine in abundance, poured for each man by
+the butler into little earthen jugs from big earthenware flagons. They
+eat from trenchers of wood, well scoured with ashes; forks they have
+none, and most of the men use their own knives or daggers when they are
+not satisfied with the carving done for them by the carver. Each man,
+when he has picked a bone, throws it under the table to the house-dogs
+lying in wait on the floor, and from time to time a basin is passed and
+a little water poured upon the fingers. The Baron has a napkin of his
+own; there is one napkin for all the other men; the women generally eat
+by themselves in their own apartments, the so-called 'gentlemen' in the
+'tinello,' and the men-at-arms and grooms, and all the rest, in the big
+lower halls near the kitchens, whence their food is passed out to them
+through the wheel.
+
+After dinner, if it be summer and the weather hot, the gates are barred,
+the windows shut, and the whole household sleeps. Early or late, as the
+case may be, the lords and ladies and children take the air, guarded by
+scores of mounted men, riding towards that part of the city where they
+may neither meet their enemies nor catch a fever in the warm months. In
+rainy weather they pass the time as they can, with telling of many
+tales, short, dramatic and strong as the framework of a good play, with
+music, sometimes, and with songs, and with discussing of such news as
+there may be in such times. And at dusk the great bells ring to
+even-song, the oil lamp is swung up in the great staircase, the windows
+and gates are shut again, the torches and candles and little lamps are
+lit for supper, and at last, with rushlights, each finds the way along
+the ghostly corridors to bed and sleep. That was the day's round, and
+there was little to vary it in more peaceful times.
+
+Over all life there was the hopeless, resentful dulness that oppressed
+men and women till it drove them half mad, to the doing of desperate
+things in love and war; there was the everlasting restraint of danger
+without and of forced idleness within--danger so constant that it ceased
+to be exciting and grew tiresome, idleness so oppressive that battle,
+murder and sudden death were a relief from the inactivity of sluggish
+peace; a state in which the mind was no longer a moving power in man,
+but only by turns the smelting pot and the anvil of half-smothered
+passions that now and then broke out with fire and flame and sword to
+slash and burn the world with a history of unimaginable horror.
+
+That was the Middle Age in Italy. A poorer race would have gone down
+therein to a bloody destruction; but it was out of the Middle Age that
+the Italians were born again in the Renascence. It deserved the name.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION IV CAMPO MARZO
+
+
+It was harvest time when the Romans at last freed themselves from the
+very name of Tarquin. In all the great field, between the Tiber and the
+City, the corn stood high and ripe, waiting for the sickle, while Brutus
+did justice upon his two sons, and upon the sons of his sister, and upon
+those 'very noble youths,' still the Tarquins' friends, who laid down
+their lives for their mistaken loyalty and friendship, and for whose
+devotion no historian has ever been brave enough, or generous enough, to
+say a word. It has been said that revolution is patriotism when it
+succeeds, treason when it fails, and in the converse, more than one
+brave man has died a traitor's death for keeping faith with a fallen
+king. Successful revolution denied those young royalists the charitable
+handful of earth and the four words of peace--'sit eis terra
+levis'--that should have laid their unquiet ghosts, and the brutal
+cynicism of history has handed down their names to the perpetual
+execration of mankind.
+
+The corn stood high in the broad field which the Tarquins had taken from
+Mars and had ploughed and tilled for generations. The people went out
+and reaped the crop, and bound it in sheaves to be threshed for the
+public bread, but their new masters told them that it would be impious
+to eat what had been meant for kings, and they did as was commanded to
+them, meekly, and threw all into the river. Sheaf upon sheaf, load upon
+load, the yellow stream swept away the yellow ears and stalks, down to
+the shallows, where the whole mass stuck fast, and the seeds took root
+in the watery mud, and the stalks rotted in great heaps, and the island
+of the Tiber was first raised above the level of the water. Then the
+people burned the stubble and gave back the land to Mars, calling it the
+Campus Martius, after him.
+
+There the young Romans learned the use of arms, and were taught to ride;
+and under sheds there stood those rows of wooden horses, upon which
+youths learned to vault, without step or stirrup, in their armour and
+sword in hand. There they ran foot-races in the clouds of dust whirled
+up from the dry ground, and threw the discus by the twisted thong as the
+young men of the hills do today, and the one who could reach the goal
+with the smallest number of throws was the winner,--there, under the
+summer sun and in the biting wind of winter, half naked, and tough as
+wolves, the boys of Rome laboured to grow up and be Roman men.
+
+There, also, the great assemblies were held, the public meetings and the
+elections, when the people voted by passing into the wooden lists that
+were called 'Sheepfolds,' till Julius Caesar planned the great marble
+portico for voting, and Agrippa finished it, making it nearly a mile
+round; and behind it, on the west side, a huge space was kept open for
+centuries, called the Villa Publica, where the censors numbered the
+people. The ancient Campus took in a wide extent of land, for it
+included everything outside the Servian wall, from the Colline Gate to
+the river. All that visibly bears its name today is a narrow street that
+runs southward from the western end of San Lorenzo in Lucina. The Region
+of Campo Marzo, however, is still one of the largest in the city,
+including all that lies within the walls from Porta Pinciana, by Capo le
+Case, Via Frattina, Via di Campo Marzo and Via della Stelletta, past the
+Church of the Portuguese and the Palazzo Moroni,--known by Hawthorne's
+novel as 'Hilda's Tower,'--and thence to the banks of the Tiber.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DI SPAGNA]
+
+From the Renascence until the recent extension of the city on the south
+and southeast, this Region was the more modern part of Rome. In the
+Middle Age it was held by the Colonna, who had fortified the tomb of
+Augustus and one or two other ruins. Later it became the strangers'
+quarter. The Lombards established themselves near the Church of Saint
+Charles, in the Corso; the English, near Saint Ives, the little church
+with the strange spiral tower, built against the University of the
+Sapienza; the Greeks lived in the Via de' Greci; the Burgundians in the
+Via Borgognona, and thence to San Claudio, where they had their Hospice;
+and so on, almost every nationality being established in a colony of its
+own; and the English visitors of today are still inclined to think the
+Piazza di Spagna the most central point of Rome, whereas to Romans it
+seems to be very much out of the way.
+
+The tomb of Augustus, which served as the model for the greater
+Mausoleum of Hadrian, dominated the Campus Martius, and its main walls
+are still standing, though hidden by many modern houses. The tomb of the
+Julian Caesars rose on white marble foundations, a series of concentric
+terraces, planted with cypress trees, to the great bronze statue of
+Augustus that crowned the summit. Here rested the ashes of Augustus, of
+the young Marcellus, of Livia, of Tiberius, of Caligula, and of many
+others whose bodies were burned in the family Ustrinum near the tomb
+itself. Plundered by Alaric, and finally ruined by Robert Guiscard, when
+he burnt the city, it became a fortress under the Colonna, and is
+included, with the fortress of Monte Citorio, in a transfer of property
+made by one member of the family to another in the year 1252. Ruined at
+last, it became a bull ring in the last century and in the beginning of
+this one, when Leo the Twelfth forbade bull-fighting. Then it was a
+theatre, the scene of Salvini's early triumphs. Today it is a circus,
+dignified by the name of the reigning sovereign.
+
+Few people know that bull-fights were common in Rome eighty years ago.
+The indefatigable Baracconi once talked with the son of the last
+bull-fighter. So far as one may judge, it appears that during the
+Middle Age, and much later, it was the practice of butchers to bait
+animals in their own yards, before slaughtering them, in the belief that
+the cruel treatment made the meat more tender, and they admitted the
+people to see the sport. From this to a regular arena was but a step,
+and no more suitable place than the tomb of the Caesars could be found
+for the purpose. A regular manager took possession of it, provided the
+victims, both bulls and Roman buffaloes, and hired the fighters. It does
+not appear that the beasts were killed during the entertainment, and one
+of the principal attractions was the riding of the maddened bull three
+times round the circus; savage dogs were also introduced, but in all
+other respects the affair was much like a Spanish bull-fight, and quite
+as popular; when the chosen bulls were led in from the Campagna, the
+Roman princes used to ride far out to meet them with long files of
+mounted servants in gala liveries, coming back at night in torchlight
+procession. And again, after the fight was over, the circus was
+illuminated, and there was a small display of Bengal lights, while the
+fashionable world of Rome met and gossiped away the evening in the
+arena, happily thoughtless and forgetful of all the spot had been and
+had meant in history.
+
+The new Rome sinks out of sight below the level of the old, as one
+climbs the heights of the Janiculum on the west of the city, or the
+gardens of the Pincio on the east. The old monuments and the old
+churches still rise above the dreary wastes of modern streets, and from
+the spot whence Messalina looked down upon the cypresses of the first
+Emperor's mausoleum, the traveller of today descries the cheap metallic
+roof which makes a circus of the ancient tomb.
+
+For it was in the gardens of Lucullus that Mark Antony's
+great-grandchild felt the tribune's sword in her throat, and in the neat
+drives and walks of the Pincio, where pretty women in smart carriages
+laugh over today's gossip and tomorrow's fashion, and the immaculate
+dandy idles away an hour and a cigarette, the memory of Messalina calls
+up a tragedy of shades. Less than thirty years after Augustus had
+breathed out his old age in peace, Rome was ruled again by terror and
+blood, and the triumph of a woman's sins was the beginning of the end of
+the Julian race. The great historian who writes of her guesses that
+posterity may call the truth a fable, and tells the tale so tersely and
+soberly from first to last, that the strength of his words suggests a
+whole mystery of evil. Without Tiberius, there could have been no
+Messalina, nor, without her, could Nero have been possible; and the
+worst of the three is the woman--the archpriestess of all conceivable
+crime. Tacitus gives Tiberius one redeeming touch. Often the old Emperor
+came almost to Rome, even to the gardens by the Tiber, and then turned
+back to the rocks of Capri and the solitude of the sea, in mortal shame
+of his monstrous deeds, as if not daring to show himself in the city.
+With Nero, the measure was full, and the world rose and destroyed him.
+Messalina knew no shame, and the Romans submitted to her, and but for a
+court intrigue and a frightened favourite she might have lived out her
+life unhurt. In the eyes of the historian and of the people of her time
+her greatest misdeed was that while her husband Claudius, the Emperor,
+was alive she publicly celebrated her marriage with the handsome Silius,
+using all outward legal forms. Our modern laws of divorce have so far
+accustomed our minds to such deeds that, although we miss the legal
+formalities which would necessarily precede such an act in our time, we
+secretly wonder at the effect it produced upon the men of that day, and
+are inclined to smile at the epithets of 'impious' and 'sacrilegious'
+which it called down upon Messalina, whose many other frightful crimes
+had elicited much more moderate condemnation. Claudius, himself no
+novice or beginner in horrors, hesitated long after he knew the truth,
+and it was the favourite Narcissus who took upon himself to order the
+Empress' death. Euodus, his freedman, and a tribune of the guard were
+sent to make an end of her. Swiftly they went up to the gardens--the
+gardens of the Pincian--and there they found her, beautiful, dark,
+dishevelled, stretched upon the marble floor, her mother Lepida
+crouching beside her, her mother, who in the bloom of her daughter's
+evil life had turned from her, but in her extreme need was overcome
+with pity. There knelt Domitia Lepida, urging the terror-mad woman not
+to wait the executioner, since life was over and nothing remained but to
+lend death the dignity of suicide. But the dishonoured self was empty of
+courage, and long-drawn weeping choked her useless lamentations. Then
+suddenly the doors were flung open with a crash, and the stern tribune
+stood silent in the hall, while the freedman Euodus screamed out curses,
+after the way of triumphant slaves. From her mother's hand the lost
+Empress took the knife at last and trembling laid it to her breast and
+throat, with weakly frantic fingers that could not hurt herself; the
+silent tribune killed her with one straight thrust, and when they
+brought the news to Claudius sitting at supper, and told him that
+Messalina had perished, his face did not change, and he said nothing as
+he held out his cup to be filled.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA DEL POPOLO]
+
+She died somewhere on the Pincian hill. Romance would choose the spot
+exactly where the nunnery of the Sacred Heart stands, at the Trinita de'
+Monti, looking down De Sanctis' imposing 'Spanish' steps; and the house
+in which the noble girls of modern Rome are sent to school may have
+risen upon the foundations of Messalina's last abode. Or it may be that
+the place was further west, in the high grounds of the French Academy,
+or on the site of the academy itself, at the gates of the public garden,
+just where the old stone fountain bubbles and murmurs under the shade of
+the thick ilex trees. Most of that land once belonged to Lucullus, the
+conqueror of Mithridates, the Academic philosopher, the arch feaster,
+and the man who first brought cherries to Italy.
+
+[Illustration: TRINITA DE' MONTI]
+
+The last descendant of Julia, the last sterile monster of the Julian
+race, Nero, was buried at the foot of the same hill. Alive, he was
+condemned by the Senate to be beaten to death in the Comitium; dead by
+his own hand, he received imperial honours, and his ashes rested for a
+thousand years where they had been laid by his two old nurses and a
+woman who had loved him. And during ten centuries the people believed
+that his terrible ghost haunted the hill, attended and served by
+thousands of demon crows that rested in the branches of the trees about
+his tomb, and flew forth to do evil at his bidding, till at last Pope
+Paschal the Second cut down with his own hands the walnut trees which
+crowned the summit, and commanded that the mausoleum should be
+destroyed, and the ashes of Nero scattered to the winds, that he might
+build a parish church on the spot and dedicate it to Saint Mary. It is
+said, too, that the Romans took the marble urn in which the ashes had
+been, and used it as a public measure for salt in the old market-place
+of the Capitol. A number of the rich Romans of the Renascence afterwards
+contributed money to the restoration of the church and built themselves
+chapels within it, as tombs for their descendants, so that it is the
+burial-place of many of those wealthy families that settled in Rome and
+took possession of the Corso when the Barons still held the less central
+parts of the city with their mediaeval fortresses. Sixtus the Fourth and
+Julius the Second are buried in Saint Peter's, but their chapel was
+here, and here lie others of the della Rovere race, and many of the
+Chigi and Pallavicini and Theodoli; and here, in strange coincidence,
+Alexander the Sixth, the worst of the Popes, erected a high altar on the
+very spot where the worst of the Emperors had been buried. It is gone
+now, but the strange fact is not forgotten.
+
+Far across the beautiful square, at the entrance to the Corso, twin
+churches seem to guard the way like sentinels, built, it is said, to
+replace two chapels which once stood at the head of the bridge of Sant'
+Angelo; demolished because, when Rome was sacked by the Constable of
+Bourbon, they had been held as important points by the Spanish soldiers
+in besieging the Castle, and it was not thought wise to leave such
+useful outworks for any possible enemy in the future. Alexander the
+Seventh, the Chigi Pope, died, and left the work unfinished; and a folk
+story tells how a poor old woman who lived near by saved what she could
+for many years, and, dying, left one hundred and fifty scudi to help the
+completion of the buildings; and Cardinal Gastaldi, who had been refused
+the privilege of placing his arms upon a church which he had desired to
+build in Bologna, and was looking about for an opportunity of
+perpetuating his name, finished the two churches, his attention having
+been first called to them by the old woman's humble bequest.
+
+As for the Pincio itself, and the ascent to it from the Piazza del
+Popolo, all that land was but a grass-grown hillside, crowned by a few
+small and scattered villas and scantily furnished with trees, until the
+beginning of the present century; and the public gardens of the earlier
+time were those of the famous and beautiful Villa Medici, which Napoleon
+the First bestowed upon the French Academy. It was there that the
+fashionable Romans of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used to
+meet, and walk, and be carried about in gilded sedan-chairs, and flirt,
+and gossip, and exchange views on politics and opinions about the latest
+scandal. That was indeed a very strange society, further from us in many
+ways than the world of the Renascence, or even of the Crusades; for the
+Middle Age was strong in the sincerity of its beliefs, as we are
+powerful in the cynicism of our single-hearted faith in riches; but the
+fabric of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was founded upon the
+abuse of an already declining power; it was built up in the most
+extraordinary and elaborate affectation, and it was guarded by a system
+of dissimulation which outdid that of our own day by many degrees, and
+possibly surpassed the hypocrisy of any preceding age.
+
+No one, indeed, can successfully uphold the idea that the high
+development of art in any shape is of necessity coincident with a strong
+growth of religion or moral conviction. Perugino made no secret of being
+an atheist; Lionardo da Vinci was a scientific sceptic; Raphael was an
+amiable rake, no better and no worse than the majority of those gifted
+pupils to whom he was at once a model of perfection and an example of
+free living; and those who maintain that art is always the expression of
+a people's religion have but an imperfect acquaintance with the age of
+Praxiteles, Apelles and Zeuxis. Yet the idea itself has a foundation,
+lying in something which is as hard to define as it is impossible to
+ignore; for if art be not a growth out of faith, it is always the result
+of a faith that has been, since although it is possible to conceive of
+religion without art, it is out of the question to think of art as a
+whole, without a religious origin; and as the majority of writers find
+it easier to describe scenes and emotions, when a certain lapse of time
+has given them what painters call atmospheric perspective, so the
+Renascence began when memory already clothed the ferocious realism of
+mediaeval Christianity in the softer tones of gentle chivalry and tender
+romance. It is often said, half in jest, that, in order to have
+intellectual culture, a man must at least have forgotten Latin, if he
+cannot remember it, because the fact of having learned it leaves
+something behind that cannot be acquired in any other way. Similarly, I
+think that art of all sorts has reached its highest level in successive
+ages when it has aimed at recalling, by an illusion, a once vivid
+reality from a not too distant past. And so when it gives itself up to
+the realism of the present, it impresses the senses rather than the
+thoughts, and misses its object, which is to bring within our mental
+reach what is beyond our physical grasp; and when, on the other hand, it
+goes back too far, it fails in execution, because its models are not
+only out of sight, but out of mind, and it cannot touch us because we
+can no longer feel even a romantic interest in the real or imaginary
+events which it attempts to describe.
