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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:38:54 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/28598-0.txt b/28598-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b52497 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3271 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Religion in Japan by George A. Cobbold, +B.A. + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Religion in Japan + +Author: George A. Cobbold, B.A. + +Release Date: April 24, 2009 [Ebook #28598] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + + + + Religion in Japan: + + Shintoism—Buddhism—Christianity. + + By + + George A. Cobbold, B.A. + + Pembroke College, Oxford + + With Illustrations. + + Printed Under The Direction of the Tract Committee. + + London: + + Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, + + Northumberland Avenue, W.C.; 43, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. + + Brighton: 129, North Street + + New York: E. S. Gorham + + 1905 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Introductory. +I. Shintoism. +II. Buddhism. +III. Buddhism In Japan. +IV. Buddhism And Christianity. +V. Christianity In Japan. +Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. +Footnotes + + + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +It may well be questioned whether, in the course of a like period of time, +any country has ever undergone greater transitions, or made more rapid +strides along the path of civilization than has Japan during the last +quarter of a century. A group of numerous islands, situated on the +high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic across the Pacific, between +the Eastern and Western hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding +Great Britain and Ireland,—Japan, until thirty years ago, was a _terra +incognita_ to the rest of the world; exceeding even China in its +conservatism and exclusiveness. And now, within a space of some +five-and-twenty years, such changes have come about as to have given birth +to the expression,—“the transformation of Japan.” The more conspicuous of +these changes are summed up by a recent writer in the following +words:—“New and enlightened criminal codes have been enacted; the methods +of judicial procedure have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient +systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and of national education have +been organized; an army and a navy modelled after Western patterns have +been formed; the finances of the Empire have been placed on a sound basis; +railways, roads, and harbours have been constructed; an efficient +mercantile marine has sprung into existence; the jail system has been +radically improved; an extensive scheme of local government has been put +into operation; a competitive civil service has been organized; the whole +fiscal system has been revised; an influential and widely-read newspaper +press has grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government by +parliament has been substituted for monarchical absolutism.”(1) At the +present day, an Englishman travelling in Japan is constantly meeting +numbers of his countrymen, intent on either business or pleasure; while at +all the principal cities and places of resort, handsome new hotels, fitted +in Western style, are to be found. The Mikado may be seen driving through +his Capital in a carriage that would not be out of place in the Parks of +London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies European dress is _de rigueur_. +English is taught in all the better-class schools, and at the Universities +the works of such authors as Bacon, Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart +Mill, Herbert Spencer, are in constant request with the students. In +short, on every side evidence is afforded, that be it for better or for +worse, the old order is fast changing and giving place to new. + +The circumstances which have brought about these wonderful changes can +only be very briefly indicated here. It was towards the middle of the +sixteenth century that Japan first came into contact with the Western +world; the first traders to arrive being the Portuguese, who were followed +some sixty years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few English ships. +To all of these alike a hospitable reception appears to have been +accorded; nor is there any doubt that Japanese exclusiveness was a thing +of subsequent growth, and that it was based only on a sincere conviction +that the nation’s well-being and happiness would be best consulted by +refusing to have dealings with the outer world. And indeed, that the +Japanese should have arrived at this decision is by no means to be +wondered at; their first experience of foreign intercourse having been +singularly unfortunate. The unhappy breach, which eventually led to Japan +entirely closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would seem, due +partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance and general interference +adopted by certain of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time +had arrived in the country: and partly to the insinuations made by the +Dutch that the Portuguese were aiming at territorial aggrandizement. +Anyhow, in 1624, Japan was entirely closed to foreign trade, save for some +concessions,—accompanied by the severest restrictions,—permitted to the +Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, and no natives to leave, the +empire; the missionaries were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited +under pain of death. The Japanese, as has been said, “suspected everybody +and shut out the world.” Previous to this crisis the English had retired; +but when, in 1673, our country sought to resume friendly relations, the +connexion existing between the English and Portuguese courts proved an +insuperable obstacle.(2) Subsequent overtures made in 1849, were +courteously but firmly rejected; though the period of Japan’s isolation +was, as later events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the Government of +the United States despatched a fleet across the Pacific, under the command +of Commodore Perry, to insist upon the surrender of a policy which, it was +urged, no one nation of the world had a right to adopt towards the rest. +Whether the arguments with which this position was advanced would of +themselves have prevailed, is impossible to say; but since it was evident +that should words fail, sterner measures would be resorted to, Japan had +no choice but to submit. Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with +the United States, and subsequently with England and other European +powers; by virtue of which a few ports were grudgingly opened, and +Japanese subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions with the +outside world. For the first few years, it is certain that a strong +feeling of suspicion and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in 1868 +events occurred which brought about a complete change in the whole +situation. For some six hundred years a dual system of government had +existed in Japan. On the one hand, was the Mikado, supposed to trace a +lineage of unbroken descent from the gods, and accorded a veneration +semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of Kyoto, with such +powers of administration as he still retained confined to matters of +religion and education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, or Tycoon, the +acknowledged head of a feudalism, which, while nominally recognizing the +Mikado’s authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and really governed +the country. But in 1868, the altered circumstances in which Japan found +herself brought about a revolution. The ancient nobility were filled with +indignation and disgust at the Tycoon so far violating Japanese tradition +as to enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, as a consequence of +this rupture, the Shogunate, whose power had for some time been waning, +completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to imperial power, and at +once entered upon a policy which has been consistently adhered to, and +received with favour by the people generally, who had grown impatient of +the restraint which environed them. That policy may be termed the +Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have the explanation of the +Japan of to-day. + +It is not surprising that the interest excited in England, with regard to +a country which has experienced such remarkable changes, should be of the +greatest—especially when it is remembered in how large a degree English +influence has contributed to produce them. We may be certain, also, that +the still further developments the future has in store, will be followed +in our own country with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, in +these days of so great fashion and facility for travelling, increasing +numbers of English people should avail themselves of the opportunity of +exploring a country so entirely unique, and so rich in its attractions of +nature and of art. These circumstances have combined to call into +existence a large number of books on Japan, from which any, who are unable +to visit it in person, may obtain as good an idea as is possible by +reading of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed it is by no +means easy for any writer now to fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in +which he does not find himself forestalled. That, however, on which, so +far as I understand, least has been written, is precisely that towards +which my own main attention was directed from the time of my leaving +England, and throughout the period of my visit to the country,—namely, the +_religious_ aspect. That the following pages must be very imperfect in the +statement they supply, I am well aware; and that, despite my efforts to +obtain trustworthy information, they will not prove free from inaccuracy +or mistake is extremely probable. But I was induced to enter upon their +preparation by a series of circumstances that appeared to favour such a +task, and need not be specified here. For the material supplied to me, +however, by one kind friend in particular, without whose assistance these +articles would never have been attempted, I must express my special +obligation. I would gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty to +do so without obtaining his permission, which I have not, at the time of +writing, the opportunity of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted +on the subject, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to Messrs. +Chamberlain and Mason’s excellent _Handbook for Japan_ (Murray, 1891); and +to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel’s _Lectures on Buddhism_ (Trübner, 1871), +given me by the author, at the close of a most interesting day spent under +his guidance. The sketch Map of Japan is inserted by the kind permission +of the “Guild of St. Paul.” + +_November, 1893._ + + + + + +I. SHINTOISM. + + +When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, Buddhism was introduced +into Japan from China, by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term by +which the ancient indigenous religion of the country might be +distinguished from the new importation. The term thus adopted was +_Shinto_, or _Kami-no-michi_; the former being a Chinese word, and the +latter its Japanese equivalent. The meaning of either, in English, is the +“Way of the Genii, or Spirits.”(3) It will, accordingly, be seen that the +_word_ “Shinto” has only been in use for some thirteen centuries, while +the creed it designates claims to trace its origin from the remotest +antiquity. Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us back not merely +to the earliest annals of Japanese history, but to the fabulous legends of +a mythological period. The history of Japan is commonly reckoned to +commence with the accession of the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which +is given as February 11, 660 B.C.; and when, in 1889, the new Constitution +was promulgated, the anniversary of this event was the day selected—the +idea evidently being to confirm the popular belief in the continuity of +the country’s history. This Jimmu Tenno—accounted by the Japanese their +first human sovereign—is supposed to have been descended from Ama-terasu, +the sun-goddess, who was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator of +Japan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification in which the +Emperors of Japan have ever been held. It is, then, the countless heroes +and demi-gods of the mythological age referred to—the children of Izanagi +reigning over Japan, generation after generation, for many thousands of +years—that are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; for while it is +usual to speak of Shintoism as being a combination of ancestor-worship and +nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of these elements was +largely due to the contact of Japan with the Taouism of China, and with +metaphysical Buddhism. Thus the essential principle of Shintoism, it will +be seen, is closely akin to that filial piety, which forms so conspicuous +a feature in the religious, political, and social life of China, and +which—deserving as it is, in many ways, of respect and +admiration—presents, when carried to excess, so vast a hindrance to +development and progress. + +“Shintoism,” in the words of Diayoro Goh, Chancellor of the Japanese +Consulate General in London, “originated in the worship offered by a +barbarous people to the mythological persons of its own invention.” To +speak accurately, it is not so much a religion as patriotism exalted to +the rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country’s heroes and +benefactors of every age, legendary and historical, ancient and more +recent; the spirits of these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven +with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to a great extent obscuring +it, is a worship of the personified forces of nature; expressing itself +often in the most abject superstition, and, until lately, also in that +grosser symbolism with which the religion of Ancient Egypt abounded. This +latter feature was widely prevalent in Japan at the time that the country +was first opened to foreigners; but after the Revolution in 1868, it was +everywhere suppressed. It would appear that the personal cleanliness for +which the Japanese, as a nation, are celebrated, had its origin in the +idea of the purification of the body symbolizing the cleansing of the +soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of way, Shintoism would seem to +recognize a future state of bliss or misery, for which the present life is +a period of probation. Practically, however, this is the only world with +which Shintoism concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of +morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being accounted sufficient +guides. It provides neither public worship, nor sermons; while its +application is limited to subjects of the Mikado. “It is the least +exacting of all religions.” When this is once understood, there ceases to +be anything surprising in the fact of two religions—of which Shintoism was +one, and the other a creed so accommodating as Buddhism—running, side by +side, for centuries in the same country, and being professed +simultaneously by the same people, until the two were so closely +interwoven that it became scarcely possible to distinguish their +respective elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt was made to +restore Shintoism to its primitive simplicity, and to mould it into a +philosophical system which might minister to the higher aspirations of +humanity. But the movement was a failure, and the Ryobu-Shinto, or “double +religion,”—the combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and +Buddhism—continued as before. It was only so lately as the year 1868 that +any important change took place in the religious history of Japan. In that +year, Shintoism—for reasons wholly political—was adopted as the State, or +“established” religion; Buddhism having always been the religion favoured +by the Shogunate, and the ancient nobility whom the Shogun represented. +Upon this, every temple was required to declare itself either Shinto or +Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments peculiar to the +discarded cult, whichever that might be. That no little excitement and +dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be readily understood; +especially when we bear in mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist +and Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating in the same +buildings and at the same altars.(4) A grant of some £60,000 a year was +made by the Government for the maintenance of the Shinto temples and +shrines, which are said to number in all about 98,000, and to be dedicated +to no less than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, however, +Shintoism has lost the greater part of the importance into which it was +brought at the time of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it is +supported out of the imperial revenues, and that the presence of its +principal officials is required at certain of the state functions, its +general position has in no way improved. The people still practise the +observances of both religions alike; the only difference being that, to +effect this, they have now to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born +child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both Shinto and Buddhist +temples, for the purpose of solemn dedication. Another of the changes +brought about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted by Buddhist +priests, as was the case until 1868, the dead are now buried by either +Shinto or Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of the many signs +which indicate that Shintoism has well nigh run its course, not the least +remarkable was the announcement made last year (1892) by the Government +itself, to the effect that its rites were to be regarded as simply +traditional and commemorative, and devoid of any real religious +significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds and consciences of +Christians in Japan was, as might be supposed, very great. + +Of the various sects the _Zhikko_,—founded 1541 A.D.,—is, perhaps, the +most influential. This sect—as indeed do Shintoists generally—recognizes +one eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; and here—as +in other heathen religions—we find vague references to a Trinity engaged +in the work of Creation. + + [Illustration.] + + Group of Shinto Priests With Torii. + + +Despite the dissociation of the two religions, many of the Shinto temples +still retain traces of the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the +prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, which, however, is often +found combined with great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists +only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove of trees; but, even in the +case of large temples with a complete group of buildings, the architecture +is extremely plain, the material employed being unornamented white wood +with a thatch of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple grounds is +always through gateways, called _Torii_; these are made sometimes of +stone, but more properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted +tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal beam beneath. Near +the entrance are commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, which are +supposed to act as guardians. The principal shrine, or _Honsha_, is +situated at the further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided by a +railing into an ante-room and an inner sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an +altar is erected, on which, however, no images or adornments are seen, but +simply offerings of rice, fruit, wine, &c. Above the altar, in a +conspicuous position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in a box +beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. These three,—the mirror, +the sword, and the stone,—constitute the Japanese regalia, and they are +all connected with the early legends. One of the traditions respecting the +sacred mirror deserves quotation. + +“When the time was come that Izanagi and his consort should return +together to the celestial regions, he called his children together, +bidding them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his last wishes. +He then committed to them a disc of polished silver, bidding them each +morning place themselves on their knees before it, and there see reflected +on their countenances the impress of any evil passions deliberately +indulged; and again each night carefully to examine themselves, that their +last thoughts might be after the happiness of that higher world whither +their parents had preceded them.” The legend goes on to relate with what +faithfulness “the children of Izanagi, and afterwards their descendants, +carried out these injunctions; erecting an altar of wood to receive the +sacred mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,—and how, as a reward +for their obedience and devotion, they became in their turn, the spirits +of good, the undying Kami.”(5) + +Another of the most common of the Shinto emblems is a slim wand of +unpainted wood, called _Gohei_, to which strips of white paper—originally +they were of cloth—are attached. These are thought to attract the deities, +and are held in great veneration. + +Leaving the principal shrine, and proceeding to make the tour of the +grounds, the visitor comes, in turn, to the buildings where the business +arrangements of the temple are transacted, and where the priests, in some +cases, reside; to smaller shrines and oratories; to cisterns for the +purpose of ceremonial ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important +temples is found a long covered platform, called the _Kagura-do_, where, +on festivals and special occasions, a number of girls—those I saw at Nara +were still quite children—perform the _Kagura_, or sacred dance. The +dancing is in honour of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and +commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological period. In the +grounds of Shinto and Buddhist temples alike are frequently found numerous +stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive offerings, and lighted on any +great occasions. + +It has already been remarked that Shintoism has nothing corresponding to +our public worship; but every morning and evening the priests—whose office +seems held in no particular sanctity, and who are at liberty, at any time, +to adopt a more secular calling—perform a service before the altar, vested +in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and confined at the waist by a +girdle. The service consists of the presentation of offerings and of the +recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. The devotions of the +people are remarkable for their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, on +arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds a gong, to engage the +attention of the deity he desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest +possible value on to the matting within the sanctuary rails; makes one or +two prostrations; and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his patron +that his business with him is over, retires—it not being considered +necessary to give to the petition any verbal expression. The making of +pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent place in the Shinto +system, and though of late years the number of pilgrims has considerably +decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the great temple of the +sun-goddess at Ise—the “Mecca of Japan,”—and other celebrated shrines. The +chief object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of _O-harai_, or sacred +charms, which can only be obtained on the spot. These, when brought home, +are placed on the _Kamidana_, or god-shelf—a miniature temple of wood, +found in every Shinto house, to which are attached the names of various +patron deities, and the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase of +the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes himself to the enjoyment of the +various shows and other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood +of the temple. + +To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such influence as the cult +still possesses may be attributed to the superstition of the poor and +illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the more educated, to +break with so venerable a past. The latter, however, though they continue +to conform to them, do not regard its observances seriously; while the +importance attached to them by the State is, as we have seen, wholly +political. In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course of a lecture +delivered in London two or three years since: “Shintoism, being so +restricted in its sphere, offers little obstacle to the introduction of +another religion,”—provided, as he added, that the veneration of the +Mikado, which has always formed the fundamental feature of Japanese +government, is not interfered with. The truth of this statement has +already been abundantly exemplified in the position which Buddhism for so +many centuries held in the religious life of Japan. In the same way, when, +three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced into the country by +the Portuguese, it was largely owing to the attitude which some of the +missionaries adopted towards these national rites, that the complications +arose, which eventually led to the expulsion of foreigners, and the +persecution of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it is not +strange that an intense jealousy should be exhibited on behalf of +observances and ceremonies, traceable back to such remote antiquity, and +so intimately bound up with the whole political and social life of the +nation. It is, indeed, highly probable that, in the great changes Japan is +undergoing, she will find other methods of cherishing the continuity of +her, in many ways, illustrious past. But meanwhile, Christians in Japan +may rejoice that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to manifest +a respectful regard for a system that is by no means destitute of +praiseworthy features. + + + + + +II. BUDDHISM. + + +It is quite possible that to some of the readers of these pages the very +name of Shintoism was unknown; whereas all will have heard and read at +least something of Buddhism, one of the four most prevalent religions of +the world, and claiming at the present day considerably more than four +hundred millions of adherents.(6) At the same time, our inquiry into +Buddhism cannot be comprised within such narrow limits as sufficed for our +examination of the indigenous religion of Japan; the subject being one of +the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, then, it may be better if, at the outset, +I allude to some of the literature, published within the last few years, +which has been most instrumental in attracting attention, both in England +and America, to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all reference be +omitted to the writings of the late Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and +their school; though I refer to them only in order to caution my readers +against forming from them any estimate of Buddhism. The only literature, +as far as I know, that has appeared in England from what claims to be an +enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings are, I believe, +calculated to convey a curiously erroneous idea of the great system with +which we are now concerned, to any who would turn for information to them +exclusively. This, indeed, becomes obvious when it is understood that the +Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, is not the Buddhism of +history and the sacred books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular +religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at the present day, but an +“esoteric” Buddhism, a knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined to +a comparative few, even in the country where it is said to be most +prevalent.(7) In short, the “esoteric Buddhism” of Mr. Sinnett and his +friends would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the +movement which has recently acquired a brief notoriety in England under +the name of Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper—i.e. the historical, +popular Buddhism with which we have to do—can hardly be said to have +anything in common. + +With the book, however, which probably more than any other work of the day +has been the means of drawing the attention of English-speaking people to +Buddhism, we cannot deal in so summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin +Arnold’s poem, _The Light of Asia_, we have a work which is simply a +rendering of the life of Buddha, in general accordance with the received +traditions, and one, moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome at the +hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned that the book is a production +of great power, or that it appeals altogether to a very different class of +readers from that likely to be influenced by the _Occult World_, or _Isis +Unveiled_. + +It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and the book’s consequent +popularity, that only make the more necessary a reference which must to +some extent take the form of a protest. To put it briefly, the case is +this:—Men and women have risen from a perusal of the _Light of Asia_ with +a sense of damage done to their Christian faith, and with a +feeling—confused, perhaps, but not the less real—that in Gautama Buddha +they have been confronted with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far +the poem is responsible for this result we will not attempt to determine; +and that such was no part of the author’s intention we may readily +believe. But that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and disturbed +by the reading of this book is a certain fact; making it neither +surprising nor regrettable that its publication should have been followed +by works on the subject, written from an emphatically Christian point of +view. To the fullest and ablest of these,—the Rev. S. H. Kellogg’s _The +Light of Asia and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the Legend, the +Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, with the Story, the Doctrine and +the Ethics of Christ_ (Macmillan, 1885),—I would refer those desirous of +investigating fully the points at issue; contenting myself now with a few +brief observations. + +It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. Arnold’s poem is +written in the person, and from the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist. +This is indicated plainly on the title-page, in the preface, and in the +course of the poem itself; and when the book comes to be read by the light +of this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of its more startling +language. To take, for instance, such expressions as “Our Lord,” +“Saviour,” “come to save the world,” constantly assigned to Buddha in the +course of the poem. However accustomed Christians may be to associate such +terms with One only, and however pained they may feel at their being +referred, under any circumstances and with any restrictions, to another, +still it is obvious that their use becomes less open to objection, when +placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the praise of his Master,—and +that Master, one who, it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean work of +deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting of satisfactory explanation +are passages in the book in which we find transferred to Buddha and +Buddhism ideas and language distinctively Christian; the solemn saying of +Simeon to the Holy Mother, “A sword shall pierce through thine own soul +also,” and the still more solemn, “It is finished” of the Cross, being +made to supply particularly distressing instances of such treatment.(8) + +Or once again: but what I would say now has already been urged by Dr. +Eitel, in words which I cannot do better than quote. “I believe,” he says, +“it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer and childish sayings +with which the Buddhist Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books +abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism is little better than +a string of nonsense. It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist +texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike our Bible, the +Buddhist canon has undergone wholesale textual alterations.... As to the +popular literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we might as well +collect those little pamphlets on dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky +days, on the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate among Roman +Catholic peasants,—but would that give us a true picture of Roman +Catholicism? Thus it is with Buddhism.”(9) In other words, Dr. Eitel would +urge that in order to deal fairly with such a subject, we must try to +distinguish the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and follies +that may, from time to time, have gathered round it; and this, it is to be +feared, has not always been done by English writers, in treating of +Buddhism. + +For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to trace a brief outline of +the life of Buddha, according to the belief of Buddhists generally, and +stripped of such legends and superstitions as find no credence with the +more educated and intellectual. It is true that a doubt has sometimes been +expressed as to the existence of Gautama Buddha at all; while even so +eminent an authority as Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, +owing to the lack of really authentic information, “it is impossible to +rely implicitly on any single statement made in relation to him.”(10) But +even supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received traditions to be, +whether in part or in entirety, a mere creation of Indian thought, the +case undergoes no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the religion of +Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, and only in quite a subordinate +degree with the person of its supposed founder. The point is one that +deserves careful attention, suggesting as it does at once the essential +difference between Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable +distance which divides the two. For of Christianity it is no exaggeration +to say that upon the truth of the received accounts of its Founder’s Life +and Person its whole position absolutely depends; whereas, could it be +proved that Gautama never even lived, the system associated with his name +would suffer no material loss,—and this, because in Buddha we are invited +to contemplate only a teacher and a guide, one who would have men seek +purification and deliverance by the same means as he himself needed to +employ, and one who never claimed to be more than human. Most persons, +however, will prefer to accept as, in the main, historically correct the +commonly accepted outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be given— + +The reputed founder of Buddhism was one Siddhartha, known in later life as +Gautama, and later still, by the title of Buddha, or the “Enlightened +One.” Siddhartha was a prince of the Sakya tribe, whose territories were +situated some hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. Hence he is +often spoken of under the name of _Sakya-muni_, or the “Sakya sage.” As +regards his date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes it is +placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as late as the third century +B.C. The most competent authorities, however, agree in following the +Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 B.C. as the date of his death.(11) His +father’s name was Suddhodana; his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier +years of Siddhartha’s life we have little information that is at all to be +relied on; but his early manhood appears to have been spent amid the +luxury and self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. Gautama, +however, was a man of great benevolence, and we are told that, while still +quite young, he pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and suffering +which held the human race in bondage. Presently, becoming dissatisfied +with his own life of ease and pleasure, he made the “Great Renunciation;” +turning his back, at the age of thirty, on wife and parents, home and +wealth. After spending some years in travel, he retired to the forest, +where he attached himself to a little band of ascetics, and practised +severe forms of discipline and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover +the secret of release from suffering. But meeting with no success, and +still fast bound by the trammels of ignorance, he betook himself to +contemplation; until one day, as he was seated beneath the +Bo-tree,—henceforth to be accounted sacred(12)—the struggles of his soul +prevailed, and he passed out of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He +who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to the knowledge of which +Gautama thus attained, and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist +doctrine, are these—(i) That man is born to suffering, both mental and +physical: he experiences it himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that +this suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the condition of +suffering in which man finds himself admits of amelioration and relief; +(iv) the way of release, and the attainment to Nirvana. + +Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What is meant by _Nirvana_,—the +goal of the Buddhist’s hope and aim? Literally, the word means +“extinction”; and hence it has often come to be regarded as a mere synonym +for annihilation. The variety of opinions held by European scholars as to +its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the fact that Buddhists +themselves are by no means agreed as to its precise significance. Is +Nirvana a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the personality +perpetuated, or is the _ego_ absorbed,—i.e. into Buddha? Such questions +are differently answered by the different schools. Concerning the nature +of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his agnosticism, would seem to have been +almost wholly silent. He appears to have simply taught that by the +suppression and “extinction” of the natural passions and desires—anger, +avarice, sorrow, and the like(13)—it was possible even here to enter upon +a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should attain hereafter to +more perfect fulfilment. Of the various meanings attached to Nirvana by +the different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it scarcely +distinguishable from complete annihilation, while the opposite extreme +introduces us to the doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land +presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of perfect happiness and +delight. This remarkable development of Buddhism will claim our attention +later.(14) + + [Illustration.] + + Daibatsu At Kamakura. + + +To return. After his enlightenment, it is said that Gautama was seized by +the temptation to enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming his +doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation from him, he began his +ministry by announcing the tidings of release to the companions of his +ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at length convinced. In +the course of this, his first sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the +eight steps on the path which leads to Nirvana—(i) Right faith, (ii) right +resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) right action, (v) right living, (vi) +right effort, (vii) right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As +time went on, Gautama began to gather round him a number of disciples, who +became his constant companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and +retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and receiving such as, +attracted by his growing reputation, sought him out. The remaining months +he occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming the good news +of deliverance in the towns and villages through which he passed. Soon we +find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; the members of which +severed their connexion with all worldly things, handed over their +property to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive dress, and, +following the Master’s doctrine with strictness themselves, devoted their +lives to its propagation. Any member, however, was at liberty to leave the +Brotherhood, should he wish to do so. It is noticeable that Buddha’s +earliest followers were chiefly drawn—not, as in the case of a Greater +than he, from the ranks of the poor and simple—but from the upper classes. +Indeed, Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and ignorant as incapable +of receiving his teaching. Children are hardly mentioned in the early +Buddhist writings; and with regard to women, it was only with great +reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually consented to the formation of a +Sisterhood, the members of which were, as far as possible, to observe the +same rules as the men—together with several additional ones, chiefly +concerned with their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, it is +still the teaching of Buddhism that it should be a woman’s highest +aspiration to be reborn as a man, in a future state of existence. When, +however, the two Orders—for men and for women—had been formed, there still +remained a large number of either sex, who, without leaving their places +in the world, were desirous of being reckoned among Buddha’s followers. +These were admitted as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being +to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren. + +Having exercised his public ministry for forty years—without, as would +appear, encountering any great opposition—and having committed his work to +the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, Buddha died, aged about +eighty, and was buried with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time +of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples’ expressions of +apprehension and sorrow, by saying that when he should no longer be with +them in person, he would still be present with them in his sayings, in his +doctrine. Another point on which he laid great stress before his death was +that the Brotherhood should regularly assemble in convocation. Hence it +came about that from very early times, the declaration, “I seek refuge in +Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood),” was adopted as the +formula which any one, desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to +profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, represented to-day by +the three great images above the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its +multitude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not that three several +divinities are the objects of their adoration and their prayer. + +Such, then, as would appear, was the origin of Buddhism. Strictly +speaking, and apart from its later developments, Buddhism is a religion +which knows no God, which attaches no value to prayer, which has no place +for a priesthood. Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous +than in the five main prohibitions, which are addressed alike to clergy +and laity. The _first_ of these forbids the taking of life,—human life +chiefly, but other life as well; the _second_ is against theft, whether by +force or fraud; the _third_ is against falsehood; the _fourth_ forbids +impurity, in act, word, or thought; the _fifth_ requires abstinence from +all intoxicants. The whole idea of _GOD_, it will be noticed, is entirely +absent from the Buddhist Commandments. Infinitely removed above that other +agnosticism, which cries, “Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die,” +Buddhism starts with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. But a +self-denial that is undertaken, not for God, and in God for man, but +merely to secure one’s own peace and well-being—what is this but +selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that is essentially +negative—the natural product of that blank despair of the world and of +human nature which led to the Great Renunciation—Buddhism, as a religious +system, has yielded but scanty fruits of positive holiness, of active +benevolence. And yet,—wholly inadequate as such a system as this, even at +its purest and best, must be to meet the needs of humanity,—false and even +debased as are sometimes its teachings,—the one great message that +Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if most imperfect, truth: +the truth that would have man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to +self-deliverance by means of self-control. “Work out your own salvation” +is the injunction of Christianity. “By one’s self,” taught Sakya-muni, +“the evil is one; by one’s self must come remedy and release.” So far the +two systems are at one; the difference between them lies in the fact that +the one places in our hands those supernatural weapons which alone make +real victory possible, and that these the other knows not how to supply. + +Hitherto, we have made no reference to the relation of Buddhism to +Brahmanism. And yet we can no more hope to understand the work of +Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion with Brahmanism, than we could +afford to omit all mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, in +speaking of the liberation wrought by our Lord Jesus Christ. The work and +doctrine of Gautama Buddha,—with their mean between an ascetic severity, +on the one hand, and a licentious self-indulgence on the other—their +disregard of caste distinctions—their rejection of burdensome and +profitless traditions—may be said to bear to the heavy yoke of Brahmanism +a relation not dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. Laying +hold of that which was ready to his hand, if so be he might mould and +purify it, Buddha was a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone +before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of metempsychosis, or, as +it is commonly called, the “transmigration of souls.” No doubt, there is a +great deal connected with this doctrine in the Buddhist books that cannot +but appear to us puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, we do +not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such strange fancies on Buddha, +or on Buddhism, as though it were from these that they sprang. So far from +Sakya-muni being the originator of the theory of transmigration, a belief +in it had, for centuries previously, been almost universal throughout the +East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied an antidote to the belief in a +practically interminable series of metempsychoses current at the time. +With the theory of transmigration accepted on all sides, Buddha seems to +have made use of it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient +solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal distribution of +happiness in this life, and the absence of any satisfactory exercise of +justice in the way of reward or punishment. + +That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have been applied by Buddhists +to their great Master himself, is only what we should expect to find. +Gautama is accredited by Buddhists with some five hundred previous +existences, in the course of which he passed through numerous stages of +vegetable, animal and human life, until at length he attained to the +highest degree of manhood. Throughout the changing circumstances of his +being, he is said to have exhibited a transcendent and ever-increasing +unselfishness and charity, which culminated in his freely giving himself +to be re-born as Buddha for the world’s deliverance. And it is this +belief, probably, which has been the most potent factor in exalting the +Philosopher and the Guide to a height, which is scarcely, if at all, +distinguishable from the Throne of God. + +I may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage from the late Dean +Stanley’s _History of the Jewish Church_, where he is referring to Gautama +Buddha: “It is difficult for those who believe the permanent elements of +the Jewish and Christian religion to be universal and Divine not to hail +these corresponding forms of truth and goodness elsewhere, or to recognize +that the mere appearance of such saint-like and god-like characters in +other parts of the earth, if not directly preparing the way for a greater +manifestation, illustrates that manifestation by showing how mighty has +been the witness borne to it even under circumstances of such +discouragement, and even with effects inadequate to their grandeur.”(15) + + + + + +III. BUDDHISM IN JAPAN. + + +In the last Chapter we sketched in outline the life and teaching of +Gautama Buddha; omitting the many fanciful legends that have gathered +round his name, and confining ourselves to what would be accepted by +Buddhists generally. Of the long period that divides the death of +Sakya-muni from the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about 550 A.D., it +is no part of our purpose to treat in detail. But enough must be said to +connect in some intelligible way these two events. + +After the death of Gautama, his disciples are said to have gathered +together, and recited all that they remembered of his teaching, arranging +it in three divisions. This was the origin of the sacred books known as +the _Tripitaca_, i.e. the “three baskets,” the “three receptacles.” The +first of these—consisting of sayings, aphorisms, parables, &c., attributed +to Buddha, together with his first sermon addressed to the ascetics, (the +“Wheel of the Law,”)—is known as the _Sutra_ or “Canon;” the second is +called the _Vinaya_ or “Book of Discipline;” and the third, the +_Abhidharma_, i.e. the “Book of Metaphysics,” the “Further Doctrine.” Of +the three books, the Sutra, being mainly ethical, would have a more +general application than the other two; while the Vinaya would be chiefly +applicable to the Brotherhood, and the Abhidharma concerned with abstruse +philosophical dissertations. The Tripitaca, of which the Buddhists of +Ceylon are the custodians, are written in Pali, an early modification of +Sanskrit, and the sacred language of Buddhism; and they are, undoubtedly, +the oldest and purest of the numerous Buddhist scriptures. The Sutra, in +particular, is believed to be a faithful record of the actual teaching of +Gautama. At the same time, it must be remembered that for some centuries +after Sakya-muni’s death, there is no proof of the existence of any +written Canon; the probability being that his teaching was, for the most +part, transmitted orally from generation to generation, and that it +underwent in the process considerable alteration and addition. + +With regard to the history of Buddhism, from the time of its founder’s +death until the middle of the third century B.C., we are practically +without information. It appears, however, that parties and schools were +already beginning to be formed. But about 260 B.C., India, from being +divided into a number of petty kingdoms, became almost wholly united under +the rule of one Asoka. Asoka’s grandfather—the founder of the empire that +was soon to assume such vast proportions—had revenged himself for the +contempt in which, for his low birth, he was held by the Brahmans, by +patronizing Buddhism; and Asoka, in turn, bestowed upon it all possible +support. He made Buddhism the state religion, founded an immense number of +monasteries, and sent forth missionaries in all directions. China was one +of the countries visited; while a mission to Ceylon, in which Mahendra, +Asoka’s own son, took a prominent part, resulted in the conversion of the +whole island. + +Shortly, however, after Asoka’s death, his empire collapsed, and Buddhism +never afterwards exerted the same influence in India; though it remained +widely prevalent until the eighth century A.D., and it was not until four +centuries later that it became practically extinct. The Brahmans now +regained their former ascendency; declared Gautama to be an “avatar”—or +incarnation—of their god Vishnu; proceeded to incorporate into their own +creed some of the most popular features of the Buddhist system; and then +entered upon a destruction of the monasteries, and a severe persecution of +all Buddhists living in India. But, as in the history of the Christian +Church, persecution only resulted in the Gospel being afforded a wider +area, so was it now with Buddhism. “They that were scattered abroad went +everywhere, preaching the word.” Among other countries to which the +doctrine of Sakya-muni penetrated was Cashmere, whose king, Kanishka, a +contemporary of Christ, extended to it his enthusiastic support. + +At this point was reached an important crisis in the history of Buddhism. +Already controversies about discipline and various minor questions had +called into existence several different schools; but now a breach +occurred, of such magnitude and destined to prove so lasting in its +results, as to often have suggested comparison with the schism between +Western and Eastern Christendom. A council was held under king Kanishka, +which the Ceylon Buddhists refused to recognize; and from that time +Buddhism has been divided into two main branches, known as the _Mahayana_ +and _Hinayana_,—the “Greater and Lesser Vehicles.” The division thus +brought about became, to a great extent, a geographical one; the Hinayana +having its home in Ceylon, and, somewhat less exclusively, in Burmah and +Siam, while the schools of the Mahayana predominate in Cashmere, Thibet, +China and Japan. + +Let us glance, for a moment, at their respective characteristics. The +Hinayana and the Mahayana, then, are the names given to two great systems, +or “schools of thought,” which offer to “carry” or “convey” their +followers to the rest of Nirvana. + +Of the two, the Hinayana, or Lesser Conveyance, presents a much closer +resemblance to early Buddhism. The distinguishing features of the Hinayana +may be declared to be its adherence to the strict morality of primitive +Buddhism, its greater simplicity of worship, its smaller Canon of +scripture, and the fact that it appeals rather to the comparatively few, +to those, that is to say, who are able and willing to make the surrender +it requires. Whereas, in the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, we see a system +characterized by that increased ease and laxity, which too often accompany +a season of repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that attends the +establishment of a new movement. The chief features of the Mahayana may be +pronounced to be its less exacting standard of practical morality, its +willingness to descend to the level of the multitude, its subtle +metaphysical distinctions, its meditative inactivity, its elaborate +ceremonial, and its more extensive Canon of scripture. + +We are now, at last, in a position to examine the history of Japanese +Buddhism. If an apology seems needed for the length of our digression, I +can only say that it appeared to me necessary for any profitable treatment +of our subject. We have already seen how, as early as 250 B.C., China was +visited by Buddhist missionaries from India. These are said to have been +eighteen in number; and their effigies may be seen in many a Chinese +temple, where they are held in great veneration. In the first century +A.D., Buddhism in China began to receive imperial patronage; some of its +books being about the same time translated into the language of the +country. The spirit of accommodation and adaptation, which has always +formed so conspicuous a feature of Buddhism, manifested itself now in an +association with Taouism which has continued ever since. + +552 A.D. is the date assigned to the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, +by way of Korea. At first, it appears to have made little progress, until +the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it into favour with the +Court. Prostrating himself one day, before the little son of the Mikado, +the priest declared that he recognized in him the re-incarnation of one of +the disciples of Buddha, and one who was destined to effect a great +spiritual work in Japan. The Mikado was prevailed upon to confide the +boy’s education to the Buddhist priests; with the result that, when he +grew up, he supported their cause with such zeal as to cause him to be +sometimes spoken of as the “Constantine of Japanese Buddhism.” Shotoku +Taishi—for such was his name—acted for some time as regent, but never +himself ascended the throne. + +There is no doubt that the progress of Buddhism in Japan was largely +facilitated by the adoption of tactics, which had been successfully +employed in dealing with the barbarous tribes of India, and—as we have +just noticed,—with China also. Indeed, its readiness to adapt itself to +the circumstances, instincts, and prejudices of the people, with whom it +has to do, is, as has already been implied, one of the most powerful and +most striking peculiarities of Buddhism. In Japan, the Shinto demi-gods +were Buddhaized, and declared to be manifestations of Gautama; while +practices borrowed from the ancient national creed were introduced into +the Buddhist ceremonial. In the eighth century, we find orders issued for +the erection of two temples and a pagoda in every province; until, about +the twelfth century, the two religions became associated in the manner +indicated in our first chapter,—Buddhist and Shinto clergy officiating by +turns in the same buildings, and the Shinto temples becoming filled with +images, alike of their own demi-gods, and of Buddha and his companions. +This state of things continued until 1868, when the Shinto cult was chosen +to receive the exclusive recognition of the State, many of the Buddhist +monasteries at the same time suffering spoliation. Within the last few +years, however, Buddhism has been making strenuous efforts to recover its +former power and position, and there is little doubt that it still exerts +a real influence in Japan; while the collapse of Shintoism is, as +certainly, a matter of no distant time. At Tokio, the capital, where the +number of temples is enormous, the proportion of Buddhist to Shinto is in +the ratio of ten to one; and on several occasions during my stay in Japan +I noticed handsome new Buddhist temples in course of erection, or old ones +being redecorated and restored. On the other hand, numbers are closed, or +falling to pieces, for want of funds to maintain them. + +At the present time, there are some twelve or more _principal_ Buddhist +sects in Japan, several of these being subdivided. The distinction between +the various schools is much more closely preserved than in China; and, at +least in the larger cities, each sect will be found represented by a +temple of its own. The difference between the schools consists not only in +the varied attitudes adopted towards some controverted question, but +frequently also in the degrees of importance attached to some point which +is held by all in common. For, as cannot be too emphatically stated, +Buddhism is a _many-sided_ religion.(16) The following extract from Sir +Monier Williams’ _Buddhism_, for instance, draws attention to the variety +of aspects, from which it may, and indeed needs to be regarded by the +student. + +“In different places and at different times, its teaching has become both +negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It passes from apparent +atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and spiritualism. It is, +under one aspect, mere pessimism; under another, pure philanthropy; under +another, monastic communion; under another, high morality; under another, +a variety of materialistic philosophy; under another, simple demonology; +under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, including necromancy, +witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In some form or other it may be held +with almost any religion, and embraces something from almost every creed.” + +To the same effect writes Dr. Eitel in his _Lectures on Buddhism_ (pp. +1-2): “Buddhism is a system of vast magnitude, for it comprises the +earliest gropings after science throughout those various branches of +knowledge which our Western nations have long been accustomed to divide +for separate study. It embodies in one living structure grand and peculiar +views of physical science, refined and subtle theorems on abstract +metaphysics, an edifice of fanciful mysticism, a most elaborate and +far-reaching system of practical morality, and finally a church +organization as broad in its principles and as finely wrought in its most +intricate network as any in the world.” + +It would hardly be worth while to attempt any detailed description of the +many Buddhist sects represented in Japan. To observe the main +characteristics of the principal ones, and their points of difference from +one another, will be amply sufficient for our purpose. The greater number +of the schools were introduced from China, but a few are Japanese +developments. + +Let us take, first of all, the schools of the Hinayana, or Minor Vehicle, +which, as we should expect, is not extensively represented in Japan. The +Hinayana is represented by four philosophical schools, in two of which the +materialistic element predominates, and in the two other the idealistic; +while eschatological questions afford further ground for difference. The +points in dispute between these philosophical schools of Buddhism are +altogether so subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of +comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in such distinctions. Of the +four sects referred to, one, called the _Kusha_, has for its +characteristic the fact that it bases its teaching on the Abhidharma +Pitaca. + +To the Minor Vehicle belongs the curious system known as the “Holy Path.” +This has been described as a “debtor and creditor account kept with divine +justice.” Much less common than in China, the system of the “Holy Path” is +yet widely practised in Japan. Elaborate tables are drawn up, containing a +list of all good and bad actions it is possible to perform, with the +numbers added which each counts on the side of merit or demerit. The +numbers range from one to a hundred, or even more; and the tables afford +an insight into the relative importance in which all kinds of actions +present themselves to the Oriental mind. He who would tread life’s journey +along the Holy Path must, at least, aim at setting off his bad deeds by a +corresponding number of good acts of equal value. At the end of each year, +the account is balanced, and the overplus or deficit is transferred to the +succeeding one. That such a system is liable to the gravest abuse, +especially in the case of the more ignorant, is obvious; though, when +conscientiously practised, it need not be supposed to be unproductive of +good.(17) + +At present we have made no mention of the _Madhyameka_, or Middle Vehicle, +which, as its name implies, occupies an intermediate place between the +Greater and Lesser Conveyances. A compromise between these two great +systems, the Madhyameka may be said to be characterized by a marked +moderation, i.e. between an excessive strictness, on the one hand, and a +too great liberty on the other. But though it is thus a faithful exponent +of Sakya-muni’s original doctrine, the Madhyameka has never attracted any +extensive following. It is represented in Japan by the sect called the +_Sanron_. + +We pass on to examine the schools of the Greater Vehicle. In the same way +that the Kusha sect regards as its chief authority the Abhidharma Pitaca, +there are two schools belonging to the Greater Vehicle, which base their +teaching on the Sutra and Vinaya Pitacas respectively. The _Kagon_ make +the parables and sayings of Buddha contained in the Sutra their especial +study; while the _Ritzu_, as adhering to the more ascetic side of +Buddhism, have for their favourite book the Vinaya, or “Discipline.” + +The _Dhyana_ or _Zen_ sect is a Chinese school with numerous +sub-divisions. Its distinguishing feature is the prominence it assigns to +the life of contemplation. Mysticism is represented by the _Shingon_, the +Mantra school of India transferred through China to Japan; and also by the +_Tendai_, so called from a mountain in China, where the head-quarters of +the sect are situated. The temples of the Shingon may usually be +recognized by the two guardian figures at the entrance, with open and shut +mouths, suggesting the mystic syllable A-UM. A peculiarity of both of +these sects is the use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common in +Thibet. + +An element of mysticism also pervades the influential _Hokkai_ sect, a +Japanese offshoot of the Tendai, founded in the thirteenth century by a +priest named Nichiren, who is said to have been born supernaturally of a +virgin mother. The Hokkai are most jealously attached to their own ritual, +and to other observances peculiar to themselves; and, inheriting the +disposition attributed to their founder, exhibit a narrowness and +intolerance rarely met with in Japan. Their characteristic may be said to +consist in an emotional fanaticism; and a visitor to one of their temples +will generally find a number of devotees,—who thus remain engaged for +hours at a time,—chanting the invocation of the sect, “Adoration to the +Lotus of the Law,” to a deafening accompaniment of drums. + +Two sects only now remain, but these by no means the least interesting or +least popular: the _Jodo_ and the _Shin-Jodo_ (i.e. the New-Jodo). The +distinguishing features of these sects,—which also find a place in the +system of the Hokkai,—are their acknowledgement of the need of external +aid, and their doctrine of the Western Paradise, presided over by Amitabha +Buddha. How marked a departure from the original teaching of Sakya-muni, +as observed by us, these schools present is sufficiently obvious; +nevertheless, it is alleged that the revelation of the Paradise in the +West was first made by Buddha himself to one of his principal disciples. +In the distant West is said to dwell one named Amida, or Amitabha, that is +to say “Illimitable Light.” Immortal himself, immortal also and freed from +all the trammels of transmigration are the vast multitudes of men(18) who +inhabit the boundless regions which he rules. In that “Pure Land,”(19) +that “Undefiled Ground,” everything beautiful and enchanting has a place, +neither is pain or sorrow known; and thither nought that is evil or that +defileth can come. Whosoever would attain to this heavenly country must +rely, most of all, on faithful invocation of the name of Amida; he having, +as is recorded, made a vow that he would only accept Buddhahood on +condition that salvation should be placed within reach of all sincerely +desirous of achieving it. Such is the doctrine of the Western Paradise, +some of the descriptions of which read almost like echoes of the last +chapters of the Bible. Unknown to the Buddhism of Ceylon, Siam, and +Burmah, it can be traced back as far as the second century A.D., when it +was certainly known in Cashmere, though it was not until three centuries +later that it began to spread widely over Northern Buddhism. But the whole +question of its origin remains wrapped in obscurity. At the present day, +the devotion to Amida is very widely practised in Japan, and it is +extremely popular. No doubt, the more educated and intellectual +Buddhist,—and the distinction thus suggested needs constantly to be +insisted on,—would explain the Paradise of the West as being a mere +allegory, and regard Amitabha, as he was originally conceived to be, as +merely an ideal personification of boundless light. But to the people +generally the Undefiled Ground and its presiding deity are actual, +literal, realities. + + [Illustration.] + + Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto. + + +We have said that the two sects in which the doctrine of the Western +Paradise appears in greatest prominence are called the Jodo and Shin-Jodo. +The former of these is Chinese in origin, but was established in Japan +about 1200 A.D. by a priest, Enko Daishi by name, who was also a member of +the imperial family. The head-quarters of this sect are at Kyoto, where +the magnificent monastery of Chion-in forms one of the principal sights of +that most interesting of Japanese cities. But of all the temples of Japan, +those of the New-Jodo (or _Monto_) sect are at once the most handsome, the +most frequented, and the most attractive to the European traveller. +Everything here, too, is of a dignified and stately character; there is a +striking absence of the tawdry and the puerile. Founded in the year 1262, +this sect is, at the present day, foremost in learning, influence, and +activity. Another purely Japanese development, it is—owing to differences +about “church government”—composed of two sub-divisions, the +_Nishi-Hongwanji_ and the _Higashi-Hongwanji_, or the Eastern and Western +Divisions of the True Petition,—the reference being to the vow of Amida. +In most of the larger towns, handsome temples of either branch are to be +found, situated usually in the poorer districts. + +It is in the temples of the Shin-Jodo that the remarkable similarity, of +which every one has heard, between the Buddhist ceremonial and that of the +Roman Church is most conspicuous. Nowhere, perhaps, did the resemblance in +question,—to which I shall have occasion to refer again,—impress me more +forcibly than it did in the New-Jodo temple at Nagasaki, at the first +Buddhist service at which I was ever present. The day of our visit chanced +to be the founder’s anniversary, and from a raised lectern in the chancel, +a venerable priest, of benign countenance,—wearing a rich vestment not +unlike a dalmatic, and a cap resembling a biretta,—was recounting to a +congregation, composed chiefly of women, old men, and children, the +virtues of their deceased benefactor. Presently, the sermon came to an +end, and the colloquial delivery of the discourse was changed for the +monotone of a litany recitation: the people answering with ready response, +and many of them employing the aid of their rosaries. The fragrance of +incense filled the air; tapers and flowers adorned the altar, above which +was the statue, not—as one entering by chance might almost have expected +to see—of a Christian saint, but of some manifestation of Gautama Buddha. +Despite, however, its elaborate ritual, the Shin-Jodo sect has been called +the “Protestantism of Japan;” the reason being that it sanctions the +marriage of its clergy, approves the reading of the scriptures in the +“vulgar tongue,” permits a wider freedom in respect to food and drink, and +affords other indications of a “reforming spirit.” The priesthood in this +sect is, practically, a hereditary office. + +In the _Great Indian Religions_ of the late Mr. Bettany, there is given a +summary of the Shin-Jodo Belief, in the words of one of its principal +teachers. I will take the liberty of re-quoting it here. “Rejecting all +religious austerities and other action, giving up all idea of self-power, +we rely upon Amida Buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the +future life, which is the most important thing: believing that at the +moment of putting our faith in Amida Buddha our salvation is settled. From +that moment invocation of his name is observed as an expression of +gratitude and thankfulness for Buddha’s mercy. Moreover, being thankful +for the reception of this doctrine from the founder and succeeding chief +priests whose teachings were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in a +dark night, we must also keep the laws which are fixed for our duty during +our whole life.” The mutual relation of faith and works is especially to +be noticed; and indeed the strikingly _evangelical_ character of the whole +Confession. + + [Illustration.] + + Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + +Vast, however, as is the power attributed to Amitabha, and great as is the +merit to be acquired by the invocation of his name, there is found in the +temples in which he is worshipped an image which receives even more +veneration than his. That colossal female effigy, with the many heads and +countless hands, before which a number of votaries, composed largely of +women, are kneeling in prayer, is meant to represent the mighty +Avalokitesvara, or—to substitute for the Sanskrit the less formidable +titles by which she is known in China and Japan,—the all-powerful Kwanyin +or Kwannon. Here, again, we are confronted with a devotion the origin of +which is wrapped in uncertainty, but which, closely connected with the +doctrine of the Western Paradise, seems to have arisen some three +centuries after the commencement of our era. At the present day, it is +spread extensively over Thibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan; but it is +unknown to the countries of Southern Buddhism. With regard to the meaning +of this great image before us, Kwannon is commonly explained to be the +reflex or spiritual son of Amitabha Buddha, sent by him to earth to +preside on earth over the Buddhist faith, and appearing, at first in male +and subsequently in female shape. But the probability is that the various +personages, with whom Kwannon is supposed to be identified, had merely a +fictitious existence; and that in her statues, we see simply an apotheosis +of Mercy, an allegorical _Mater Misericordiae_, whose many eyes and hands +are intended to signify the unremitting vigilance and the untiring energy +with which she ministers to all sorrow and distress.(20) + +The island of Pootau, off Ning-po, in the Chusan Archipelago, is the great +centre of Kwannon worship; the most popular of the many legends concerning +her associating her with this locality, and offering an explanation of her +thousand heads and hands more clumsy even than is the manner of such +myths. The island belongs to the Buddhist priesthood, and is a great +resort of pilgrims. In Japan, the shrines and statues of Kwannon are to be +met with everywhere: many of her images being of enormous size, richly +gilt and beautifully wrought. Sometimes the statues are kept concealed +from view, either on account of alleged miraculous properties, or for some +other reason of special sanctity. The highly-venerated image, for +instance, at the Asakusa temple, Tokio, is never shown; it is only two +inches high, and is accredited with supernatural qualities. But of all the +shrines of Kwannon, it may be doubted whether the impression created by +any is greater than by her temple of San-ju-san-gen-do at Kyoto, where no +less than 33,333 images of the goddess may be seen. Of these a thousand +are gilded statues, five feet in height, and ranged in tiers along a vast +gallery. The remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads, hands and +nimbi of the larger ones. The temple and its contents originated in the +votive offering of a Mikado of the twelfth century for recovery from +sickness. + + [Illustration.] + + The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + + + + +IV. BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. + + + [Illustration.] + + Guardian Nio. + + +The Buddhist temples in Japan are for the most part built on a much +grander and more elaborate scale than those belonging to the Shinto +worship. The roofing is not of thatch, but of tiles; and instead of the +torii, the entrance is through a _Sammon_, or two-storied gateway, in the +recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious appearance. These +are called _Nio_, and their office is to guard the sacred precincts from +the approach of evil spirits. These images are commonly seen spotted all +over with pellets of paper. “A worshipper writes his petition on paper, or +better still, has it written for him by the priest, chews it to a pulp, +and spits it at the divinity. If, having been well aimed, the paper +sticks, it is a good omen.” Passing through the Sammon, and proceeding in +a straight direction—often between rows of votive stone-lanterns—the +visitor soon arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple group. One +of these is the _Hondo_, or main shrine; while the other may be either the +Hall of the Founder of the particular sect to which the Temple belongs, or +it may contain a colossal image of Amida, and be specially dedicated to +his worship. Sometimes, again, this second building is known as the +Refectory, from the spiritual nourishment supplied there in the form of +sermons, for which the preacher takes as his text some passage of the +Sutra, or, it may be, some saying of Confucius.(21) Removing our boots, +which we leave at the foot of the wooden steps, we ascend to the Hondo, +and, if need be, push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered woodwork, +which afford access to the building. Should no service chance to be in +progress, a little company of priests, acolytes, &c., will probably be +found, seated on the matting with which the floor is covered,—engaged in +the perusal of book or newspaper, or chatting together over miniature cups +of tea, and, if it be winter-time, spreading their hands to receive the +grateful warmth of the hibachi.(22) Beside them, on the floor, is arranged +a miscellaneous assortment of sacred pictures, leaflets, candles, +incense-sticks, charms, and other articles; any of which may be purchased +by a very modest expenditure. As we enter, we observe that several pairs +of eyes are fastened on us in undisguised curiosity; but our low +salutation is promptly responded to, if indeed it has not been +anticipated, and one of the group will courteously come forward to supply +us with any assistance or information we require. Before the railing, +which encloses the sanctuary, two or three worshippers are kneeling in +prayer; and these also examine us for a while with close attention. Or, it +may be that at the time of our visit some religious function is +proceeding. If so, the clergy with their servers are found within the +chancel, clad in gorgeous yellow robes, and genuflecting now and again +before the images which stand above the richly-vested altar. Outside the +sanctuary rails, the congregation is assembled in greater or less numbers, +according to the importance of the day. Around is a profusion of lights +and flowers; while the air is fragrant with the fumes of incense. The +prayers, which the officiating priest recites in monotone, are in Pali, a +form of Sanskrit; and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades his devotions, +let it be remembered that every day, month after month, and year after +year, he may be found chanting these same litanies, of the significance of +which he has but the vaguest idea. Not, however, that he is without belief +in their efficacy; nay, it may be that his very ignorance of their meaning +causes the words he utters to have, in his eyes, a transcendent value. +Above the high altar, in seated posture on lotus-blossoms,(23) are three +colossal images, cunningly wrought and richly gilded, and bearing on their +countenances an expression of placid repose. Perhaps, it is the +_Triratna_, or Three Jewels, that these represent, the Trinity of Buddha, +the Law, and the Order. Or, possibly, this is Buddha, in his triple forms +of existence:—as Sakya-muni, the form under which he lived as man among +men; as Amitabha, his metaphysical existence in Nirvana; as +Avalokitesvara, his reflex in the world of forms, his spiritual son, +generated to propagate the religion established by him during his earthly +career. Or once again, these three images may portray the Buddhas of the +Past, Present, and Future:—Gautama who _was_, the historic founder of +Buddhism; Kwannon, or Avalokitesvara, the head of the present Buddhist +hierarchy, the Buddha who _is_; and Maitreya, or Meroku, the deliverer yet +_to come_, the rehabilitation of past Buddhas foretold by Sakya-muni. Now +and again one may meet with a Buddhist of superior intellectual +attainments, who would explain the acts of worship he offers to these +images, as signifying merely reverence for Gautama’s teaching; but to the +multitude, as has been seen already, the images represent distinct and +all-powerful deities. Indeed, the people are encouraged thus to regard +them by their ecclesiastical superiors; it being one of the methods of +Buddhism thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense and ignorant +minds. And thus it comes about that a religion, commencing with +agnosticism, meets the “craving for divinity,” so deeply implanted in the +nature of our race, by passing into what is, practically, a deification of +humanity. + + [Illustration.] + + Pagoda at Nikko. + + +Leaving the Hondo, we next proceed to explore the grounds and remaining +buildings connected with the temple. This lofty _Pagoda_, for instance, +several stories high, is erected over some holy relic,—perhaps the +vitrified remains of the founder, after cremation. A little further on, we +come to the _Rinzo_, or Revolving Library, containing an entire set of the +Buddhist scriptures. As these consist altogether of some 6,700 or 6,800 +large volumes, it is clearly impossible for any one person to read them +all. This, however, need not be regretted seeing that whatever merit might +be obtained by a complete perusal, is freely extended to all, who will +take the trouble to make this huge stand revolve; the structure being so +arranged that a single push is sufficient for the purpose! The Rinzo was +an invention of a Chinese priest, and is said to date from the sixth +century. Owing to their costliness they are rarely met with; and the only +two I remember seeing were at Asakusa, Tokio, and at Ikegami, the +head-quarters of the Hokkai sect. Elsewhere in the grounds we come upon +the _Shoro_, or Great Bell,—used not for summoning the faithful, but for +the purpose of invocation and worship;—the _Koro_, or Drum-tower; the +_Emado_, or “Ex-voto” Shed, the walls of which are covered with pictures, +charms, and other offerings; cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +purification; a printing and publishing department; and, perhaps, a grotto +with ghastly representations of the sufferings endured in the Buddhist +hells. Usually, too, to be found in the sacred precincts, is a specimen of +the _Ficus religiosa_, or sacred tree, under which Sakya-muni attained his +enlightenment. At the rear of the temple buildings are situated the +priests’ apartments,—often a quadrangle enclosed by a colonnade,—the +reception-rooms of which are beautifully decorated with _kakemonos_. Here +the visitor is sometimes invited to a light repast of tea, cake, and +fruit; the priests waiting on him the while with the most courteous +attention. And here may I be permitted to say a word about the Buddhist +priests of Japan as I found them? They are commonly spoken of as lazy and +ignorant, mercenary and corrupt; and it is to be feared that with regard +to many, especially of the lower orders of the clergy, this witness is +true. But speaking of those with whom I came into direct contact—the +priests, for the most part, attached to the more important temples—I feel +bound to say, that the impression I formed of them was, on the whole, a +distinctly favourable one. With countenances often indicating close +spiritual application, they appeared to perform their sacred duties with +reverence and attention; while of the disinterested kindness and +hospitality I received at their hands, as well as of the courtesy and +patience with which they replied to my numerous questions, I would speak +in terms of grateful appreciation. + + [Illustration.] + + Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (_Head-quarters of the + Hokkai or Nichiren sect._) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate +leads to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder’s Hall. To the +right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple is + the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of the + picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are + the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests’ Apartments + and Reception-rooms. + + +A visit to a Buddhist temple, however, can hardly fail to suggest to any, +who are at all familiar with the observances of the Roman ritual, a +comparison to which we have already referred,—I mean the striking +resemblance between the Buddhist ceremonies and such as have found place +in the Christian Church. The high-altar with its haloed statues, flowers, +candelabra, and ever-burning lamps; the side-altars, similarly adorned, +above one of which, it may be, is seen the image of Maia, the mother of +Gautama, bearing her infant-son in her arms; the priests, tonsured, +mitred, arrayed in their rich vestments, and attended by their acolytes; +the people, bending low in adoration, or telling their rosaries as they +pray; the tinkling of bells and the perfume of incense; the dim light of +the sanctuary, and the monotonous chant, in the unknown tongue, of the +litanies uplifted for living and for dead:—these are only some of the +points of correspondence with Roman Catholic observances which meet us in +almost every Buddhist temple. Indeed, to attempt to specify such +resemblances in detail would prove a laborious task. But while the +similarity to which I refer is far too close and remarkable to be +accounted for by mere coincidence, its explanation is by no means easy. +Some would solve the difficulty by referring to the unquestionable fact +that many of the ceremonies practised in the Christian Church are +adaptations of ancient heathen rites: a leading captive of captivity of +which, as it seems to me, Christianity has far more reason to be proud +than ashamed. But though the Buddhist observances are, without doubt, of +considerable antiquity, this explanation cannot be said to be adequate to +the requirements of the case. Far more satisfactory is the theory that +ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of China with some form of +Christianity—probably Nestorianism—and to the readiness which Buddhism has +ever exhibited to extend its influence by a conformity to other faiths. +The problem, however, is one which we must, to a great extent, be +satisfied to leave unsolved; the most eminent authorities in Orientalism +having confessed themselves baffled. It is only the fact of the +resemblance that admits of no dispute. + + [Illustration.] + + A Buddhist Priest. + + +It is curious to notice the different effects produced by an observation +of the Buddhist ceremonial on the minds of Roman Catholic missionaries +upon their first arrival in the East. By some its likeness to their own +ritual has been regarded as a manœuvre of Satan, designed for the +hindrance of Christian truth; while others have regarded the resemblance +with satisfaction, as calculated to diminish the difficulties of their +work. Without entering further into this question, I may be allowed to +express the conviction that an elaborate ceremonial forms at any rate no +necessary factor of Christian work in Japan. So far from this being the +case, I was informed, on no prejudiced authority, that, the breach once +made with the old associations, converts are disposed to regard anything +tending even remotely to suggest them as more of a hindrance than a help; +and this view finds support in the large number of adherents gained by +several of the Protestant Missions, with whom anything in the way of +ceremonial is reduced to a minimum. On the other hand, must be remembered +the very successful work accomplished in Japan, alike by the Roman and +Orthodox Churches, whose combined total of some 65,000 adherents is more +than double that of the various Protestant sects,—the Churches of England +and America, with 4,000 members, not being included in this computation. + +Hitherto, I have referred only to the resemblance outwardly existing +between the ceremonies and observances of Christianity and Buddhism. But +an extension of the comparison results in what is, at first sight, an even +more startling similarity between incidents recorded of Gautama Buddha, +and events in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated in the Gospels. Thus, +we are told that Gautama was born of a virgin mother; that angels appeared +at his nativity; that an ancient seer prostrated himself before him, and +saluted him as one come down from heaven; that, as a child, he confounded +his teachers by the understanding he displayed, and the questions which he +asked; that, assailed by the Evil One(24) with the keenest +temptations,—including the offer of Sovereignty over all the world, if he +would renounce his mission,—he yet emerged victorious from all; that once, +being on a mountain, he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light; that +he went down into hell; and that he ascended into heaven. Indeed, the +Christian may be pardoned if, for the moment, he feels completely +staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf of Sakya-muni; and if +his perplexity only begins to give place to relief, when he discovers that +there is absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence in the +early Buddhist writings, and that there is no reason for supposing that +these alleged events in the life of Gautama were ever heard of until the +Christian era was already several centuries old. + +We have now, as far as our limits permit, made an examination of Buddhism +with especial reference to Japan. But before leaving this part of our +subject, I would humbly, but very earnestly, submit the question, Is there +in Buddhism generally,—is there in Buddhism as it exists in Japan at the +present day,—nothing upon which Christianity may profitably fasten, +nothing to which Christianity may properly appeal? Is that great +proclamation of Christian tact, which, eighteen centuries ago, the Apostle +Paul delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, “Whom ye ignorantly worship, +Him declare I unto you,” one that cannot, more often than it does, find a +place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day? Is the position a useless +one to take, that both the faiths of Jesus Christ and of Buddha agree in +this, that either has for its object the amelioration of man’s lot, here +and hereafter, and his release from the curse of suffering; only, as we +believe, with this great difference, that the founder of Christianity was +possessed of resources to which Sakya-muni laid no claim? These are +questions which were constantly presenting themselves to my mind during my +visit to Japan; but they are questions also which I heard asked more than +once by men who had closely studied the whole subject and were deeply +interested in mission work. But whatever the true answer to these +questions be, of this we may be certain: that by no reckless denunciation +of a creed, of the very elements of which the denouncer is content to be +in ignorance, will any victory of Christ’s Cross be achieved. Be the +errors and shortcomings of Buddhism what they may,—and we must, to be +honest, pronounce them in our judgment to be many and great,—it is, at +least, a system of very great antiquity, in whose strength thousands of +millions of our fellow-creatures have lived and died, both better and +happier. Men cannot be expected lightly to abandon their allegiance to +such a faith as this, nor would it be to their credit if they did; while +in Christianity, even when faithfully represented, there is very much +calculated to perplex and estrange one who has been trained in the tenets +of Buddhism. Moreover, however little he may agree with them, the Buddhist +holds that the religious convictions of others are entitled to respect, +and that their feelings should never be wounded, if this can be avoided; +it is only natural that he, in his turn, should be quickly alienated by +unsympathetic treatment. I was told by an English resident of long +standing that infidelity is largely on the increase in Japan, especially +among the men of the upper and middle classes; and that among the causes +of this was certainly to be reckoned the contemptuous and merely +destructive attitude towards Buddhism, with which some—let us hope they +are the very few—would think to serve the cause of Jesus Christ. “Depend +upon it,” it was said to me, “it is irreligion that commonly succeeds to +the vacant place, not Christianity. Carlyle was right when he said, +‘Better even to believe a lie than to believe nothing.’ ” And Buddhism is +not all a lie! + +“The perishing heathen.” Many of us have been revolted by such expressions +when heard at home. But it is only when one is living in the midst of the +people of whom they are spoken, that it is possible to realize the full +horror of their meaning. That men, women, and little children, who are +distinguished by so many good qualities,(25) and who—with, as we believe, +such immeasurably inferior opportunities—present, in many points, so +favourable a contrast to ourselves, should be condemned to a future of +hopeless and unending misery, for not believing that of which, it may be, +they have not even heard, or heard only in crude, distorted statement—can +any man _really_ think this, who recognizes the providence of a Father of +Love; nay, I will dare to say, of a Deity of bare Justice? And yet +language thus fearfully misrepresenting the Faith of Christ is still used +by some who are called by His name; and that it is used is known by the +people of Japan.(26) + +But again. There is, I have observed, much in the scheme of Christianity +calculated to prove a stumbling-block to those who have been educated in +the doctrines of Buddhism. Let me proceed to state some of the +difficulties that would be experienced, some of the objections that would +be raised, by a Buddhist of a certain amount of intellectual capacity, +when confronted with the claims of the Christian Faith. + +Thus, (_a_) _the Bible_. “We are unable,” the Buddhist would say, “to +recognize in your Old and New Testaments an inspired revelation. Why +should we accept your Scriptures, with all their alleged miracles and +supernatural occurrences, when you reject ours? Besides, you are not +agreed among yourselves as to inspiration, authenticity, translation, +interpretation. Some of you, again, are for diffusing the Bible broadcast, +others would keep it in the background. Again, the Christian doctrine of +immortality appears to us entirely absent from the pages of the Old +Testament; while even the Jews, ‘God’s chosen people,’ refuse to see in +the New Testament the fulfilment of the Old.” + +(_b_) _The Old Testament._ “We cannot regard the story of Creation, as +given in the Book of Genesis, as anything more than a myth, containing a +germ of truth. Neither can we accept, as historically true, the story of +the temptation in the Garden of Eden. And yet, upon this is made to rest +your whole theory of the Fall, of Original Sin, and of Christian +Redemption. As for the history of the Jewish people, we can see in it +nothing but one long story of cruelty and bloodshed; how can a Creator, a +God of Love, be supposed to have permitted and approved such things?” + +(_c_) _The Incarnation._ The whole doctrine of the Incarnation is full of +difficulty to the mind of an Oriental; _not_ because of its strangeness +and novelty, but owing to his very familiarity with stories of miraculous +birth in his own legends. + +(_d_) _The Atonement._ “Why should Jehovah require the sacrifice of His +own Son?” This is a difficulty that would present itself with especial +force to the Buddhist; by whom all life is held sacred, and whom such +texts as “Without shedding of blood there is no remission,” fill with +repugnance. The explanation offered by Buddhists themselves of the +Christian doctrine of Atonement is, that its origin must be sought in the +fact that, from the most ancient times, the idea of sacrifice, and of +human sacrifice, has existed; and this explanation they go on to apply to +the Holy Eucharist. + +(_e_) _Eternal Punishment._ “How,” it is asked, “is your doctrine of +Everlasting Punishment consistent with that of the Remission of Sins? And +how, on the other hand, is not your scheme of salvation ethically wrong, +if it allows people, after sinning all their lives, to be forgiven on +their death-beds, that so they may enter a Paradise, wherein good and bad +alike have a place?” + +(_f_) _Faith and Belief._ “What right have you to ask us to believe +anything that does not accord with science and experience, when you have +no better opportunities of knowing than we?” + +(_g_) _Christian Ethics._ “Some of these—e.g. the doctrine of the Sermon +on the Mount—we admit to be good; but they are not peculiar to +Christianity—our own teaching is very similar. In other of your ethics, we +see only an ignoble and selfish storing of treasure; it appears to us that +a good action, done for the sake of reward or gain, must entirely lose its +merit.” + +(_h_) _Missionary Work._ “We do not claim that our religion is the only +way of salvation, but readily recognize the good points in other systems +as well. You, on the contrary, appear to hold that there is no other way +but your own; and indeed it is only on this supposition that we can +understand the strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to abandon our +religion for yours.”(27) + +It forms no part of my purpose to discuss these objections; which, let me +add, are merely representative, and by no means exhaustive. With many of +them we are already familiar at home; and the Japanese, I would mention, +are fully aware of the unbelief prevalent in England, and well acquainted +with its arguments. Indeed, few English people, it is probable, have any +idea how closely their history and their literature are studied by nations +living at the other side of the globe, who are to them simply “the +heathen.” Some, again, of the above objections would seem to have been +suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of Christian truth. I have +thought it worth while to refer to them, in the hope that the fact of such +questions being raised may serve to impress upon us these two important +points:—(i) the need of missionaries, at the present day, being not only +men of holy and devoted lives, but also fully equal in intellectual +equipment and culture to our home clergy; and (ii) the fallacy of trusting +to the circulation of the Bible, as an instrument of mission work, unless +it be accompanied—or rather preceded—by the teaching of the living agent. + +It must not, however, be imagined that the obstacles to the progress of +the Gospel in Japan are wholly, or even mainly, of the character I have +referred to. Another great hindrance is most unquestionably presented in +the large number of competing sects and organizations, which, here as in +other countries where mission work is being carried on, address the people +in the name of Christianity. It is true that Buddhists themselves are +divided into numerous sects and schools; but between these there can +scarcely be said to be anything of party animosity and strife. It will, +indeed, be heard with satisfaction that the feeling towards one another of +the various Christian bodies in Japan is, speaking generally, free from +bitterness; and that each would appear desirous of doing its own work, in +the wide field before it, without interference with the efforts of others. +“The feeling here,” it was observed to me, “is nothing like so bad as it +is at home.”(28) And as in England bigotry and suspicion are steadily +giving place to mutual toleration and respect, so may we hope that, both +in our colonies and abroad, counsels of charity may more and more prevail. +Still, at the best, so long as Romanists, Orthodox, Anglicans, and +Sectarians adhere to the positions they at present occupy, so long must +any real unity of action be impossible; neither can peace be sought by +surrender or compromise of principle. But meanwhile there is, of course, a +lamentable want of compactness among the converts—as a recent writer in +the _Japan Mail_, remarked “they are more like scattered groups of +soldiers than an army”;—while the perplexity occasioned to those we are +seeking to convince is terrible and great. + +The following extract from Miss Bickersteth’s recently-published _Japan as +we saw it_ (Sampson Low, 1893), draws an able contrast between the +religious condition of Japan at the present day and the position of +Christianity in the time of St. Francis Xavier. “It was impossible not to +be struck with the present complication of religious matters in the +country as compared with the days of Xavier. Then, on the one side, there +was the Buddhist-Shinto creed, undermined by no Western science, still +powerful in its attraction for the popular mind, and presenting a more or +less solid resistance to the foreign missionary; and, on the other, +Christianity as represented by Roman Catholicism, imperfect truly, but +without a rival in dogma or in ritual. Now the ranks of Buddhist-Shintoism +are hopelessly broken; the superstition of its votaries is exposed by the +strong light of modern science, and their enthusiasm too often quenched in +the deeper darkness of atheism. Christianity, though present in much +greater force than in the days of Xavier, is, alas, not proportionately +stronger. The divisions of Christendom are nowhere more evident than in +its foreign missions to an intellectual people like the Japanese. The +Greek, the Roman, the Anglican churches, the endless ‘splits’ of +Nonconformity, must and do present to the Japanese mind a bewildering +selection of possibilities in religious truth.” + +To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian progress in Japan—which, +although the last mentioned, is by no means the least serious—I mean the +estimate formed by the natives of the practical influence of the Christian +religion upon English people and upon other nations professing it. +Applying to Christianity the test of its results, they urge that it has, +at any rate, only very partially succeeded. For instance, the Japanese +comment upon the fact that numbers of Englishmen in Japan never attend the +services of their Church; and that the lives of many of them display a +flagrant disregard for the principles which should regulate the conduct of +Christians. Without, however, denying either the justice of these charges, +or the reasonableness of the mood which advances them, I think it may be +urged with fairness that the influence of Christianity on us as a nation +cannot rightly be estimated in this particular way. As a rule, the +Englishman can scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. Too often +he assumes an attitude of insolent superiority to the people whose guest +he is; while the position in which our countrymen are placed in a country +like Japan—coupled with the freedom from restraint, so much greater than +at home—has, for reasons which we need not now enter into, its peculiar +difficulties. Neither is it by any means certain that a Japanese, paying a +short visit to England, will gather any just impression of what hold +Christianity has on us as a people. In all probability the range of his +observations will be very limited and superficial; his wanderings will be +chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the principal cities; while +the circle of his acquaintance will, it is likely, be equally restricted, +and equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, in saying this, we +would seek to excuse ourselves, or deny that there is far more truth than +we could wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges brought against +us. We would merely submit that there is another side to the picture which +ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting as we must, for +instance, the great prevalence of infidelity in our England of to-day, +there is yet to be placed over against it,—and may I not add, drawing it +out into the light?—the increased activity of the Church during this last +half-century, the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting herself +to meet the needs of her times, the influence for good that she has not +only been in the past, but remains at the present day, in the nation at +large, and in thousands and thousands of English homes. “By their fruits +ye shall know them”: and Christianity must not and need not deprecate the +application of that test to herself. Only, we would urge, that is not a +fair judgment, which takes account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ +has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, in the strength of +her Divine Head, she has been permitted to accomplish. + + + + + +V. CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN. + + +I propose now to place before my readers some account of the various +Missions at work in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better from having +obtained, in the course of my visit, a useful table, compiled by the Rev. +H. Loomis, of the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving statistics of +the different organizations up to the beginning of the year 1893. The plan +adopted by Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three classes: (1) +“Protestant Missions,” (2) “Catholic Missions,” and (3) “The Greek Church +in Japan.” Under the head of “Protestant Missions,” are included the +Church of England, the Episcopal Church of America, a large number of +other American denominations, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the +Swiss Evangelical Protestant Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., +Universalists, Unitarians and others; while under the head of “Catholic +Missions” we find particulars of only one branch of the Holy Catholic +Church—the Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement I should have made +myself; but, as a matter of convenience, we will follow it more or less +closely.(29) It is right to add that of the thirty “Protestant Missions” +seven are grouped together under the title of the “Church of Christ in +Japan,” and work, it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian +principles. In the same way, the American Episcopal Church, the Church of +England—represented by both the Church Missionary Society and the Society +for the Propagation of the Gospel—and the Mission of Wyckliffe College, +Canada, are associated together; leaving some twenty sects working +independently.(30) + +Before, however, proceeding to an examination of Mr. Loomis’ table, we +must briefly observe the past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates +from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, seven years after the +country was discovered by the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries +were permitted to prosecute their work without molestation, and +considerable progress was being effected. A deputation of native priests +appealed to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. With +thirty-five religious sects already represented in Japan, the country, he +answered, might very well find room for a thirty-sixth religion, viz. +Christianity. Presently, however, the Jesuits being followed by the +Dominicans and Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, elated by +their success, some of the missionaries began to adopt an attitude of +high-handed intolerance and interference. For the first time in their +history, the Japanese found themselves entangled in all the turmoil and +animosity of religious strife. In 1587 the first persecution of the +Christians took place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, however, +was disregarded; and the fatal policy of arrogance and oppression was +still persisted in. Native priests were put to death; Buddhist monasteries +were destroyed; the Inquisition was set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese +embassy despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make an act of +submission to the spiritual supremacy of the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, +jealous of the position that was being gained by the Portuguese traders, +accused the Roman propagandists to the Japanese authorities of aiming at a +territorial ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being carried on +by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the Shogun there seems little doubt. +In the massacre which ensued several thousand Christians were put to +death. “Their unflinching devotion compels our admiration. One may search +the grim history of early Christian martyrology without finding anything +to surpass the heroism of the Roman Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on +stakes made of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they yet +refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit priest, Christopher Ferreya, +who, after enduring horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet in +such a way that his head was buried in a hole in the ground from which air +and light were excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he might make +the sign of recantation. He hung for four hours, and then made the sign; +whereupon, with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed the +president of the tribunal before which Christians were brought for +condemnation. Then, after a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in +armed rebellion. After two months they were forced to surrender, and +37,000 were slaughtered. Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the +admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being made in favour of the +Chinese and Dutch. For more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood +beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, containing, among other +prohibitions, the following:—‘So long as the sun shall warm the earth, let +no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let all know that the +King of Spain himself, or the Christians’ God, or the great God of all, if +he violate this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.’ For +centuries the name ‘Christian’ would blanch the cheek and pale the lip. +Christianity was remembered only as an awful scar on the national annals. +But in the Southern Island the smouldering fire was never quite +extinguished; while, as recently as 1829, six men and an old woman were +crucified at Osaka.”(31) + +At the time of the closing of the country to foreigners, an exception was +made of the one port of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, +when thousands of native Christians were hurled from a rocky islet into +the sea. Here, however, as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were the +only Europeans permitted to trade; they being closely confined to the +small island of Deshima. In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they +were subjected to the closest espionage, not being suffered, under any +circumstances, to pass beyond the narrow limits assigned to them. Several +times in each year they were summoned before the authorities, and required +to tread under foot the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic Faith. +Several of the trampling-boards employed on these occasions are still to +be seen at the Ueno Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, quieted any +qualms of conscience by regarding their action as amounting to an +abnegation, not of Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until thirty +years ago that intercourse between Japan and other nations began to be +resumed; and that, after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, +circumstances were brought about which enabled both Roman Catholics and +other Christians to work without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against +Christianity was formally removed; and the release from imprisonment and +return from banishment of hundreds of Christians took place. + +Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. It has, indeed, its +elements of glorious and heroic martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on +which few of us can look back without a deep sense of shame. Let us trust +that by this time the people of Japan have come to understand that the +conflict of their forefathers was not with Christianity, but rather with +Christians who had forgotten “what spirit they were of.” + +Turning now to the condition of Christian Missions at the present day, it +seems right to commence with those of the Roman Church. Not only has the +Roman Church in Japan a history which extends over three hundred years, +but it reckons at the present time considerably more than double the +number of adherents claimed by any other Christian body. The Roman +influence has been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in the +neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted labours of the missionaries +have won over a considerable portion of the population. + +To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, three Bishops, +seventy-eight missionary, and fifteen native priests, with over 300 +(native) minor clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, with 244 +congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the Order of St. Paul de Chartres +are stationed in Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. +Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, with an average of over 100 +children; twenty Industrial Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a +Hospital for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with sixty-two inmates, +situated at Gotemba, at the foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant +baptisms for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents 1,337, and +Heathen parents 1,166; these, with 2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five +“conversions of heretics,” bringing the total of baptisms and conversions +for the year to 5,354. The work that is being done by the Roman +missionaries is commended on all sides; a prominent feature in their +methods being a consideration for, and adaptation to, the habits and +prejudices of the people, that greatly facilitate their progress, +especially among the poor of the country districts. The whole number of +Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as has been said already, to about +45,000. + +I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, or Orthodox Russian, +Church in Japan; whose relations with the Church of England are here, as +elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of a very intimate +character. Its head-quarters are at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, +situated on high ground and in a central position, has recently been +erected. Unfortunately our information in this case is very incomplete; +but assuming the correctness of the numbers before us, one is struck by +the paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and three priests. To +these must be added eighteen native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers +and workers. There are in all 219 congregations. The number of adult +baptisms in 1892 is given as 952; and the total membership at the present +time exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they indicate much +activity and progress. The proximity of Russian territory to +Japan—Vladivostock being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki—is, of course, +a circumstance highly favourable to the Orthodox Mission. + +Coming now to the various bodies arranged by Mr. Loomis under the title of +“Protestant,” we will take first the _Nippon Sei Kokwai_, or Church of +Japan, which is the name given to the union formed by the Missions of the +American Episcopal Church, the Church of England, and the English Church +in Canada. It is, however, only fair to say that the total number of +adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the number +claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as also by the Churches of the +American Board’s Mission. The Missions, then, of the American Church and +of the Church of England are to a great extent worked independently of +each other, each being under its own Episcopal control; but at the same +time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, full intercommunion, and are +practically one,—often taking counsel together, and dividing the various +districts by mutual arrangement in such a way as to make the best use of +their resources. To the American Church belongs the honour of being the +first body to commence Christian work in Japan in the present century; the +Rev. C. M. Williams, afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, establishing +himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding at once to translate portions of +the Bible and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit of +English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes for the study of our +language. There are now twelve missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one +female missionaries; together with seven native clergy and nineteen +unordained workers and preachers. Of the twenty-seven organized churches +only one is wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, +adults 208, children fifty-eight; while the total membership amounts to +over 1,400, with a like number of children receiving instruction in Sunday +Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming was appointed missionary physician, and +arrived at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an excellent work. +A good deal of secular educational work is also carried on in connexion +with the mission. + + [Illustration.] + + Sketch Map of Japan. + + +We next come to the work of the Church Missionary Society, which commenced +operations in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two missionary and +seven native clergy engaged; forty-two female missionaries, and sixty +unordained preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one is +self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, adults 267, children +121; and the total membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, with +600 children in Sunday Schools. + +The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel commenced work in 1873; and +has its headquarters at Tokio. The work of the two Community Missions, +founded by Bishop Bickersteth in 1887, is apparently included in the +statistics assigned to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At St. +Andrew’s University Mission, five clergy—all of whom are University +Graduates,—live in community with several native students preparing for +Ordination, while at St. Hilda’s Mission, a staff of English ladies is +engaged in work, which includes schools, a hospital, and a home for +mission women. Both these Missions are supported by the “Guild of St. +Paul,”—a society which has branches all over England,—whose occasional +papers are full of interesting information. Several other priests of the +S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; and these, with seven +native ministers, make in all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The +adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the membership at the present +time is given as 784. + +The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by the Canadian Church in 1888. +At present it provides only three clergy, who are engaged at Nagoya, a +flourishing commercial city situated about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. +Bishop Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, refers to its +work in hopeful and appreciative terms. + +The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai will thus be seen +to be about 4,300 (with upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these +the Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At the same time evidence is +by no means lacking that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly +sound principles and along right lines; and there are many reasons for +believing that, with adequate resources, a future awaits it, under God, +far exceeding the calculations that might be suggested by its present +numerical strength. Some of the readers of these pages may, possibly, be +in greater sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. than of the +C. M. S; but no consideration of this sort should allow us to be +inappreciative of the splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the +past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. Its chief centre in +Japan is at Osaka, another huge commercial city, some twenty miles from +Kyoto where there is a considerable European settlement. Bishop +Bickersteth—as does also the American Bishop, Dr. Williams(32)—resides at +Tokio, the capital; where the services at St. Andrew’s Church, adjoining +the Episcopal residence, are such as may well gladden the heart of an +English Churchman, who finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, +I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking feature of the Nippon Sei +Kokwai is presented in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which +have already been held. The Synods are composed of clergy and laity, every +congregation of twenty persons being entitled to send its representative; +and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, if ever, attained to by +so youthful a Church. In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is not +to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to form a “branch of the Church +of England,” but to establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic +Christianity which we believe the Church of England faithfully represents, +a _Japanese Church_, which may be committed, as soon as ever circumstances +allow, entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves. + +The Bishop’s Pastoral Letter to his Clergy (Advent 1892) treats, among +other matters, of the Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament +Criticism,—in the course of his comments upon which, he makes the +quotation, “The central object of our Faith is not the Bible, but our +Lord”—and of the Bishop of Lincoln’s case. It exhibits throughout a tone +of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified prudence, and of Apostolic charity. +The Bishop’s observations on the confirmation by the Privy Council of the +Lambeth Judgment will be read with satisfaction by many:— + +“The principle of allowed variety in matters of ritual has now been +authoritatively recognized. Such recognition is essential to the welfare +of a great and living Church in our day. Among other good results which +may follow from the decision, I cannot but hope will be the liberation of +the energies and interests of a great and historic party, hitherto far too +closely confined within the boundaries of our own country, for wider and +more extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its own position is +now legally secured. Any outstanding questions of ritual could be speedily +settled by the application to them of the same principles which are +embodied in the recent judgments. This is so plain that probably no such +decisions will be challenged. May it not then be hoped that there will +shortly be a marked cessation of controversy at home, as for some years +past we are told there has been in our sister Church in the United States, +and coincidently a far more determined effort on the part of the whole +Church than has yet been known, inspired and sustained by the Holy Spirit +of Truth, to win the East to the Faith of Christ?” + +We come next to the _Church of Christ in Japan_, another amalgamation of +religious bodies; comprising, in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the +United States, two or three other American sects, and the United +Presbyterian Church of Scotland. By far the greater number of +denominations engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this is, +practically, an American work; the Scotch Presbyterians being represented +by only two missionaries with a single station, and only joining the +Mission in 1875—fifteen years after two of the American bodies had +commenced their work. The number of male missionaries in connexion with +this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these must be added fifty-three +native ministers, 100 female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and +workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no less than one-third are +wholly self-supporting. Baptisms in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; +and the total present membership amounts to 11,190, with over 2,000 +children in Sunday Schools. The fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have +recently adopted the Apostles’ Creed as their Confession of Faith, in +place of the formularies with which their bodies have hitherto been +associated, is hardly the occasion for satisfaction that would at first +sight appear; the course in question being, I understand, to some extent +due to the prevalence of views similar to those held by a large number of +the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall presently refer. The +work of the Presbyterians however, must be accounted among the most +successful efforts for the evangelization of the country; while they have +had from the beginning the advantage of being supported by men of national +reputation and position. + +We come now to the _Kumi-ai Churches_ in connexion with the American +Board’s Mission; i.e. the Congregationalists. This work owes its +foundation to a Japanese gentleman,—a Mr. Neesima,—who was converted to +Christianity, whilst on a visit to America. Its head-quarters are at +Kyoto. Starting in 1869—several years after the Presbyterians, their +relations with whom are of a cordial character,—the Congregationalists +very closely approach them in numerical strength. The Mission is worked by +twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native ministers; with fifty-seven +female missionaries and 100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches +one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of the converts belonging +to the middle and upper classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and +sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with upwards of 6,000 children +in Sunday Schools. In connexion with this Mission is a large college, in +which the greater number of the students are Christians, and many of these +candidates for the ministry; and mention must also be made of two +hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. The above figures, +without doubt, bear witness to great energy on the part of the +Congregationalist body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves +compelled to regard them with somewhat modified satisfaction. + +“Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly felt that systems which do +not definitely teach the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene +Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals from the moral +teaching which they impart, are not merely negative in tendency and +results, but retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in Eastern +lands.” Such are the weighty words of Bishop Bickersteth,(33) the occasion +which drew them forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists of +Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:—“We believe (i) in the One +God, (ii) in Jesus Christ who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the +Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) in the Bible which shews +us the way of salvation, and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in +punishments and rewards given by God according to our merits, in +everlasting life if we are righteous, and in the Resurrection of the +Dead.” Several of the clauses in this statement are open to grave +objection; but the fact that the second clause was deliberately adopted in +place of the words, “in Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, Who +suffered and died to atone for the sins of the world”—an alteration which +was heartily welcomed by the Unitarians of Japan—is full of painful +significance. The Bishop, while expressing his thankfulness that there are +large numbers in the Congregationalist body, who have no share in the +prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing with others, with whom +this is not the case, nothing can be gained by any attempt at +co-operation. “At such times a severe exclusiveness may be the truest +exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy.” + +To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we can only very briefly refer. +The American Methodist Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and +twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; and a total following +of nearly 4,000, exclusive of children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian +Methodists number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist Missionary Union +(U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other American sects place their total at 500 +each. The German Swiss Protestants number 240; the “Universalists” +seventy-eight; and the Society of Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The +Scandinavian Church, whose mission has only recently commenced its work, +has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians are represented by two +ministers—my only reason for mentioning these last-named bodies together +being that no further particulars of either are to hand. + +But it is time to be bringing these remarks to a conclusion. We may, then, +declare the total number in Japan of those professing Christianity in any +form—[I should, by the way, have mentioned that the number of male +converts would appear to exceed by about one-third the number of +women,]—to be not more than 100,000; while the entire population of the +country is estimated at from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other +words, not more than one person in every 400 can be said to be, in any +sense, a Christian. I emphasize this fact, not because I think it +discouraging, but because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause of +Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already won. That Japan has still +great changes and developments to undergo in the near future scarcely +admits of question. “The nation is working out its spiritual redemption;” +and, as Mr. Loomis well says in his letter to _The Christian_ before +referred to, “As Japanese society advances, there will be all the more a +place for Christian influence. _The social problems of the people can only +find solution through religion._” We may well believe and hope that, as +time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ and of His Church will more +and more prevail. So, too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been +laid, and that some real and steady progress has been effected; we may +hope that more is, even now, being accomplished by the leaven of influence +than can at present find place in tables and statistics. And yet, as we +look the position boldly in the face, we must see that elements to +occasion anxiety are by no means lacking; and especially must we see how +much more remains to be done that has already been achieved. The +possibility of some form of Christianity being adopted as the national +religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which it is extremely +difficult to express an opinion, until the proposition assumes a more +definite shape than is likely for some time to be the case. + +That both Christianity and Christians are subjected to searching criticism +at the hands of the more educated natives we have already seen; while, +from time to time, tidings are received of bitter opposition encountered +by those engaged in the work of evangelization among the poor of the +country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of accommodation to which we +have several times referred, as forming so striking a feature of the +system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to maintain its position in +Japan, by a re-statement of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself +in accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, which have found such +favour and acceptance with the educated classes. At the same time, there +is, without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout Japan—in many cases +most reluctantly arrived at—that the former ascendency of Buddhism has for +ever passed away. “A dull apathy as regards religion has settled down upon +the educated classes of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to +nothing before modern science and civilization, and the glimmer of light +and truth to which they pointed has gone as well.”(34) Sometimes, again, +Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms which encourage us to hope +that there are those who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive +step, are still “not far from the kingdom of God.” Take, for examples, +these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. “It is the glory of mankind that Jesus +lived. Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did Christ’s teaching +come from man, or from above man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ +should influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and wisest morality +of the world appears. So simple is it, so easily understood and applied. +‘Love God and love man,’ as central principles, suffice to regenerate +society and lead men to heaven. Christ’s character and teachings stand for +ever.” + +With a brief reference to one or two further points suggested by Mr. +Loomis’ table, I will bring this, my last chapter, to a close. One of +these is the distinction he draws—and it is a distinction quite worth +drawing—between married and unmarried missionaries. Of course, the Roman +clergy are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries of the +Orthodox Church; but when we come to the “Protestant Missions,” we find +the numbers of married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and thirty-seven +respectively. Indeed, with the exception of the Church of England, the +Scandinavian Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal Church, which +supply six each, there is no mission with more than two unmarried clergy, +and several have not even one. Now it is certain that this is not the way +in which great mission work has been done in the past; but is the newer +way better than the old? Beyond observing that the presence of female +missionaries is in a very special degree needed in Japan, be they the +wives of the clergy or not, I will not presume to answer that question +myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record the opinion, emphatically +expressed to me, of one who has lived in the East for a great many years, +and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory celibacy of the Roman +priesthood. “It is,” he remarked, “far too hastily assumed that the fact +of the married missionary usually bringing another valuable ally to the +work sufficiently determines the question. But I am convinced that, +speaking generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that wider +opportunities of usefulness are extended. Nor is it merely that his +movements are entirely free and unhampered—that he is exempt from domestic +obligations and anxieties—that he has more time for study—and that he is +thrown more in the society of his brother clergy. As a man’s children +begin to grow up, educational and other considerations in connexion with +these, urge upon him the desirability of returning home, with the result +that, just as he has begun to master the difficulties of language, and to +enter into the thought and habits of the people, his place is taken by a +tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but have all his experience to +gain.” No doubt, there is plenty of room for both married and unmarried +clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance of the married in +the case before us may well serve to suggest the consideration:—Might not +more of that large and possibly increasing number of unmarried clergy in +England be drawn to take part in a work of such fascinating interest—“_a +work_,” if I may once more quote the words of our Bishop in Japan, “_that +must be done at once if it is to be done at all_.” + +Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us as we examine Mr. +Loomis’ statistics, is the large number of “dismissals and exclusions” +made by those bodies which supply information under this head, and +amounting in some cases to several hundreds in a year. That such measures +are not resorted to without grave reason may be assumed, and that some +exercise of discipline is especially necessary in dealing with a young and +nascent church admits of no dispute. There is indeed every reason to hope +that by far the greater number of converts are actuated by an intense +sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the self-sacrifice to which +they, in many ways, readily submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, +at the same time, it is probable that the numbers in question indicate an +even larger proportion of “failures,” than is the case with mission work +generally; and that they point not only to losses through “back-sliding,” +but to many instances of insincerity on the part of those professing +conversion. It has been remarked that it does not belong to the Japanese +temperament to “take things _au grand serieux_;” and this characteristic +extends to matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, who, for +some reason or another, thinks it “worth his while” to conform to +Christianity for a time, will have the very smallest scruples about doing +so; and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will baffle, at any +rate for some time, the careful scrutiny to which candidates are rightly +subjected by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. The missionaries, +I fear, are often imposed on; and yet—anything, surely, is better than +being over suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to do is to show +these different nations to whom we go, that Christ and His Church, and we, +His members, do really care for them, alike in things temporal and +eternal. Our Faith, to be really preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully +practised. And especially in Japan, where the only idea that such a phrase +as “eternal life” would commonly suggest is that of a series of painful +and endless transmigrations, must Christianity be ready to prove herself +man’s friend in the things of this life, if she would be looked to with +confidence for the things that lie beyond. + + + + + +PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. + + +Church Hymns. + +New Edition. Containing 658 Hymns. + +Words Only. + +_Edition A._ Long Primer, demy 18mo. In various bindings from 1_s._ to +4_s._ 6_d._ + +_Edition B._ Small Pica, small post 8vo. In various bindings from 1_s._ +6_d._ to 4_s._ 6_d._ + +_Edition C._ Pearl, medium 32mo. Paper cover, 1_d._; limp cloth, cut +flush, 2_d._ + +_Edition D._ Diamond, medium 32mo. Limp cloth, cut flush, 4_d._ + +Words And Music. + +_Edition E._ Nonpareil 8vo. In various bindings from 2_s._ 4_d._ to 5_s._ +6_d._ + +_Edition F._ Long Primer, Imperial 16mo. 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CRESSWELL, M.A. 1_s._ 6_d._ + +*The Shepherd of Hermas.* By the Rev. C. TAYLOR, D.D., Master of St. +John’s College, Cambridge. Vol. I. 2_s._ + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Sir Edwin Arnold’s _Seas and Lands_, chap. xxvii. + + 2 Charles II’s queen, it will be remembered, was Katharine of + Braganza. + + 3 This rendering seems preferable to the more usual “Way of the Gods.” + The term _Polytheism_ is not, strictly speaking, applicable to + Shinto. + + 4 One of the great temples at Shiba, Tokio, was burnt by the Buddhists + to prevent its falling into the hands of the Shinto priests. It may + be mentioned here, as an instance of the liberal feeling of the + present (Shinto) government, that one of this same group of + buildings was lent for the Church of England services, before St. + Andrew’s church was built. It is the old nobility who have been + throughout the uncompromising opponents of Christianity, and indeed + of all change; and the most zealous supporters of Buddhism. + + 5 Eden’s Japan, Historical and Descriptive. + + 6 Even an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the lowest + estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole mass of + Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that in China, + _which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number_, both + Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with Buddhism. + See Rhys Davids’ _Buddhism_, chap. I (S.P.C.K.). + + 7 Thibet. + +_ 8 Light of Asia_, i. 142, and vi. 688. + +_ 9 Lectures on Buddhism_, pp. 62-3. + +_ 10 Legends and Theories of the Buddhists_, p. 187. + + 11 Prof. Max Müller, however (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1878, p. 134 note), + gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 B.C. as the year of Buddha’s + death. + + 12 “The Buddhists look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked + upon the Cross.”—Rhys Davids’ _Buddhism_, p. 37 note. + + 13 It is, no doubt, owing largely to the influence of Buddhism that the + passion of _anger_ is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, a + Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would consider + it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray itself. + + 14 Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs. Bishop), authoress of _Unbeaten Tracks in + Japan_, well describes the impression produced on the spectator by + the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in Japan:—“He + is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, he is not + thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,—that is all; his + work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is the + Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate.” + + The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given + opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, + and, as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from + the forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize + Illumination. + +_ 15 History of the Jewish Church_, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv. + + 16 This is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it _must_ be true, + in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to + minister to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so + dissimilarly circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As + we proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of + Buddhism and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have + suggested to us, more than once, those different aspects of + Christianity, which have been the occasion of all our “schools of + thought,” and, alas, of how many of our divisions! + + 17 Those who would investigate the subject further are referred to + Alabaster’s _The Modern Buddhist_ (Trübner, 1870). + + 18 For it is men only who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy + of attaining to it, have changed their sex. + +_ 19 Jodo_ means the “Pure Land.” + + 20 Avalokitesvara=“The Lord who looks down from heaven.” The female + form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to the idea of + the woman’s being supposed to be the more compassionate nature; just + as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother has, for a + like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives of her + Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when conversing + with Europeans, giving the name of _Kwanyin_ to the statues of the + Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis’ _The Chinese_, chap, + xiv.) + + 21 I have not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce + the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion + than a system of philosophy—political, social, moral. It may, + however, be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly + esteemed in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had + a considerable influence in forming the thought and character of its + people. The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned + with the things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being + mainly spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The + great Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University + of Japan. Now,—so entirely have the Western systems of education + supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,—the building has been + converted into a Museum. + + 22 Charcoal-brazier. + + 23 “The only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of the + lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the + symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and + though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, + therefore, men would but take it as their model, they would escape + all the contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, + has a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the + assistance of Buddha.” _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, Vol. i. p. 292. + + 24 Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, + named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil. + + 25 Cf. the following extract from the speech of the Bishop of Exeter at + the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:—“If you had been asked to + sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian Missions, and when + itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic work among the + nations of the far East, what, I ask, would be the special + characteristics of the land and people that you would have desired? + Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, you would have said, + ‘Give us islands, inseparably and for ever united, give us islands + which can hold their sea-girt independence, and yet near enough to + the mainland to exert influence there.’ Such is Japan—the Land of + the Rising Sun. ‘Give us a hardy race, not untrained in war by land + and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when won for Christ, fights best + under the banner of the Cross—for we are of the Church militant here + on earth: give us brave men;’ and such are the descendants of the + old Daimios and two-sworded Samurai of Japan. ‘Give us an industrial + race, not idlers nor loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but + men who delight in toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering + craftsmen, shrewd men of business;’ and such are the Japanese + agriculturists, who win two harvests a year from their grateful + soil—such are the handicraftsmen there, whose work is the envy of + Western lands; such are the merchants, who hold their own with us in + commerce. ‘Give us men of culture, with noble traditions, but not so + wedded to the past that they will not grasp the present and salute + the future;’ and such are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, + who, with a marvellous power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to + engraft their own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness + their Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active + operation; witness their museums and hospitals; witness their + colleges and universities. ‘But,’ you would also have said, ‘give us + a race whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, + not tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, + but who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;’ and + such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, ‘give + us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that the + religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are + therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;’ and such are the + thoughtful races of Japan.” + + 26 See on this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre’s _The + Spirits in Prison_. The Christian can scarcely doubt that Gautama + has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,—knowing at + last the Name whereby he has been saved,—and has heard from the + Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be bestowed on all men + of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever land, who have “worked + righteousness,” and have faithfully responded to whatever measure of + light and opportunity has been accorded them by God. + + 27 I may observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, but + of the _Athanasian Creed_, was quoted to me in this connexion by a + Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point out to him,—how far + convincingly I cannot say,—what at the present day at least is + generally recognized amongst us; that for the Christian Church to + warn her own children, in terms the most emphatic just because the + most loving, against becoming entangled in the deadly errors + prevalent at the time when the Creed was drawn up, is a thing wholly + distinct from passing any sentence of eternal condemnation on, or, + indeed, expressing any opinion as to the future state of, such as + live and die without ever having been brought to a knowledge of the + Faith. I added, of course, that any acquaintance with the claims of + Christianity is a responsibility for which we believe all will have + to give account. + + 28 I doubt if the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite + realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and + intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits + of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement + that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of + controversy as still remain. + + 29 In the course of a letter appearing in _The Christian_ of April 20, + 1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, “Let the _forty thousand_ + Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the + country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be + founded.” But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership of + “Protestant Missions” at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church at 20,300, + and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty thousand of these + does Mr. Loomis—presumably—refuse the title of “Christian”? and are + we justified in acting thus towards any who believe in the Holy + Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the World, + Very God and Very Man? + + 30 Even Mr. Loomis’ list does not appear to be exhaustive! The + “Plymouth Brethren,” e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio. + + 31 The above is an abridgement of a passage in the _Conquests of the + Cross_ (Messrs. Cassell & Co.). + + 32 In the course of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim has been + raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams continuing + to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two new Anglican + Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of Kyushu and Yezo + respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, Examining + Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been connected with the C. + M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874. + +_ 33 Pastoral Letter to his Clergy_, Advent, 1892. + +_ 34 Occasional Paper_, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + +CREDITS + + +April 24, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David King and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/28598-0.zip b/28598-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..755d139 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-0.zip diff --git a/28598-8.txt b/28598-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5d3c8f --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3271 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Religion in Japan by George A. Cobbold, +B.A. + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Religion in Japan + +Author: George A. Cobbold, B.A. + +Release Date: April 24, 2009 [Ebook #28598] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + + + + Religion in Japan: + + Shintoism--Buddhism--Christianity. + + By + + George A. Cobbold, B.A. + + Pembroke College, Oxford + + With Illustrations. + + Printed Under The Direction of the Tract Committee. + + London: + + Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, + + Northumberland Avenue, W.C.; 43, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. + + Brighton: 129, North Street + + New York: E. S. Gorham + + 1905 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Introductory. +I. Shintoism. +II. Buddhism. +III. Buddhism In Japan. +IV. Buddhism And Christianity. +V. Christianity In Japan. +Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. +Footnotes + + + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +It may well be questioned whether, in the course of a like period of time, +any country has ever undergone greater transitions, or made more rapid +strides along the path of civilization than has Japan during the last +quarter of a century. A group of numerous islands, situated on the +high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic across the Pacific, between +the Eastern and Western hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding +Great Britain and Ireland,--Japan, until thirty years ago, was a _terra +incognita_ to the rest of the world; exceeding even China in its +conservatism and exclusiveness. And now, within a space of some +five-and-twenty years, such changes have come about as to have given birth +to the expression,--"the transformation of Japan." The more conspicuous of +these changes are summed up by a recent writer in the following +words:--"New and enlightened criminal codes have been enacted; the methods +of judicial procedure have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient +systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and of national education have +been organized; an army and a navy modelled after Western patterns have +been formed; the finances of the Empire have been placed on a sound basis; +railways, roads, and harbours have been constructed; an efficient +mercantile marine has sprung into existence; the jail system has been +radically improved; an extensive scheme of local government has been put +into operation; a competitive civil service has been organized; the whole +fiscal system has been revised; an influential and widely-read newspaper +press has grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government by +parliament has been substituted for monarchical absolutism."(1) At the +present day, an Englishman travelling in Japan is constantly meeting +numbers of his countrymen, intent on either business or pleasure; while at +all the principal cities and places of resort, handsome new hotels, fitted +in Western style, are to be found. The Mikado may be seen driving through +his Capital in a carriage that would not be out of place in the Parks of +London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies European dress is _de rigueur_. +English is taught in all the better-class schools, and at the Universities +the works of such authors as Bacon, Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart +Mill, Herbert Spencer, are in constant request with the students. In +short, on every side evidence is afforded, that be it for better or for +worse, the old order is fast changing and giving place to new. + +The circumstances which have brought about these wonderful changes can +only be very briefly indicated here. It was towards the middle of the +sixteenth century that Japan first came into contact with the Western +world; the first traders to arrive being the Portuguese, who were followed +some sixty years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few English ships. +To all of these alike a hospitable reception appears to have been +accorded; nor is there any doubt that Japanese exclusiveness was a thing +of subsequent growth, and that it was based only on a sincere conviction +that the nation's well-being and happiness would be best consulted by +refusing to have dealings with the outer world. And indeed, that the +Japanese should have arrived at this decision is by no means to be +wondered at; their first experience of foreign intercourse having been +singularly unfortunate. The unhappy breach, which eventually led to Japan +entirely closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would seem, due +partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance and general interference +adopted by certain of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time +had arrived in the country: and partly to the insinuations made by the +Dutch that the Portuguese were aiming at territorial aggrandizement. +Anyhow, in 1624, Japan was entirely closed to foreign trade, save for some +concessions,--accompanied by the severest restrictions,--permitted to the +Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, and no natives to leave, the +empire; the missionaries were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited +under pain of death. The Japanese, as has been said, "suspected everybody +and shut out the world." Previous to this crisis the English had retired; +but when, in 1673, our country sought to resume friendly relations, the +connexion existing between the English and Portuguese courts proved an +insuperable obstacle.(2) Subsequent overtures made in 1849, were +courteously but firmly rejected; though the period of Japan's isolation +was, as later events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the Government of +the United States despatched a fleet across the Pacific, under the command +of Commodore Perry, to insist upon the surrender of a policy which, it was +urged, no one nation of the world had a right to adopt towards the rest. +Whether the arguments with which this position was advanced would of +themselves have prevailed, is impossible to say; but since it was evident +that should words fail, sterner measures would be resorted to, Japan had +no choice but to submit. Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with +the United States, and subsequently with England and other European +powers; by virtue of which a few ports were grudgingly opened, and +Japanese subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions with the +outside world. For the first few years, it is certain that a strong +feeling of suspicion and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in 1868 +events occurred which brought about a complete change in the whole +situation. For some six hundred years a dual system of government had +existed in Japan. On the one hand, was the Mikado, supposed to trace a +lineage of unbroken descent from the gods, and accorded a veneration +semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of Kyoto, with such +powers of administration as he still retained confined to matters of +religion and education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, or Tycoon, the +acknowledged head of a feudalism, which, while nominally recognizing the +Mikado's authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and really governed +the country. But in 1868, the altered circumstances in which Japan found +herself brought about a revolution. The ancient nobility were filled with +indignation and disgust at the Tycoon so far violating Japanese tradition +as to enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, as a consequence of +this rupture, the Shogunate, whose power had for some time been waning, +completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to imperial power, and at +once entered upon a policy which has been consistently adhered to, and +received with favour by the people generally, who had grown impatient of +the restraint which environed them. That policy may be termed the +Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have the explanation of the +Japan of to-day. + +It is not surprising that the interest excited in England, with regard to +a country which has experienced such remarkable changes, should be of the +greatest--especially when it is remembered in how large a degree English +influence has contributed to produce them. We may be certain, also, that +the still further developments the future has in store, will be followed +in our own country with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, in +these days of so great fashion and facility for travelling, increasing +numbers of English people should avail themselves of the opportunity of +exploring a country so entirely unique, and so rich in its attractions of +nature and of art. These circumstances have combined to call into +existence a large number of books on Japan, from which any, who are unable +to visit it in person, may obtain as good an idea as is possible by +reading of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed it is by no +means easy for any writer now to fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in +which he does not find himself forestalled. That, however, on which, so +far as I understand, least has been written, is precisely that towards +which my own main attention was directed from the time of my leaving +England, and throughout the period of my visit to the country,--namely, the +_religious_ aspect. That the following pages must be very imperfect in the +statement they supply, I am well aware; and that, despite my efforts to +obtain trustworthy information, they will not prove free from inaccuracy +or mistake is extremely probable. But I was induced to enter upon their +preparation by a series of circumstances that appeared to favour such a +task, and need not be specified here. For the material supplied to me, +however, by one kind friend in particular, without whose assistance these +articles would never have been attempted, I must express my special +obligation. I would gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty to +do so without obtaining his permission, which I have not, at the time of +writing, the opportunity of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted +on the subject, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to Messrs. +Chamberlain and Mason's excellent _Handbook for Japan_ (Murray, 1891); and +to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel's _Lectures on Buddhism_ (Trbner, 1871), +given me by the author, at the close of a most interesting day spent under +his guidance. The sketch Map of Japan is inserted by the kind permission +of the "Guild of St. Paul." + +_November, 1893._ + + + + + +I. SHINTOISM. + + +When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, Buddhism was introduced +into Japan from China, by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term by +which the ancient indigenous religion of the country might be +distinguished from the new importation. The term thus adopted was +_Shinto_, or _Kami-no-michi_; the former being a Chinese word, and the +latter its Japanese equivalent. The meaning of either, in English, is the +"Way of the Genii, or Spirits."(3) It will, accordingly, be seen that the +_word_ "Shinto" has only been in use for some thirteen centuries, while +the creed it designates claims to trace its origin from the remotest +antiquity. Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us back not merely +to the earliest annals of Japanese history, but to the fabulous legends of +a mythological period. The history of Japan is commonly reckoned to +commence with the accession of the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which +is given as February 11, 660 B.C.; and when, in 1889, the new Constitution +was promulgated, the anniversary of this event was the day selected--the +idea evidently being to confirm the popular belief in the continuity of +the country's history. This Jimmu Tenno--accounted by the Japanese their +first human sovereign--is supposed to have been descended from Ama-terasu, +the sun-goddess, who was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator of +Japan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification in which the +Emperors of Japan have ever been held. It is, then, the countless heroes +and demi-gods of the mythological age referred to--the children of Izanagi +reigning over Japan, generation after generation, for many thousands of +years--that are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; for while it is +usual to speak of Shintoism as being a combination of ancestor-worship and +nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of these elements was +largely due to the contact of Japan with the Taouism of China, and with +metaphysical Buddhism. Thus the essential principle of Shintoism, it will +be seen, is closely akin to that filial piety, which forms so conspicuous +a feature in the religious, political, and social life of China, and +which--deserving as it is, in many ways, of respect and +admiration--presents, when carried to excess, so vast a hindrance to +development and progress. + +"Shintoism," in the words of Diayoro Goh, Chancellor of the Japanese +Consulate General in London, "originated in the worship offered by a +barbarous people to the mythological persons of its own invention." To +speak accurately, it is not so much a religion as patriotism exalted to +the rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country's heroes and +benefactors of every age, legendary and historical, ancient and more +recent; the spirits of these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven +with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to a great extent obscuring +it, is a worship of the personified forces of nature; expressing itself +often in the most abject superstition, and, until lately, also in that +grosser symbolism with which the religion of Ancient Egypt abounded. This +latter feature was widely prevalent in Japan at the time that the country +was first opened to foreigners; but after the Revolution in 1868, it was +everywhere suppressed. It would appear that the personal cleanliness for +which the Japanese, as a nation, are celebrated, had its origin in the +idea of the purification of the body symbolizing the cleansing of the +soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of way, Shintoism would seem to +recognize a future state of bliss or misery, for which the present life is +a period of probation. Practically, however, this is the only world with +which Shintoism concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of +morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being accounted sufficient +guides. It provides neither public worship, nor sermons; while its +application is limited to subjects of the Mikado. "It is the least +exacting of all religions." When this is once understood, there ceases to +be anything surprising in the fact of two religions--of which Shintoism was +one, and the other a creed so accommodating as Buddhism--running, side by +side, for centuries in the same country, and being professed +simultaneously by the same people, until the two were so closely +interwoven that it became scarcely possible to distinguish their +respective elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt was made to +restore Shintoism to its primitive simplicity, and to mould it into a +philosophical system which might minister to the higher aspirations of +humanity. But the movement was a failure, and the Ryobu-Shinto, or "double +religion,"--the combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and +Buddhism--continued as before. It was only so lately as the year 1868 that +any important change took place in the religious history of Japan. In that +year, Shintoism--for reasons wholly political--was adopted as the State, or +"established" religion; Buddhism having always been the religion favoured +by the Shogunate, and the ancient nobility whom the Shogun represented. +Upon this, every temple was required to declare itself either Shinto or +Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments peculiar to the +discarded cult, whichever that might be. That no little excitement and +dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be readily understood; +especially when we bear in mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist +and Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating in the same +buildings and at the same altars.(4) A grant of some 60,000 a year was +made by the Government for the maintenance of the Shinto temples and +shrines, which are said to number in all about 98,000, and to be dedicated +to no less than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, however, +Shintoism has lost the greater part of the importance into which it was +brought at the time of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it is +supported out of the imperial revenues, and that the presence of its +principal officials is required at certain of the state functions, its +general position has in no way improved. The people still practise the +observances of both religions alike; the only difference being that, to +effect this, they have now to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born +child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both Shinto and Buddhist +temples, for the purpose of solemn dedication. Another of the changes +brought about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted by Buddhist +priests, as was the case until 1868, the dead are now buried by either +Shinto or Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of the many signs +which indicate that Shintoism has well nigh run its course, not the least +remarkable was the announcement made last year (1892) by the Government +itself, to the effect that its rites were to be regarded as simply +traditional and commemorative, and devoid of any real religious +significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds and consciences of +Christians in Japan was, as might be supposed, very great. + +Of the various sects the _Zhikko_,--founded 1541 A.D.,--is, perhaps, the +most influential. This sect--as indeed do Shintoists generally--recognizes +one eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; and here--as +in other heathen religions--we find vague references to a Trinity engaged +in the work of Creation. + + [Illustration.] + + Group of Shinto Priests With Torii. + + +Despite the dissociation of the two religions, many of the Shinto temples +still retain traces of the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the +prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, which, however, is often +found combined with great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists +only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove of trees; but, even in the +case of large temples with a complete group of buildings, the architecture +is extremely plain, the material employed being unornamented white wood +with a thatch of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple grounds is +always through gateways, called _Torii_; these are made sometimes of +stone, but more properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted +tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal beam beneath. Near +the entrance are commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, which are +supposed to act as guardians. The principal shrine, or _Honsha_, is +situated at the further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided by a +railing into an ante-room and an inner sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an +altar is erected, on which, however, no images or adornments are seen, but +simply offerings of rice, fruit, wine, &c. Above the altar, in a +conspicuous position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in a box +beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. These three,--the mirror, +the sword, and the stone,--constitute the Japanese regalia, and they are +all connected with the early legends. One of the traditions respecting the +sacred mirror deserves quotation. + +"When the time was come that Izanagi and his consort should return +together to the celestial regions, he called his children together, +bidding them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his last wishes. +He then committed to them a disc of polished silver, bidding them each +morning place themselves on their knees before it, and there see reflected +on their countenances the impress of any evil passions deliberately +indulged; and again each night carefully to examine themselves, that their +last thoughts might be after the happiness of that higher world whither +their parents had preceded them." The legend goes on to relate with what +faithfulness "the children of Izanagi, and afterwards their descendants, +carried out these injunctions; erecting an altar of wood to receive the +sacred mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,--and how, as a reward +for their obedience and devotion, they became in their turn, the spirits +of good, the undying Kami."(5) + +Another of the most common of the Shinto emblems is a slim wand of +unpainted wood, called _Gohei_, to which strips of white paper--originally +they were of cloth--are attached. These are thought to attract the deities, +and are held in great veneration. + +Leaving the principal shrine, and proceeding to make the tour of the +grounds, the visitor comes, in turn, to the buildings where the business +arrangements of the temple are transacted, and where the priests, in some +cases, reside; to smaller shrines and oratories; to cisterns for the +purpose of ceremonial ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important +temples is found a long covered platform, called the _Kagura-do_, where, +on festivals and special occasions, a number of girls--those I saw at Nara +were still quite children--perform the _Kagura_, or sacred dance. The +dancing is in honour of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and +commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological period. In the +grounds of Shinto and Buddhist temples alike are frequently found numerous +stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive offerings, and lighted on any +great occasions. + +It has already been remarked that Shintoism has nothing corresponding to +our public worship; but every morning and evening the priests--whose office +seems held in no particular sanctity, and who are at liberty, at any time, +to adopt a more secular calling--perform a service before the altar, vested +in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and confined at the waist by a +girdle. The service consists of the presentation of offerings and of the +recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. The devotions of the +people are remarkable for their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, on +arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds a gong, to engage the +attention of the deity he desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest +possible value on to the matting within the sanctuary rails; makes one or +two prostrations; and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his patron +that his business with him is over, retires--it not being considered +necessary to give to the petition any verbal expression. The making of +pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent place in the Shinto +system, and though of late years the number of pilgrims has considerably +decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the great temple of the +sun-goddess at Ise--the "Mecca of Japan,"--and other celebrated shrines. The +chief object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of _O-harai_, or sacred +charms, which can only be obtained on the spot. These, when brought home, +are placed on the _Kamidana_, or god-shelf--a miniature temple of wood, +found in every Shinto house, to which are attached the names of various +patron deities, and the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase of +the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes himself to the enjoyment of the +various shows and other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood +of the temple. + +To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such influence as the cult +still possesses may be attributed to the superstition of the poor and +illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the more educated, to +break with so venerable a past. The latter, however, though they continue +to conform to them, do not regard its observances seriously; while the +importance attached to them by the State is, as we have seen, wholly +political. In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course of a lecture +delivered in London two or three years since: "Shintoism, being so +restricted in its sphere, offers little obstacle to the introduction of +another religion,"--provided, as he added, that the veneration of the +Mikado, which has always formed the fundamental feature of Japanese +government, is not interfered with. The truth of this statement has +already been abundantly exemplified in the position which Buddhism for so +many centuries held in the religious life of Japan. In the same way, when, +three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced into the country by +the Portuguese, it was largely owing to the attitude which some of the +missionaries adopted towards these national rites, that the complications +arose, which eventually led to the expulsion of foreigners, and the +persecution of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it is not +strange that an intense jealousy should be exhibited on behalf of +observances and ceremonies, traceable back to such remote antiquity, and +so intimately bound up with the whole political and social life of the +nation. It is, indeed, highly probable that, in the great changes Japan is +undergoing, she will find other methods of cherishing the continuity of +her, in many ways, illustrious past. But meanwhile, Christians in Japan +may rejoice that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to manifest +a respectful regard for a system that is by no means destitute of +praiseworthy features. + + + + + +II. BUDDHISM. + + +It is quite possible that to some of the readers of these pages the very +name of Shintoism was unknown; whereas all will have heard and read at +least something of Buddhism, one of the four most prevalent religions of +the world, and claiming at the present day considerably more than four +hundred millions of adherents.