+
+The subject is too high to be lightly touched, and too wide to be
+touched more than lightly here; but in this view of it may perhaps be
+found some explanation of the miserable poverty of Italian art in the
+eighteenth century, foreshadowed by the decadence of the seventeenth,
+which again is traceable to the dissipation of force and the
+disappearance of individuality that followed the Renascence, as
+inevitably as old age follows youth. Besides all necessary gifts of
+genius, the development of art seems to require that a race should not
+only have leisure for remembering, but should also have something to
+remember which may be worthy of being recalled and perhaps of being
+imitated. Progress may be the road to wealth and health, and to such
+happiness as may be derived from both; but the advance of civilization
+is the path of thought, and its landmarks are not inventions nor
+discoveries, but those very great creations of the mind which ennoble
+the heart in all ages; and as the idea of progress is inseparable from
+that of growing riches, so is the true conception of civilization
+indivisible from thoughts of beauty and nobility. In the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, Italy had almost altogether lost sight of these;
+art was execrable, fashion was hideous, morality meant hypocrisy; the
+surest way to power lay in the most despicable sort of intrigue, and
+inward and spiritual faith was as rare as outward and visible devoutness
+was general.
+
+That was the society which frequented the Villa Medici on fine
+afternoons, and it is hard to see wherein its charm lay, if, indeed, it
+had any. Instead of originality, its conversation teemed with artificial
+conventionalisms; instead of nature, it exhibited itself in the disguise
+of fashions more inconvenient, uncomfortable and ridiculous than those
+of any previous or later times; it delighted in the impossibly
+nonsensical 'pastoral' verses which we find too silly to read; and in
+place of wit, it clothed gross and cruel sayings in a thin remnant of
+worn-out classicism. It had not the frankly wicked recklessness of the
+French aristocracy between Lewis the Fourteenth and the Revolution, nor
+the changing contrasts of brutality, genius, affectation and Puritanical
+austerity which marked England's ascent, from the death of Edward the
+Sixth to the victories of Nelson and Wellington; still less had it any
+of those real motives for existence which carried Germany through her
+long struggle for life. It had little which we are accustomed to respect
+in men and women, and yet it had something which we lack today, and
+which we unconsciously envy--it had a colour of its own. Wandering under
+the ancient ilexes of those sad and beautiful gardens, meeting here and
+there a few silent and soberly clad strangers, one cannot but long for
+the brilliancy of two centuries ago, when the walks were gay with
+brilliant dresses, and gilded chairs, and servants in liveries of
+scarlet and green and gold, and noble ladies, tottering a few steps on
+their ridiculous high heels, and men bewigged and becurled, their
+useless little hats under their arms, and their embroidered coat tails
+flapping against their padded, silk-stockinged calves; and red-legged,
+unpriestly Cardinals who were not priests even in name, but only the lay
+life-peers of the Church; and grave Bishops with their secretaries; and
+laughing abbes, whose clerical dress was the accustomed uniform of
+government office, which they still wore when they were married, and
+were fathers of families. There is little besides colour to recommend
+the picture, but at least there is that.
+
+The Pincian hill has always been the favourite home of artists of all
+kinds, and many lived at one time or another in the little villas that
+once stood there, and in the houses in the Via Sistina and southward,
+and up towards the Porta Pinciana. Guido Reni, the Caracci, Salvator
+Rosa, Poussin, Claude Lorrain, have all left the place the association
+of their presence, and the Zuccheri brothers built themselves the house
+which still bears their name, just below the one at the corner of the
+Trinita de' Monti, known to all foreigners as the 'Tempietto' or little
+temple. But the Villa Medici stands as it did long ago, its walls
+uninjured, its trees grander than ever, its walks unchanged.
+Soft-hearted Baracconi, in love with those times more than with the
+Middle Age, speaks half tenderly of the people who used to meet there,
+calling them collectively a gay and light-hearted society, gentle, idle,
+full of graceful thoughts and delicate perceptions, brilliant
+reflections and light charms; he regrets the gilded chairs, the huge
+built-up wigs, the small sword of the 'cavalier servente,' and the
+abbe's silk mantle, the semi-platonic friendships, the jests borrowed
+from Goldoni, the 'pastoral' scandal, and exchange of compliments and
+madrigals and epigrams, and all the brilliant powdered train of that
+extinct world.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA MEDICI]
+
+Whatever life may have been in those times, that world died in a pretty
+tableau, after the manner of Watteau's paintings; it meant little and
+accomplished little, and though its bright colouring brings it for a
+moment to the foreground, it has really not much to do with the Rome we
+know nor with the Rome one thinks of in the past, always great, always
+sad, always tragic, as no other city in the world can ever be.
+
+Ignorance, tradition, imagination, romance,--call it what you will,--has
+chosen the long-closed Pincian Gate for the last station of blind
+Belisarius. There, says the tale, the ancient conqueror, the banisher
+and maker of Popes, the favourite and the instrument of imperial
+Theodora, stood begging his bread at the gate of the city he had won and
+lost, leaning upon the arm of the fair girl child who would not leave
+him, and stretching forth his hand to those that passed by, with a
+feeble prayer for alms, pathetic as Oedipus in the utter ruin of his
+life and fortune. A truer story tells how Pope Silverius, humble and
+gentle, and hated by Theodora, went up to the Pincian villa to answer
+the accusation of conspiring with the Goths, when he himself had opened
+the gates of Rome to Belisarius; and how he was led into the great hall
+where the warrior's wife, Theodora's friend, the beautiful and evil
+Antonina, lay with half-closed eyes upon her splendid couch, while
+Belisarius sat beside her feet, toying with her jewels. There the
+husband and wife accused the Pope, and judged him without hearing, and
+condemned him without right; and they caused him to be stripped of his
+robes, and clad as a poor monk and driven out to far exile, that they
+might set up the Empress Theodora's Pope in his place; and with him they
+drove out many Roman nobles.
+
+And it is said that when Silverius was dead of a broken heart in the
+little island of Palmaria, Belisarius repented of his deeds and built
+the small Church of Santa Maria de' Crociferi, behind the fountain of
+Trevi, in partial expiation of his fault, and there, to prove the truth
+of the story, the tablet that tells of his repentance has stood nearly
+fourteen hundred years and may be read today, on the east wall, towards
+the Via de' Poli. The man who conquered Africa for Justinian, seized
+Sicily, took Rome, defended it successfully against the Goths, reduced
+Ravenna, took Rome from the Goths again, and finally rescued
+Constantinople, was disgraced more than once; but he was not blinded,
+nor did he die in exile or in prison, for at the end he breathed his
+last in the enjoyment of his freedom and his honours; and the story of
+his blindness is the fabrication of an ignorant Greek monk who lived six
+hundred years later and confounded Justinian's great general with the
+romantic and unhappy John of Cappadocia, who lived at the same time, was
+a general at the same time, and incurred the displeasure of that same
+pious, proud, avaricious Theodora, actress, penitent and Empress, whose
+paramount beauty held the Emperor in thrall for life, and whose
+surpassing cruelty imprinted an indelible seal of horror upon his
+glorious reign--of her who, when she delivered a man to death,
+admonished the executioner with an oath, saying, 'By Him who liveth for
+ever, if thou failest, I will cause thee to be flayed alive.'
+
+Another figure rises at the window of the Tuscan Ambassador's great
+villa, with the face of a man concerning whom legend has also found much
+to invent and little to say that is true, a man of whom modern science
+has rightly made a hero, but whom prejudice and ignorance have wrongly
+crowned as a martyr--Galileo Galilei. Tradition represents him as
+languishing, laden with chains, in the more or less mythical prisons of
+the Inquisition; history tells very plainly that his first confinement
+consisted in being the honoured guest of the Tuscan Ambassador in the
+latter's splendid residence in Rome, and that his last imprisonment was
+a relegation to the beautiful castle of the Piccolomini near Siena, than
+which the heart of man could hardly desire a more lovely home. History
+affirms beyond doubt, moreover, that Galileo was the personal friend of
+that learned and not illiberal Barberini, Pope Urban the Eighth, under
+whose long reign the Copernican system was put on trial, who believed in
+that system as Galileo did, who read his books and talked with him; and
+who, when the stupid technicalities of the ecclesiastic courts declared
+the laws of the universe to be nonsense, gave his voice against the
+decision, though he could not officially annul it without scandal. 'It
+was not my intention,' said the Pope in the presence of witnesses, 'to
+condemn Galileo. If the matter had depended upon me, the decree of the
+Index which condemned his doctrines should never have been pronounced.'
+
+That Galileo's life was saddened by the result of the absurd trial, and
+that he was nominally a prisoner for a long time, is not to be denied.
+But that he suffered the indignities and torments recorded in legend is
+no more true than that Belisarius begged his bread at the Porta
+Pinciana. He lived in comfort and in honour with the Ambassador in the
+Villa Medici, and many a time from those lofty windows, unchanged since
+before his day, he must have watched the earth turning with him from the
+sun at evening, and meditated upon the emptiness of the ancient phrase
+that makes the sun 'set' when the day is done--thinking of the world,
+perhaps, as turning upon its other side, with tired eyes, and ready for
+rest and darkness and refreshment, after long toil and heat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+One may stand under those old trees before the Villa Medici, beside the
+ancient fountain facing Saint Peter's distant dome, and dream the great
+review of history, and call up a vast, changing picture at one's feet
+between the heights and the yellow river. First, the broad corn-field of
+the Tarquin Kings, rich and ripe under the evening breeze of summer that
+runs along swiftly, bending the golden surface in soft moving waves from
+the Tiber's edge to the foot of the wooded slope. Then, the hurried
+harvesting, the sheaves cast into the river, the dry, stiff stubble
+baking in the sun, and presently the men of Rome coming forth in
+procession from the dark Servian wall on the left to dedicate the field
+to the War God with prayer and chant and smoking sacrifice. By and by
+the stubble trodden down under horses' hoofs, the dusty plain the
+exercising ground of young conquerors, the voting place, later, of a
+strong Republic, whither the centuries went out to choose their consuls,
+to decide upon peace or war, to declare the voice of the people in grave
+matters, while the great signal flag waved on the Janiculum, well in
+sight though far away, to fall suddenly at the approach of any foe and
+suspend the 'comitia' on the instant. And in the flat and dusty plain,
+buildings begin to rise; first, the Altar of Mars and the holy place of
+the infernal gods, Dis and Proserpine; later, the great 'Sheepfold,' the
+lists and hustings for the voting, and, encroaching a little upon the
+training ground, the temple of Venus Victorious and the huge theatre of
+Pompey, wherein the Orsini held their own so long; but in the times of
+Lucullus, when his gardens and his marvellous villa covered the Pincian
+hill, the plain was still a wide field, and still the field of Mars,
+without the walls, broken by few landmarks, and trodden to deep white
+dust by the scampering hoofs of half-drilled cavalry. Under the
+Emperors, then, first beautified in part, as Caesar traces the great
+Septa for the voting, and Augustus erects the Altar of Peace and builds
+up his cypress-clad tomb, crowned by his own image, and Agrippa raises
+his triple temple, and Hadrian builds the Pantheon upon its ruins, while
+the obelisk that now stands on Monte Citorio before the House of
+Parliament points out the brass-figured hours on the broad marble floor
+of the first Emperor's sun-clock and marks the high noon of Rome's
+glory--and the Portico of Neptune and many other splendid works spring
+up. Isis and Serapis have a temple next, and Domitian's race-course
+appears behind Agrippa's Baths, straight and white. By and by the
+Antonines raise columns and triumphal arches, but always to southward,
+leaving the field of Mars a field still, for its old uses, and the tired
+recruits, sweating from exercise, gather under the high shade of
+Augustus' tomb at midday for an hour's rest.
+
+Last of all, the great temple of the Sun, with its vast portico, and the
+Mithraeum at the other end, and when the walls of Aurelian are built, and
+when ruin comes upon Rome from the north, the Campus Martius is still
+almost an open stretch of dusty earth on which soldiers have learned
+their trade through a thousand years of hard training.
+
+Not till the poor days when the waterless, ruined city sends its people
+down from the heights to drink of the muddy stream does Campo Marzo
+become a town, and then, around the castle-tomb of the Colonna and the
+castle-theatre of the Orsini the wretched houses begin to rise here and
+there, thickening to a low, dark forest of miserable dwellings threaded
+through and through, up and down and crosswise, by narrow and crooked
+streets, out of which by degrees the lofty churches and palaces of the
+later age are to spring up. From a training ground it has become a
+fighting ground, a labyrinth of often barricaded ways and lanes, deeper
+and darker towards the water-gates cut in the wall that runs along the
+Tiber, from Porta del Popolo nearly to the island of Saint Bartholomew,
+and almost all that is left of Rome is crowded and huddled into the
+narrow pen overshadowed and dominated here and there by black fortresses
+and brown brick towers. The man who then might have looked down from the
+Pincian hill would have seen that sight; houses little better than those
+of the poorest mountain village in the Southern Italy of today, black
+with smoke, black with dirt, blacker with patches made by shadowy
+windows that had no glass. A silent town, too, surly and defensive; now
+and then the call of the water-carrier disturbs the stillness, more
+rarely, the cry of a wandering peddler; and sometimes a distant sound of
+hoofs, a far clash of iron and steel, and the echoing yell of furious
+fighting men--'Orsini!' 'Colonna!'--the long-drawn syllables coming up
+distinct through the evening air to the garden where Messalina died,
+while the sun sets red behind the spire of old Saint Peter's across the
+river, and gilds the huge girth of dark Sant' Angelo to a rusty red,
+like battered iron bathed in blood.
+
+Back come the Popes from Avignon, and streets grow wider and houses
+cleaner and men richer--all for the Bourbon's Spaniards to sack, and
+burn, and destroy before the last city grows up, and the rounded domes
+raise their helmet-like heads out of the chaos, and the broad Piazza del
+Popolo is cleared, and old Saint Peter's goes down in dust to make way
+for the Cathedral of all Christendom as it stands. Then far away, on
+Saint Peter's evening, when it is dusk, the great dome, and the small
+domes, and the colonnades, and the broad facade are traced in silver
+lights that shine out quietly as the air darkens. The solemn bells toll
+the first hour of the June night; the city is hushed, and all at once
+the silver lines are turned to gold, as the red flame runs in magic
+change from the topmost cross down the dome, in rivers, to the roof, and
+the pillars and the columns of the square below--the grandest
+illumination of the grandest church the world has ever seen.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION V PONTE
+
+
+The Region of Ponte, 'the Bridge,' takes its name from the ancient
+Triumphal Bridge which led from the city to the Vatican Fields, and at
+low water some fragments of the original piers may be seen in the river
+at the bend just below Ponte Sant' Angelo, between the Church of Saint
+John of the Florentines on the one bank, and the Hospital of Santo
+Spirito on the other. In the Middle Age, according to Baracconi and
+others, the broken arches still extended into the stream, and upon them
+was built a small fortress, the outpost of the Orsini on that side. The
+device, however, appears to represent a portion of the later Bridge of
+Sant' Angelo, built upon the foundations of the AElian Bridge of
+Hadrian, which connected his tomb with the Campus Martius. The Region
+consists of the northwest point of the city, bounded by the Tiber, from
+Monte Brianzo round the bend, and down stream to the new Lungara bridge,
+and on the land side by a very irregular line running across the Corso
+Vittorio Emanuele, close to the Chiesa Nuova, and then eastward and
+northward in a zigzag, so as to take in most of the fortresses of the
+Orsini family, Monte Giordano, Tor Millina, Tor Sanguigna, and the now
+demolished Torre di Nona. The Sixth and Seventh Regions adjacent to the
+Fifth and to each other would have to be included in order to take in
+all that part of Rome once held by the only family that rivalled, and
+sometimes surpassed, the Colonna in power.
+
+As has been said before, the original difference between the two was
+that the Colonna were Ghibellines and for the Emperors, while the Orsini
+were Guelphs and generally adhered to the Popes. In the violent changes
+of the Middle Age, it happened indeed that the Colonna had at least one
+Pope of their own, and that more than one, such as Nicholas the Fourth,
+favoured their race to the point of exciting popular indignation. But,
+on the whole, they kept to their parties. When Lewis the Bavarian was to
+be crowned by force, Sciarra Colonna crowned him; when Henry the Seventh
+of Luxemburg had come to Rome for the same purpose, a few years earlier,
+the Orsini had been obliged to be satisfied with a sort of second-rate
+coronation at Saint John Lateran's; and when the struggle between the
+two families was at its height, nearly two centuries later, and Sixtus
+the Fourth 'assumed the part of mediator,' as the chronicle expresses
+it, one of his first acts of mediation was to cut off the head of a
+Colonna, and his next was to lay regular siege to the strongholds of the
+family in the Roman hills; but before he had brought this singular
+process of mediation to an issue he suddenly died, the Colonna returned
+to their dwellings in Rome 'with great clamour and triumph,' got the
+better of the Orsini, and proceeded to elect a Pope after their own
+hearts, in the person of Cardinal Cibo, of Genoa, known as Innocent the
+Eighth. He it is who lies under the beautiful bronze monument in the
+inner left aisle of Saint Peter's, which shows him holding in his hand a
+model of the spear-head that pierced Christ's side, a relic believed to
+have been sent to the Pope as a gift by Sultan Bajazet the Second.
+
+The origin of the hatred between Colonna and Orsini is unknown, for the
+archives of the former have as yet thrown no light upon the subject, and
+those of the latter were almost entirely destroyed by fire in the last
+century. In the year 1305, Pope Clement the Fifth was elected Pope at
+Perugia. He was a Frenchman, and was Archbishop of Bordeaux, the
+candidate of Philip the Fair, whose tutor had been a Colonna, and he
+was chosen by the opposing factions of two Orsini cardinals because the
+people of Perugia were tired of a quarrel that had lasted eleven months,
+and had adopted the practical and always infallible expedient of
+deliberately starving the conclave to a vote. Muratori calls it a
+scandalous and illicit election, which brought about the ruin of Italy
+and struck a memorable blow at the power of the Holy See. Though not a
+great man, Philip the Fair was one of the cleverest that ever lived.
+Before the election he had made his bishop swear upon the Sacred Host to
+accept his conditions, without expressing them all; and the most
+important proved to be the transference of the Papal See to France. The
+new Pope obeyed his master, established himself in Avignon, and the King
+to all intents and purposes had taken the Pontificate captive and lost
+no time in using it for his own ends against the Empire, his hereditary
+foe. Such, in a few words, is the history of that memorable transaction;
+and but for the previous quarrels of Colonna, Caetani and Orsini, it
+could never have taken place. The Orsini repented bitterly of what they
+had done, for one of Clement the Fifth's first acts was to 'annul
+altogether all sentences whatsoever pronounced against the Colonna.'
+
+But the Pope being gone, the Barons had Rome in their power and used it
+for a battlefield. Four years later, we find in Villani the first record
+of a skirmish fought between Orsini and Colonna. In the month of
+October, 1309, says the chronicler, certain of the Orsini and of the
+Colonna met outside the walls of Rome with their followers, to the
+number of four hundred horse, and fought together, and the Colonna won;
+and there died the Count of Anguillara, and six of the Orsini were
+taken, and Messer Riccardo degli Annibaleschi who was in their company.
+
+Three years afterwards, Henry of Luxemburg alternately feasted and
+fought his way to Rome to be crowned Emperor in spite of Philip the
+Fair, the Tuscan league and Robert, King of Naples, who sent a thousand
+horsemen out of the south to hinder the coronation. In a day Rome was
+divided into two great camps. Colonna held for the Emperor the Lateran,
+Santa Maria Maggiore, the Colosseum, the Torre delle Milizie,--the brick
+tower on the lower part of the modern Via Nazionale,--the Pantheon, as
+an advanced post in one direction, and Santa Sabina, a church that was
+almost a fortress, on the south, by the Tiber,--a chain of fortresses
+which would be formidable in any modern revolution. Against Henry,
+however, the Orsini held the Vatican and Saint Peter's, the Castle of
+Sant' Angelo and all Trastevere, their fortresses in the Region of
+Ponte, and, moreover, the Capitol itself. The parties were well matched,
+for, though Henry entered Rome on the seventh of May, the struggle
+lasted till the twenty-ninth of June.
+
+Those who have seen revolutions can guess at the desperate fighting in
+the barricaded streets, and at the well-guarded bridges from one end of
+the city to the other. Backwards and forwards the battle raged for days
+and weeks, by day and night, with small time for rest and refreshment.
+Forward rode the Colonna, the stolid Germans, Henry himself, the eagle
+of the Empire waving in the dim streets beside the flag that displayed
+the simple column in a plain field. It is not hard to hear and see it
+all again--the clanging gallop of armoured knights, princes, nobles and
+bishops, with visors down, and long swords and maces in their hands, the
+high, fierce cries of the light-armed footmen, the bowmen and the
+slingers, the roar of the rabble rout behind, the shrill voices of women
+at upper windows, peering down for the face of brother, husband, or
+lover in the dashing press below,--the dust, the heat, the fierce June
+sunshine blazing on broad steel, and the deep, black shadows putting out
+all light as the bands rush past. Then, on a sudden, the answering shout
+of the Orsini, the standard of the Bear, the Bourbon lilies of Anjou,
+the scarlet and white colours of the Guelph house, the great black
+horses, and the dark mail--the enemies surging together in the street
+like swift rivers of loose iron meeting in a stone channel, with a
+rending crash and the quick hammering of steel raining desperate blows
+on steel--horses rearing their height, footmen crushed, knights reeling
+in the saddle, sparks flying, steel-clad arms and long swords whirling
+in great circles through the air. Foremost of all in fight the Bishop of
+Liege, his purple mantle flying back from his corselet, trampling down
+everything, sworn to win the barricade or die, riding at it like a
+madman, forcing his horse up to it over the heaps of quivering bodies
+that made a causeway, leaping it alone at last, like a demon in air, and
+standing in the thick of the Orsini, slaying to right and left.
+
+In an instant they had him down and bound and prisoner, one man against
+a thousand; and they fastened him behind a man-at-arms, on the crupper,
+to take him into Sant' Angelo alive. But a soldier, whose brother he had
+slain a moment earlier, followed stealthily on foot and sought the joint
+in the back of the armour, and ran in his pike quickly, and killed
+him--'whereof,' says the chronicle, 'was great pity, for the Bishop was
+a man of high courage and authority.' But on the other side of the
+barricade, those who had followed him so far, and lost him, felt their
+hearts sink, for not one of them could do what he had done; and after
+that, though they fought a whole month longer, they had but little hope
+of ever getting to the Vatican. So the Colonna took Henry up to the
+Lateran, where they were masters, and he was crowned there by three
+cardinals in the Pope's stead, while the Orsini remained grimly
+intrenched in their own quarter, and each party held its own, even after
+Henry had prudently retired to Tivoli, in the hills.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND IN THE TIBER]
+
+At last the great houses made a truce and a compromise, by which they
+attempted to govern Rome jointly, and chose Sciarra--the same who had
+taken Pope Boniface prisoner in Anagni--and Matteo Orsini of Monte
+Giordano, to be Senators together; and there was peace between them for
+a time, in the year in which Rienzi was born. But in that very year, as
+though foreshadowing his destiny, the rabble of Rome rose up, and chose
+a dictator; and somehow, by surprise or treachery, he got possession of
+the Barons' chief fortresses, and of Sant' Angelo, and set up the
+standard of terror against the nobles. In a few days he sacked and
+burned their strongholds, and the high and mighty lords who had made the
+reigning Pope, and had fought to an issue for the Crown of the Holy
+Roman Empire, were conquered, humiliated and imprisoned by an upstart
+plebeian of Trastevere. The portcullis of Monte Giordano was lifted, and
+the mysterious gates were thrown wide to the curiosity of a populace
+drunk with victory; Giovanni degli Stefaneschi issued edicts of
+sovereign power from the sacred precincts of the Capitol; and the
+vagabond thieves of Rome feasted in the lordly halls of the Colonna
+palace. But though the tribune and the people could seize Rome,
+outnumbering the nobles as ten to one, they had neither the means nor
+the organization to besiege the fortified towns of the great houses,
+which hemmed in the city and the Campagna on every side. Thither the
+nobles retired to recruit fresh armies among their retainers, to forge
+new swords in their own smithies, and to concert new plans for
+recovering their ancient domination; and thence they returned in their
+strength, from their towers and their towns and fortresses, from
+Palestrina and Subiaco, Genazzano, San Vito and Paliano on the south,
+and from Bracciano and Galera and Anguillara, and all the Orsini castles
+on the north, to teach the people of Rome the great truth of those days,
+that 'aristocracy' meant not the careless supremacy of the nobly born,
+but the power of the strongest hands and the coolest heads to take and
+hold. Back came Colonna and Orsini, and the people, who a few months
+earlier had acclaimed their dictator in a fit of justifiable ill-temper
+against their masters, opened the gates for the nobles again, and no man
+lifted a hand to help Giovanni degli Stefaneschi, when the men-at-arms
+bound him and dragged him off to prison. Strange to say, no further
+vengeance was taken upon him, and for once in their history, the nobles
+shed no blood in revenge for a mortal injury.
+
+No man could count the tragedies that swept over the Region of Ponte
+from the first outbreak of war between the Orsini and the Colonna, till
+Paolo Giordano Orsini, the last of the elder branch, breathed out his
+life in exile under the ban of Sixtus the Fifth, three hundred years
+later. There was no end of them till then, and there was little
+interruption of them while they lasted; there is no stone left standing
+from those days in that great quarter that may not have been splashed
+with their fierce blood, nor is there, perhaps, a church or chapel
+within their old holding into which an Orsini has not been borne dead or
+dying from some deadly fight. Even today it is gloomy, and the broad
+modern street, which swept down a straight harvest of memories through
+the quarter to the very Bridge of Sant' Angelo, has left the mediaeval
+shadows on each side as dark as ever. Of the three parts of the city,
+which still recall the Middle Age most vividly, namely, the
+neighbourhood of San Pietro in Vincoli, in the first Region, the by-ways
+of Trastevere and the Region of Ponte, the latter is by far the most
+interesting. It was the abode of the Orsini; it was also the chief place
+of business for the bankers and money-changers who congregated there
+under the comparatively secure protection of the Guelph lords; and it
+was the quarter of prisons, of tortures, and of executions both secret
+and public. The names of the streets had terrible meaning: there was the
+Vicolo della Corda, and the Corda was the rope by which criminals were
+hoisted twenty feet in the air, and allowed to drop till their toes were
+just above the ground; there was the Piazza della Berlina Vecchia, the
+place of the Old Pillory; there was a little church known as the 'Church
+of the Gallows'; and there was a lane ominously called Vicolo dello
+Mastro; the Mastro was the Master of judicial executions, in other
+words, the Executioner himself. Before the Castle of Sant' Angelo stood
+the permanent gallows, rarely long unoccupied, and from an upper window
+of the dark Torre di Nona, on the hither side of the bridge, a rope hung
+swinging slowly in the wind, sometimes with a human body at the end of
+it, sometimes without. It was the place, and that was the manner, of
+executions that took place in the night. In Via di Monserrato stood the
+old fortress of the Savelli, long ago converted into a prison, and
+called the Corte Savella, the most terrible of all Roman dungeons for
+the horror of damp darkness, for ever associated with Beatrice Cenci's
+trial and death. Through those very streets she was taken in the cart to
+the little open space before the bridge, where she laid down her life
+upon the scaffold three hundred years ago, and left her story of
+offended innocence, of revenge and of expiation, which will not be
+forgotten while Rome is remembered.
+
+Beatrice Cenci's story has been often told, but nowhere more clearly and
+justly than in Shelley's famous letter, written to explain his play.
+There are several manuscript accounts of the last scene at the Ponte
+Sant' Angelo, and I myself have lately read one, written by a
+contemporary and not elsewhere mentioned, but differing only from the
+rest in the horrible realism with which the picture is presented. The
+truth is plain enough; the unspeakable crimes of Francesco Cenci, his
+more than inhuman cruelty to his children and his wives, his monstrous
+lust and devilish nature, outdo anything to be found in any history of
+the world, not excepting the private lives of Tiberius, Nero, or
+Commodus. His daughter and his second wife killed him in his sleep. His
+death was merciful and swift, in an age when far less crimes were
+visited with tortures at the very name of which we shudder. They were
+driven to absolute desperation, and the world has forgiven them their
+one quick blow, struck for freedom, for woman's honour and for life
+itself in the dim castle of Petrella. Tormented with rack and cord they
+all confessed the deed, save Beatrice, whom no bodily pain could move;
+and if Paolo Santacroce had not murdered his mother for her money before
+their death was determined, Clement the Eighth would have pardoned them.
+But the times were evil, an example was called for, Santacroce had
+escaped to Brescia, and the Pope's heart was hardened against the Cenci.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OF SANT' ANGELO]
+
+They died bravely, there at the head of the bridge, in the calm May
+morning, in the midst of a vast and restless crowd, among whom more than
+one person was killed by accident, as by the falling of a pot of flowers
+from a high window, and by the breaking down of a balcony over a shop,
+where too many had crowded in to see. The old house opposite looked down
+upon the scene, and the people watched Beatrice Cenci die from those
+same arched windows. Above the sea of faces, high on the wooden
+scaffold, rises the tall figure of a lovely girl, her hair gleaming in
+the sunshine like threads of dazzling gold, her marvellous blue eyes
+turned up to Heaven, her fresh young dimpled face not pale with fear,
+her exquisite lips moving softly as she repeats the De Profundis of her
+last appeal to God. Let the axe not fall. Let her stand there for ever
+in the spotless purity that cost her life on earth and set her name for
+ever among the high constellated stars of maidenly romance.
+
+Close by the bridge, just opposite the Torre di Nona, stood the 'Lion
+Inn,' once kept by the beautiful Vanozza de Catanei, the mother of
+Rodrigo Borgia's children, of Caesar, and Gandia, and Lucrezia, and the
+place was her property still when she was nominally married to her
+second husband, Carlo Canale, the keeper of the prison across the way.
+In the changing vicissitudes of the city, the Torre di Nona made way for
+the once famous Apollo Theatre, built upon the lower dungeons and
+foundations, and Faust's demon companion rose to the stage out of the
+depths that had heard the groans of tortured criminals; the theatre
+itself disappeared a few years ago in the works for improving the
+Tiber's banks, and a name is all that remains of a fact that made men
+tremble. In the late destruction, the old houses opposite were not
+altogether pulled down, but were sliced, as it were, through their roofs
+and rooms, at a safe angle; and there, no doubt, are still standing
+portions of Vanozza's inn, while far below, the cellars where she kept
+her wine free of excise, by papal privilege, are still as cool and
+silent as ever.
+
+Not far beyond her hostelry stands another Inn, famous from early days
+and still open to such travellers as deign to accept its poor
+hospitality. It is an inn for the people now, for wine carters, and the
+better sort of hill peasants; it was once the best and most fashionable
+in Rome, and there the great Montaigne once dwelt, and is believed to
+have written at least a part of his famous Essay on Vanity. It is the
+Albergo dell' Orso, the 'Bear Inn,' and perhaps it is not a coincidence
+that Vanozza's sign of the Lion should have faced the approach to the
+Leonine City beyond the Tiber, and that the sign of the Bear, 'The
+Orsini Arms,' as an English innkeeper would christen it, should have
+been the principal resort of the kind in a quarter which was
+three-fourths the property and altogether the possession of the great
+house that overshadowed it, from Monte Giordano on the one side, and
+from Pompey's Theatre on the other.
+
+The temporary fall of the Orsini at the end of the sixteenth century
+came about by one of the most extraordinary concatenations of events to
+be found in the chronicles. The story has filled more than one volume
+and is nevertheless very far from complete; nor is it possible, since
+the destruction of the Orsini archives, to reconstruct it with absolute
+accuracy. Briefly told, it is this.
+
+Felice Peretti, monk and Cardinal of Montalto, and still nominally one
+of the so-called 'poor cardinals' who received from the Pope a daily
+allowance known as 'the Dish,' had nevertheless accumulated a good deal
+of property before he became Pope under the name of Sixtus the Fifth,
+and had brought some of his relatives to Rome. Among these was his well
+beloved nephew, Francesco Peretti, for whom he naturally sought an
+advantageous marriage. There was at that time in Rome a notary, named
+Accoramboni, a native of the Marches of Ancona and a man of some wealth
+and of good repute. He had one daughter, Vittoria, a girl of excessive
+vanity, as ambitious as she was vain and as singularly beautiful as she
+was ambitious. But she was also clever in a remarkable degree, and seems
+to have had no difficulty in hiding her bad qualities. Francesco Peretti
+fell in love with her, the Cardinal approved the match, though he was a
+man not easily deceived, and the two were married and settled in the
+Villa Negroni, which the Cardinal had built near the Baths of
+Diocletian. Having attained her first object, Vittoria took less pains
+to play the saint, and began to dress with unbecoming magnificence and
+to live on a very extravagant scale. Her name became a byword in Rome
+and her lovely face was one of the city's sights. The Cardinal,
+devotedly attached to his nephew, disapproved of the latter's young wife
+and regretted the many gifts he had bestowed upon her. Like most clever
+men, too, he was more than reasonably angry at having been deceived in
+his judgment of a girl's character. So far, there is nothing not
+commonplace about the tale.
+
+At that time Paolo Giordano Orsini, the head of the house, Duke of
+Bracciano and lord of a hundred domains, was one of the greatest
+personages in Italy. No longer young and already enormously fat, he was
+married to Isabella de' Medici, the daughter of Cosimo, reigning in
+Florence. She was a beautiful and evil woman, and those who have
+endeavoured to make a martyr of her forget the nameless doings of her
+youth. Giordano was weak and extravagant, and paid little attention to
+his wife. She consoled herself with his kinsman, the young and handsome
+Troilo Orsini, who was as constantly at her side as an official
+'cavalier servente' of later days. But the fat Giordano, indolent and
+pleasure seeking, saw nothing. Nor is there anything much more than
+vulgar and commonplace in all this.
+
+Paolo Giordano meets Vittoria Peretti in Rome, and the two commonplaces
+begin the tragedy. On his part, love at first sight; ridiculous, at
+first, when one thinks of his vast bulk and advancing years, terrible,
+by and by, as the hereditary passions of his fierce race could be,
+backed by the almost boundless power which a great Italian lord
+possessed in his surroundings. Vittoria, tired of her dull and virtuous
+husband and of the lectures and parsimony of his uncle, and not dreaming
+that the latter was soon to be Pope, saw herself in a dream of glory
+controlling every mood and action of the greatest noble in the land. And
+she met Giordano again and again, and he pleaded and implored, and was
+alternately ridiculous and almost pathetic in his hopeless passion for
+the notary's daughter. But she had no thought of yielding to his
+entreaties. She would have marriage, or nothing. Neither words nor gifts
+could move her.
+
+She had a husband, he had a wife; and she demanded that he should marry
+her, and was grimly silent as to the means. Until she was married to him
+he should not so much as touch the tips of her jewelled fingers, nor
+have a lock of her hair to wear in his bosom. He was blindly in love,
+and he was Paolo Giordano Orsini. It was not likely that he should
+hesitate. He who had seen nothing of his wife's doings, suddenly saw his
+kinsman, Troilo, and Isabella was doomed. Troilo fled to Paris, and
+Orsini took Isabella from Bracciano to the lonely castle of Galera.
+There he told her his mind and strangled her, as was his right, being
+feudal lord and master with powers of life and death. Then from
+Bracciano he sent messengers to kill Francesco Peretti. One of them had
+a slight acquaintance with the Cardinal's nephew.
+
+They came to the Villa Negroni by night, and called him out, saying that
+his best friend was in need of him, and was waiting for him at Monte
+Cavallo. He hesitated, for it was very late. They had torches and
+weapons, and would protect him, they said. Still he wavered. Then
+Vittoria, his wife, scoffed at him, and called him coward, and thrust
+him out to die; for she knew. The men walked beside him with their
+torches, talking as they went. They passed the deserted land in the
+Baths of Diocletian, and turned at Saint Bernard's Church to go towards
+the Quirinal. Then they put out the lights and killed him quickly in the
+dark.