(6) At the same time, our inquiry into +Buddhism cannot be comprised within such narrow limits as sufficed for our +examination of the indigenous religion of Japan; the subject being one of +the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, then, it may be better if, at the outset, +I allude to some of the literature, published within the last few years, +which has been most instrumental in attracting attention, both in England +and America, to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all reference be +omitted to the writings of the late Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and +their school; though I refer to them only in order to caution my readers +against forming from them any estimate of Buddhism. The only literature, +as far as I know, that has appeared in England from what claims to be an +enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings are, I believe, +calculated to convey a curiously erroneous idea of the great system with +which we are now concerned, to any who would turn for information to them +exclusively. This, indeed, becomes obvious when it is understood that the +Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, is not the Buddhism of +history and the sacred books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular +religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at the present day, but an +"esoteric" Buddhism, a knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined to +a comparative few, even in the country where it is said to be most +prevalent.(7) In short, the "esoteric Buddhism" of Mr. Sinnett and his +friends would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the +movement which has recently acquired a brief notoriety in England under +the name of Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper--i.e. the historical, +popular Buddhism with which we have to do--can hardly be said to have +anything in common. + +With the book, however, which probably more than any other work of the day +has been the means of drawing the attention of English-speaking people to +Buddhism, we cannot deal in so summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin +Arnold's poem, _The Light of Asia_, we have a work which is simply a +rendering of the life of Buddha, in general accordance with the received +traditions, and one, moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome at the +hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned that the book is a production +of great power, or that it appeals altogether to a very different class of +readers from that likely to be influenced by the _Occult World_, or _Isis +Unveiled_. + +It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and the book's consequent +popularity, that only make the more necessary a reference which must to +some extent take the form of a protest. To put it briefly, the case is +this:--Men and women have risen from a perusal of the _Light of Asia_ with +a sense of damage done to their Christian faith, and with a +feeling--confused, perhaps, but not the less real--that in Gautama Buddha +they have been confronted with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far +the poem is responsible for this result we will not attempt to determine; +and that such was no part of the author's intention we may readily +believe. But that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and disturbed +by the reading of this book is a certain fact; making it neither +surprising nor regrettable that its publication should have been followed +by works on the subject, written from an emphatically Christian point of +view. To the fullest and ablest of these,--the Rev. S. H. Kellogg's _The +Light of Asia and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the Legend, the +Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, with the Story, the Doctrine and +the Ethics of Christ_ (Macmillan, 1885),--I would refer those desirous of +investigating fully the points at issue; contenting myself now with a few +brief observations. + +It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. Arnold's poem is +written in the person, and from the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist. +This is indicated plainly on the title-page, in the preface, and in the +course of the poem itself; and when the book comes to be read by the light +of this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of its more startling +language. To take, for instance, such expressions as "Our Lord," +"Saviour," "come to save the world," constantly assigned to Buddha in the +course of the poem. However accustomed Christians may be to associate such +terms with One only, and however pained they may feel at their being +referred, under any circumstances and with any restrictions, to another, +still it is obvious that their use becomes less open to objection, when +placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the praise of his Master,--and +that Master, one who, it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean work of +deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting of satisfactory explanation +are passages in the book in which we find transferred to Buddha and +Buddhism ideas and language distinctively Christian; the solemn saying of +Simeon to the Holy Mother, "A sword shall pierce through thine own soul +also," and the still more solemn, "It is finished" of the Cross, being +made to supply particularly distressing instances of such treatment.(8) + +Or once again: but what I would say now has already been urged by Dr. +Eitel, in words which I cannot do better than quote. "I believe," he says, +"it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer and childish sayings +with which the Buddhist Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books +abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism is little better than +a string of nonsense. It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist +texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike our Bible, the +Buddhist canon has undergone wholesale textual alterations.... As to the +popular literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we might as well +collect those little pamphlets on dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky +days, on the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate among Roman +Catholic peasants,--but would that give us a true picture of Roman +Catholicism? Thus it is with Buddhism."(9) In other words, Dr. Eitel would +urge that in order to deal fairly with such a subject, we must try to +distinguish the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and follies +that may, from time to time, have gathered round it; and this, it is to be +feared, has not always been done by English writers, in treating of +Buddhism. + +For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to trace a brief outline of +the life of Buddha, according to the belief of Buddhists generally, and +stripped of such legends and superstitions as find no credence with the +more educated and intellectual. It is true that a doubt has sometimes been +expressed as to the existence of Gautama Buddha at all; while even so +eminent an authority as Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, +owing to the lack of really authentic information, "it is impossible to +rely implicitly on any single statement made in relation to him."(10) But +even supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received traditions to be, +whether in part or in entirety, a mere creation of Indian thought, the +case undergoes no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the religion of +Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, and only in quite a subordinate +degree with the person of its supposed founder. The point is one that +deserves careful attention, suggesting as it does at once the essential +difference between Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable +distance which divides the two. For of Christianity it is no exaggeration +to say that upon the truth of the received accounts of its Founder's Life +and Person its whole position absolutely depends; whereas, could it be +proved that Gautama never even lived, the system associated with his name +would suffer no material loss,--and this, because in Buddha we are invited +to contemplate only a teacher and a guide, one who would have men seek +purification and deliverance by the same means as he himself needed to +employ, and one who never claimed to be more than human. Most persons, +however, will prefer to accept as, in the main, historically correct the +commonly accepted outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be given-- + +The reputed founder of Buddhism was one Siddhartha, known in later life as +Gautama, and later still, by the title of Buddha, or the "Enlightened +One." Siddhartha was a prince of the Sakya tribe, whose territories were +situated some hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. Hence he is +often spoken of under the name of _Sakya-muni_, or the "Sakya sage." As +regards his date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes it is +placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as late as the third century +B.C. The most competent authorities, however, agree in following the +Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 B.C. as the date of his death.(11) His +father's name was Suddhodana; his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier +years of Siddhartha's life we have little information that is at all to be +relied on; but his early manhood appears to have been spent amid the +luxury and self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. Gautama, +however, was a man of great benevolence, and we are told that, while still +quite young, he pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and suffering +which held the human race in bondage. Presently, becoming dissatisfied +with his own life of ease and pleasure, he made the "Great Renunciation;" +turning his back, at the age of thirty, on wife and parents, home and +wealth. After spending some years in travel, he retired to the forest, +where he attached himself to a little band of ascetics, and practised +severe forms of discipline and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover +the secret of release from suffering. But meeting with no success, and +still fast bound by the trammels of ignorance, he betook himself to +contemplation; until one day, as he was seated beneath the +Bo-tree,--henceforth to be accounted sacred(12)--the struggles of his soul +prevailed, and he passed out of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He +who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to the knowledge of which +Gautama thus attained, and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist +doctrine, are these--(i) That man is born to suffering, both mental and +physical: he experiences it himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that +this suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the condition of +suffering in which man finds himself admits of amelioration and relief; +(iv) the way of release, and the attainment to Nirvana. + +Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What is meant by _Nirvana_,--the +goal of the Buddhist's hope and aim? Literally, the word means +"extinction"; and hence it has often come to be regarded as a mere synonym +for annihilation. The variety of opinions held by European scholars as to +its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the fact that Buddhists +themselves are by no means agreed as to its precise significance. Is +Nirvana a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the personality +perpetuated, or is the _ego_ absorbed,--i.e. into Buddha? Such questions +are differently answered by the different schools. Concerning the nature +of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his agnosticism, would seem to have been +almost wholly silent. He appears to have simply taught that by the +suppression and "extinction" of the natural passions and desires--anger, +avarice, sorrow, and the like(13)--it was possible even here to enter upon +a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should attain hereafter to +more perfect fulfilment. Of the various meanings attached to Nirvana by +the different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it scarcely +distinguishable from complete annihilation, while the opposite extreme +introduces us to the doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land +presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of perfect happiness and +delight. This remarkable development of Buddhism will claim our attention +later.(14) + + [Illustration.] + + Daibatsu At Kamakura. + + +To return. After his enlightenment, it is said that Gautama was seized by +the temptation to enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming his +doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation from him, he began his +ministry by announcing the tidings of release to the companions of his +ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at length convinced. In +the course of this, his first sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the +eight steps on the path which leads to Nirvana--(i) Right faith, (ii) right +resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) right action, (v) right living, (vi) +right effort, (vii) right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As +time went on, Gautama began to gather round him a number of disciples, who +became his constant companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and +retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and receiving such as, +attracted by his growing reputation, sought him out. The remaining months +he occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming the good news +of deliverance in the towns and villages through which he passed. Soon we +find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; the members of which +severed their connexion with all worldly things, handed over their +property to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive dress, and, +following the Master's doctrine with strictness themselves, devoted their +lives to its propagation. Any member, however, was at liberty to leave the +Brotherhood, should he wish to do so. It is noticeable that Buddha's +earliest followers were chiefly drawn--not, as in the case of a Greater +than he, from the ranks of the poor and simple--but from the upper classes. +Indeed, Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and ignorant as incapable +of receiving his teaching. Children are hardly mentioned in the early +Buddhist writings; and with regard to women, it was only with great +reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually consented to the formation of a +Sisterhood, the members of which were, as far as possible, to observe the +same rules as the men--together with several additional ones, chiefly +concerned with their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, it is +still the teaching of Buddhism that it should be a woman's highest +aspiration to be reborn as a man, in a future state of existence. When, +however, the two Orders--for men and for women--had been formed, there still +remained a large number of either sex, who, without leaving their places +in the world, were desirous of being reckoned among Buddha's followers. +These were admitted as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being +to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren. + +Having exercised his public ministry for forty years--without, as would +appear, encountering any great opposition--and having committed his work to +the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, Buddha died, aged about +eighty, and was buried with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time +of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples' expressions of +apprehension and sorrow, by saying that when he should no longer be with +them in person, he would still be present with them in his sayings, in his +doctrine. Another point on which he laid great stress before his death was +that the Brotherhood should regularly assemble in convocation. Hence it +came about that from very early times, the declaration, "I seek refuge in +Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood)," was adopted as the +formula which any one, desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to +profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, represented to-day by +the three great images above the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its +multitude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not that three several +divinities are the objects of their adoration and their prayer. + +Such, then, as would appear, was the origin of Buddhism. Strictly +speaking, and apart from its later developments, Buddhism is a religion +which knows no God, which attaches no value to prayer, which has no place +for a priesthood. Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous +than in the five main prohibitions, which are addressed alike to clergy +and laity. The _first_ of these forbids the taking of life,--human life +chiefly, but other life as well; the _second_ is against theft, whether by +force or fraud; the _third_ is against falsehood; the _fourth_ forbids +impurity, in act, word, or thought; the _fifth_ requires abstinence from +all intoxicants. The whole idea of _GOD_, it will be noticed, is entirely +absent from the Buddhist Commandments. Infinitely removed above that other +agnosticism, which cries, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die," +Buddhism starts with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. But a +self-denial that is undertaken, not for God, and in God for man, but +merely to secure one's own peace and well-being--what is this but +selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that is essentially +negative--the natural product of that blank despair of the world and of +human nature which led to the Great Renunciation--Buddhism, as a religious +system, has yielded but scanty fruits of positive holiness, of active +benevolence. And yet,--wholly inadequate as such a system as this, even at +its purest and best, must be to meet the needs of humanity,--false and even +debased as are sometimes its teachings,--the one great message that +Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if most imperfect, truth: +the truth that would have man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to +self-deliverance by means of self-control. "Work out your own salvation" +is the injunction of Christianity. "By one's self," taught Sakya-muni, +"the evil is one; by one's self must come remedy and release." So far the +two systems are at one; the difference between them lies in the fact that +the one places in our hands those supernatural weapons which alone make +real victory possible, and that these the other knows not how to supply. + +Hitherto, we have made no reference to the relation of Buddhism to +Brahmanism. And yet we can no more hope to understand the work of +Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion with Brahmanism, than we could +afford to omit all mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, in +speaking of the liberation wrought by our Lord Jesus Christ. The work and +doctrine of Gautama Buddha,--with their mean between an ascetic severity, +on the one hand, and a licentious self-indulgence on the other--their +disregard of caste distinctions--their rejection of burdensome and +profitless traditions--may be said to bear to the heavy yoke of Brahmanism +a relation not dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. Laying +hold of that which was ready to his hand, if so be he might mould and +purify it, Buddha was a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone +before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of metempsychosis, or, as +it is commonly called, the "transmigration of souls." No doubt, there is a +great deal connected with this doctrine in the Buddhist books that cannot +but appear to us puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, we do +not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such strange fancies on Buddha, +or on Buddhism, as though it were from these that they sprang. So far from +Sakya-muni being the originator of the theory of transmigration, a belief +in it had, for centuries previously, been almost universal throughout the +East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied an antidote to the belief in a +practically interminable series of metempsychoses current at the time. +With the theory of transmigration accepted on all sides, Buddha seems to +have made use of it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient +solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal distribution of +happiness in this life, and the absence of any satisfactory exercise of +justice in the way of reward or punishment. + +That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have been applied by Buddhists +to their great Master himself, is only what we should expect to find. +Gautama is accredited by Buddhists with some five hundred previous +existences, in the course of which he passed through numerous stages of +vegetable, animal and human life, until at length he attained to the +highest degree of manhood. Throughout the changing circumstances of his +being, he is said to have exhibited a transcendent and ever-increasing +unselfishness and charity, which culminated in his freely giving himself +to be re-born as Buddha for the world's deliverance. And it is this +belief, probably, which has been the most potent factor in exalting the +Philosopher and the Guide to a height, which is scarcely, if at all, +distinguishable from the Throne of God. + +I may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage from the late Dean +Stanley's _History of the Jewish Church_, where he is referring to Gautama +Buddha: "It is difficult for those who believe the permanent elements of +the Jewish and Christian religion to be universal and Divine not to hail +these corresponding forms of truth and goodness elsewhere, or to recognize +that the mere appearance of such saint-like and god-like characters in +other parts of the earth, if not directly preparing the way for a greater +manifestation, illustrates that manifestation by showing how mighty has +been the witness borne to it even under circumstances of such +discouragement, and even with effects inadequate to their grandeur."(15) + + + + + +III. BUDDHISM IN JAPAN. + + +In the last Chapter we sketched in outline the life and teaching of +Gautama Buddha; omitting the many fanciful legends that have gathered +round his name, and confining ourselves to what would be accepted by +Buddhists generally. Of the long period that divides the death of +Sakya-muni from the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about 550 A.D., it +is no part of our purpose to treat in detail. But enough must be said to +connect in some intelligible way these two events. + +After the death of Gautama, his disciples are said to have gathered +together, and recited all that they remembered of his teaching, arranging +it in three divisions. This was the origin of the sacred books known as +the _Tripitaca_, i.e. the "three baskets," the "three receptacles." The +first of these--consisting of sayings, aphorisms, parables, &c., attributed +to Buddha, together with his first sermon addressed to the ascetics, (the +"Wheel of the Law,")--is known as the _Sutra_ or "Canon;" the second is +called the _Vinaya_ or "Book of Discipline;" and the third, the +_Abhidharma_, i.e. the "Book of Metaphysics," the "Further Doctrine." Of +the three books, the Sutra, being mainly ethical, would have a more +general application than the other two; while the Vinaya would be chiefly +applicable to the Brotherhood, and the Abhidharma concerned with abstruse +philosophical dissertations. The Tripitaca, of which the Buddhists of +Ceylon are the custodians, are written in Pali, an early modification of +Sanskrit, and the sacred language of Buddhism; and they are, undoubtedly, +the oldest and purest of the numerous Buddhist scriptures. The Sutra, in +particular, is believed to be a faithful record of the actual teaching of +Gautama. At the same time, it must be remembered that for some centuries +after Sakya-muni's death, there is no proof of the existence of any +written Canon; the probability being that his teaching was, for the most +part, transmitted orally from generation to generation, and that it +underwent in the process considerable alteration and addition. + +With regard to the history of Buddhism, from the time of its founder's +death until the middle of the third century B.C., we are practically +without information. It appears, however, that parties and schools were +already beginning to be formed. But about 260 B.C., India, from being +divided into a number of petty kingdoms, became almost wholly united under +the rule of one Asoka. Asoka's grandfather--the founder of the empire that +was soon to assume such vast proportions--had revenged himself for the +contempt in which, for his low birth, he was held by the Brahmans, by +patronizing Buddhism; and Asoka, in turn, bestowed upon it all possible +support. He made Buddhism the state religion, founded an immense number of +monasteries, and sent forth missionaries in all directions. China was one +of the countries visited; while a mission to Ceylon, in which Mahendra, +Asoka's own son, took a prominent part, resulted in the conversion of the +whole island. + +Shortly, however, after Asoka's death, his empire collapsed, and Buddhism +never afterwards exerted the same influence in India; though it remained +widely prevalent until the eighth century A.D., and it was not until four +centuries later that it became practically extinct. The Brahmans now +regained their former ascendency; declared Gautama to be an "avatar"--or +incarnation--of their god Vishnu; proceeded to incorporate into their own +creed some of the most popular features of the Buddhist system; and then +entered upon a destruction of the monasteries, and a severe persecution of +all Buddhists living in India. But, as in the history of the Christian +Church, persecution only resulted in the Gospel being afforded a wider +area, so was it now with Buddhism. "They that were scattered abroad went +everywhere, preaching the word." Among other countries to which the +doctrine of Sakya-muni penetrated was Cashmere, whose king, Kanishka, a +contemporary of Christ, extended to it his enthusiastic support. + +At this point was reached an important crisis in the history of Buddhism. +Already controversies about discipline and various minor questions had +called into existence several different schools; but now a breach +occurred, of such magnitude and destined to prove so lasting in its +results, as to often have suggested comparison with the schism between +Western and Eastern Christendom. A council was held under king Kanishka, +which the Ceylon Buddhists refused to recognize; and from that time +Buddhism has been divided into two main branches, known as the _Mahayana_ +and _Hinayana_,--the "Greater and Lesser Vehicles." The division thus +brought about became, to a great extent, a geographical one; the Hinayana +having its home in Ceylon, and, somewhat less exclusively, in Burmah and +Siam, while the schools of the Mahayana predominate in Cashmere, Thibet, +China and Japan. + +Let us glance, for a moment, at their respective characteristics. The +Hinayana and the Mahayana, then, are the names given to two great systems, +or "schools of thought," which offer to "carry" or "convey" their +followers to the rest of Nirvana. + +Of the two, the Hinayana, or Lesser Conveyance, presents a much closer +resemblance to early Buddhism. The distinguishing features of the Hinayana +may be declared to be its adherence to the strict morality of primitive +Buddhism, its greater simplicity of worship, its smaller Canon of +scripture, and the fact that it appeals rather to the comparatively few, +to those, that is to say, who are able and willing to make the surrender +it requires. Whereas, in the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, we see a system +characterized by that increased ease and laxity, which too often accompany +a season of repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that attends the +establishment of a new movement. The chief features of the Mahayana may be +pronounced to be its less exacting standard of practical morality, its +willingness to descend to the level of the multitude, its subtle +metaphysical distinctions, its meditative inactivity, its elaborate +ceremonial, and its more extensive Canon of scripture. + +We are now, at last, in a position to examine the history of Japanese +Buddhism. If an apology seems needed for the length of our digression, I +can only say that it appeared to me necessary for any profitable treatment +of our subject. We have already seen how, as early as 250 B.C., China was +visited by Buddhist missionaries from India. These are said to have been +eighteen in number; and their effigies may be seen in many a Chinese +temple, where they are held in great veneration. In the first century +A.D., Buddhism in China began to receive imperial patronage; some of its +books being about the same time translated into the language of the +country. The spirit of accommodation and adaptation, which has always +formed so conspicuous a feature of Buddhism, manifested itself now in an +association with Taouism which has continued ever since. + +552 A.D. is the date assigned to the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, +by way of Korea. At first, it appears to have made little progress, until +the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it into favour with the +Court. Prostrating himself one day, before the little son of the Mikado, +the priest declared that he recognized in him the re-incarnation of one of +the disciples of Buddha, and one who was destined to effect a great +spiritual work in Japan. The Mikado was prevailed upon to confide the +boy's education to the Buddhist priests; with the result that, when he +grew up, he supported their cause with such zeal as to cause him to be +sometimes spoken of as the "Constantine of Japanese Buddhism." Shotoku +Taishi--for such was his name--acted for some time as regent, but never +himself ascended the throne. + +There is no doubt that the progress of Buddhism in Japan was largely +facilitated by the adoption of tactics, which had been successfully +employed in dealing with the barbarous tribes of India, and--as we have +just noticed,--with China also. Indeed, its readiness to adapt itself to +the circumstances, instincts, and prejudices of the people, with whom it +has to do, is, as has already been implied, one of the most powerful and +most striking peculiarities of Buddhism. In Japan, the Shinto demi-gods +were Buddhaized, and declared to be manifestations of Gautama; while +practices borrowed from the ancient national creed were introduced into +the Buddhist ceremonial. In the eighth century, we find orders issued for +the erection of two temples and a pagoda in every province; until, about +the twelfth century, the two religions became associated in the manner +indicated in our first chapter,--Buddhist and Shinto clergy officiating by +turns in the same buildings, and the Shinto temples becoming filled with +images, alike of their own demi-gods, and of Buddha and his companions. +This state of things continued until 1868, when the Shinto cult was chosen +to receive the exclusive recognition of the State, many of the Buddhist +monasteries at the same time suffering spoliation. Within the last few +years, however, Buddhism has been making strenuous efforts to recover its +former power and position, and there is little doubt that it still exerts +a real influence in Japan; while the collapse of Shintoism is, as +certainly, a matter of no distant time. At Tokio, the capital, where the +number of temples is enormous, the proportion of Buddhist to Shinto is in +the ratio of ten to one; and on several occasions during my stay in Japan +I noticed handsome new Buddhist temples in course of erection, or old ones +being redecorated and restored. On the other hand, numbers are closed, or +falling to pieces, for want of funds to maintain them. + +At the present time, there are some twelve or more _principal_ Buddhist +sects in Japan, several of these being subdivided. The distinction between +the various schools is much more closely preserved than in China; and, at +least in the larger cities, each sect will be found represented by a +temple of its own. The difference between the schools consists not only in +the varied attitudes adopted towards some controverted question, but +frequently also in the degrees of importance attached to some point which +is held by all in common. For, as cannot be too emphatically stated, +Buddhism is a _many-sided_ religion.(16) The following extract from Sir +Monier Williams' _Buddhism_, for instance, draws attention to the variety +of aspects, from which it may, and indeed needs to be regarded by the +student. + +"In different places and at different times, its teaching has become both +negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It passes from apparent +atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and spiritualism. It is, +under one aspect, mere pessimism; under another, pure philanthropy; under +another, monastic communion; under another, high morality; under another, +a variety of materialistic philosophy; under another, simple demonology; +under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, including necromancy, +witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In some form or other it may be held +with almost any religion, and embraces something from almost every creed." + +To the same effect writes Dr. Eitel in his _Lectures on Buddhism_ (pp. +1-2): "Buddhism is a system of vast magnitude, for it comprises the +earliest gropings after science throughout those various branches of +knowledge which our Western nations have long been accustomed to divide +for separate study. It embodies in one living structure grand and peculiar +views of physical science, refined and subtle theorems on abstract +metaphysics, an edifice of fanciful mysticism, a most elaborate and +far-reaching system of practical morality, and finally a church +organization as broad in its principles and as finely wrought in its most +intricate network as any in the world." + +It would hardly be worth while to attempt any detailed description of the +many Buddhist sects represented in Japan. To observe the main +characteristics of the principal ones, and their points of difference from +one another, will be amply sufficient for our purpose. The greater number +of the schools were introduced from China, but a few are Japanese +developments. + +Let us take, first of all, the schools of the Hinayana, or Minor Vehicle, +which, as we should expect, is not extensively represented in Japan. The +Hinayana is represented by four philosophical schools, in two of which the +materialistic element predominates, and in the two other the idealistic; +while eschatological questions afford further ground for difference. The +points in dispute between these philosophical schools of Buddhism are +altogether so subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of +comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in such distinctions. Of the +four sects referred to, one, called the _Kusha_, has for its +characteristic the fact that it bases its teaching on the Abhidharma +Pitaca. + +To the Minor Vehicle belongs the curious system known as the "Holy Path." +This has been described as a "debtor and creditor account kept with divine +justice." Much less common than in China, the system of the "Holy Path" is +yet widely practised in Japan. Elaborate tables are drawn up, containing a +list of all good and bad actions it is possible to perform, with the +numbers added which each counts on the side of merit or demerit. The +numbers range from one to a hundred, or even more; and the tables afford +an insight into the relative importance in which all kinds of actions +present themselves to the Oriental mind. He who would tread life's journey +along the Holy Path must, at least, aim at setting off his bad deeds by a +corresponding number of good acts of equal value. At the end of each year, +the account is balanced, and the overplus or deficit is transferred to the +succeeding one. That such a system is liable to the gravest abuse, +especially in the case of the more ignorant, is obvious; though, when +conscientiously practised, it need not be supposed to be unproductive of +good.(17) + +At present we have made no mention of the _Madhyameka_, or Middle Vehicle, +which, as its name implies, occupies an intermediate place between the +Greater and Lesser Conveyances. A compromise between these two great +systems, the Madhyameka may be said to be characterized by a marked +moderation, i.e. between an excessive strictness, on the one hand, and a +too great liberty on the other. But though it is thus a faithful exponent +of Sakya-muni's original doctrine, the Madhyameka has never attracted any +extensive following. It is represented in Japan by the sect called the +_Sanron_. + +We pass on to examine the schools of the Greater Vehicle. In the same way +that the Kusha sect regards as its chief authority the Abhidharma Pitaca, +there are two schools belonging to the Greater Vehicle, which base their +teaching on the Sutra and Vinaya Pitacas respectively. The _Kagon_ make +the parables and sayings of Buddha contained in the Sutra their especial +study; while the _Ritzu_, as adhering to the more ascetic side of +Buddhism, have for their favourite book the Vinaya, or "Discipline." + +The _Dhyana_ or _Zen_ sect is a Chinese school with numerous +sub-divisions. Its distinguishing feature is the prominence it assigns to +the life of contemplation. Mysticism is represented by the _Shingon_, the +Mantra school of India transferred through China to Japan; and also by the +_Tendai_, so called from a mountain in China, where the head-quarters of +the sect are situated. The temples of the Shingon may usually be +recognized by the two guardian figures at the entrance, with open and shut +mouths, suggesting the mystic syllable A-UM. A peculiarity of both of +these sects is the use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common in +Thibet. + +An element of mysticism also pervades the influential _Hokkai_ sect, a +Japanese offshoot of the Tendai, founded in the thirteenth century by a +priest named Nichiren, who is said to have been born supernaturally of a +virgin mother. The Hokkai are most jealously attached to their own ritual, +and to other observances peculiar to themselves; and, inheriting the +disposition attributed to their founder, exhibit a narrowness and +intolerance rarely met with in Japan. Their characteristic may be said to +consist in an emotional fanaticism; and a visitor to one of their temples +will generally find a number of devotees,--who thus remain engaged for +hours at a time,--chanting the invocation of the sect, "Adoration to the +Lotus of the Law," to a deafening accompaniment of drums. + +Two sects only now remain, but these by no means the least interesting or +least popular: the _Jodo_ and the _Shin-Jodo_ (i.e. the New-Jodo). The +distinguishing features of these sects,--which also find a place in the +system of the Hokkai,--are their acknowledgement of the need of external +aid, and their doctrine of the Western Paradise, presided over by Amitabha +Buddha. How marked a departure from the original teaching of Sakya-muni, +as observed by us, these schools present is sufficiently obvious; +nevertheless, it is alleged that the revelation of the Paradise in the +West was first made by Buddha himself to one of his principal disciples. +In the distant West is said to dwell one named Amida, or Amitabha, that is +to say "Illimitable Light." Immortal himself, immortal also and freed from +all the trammels of transmigration are the vast multitudes of men(18) who +inhabit the boundless regions which he rules. In that "Pure Land,"(19) +that "Undefiled Ground," everything beautiful and enchanting has a place, +neither is pain or sorrow known; and thither nought that is evil or that +defileth can come. Whosoever would attain to this heavenly country must +rely, most of all, on faithful invocation of the name of Amida; he having, +as is recorded, made a vow that he would only accept Buddhahood on +condition that salvation should be placed within reach of all sincerely +desirous of achieving it. Such is the doctrine of the Western Paradise, +some of the descriptions of which read almost like echoes of the last +chapters of the Bible. Unknown to the Buddhism of Ceylon, Siam, and +Burmah, it can be traced back as far as the second century A.D., when it +was certainly known in Cashmere, though it was not until three centuries +later that it began to spread widely over Northern Buddhism. But the whole +question of its origin remains wrapped in obscurity. At the present day, +the devotion to Amida is very widely practised in Japan, and it is +extremely popular. No doubt, the more educated and intellectual +Buddhist,--and the distinction thus suggested needs constantly to be +insisted on,--would explain the Paradise of the West as being a mere +allegory, and regard Amitabha, as he was originally conceived to be, as +merely an ideal personification of boundless light. But to the people +generally the Undefiled Ground and its presiding deity are actual, +literal, realities. + + [Illustration.] + + Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto. + + +We have said that the two sects in which the doctrine of the Western +Paradise appears in greatest prominence are called the Jodo and Shin-Jodo. +The former of these is Chinese in origin, but was established in Japan +about 1200 A.D. by a priest, Enko Daishi by name, who was also a member of +the imperial family. The head-quarters of this sect are at Kyoto, where +the magnificent monastery of Chion-in forms one of the principal sights of +that most interesting of Japanese cities. But of all the temples of Japan, +those of the New-Jodo (or _Monto_) sect are at once the most handsome, the +most frequented, and the most attractive to the European traveller. +Everything here, too, is of a dignified and stately character; there is a +striking absence of the tawdry and the puerile. Founded in the year 1262, +this sect is, at the present day, foremost in learning, influence, and +activity. Another purely Japanese development, it is--owing to differences +about "church government"--composed of two sub-divisions, the +_Nishi-Hongwanji_ and the _Higashi-Hongwanji_, or the Eastern and Western +Divisions of the True Petition,--the reference being to the vow of Amida. +In most of the larger towns, handsome temples of either branch are to be +found, situated usually in the poorer districts. + +It is in the temples of the Shin-Jodo that the remarkable similarity, of +which every one has heard, between the Buddhist ceremonial and that of the +Roman Church is most conspicuous. Nowhere, perhaps, did the resemblance in +question,--to which I shall have occasion to refer again,--impress me more +forcibly than it did in the New-Jodo temple at Nagasaki, at the first +Buddhist service at which I was ever present. The day of our visit chanced +to be the founder's anniversary, and from a raised lectern in the chancel, +a venerable priest, of benign countenance,--wearing a rich vestment not +unlike a dalmatic, and a cap resembling a biretta,--was recounting to a +congregation, composed chiefly of women, old men, and children, the +virtues of their deceased benefactor. Presently, the sermon came to an +end, and the colloquial delivery of the discourse was changed for the +monotone of a litany recitation: the people answering with ready response, +and many of them employing the aid of their rosaries. The fragrance of +incense filled the air; tapers and flowers adorned the altar, above which +was the statue, not--as one entering by chance might almost have expected +to see--of a Christian saint, but of some manifestation of Gautama Buddha. +Despite, however, its elaborate ritual, the Shin-Jodo sect has been called +the "Protestantism of Japan;" the reason being that it sanctions the +marriage of its clergy, approves the reading of the scriptures in the +"vulgar tongue," permits a wider freedom in respect to food and drink, and +affords other indications of a "reforming spirit." The priesthood in this +sect is, practically, a hereditary office. + +In the _Great Indian Religions_ of the late Mr. Bettany, there is given a +summary of the Shin-Jodo Belief, in the words of one of its principal +teachers. I will take the liberty of re-quoting it here. "Rejecting all +religious austerities and other action, giving up all idea of self-power, +we rely upon Amida Buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the +future life, which is the most important thing: believing that at the +moment of putting our faith in Amida Buddha our salvation is settled. From +that moment invocation of his name is observed as an expression of +gratitude and thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being thankful +for the reception of this doctrine from the founder and succeeding chief +priests whose teachings were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in a +dark night, we must also keep the laws which are fixed for our duty during +our whole life." The mutual relation of faith and works is especially to +be noticed; and indeed the strikingly _evangelical_ character of the whole +Confession. + + [Illustration.] + + Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + +Vast, however, as is the power attributed to Amitabha, and great as is the +merit to be acquired by the invocation of his name, there is found in the +temples in which he is worshipped an image which receives even more +veneration than his. That colossal female effigy, with the many heads and +countless hands, before which a number of votaries, composed largely of +women, are kneeling in prayer, is meant to represent the mighty +Avalokitesvara, or--to substitute for the Sanskrit the less formidable +titles by which she is known in China and Japan,--the all-powerful Kwanyin +or Kwannon. Here, again, we are confronted with a devotion the origin of +which is wrapped in uncertainty, but which, closely connected with the +doctrine of the Western Paradise, seems to have arisen some three +centuries after the commencement of our era. At the present day, it is +spread extensively over Thibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan; but it is +unknown to the countries of Southern Buddhism. With regard to the meaning +of this great image before us, Kwannon is commonly explained to be the +reflex or spiritual son of Amitabha Buddha, sent by him to earth to +preside on earth over the Buddhist faith, and appearing, at first in male +and subsequently in female shape. But the probability is that the various +personages, with whom Kwannon is supposed to be identified, had merely a +fictitious existence; and that in her statues, we see simply an apotheosis +of Mercy, an allegorical _Mater Misericordiae_, whose many eyes and hands +are intended to signify the unremitting vigilance and the untiring energy +with which she ministers to all sorrow and distress.