+
+His body lay there all night, and when it was told the next day that
+Montalto's nephew had been murdered, the two men said that they had left
+him at Monte Cavallo and that he must have been killed as he came home
+alone. The Cardinal buried him without a word, and though he guessed the
+truth he asked neither vengeance nor justice of the Pope.
+
+[Illustration: VILLA NEGRONI
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+Gregory the Thirteenth guessed it, too, and when Orsini would have
+married Vittoria, the Pope forbade the banns and interdicted their union
+for ever. That much he dared to do against the greatest peer in the
+country.
+
+To this, Orsini replied by plighting his faith to Vittoria with a ring,
+in the presence of a serving woman, an irregular ceremony which he
+afterwards described as a marriage, and he thereupon took his bride and
+her mother under his protection. The Pope retorted by a determined
+effort to arrest the murderers of Francesco; the Bargello and his men
+went in the evening to the Orsini palace at Pompey's Theatre and
+demanded that Giordano should give up the criminals; the porter replied
+that the Duke was asleep; the Orsini men-at-arms lunged out with their
+weapons, looked on during the interview, and considering the presence of
+the Bargello derogatory to their master, drove him away, killing one of
+his men and wounding several others. Thereupon Pope Gregory forbade the
+Duke from seeing Vittoria or communicating with her by messengers, on
+pain of a fine of ten thousand gold ducats, an order to which Orsini
+would have paid no attention but which Vittoria was too prudent to
+disregard, and she retired to her brother's house, leaving the Duke in a
+state of frenzied rage that threatened insanity. Then the Pope seemed to
+waver again, and then again learning that the lovers saw each other
+constantly in spite of his commands, he suddenly had Vittoria seized and
+imprisoned in Sant' Angelo. It is impossible to follow the long struggle
+that ensued. It lasted four years, at the end of which time the Duke and
+Vittoria were living at Bracciano, where the Orsini was absolute lord
+and master and beyond the jurisdiction of the Church--two hours' ride
+from the gates of Rome. But no further formality of marriage had taken
+place and Vittoria was not satisfied. Then Gregory the Thirteenth died.
+
+During the vacancy of the Holy See, all interdictions of the late Pope
+were suspended. Instantly Giordano determined to be married, and came to
+Rome with Vittoria. They believed that the Conclave would last some time
+and were making their arrangements without haste, living in Pompey's
+Theatre, when a messenger brought word that Cardinal Montalto would
+surely be elected Pope within a few hours. In the fortress is the small
+family church of Santa Maria di Grotta Pinta. The Duke sent down word to
+his chaplain that the latter must marry him at once. That night a
+retainer of the house had been found murdered at the gate; his body lay
+on a trestle bier before the altar of the chapel when the Duke's message
+came; the Duke himself and Vittoria were already in the little winding
+stair that leads down from the apartments; there was not a moment to be
+lost; the frightened chaplain and the messenger hurriedly raised a
+marble slab which closed an unused vault, dropped the murdered man's
+body into the chasm, and had scarcely replaced the stone when the ducal
+pair entered the church. The priest married them before the altar in
+fear and trembling, and when they were gone entered the whole story in
+the little register in the sacristy. The leaf is extant.
+
+Within a few hours, Montalto was Pope, the humble cardinal was changed
+in a moment to the despotic pontiff, whose nephew's murder was
+unavenged; instead of the vacillating Gregory, Orsini had to face the
+terrible Sixtus, and his defeat and exile were foregone conclusions. He
+could no longer hold his own and he took refuge in the States of Venice,
+where his kinsman, Ludovico, was a fortunate general. He made a will
+which divided his personal estate between Vittoria and his son,
+Virginio, greatly to the woman's advantage; and overcome by the
+infirmity of his monstrous size, spent by the terrible passions of his
+later years, and broken in heart by an edict of exile which he could no
+longer defy, he died at Salo within seven months of his great enemy's
+coronation, in the forty-ninth year of his age.
+
+Vittoria retired to Padua, and the authorities declared the inheritance
+valid, but Ludovico Orsini's long standing hatred of her was inflamed to
+madness by the conditions of the will. Six weeks after the Duke's death,
+at evening, Vittoria was in her chamber; her boy brother, Flaminio, was
+singing a Miserere to his lute by the fire in the great hall. A sound of
+quick feet, the glare of torches, and Ludovico's masked men filled the
+house. Vittoria died bravely with one deep stab in her heart. The boy,
+Flaminio, was torn to pieces with seventy-four wounds.
+
+But Venice would permit no such outrageous deeds. Ludovico was besieged
+in his house, by horse and foot and artillery, and was taken alive with
+many of his men and swiftly conveyed to Venice; and a week had not
+passed from the day of the murder before he was strangled by the
+Bargello in the latter's own room, with the red silk cord by which it
+was a noble's privilege to die. The first one broke, and they had to
+take another, but Ludovico Orsini did not wince. An hour later his body
+was borne out with forty torches, in solemn procession, to lie in state
+in Saint Mark's Church. His men were done to death with hideous tortures
+in the public square. So ended the story of Vittoria Accoramboni.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+REGION VI PARIONE
+
+
+The principal point of this Region is Piazza Navona, which exactly
+coincides with Domitian's race-course, and the Region consists of an
+irregular triangle of which the huge square is at the northern angle,
+the western one being the Piazza della Chiesa Nuova and the southern
+extremity the theatre of Pompey, so often referred to in these pages as
+one of the Orsini's strongholds and containing the little church in
+which Paolo Giordano married Vittoria Accoramboni, close to the Campo
+dei Fiori which was the place of public executions by fire. The name
+Parione is said to be derived from the Latin 'Paries,' a wall, applied
+to a massive remnant of ancient masonry which once stood somewhere in
+the Via di Parione. It matters little; nor can we find any satisfactory
+explanation of the gryphon which serves as a device for the whole
+quarter, included during the Middle Age, with Ponte and Regola, in the
+large portion of the city dominated by the Orsini.
+
+The Befana, which is a corruption of Epifania, the Feast of the
+Epiphany, is and always has been the season of giving presents in Rome,
+corresponding with our Christmas; and the Befana is personated as a
+gruff old woman who brings gifts to little children after the manner of
+our Saint Nicholas. But in the minds of Romans, from earliest childhood,
+the name is associated with the night fair, opened on the eve of the
+Epiphany in Piazza Navona, and which was certainly one of the most
+extraordinary popular festivals ever invented to amuse children and make
+children of grown people, a sort of foreshadowing of Carnival, but
+having at the same time a flavour and a colour of its own, unlike
+anything else in the world.
+
+During the days after Christmas a regular line of booths is erected,
+encircling the whole circus-shaped space. It is a peculiarity of Roman
+festivals that all the material for adornment is kept together from year
+to year, ready for use at a moment's notice, and when one sees the
+enormous amount of lumber required for the Carnival, for the fireworks
+on the Pincio, or for the Befana, one cannot help wondering where it is
+all kept. From year to year it lies somewhere, in those vast
+subterranean places and great empty houses used for that especial
+purpose, of which only Romans guess the extent. When needed, it is
+suddenly produced without confusion, marked and numbered, ready to be
+put together and regilt or repainted, or hung with the acres of
+draperies which Latins know so well how to display in everything
+approaching to public pageantry.
+
+At dark, on the Eve of the Epiphany, the Befana begins. The hundreds of
+booths are choked with toys and gleam with thousands of little lights,
+the open spaces are thronged by a moving crowd, the air splits with the
+infernal din of ten thousand whistles and tin trumpets. Noise is the
+first consideration for a successful befana, noise of any kind, shrill,
+gruff, high, low--any sort of noise; and the first purchase of everyone
+who comes must be a tin horn, a pipe, or one of those grotesque little
+figures of painted earthenware, representing some characteristic type of
+Roman life and having a whistle attached to it, so cleverly modelled in
+the clay as to produce the most hideous noises without even the addition
+of a wooden plug. But anything will do. On a memorable night nearly
+thirty years ago, the whole cornopean stop of an organ was sold in the
+fair, amounting to seventy or eighty pipes with their reeds. The
+instrument in the old English Protestant Church outside of Porta del
+Popolo had been improved, and the organist, who was a practical
+Anglo-Saxon, conceived the original and economical idea of selling the
+useless pipes at the night fair for the benefit of the church. The
+braying of the high, cracked reeds was frightful and never to be
+forgotten.
+
+Round and round the square, three generations of families, children,
+parents and even grandparents, move in a regular stream, closer and
+closer towards midnight and supper-time; nor is the place deserted till
+three o'clock in the morning. Toys everywhere, original with an
+attractive ugliness, nine-tenths of them made of earthenware dashed with
+a kind of bright and harmless paint of which every Roman child remembers
+the taste for life; and old and young and middle-aged all blow their
+whistles and horns with solemnly ridiculous pertinacity, pausing only to
+make some little purchase at the booths, or to exchange a greeting with
+passing friends, followed by an especially vigorous burst of noise as
+the whistles are brought close to each other's ears, and the party that
+can make the more atrocious din drives the other half deafened from the
+field. And the old women who help to keep the booths sit warming their
+skinny hands over earthen pots of coals and looking on without a smile
+on their Sibylline faces, while their sons and daughters sell clay
+hunchbacks and little old women of clay, the counterparts of their
+mothers, to the passing customers. Thousands upon thousands of people
+throng the place, and it is warm with the presence of so much humanity,
+even under the clear winter sky. And there is no confusion, no
+accident, no trouble, there are no drunken men and no pickpockets. But
+Romans are not like other people.
+
+In a few days all is cleared away again, and Bernini's great fountain
+faces Borromini's big Church of Saint Agnes, in the silence; and the
+officious guide tells the credulous foreigner how the figure of the Nile
+in the group is veiling his head to hide the sight of the hideous
+architecture, and how the face of the Danube expresses the River God's
+terror lest the tower should fall upon him; and how the architect
+retorted upon the sculptor by placing Saint Agnes on the summit of the
+church, in the act of reassuring the Romans as to the safety of her
+shrine; and again, how Bernini's enemies said that the obelisk of the
+fountain was tottering, till he came alone on foot and tied four lengths
+of twine to the four corners of the pedestal, and fastened the strings
+to the nearest houses, in derision, and went away laughing. It was at
+that time that he modelled four grinning masks for the corners of his
+sedan-chair, so that they seemed to be making scornful grimaces at his
+detractors as he was carried along. He could afford to laugh. He had
+been the favourite of Urban the Eighth who, when Cardinal Barberini, had
+actually held the looking-glass by the aid of which the handsome young
+sculptor modelled his own portrait in the figure of David with the
+sling, now in the Museum of Villa Borghese. After a brief period of
+disgrace under the next reign, brought about by the sharpness of his
+Neapolitan tongue, Bernini was restored to the favour of Innocent the
+Tenth, the Pamfili Pope, to please whose economical tastes he executed
+the fountain in Piazza Navona, after a design greatly reduced in extent
+as well as in beauty, compared with the first he had sketched. But an
+account of Bernini would lead far and profit little; the catalogue of
+his works would fill a small volume; and after all, he was successful
+only in an age when art had fallen low. In place of Michelangelo's
+universal genius, Bernini possessed a born Neapolitan's universal
+facility. He could do something of everything, circumstances gave him
+enormous opportunities, and there were few things which he did not
+attempt, from classic sculpture to the final architecture of Saint
+Peter's and the fortifications of Sant' Angelo. He was afflicted by the
+hereditary giantism of the Latins, and was often moved by motives of
+petty spite against his inferior rival, Borromini. His best work is the
+statue of Saint Teresa in Santa Maria della Vittoria, a figure which has
+recently excited the ecstatic admiration of a French critic, expressed
+in language that betrays at once the fault of the conception, the taste
+of the age in which Bernini lived, and the unhealthy nature of the
+sculptor's prolific talent. Only the seventeenth century could have
+represented such a disquieting fusion of the sensuous and the
+spiritual, and it was reserved for the decadence of our own days to find
+words that could describe it. Bernini has been praised as the
+Michelangelo of his day, but no one has yet been bold enough, or foolish
+enough, to call Michelangelo the Bernini of the sixteenth century.
+Barely sixty years elapsed between the death of the one and birth of the
+other, and the space of a single lifetime separates the zenith of the
+Renascence from the nadir of Barocco art.
+
+[Illustration: PIAZZA NAVONA]
+
+The names of Bernini and of Piazza Navona recall Innocent the Tenth, who
+built the palace beside the Church of Saint Agnes, his meannesses, his
+nepotism, his weakness, and his miserable end; how his relatives
+stripped him of all they could lay hands on, and how at the last, when
+he died in the only shirt he possessed, covered by a single ragged
+blanket, his sister-in-law, Olimpia Maldachini, dragged from beneath his
+pallet bed the two small chests of money which he had succeeded in
+concealing to the end. A brass candlestick with a single burning taper
+stood beside him in his last moments, and before he was quite dead, a
+servant stole it and put a wooden one in its place. When he was dead at
+the Quirinal, his body was carried to Saint Peter's in a bier so short
+that the poor Pope's feet stuck out over the end, and three days later,
+no one could be found to pay for the burial. Olimpia declared that she
+was a starving widow and could do nothing; the corpse was thrust into a
+place where the masons of the Vatican kept their tools, and one of the
+workmen, out of charity or superstition, lit a tallow candle beside it.
+In the end, the maggiordomo paid for a deal coffin, and Monsignor Segni
+gave five scudi--an English pound--to have the body taken away and
+buried. It was slung between two mules and taken by night to the Church
+of Saint Agnes, where in the changing course of human and domestic
+events, it ultimately got an expensive monument in the worst possible
+taste. The learned and sometimes witty Baracconi, who has set down the
+story, notes the fact that Leo the Tenth, Pius the Fourth and Gregory
+the Sixteenth fared little better in their obsequies, and he comments
+upon the democratic spirit of a city in which such things can happen.
+
+Close to the Piazza Navona stands the famous mutilated group, known as
+Pasquino, of which the mere name conveys a better idea of the Roman
+character than volumes of description, for it was here that the
+pasquinades were published, by affixing them to a pedestal at the corner
+of the Palazzo Braschi. And one of Pasquino's bitterest jests was
+directed against Olimpia Maldachini. Her name was cut in two, to make a
+good Latin pun: 'Olim pia, nunc impia,' 'once pious, now impious,' or
+'Olimpia, now impious,' as one chose to join or separate the syllables.
+Whole books have been filled with the short and pithy imaginary
+conversations between Marforio, the statue of a river god which used to
+stand in the Monti, and Pasquino, beneath whom the Roman children used
+to be told that the book of all wisdom was buried for ever.
+
+In the Region of Parione stands the famous Cancelleria, a masterpiece of
+Bramante's architecture, celebrated for many events in the later history
+of Rome, and successively the princely residence of several cardinals,
+chief of whom was that strong Pompeo Colonna, the ally of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth, who was responsible for the sacking of Rome by the
+Constable of Bourbon, who ultimately ruined the Holy League, and imposed
+his terrible terms of peace upon Clement the Seventh, a prisoner in
+Sant' Angelo. Considering the devastation and the horrors which were the
+result of that contest, and its importance in Rome's history, it is
+worth while to tell the story again. Connected with it was the last
+great struggle between Orsini and Colonna, Orsini, as usual, siding for
+the Pope, and therefore for the Holy League, and Colonna for the
+Emperor.
+
+Charles the Fifth had vanquished Francis the First at Pavia, in the year
+1525, and had taken the French King prisoner. A year later the Holy
+League was formed, between Pope Clement the Seventh, the King of France,
+the Republics of Venice and Florence, and Francesco Sforza, Duke of
+Milan. Its object was to fight the Emperor, to sustain Sforza, and to
+seize the Kingdom of Naples by force. Immediately upon the proclamation
+of the League, the Emperor's ambassadors left Rome, the Colonna retired
+to their strongholds, and the Emperor made preparations to send Charles,
+Duke of Bourbon, the disgraced relative of King Francis, to storm Rome
+and reduce the imprisoned Pope to submission. The latter's first and
+nearest source of fear lay in the Colonna, who held the fortresses and
+passes between Rome and the Neapolitan frontier, and his first instinct
+was to attack them with the help of the Orsini. But neither side was
+ready for the fight, and the timid Pontiff eagerly accepted the promise
+of peace made by the Colonna in order to gain time, and he dismissed the
+forces he had hastily raised against them.
+
+[Illustration: PALAZZO MASSIMO ALLE COLONNA]
+
+[Illustration: PONTE SISTO
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+They, in the mean time, treated with Moncada, Regent of Naples for the
+Emperor, and at once seized Anagni, put several thousand men in the
+field, marched upon Rome with incredible speed, seized three gates in
+the night, and entered the city in triumph on the following morning. The
+Pope and the Orsini, completely taken by surprise, offered little or no
+resistance. According to some writers, it was Pompeo Colonna's daring
+plan to murder the Pope, force his own election to the Pontificate by
+arms, destroy the Orsini, and open Rome to Charles the Fifth; and when
+the Colonna advanced on the same day, by Ponte Sisto, to Trastevere, and
+threatened to attack Saint Peter's and the Vatican, Clement the Seventh,
+remembering Sciarra and Pope Boniface, was on the point of imitating
+the latter and arraying himself in his Pontifical robes to await his
+enemy with such dignity as he could command. But the remonstrances of
+the more prudent cardinals prevailed, and about noon they conveyed him
+safely to Sant' Angelo by the secret covered passage, leaving the
+Colonna to sack Trastevere and even Saint Peter's itself, though they
+dared not come too near to Sant' Angelo for fear of its cannons. The
+tumult over at last, Don Ugo de Moncada, in the Emperor's name, took
+possession of the Pope's two nephews as hostages for his own safety,
+entered Sant' Angelo under a truce, and stated the Emperor's conditions
+of peace. These were, to all intents and purposes, that the Pope should
+withdraw his troops, wherever he had any, and that the Emperor should be
+free to advance wherever he pleased, except through the Papal States,
+that the Pope should give hostages for his good faith, and that he
+should grant a free pardon to all the Colonna, who vaguely agreed to
+withdraw their forces into the Kingdom of Naples. To this humiliating
+peace, or armistice, for it was nothing more, the Pope was forced by the
+prospect of starvation, and he would even have agreed to sail to
+Barcelona in order to confer with the Emperor; but from this he was
+ultimately dissuaded by Henry the Eighth of England and the King of
+France, 'who sent him certain sums of money and promised him their
+support.' The consequence was that he broke the truce as soon as he
+dared, deprived the Cardinal of his hat, and, with the help of the
+Orsini, attacked the Colonna by surprise on their estates, giving orders
+to burn their castles and raze their fortresses to the ground. Four
+villages were burned before the surprised party could recover itself;
+but with some assistance from the imperial troops they were soon able to
+face their enemies on equal terms, and the little war raged fiercely
+during several months, with varying success and all possible cruelty on
+both sides.