(20) + +The island of Pootau, off Ning-po, in the Chusan Archipelago, is the great +centre of Kwannon worship; the most popular of the many legends concerning +her associating her with this locality, and offering an explanation of her +thousand heads and hands more clumsy even than is the manner of such +myths. The island belongs to the Buddhist priesthood, and is a great +resort of pilgrims. In Japan, the shrines and statues of Kwannon are to be +met with everywhere: many of her images being of enormous size, richly +gilt and beautifully wrought. Sometimes the statues are kept concealed +from view, either on account of alleged miraculous properties, or for some +other reason of special sanctity. The highly-venerated image, for +instance, at the Asakusa temple, Tokio, is never shown; it is only two +inches high, and is accredited with supernatural qualities. But of all the +shrines of Kwannon, it may be doubted whether the impression created by +any is greater than by her temple of San-ju-san-gen-do at Kyoto, where no +less than 33,333 images of the goddess may be seen. Of these a thousand +are gilded statues, five feet in height, and ranged in tiers along a vast +gallery. The remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads, hands and +nimbi of the larger ones. The temple and its contents originated in the +votive offering of a Mikado of the twelfth century for recovery from +sickness. + + [Illustration.] + + The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + + + + +IV. BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. + + + [Illustration.] + + Guardian Nio. + + +The Buddhist temples in Japan are for the most part built on a much +grander and more elaborate scale than those belonging to the Shinto +worship. The roofing is not of thatch, but of tiles; and instead of the +torii, the entrance is through a _Sammon_, or two-storied gateway, in the +recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious appearance. These +are called _Nio_, and their office is to guard the sacred precincts from +the approach of evil spirits. These images are commonly seen spotted all +over with pellets of paper. "A worshipper writes his petition on paper, or +better still, has it written for him by the priest, chews it to a pulp, +and spits it at the divinity. If, having been well aimed, the paper +sticks, it is a good omen." Passing through the Sammon, and proceeding in +a straight direction--often between rows of votive stone-lanterns--the +visitor soon arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple group. One +of these is the _Hondo_, or main shrine; while the other may be either the +Hall of the Founder of the particular sect to which the Temple belongs, or +it may contain a colossal image of Amida, and be specially dedicated to +his worship. Sometimes, again, this second building is known as the +Refectory, from the spiritual nourishment supplied there in the form of +sermons, for which the preacher takes as his text some passage of the +Sutra, or, it may be, some saying of Confucius.(21) Removing our boots, +which we leave at the foot of the wooden steps, we ascend to the Hondo, +and, if need be, push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered woodwork, +which afford access to the building. Should no service chance to be in +progress, a little company of priests, acolytes, &c., will probably be +found, seated on the matting with which the floor is covered,--engaged in +the perusal of book or newspaper, or chatting together over miniature cups +of tea, and, if it be winter-time, spreading their hands to receive the +grateful warmth of the hibachi.(22) Beside them, on the floor, is arranged +a miscellaneous assortment of sacred pictures, leaflets, candles, +incense-sticks, charms, and other articles; any of which may be purchased +by a very modest expenditure. As we enter, we observe that several pairs +of eyes are fastened on us in undisguised curiosity; but our low +salutation is promptly responded to, if indeed it has not been +anticipated, and one of the group will courteously come forward to supply +us with any assistance or information we require. Before the railing, +which encloses the sanctuary, two or three worshippers are kneeling in +prayer; and these also examine us for a while with close attention. Or, it +may be that at the time of our visit some religious function is +proceeding. If so, the clergy with their servers are found within the +chancel, clad in gorgeous yellow robes, and genuflecting now and again +before the images which stand above the richly-vested altar. Outside the +sanctuary rails, the congregation is assembled in greater or less numbers, +according to the importance of the day. Around is a profusion of lights +and flowers; while the air is fragrant with the fumes of incense. The +prayers, which the officiating priest recites in monotone, are in Pali, a +form of Sanskrit; and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades his devotions, +let it be remembered that every day, month after month, and year after +year, he may be found chanting these same litanies, of the significance of +which he has but the vaguest idea. Not, however, that he is without belief +in their efficacy; nay, it may be that his very ignorance of their meaning +causes the words he utters to have, in his eyes, a transcendent value. +Above the high altar, in seated posture on lotus-blossoms,(23) are three +colossal images, cunningly wrought and richly gilded, and bearing on their +countenances an expression of placid repose. Perhaps, it is the +_Triratna_, or Three Jewels, that these represent, the Trinity of Buddha, +the Law, and the Order. Or, possibly, this is Buddha, in his triple forms +of existence:--as Sakya-muni, the form under which he lived as man among +men; as Amitabha, his metaphysical existence in Nirvana; as +Avalokitesvara, his reflex in the world of forms, his spiritual son, +generated to propagate the religion established by him during his earthly +career. Or once again, these three images may portray the Buddhas of the +Past, Present, and Future:--Gautama who _was_, the historic founder of +Buddhism; Kwannon, or Avalokitesvara, the head of the present Buddhist +hierarchy, the Buddha who _is_; and Maitreya, or Meroku, the deliverer yet +_to come_, the rehabilitation of past Buddhas foretold by Sakya-muni. Now +and again one may meet with a Buddhist of superior intellectual +attainments, who would explain the acts of worship he offers to these +images, as signifying merely reverence for Gautama's teaching; but to the +multitude, as has been seen already, the images represent distinct and +all-powerful deities. Indeed, the people are encouraged thus to regard +them by their ecclesiastical superiors; it being one of the methods of +Buddhism thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense and ignorant +minds. And thus it comes about that a religion, commencing with +agnosticism, meets the "craving for divinity," so deeply implanted in the +nature of our race, by passing into what is, practically, a deification of +humanity. + + [Illustration.] + + Pagoda at Nikko. + + +Leaving the Hondo, we next proceed to explore the grounds and remaining +buildings connected with the temple. This lofty _Pagoda_, for instance, +several stories high, is erected over some holy relic,--perhaps the +vitrified remains of the founder, after cremation. A little further on, we +come to the _Rinzo_, or Revolving Library, containing an entire set of the +Buddhist scriptures. As these consist altogether of some 6,700 or 6,800 +large volumes, it is clearly impossible for any one person to read them +all. This, however, need not be regretted seeing that whatever merit might +be obtained by a complete perusal, is freely extended to all, who will +take the trouble to make this huge stand revolve; the structure being so +arranged that a single push is sufficient for the purpose! The Rinzo was +an invention of a Chinese priest, and is said to date from the sixth +century. Owing to their costliness they are rarely met with; and the only +two I remember seeing were at Asakusa, Tokio, and at Ikegami, the +head-quarters of the Hokkai sect. Elsewhere in the grounds we come upon +the _Shoro_, or Great Bell,--used not for summoning the faithful, but for +the purpose of invocation and worship;--the _Koro_, or Drum-tower; the +_Emado_, or "Ex-voto" Shed, the walls of which are covered with pictures, +charms, and other offerings; cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +purification; a printing and publishing department; and, perhaps, a grotto +with ghastly representations of the sufferings endured in the Buddhist +hells. Usually, too, to be found in the sacred precincts, is a specimen of +the _Ficus religiosa_, or sacred tree, under which Sakya-muni attained his +enlightenment. At the rear of the temple buildings are situated the +priests' apartments,--often a quadrangle enclosed by a colonnade,--the +reception-rooms of which are beautifully decorated with _kakemonos_. Here +the visitor is sometimes invited to a light repast of tea, cake, and +fruit; the priests waiting on him the while with the most courteous +attention. And here may I be permitted to say a word about the Buddhist +priests of Japan as I found them? They are commonly spoken of as lazy and +ignorant, mercenary and corrupt; and it is to be feared that with regard +to many, especially of the lower orders of the clergy, this witness is +true. But speaking of those with whom I came into direct contact--the +priests, for the most part, attached to the more important temples--I feel +bound to say, that the impression I formed of them was, on the whole, a +distinctly favourable one. With countenances often indicating close +spiritual application, they appeared to perform their sacred duties with +reverence and attention; while of the disinterested kindness and +hospitality I received at their hands, as well as of the courtesy and +patience with which they replied to my numerous questions, I would speak +in terms of grateful appreciation. + + [Illustration.] + + Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (_Head-quarters of the + Hokkai or Nichiren sect._) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate +leads to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder's Hall. To the +right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple is + the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of the + picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are + the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests' Apartments + and Reception-rooms. + + +A visit to a Buddhist temple, however, can hardly fail to suggest to any, +who are at all familiar with the observances of the Roman ritual, a +comparison to which we have already referred,--I mean the striking +resemblance between the Buddhist ceremonies and such as have found place +in the Christian Church. The high-altar with its haloed statues, flowers, +candelabra, and ever-burning lamps; the side-altars, similarly adorned, +above one of which, it may be, is seen the image of Maia, the mother of +Gautama, bearing her infant-son in her arms; the priests, tonsured, +mitred, arrayed in their rich vestments, and attended by their acolytes; +the people, bending low in adoration, or telling their rosaries as they +pray; the tinkling of bells and the perfume of incense; the dim light of +the sanctuary, and the monotonous chant, in the unknown tongue, of the +litanies uplifted for living and for dead:--these are only some of the +points of correspondence with Roman Catholic observances which meet us in +almost every Buddhist temple. Indeed, to attempt to specify such +resemblances in detail would prove a laborious task. But while the +similarity to which I refer is far too close and remarkable to be +accounted for by mere coincidence, its explanation is by no means easy. +Some would solve the difficulty by referring to the unquestionable fact +that many of the ceremonies practised in the Christian Church are +adaptations of ancient heathen rites: a leading captive of captivity of +which, as it seems to me, Christianity has far more reason to be proud +than ashamed. But though the Buddhist observances are, without doubt, of +considerable antiquity, this explanation cannot be said to be adequate to +the requirements of the case. Far more satisfactory is the theory that +ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of China with some form of +Christianity--probably Nestorianism--and to the readiness which Buddhism has +ever exhibited to extend its influence by a conformity to other faiths. +The problem, however, is one which we must, to a great extent, be +satisfied to leave unsolved; the most eminent authorities in Orientalism +having confessed themselves baffled. It is only the fact of the +resemblance that admits of no dispute. + + [Illustration.] + + A Buddhist Priest. + + +It is curious to notice the different effects produced by an observation +of the Buddhist ceremonial on the minds of Roman Catholic missionaries +upon their first arrival in the East. By some its likeness to their own +ritual has been regarded as a manoeuvre of Satan, designed for the +hindrance of Christian truth; while others have regarded the resemblance +with satisfaction, as calculated to diminish the difficulties of their +work. Without entering further into this question, I may be allowed to +express the conviction that an elaborate ceremonial forms at any rate no +necessary factor of Christian work in Japan. So far from this being the +case, I was informed, on no prejudiced authority, that, the breach once +made with the old associations, converts are disposed to regard anything +tending even remotely to suggest them as more of a hindrance than a help; +and this view finds support in the large number of adherents gained by +several of the Protestant Missions, with whom anything in the way of +ceremonial is reduced to a minimum. On the other hand, must be remembered +the very successful work accomplished in Japan, alike by the Roman and +Orthodox Churches, whose combined total of some 65,000 adherents is more +than double that of the various Protestant sects,--the Churches of England +and America, with 4,000 members, not being included in this computation. + +Hitherto, I have referred only to the resemblance outwardly existing +between the ceremonies and observances of Christianity and Buddhism. But +an extension of the comparison results in what is, at first sight, an even +more startling similarity between incidents recorded of Gautama Buddha, +and events in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated in the Gospels. Thus, +we are told that Gautama was born of a virgin mother; that angels appeared +at his nativity; that an ancient seer prostrated himself before him, and +saluted him as one come down from heaven; that, as a child, he confounded +his teachers by the understanding he displayed, and the questions which he +asked; that, assailed by the Evil One(24) with the keenest +temptations,--including the offer of Sovereignty over all the world, if he +would renounce his mission,--he yet emerged victorious from all; that once, +being on a mountain, he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light; that +he went down into hell; and that he ascended into heaven. Indeed, the +Christian may be pardoned if, for the moment, he feels completely +staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf of Sakya-muni; and if +his perplexity only begins to give place to relief, when he discovers that +there is absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence in the +early Buddhist writings, and that there is no reason for supposing that +these alleged events in the life of Gautama were ever heard of until the +Christian era was already several centuries old. + +We have now, as far as our limits permit, made an examination of Buddhism +with especial reference to Japan. But before leaving this part of our +subject, I would humbly, but very earnestly, submit the question, Is there +in Buddhism generally,--is there in Buddhism as it exists in Japan at the +present day,--nothing upon which Christianity may profitably fasten, +nothing to which Christianity may properly appeal? Is that great +proclamation of Christian tact, which, eighteen centuries ago, the Apostle +Paul delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, "Whom ye ignorantly worship, +Him declare I unto you," one that cannot, more often than it does, find a +place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day? Is the position a useless +one to take, that both the faiths of Jesus Christ and of Buddha agree in +this, that either has for its object the amelioration of man's lot, here +and hereafter, and his release from the curse of suffering; only, as we +believe, with this great difference, that the founder of Christianity was +possessed of resources to which Sakya-muni laid no claim? These are +questions which were constantly presenting themselves to my mind during my +visit to Japan; but they are questions also which I heard asked more than +once by men who had closely studied the whole subject and were deeply +interested in mission work. But whatever the true answer to these +questions be, of this we may be certain: that by no reckless denunciation +of a creed, of the very elements of which the denouncer is content to be +in ignorance, will any victory of Christ's Cross be achieved. Be the +errors and shortcomings of Buddhism what they may,--and we must, to be +honest, pronounce them in our judgment to be many and great,--it is, at +least, a system of very great antiquity, in whose strength thousands of +millions of our fellow-creatures have lived and died, both better and +happier. Men cannot be expected lightly to abandon their allegiance to +such a faith as this, nor would it be to their credit if they did; while +in Christianity, even when faithfully represented, there is very much +calculated to perplex and estrange one who has been trained in the tenets +of Buddhism. Moreover, however little he may agree with them, the Buddhist +holds that the religious convictions of others are entitled to respect, +and that their feelings should never be wounded, if this can be avoided; +it is only natural that he, in his turn, should be quickly alienated by +unsympathetic treatment. I was told by an English resident of long +standing that infidelity is largely on the increase in Japan, especially +among the men of the upper and middle classes; and that among the causes +of this was certainly to be reckoned the contemptuous and merely +destructive attitude towards Buddhism, with which some--let us hope they +are the very few--would think to serve the cause of Jesus Christ. "Depend +upon it," it was said to me, "it is irreligion that commonly succeeds to +the vacant place, not Christianity. Carlyle was right when he said, +'Better even to believe a lie than to believe nothing.' " And Buddhism is +not all a lie! + +"The perishing heathen." Many of us have been revolted by such expressions +when heard at home. But it is only when one is living in the midst of the +people of whom they are spoken, that it is possible to realize the full +horror of their meaning. That men, women, and little children, who are +distinguished by so many good qualities,(25) and who--with, as we believe, +such immeasurably inferior opportunities--present, in many points, so +favourable a contrast to ourselves, should be condemned to a future of +hopeless and unending misery, for not believing that of which, it may be, +they have not even heard, or heard only in crude, distorted statement--can +any man _really_ think this, who recognizes the providence of a Father of +Love; nay, I will dare to say, of a Deity of bare Justice? And yet +language thus fearfully misrepresenting the Faith of Christ is still used +by some who are called by His name; and that it is used is known by the +people of Japan.(26) + +But again. There is, I have observed, much in the scheme of Christianity +calculated to prove a stumbling-block to those who have been educated in +the doctrines of Buddhism. Let me proceed to state some of the +difficulties that would be experienced, some of the objections that would +be raised, by a Buddhist of a certain amount of intellectual capacity, +when confronted with the claims of the Christian Faith. + +Thus, (_a_) _the Bible_. "We are unable," the Buddhist would say, "to +recognize in your Old and New Testaments an inspired revelation. Why +should we accept your Scriptures, with all their alleged miracles and +supernatural occurrences, when you reject ours? Besides, you are not +agreed among yourselves as to inspiration, authenticity, translation, +interpretation. Some of you, again, are for diffusing the Bible broadcast, +others would keep it in the background. Again, the Christian doctrine of +immortality appears to us entirely absent from the pages of the Old +Testament; while even the Jews, 'God's chosen people,' refuse to see in +the New Testament the fulfilment of the Old." + +(_b_) _The Old Testament._ "We cannot regard the story of Creation, as +given in the Book of Genesis, as anything more than a myth, containing a +germ of truth. Neither can we accept, as historically true, the story of +the temptation in the Garden of Eden. And yet, upon this is made to rest +your whole theory of the Fall, of Original Sin, and of Christian +Redemption. As for the history of the Jewish people, we can see in it +nothing but one long story of cruelty and bloodshed; how can a Creator, a +God of Love, be supposed to have permitted and approved such things?" + +(_c_) _The Incarnation._ The whole doctrine of the Incarnation is full of +difficulty to the mind of an Oriental; _not_ because of its strangeness +and novelty, but owing to his very familiarity with stories of miraculous +birth in his own legends. + +(_d_) _The Atonement._ "Why should Jehovah require the sacrifice of His +own Son?" This is a difficulty that would present itself with especial +force to the Buddhist; by whom all life is held sacred, and whom such +texts as "Without shedding of blood there is no remission," fill with +repugnance. The explanation offered by Buddhists themselves of the +Christian doctrine of Atonement is, that its origin must be sought in the +fact that, from the most ancient times, the idea of sacrifice, and of +human sacrifice, has existed; and this explanation they go on to apply to +the Holy Eucharist. + +(_e_) _Eternal Punishment._ "How," it is asked, "is your doctrine of +Everlasting Punishment consistent with that of the Remission of Sins? And +how, on the other hand, is not your scheme of salvation ethically wrong, +if it allows people, after sinning all their lives, to be forgiven on +their death-beds, that so they may enter a Paradise, wherein good and bad +alike have a place?" + +(_f_) _Faith and Belief._ "What right have you to ask us to believe +anything that does not accord with science and experience, when you have +no better opportunities of knowing than we?" + +(_g_) _Christian Ethics._ "Some of these--e.g. the doctrine of the Sermon +on the Mount--we admit to be good; but they are not peculiar to +Christianity--our own teaching is very similar. In other of your ethics, we +see only an ignoble and selfish storing of treasure; it appears to us that +a good action, done for the sake of reward or gain, must entirely lose its +merit." + +(_h_) _Missionary Work._ "We do not claim that our religion is the only +way of salvation, but readily recognize the good points in other systems +as well. You, on the contrary, appear to hold that there is no other way +but your own; and indeed it is only on this supposition that we can +understand the strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to abandon our +religion for yours."(27) + +It forms no part of my purpose to discuss these objections; which, let me +add, are merely representative, and by no means exhaustive. With many of +them we are already familiar at home; and the Japanese, I would mention, +are fully aware of the unbelief prevalent in England, and well acquainted +with its arguments. Indeed, few English people, it is probable, have any +idea how closely their history and their literature are studied by nations +living at the other side of the globe, who are to them simply "the +heathen." Some, again, of the above objections would seem to have been +suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of Christian truth. I have +thought it worth while to refer to them, in the hope that the fact of such +questions being raised may serve to impress upon us these two important +points:--(i) the need of missionaries, at the present day, being not only +men of holy and devoted lives, but also fully equal in intellectual +equipment and culture to our home clergy; and (ii) the fallacy of trusting +to the circulation of the Bible, as an instrument of mission work, unless +it be accompanied--or rather preceded--by the teaching of the living agent. + +It must not, however, be imagined that the obstacles to the progress of +the Gospel in Japan are wholly, or even mainly, of the character I have +referred to. Another great hindrance is most unquestionably presented in +the large number of competing sects and organizations, which, here as in +other countries where mission work is being carried on, address the people +in the name of Christianity. It is true that Buddhists themselves are +divided into numerous sects and schools; but between these there can +scarcely be said to be anything of party animosity and strife. It will, +indeed, be heard with satisfaction that the feeling towards one another of +the various Christian bodies in Japan is, speaking generally, free from +bitterness; and that each would appear desirous of doing its own work, in +the wide field before it, without interference with the efforts of others. +"The feeling here," it was observed to me, "is nothing like so bad as it +is at home."(28) And as in England bigotry and suspicion are steadily +giving place to mutual toleration and respect, so may we hope that, both +in our colonies and abroad, counsels of charity may more and more prevail. +Still, at the best, so long as Romanists, Orthodox, Anglicans, and +Sectarians adhere to the positions they at present occupy, so long must +any real unity of action be impossible; neither can peace be sought by +surrender or compromise of principle. But meanwhile there is, of course, a +lamentable want of compactness among the converts--as a recent writer in +the _Japan Mail_, remarked "they are more like scattered groups of +soldiers than an army";--while the perplexity occasioned to those we are +seeking to convince is terrible and great. + +The following extract from Miss Bickersteth's recently-published _Japan as +we saw it_ (Sampson Low, 1893), draws an able contrast between the +religious condition of Japan at the present day and the position of +Christianity in the time of St. Francis Xavier. "It was impossible not to +be struck with the present complication of religious matters in the +country as compared with the days of Xavier. Then, on the one side, there +was the Buddhist-Shinto creed, undermined by no Western science, still +powerful in its attraction for the popular mind, and presenting a more or +less solid resistance to the foreign missionary; and, on the other, +Christianity as represented by Roman Catholicism, imperfect truly, but +without a rival in dogma or in ritual. Now the ranks of Buddhist-Shintoism +are hopelessly broken; the superstition of its votaries is exposed by the +strong light of modern science, and their enthusiasm too often quenched in +the deeper darkness of atheism. Christianity, though present in much +greater force than in the days of Xavier, is, alas, not proportionately +stronger. The divisions of Christendom are nowhere more evident than in +its foreign missions to an intellectual people like the Japanese. The +Greek, the Roman, the Anglican churches, the endless 'splits' of +Nonconformity, must and do present to the Japanese mind a bewildering +selection of possibilities in religious truth." + +To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian progress in Japan--which, +although the last mentioned, is by no means the least serious--I mean the +estimate formed by the natives of the practical influence of the Christian +religion upon English people and upon other nations professing it. +Applying to Christianity the test of its results, they urge that it has, +at any rate, only very partially succeeded. For instance, the Japanese +comment upon the fact that numbers of Englishmen in Japan never attend the +services of their Church; and that the lives of many of them display a +flagrant disregard for the principles which should regulate the conduct of +Christians. Without, however, denying either the justice of these charges, +or the reasonableness of the mood which advances them, I think it may be +urged with fairness that the influence of Christianity on us as a nation +cannot rightly be estimated in this particular way. As a rule, the +Englishman can scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. Too often +he assumes an attitude of insolent superiority to the people whose guest +he is; while the position in which our countrymen are placed in a country +like Japan--coupled with the freedom from restraint, so much greater than +at home--has, for reasons which we need not now enter into, its peculiar +difficulties. Neither is it by any means certain that a Japanese, paying a +short visit to England, will gather any just impression of what hold +Christianity has on us as a people. In all probability the range of his +observations will be very limited and superficial; his wanderings will be +chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the principal cities; while +the circle of his acquaintance will, it is likely, be equally restricted, +and equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, in saying this, we +would seek to excuse ourselves, or deny that there is far more truth than +we could wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges brought against +us. We would merely submit that there is another side to the picture which +ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting as we must, for +instance, the great prevalence of infidelity in our England of to-day, +there is yet to be placed over against it,--and may I not add, drawing it +out into the light?--the increased activity of the Church during this last +half-century, the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting herself +to meet the needs of her times, the influence for good that she has not +only been in the past, but remains at the present day, in the nation at +large, and in thousands and thousands of English homes. "By their fruits +ye shall know them": and Christianity must not and need not deprecate the +application of that test to herself. Only, we would urge, that is not a +fair judgment, which takes account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ +has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, in the strength of +her Divine Head, she has been permitted to accomplish. + + + + + +V. CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN. + + +I propose now to place before my readers some account of the various +Missions at work in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better from having +obtained, in the course of my visit, a useful table, compiled by the Rev. +H. Loomis, of the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving statistics of +the different organizations up to the beginning of the year 1893. The plan +adopted by Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three classes: (1) +"Protestant Missions," (2) "Catholic Missions," and (3) "The Greek Church +in Japan." Under the head of "Protestant Missions," are included the +Church of England, the Episcopal Church of America, a large number of +other American denominations, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the +Swiss Evangelical Protestant Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., +Universalists, Unitarians and others; while under the head of "Catholic +Missions" we find particulars of only one branch of the Holy Catholic +Church--the Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement I should have made +myself; but, as a matter of convenience, we will follow it more or less +closely.(29) It is right to add that of the thirty "Protestant Missions" +seven are grouped together under the title of the "Church of Christ in +Japan," and work, it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian +principles. In the same way, the American Episcopal Church, the Church of +England--represented by both the Church Missionary Society and the Society +for the Propagation of the Gospel--and the Mission of Wyckliffe College, +Canada, are associated together; leaving some twenty sects working +independently.(30) + +Before, however, proceeding to an examination of Mr. Loomis' table, we +must briefly observe the past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates +from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, seven years after the +country was discovered by the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries +were permitted to prosecute their work without molestation, and +considerable progress was being effected. A deputation of native priests +appealed to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. With +thirty-five religious sects already represented in Japan, the country, he +answered, might very well find room for a thirty-sixth religion, viz. +Christianity. Presently, however, the Jesuits being followed by the +Dominicans and Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, elated by +their success, some of the missionaries began to adopt an attitude of +high-handed intolerance and interference. For the first time in their +history, the Japanese found themselves entangled in all the turmoil and +animosity of religious strife. In 1587 the first persecution of the +Christians took place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, however, +was disregarded; and the fatal policy of arrogance and oppression was +still persisted in. Native priests were put to death; Buddhist monasteries +were destroyed; the Inquisition was set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese +embassy despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make an act of +submission to the spiritual supremacy of the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, +jealous of the position that was being gained by the Portuguese traders, +accused the Roman propagandists to the Japanese authorities of aiming at a +territorial ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being carried on +by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the Shogun there seems little doubt. +In the massacre which ensued several thousand Christians were put to +death. "Their unflinching devotion compels our admiration. One may search +the grim history of early Christian martyrology without finding anything +to surpass the heroism of the Roman Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on +stakes made of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they yet +refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit priest, Christopher Ferreya, +who, after enduring horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet in +such a way that his head was buried in a hole in the ground from which air +and light were excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he might make +the sign of recantation. He hung for four hours, and then made the sign; +whereupon, with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed the +president of the tribunal before which Christians were brought for +condemnation. Then, after a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in +armed rebellion. After two months they were forced to surrender, and +37,000 were slaughtered. Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the +admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being made in favour of the +Chinese and Dutch. For more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood +beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, containing, among other +prohibitions, the following:--'So long as the sun shall warm the earth, let +no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let all know that the +King of Spain himself, or the Christians' God, or the great God of all, if +he violate this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.' For +centuries the name 'Christian' would blanch the cheek and pale the lip. +Christianity was remembered only as an awful scar on the national annals. +But in the Southern Island the smouldering fire was never quite +extinguished; while, as recently as 1829, six men and an old woman were +crucified at Osaka."