+
+Meanwhile Charles, Duke of Bourbon, known as the Constable, and more or
+less in the pay of the Emperor, had gathered an army in Lombardy. His
+force consisted of the most atrocious ruffians of the time,--Lutheran
+Germans, superstitious Spaniards, revolutionary Italians, and such other
+nondescripts as would join his standard,--all fellows who had in reality
+neither country nor conscience, and were ready to serve any soldier of
+fortune who promised them plunder and license. The predominating element
+was Spanish, but there was not much to choose among them all so far as
+their instincts were concerned. Charles was penniless, as usual; he
+offered his horde of cutthroats the rich spoils of Tuscany and Rome,
+they swore to follow him to death and perdition, and he began his
+southward march. The Emperor looked on with an approving eye, and the
+Pope was overcome by abject terror. In the vain hope of saving himself
+and the city he concluded a truce with the Viceroy of Naples, agreeing
+to pay sixty thousand ducats, to give back everything taken from the
+Colonna, and to restore Pompeo to the honours of the cardinalate. The
+conditions of the armistice were forthwith carried out, by the
+disbanding of the Pope's hired soldiers and the payment of the
+indemnity, and Clement the Seventh enjoyed during a few weeks the
+pleasant illusion of fancied safety.
+
+He awoke from the dream, in horror and fear, to find that the Constable
+considered himself in no way bound by a peace concluded with the
+Emperor's Viceroy, and was advancing rapidly upon Rome, ravaging and
+burning everything in his way. Hasty preparations for defence were made;
+a certain Renzo da Ceri armed such men as he could enlist with such
+weapons as he could find, and sent out a little force of grooms and
+artificers to face the Constable's ruthless Spaniards and the fierce
+Germans of his companion freebooter, George of Fransperg, or Franzberg,
+who carried about a silken cord by which he swore to strangle the Pope
+with his own hands. The enemy reached the walls of Rome on the night of
+the fifth of May; devastation and famine lay behind them in their track,
+the plunder of the Church was behind the walls, and far from northward
+came rumours of the army of the League on its way to cut off their
+retreat. They resolved to win the spoil or die, and at dawn the
+Constable, clad in a white cloak, led the assault and set up the first
+scaling ladder, close to the Porta San Spirito. In the very act a bullet
+struck him in a vital part and he fell headlong to the earth. Benvenuto
+Cellini claimed the credit of the shot, but it is more than probable
+that it sped from another hand, that of Bernardino Passeri; it matters
+little now, it mattered less then, as the infuriated Spaniards stormed
+the walls in the face of Camillo Orsini's desperate and hopeless
+resistance, yelling 'Blood and the Bourbon,' for a war-cry.
+
+Once more the wretched Pope fled along the secret corridor with his
+cardinals, his prelates and his servants; for although he might yet have
+escaped from the doomed city, messengers had brought word that Cardinal
+Pompeo Colonna had ten thousand men-at-arms in the Campagna, ready to
+cut off his flight, and he was condemned to be a terrified spectator of
+Rome's destruction from the summit of a fortress which he dared not
+surrender and could hardly hope to defend. Seven thousand Romans were
+slaughtered in the storming of the walls; the enemy gained all
+Trastevere at a blow and the sack began; the torrent of fury poured
+across Ponte Sisto into Rome itself, thousands upon thousands of
+steel-clad madmen, drunk with blood and mad with the glitter of gold, a
+storm of unimaginable terror. Cardinals, Princes and Ambassadors were
+dragged from their palaces, and when greedy hands had gathered up all
+that could be taken away, fire consumed the rest, and the miserable
+captives were tortured into promising fabulous ransoms for life and
+limb. Abbots, priors and heads of religious orders were treated with
+like barbarity, and the few who escaped the clutches of the bloodthirsty
+Spanish soldiers fell into the reeking hands of the brutal German
+adventurers. The enormous sum of six million ducats was gathered
+together in value of gold and silver bullion and of precious things, and
+as much more was extorted as promised ransom from the gentlemen and
+churchmen and merchants of Rome by the savage tortures of the lash, the
+iron boot and the rack. The churches were stripped of all consecrated
+vessels, the Sacred Wafers were scattered abroad by the Catholic
+Spaniards and trampled in the bloody ooze that filled the ways, the
+convents were stormed by a rabble in arms and the nuns were distributed
+as booty among their fiendish captors, mothers and children were
+slaughtered in the streets and drunken Spaniards played dice for the
+daughters of honourable citizens.
+
+From the surrounding Campagna the Colonna entered the city in arms,
+orderly, silent and sober, and from their well-guarded fortresses they
+contemplated the ruin they had brought upon Rome. Cardinal Pompeo
+installed himself in his palace of the Cancelleria in the Region of
+Parione, and gave shelter to such of his friends as might be useful to
+him thereafter. In revenge upon John de' Medici, the Captain of the
+Black Bands, whose assistance the Pope had invoked, the Cardinal caused
+the Villa Medici on Monte Mario to be burned to the ground, and Clement
+the Seventh watched the flames from the ramparts of Sant' Angelo. One
+good action is recorded of the savage churchman. He ransomed and
+protected in his house the wife and the daughter of that Giorgio
+Santacroce who had murdered the Cardinal's father by night, when the
+Cardinal himself was an infant in arms, more than forty years earlier;
+and he helped some of his friends to escape by a chimney from the room
+in which they had been confined and tortured into promising a ransom
+they could not pay. But beyond those few acts he did little to mitigate
+the horrors of the month-long sack, and nothing to relieve the city from
+the yoke of its terrible captors. The Holy League sent a small force to
+the Pope's assistance and it reached the gates of Rome; but the
+Spaniards were in possession of immense stores of ammunition and
+provisions, they had more horses than they needed and more arms than
+they could bear; the forces of the League had traversed a country in
+which not a blade of grass had been left undevoured nor a measure of
+corn uneaten; and the avengers of the dead Constable, securely fortified
+within the walls, looked down with contempt upon an army already
+decimated by sickness and starvation.
+
+At this juncture, Clement the Seventh resolved to abandon further
+resistance and sue for peace. The guns of Sant' Angelo had all but fired
+their last shot, and the supply of food was nearly exhausted, when the
+Pope sent for Cardinal Colonna; the churchman consented to a parley, and
+the man who had suffered confiscation and disgrace entered the castle as
+the arbiter of destiny. He was received as the mediator of peace and a
+benefactor of humanity, and when he stated his terms they were not
+refused. The Pope and the thirteen Cardinals who were with him were to
+remain prisoners until the payment of four hundred thousand ducats of
+gold, after which they were to be conducted to Naples to await the
+further pleasure of the Emperor; the Colonna were to be absolutely and
+freely pardoned for all they had done; in the hope of some subsequent
+assistance the Pope promised to make Cardinal Colonna the Legate of the
+Marches. As a hostage for the performance of these and other conditions,
+Cardinal Orsini was delivered over to his enemy, who conducted him as
+his prisoner to the Castle of Grottaferrata, and the Colonna secretly
+agreed to allow the Pope to go free from Sant' Angelo. On the night of
+December the ninth, seven months after the storming of the city, the
+head of the Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church fled from the
+castle in the humble garb of a market gardener, and made good his escape
+to Orvieto and to the protection of the Holy League.
+
+Meanwhile a pestilence had broken out in Rome, and the spectre of a
+mysterious and mortal sickness distracted those who had survived the
+terrors of sword and flame. The Spanish and German soldiery either fell
+victims to the plague or deserted in haste and fear; and though Cardinal
+Pompeo's peace contained no promise that the city should be evacuated,
+it was afterwards stated upon credible authority that, within two years
+from their coming, not one of the barbarous horde was left alive within
+the walls. When all was over the city was little more than a heap of
+ruins, but the Colonna had been victorious, and were sated with revenge.
+This, in brief, is the history of the storming and sacking of Rome which
+took place in the year 1527, at the highest development of the
+Renascence, in the youth of Benvenuto Cellini, when Michelangelo had not
+yet painted the Last Judgment, when Titian was just fifty years old, and
+when Raphael and Lionardo da Vinci were but lately dead; and the
+contrast between the sublimity of art and the barbarity of human nature
+in that day is only paralleled in the annals of our own century, at once
+the bloodiest and the most civilized in the history of the world.
+
+The Cancelleria, wherein Pompeo Colonna sheltered the wife and daughter
+of his father's murderer, is remembered for some modern political
+events: for the opening of the first representative parliament under
+Pius the Ninth, in 1848, for the assassination of the Pope's minister,
+Pellegrino Rossi, on the steps of the entrance in the same year, and as
+the place where the so-called Roman Republic was proclaimed in 1849. But
+it is most of all interesting for the nobility of its proportions and
+the simplicity of its architecture. It is undeniably, and almost
+undeniedly, the best building in Rome today, though that may not be
+saying much in a city which has been more exclusively the prey of the
+Barocco than any other.
+
+[Illustration: THE CANCELLERIA
+
+From a print of the last century]
+
+The Palace of the Massimo, once built to follow the curve of a narrow
+winding street, but now facing the same great thoroughfare as the
+Cancelleria, has something of the same quality, with a wholly different
+character. It is smaller and more gloomy, and its columns are almost
+black with age; it was here, in 1455, that Pannartz and Schweinheim, two
+of those nomadic German scholars who have not yet forgotten the road to
+Italy, established their printing-press in the house of Pietro de'
+Massimi, and here took place one of those many romantic tragedies which
+darkened the end of the sixteenth century. For a certain Signore
+Massimo, in the year 1585, had been married and had eight sons, mostly
+grown men, when he fell in love with a light-hearted lady of more wit
+than virtue, and announced that he would make her his wife, though his
+sons warned him that they would not bear the slight upon their mother's
+memory. The old man, infatuated and beside himself with love, would not
+listen to them, but published the banns, married the woman, and brought
+her home for his wife.
+
+One of the sons, the youngest, was too timid to join the rest; but on
+the next morning the seven others went to the bridal apartment, and
+killed their step-mother when their father was away. But he came back
+before she was quite dead, and he took the Crucifix from the wall by the
+bed and cursed his children. And the curse was fulfilled upon them.
+
+Parione is the heart of Mediaeval Rome, the very centre of that black
+cloud of mystery which hangs over the city of the Middle Age. A history
+might be composed out of Pasquin's sayings, volumes have been written
+about Cardinal Pompeo Colonna and the ruin he wrought, whole books have
+been filled with the life and teachings and miracles of Saint Philip
+Neri, who belonged to this quarter, erected here his great oratory, and
+is believed to have recalled from the dead a youth of the house of
+Massimo in that same gloomy palace.
+
+The story of Rome is a tale of murder and sudden death, varied,
+changing, never repeated in the same way; there is blood on every
+threshold; a tragedy lies buried in every church and chapel; and again
+we ask in vain wherein lies the magic of the city that has fed on terror
+and grown old in carnage, the charm that draws men to her, the power
+that holds, the magic that enthralls men soul and body, as Lady Venus
+cast her spells upon Tannhaeuser in her mountain of old. Yet none deny
+it, and as centuries roll on, the poets, the men of letters, the
+musicians, the artists of all ages, have come to her from far countries
+and have dwelt here while they might, some for long years, some for the
+few months they could spare; and all of them have left something, a
+verse, a line, a sketch, a song that breathes the threefold mystery of
+love, eternity and death.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+A
+
+Abruzzi, i. 159; ii. 230
+
+Accoramboni, Flaminio, i. 296
+  Vittoria, i. 135, 148, 289-296, 297
+
+Agrarian Law, i. 23
+
+Agrippa, i. 90, 271; ii. 102
+  the Younger, ii. 103
+
+Alaric, i. 252; ii. 297
+
+Alba Longa, i. 3, 78, 130
+
+Albergo dell' Orso, i. 288
+
+Alberic, ii. 29
+
+Albornoz, ii. 19, 20, 74
+
+Aldobrandini, i. 209; ii. 149
+  Olimpia, i. 209
+
+Alfonso, i. 185
+
+Aliturius, ii. 103
+
+Altieri, i. 226; ii. 45
+
+Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 132, 133, 138
+
+Amphitheatre, Flavian, i. 91, 179
+
+Amulius, i. 3
+
+Anacletus, ii. 295, 296, 304
+
+Anagni, i. 161, 165, 307; ii. 4, 5
+
+Ancus Martius, i. 4
+
+Angelico, Beato, ii. 158, 169, 190-192, 195, 285
+
+Anguillara, i. 278; ii. 138
+  Titta della, ii. 138, 139
+
+Anio, the, i. 93
+  Novus, i. 144
+  Vetus, i. 144
+
+Annibaleschi, Riccardo degli, i. 278
+
+Antiochus, ii. 120
+
+Antipope--
+  Anacletus, ii. 84
+  Boniface, ii. 28
+  Clement, i. 126
+  Gilbert, i. 127
+  John of Calabria, ii. 33-37
+
+Antonelli, Cardinal, ii. 217, 223, 224
+
+Antonina, i. 266
+
+Antonines, the, i. 113, 191, 271
+
+Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, i. 46, 96, 113, 114, 190, 191
+
+Appian Way, i. 22, 94
+
+Appius Claudius, i. 14, 29
+
+Apulia, Duke of, i. 126, 127; ii. 77
+
+Aqua Virgo, i. 155
+
+Aqueduct of Claudius, i. 144
+
+Arbiter, Petronius, i. 85
+
+Arch of--
+  Arcadius, i. 192
+  Claudius, i. 155
+  Domitian, i. 191, 205
+  Gratian, i. 191
+  Marcus Aurelius, i. 96, 191, 205
+  Portugal, i. 205
+  Septimius Severus, ii. 93
+  Valens, i. 191
+
+Archive House, ii. 75
+
+Argiletum, the, i. 72
+
+Ariosto, ii. 149, 174
+
+Aristius, i. 70, 71
+
+Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73, 76-89
+
+Arnulf, ii. 41
+
+Art, i. 87; ii 152
+  and morality, i. 260, 261; ii. 178, 179
+    religion, i. 260, 261
+  Barocco, i. 303, 316
+  Byzantine in Italy, ii. 155, 184, 185
+  development of taste in, ii. 198
+  factors in the progress of art, ii. 181
+    engraving, ii. 186
+    improved tools, ii. 181
+    individuality, i. 262; ii. 175-177
+  Greek influence on, i. 57-63
+  modes of expression of, ii. 181
+    fresco, ii. 181-183
+    oil painting, ii. 184-186
+  of the Renascence, i. 231, 262; ii. 154
+  phases of, in Italy, ii. 188
+  progress of, during the Middle Age, ii. 166, 180
+  transition from handicraft to, ii. 153
+
+Artois, Count of, i. 161
+
+Augustan Age, i. 57-77
+
+Augustulus, i. 30, 47, 53; ii. 64
+
+Augustus, i. 30, 43-48, 69, 82, 89, 90, 184, 219, 251, 252, 254, 270;
+    ii. 64, 75, 95,102, 291
+
+Aurelian, i. 177, 179, 180; ii. 150
+
+Avalos, Francesco, d', i. 174, 175
+
+Aventine, the, i. 23, 76; ii. 10, 40, 85, 119-121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129,
+132, 302
+
+Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. 6, 9
+
+
+B
+
+Bacchanalia, ii. 122
+
+Bacchic worship, i. 76; ii. 120
+
+Bajazet the Second, Sultan, i. 276
+
+Baracconi, i. 104, 141, 178, 188, 252, 264, 274, 304; ii. 41, 45, 128, 130,
+138, 323
+
+Barberi, i. 202
+
+Barberini, the, i. 157, 187, 226, 268, 301; ii. 7
+
+Barbo, i. 202; ii. 45
+
+Barcelona, i. 308
+
+Bargello, the, i. 129, 293, 296; ii. 42
+
+Basil and Constantine, ii. 33
+
+Basilica (Pagan)--
+  Julia, i. 66, 71, 106; ii. 92
+
+Basilicas (Christian) of--
+  Constantine, i. 90; ii. 292, 297
+  Liberius, i. 138
+  Philip and Saint James, i. 170
+  Saint John Lateran, i. 107, 112, 117, 278, 281
+  Santa Maria Maggiore, i. 107, 135, 139, 147, 148, 166, 208, 278; ii. 118
+  Santi Apostoli, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. 213
+  Sicininus, i. 134, 138
+
+Baths, i. 91
+  of Agrippa, i. 271
+  of Caracalla, ii. 119
+  of Constantine, i. 144, 188
+  of Diocletian, i. 107, 129, 145-147, 149, 289, 292
+  of Novatus, i. 145
+  of Philippus, i. 145
+  of public, i. 144
+  of Severus Alexander, ii. 28
+  of Titus, i. 55, 107, 152
+
+Befana, the, i. 298, 299, 300; ii. 25
+
+Belisarius, i. 266, 267, 269
+
+Benediction of 1846, the, i. 183
+
+Benevento, Cola da, i. 219, 220
+
+Bernard, ii. 77-80
+
+Bernardi, Gianbattista, ii. 54
+
+Bernini, i. 147, 301, 302, 303; ii. 24
+
+Bibbiena, Cardinal, ii. 146, 285
+  Maria, ii. 146
+
+Bismarck, ii. 224, 232, 236, 237
+
+Boccaccio, i. 211, 213
+  Vineyard, the, i. 189
+
+Bologna, i. 259; ii. 58
+
+Borghese, the, i. 206, 226
+  Scipio, i. 187
+
+Borgia, the, i. 209
+  Caesar, i. 149, 151, 169, 213, 287; ii. 150, 171, 282, 283
+  Gandia, i. 149, 150, 151, 287
+  Lucrezia, i. 149, 177, 185, 287; ii. 129, 151, 174
+  Rodrigo, i. 287; ii. 242, 265, 282
+  Vanozza, i. 149, 151, 287
+
+Borgo, the Region, i. 101, 127; ii. 132, 147, 202-214, 269
+
+Borroinini, i. 301, 302; ii. 24
+
+Botticelli, ii. 188, 190, 195, 200, 276
+
+Bracci, ii. 318
+
+Bracciano, i. 282, 291, 292, 294
+  Duke of, i. 289
+
+Bramante, i. 305; ii. 144, 145, 274, 298, 322
+
+Brescia, i. 286
+
+Bridge. See _Ponte_
+  AElian, the, i. 274
+  Cestian, ii. 105
+  Fabrician, ii. 105
+  Sublician, i. 6, 23, 67; ii. 127, 294.