(31) + +At the time of the closing of the country to foreigners, an exception was +made of the one port of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, +when thousands of native Christians were hurled from a rocky islet into +the sea. Here, however, as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were the +only Europeans permitted to trade; they being closely confined to the +small island of Deshima. In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they +were subjected to the closest espionage, not being suffered, under any +circumstances, to pass beyond the narrow limits assigned to them. Several +times in each year they were summoned before the authorities, and required +to tread under foot the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic Faith. +Several of the trampling-boards employed on these occasions are still to +be seen at the Ueno Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, quieted any +qualms of conscience by regarding their action as amounting to an +abnegation, not of Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until thirty +years ago that intercourse between Japan and other nations began to be +resumed; and that, after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, +circumstances were brought about which enabled both Roman Catholics and +other Christians to work without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against +Christianity was formally removed; and the release from imprisonment and +return from banishment of hundreds of Christians took place. + +Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. It has, indeed, its +elements of glorious and heroic martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on +which few of us can look back without a deep sense of shame. Let us trust +that by this time the people of Japan have come to understand that the +conflict of their forefathers was not with Christianity, but rather with +Christians who had forgotten "what spirit they were of." + +Turning now to the condition of Christian Missions at the present day, it +seems right to commence with those of the Roman Church. Not only has the +Roman Church in Japan a history which extends over three hundred years, +but it reckons at the present time considerably more than double the +number of adherents claimed by any other Christian body. The Roman +influence has been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in the +neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted labours of the missionaries +have won over a considerable portion of the population. + +To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, three Bishops, +seventy-eight missionary, and fifteen native priests, with over 300 +(native) minor clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, with 244 +congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the Order of St. Paul de Chartres +are stationed in Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. +Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, with an average of over 100 +children; twenty Industrial Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a +Hospital for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with sixty-two inmates, +situated at Gotemba, at the foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant +baptisms for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents 1,337, and +Heathen parents 1,166; these, with 2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five +"conversions of heretics," bringing the total of baptisms and conversions +for the year to 5,354. The work that is being done by the Roman +missionaries is commended on all sides; a prominent feature in their +methods being a consideration for, and adaptation to, the habits and +prejudices of the people, that greatly facilitate their progress, +especially among the poor of the country districts. The whole number of +Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as has been said already, to about +45,000. + +I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, or Orthodox Russian, +Church in Japan; whose relations with the Church of England are here, as +elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of a very intimate +character. Its head-quarters are at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, +situated on high ground and in a central position, has recently been +erected. Unfortunately our information in this case is very incomplete; +but assuming the correctness of the numbers before us, one is struck by +the paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and three priests. To +these must be added eighteen native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers +and workers. There are in all 219 congregations. The number of adult +baptisms in 1892 is given as 952; and the total membership at the present +time exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they indicate much +activity and progress. The proximity of Russian territory to +Japan--Vladivostock being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki--is, of course, +a circumstance highly favourable to the Orthodox Mission. + +Coming now to the various bodies arranged by Mr. Loomis under the title of +"Protestant," we will take first the _Nippon Sei Kokwai_, or Church of +Japan, which is the name given to the union formed by the Missions of the +American Episcopal Church, the Church of England, and the English Church +in Canada. It is, however, only fair to say that the total number of +adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the number +claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as also by the Churches of the +American Board's Mission. The Missions, then, of the American Church and +of the Church of England are to a great extent worked independently of +each other, each being under its own Episcopal control; but at the same +time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, full intercommunion, and are +practically one,--often taking counsel together, and dividing the various +districts by mutual arrangement in such a way as to make the best use of +their resources. To the American Church belongs the honour of being the +first body to commence Christian work in Japan in the present century; the +Rev. C. M. Williams, afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, establishing +himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding at once to translate portions of +the Bible and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit of +English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes for the study of our +language. There are now twelve missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one +female missionaries; together with seven native clergy and nineteen +unordained workers and preachers. Of the twenty-seven organized churches +only one is wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, +adults 208, children fifty-eight; while the total membership amounts to +over 1,400, with a like number of children receiving instruction in Sunday +Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming was appointed missionary physician, and +arrived at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an excellent work. +A good deal of secular educational work is also carried on in connexion +with the mission. + + [Illustration.] + + Sketch Map of Japan. + + +We next come to the work of the Church Missionary Society, which commenced +operations in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two missionary and +seven native clergy engaged; forty-two female missionaries, and sixty +unordained preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one is +self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, adults 267, children +121; and the total membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, with +600 children in Sunday Schools. + +The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel commenced work in 1873; and +has its headquarters at Tokio. The work of the two Community Missions, +founded by Bishop Bickersteth in 1887, is apparently included in the +statistics assigned to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At St. +Andrew's University Mission, five clergy--all of whom are University +Graduates,--live in community with several native students preparing for +Ordination, while at St. Hilda's Mission, a staff of English ladies is +engaged in work, which includes schools, a hospital, and a home for +mission women. Both these Missions are supported by the "Guild of St. +Paul,"--a society which has branches all over England,--whose occasional +papers are full of interesting information. Several other priests of the +S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; and these, with seven +native ministers, make in all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The +adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the membership at the present +time is given as 784. + +The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by the Canadian Church in 1888. +At present it provides only three clergy, who are engaged at Nagoya, a +flourishing commercial city situated about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. +Bishop Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, refers to its +work in hopeful and appreciative terms. + +The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai will thus be seen +to be about 4,300 (with upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these +the Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At the same time evidence is +by no means lacking that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly +sound principles and along right lines; and there are many reasons for +believing that, with adequate resources, a future awaits it, under God, +far exceeding the calculations that might be suggested by its present +numerical strength. Some of the readers of these pages may, possibly, be +in greater sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. than of the +C. M. S; but no consideration of this sort should allow us to be +inappreciative of the splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the +past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. Its chief centre in +Japan is at Osaka, another huge commercial city, some twenty miles from +Kyoto where there is a considerable European settlement. Bishop +Bickersteth--as does also the American Bishop, Dr. Williams(32)--resides at +Tokio, the capital; where the services at St. Andrew's Church, adjoining +the Episcopal residence, are such as may well gladden the heart of an +English Churchman, who finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, +I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking feature of the Nippon Sei +Kokwai is presented in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which +have already been held. The Synods are composed of clergy and laity, every +congregation of twenty persons being entitled to send its representative; +and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, if ever, attained to by +so youthful a Church. In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is not +to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to form a "branch of the Church +of England," but to establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic +Christianity which we believe the Church of England faithfully represents, +a _Japanese Church_, which may be committed, as soon as ever circumstances +allow, entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves. + +The Bishop's Pastoral Letter to his Clergy (Advent 1892) treats, among +other matters, of the Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament +Criticism,--in the course of his comments upon which, he makes the +quotation, "The central object of our Faith is not the Bible, but our +Lord"--and of the Bishop of Lincoln's case. It exhibits throughout a tone +of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified prudence, and of Apostolic charity. +The Bishop's observations on the confirmation by the Privy Council of the +Lambeth Judgment will be read with satisfaction by many:-- + +"The principle of allowed variety in matters of ritual has now been +authoritatively recognized. Such recognition is essential to the welfare +of a great and living Church in our day. Among other good results which +may follow from the decision, I cannot but hope will be the liberation of +the energies and interests of a great and historic party, hitherto far too +closely confined within the boundaries of our own country, for wider and +more extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its own position is +now legally secured. Any outstanding questions of ritual could be speedily +settled by the application to them of the same principles which are +embodied in the recent judgments. This is so plain that probably no such +decisions will be challenged. May it not then be hoped that there will +shortly be a marked cessation of controversy at home, as for some years +past we are told there has been in our sister Church in the United States, +and coincidently a far more determined effort on the part of the whole +Church than has yet been known, inspired and sustained by the Holy Spirit +of Truth, to win the East to the Faith of Christ?" + +We come next to the _Church of Christ in Japan_, another amalgamation of +religious bodies; comprising, in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the +United States, two or three other American sects, and the United +Presbyterian Church of Scotland. By far the greater number of +denominations engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this is, +practically, an American work; the Scotch Presbyterians being represented +by only two missionaries with a single station, and only joining the +Mission in 1875--fifteen years after two of the American bodies had +commenced their work. The number of male missionaries in connexion with +this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these must be added fifty-three +native ministers, 100 female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and +workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no less than one-third are +wholly self-supporting. Baptisms in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; +and the total present membership amounts to 11,190, with over 2,000 +children in Sunday Schools. The fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have +recently adopted the Apostles' Creed as their Confession of Faith, in +place of the formularies with which their bodies have hitherto been +associated, is hardly the occasion for satisfaction that would at first +sight appear; the course in question being, I understand, to some extent +due to the prevalence of views similar to those held by a large number of +the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall presently refer. The +work of the Presbyterians however, must be accounted among the most +successful efforts for the evangelization of the country; while they have +had from the beginning the advantage of being supported by men of national +reputation and position. + +We come now to the _Kumi-ai Churches_ in connexion with the American +Board's Mission; i.e. the Congregationalists. This work owes its +foundation to a Japanese gentleman,--a Mr. Neesima,--who was converted to +Christianity, whilst on a visit to America. Its head-quarters are at +Kyoto. Starting in 1869--several years after the Presbyterians, their +relations with whom are of a cordial character,--the Congregationalists +very closely approach them in numerical strength. The Mission is worked by +twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native ministers; with fifty-seven +female missionaries and 100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches +one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of the converts belonging +to the middle and upper classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and +sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with upwards of 6,000 children +in Sunday Schools. In connexion with this Mission is a large college, in +which the greater number of the students are Christians, and many of these +candidates for the ministry; and mention must also be made of two +hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. The above figures, +without doubt, bear witness to great energy on the part of the +Congregationalist body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves +compelled to regard them with somewhat modified satisfaction. + +"Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly felt that systems which do +not definitely teach the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene +Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals from the moral +teaching which they impart, are not merely negative in tendency and +results, but retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in Eastern +lands." Such are the weighty words of Bishop Bickersteth,(33) the occasion +which drew them forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists of +Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:--"We believe (i) in the One +God, (ii) in Jesus Christ who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the +Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) in the Bible which shews +us the way of salvation, and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in +punishments and rewards given by God according to our merits, in +everlasting life if we are righteous, and in the Resurrection of the +Dead." Several of the clauses in this statement are open to grave +objection; but the fact that the second clause was deliberately adopted in +place of the words, "in Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, Who +suffered and died to atone for the sins of the world"--an alteration which +was heartily welcomed by the Unitarians of Japan--is full of painful +significance. The Bishop, while expressing his thankfulness that there are +large numbers in the Congregationalist body, who have no share in the +prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing with others, with whom +this is not the case, nothing can be gained by any attempt at +co-operation. "At such times a severe exclusiveness may be the truest +exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy." + +To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we can only very briefly refer. +The American Methodist Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and +twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; and a total following +of nearly 4,000, exclusive of children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian +Methodists number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist Missionary Union +(U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other American sects place their total at 500 +each. The German Swiss Protestants number 240; the "Universalists" +seventy-eight; and the Society of Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The +Scandinavian Church, whose mission has only recently commenced its work, +has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians are represented by two +ministers--my only reason for mentioning these last-named bodies together +being that no further particulars of either are to hand. + +But it is time to be bringing these remarks to a conclusion. We may, then, +declare the total number in Japan of those professing Christianity in any +form--[I should, by the way, have mentioned that the number of male +converts would appear to exceed by about one-third the number of +women,]--to be not more than 100,000; while the entire population of the +country is estimated at from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other +words, not more than one person in every 400 can be said to be, in any +sense, a Christian. I emphasize this fact, not because I think it +discouraging, but because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause of +Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already won. That Japan has still +great changes and developments to undergo in the near future scarcely +admits of question. "The nation is working out its spiritual redemption;" +and, as Mr. Loomis well says in his letter to _The Christian_ before +referred to, "As Japanese society advances, there will be all the more a +place for Christian influence. _The social problems of the people can only +find solution through religion._" We may well believe and hope that, as +time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ and of His Church will more +and more prevail. So, too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been +laid, and that some real and steady progress has been effected; we may +hope that more is, even now, being accomplished by the leaven of influence +than can at present find place in tables and statistics. And yet, as we +look the position boldly in the face, we must see that elements to +occasion anxiety are by no means lacking; and especially must we see how +much more remains to be done that has already been achieved. The +possibility of some form of Christianity being adopted as the national +religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which it is extremely +difficult to express an opinion, until the proposition assumes a more +definite shape than is likely for some time to be the case. + +That both Christianity and Christians are subjected to searching criticism +at the hands of the more educated natives we have already seen; while, +from time to time, tidings are received of bitter opposition encountered +by those engaged in the work of evangelization among the poor of the +country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of accommodation to which we +have several times referred, as forming so striking a feature of the +system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to maintain its position in +Japan, by a re-statement of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself +in accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, which have found such +favour and acceptance with the educated classes. At the same time, there +is, without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout Japan--in many cases +most reluctantly arrived at--that the former ascendency of Buddhism has for +ever passed away. "A dull apathy as regards religion has settled down upon +the educated classes of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to +nothing before modern science and civilization, and the glimmer of light +and truth to which they pointed has gone as well."(34) Sometimes, again, +Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms which encourage us to hope +that there are those who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive +step, are still "not far from the kingdom of God." Take, for examples, +these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. "It is the glory of mankind that Jesus +lived. Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did Christ's teaching +come from man, or from above man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ +should influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and wisest morality +of the world appears. So simple is it, so easily understood and applied. +'Love God and love man,' as central principles, suffice to regenerate +society and lead men to heaven. Christ's character and teachings stand for +ever." + +With a brief reference to one or two further points suggested by Mr. +Loomis' table, I will bring this, my last chapter, to a close. One of +these is the distinction he draws--and it is a distinction quite worth +drawing--between married and unmarried missionaries. Of course, the Roman +clergy are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries of the +Orthodox Church; but when we come to the "Protestant Missions," we find +the numbers of married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and thirty-seven +respectively. Indeed, with the exception of the Church of England, the +Scandinavian Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal Church, which +supply six each, there is no mission with more than two unmarried clergy, +and several have not even one. Now it is certain that this is not the way +in which great mission work has been done in the past; but is the newer +way better than the old? Beyond observing that the presence of female +missionaries is in a very special degree needed in Japan, be they the +wives of the clergy or not, I will not presume to answer that question +myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record the opinion, emphatically +expressed to me, of one who has lived in the East for a great many years, +and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory celibacy of the Roman +priesthood. "It is," he remarked, "far too hastily assumed that the fact +of the married missionary usually bringing another valuable ally to the +work sufficiently determines the question. But I am convinced that, +speaking generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that wider +opportunities of usefulness are extended. Nor is it merely that his +movements are entirely free and unhampered--that he is exempt from domestic +obligations and anxieties--that he has more time for study--and that he is +thrown more in the society of his brother clergy. As a man's children +begin to grow up, educational and other considerations in connexion with +these, urge upon him the desirability of returning home, with the result +that, just as he has begun to master the difficulties of language, and to +enter into the thought and habits of the people, his place is taken by a +tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but have all his experience to +gain." No doubt, there is plenty of room for both married and unmarried +clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance of the married in +the case before us may well serve to suggest the consideration:--Might not +more of that large and possibly increasing number of unmarried clergy in +England be drawn to take part in a work of such fascinating interest--"_a +work_," if I may once more quote the words of our Bishop in Japan, "_that +must be done at once if it is to be done at all_." + +Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us as we examine Mr. +Loomis' statistics, is the large number of "dismissals and exclusions" +made by those bodies which supply information under this head, and +amounting in some cases to several hundreds in a year. That such measures +are not resorted to without grave reason may be assumed, and that some +exercise of discipline is especially necessary in dealing with a young and +nascent church admits of no dispute. There is indeed every reason to hope +that by far the greater number of converts are actuated by an intense +sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the self-sacrifice to which +they, in many ways, readily submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, +at the same time, it is probable that the numbers in question indicate an +even larger proportion of "failures," than is the case with mission work +generally; and that they point not only to losses through "back-sliding," +but to many instances of insincerity on the part of those professing +conversion. It has been remarked that it does not belong to the Japanese +temperament to "take things _au grand serieux_;" and this characteristic +extends to matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, who, for +some reason or another, thinks it "worth his while" to conform to +Christianity for a time, will have the very smallest scruples about doing +so; and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will baffle, at any +rate for some time, the careful scrutiny to which candidates are rightly +subjected by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. The missionaries, +I fear, are often imposed on; and yet--anything, surely, is better than +being over suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to do is to show +these different nations to whom we go, that Christ and His Church, and we, +His members, do really care for them, alike in things temporal and +eternal. Our Faith, to be really preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully +practised. 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It is the old nobility who have been + throughout the uncompromising opponents of Christianity, and indeed + of all change; and the most zealous supporters of Buddhism. + + 5 Eden's Japan, Historical and Descriptive. + + 6 Even an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the lowest + estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole mass of + Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that in China, + _which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number_, both + Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with Buddhism. + See Rhys Davids' _Buddhism_, chap. I (S.P.C.K.). + + 7 Thibet. + +_ 8 Light of Asia_, i. 142, and vi. 688. + +_ 9 Lectures on Buddhism_, pp. 62-3. + +_ 10 Legends and Theories of the Buddhists_, p. 187. + + 11 Prof. Max Mller, however (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1878, p. 134 note), + gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 B.C. as the year of Buddha's + death. + + 12 "The Buddhists look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked + upon the Cross."--Rhys Davids' _Buddhism_, p. 37 note. + + 13 It is, no doubt, owing largely to the influence of Buddhism that the + passion of _anger_ is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, a + Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would consider + it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray itself. + + 14 Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs. Bishop), authoress of _Unbeaten Tracks in + Japan_, well describes the impression produced on the spectator by + the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in Japan:--"He + is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, he is not + thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,--that is all; his + work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is the + Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate." + + The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given + opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, + and, as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from + the forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize + Illumination. + +_ 15 History of the Jewish Church_, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv. + + 16 This is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it _must_ be true, + in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to + minister to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so + dissimilarly circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As + we proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of + Buddhism and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have + suggested to us, more than once, those different aspects of + Christianity, which have been the occasion of all our "schools of + thought," and, alas, of how many of our divisions! + + 17 Those who would investigate the subject further are referred to + Alabaster's _The Modern Buddhist_ (Trbner, 1870). + + 18 For it is men only who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy + of attaining to it, have changed their sex. + +_ 19 Jodo_ means the "Pure Land." + + 20 Avalokitesvara="The Lord who looks down from heaven." The female + form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to the idea of + the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate nature; just + as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother has, for a + like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives of her + Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when conversing + with Europeans, giving the name of _Kwanyin_ to the statues of the + Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis' _The Chinese_, chap, + xiv.) + + 21 I have not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce + the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion + than a system of philosophy--political, social, moral. It may, + however, be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly + esteemed in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had + a considerable influence in forming the thought and character of its + people. The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned + with the things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being + mainly spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The + great Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University + of Japan. Now,--so entirely have the Western systems of education + supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,--the building has been + converted into a Museum. + + 22 Charcoal-brazier. + + 23 "The only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of the + lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the + symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and + though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, + therefore, men would but take it as their model, they would escape + all the contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, + has a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the + assistance of Buddha." _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, Vol. i. p. 292. + + 24 Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, + named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil. + + 25 Cf. the following extract from the speech of the Bishop of Exeter at + the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:--"If you had been asked to + sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian Missions, and when + itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic work among the + nations of the far East, what, I ask, would be the special + characteristics of the land and people that you would have desired? + Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, you would have said, + 'Give us islands, inseparably and for ever united, give us islands + which can hold their sea-girt independence, and yet near enough to + the mainland to exert influence there.' Such is Japan--the Land of + the Rising Sun. 'Give us a hardy race, not untrained in war by land + and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when won for Christ, fights best + under the banner of the Cross--for we are of the Church militant here + on earth: give us brave men;' and such are the descendants of the + old Daimios and two-sworded Samurai of Japan. 'Give us an industrial + race, not idlers nor loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but + men who delight in toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering + craftsmen, shrewd men of business;' and such are the Japanese + agriculturists, who win two harvests a year from their grateful + soil--such are the handicraftsmen there, whose work is the envy of + Western lands; such are the merchants, who hold their own with us in + commerce. 'Give us men of culture, with noble traditions, but not so + wedded to the past that they will not grasp the present and salute + the future;' and such are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, + who, with a marvellous power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to + engraft their own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness + their Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active + operation; witness their museums and hospitals; witness their + colleges and universities. 'But,' you would also have said, 'give us + a race whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, + not tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, + but who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;' and + such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, 'give + us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that the + religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are + therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;' and such are the + thoughtful races of Japan." + + 26 See on this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre's _The + Spirits in Prison_. The Christian can scarcely doubt that Gautama + has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,--knowing at + last the Name whereby he has been saved,--and has heard from the + Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be bestowed on all men + of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever land, who have "worked + righteousness," and have faithfully responded to whatever measure of + light and opportunity has been accorded them by God. + + 27 I may observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, but + of the _Athanasian Creed_, was quoted to me in this connexion by a + Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point out to him,--how far + convincingly I cannot say,--what at the present day at least is + generally recognized amongst us; that for the Christian Church to + warn her own children, in terms the most emphatic just because the + most loving, against becoming entangled in the deadly errors + prevalent at the time when the Creed was drawn up, is a thing wholly + distinct from passing any sentence of eternal condemnation on, or, + indeed, expressing any opinion as to the future state of, such as + live and die without ever having been brought to a knowledge of the + Faith. I added, of course, that any acquaintance with the claims of + Christianity is a responsibility for which we believe all will have + to give account. + + 28 I doubt if the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite + realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and + intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits + of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement + that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of + controversy as still remain. + + 29 In the course of a letter appearing in _The Christian_ of April 20, + 1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, "Let the _forty thousand_ + Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the + country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be + founded." But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership of + "Protestant Missions" at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church at 20,300, + and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty thousand of these + does Mr. Loomis--presumably--refuse the title of "Christian"? and are + we justified in acting thus towards any who believe in the Holy + Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the World, + Very God and Very Man? + + 30 Even Mr. Loomis' list does not appear to be exhaustive! The + "Plymouth Brethren," e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio. + + 31 The above is an abridgement of a passage in the _Conquests of the + Cross_ (Messrs. Cassell & Co.). + + 32 In the course of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim has been + raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams continuing + to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two new Anglican + Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of Kyushu and Yezo + respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, Examining + Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been connected with the C. + M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874. + +_ 33 Pastoral Letter to his Clergy_, Advent, 1892. + +_ 34 Occasional Paper_, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + +CREDITS + + +April 24, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David King and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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Cobbold, B.A.</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost + and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Religion in Japan + +Author: George A. Cobbold, B.A. + +Release Date: April 24, 2009 [Ebook #28598] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Religion in Japan:</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Shintoism—Buddhism—Christianity.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">George A. Cobbold, B.A.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Pembroke College, Oxford</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">With Illustrations.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Printed Under The Direction of the Tract Committee.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London:</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge,</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Northumberland Avenue, W.C.; 43, Queen Victoria Street, E.C.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brighton: 129, North Street</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York: E. S. Gorham</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1905</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Introductory.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">I. Shintoism.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">II. Buddhism.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">III. Buddhism In Japan.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">IV. Buddhism And Christianity.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">V. Christianity In Japan.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + + </div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Introductory.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may well be questioned whether, in the course +of a like period of time, any country has ever +undergone greater transitions, or made more +rapid strides along the path of civilization +than has Japan during the last quarter of a century. +A group of numerous islands, situated on the +high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic +across the Pacific, between the Eastern and Western +hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding +Great Britain and Ireland,—Japan, until thirty +years ago, was a <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">terra incognita</span></span> to the rest +of the world; exceeding even China in its conservatism +and exclusiveness. And now, within +a space of some five-and-twenty years, such changes +have come about as to have given birth to the +expression,—<span class="tei tei-q">“the transformation of Japan.”</span> The +more conspicuous of these changes are summed +up by a recent writer in the following words:—<span class="tei tei-q">“New +and enlightened criminal codes have +been enacted; the methods of judicial procedure +have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient +systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of national education have been organized; an +army and a navy modelled after Western patterns +have been formed; the finances of the Empire have +been placed on a sound basis; railways, roads, and +harbours have been constructed; an efficient mercantile +marine has sprung into existence; the jail +system has been radically improved; an extensive +scheme of local government has been put into +operation; a competitive civil service has been +organized; the whole fiscal system has been revised; +an influential and widely-read newspaper press has +grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government +by parliament has been substituted for +monarchical absolutism.”</span><a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> At the present day, an +Englishman travelling in Japan is constantly +meeting numbers of his countrymen, intent on +either business or pleasure; while at all the principal +cities and places of resort, handsome new +hotels, fitted in Western style, are to be found. The +Mikado may be seen driving through his Capital +in a carriage that would not be out of place in the +Parks of London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies +European dress is <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">de rigueur</span></span>. English is +taught in all the better-class schools, and at the +Universities the works of such authors as Bacon, +Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart Mill, Herbert +Spencer, are in constant request with the +students. In short, on every side evidence is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +afforded, that be it for better or for worse, the old +order is fast changing and giving place to new. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The circumstances which have brought about +these wonderful changes can only be very briefly +indicated here. It was towards the middle of the +sixteenth century that Japan first came into contact +with the Western world; the first traders to arrive +being the Portuguese, who were followed some sixty +years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few +English ships. To all of these alike a hospitable +reception appears to have been accorded; nor is +there any doubt that Japanese exclusiveness was +a thing of subsequent growth, and that it was +based only on a sincere conviction that the nation's +well-being and happiness would be best consulted +by refusing to have dealings with the outer world. +And indeed, that the Japanese should have arrived +at this decision is by no means to be wondered +at; their first experience of foreign intercourse +having been singularly unfortunate. The unhappy +breach, which eventually led to Japan entirely +closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would +seem, due partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance +and general interference adopted by certain of the +Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time +had arrived in the country: and partly to the +insinuations made by the Dutch that the Portuguese +were aiming at territorial aggrandizement. +Anyhow, in 1624, Japan was entirely closed to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +foreign trade, save for some concessions,—accompanied +by the severest restrictions,—permitted to +the Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, +and no natives to leave, the empire; the missionaries +were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited +under pain of death. The Japanese, as has been +said, <span class="tei tei-q">“suspected everybody and shut out the +world.”</span> Previous to this crisis the English had +retired; but when, in 1673, our country sought to +resume friendly relations, the connexion existing +between the English and Portuguese courts proved +an insuperable obstacle.