+
+Brotherhood of Saint John Beheaded, ii. 129, 131
+
+Brothers of Prayer and Death, i. 123, 204, 242
+
+Brunelli, ii. 244
+
+Brutus, i. 6, 12, 18, 41, 58, 80; ii. 96
+
+Buffalmacco, ii. 196
+
+Bull-fights, i. 252
+
+Burgundians, i. 251
+
+
+C
+
+Caesar, Julius, i. 29-33, 35-41, 250; ii. 102, 224, 297
+
+Caesars, the, i. 44-46, 125, 249, 252, 253; ii. 224
+  Julian, i. 252
+  Palaces of, i. 4, 191; ii. 95
+
+Caetani, i. 51, 115, 159, 161, 163, 206, 277
+  Benedict, i. 160
+
+Caligula, i. 46, 252, ii. 96
+
+Campagna, the, i. 92, 94, 158, 237, 243, 253, 282, 312; ii. 88, 107, 120
+
+Campitelli, the Region, i. 101; ii. 64
+
+Campo--
+  dei Fiori, i. 297
+  Marzo (Campus Martius), i. 65, 112, 271
+  the Region, i. 101, 248, 250, 275; ii. 6, 44
+  Vaccino, i. 128-131, 173
+
+Canale, Carle, i. 287
+
+Cancelleria, i. 102, 305, 312, 315, 316; ii. 223
+
+Canidia, i. 64; ii. 293
+
+Canossa, i. 126; ii. 307
+
+Canova, ii. 320
+
+Capet, Hugh, ii. 29
+
+Capitol, the, i. 8, 14, 24, 29, 72, 107, 112, 167, 190, 204, 278, 282;
+  ii. 12, 13, 21, 22, 52, 64, 65, 67-75, 84, 121, 148, 302
+
+Capitoline hill, i. 106, 194
+
+Captains of the Regions, i. 110, 112, 114
+  Election of, i. 112
+
+Caracci, the, i. 264
+
+Carafa, the, ii. 46, 49, 50, 56, 111
+  Cardinal, i. 186, 188; ii. 56, 204
+
+Carnival, i. 107, 193-203, 241, 298; ii. 113
+  of Saturn, i. 194
+
+Carpineto, ii. 229, 230, 232, 239, 287
+
+Carthage, i. 20, 26, 88
+
+Castagno, Andrea, ii. 89, 185
+
+Castle of--
+  Grottaferrata, i. 314
+  Petrella, i. 286
+  the Piccolomini, i. 268
+  Sant' Angelo, i. 114, 116, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 259, 278, 284, 308,
+    314; ii. 17, 28, 37, 40, 56, 59, 60, 109, 152, 202-214, 216, 269
+
+Castracane, Castruccio, i. 165, 166, 170
+
+Catacombs, the, i. 139
+  of Saint Petronilla, ii. 125
+    Sebastian, ii. 296
+
+Catanei, Vanossa de, i. 287
+
+Catharine, Queen of Cyprus, ii. 305
+
+Cathedral of Siena, i. 232
+
+Catiline, i. 27; ii. 96, 294
+
+Cato, ii. 121
+
+Catullus, i. 86
+
+Cavour, Count, ii. 90, 224, 228, 237
+
+Cellini, Benvenuto, i. 311, 315; ii. 157, 195
+
+Cenci, the, ii. 1
+  Beatrice, i. 147, 285-287; ii. 2, 129, 151
+  Francesco, i, 285; ii. 2
+
+Centra Pio, ii. 238, 239
+
+Ceri, Renzo da, i. 310
+
+Cesarini, Giuliano, i. 174; ii. 54, 89
+
+Chapel, Sixtine. See under _Vatican_
+
+Charlemagne, i. 32, 49, 51, 53, 76, 109; ii. 297
+
+Charles of Anjou, i. ii. 160
+  Albert of Sardinia, ii. 221
+  the Fifth, i. 131, 174, 206, 220, 305, 306; ii. 138
+
+Chiesa. See _Church_
+  Nuova, i. 275
+
+Chigi, the, i. 258
+  Agostino, ii. 144, 146
+  Fabio, ii. 146
+
+Christianity in Rome, i. 176
+
+Christina, Queen of Sweden, ii. 150, 151, 304, 308
+
+Chrysostom, ii. 104, 105.
+
+Churches of,--
+  the Apostles, i. 157, 170-172, 205, 241, 242; ii. 213
+  Aracoeli, i. 52, 112, 167; ii. 57, 70, 75
+  Cardinal Mazarin, i. 186
+  the Gallows, i. 284
+  Holy Guardian Angel, i. 122
+  the Minerva, ii. 55
+  the Penitentiaries, ii. 216
+  the Portuguese, i. 250
+  Saint Adrian, i. 71
+    Agnes, i. 301, 304
+    Augustine, ii. 207
+    Bernard, i. 291
+    Callixtus, ii. 125
+    Charles, i. 251
+    Eustace, ii. 23, 24, 26, 39
+    George in Velabro, i. 195; ii. 10
+    Gregory on the Aventine, ii. 129
+    Ives, i. 251; ii. 23, 24
+    John of the Florentines, i. 273
+      Pine Cone, ii. 56
+  Peter's on the Janiculum, ii. 129
+  Sylvester, i. 176
+  Saints Nereus and Achillaeus, ii. 125
+    Vincent and Anastasius, i. 186
+  San Clemente, i. 143
+    Giovanni in Laterano, i. 113
+    Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192
+      Miranda, i. 71
+    Marcello, i. 165, 192
+    Pietro in Montorio, ii. 151
+      Vincoli, i. 118, 283; ii. 322
+      Salvatore in Cacaberis, i. 112
+      Stefano Rotondo, i. 106
+  Sant' Angelo in Pescheria, i. 102; ii. 3, 10, 110
+  Santa Francesca Romana, i. 111
+    Maria de Crociferi, i. 267
+      degli Angeli, i. 146, 258, 259
+      dei Monti, i. 118
+      del Pianto, i. 113
+      di Grotto Pinta, i. 294
+      in Campo Marzo, ii. 23
+      in Via Lata, i. 142
+      Nuova, i. 111, 273
+      Transpontina, ii. 212
+      della Vittoria, i. 302
+    Prisca, ii. 124
+    Sabina, i. 278; ii. 40
+  Trinita dei Pellegrini, ii. 110
+
+Cicero, i. 45, 73; ii. 96, 294
+
+Cimabue, ii. 156, 157, 162, 163, 169, 188, 189
+
+Cinna, i. 25, 27
+
+Circolo, ii. 245
+
+Circus, the, i. 64, 253
+  Maximus, i. 64, 66; ii. 84, 119
+
+City of Augustus, i. 57-77
+  Making of the, i. 1-21
+  of Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+  of the Empire, i. 22-56
+  of the Middle Age, i. 47, 78-99, 92
+  of the Republic, i. 47
+    today, i. 55, 92
+
+Civilization, ii. 177
+  and bloodshed, ii. 218
+    morality, ii. 178
+    progress, ii. 177-180
+
+Claudius, i. 46, 255, 256;
+  ii. 102
+
+Cloelia, i. 13
+
+Coelian hill, i. 106
+
+Collegio Romano, i. 102;
+  ii. 45, 61
+
+Colonna, the, i. 51, 94, 104, 135, 153, 157-170, 172, 176, 187, 206, 217,
+    251, 252, 271, 272, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 2, 6, 8, 10, 16, 20, 37, 51, 54, 60, 106, 107, 126, 204
+  Giovanni, i. 104
+  Jacopo, i. 159, 165, 192
+  Lorenzo, ii. 126, 204-213
+  Marcantonio, i. 182; ii. 54
+  Pietro, i. 159
+  Pompeo, i. 305, 310-317; ii. 205
+  Prospero, ii. 205
+  Sciarra, i. 162-166, 192, 206, 213, 229, 279, 275, 281, 307
+  Stephen, i. 161, 165; ii. 13, 16
+    the Younger, i. 168
+  Vittoria, i. 157, 173-177; ii. 174
+  the Region, i. 101, 190-192; ii. 209
+  War between Orsini and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 12, 18, 126, 204-211
+
+Colosseum, i. 56, 86, 90, 96, 106, 107, 111, 125, 152, 153, 187, 191, 209,
+    278; ii. 25, 64, 66, 84, 97, 202, 203, 301
+
+Column of Piazza Colonna i. 190, 192
+
+Comitium, i. 112, 257, 268
+
+Commodus, i. 46, 55; ii. 97, 285
+
+Confraternities, i. 108, 204
+
+Conscript Fathers, i. 78, 112
+
+Constable of Bourbon, i. 52, 259, 273, 304, 309-311; ii. 308
+
+Constans, i. 135, 136
+
+Constantine, i. 90, 113, 163
+
+Constantinople, i. 95, 119
+
+Contests in the Forum, i. 27, 130
+
+Convent of Saint Catharine, i. 176
+
+Convent of Saint Sylvester, i. 176
+
+Corneto, Cardinal of, ii. 282, 283
+
+Cornomania, i. 141
+
+Cornutis, i. 87
+
+Coromania, i. 141, 144
+
+Corsini, the, ii. 150
+
+Corso, i. 96, 106, 108, 192, 196, 205, 206, 229, 251
+  Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275
+
+Corte Savella, i. 284; ii. 52
+
+Cosmas, the, ii. 156, 157
+
+Costa, Giovanni da, i. 205
+
+Court House, i. 71
+
+Crassus, i. 27, 31;
+  ii. 128
+
+Crawford, Thomas, i. 147
+
+Crescentius, ii. 40, 41
+
+Crescenzi, i. 114; ii. 27, 40, 209
+
+Crescenzio, ii. 28-40
+  Stefana, ii. 39
+
+Crispi, i. 116, 187
+
+Crusade, the Second, ii. 86, 105
+
+Crusades, the, i. 76
+
+Curatii, i. 3, 131
+
+Customs of early Rome, i. 9, 48
+  in dress, i. 48
+    religion, i. 48
+
+
+D
+
+Dante, i. 110; ii. 164, 175, 244
+
+Decameron, i. 239
+
+Decemvirs, i. 14; ii. 120
+
+Decrees, Semiamiran, i. 178
+
+Democracy, i. 108
+
+Development of Rome, i. 7, 18
+  some results of, i. 154
+  under Barons, i. 51
+    Decemvirs, i. 14
+    the Empire, i. 29, 30
+    Gallic invasion, i. 15-18
+    Kings, i. 2-7, 14-45
+    Middle Age, i. 47, 92, 210-247
+    Papal rule, i. 46-50
+    Republic, i. 7-14
+    Tribunes, i. 14
+
+Dictator of Rome, i. 29, 79
+
+Dietrich of Bern, ii. 297
+
+Dionysus, ii. 121
+
+Dolabella, i. 34
+
+Domenichino, ii. 147
+
+Domestic life in Rome, i. 9
+
+Dominicans, i. 158; ii. 45, 46, 49, 50, 60, 61
+
+Domitian, i. 45, 152, 205; ii. 104, 114, 124, 295
+
+Doria, the, i. 206; ii. 45
+  Albert, i. 207
+  Andrea, i. 207
+  Conrad, i. 207
+  Gian Andrea, i. 207
+  Lamba, i. 207
+  Paganino, i. 207
+
+Doria-Pamfili, i. 206-209
+
+Dress in early Rome, i. 48
+
+Drusus, ii. 102
+
+Duca, Antonio del, i. 146, 147
+  Giacomo del, i. 146
+
+Duerer, Albert, ii. 198
+
+
+E
+
+Education, ii. 179
+
+Egnatia, i. 75
+
+Elagabalus, i. 77, 177, 179; ii. 296, 297
+
+Election of the Pope, ii. 41, 42, 277
+
+Electoral Wards, i. 107
+
+Elizabeth, Queen of England, ii. 47
+
+Emperors, Roman, i. 46
+  of the East, i. 95, 126
+
+Empire of Constantinople, i. 46
+  of Rome, i. 15, 17, 22-28, 31, 45, 47, 53, 60, 72, 99
+
+Encyclicals, ii. 244
+
+Erasmus, ii. 151
+
+Esquiline, the, i. 26, 106, 139, 186; ii. 95, 131, 193
+
+Este, Ippolito d', i. 185
+
+Etruria, i. 12, 15
+
+Euodus, i. 255, 256
+
+Eustace, Saint, ii. 24, 25
+  square of, ii. 25, 42
+
+Eustachio. See _Sant' Eustachio_
+
+Eutichianus, ii. 296
+
+Eve of Saint John, i. 140
+  the Epiphany, 299
+
+
+F
+
+Fabius, i. 20
+
+Fabatosta, ii. 64, 84
+
+Farnese, the, ii. 151
+  Julia, ii. 324
+
+Farnesina, the, ii. 144, 149, 151
+
+Fathers, Roman, i. 13, 78, 79-84
+
+Ferdinand, ii. 205
+
+Ferrara, Duke of, i. 185
+
+Festivals, i. 193, 298
+  Aryan in origin, i. 173
+  Befana, i. 299-301
+  Carnival, i. 193-203
+  Church of the Apostle, i. 172, 173
+  Coromania, i. 141
+  Epifania, i. 298-301
+  Floralia, i. 141
+  Lupercalia, i. 194
+  May-day in the Campo Vaccino, i. 173
+  Saturnalia, i. 194
+  Saint John's Eve, i. 140
+
+Festus, ii. 128
+
+Feuds, family, i. 168
+
+Field of Mars. See _Campo Marzo_
+
+Finiguerra, Maso, ii. 186-188
+
+Flamen Dialis, i. 34
+
+Floralia. See _Festivals_
+
+Florence, i. 160
+
+Forli, Melozzo da, i. 171
+
+Fornarina, the, ii. 144, 146
+
+Forum, i, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 26, 27, 64, 72, 111, 126, 129, 194;
+    ii. 64, 92-94, 97, 102, 294, 295
+  of Augustus, i. 119
+  Trajan, i. 155, 171, 172, 191
+
+Fountains (Fontane) of--
+  Egeria, ii. 124
+  Trevi, i. 155, 156, 186, 267
+  Tullianum, i. 8
+
+Franconia, Duke of, ii. 36, 53
+
+Francis the First, i. 131, 174, 206, 219, 304
+
+Frangipani, i. 50, 94, 153;
+    ii. 77, 79, 84, 85
+
+Frederick, Barbarossa, ii. 34, 85, 87
+  of Naples, i. 151
+  the Second, ii. 34
+
+Fulvius, ii. 121
+
+
+G
+
+Gabrini, Lawrence, ii. 4
+  Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. 3-23, 308
+
+Gaeta, ii. 36
+
+Galba, ii. 295
+
+Galen, i. 55
+
+Galera, i. 282, 291
+
+Galileo, i. 268
+
+Gardens, i. 93
+  Caesar's, i. 66, 68
+  of Lucullus, i. 254, 270
+  of the Pigna, ii. 273
+  Pincian, i. 255
+  the Vatican, ii. 243, 271, 287
+
+Gargonius, i. 65
+
+Garibaldi, ii. 90, 219, 220, 228, 237
+
+Gastaldi, Cardinal, i. 259
+
+Gate. See _Porta_
+  the Colline, i. 250
+  Lateran, i. 126, 154
+  Septimian, ii. 144, 147
+
+Gebhardt, Emile, i. 213
+
+Gemonian Steps, ii. 67, 294
+
+Genseric, i. 96; ii. 70
+
+George of Franzburg, i. 310
+
+Gherardesca, Ugolino della, ii. 160
+
+Ghetto, i. 102; ii. 2, 101, 110-118
+
+Ghibellines, the, i. 129, 153, 158; ii. 6
+
+Ghiberti, ii. 157.
+
+Ghirlandajo, ii. 157, 172, 276
+
+Giantism, i. 90-92, 210, 302
+
+Gibbon, i. 160
+
+Giotto, ii. 157, 160-165, 169, 188, 189, 200
+
+Gladstone, ii. 231, 232
+
+Golden Milestone, i. 72, 92, 194
+
+Goldoni, i. 265
+
+Goldsmithing, ii. 156, 157, 186, 187
+
+"Good Estate" of Rienzi, ii. 10-12
+
+Gordian, i. 91
+
+Goths, ii. 297, 307.
+
+Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. 190, 195
+
+Gracchi, the, i. 22, 28
+  Caius, i. 23; ii. 84
+  Cornelia, i. 22, 24
+  Tiberius, i. 23; ii. 102
+
+Gratidianus, i. 27
+
+Guards, Noble, ii. 241, 243, 247, 248, 309, 310, 312
+  Palatine, ii. 247, 248
+  Swiss, ii. 246, 247, 310
+
+Guelphs, i. 159; ii. 42, 126, 138
+  and Ghibellines, i. 129, 153, 275; ii. 160, 162, 173
+
+Guiscard, Robert, i. 95, 126, 127, 129, 144, 252; ii. 70
+
+
+H
+
+Hadrian, i. 90, 180; i. 25, 202, 203
+
+Hannibal, i. 20
+
+Hasdrubal, i. 21
+
+Henry the Second, ii. 47
+  Fourth, i. 126, 127; ii. 307
+  Fifth, ii. 307
+  Seventh of Luxemburg, i. 273, 276-279; ii. 5
+  Eighth, i. 219; ii. 47, 274
+
+Hermann, i. 46
+
+Hermes of Olympia, i. 86
+
+Hermogenes, i. 67
+
+Hilda's Tower, i. 250
+
+Hildebrand, i. 52, 126-129; ii.
+
+Honorius, ii. 323, 324
+
+Horace, i. 44, 57-75, 85, 87;
+      ii. 293
+  and the Bore, i. 65-71
+  Camen Seculare of, i. 75
+  the Satires of, i. 73, 74
+
+Horatii, i. 3, 131
+
+Horatius, i. 5, 6, 13, 23;
+    ii. 127
+
+Horses of Monte Cavallo, i. 181
+
+Hospice of San Claudio, i. 251
+
+Hospital of--
+  Santo Spirito, i. 274; ii. 214, 215
+
+House of Parliament, i. 271
+
+Hugh of Burgundy, ii. 30
+  of Tuscany, ii. 30
+
+Huns' invasion, i. 15, 49, 132
+
+Huxley, ii. 225, 226
+
+
+I
+
+Imperia, ii. 144
+
+Infessura, Stephen, ii. 59, 60, 204-213
+
+Inn of--
+  The Bear, i. 288
+    Falcone, ii. 26
+    Lion, i. 287
+  Vanossa, i. 288
+
+Inquisition, i. 286; ii. 46, 49, 52, 53, 54
+
+Interminelli, Castruccio degli, i. 165
+
+Irene, Empress, i. 109
+
+Ischia, i. 175
+
+Island of Saint Bartholomew, i. 272; ii. 1
+
+Isola Sacra, i. 93
+
+Italian life during the Middle Age, i. 210, 247
+  from 17th to 18th centuries, i. 260, 263, 264
+
+
+J
+
+Janiculum, the, i. 15, 253, 270; ii. 268, 293, 294, 295
+
+Jesuit College, ii. 61
+
+Jesuits, ii. 45, 46, 61-63
+
+Jews, i. 96; ii. 101-119
+
+John of Cappadocia, i. 267, 268
+
+Josephus, ii. 103
+
+Juba, i. 40
+
+Jugurtha, i. 25
+
+Jupiter Capitolinus, ii. 324, 325
+  priest of, i. 80, 133
+
+Justinian, i. 267
+
+Juvenal, i. 112; ii. 105, 107, 124
+
+
+K
+
+Kings of Rome, i. 2-7
+
+
+L
+
+Lampridius, AElius, i. 178
+
+Lanciani, i. 79, 177
+
+Lateran, the, i. 106, 112-114, 129, 140-142
+  Count of, i. 166
+
+Latin language, i. 47
+
+Latini Brunetto, ii. 163
+
+Laurentum, i. 55, 93
+
+Lazaret of Saint Martha, ii. 245
+
+League, Holy, i. 305, 306, 313, 314
+
+Lentulus, ii. 128
+
+Lepida, Domitia, i. 255, 256
+
+Letus, Pomponius, i. 139; ii. 210
+
+Lewis of Bavaria, i. 165, 167, 192, 275
+  the Seventh, ii. 86, 105
+      Eleventh, i. 104, 151
+      Fourteenth, i. 253
+
+Library of--
+  Collegio Romano, ii. 45
+  Vatican, ii. 275, 276, 282
+  Victor Emmanuel, ii. 45, 61
+
+Lieges, Bishop of, i. 280
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, ii. 231, 236
+
+Lippi, Filippo, ii. 190, 191, 192-195, 200
+
+Liszt, i. 185, 203; ii. 176
+
+Livia, i. 220, 252
+
+Livy, i. 44, 47
+
+Lombards, the, i. 251
+
+Lombardy, i. 309
+
+Lorrain, i. 264
+
+Loyola, Ignatius, ii. 46, 62
+
+Lucilius, i. 74
+
+Lucretia, i. 5, 12, 13
+
+Lucullus, i. 257, 270
+
+Lupercalia, i. 194
+
+Lupercus, i. 194
+
+
+M
+
+Macchiavelli, ii. 174
+
+Maecenas, i. 62, 69, 74, 140; ii. 293
+
+Maenads, ii. 122
+
+Maldachini, Olimpia, i. 304, 305
+
+Mamertine Prison, i. 25; ii. 72, 293
+
+Mancini, Maria, i. 170, 187
+
+Mancino, Paul, ii. 210
+
+Manlius, Cnaeus, ii. 121
+  Marcus, i. 29; ii. 71, 84
+  Titus, i. 80
+
+Mantegna, Andrea, ii. 157, 169, 188, 196-198
+
+Marcomanni, i. 190
+
+Marforio, i. 305
+
+Marino, i. 174
+
+Marius, Caius, i. 25, 29
+
+Marius and Sylla, i. 25, 29, 36, 45, 53; ii. 69
+
+Mark Antony, i. 30, 93, 195, 254
+
+Marozia, ii. 27, 28
+
+Marriage Laws, i. 79, 80
+
+Mary, Queen of Scots, ii. 47
+
+Masaccio, ii. 190
+
+Massimi, Pietro de', i. 317
+
+Massimo, i. 102, 317
+
+Mattei, the, ii. 137, 139, 140, 143
+  Alessandro, ii. 140-143
+  Curzio, ii. 140-143
+  Girolamo, ii. 141-143
+  Marcantonio, ii. 140, 141
+  Olimpia, ii. 141, 142
+  Piero, ii. 140, 141
+
+Matilda, Countess, ii. 307
+
+Mausoleum of--
+  Augustus, i. 158, 169, 205, 251, 252, 270, 271
+  Hadrian, i. 102, 252; ii. 28, 202, 270. See _Castle of Sant' Angelo_
+
+Maximilian, i. 151
+
+Mazarin, i. 170, 187
+
+Mazzini, ii. 219, 220
+
+Mediaevalism, death of, ii. 225
+
+Medici, the, i. 110; ii. 276
+  Cosimo de', i. 289; ii. 194
+  Isabella de', i. 290, 291
+  John de', i. 313
+
+Messalina, i. 254, 272; ii. 255, 256, 257
+
+Michelangelo, i. 90, 146, 147, 173, 175, 177, 302, 303, 315;
+    ii. 129, 130, 157, 159, 166, 169, 171, 172, 175, 188, 200, 276-281,
+    284, 317-319, 322
+  "Last Judgment" by, i. 173; ii. 171, 276, 280, 315
+  "Moses" by, ii. 278, 286
+  "Pieta" by, ii. 286
+
+Middle Age, the, i. 47, 92, 210-247, 274; ii. 163, 166, 172-175, 180, 196
+
+Migliorati, Ludovico, i. 103
+
+Milan, i. 175
+  Duke of, i. 306
+
+Milestone, golden, i. 72
+
+Mithraeum, i. 271
+
+Mithras, i. 76
+
+Mithridates, i. 26, 30, 37, 358
+
+Mocenni, Mario, ii. 249
+
+Monaldeschi, ii. 308
+
+Monastery of--
+  the Apostles, i. 182
+  Dominicans, ii. 45, 61
+  Grottaferrata, ii. 37
+  Saint Anastasia, ii. 38
+    Gregory, ii. 85
+  Sant' Onofrio, ii. 147
+
+Moncada, Ugo de, i. 307, 308
+
+Mons Vaticanus, ii. 268
+
+Montaigne, i. 288
+
+Montalto. See _Felice Peretti_
+
+Monte Briano, i. 274
+  Cavallo, i. 181, 188, 292, 293; ii. 205, 209
+  Citorio, i. 193, 252, 271
+  Giordano, i. 274, 281, 282, 288; ii. 206
+  Mario, i. 313; ii. 268
+
+Montefeltro, Guido da, ii. 160
+
+Monti--
+  the Region, i. 101, 106, 107, 111, 112, 125, 133, 134, 144, 150, 185,
+    305; ii. 133, 209
+  and Trastevere, i. 129, 145, 153; ii. 133, 209
+  by moonlight, i. 117
+
+Morrone, Pietro da, i. 159
+
+Muratori, i. 85, 132, 159, 277; ii. 40, 48, 76, 126, 324
+
+Museums of Rome, i. 66
+  Vatican, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287
+  Villa Borghese, i. 301
+
+Mustafa, ii. 247
+
+
+N
+
+Naples, i. 175, 182, 307, 308
+
+Napoleon, i. 32, 34, 53, 88, 109, 258; ii. 218, 221, 298
+  Louis, ii. 221, 223, 237
+
+Narcissus, i. 255
+
+Navicella, i. 106
+
+Nelson, i. 253
+
+Neri, Saint Philip, i. 318
+
+Nero, i. 46, 56, 188, 254, 257, 285; ii. 163, 211, 291
+
+Nilus, Saint, ii. 36, 37, 40
+
+Nogaret, i. 162, 164
+
+Northmen, i. 46, 49
+
+Numa, i. 3; ii. 268
+
+Nunnery of the Sacred Heart, i. 256
+
+
+O
+
+Octavius, i. 27, 30, 43, 89; ii. 291
+
+Odoacer, i. 47; ii. 297
+
+Olanda, Francesco d', i. 176
+
+Oliviero, Cardinal Carafa, i. 186, 188
+
+Olympius, i. 136, 137, 138
+
+Opimius, i. 24
+
+Orgies of Bacchus, i. 76; ii. 120
+
+Orgies of the Maenads, ii. 121
+  on the Aventine, i. 76; ii. 121
+
+Orsini, the, i. 94, 149, 153, 159, 167-169, 183, 216, 217, 271, 274,
+    306-314; ii. 16, 126, 138, 204
+  Bertoldo, i. 168
+  Camillo, i. 311
+  Isabella, i. 291
+  Ludovico, i. 295
+  Matteo, i. 281
+  Napoleon, i. 161
+  Orsino, i. 166
+  Paolo Giordano, i. 283, 290-295
+  Porzia, i. 187
+  Troilo, i. 290, 291
+  Virginio, i. 295
+  war between Colonna and, i. 51, 104, 159, 168, 182, 275-283, 306-315;
+    ii. 18, 126, 204
+
+Orsino, Deacon, i. 134, 135
+
+Orvieto, i. 314
+
+Otho, ii. 295
+  the Second, ii. 304
+
+Otto, the Great, i. 114; ii. 28, 30
+  Second, ii. 28
+  Third, ii. 29-37
+
+Ovid, i. 44, 63
+
+
+P
+
+Painting, ii. 181
+  in fresco, ii. 181-183
+    oil, ii. 184-186
+
+Palace (Palazzo)--
+  Annii, i. 113
+  Barberini, i. 106, 187
+  Borromeo, ii. 61
+  Braschi, i. 305
+  Caesars, i. 4, 191; ii. 64
+  Colonna, i. 169, 189; ii. 205
+  Consulta, i. 181
+  Corsini, ii. 149, 308
+  Doria, i. 207, 226
+  Pamfili, i. 206, 208
+  Farnese, i. 102
+  Fiano, i. 205
+  della Finanze, i. 91
+  Gabrielli, i. 216
+  the Lateran, i. 127; ii. 30
+  Massimo alle Colonna, i. 316, 317
+  Mattei, ii. 140
+  Mazarini, i. 187
+  of Nero, i. 152
+  della Pilotta, i. 158
+  Priori, i. 160
+  Quirinale, i. 139, 181, 185, 186, 188, 189, 304
+  of the Renascence, i. 205
+  Rospigliosi, i. 181, 187, 188, 189
+  Ruspoli, i. 206
+  Santacroce, i. 237; ii. 23
+  of the Senator, i. 114
+  Serristori, ii. 214, 216
+  Theodoli, i. 169
+  di Venezia, i. 102, 192, 202
+
+Palatine, the, i. 2, 13, 67, 69, 194, 195; ii. 64, 119
+
+Palermo, i. 146
+
+Palestrina, i. 156, 157, 158, 161, 165, 166, 243, 282; ii. 13, 315
+
+Paliano, i. 282
+  Duke of, i. 157, 189
+
+Palladium, i. 77
+
+Pallavicini, i. 206, 258
+
+Palmaria, i. 267
+
+Pamfili, the, i. 206
+
+Pannartz, i. 317
+
+Pantheon, i. 90, 102, 195, 271, 278; ii. 44, 45, 146
+
+Parione, the Region, i. 101, 297, 312, 317; ii. 42
+  Square of, ii. 42
+
+Pasquino, the, i. 186, 305, 317
+
+Passavant, ii. 285
+
+Passeri, Bernardino, i. 313; ii. 308
+
+Patarina, i. 107, 202
+
+Patriarchal System, i. 223-228
+
+Pavia, i. 175
+
+Pecci, the, ii. 229
+  Joachim Vincent, ii. 229, 230.
+
+Peretti, the, i. 205
+  Felice, i. 149, 289-295
+  Francesco, i. 149, 289, 292
+  Vittoria. See _Accoramboni_
+
+Perugia, i. 159, 276, 277
+
+Perugino, ii. 157, 260, 276
+
+Pescara, i. 174
+
+Peter the Prefect, i. 114; ii. 230
+
+Petrarch, i. 161
+
+Petrella, i. 286
+
+Philip the Fair, i. 160, 276, 278
+  Second of Spain, ii. 47
+
+Phocas, column of, ii. 93.
+
+Piazza--
+  Barberini, i. 155
+  della Berlina Vecchia, i. 283
+    Chiesa Nuova, i. 155
+  del Colonna, i. 119, 190
+    Gesu, ii. 45
+  della Minerva, ii. 45
+    Moroni, i. 250
+    Navona, i. 102, 297, 298, 302, 303, 305; ii. 25, 46, 57
+    Pigna, ii. 55
+  of the Pantheon, i. 193; ii. 26
+    Pilotta, i. 158
+  del Popolo, i. 144, 206, 259, 273
+    Quirinale, i. 181
+    Romana, ii. 136
+  Sant' Eustachio, ii. 25
+  San Lorenzo in Lucina, i. 192, 205, 250
+  Saint Peter's, ii. 251, 309
+  di Sciarra, i. 192
+    Spagna, i. 251; ii. 42
+  delle Terme, i. 144
+  di Termini, i. 144
+    Venezia, i. 206
+
+Pierleoni, the, ii. 77, 79, 82, 101, 105, 106, 109, 114
+
+Pigna, ii. 45
+  the Region, i, 101, 102; ii. 44
+
+Pilgrimages, ii. 245
+
+Pincian (hill), i. 119, 270, 272
+
+Pincio, the, i. 121, 189, 223, 253, 255, 256, 259, 264, 272
+
+Pintelli, Baccio, ii. 278, 279
+
+Pinturicchio, ii. 147
+
+Pliny, the Younger, i. 85, 87
+
+Pompey, i. 30
+
+Pons AEmilius, i. 67
+  Cestius, ii. 102, 105
+  Fabricius, ii. 105
+  Triumphalis, i. 102, 274
+
+Ponte. See also _Bridge_
+  Garibaldi, ii. 138
+  Rotto, i. 67
+  Sant' Angelo, i. 274, 283, 284, 287; ii. 42, 55, 270
+  Sisto, i. 307, 311; ii. 136
+  the Region, i. 274, 275
+
+Pontifex Maximus, i. 39, 48
+
+Pontiff, origin of title, ii. 127
+
+Pope--
+  Adrian the Fourth, ii. 87
+  Alexander the Sixth, i. 258; ii. 269, 282
+    Seventh, i. 259
+  Anastasius, ii. 88
+  Benedict the Sixth, ii. 28-30
+    Fourteenth, i. 186
+  Boniface the Eighth, i. 159, 160, 167, 213, 280, 306; ii. 304
+  Celestin the First, i. 164
+    Second, ii. 83
+  Clement the Fifth, i. 275, 276
+    Sixth, ii. 9, 17-19
+    Seventh, i. 306, 307, 310, 313, 314; ii. 308
+    Eighth, i. 286
+    Ninth, i. 187; ii. 110
+    Eleventh, i. 171
+    Thirteenth, ii. 320
+  Damascus, i. 133, 135, 136
+  Eugenius the Third, ii. 85
+    Fourth, ii. 7, 56
+  Ghisleri, ii. 52, 53
+  Gregory the Fifth, ii. 32-37
+    Seventh, i. 52, 126; ii. 307
+    Thirteenth, i. 183, 293
+    Sixteenth, i. 305; ii. 221, 223
+  Honorius the Third, ii. 126
+    Fourth, ii. 126
+  Innocent the Second, ii. 77, 79, 82, 105
+    Third, i. 153; ii. 6
+    Sixth, ii. 19
+    Eighth, i. 275
+    Tenth, i. 206, 209,302,303
+  Joan, i. 143
+  John the Twelfth, ii. 282
+    Thirteenth, i. 113
+    Fifteenth, ii. 29
+    Twenty-third, ii. 269
+  Julius the Second, i. 208, 258; ii. 276, 298, 304
+  Leo the Third, i. 109; ii. 146, 297
+    Fourth, ii. 242
+    Tenth, i. 304; ii. 276, 304
+    Twelfth, i. 202; ii. 111
+    Thirteenth, i. 77; ii. 218-267, 282, 287, 308, 312, 313
+  Liberius, i. 138
+  Lucius the Second, ii. 84, 85
+  Martin the First, i. 136
+  Nicholas the Fourth, i. 159, 274
+    Fifth, i. 52; ii. 58, 268, 269, 298, 304
+  Paschal the Second, i. 258; ii. 307
+  Paul the Second, i. 202, 205
+    Third, i. 219; ii. 41, 130, 304, 323, 324
+    Fourth, ii. 46, 47, 48-51, 111, 112
+    Fifth, ii. 289
+  Pelagius the First, i. 170, 171; ii. 307
+  Pius the Fourth, i. 147, 305
+    Sixth, i. 181, 182
+    Seventh, i. 53; ii. 221
+    Ninth, i. 76, 183, 315; ii. 66, 110, 111, 216, 221-225, 252, 253, 255,
+      257, 258, 265, 298, 308, 311
+  Silverius, i. 266
+  Sixtus the Fourth, i. 258, 275; ii. 127, 204-213, 274, 278, 321
+    Fifth, i. 52, 139, 149, 181, 184, 186, 205, 283; ii. 43, 157, 241,
+      304, 323
+  Sylvester, i. 113; ii. 297, 298
+  Symmachus, ii. 44
+  Urban the Second, i. 52
+    Sixth, ii. 322, 323
+    Eighth, i. 181, 187, 268, 301; ii. 132, 203, 298
+  Vigilius, ii. 307
+
+Popes, the, i. 125, 142, 273
+  at Avignon, i. 167, 273, 277; ii. 9
+  among sovereigns, ii. 228
+  election of, ii. 41, 42
+  hatred for, ii. 262-264
+  temporal power of, i. 168; ii. 255-259
+
+Poppaea, i. 103
+
+Porcari, the, ii. 56
+  Stephen, ii. 56-60, 204
+
+Porsena of Clusium, i. 5, 6, 12
+
+Porta. See also _Gate_--
+  Angelica, i. 120
+  Maggiore, i. 107
+  Metronia, i. 106
+  Mugonia, i. 10
+  Pia, i. 107, 147, 152; ii. 224
+  Pinciana, i. 193, 250, 264, 266, 269
+  del Popolo, i. 272, 299
+  Portese, ii. 132
+  Salaria, i. 106, 107, 193
+  San Giovanni, i. 107, 120
+    Lorenzo, i. 107
+    Sebastiano, ii. 119, 125
+    Spirito, i. 311; ii. 132, 152
+  Tiburtina, i. 107
+
+Portico of Neptune, i. 271
+  Octavia, ii. 3, 105
+
+Poussin, Nicholas, i. 264
+
+Praeneste, i. 156
+
+Praetextatus, i. 134
+
+Prefect of Rome, i. 103, 114, 134
+
+Presepi, ii. 139
+
+Prince of Wales, i. 203
+
+Prior of the Regions, i. 112, 114
+
+Processions of--
+  the Brotherhood of Saint John, ii. 130
+  Captains of Regions, i. 112
+  Coromania, i. 141
+  Coronation of Lewis of Bavaria, i. 166, 167
+  Ides of May, ii. 127-129
+  the Triumph of Aurelian, i. 179
+
+Progress and civilization, i. 262; ii. 177-180
+  romance, i. 154
+
+Prosper of Cicigliano, ii. 213
+
+
+Q
+
+Quaestor, i. 58
+
+Quirinal, the (hill), i. 106, 119, 158, 182, 184, 186, 187; ii. 205
+
+
+R
+
+Rabble, Roman, i. 115, 128, 132, 153, 281; ii. 131
+
+Race course of Domitian, i. 270, 297
+
+Races, Carnival, i. 108, 202, 203
+
+Raimondi, ii. 315
+
+Rampolla, ii. 239, 249, 250
+
+Raphael, i. 260, 315; ii. 159, 169, 175, 188, 200, 281, 285, 322
+  in Trastevere, ii. 144-147
+  the "Transfiguration" by, ii. 146, 281
+
+Ravenna, i. 175
+
+Regions (Rioni), i. 100-105, 110-114, 166
+  Captains of, i. 110
+  devices of, i. 100
+  fighting ground of, i. 129
+  Prior, i. 112, 114
+  rivalry of, i. 108, 110, 125
+
+Regola, the Region, i. 101, 168; ii. 1-3
+
+Regulus, i. 20
+
+Religion, i. 48, 50, 75
+
+Religious epochs in Roman history, i. 76
+
+Renascence in Italy, i. 52, 77, 84, 98, 99, 188, 237, 240, 250, 258, 261,
+    262, 303; ii. 152-201, 280
+  art of, i. 231
+  frescoes of, i. 232
+  highest development of, i. 303, 315
+  leaders of, ii. 152, 157-159
+  manifestation of, ii. 197
+  palaces of, i. 205, 216
+  represented in "The Last Judgment," ii. 280
+  results of development of, ii. 199
+
+Reni, Guido, i. 264; ii. 317
+
+Republic, the, i. 6, 12, 15, 53, 110; ii. 291
+  and Arnold of Brescia, ii. 86
+    Porcari, ii. 56-60
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+  modern ideas of, ii. 219
+
+Revolts in Rome--
+  against the nobles, ii. 73
+  of the army, i. 25
+    Arnold of Brescia, ii. 73-89
+    Marius and Sylla, i. 25
+    Porcari, ii. 56-60
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8, 73
+    slaves, i. 24
+    Stefaneschi, i. 281-283; ii. 219-222
+
+Revolutionary idea, the, ii. 219-222
+
+Riario, the, ii. 149, 150, 151
+  Jerome, ii. 205
+
+Rienzi, Nicholas, i. 23, 93, 103, 168, 211, 281; ii. 3-23, 308
+
+Rioni. See _Regions_
+
+Ripa, the Region, i. 101; ii. 118
+
+Ripa Grande, ii. 127
+
+Ripetta, ii. 52
+
+Ristori, Mme., i. 169
+
+Robert of Naples, i. 278
+
+Roffredo, Count, i. 114, 115
+
+Rome--
+  a day in mediaeval, i. 241-247
+  Bishop of, i. 133
+  charm of, i. 54, 98, 318
+  ecclesiastic, i. 124
+  lay, i. 124
+  a modern Capital, i. 123, 124
+  foundation of, i. 2
+  of the Augustan Age, i. 60-62
+      Barons, i. 50, 84, 104, 229-247; ii. 75
+      Caesars, i. 84
+      Empire, i. 15, 17, 28, 31, 45, 47, 53, 60, 99
+      Kings, i. 2-7, 10, 11
+      Middle Age, i. 110, 210-247, 274; ii. 172-175
+      Napoleonic era, i. 229
+      Popes, i. 50, 77, 84, 104
+      Republic, i. 6, 12, 16, 53, 110
+    Rienzi, i. 93; ii. 6-8
+    today, i. 55
+  sack of, by Constable of Bourbon, i. 259, 273, 309-315
+  sack of, by Gauls, i. 15, 49, 252
+    Guiscard, i. 95, 126-129, 252
+  seen from dome of Saint Peter's, ii. 302
+  under Tribunes, i. 14
+    Decemvirs, i. 14
+    Dictator, i. 28
+
+Romulus, i. 2, 5, 30, 78, 228
+
+Rospigliosi, i. 206
+
+Rossi, Pellegrino, i. 316
+  Count, ii. 223
+
+Rostra, i. 27; ii. 93
+  Julia, i. 68; ii. 93
+
+Rota, ii. 215
+
+Rovere, the, i. 258; ii. 276, 279, 321
+
+Rudini, i. 187
+
+Rudolph of Hapsburg, i. 161
+
+Rufillus, i. 65
+
+
+S
+
+Sacchi, Bartolommeo, i. 139, 147
+
+Saint Peter's Church, i. 166, 278; ii. 202, 212, 243, 246, 268, 289, 294,
+    295, 326
+  altar of, i. 96
+  architects of, ii. 304
+  bronze doors of, ii. 299, 300
+  builders of, ii. 304
+  Chapel of the Choir, ii. 310, 313, 314
+  Chapel of the Sacrament, ii. 274, 306, 308, 310, 312, 313
+  Choir of, ii. 313-316
+  Colonna Santa, ii. 319
+  dome of, i. 96; ii. 302
+  Piazza of, ii. 251
+  Sacristy of, i. 171
+
+Salvini, i. 169, 252
+  Giorgio, i. 313
+
+Santacroce Paolo, i. 286
+
+Sant' Angelo the Region, i. 101; ii. 101
+
+Santorio, Cardinal, i. 208
+
+San Vito, i. 282
+
+Saracens, i. 128, 144
+
+Sarto, Andrea del, ii. 157, 169
+
+Saturnalia, i. 125, 194, 195
+
+Saturninus, i. 25
+
+Satyricon, the, i. 85
+
+Savelli, the, i. 284; ii. 1, 16, 126, 206
+  John Philip, ii. 207-210
+
+Savonarola, i. 110
+
+Savoy, house of, i. 110; ii. 219, 220, 224
+
+Scaevola, i. 13
+
+Schweinheim, i. 317
+
+Scipio, Cornelius, i. 20
+  of Africa, i. 20, 22, 29, 59, 76; ii. 121
+    Asia, i. 21; ii. 120
+
+Scotus, i. 182
+
+See, Holy, i. 159, 168; ii. 264-267, 277, 294
+
+Segni, Monseignor, i. 304
+
+Sejanuo, ii. 294
+
+Semiamira, i. 178
+
+Senate, Roman, i. 167, 168, 257
+  the Little, i. 177, 180
+
+Senators, i. 78, 112, 167
+
+Servius, i. 5, 15
+
+Severus--
+  Arch of, ii. 92
+  Septizonium of, i. 96, 127
+
+Sforza, i. 13; ii. 89
+
+Sforza, Catharine, i. 177; ii. 150
+  Francesco, i. 306
+
+Siena, i. 232, 268; ii. 229
+
+Signorelli, ii. 277
+
+Slaves, i. 81, 24
+
+Sosii Brothers, i. 72, 73
+
+Spencer, Herbert, ii. 225, 226
+
+Stefaneschi, Giovanni degli, i. 103, 282
+
+Stilicho, ii. 323
+
+Stradella, Alessandro, ii. 315
+
+Streets, See _Via_
+
+Subiaco, i. 282
+
+Suburra, i. 39; ii. 95
+
+Suetonius, i. 43
+
+Sylla, ii. 25-29, 36-42
+
+
+T
+
+Tacitus, i. 46, 254; ii. 103
+
+Tarentum, i. 18, 19
+
+Tarpeia, i. 29; ii. 68, 69
+
+Tarpeian Rock, ii. 67
+
+Tarquins, the, i. 6, 11, 12, 80, 248, 249, 269; ii. 69
+  Sextus, i. 5, 11
+
+Tasso, i. 188, 189; ii. 147-149
+  Bernardo, i. 188
+
+Tatius, i. 68, 69
+
+Tempietto, the, i. 264
+
+Temple of--
+  Castor, i. 27
+  Castor and Pollux, i. 68; ii. 92, 94
+  Ceres, ii. 119
+  Concord, i. 24; ii. 92
+  Flora, i. 155
+  Hercules, ii. 40
+  Isis and Serapis, i. 271
+  Julius Caesar, i. 72
+  Minerva, i. 96
+  Saturn, i. 194, 201; ii. 94
+  the Sun, i. 177, 179, 180, 271
+  Venus and Rome, i. 110
+  Venus Victorius, i. 270
+  Vesta, i. 68
+
+Tenebrae, i. 117
+
+Tetricius, i. 179
+
+Theatre of--
+  Apollo, i. 286
+  Balbus, ii. 1
+  Marcellus, ii. 1, 101, 105, 106, 119
+  Pompey, i. 103, 153
+
+Thedoric of Verona, ii. 297
+
+Theodoli, the, i. 258
+
+Theodora Senatrix, i. 158, 266, 267; ii. 27-29, 203, 282
+
+Tiber, i. 23, 27, 66, 93, 94, 151, 158, 168, 189, 237, 248, 249, 254, 269,
+272, 288
+
+Tiberius, i. 254, 287; ii. 102
+
+Titian, i. 315; ii. 165, 166, 175, 188, 278
+
+Titus, i. 56, 86;
+    ii. 102, 295
+
+Tivoli, i. 180, 185; ii. 76, 85
+
+Torre (Tower)--
+  Anguillara, ii. 138, 139, 140
+  Borgia, ii. 269, 285
+  dei Conti, i. 118, 153
+  Milizie, i. 277
+  Millina, i. 274
+  di Nona, i. 274, 284, 287; ii. 52, 54, 72
+  Sanguigna, i. 274
+
+Torrione, ii. 241, 242
+
+Trajan, i. 85, 192; ii. 206
+
+Trastevere, the Region, i. 101, 127, 129, 278, 307, 311;
+    ii. 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 143, 151
+
+Trevi, the Fountain, i. 155, 186
+  the Region, i. 155, 187; ii. 209
+
+Tribunes, i. 14
+
+Trinita de' Monti, i. 256, 264
+  dei Pellegrini, ii. 110
+
+Triumph, the, of Aurelian, i. 179
+
+Triumphal Road, i. 66, 69, 70, 71
+
+Tullianum, i. 8
+
+Tullus, i. 3
+  Domitius, i. 90
+
+Tuscany, Duke of, ii. 30
+
+Tusculum, i. 158
+
+
+U
+
+Unity, of Italy, i. 53, 77, 123, 184; ii. 224
+  under Augustus, i. 184
+    Victor Emmanuel, i. 184
+
+University, Gregorian, the, ii. 61
+  of the Sapienza, i. 251; ii. 24, 25
+
+Urbino, Duke of, i. 208, 217
+
+
+V
+
+Valens, i. 133
+
+Valentinian, i. 133
+
+Varus, i. 46
+
+Vatican, the, i. 127, 128, 147, 165, 189, 278, 281, 307;
+    ii. 44, 202, 207, 228, 243, 245, 249, 250, 252, 253, 269, 271
+  barracks of the Swiss Guard, ii. 275
+  chapels in,
+    Pauline, ii.
+    Nicholas, ii. 285
+    Sixtine, ii. 246, 274, 275, 276, 278-281, 285
+    fields, i. 274
+  Court of the Belvedere, ii. 269
+    Saint Damasus, ii. 273
+  finances of, ii. 253
+  gardens of, ii. 243, 271, 287
+    of the Pigna, ii. 273
+  library, ii. 275, 276, 282
+    Borgia apartments of, ii. 282
+  Loggia of the Beatification, ii. 245
+    Raphael, ii. 273, 274, 276, 285
+  Maestro di Camera, ii. 239, 248, 250
+  museums of, ii. 272, 273, 283, 286, 287
+  picture galleries, ii. 273-284
+  Pontifical residence, ii. 249
+  private apartments, ii. 249
+  Sala Clementina, ii. 248
+    del Concistoro, ii. 246
+    Ducale, ii. 245, 247
+    Regia, ii. 246
+  throne room, ii. 247
+  Torre Borgia, ii. 269, 285
+
+Veii, i. 16, 17
+
+Velabrum, i. 67
+
+Veneziano, Domenico, ii. 185
+
+Venice, i. 193, 296, 306; ii. 35, 205
+
+Vercingetorix, ii. 294
+
+Vespasian, i. 46, 56; ii. 295
+
+Vespignani, ii. 241, 242
+
+Vesta, i. 57
+  temple of, i. 71, 77
+
+Vestals, i. 77, 80, 133, 152; ii. 99
+  house of, i. 69
+
+Via--
+  della Angelo Custode, i. 122
+  Appia, i. 22, 94
+  Arenula, ii. 45
+  Borgognona, i. 251
+  Campo Marzo, i. 150
+  di Caravita, ii. 45
+  del Corso, i. 155, 158, 192, 193, 251; ii. 45
+  della Dateria, i. 183
+  Dogana Vecchia, ii. 26
+  Flaminia, i. 193
+  Florida, ii. 45
+  Frattina, i. 250
+  de' Greci, i. 251
+  Lata, i. 193
+  Lungara, i. 274; ii. 144, 145, 147
+  Lungaretta, ii. 140
+  della Maestro, i. 283
+  Marforio, i. 106
+  di Monserrato, i. 283
+  Montebello, i. 107
+  Nazionale, i. 277
+  Nova, i. 69
+  di Parione, i. 297
+  de' Poli, i. 267
+  de Pontefici, i. 158
+  de Prefetti, ii. 6
+  Quattro Fontane, i. 155, 187
+  Sacra, i. 65, 71, 180
+  San Gregorio, i. 71
+  San Teodoro, i. 195
+  de' Schiavoni, i. 158
+  Sistina, i. 260
+  della Stelleta, i. 250
+  della Tritone, i. 106, 119-122, 155
+  Triumphalis, i. 66, 70, 71
+  Venti Settembre, i. 186
+  Vittorio Emanuele, i. 275
+
+Viale Castro Pretorio, i. 107
+
+Vicolo della Corda, i. 283
+
+Victor Emmanuel, i. 53, 166, 184; ii. 90, 221, 224, 225, 238
+  monument to, ii. 90
+
+Victoria, Queen of England, ii. 263
+
+Vigiles, cohort of the, i. 158, 170
+
+Villa Borghese, i. 223
+  Colonna, i. 181, 189
+  d'Este, i. 185
+  of Hadrian, i. 180
+    Ludovisi, i. 106, 193
+  Medici, i. 259, 262, 264, 265, 269, 313
+  Negroni, i. 148, 149, 289, 292
+  Publica, i. 250
+
+Villani, i. 160, 277; ii. 164
+
+Villas, in the Region of Monti, i. 149, 150
+
+Vinci, Lionardo da, i. 260, 315; ii. 147, 159, 169, 171, 175, 184, 188,
+    195, 200
+  "The Last Supper," by, ii. 171, 184
+
+Virgil, i. 44, 56, 63
+
+Virginia, i. 14
+
+Virginius, i. 15
+
+Volscians, ii. 230
+
+
+W
+
+Walls--
+  Aurelian, i. 93, 106, 110, 193, 271; ii. 119, 144
+  Servian, i. 5, 7, 15, 250, 270
+  of Urban the Eighth, ii. 132
+
+Water supply, i. 145
+
+William the Silent, ii. 263
+
+Witches on the AEsquiline, i. 140
+
+Women's life in Rome, i. 9
+
+
+Z
+
+Zama, i. 21, 59
+
+Zenobia of Palmyra, i. 179; ii. 150.
+
+Zouaves, the, ii. 216
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ave Roma Immortalis, Vol. 1, by
+Francis Marion Crawford
+
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