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> Subsequent overtures +made in 1849, were courteously but firmly rejected; +though the period of Japan's isolation was, as later +events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the +Government of the United States despatched a fleet +across the Pacific, under the command of Commodore +Perry, to insist upon the surrender of +a policy which, it was urged, no one nation of the +world had a right to adopt towards the rest. +Whether the arguments with which this position +was advanced would of themselves have prevailed, +is impossible to say; but since it was evident that +should words fail, sterner measures would be +resorted to, Japan had no choice but to submit. +Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with the +United States, and subsequently with England +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and other European powers; by virtue of which +a few ports were grudgingly opened, and Japanese +subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions +with the outside world. For the first few +years, it is certain that a strong feeling of suspicion +and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in +1868 events occurred which brought about a complete +change in the whole situation. For some +six hundred years a dual system of government +had existed in Japan. On the one hand, was the +Mikado, supposed to trace a lineage of unbroken +descent from the gods, and accorded a veneration +semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of +Kyoto, with such powers of administration as he +still retained confined to matters of religion and +education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, +or Tycoon, the acknowledged head of a feudalism, +which, while nominally recognizing the Mikado's +authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and +really governed the country. But in 1868, the +altered circumstances in which Japan found herself +brought about a revolution. The ancient nobility +were filled with indignation and disgust at the +Tycoon so far violating Japanese tradition as to +enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, +as a consequence of this rupture, the Shogunate, +whose power had for some time been waning, +completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to +imperial power, and at once entered upon a policy +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which has been consistently adhered to, and received +with favour by the people generally, who +had grown impatient of the restraint which environed +them. That policy may be termed the +Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have +the explanation of the Japan of to-day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not surprising that the interest excited +in England, with regard to a country which has +experienced such remarkable changes, should be +of the greatest—especially when it is remembered +in how large a degree English influence has contributed +to produce them. We may be certain, +also, that the still further developments the future +has in store, will be followed in our own country +with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, +in these days of so great fashion and facility for +travelling, increasing numbers of English people +should avail themselves of the opportunity of +exploring a country so entirely unique, and so +rich in its attractions of nature and of art. These +circumstances have combined to call into existence +a large number of books on Japan, from which +any, who are unable to visit it in person, may +obtain as good an idea as is possible by reading +of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed +it is by no means easy for any writer now to +fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in which he +does not find himself forestalled. That, however, +on which, so far as I understand, least has been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +written, is precisely that towards which my own +main attention was directed from the time of my +leaving England, and throughout the period of +my visit to the country,—namely, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">religious</span></em> +aspect. That the following pages must be very +imperfect in the statement they supply, I am well +aware; and that, despite my efforts to obtain +trustworthy information, they will not prove free +from inaccuracy or mistake is extremely probable. +But I was induced to enter upon their preparation +by a series of circumstances that appeared to +favour such a task, and need not be specified here. +For the material supplied to me, however, by one +kind friend in particular, without whose assistance +these articles would never have been attempted, +I must express my special obligation. I would +gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty +to do so without obtaining his permission, which +I have not, at the time of writing, the opportunity +of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted +on the subject, I must acknowledge my great +indebtedness to Messrs. Chamberlain and Mason's +excellent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook for Japan</span></span> (Murray, 1891); +and to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Buddhism</span></span> +(Trübner, 1871), given me by the author, at +the close of a most interesting day spent under his +guidance. The sketch Map of Japan is inserted by +the kind permission of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Guild of St. Paul.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">November, 1893.</span></span> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">I. Shintoism.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, +Buddhism was introduced into Japan from China, +by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term +by which the ancient indigenous religion of the +country might be distinguished from the new +importation. The term thus adopted was <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span>, +or <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Kami-no-michi</span></span>; the former being a Chinese +word, and the latter its Japanese equivalent. The +meaning of either, in English, is the <span class="tei tei-q">“Way of the +Genii, or Spirits.”</span><a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> It will, accordingly, be seen +that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">word</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“Shinto”</span> has only been in use for +some thirteen centuries, while the creed it designates +claims to trace its origin from the remotest antiquity. +Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us +back not merely to the earliest annals of Japanese +history, but to the fabulous legends of a mythological +period. The history of Japan is commonly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reckoned to commence with the accession of the +Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which is given +as February 11, 660 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>; and when, in 1889, the +new Constitution was promulgated, the anniversary +of this event was the day selected—the idea +evidently being to confirm the popular belief in +the continuity of the country's history. This +Jimmu Tenno—accounted by the Japanese their +first human sovereign—is supposed to have been +descended from Ama-terasu, the sun-goddess, who +was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator +of Japan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification +in which the Emperors of Japan have ever +been held. It is, then, the countless heroes and +demi-gods of the mythological age referred to—the +children of Izanagi reigning over Japan, generation +after generation, for many thousands of years—that +are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; +for while it is usual to speak of Shintoism as +being a combination of ancestor-worship and +nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of +these elements was largely due to the contact of +Japan with the Taouism of China, and with metaphysical +Buddhism. Thus the essential principle +of Shintoism, it will be seen, is closely akin to that +filial piety, which forms so conspicuous a feature +in the religious, political, and social life of China, +and which—deserving as it is, in many ways, of +respect and admiration—presents, when carried +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to excess, so vast a hindrance to development and +progress. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Shintoism,”</span> in the words of Diayoro Goh, +Chancellor of the Japanese Consulate General in +London, <span class="tei tei-q">“originated in the worship offered by +a barbarous people to the mythological persons of +its own invention.”</span> To speak accurately, it is not +so much a religion as patriotism exalted to the +rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country's +heroes and benefactors of every age, legendary and +historical, ancient and more recent; the spirits of +these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven +with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to +a great extent obscuring it, is a worship of the +personified forces of nature; expressing itself often +in the most abject superstition, and, until lately, also +in that grosser symbolism with which the religion of +Ancient Egypt abounded. This latter feature was +widely prevalent in Japan at the time that the +country was first opened to foreigners; but after +the Revolution in 1868, it was everywhere suppressed. +It would appear that the personal cleanliness +for which the Japanese, as a nation, are +celebrated, had its origin in the idea of the purification +of the body symbolizing the cleansing +of the soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of +way, Shintoism would seem to recognize a future +state of bliss or misery, for which the present life +is a period of probation. Practically, however, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this is the only world with which Shintoism +concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of +morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being +accounted sufficient guides. It provides neither +public worship, nor sermons; while its application +is limited to subjects of the Mikado. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is the +least exacting of all religions.”</span> When this is +once understood, there ceases to be anything +surprising in the fact of two religions—of which +Shintoism was one, and the other a creed so +accommodating as Buddhism—running, side by +side, for centuries in the same country, and being +professed simultaneously by the same people, until +the two were so closely interwoven that it became +scarcely possible to distinguish their respective +elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt +was made to restore Shintoism to its primitive +simplicity, and to mould it into a philosophical +system which might minister to the higher aspirations +of humanity. But the movement was a failure, +and the Ryobu-Shinto, or <span class="tei tei-q">“double religion,”</span>—the +combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and +Buddhism—continued as before. It was only so +lately as the year 1868 that any important change +took place in the religious history of Japan. In +that year, Shintoism—for reasons wholly political—was +adopted as the State, or <span class="tei tei-q">“established”</span> religion; +Buddhism having always been the religion favoured +by the Shogunate, and the ancient nobility whom +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Shogun represented. Upon this, every temple +was required to declare itself either Shinto or +Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments +peculiar to the discarded cult, whichever +that might be. That no little excitement and +dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be +readily understood; especially when we bear in +mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist and +Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating +in the same buildings and at the same altars.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> +A grant of some £60,000 a year was made by the +Government for the maintenance of the Shinto +temples and shrines, which are said to number in +all about 98,000, and to be dedicated to no less +than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, +however, Shintoism has lost the greater part of the +importance into which it was brought at the time +of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it +is supported out of the imperial revenues, and +that the presence of its principal officials is required +at certain of the state functions, its general position +has in no way improved. The people still practise +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the observances of both religions alike; the only +difference being that, to effect this, they have now +to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born +child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both +Shinto and Buddhist temples, for the purpose of +solemn dedication. Another of the changes brought +about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted +by Buddhist priests, as was the case until 1868, +the dead are now buried by either Shinto or +Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of +the many signs which indicate that Shintoism has +well nigh run its course, not the least remarkable +was the announcement made last year (1892) by +the Government itself, to the effect that its rites +were to be regarded as simply traditional and +commemorative, and devoid of any real religious +significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds +and consciences of Christians in Japan was, as +might be supposed, very great. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of the various sects the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Zhikko</span></span>,—founded +1541 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>,—is, perhaps, the most influential. This +sect—as indeed do Shintoists generally—recognizes one +eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; +and here—as in other heathen religions—we +find vague references to a Trinity engaged in +the work of Creation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shinto-priests.png" width="700" height="432" alt="Illustration." title="Group of Shinto Priests With Torii." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Group of Shinto Priests With Torii.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Despite the dissociation of the two religions, +many of the Shinto temples still retain traces of +the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, +which, however, is often found combined with +great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists +only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove +of trees; but, even in the case of large temples +with a complete group of buildings, the architecture +is extremely plain, the material employed +being unornamented white wood with a thatch +of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple +grounds is always through gateways, called +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Torii</span></span>; +these are made sometimes of stone, but more +properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted +tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal +beam beneath. Near the entrance are +commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, +which are supposed to act as guardians. The +principal shrine, or <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Honsha</span></span>, is situated at the +further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided +by a railing into an ante-room and an inner +sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an altar is +erected, on which, however, no images or adornments +are seen, but simply offerings of rice, fruit, +wine, &c. Above the altar, in a conspicuous +position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in +a box beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. +These three,—the mirror, the sword, and the stone,—constitute +the Japanese regalia, and they are all +connected with the early legends. One of the traditions +respecting the sacred mirror deserves quotation. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“When the time was come that Izanagi and his +consort should return together to the celestial +regions, he called his children together, bidding +them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his +last wishes. He then committed to them a disc of +polished silver, bidding them each morning place +themselves on their knees before it, and there see +reflected on their countenances the impress of any +evil passions deliberately indulged; and again each +night carefully to examine themselves, that their +last thoughts might be after the happiness of that +higher world whither their parents had preceded +them.”</span> The legend goes on to relate with what +faithfulness <span class="tei tei-q">“the children of Izanagi, and afterwards +their descendants, carried out these injunctions; +erecting an altar of wood to receive the sacred +mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,—and +how, as a reward for their obedience and devotion, +they became in their turn, the spirits of good, the +undying Kami.”</span><a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another of the most common of the Shinto +emblems is a slim wand of unpainted wood, called +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Gohei</span></span>, to which strips of white +paper—originally they were of cloth—are attached. These are +thought to attract the deities, and are held in great +veneration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leaving the principal shrine, and proceeding to +make the tour of the grounds, the visitor comes, in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +turn, to the buildings where the business arrangements +of the temple are transacted, and where the +priests, in some cases, reside; to smaller shrines and +oratories; to cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important +temples is found a long covered platform, +called the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Kagura-do</span></span>, where, on festivals and +special occasions, a number of girls—those I saw at Nara +were still quite children—perform the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Kagura</span></span>, or +sacred dance. The dancing is in honour of the +divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and +commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological +period. In the grounds of Shinto and +Buddhist temples alike are frequently found +numerous stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive +offerings, and lighted on any great occasions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has already been remarked that Shintoism has +nothing corresponding to our public worship; but +every morning and evening the priests—whose +office seems held in no particular sanctity, and who +are at liberty, at any time, to adopt a more secular +calling—perform a service before the altar, vested +in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and +confined at the waist by a girdle. The service +consists of the presentation of offerings and of the +recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. +The devotions of the people are remarkable for +their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, +on arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a gong, to engage the attention of the deity he +desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest +possible value on to the matting within the +sanctuary rails; makes one or two prostrations; +and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his +patron that his business with him is over, retires—it +not being considered necessary to give to the +petition any verbal expression. The making of +pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent +place in the Shinto system, and though of late +years the number of pilgrims has considerably +decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the +great temple of the sun-goddess at Ise—the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mecca +of Japan,”</span>—and other celebrated shrines. The chief +object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">O-harai</span></span>, +or sacred charms, which can only be obtained on +the spot. These, when brought home, are placed +on the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Kamidana</span></span>, +or god-shelf—a miniature temple +of wood, found in every Shinto house, to which are +attached the names of various patron deities, and +the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase +of the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes +himself to the enjoyment of the various shows and +other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood +of the temple. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such +influence as the cult still possesses may be +attributed to the superstition of the poor and +illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +more educated, to break with so venerable a past. +The latter, however, though they continue to +conform to them, do not regard its observances +seriously; while the importance attached to them +by the State is, as we have seen, wholly political. +In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course +of a lecture delivered in London two or three years +since: <span class="tei tei-q">“Shintoism, being so restricted in its sphere, +offers little obstacle to the introduction of another +religion,”</span>—provided, as he added, that the veneration +of the Mikado, which has always formed the +fundamental feature of Japanese government, is not +interfered with. The truth of this statement has +already been abundantly exemplified in the position +which Buddhism for so many centuries held in the +religious life of Japan. In the same way, when, +three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced +into the country by the Portuguese, it was +largely owing to the attitude which some of the +missionaries adopted towards these national rites, +that the complications arose, which eventually led +to the expulsion of foreigners, and the persecution +of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it +is not strange that an intense jealousy should be +exhibited on behalf of observances and ceremonies, +traceable back to such remote antiquity, and so +intimately bound up with the whole political and +social life of the nation. It is, indeed, highly +probable that, in the great changes Japan is undergoing, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +she will find other methods of cherishing the +continuity of her, in many ways, illustrious past. +But meanwhile, Christians in Japan may rejoice +that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to +manifest a respectful regard for a system that is +by no means destitute of praiseworthy features. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">II. Buddhism.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is quite possible that to some of the readers +of these pages the very name of Shintoism was +unknown; whereas all will have heard and read +at least something of Buddhism, one of the four +most prevalent religions of the world, and claiming +at the present day considerably more than four +hundred millions of adherents.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> At the same time, +our inquiry into Buddhism cannot be comprised +within such narrow limits as sufficed for our examination +of the indigenous religion of Japan; the +subject being one of the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, +then, it may be better if, at the outset, I allude to +some of the literature, published within the last +few years, which has been most instrumental in +attracting attention, both in England and America, +to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reference be omitted to the writings of the late +Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and their school; +though I refer to them only in order to caution my +readers against forming from them any estimate +of Buddhism. The only literature, as far as I know, +that has appeared in England from what claims to +be an enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings +are, I believe, calculated to convey a curiously +erroneous idea of the great system with which we +are now concerned, to any who would turn for +information to them exclusively. This, indeed, +becomes obvious when it is understood that the +Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, +is not the Buddhism of history and the sacred +books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular +religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at +the present day, but an <span class="tei tei-q">“esoteric”</span> Buddhism, a +knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined +to a comparative few, even in the country where it +is said to be most prevalent.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> In short, the +<span class="tei tei-q">“esoteric Buddhism”</span> of Mr. Sinnett and his friends +would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable +from the movement which has recently acquired +a brief notoriety in England under the name of +Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper—i.e. +the historical, popular Buddhism with which we +have to do—can hardly be said to have anything +in common. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the book, however, which probably more +than any other work of the day has been the +means of drawing the attention of English-speaking +people to Buddhism, we cannot deal in so +summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin Arnold's +poem, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Light of Asia</span></span>, we have a work which is +simply a rendering of the life of Buddha, in general +accordance with the received traditions, and one, +moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome +at the hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned +that the book is a production of great +power, or that it appeals altogether to a very +different class of readers from that likely to be +influenced by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Occult World</span></span>, +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis Unveiled</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and +the book's consequent popularity, that only make +the more necessary a reference which must to some +extent take the form of a protest. To put it +briefly, the case is this:—Men and women have risen +from a perusal of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light of Asia</span></span> with a sense of +damage done to their Christian faith, and with +a feeling—confused, perhaps, but not the less real—that +in Gautama Buddha they have been confronted +with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far +the poem is responsible for this result we will not +attempt to determine; and that such was no part of +the author's intention we may readily believe. But +that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and +disturbed by the reading of this book is a certain +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fact; making it neither surprising nor regrettable +that its publication should have been followed by +works on the subject, written from an emphatically +Christian point of view. To the fullest and ablest +of these,—the Rev. S. H. Kellogg's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Light of Asia +and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the +Legend, the Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, +with the Story, the Doctrine and the Ethics of Christ</span></span> +(Macmillan, 1885),—I would refer those desirous of +investigating fully the points at issue; contenting +myself now with a few brief observations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. +Arnold's poem is written in the person, and from +the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist. This +is indicated plainly on the title-page, in the preface, +and in the course of the poem itself; and +when the book comes to be read by the light of +this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of +its more startling language. To take, for instance, +such expressions as <span class="tei tei-q">“Our Lord,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Saviour,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“come +to save the world,”</span> constantly assigned to Buddha +in the course of the poem. However accustomed +Christians may be to associate such terms with +One only, and however pained they may feel at +their being referred, under any circumstances and +with any restrictions, to another, still it is obvious +that their use becomes less open to objection, when +placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the +praise of his Master,—and that Master, one who, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean +work of deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting +of satisfactory explanation are passages +in the book in which we find transferred to +Buddha and Buddhism ideas and language distinctively +Christian; the solemn saying of Simeon +to the Holy Mother, <span class="tei tei-q">“A sword shall pierce +through thine own soul also,”</span> and the still more +solemn, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is finished”</span> of the Cross, being made +to supply particularly distressing instances of such +treatment.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Or once again: but what I would say now has +already been urged by Dr. Eitel, in words which +I cannot do better than quote. <span class="tei tei-q">“I believe,”</span> he says, +<span class="tei tei-q">“it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer +and childish sayings with which the Buddhist +Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books +abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism +is little better than a string of nonsense. +It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist +texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike +our Bible, the Buddhist canon has undergone +wholesale textual alterations.... As to the popular +literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we +might as well collect those little pamphlets on +dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky days, on +the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate +among Roman Catholic peasants,—but would that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +give us a true picture of Roman Catholicism? +Thus it is with Buddhism.”</span><a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> In other words, +Dr. Eitel would urge that in order to deal fairly +with such a subject, we must try to distinguish +the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and +follies that may, from time to time, have gathered +round it; and this, it is to be feared, has not +always been done by English writers, in treating +of Buddhism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to +trace a brief outline of the life of Buddha, according +to the belief of Buddhists generally, and stripped +of such legends and superstitions as find no credence +with the more educated and intellectual. +It is true that a doubt has sometimes been expressed +as to the existence of Gautama Buddha +at all; while even so eminent an authority as +Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, +owing to the lack of really authentic information, +<span class="tei tei-q">“it is impossible to rely implicitly on any single +statement made in relation to him.”</span><a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> But even +supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received +traditions to be, whether in part or in entirety, +a mere creation of Indian thought, the case undergoes +no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the +religion of Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, +and only in quite a subordinate degree with the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +person of its supposed founder. The point is one +that deserves careful attention, suggesting as it +does at once the essential difference between +Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable +distance which divides the two. For of Christianity +it is no exaggeration to say that upon the truth of +the received accounts of its Founder's Life and +Person its whole position absolutely depends; +whereas, could it be proved that Gautama never +even lived, the system associated with his name +would suffer no material loss,—and this, because +in Buddha we are invited to contemplate only +a teacher and a guide, one who would have men +seek purification and deliverance by the same +means as he himself needed to employ, and one +who never claimed to be more than human. Most +persons, however, will prefer to accept as, in the +main, historically correct the commonly accepted +outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be +given— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reputed founder of Buddhism was one +Siddhartha, known in later life as Gautama, and +later still, by the title of Buddha, or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Enlightened +One.”</span> Siddhartha was a prince of the +Sakya tribe, whose territories were situated some +hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. +Hence he is often spoken of under the name of +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Sakya-muni</span></span>, or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sakya sage.”</span> As regards his +date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it is placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as +late as the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> The most competent +authorities, however, agree in following the +Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> as the date +of his death.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> His father's name was Suddhodana; +his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier years +of Siddhartha's life we have little information that +is at all to be relied on; but his early manhood +appears to have been spent amid the luxury and +self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. +Gautama, however, was a man of great benevolence, +and we are told that, while still quite young, he +pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and +suffering which held the human race in bondage. +Presently, becoming dissatisfied with his own life +of ease and pleasure, he made the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Renunciation;”</span> +turning his back, at the age of thirty, +on wife and parents, home and wealth. After +spending some years in travel, he retired to the +forest, where he attached himself to a little band of +ascetics, and practised severe forms of discipline +and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover the +secret of release from suffering. But meeting with +no success, and still fast bound by the trammels of +ignorance, he betook himself to contemplation; +until one day, as he was seated beneath the Bo-tree,—henceforth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to be accounted sacred<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a>—the +struggles of his soul prevailed, and he passed out +of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He +who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to +the knowledge of which Gautama thus attained, +and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist +doctrine, are these—(i) That man is born to suffering, +both mental and physical: he experiences it +himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that this +suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the +condition of suffering in which man finds himself +admits of amelioration and relief; (iv) the way +of release, and the attainment to Nirvana. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What +is meant by <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Nirvana</span></span>,—the goal of the Buddhist's +hope and aim? Literally, the word means <span class="tei tei-q">“extinction”</span>; +and hence it has often come to be +regarded as a mere synonym for annihilation. +The variety of opinions held by European scholars +as to its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the +fact that Buddhists themselves are by no means +agreed as to its precise significance. Is Nirvana +a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the +personality perpetuated, or is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ego</span></em> absorbed,—i.e. +into Buddha? Such questions are differently +answered by the different schools. Concerning +the nature of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +agnosticism, would seem to have been almost wholly +silent. He appears to have simply taught that by +the suppression and <span class="tei tei-q">“extinction”</span> of the natural +passions and desires—anger, avarice, sorrow, and +the like<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a>—it was possible even here to enter upon +a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should +attain hereafter to more perfect fulfilment. Of the +various meanings attached to Nirvana by the +different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it +scarcely distinguishable from complete annihilation, +while the opposite extreme introduces us to the +doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land +presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of +perfect happiness and delight. This remarkable +development of Buddhism will claim our attention +later.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/daibatsu.png" width="426" height="700" alt="Illustration." title="Daibatsu At Kamakura." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Daibatsu At Kamakura.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To return. After his enlightenment, it is said +that Gautama was seized by the temptation to +enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming +his doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation +from him, he began his ministry by announcing +the tidings of release to the companions of his +ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at +length convinced. In the course of this, his first +sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the eight +steps on the path which leads to Nirvana—(i) Right +faith, (ii) right resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) +right action, (v) right living, (vi) right effort, (vii) +right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As +time went on, Gautama began to gather round him +a number of disciples, who became his constant +companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and +retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and +receiving such as, attracted by his growing reputation, +sought him out. The remaining months he +occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming +the good news of deliverance in the towns +and villages through which he passed. Soon we +find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; +the members of which severed their connexion +with all worldly things, handed over their property +to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive +dress, and, following the Master's doctrine with +strictness themselves, devoted their lives to its +propagation. Any member, however, was at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +liberty to leave the Brotherhood, should he wish to +do so. It is noticeable that Buddha's earliest +followers were chiefly drawn—not, as in the case +of a Greater than he, from the ranks of the poor +and simple—but from the upper classes. Indeed, +Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and +ignorant as incapable of receiving his teaching. +Children are hardly mentioned in the early Buddhist +writings; and with regard to women, it was only +with great reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually +consented to the formation of a Sisterhood, the +members of which were, as far as possible, to +observe the same rules as the men—together with +several additional ones, chiefly concerned with +their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, +it is still the teaching of Buddhism that it should +be a woman's highest aspiration to be reborn as +a man, in a future state of existence. When, however, +the two Orders—for men and for women—had +been formed, there still remained a large +number of either sex, who, without leaving their +places in the world, were desirous of being reckoned +among Buddha's followers. These were admitted +as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being +to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having exercised his public ministry for forty +years—without, as would appear, encountering any +great opposition—and having committed his work +to the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Buddha died, aged about eighty, and was buried +with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time +of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples' +expressions of apprehension and sorrow, by +saying that when he should no longer be with +them in person, he would still be present with +them in his sayings, in his doctrine. Another point +on which he laid great stress before his death was +that the Brotherhood should regularly assemble in +convocation. Hence it came about that from very +early times, the declaration, <span class="tei tei-q">“I seek refuge in +Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood),”</span> +was adopted as the formula which any one, +desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to +profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, +represented to-day by the three great images above +the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its +multitude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not +that three several divinities are the objects of their +adoration and their prayer. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Such, then, as would appear, was the origin +of Buddhism. Strictly speaking, and apart from +its later developments, Buddhism is a religion +which knows no God, which attaches no value +to prayer, which has no place for a priesthood. +Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous +than in the five main prohibitions, which +are addressed alike to clergy and laity. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">first</span></em> of +these forbids the taking of life,—human life chiefly, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but other life as well; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">second</span></em> is against theft, +whether by force or fraud; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">third</span></em> is against +falsehood; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fourth</span></em> forbids impurity, in act, +word, or thought; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fifth</span></em> requires abstinence from +all intoxicants. The whole idea of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">GOD</span></span>, it will +be noticed, is entirely absent from the Buddhist +Commandments. Infinitely removed above that +other agnosticism, which cries, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let us eat and +drink, for to-morrow we die,”</span> Buddhism starts +with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. +But a self-denial that is undertaken, not for God, +and in God for man, but merely to secure one's +own peace and well-being—what is this but +selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that +is essentially negative—the natural product of that +blank despair of the world and of human nature +which led to the Great Renunciation—Buddhism, +as a religious system, has yielded but scanty fruits +of positive holiness, of active benevolence. And +yet,—wholly inadequate as such a system as this, +even at its purest and best, must be to meet the +needs of humanity,—false and even debased as are +sometimes its teachings,—the one great message that +Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if +most imperfect, truth: the truth that would have +man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to self-deliverance +by means of self-control. <span class="tei tei-q">“Work out your +own salvation”</span> is the injunction of Christianity. +<span class="tei tei-q">“By one's self,”</span> taught Sakya-muni, <span class="tei tei-q">“the evil is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one; by one's self must come remedy and release.”</span> +So far the two systems are at one; the difference +between them lies in the fact that the one places in +our hands those supernatural weapons which alone +make real victory possible, and that these the other +knows not how to supply. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hitherto, we have made no reference to the +relation of Buddhism to Brahmanism. And yet +we can no more hope to understand the work of +Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion +with Brahmanism, than we could afford to omit all +mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, +in speaking of the liberation wrought by our +Lord Jesus Christ. The work and doctrine of +Gautama Buddha,—with their mean between an +ascetic severity, on the one hand, and a licentious +self-indulgence on the other—their disregard of +caste distinctions—their rejection of burdensome +and profitless traditions—may be said to bear to +the heavy yoke of Brahmanism a relation not +dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. +Laying hold of that which was ready to his hand, if +so be he might mould and purify it, Buddha was +a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone +before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of +metempsychosis, or, as it is commonly called, the +<span class="tei tei-q">“transmigration of souls.”</span> No doubt, there is +a great deal connected with this doctrine in the +Buddhist books that cannot but appear to us +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, +we do not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such +strange fancies on Buddha, or on Buddhism, as +though it were from these that they sprang. So +far from Sakya-muni being the originator of the +theory of transmigration, a belief in it had, for +centuries previously, been almost universal throughout +the East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied +an antidote to the belief in a practically interminable +series of metempsychoses current at the +time. With the theory of transmigration accepted +on all sides, Buddha seems to have made use of +it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient +solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal +distribution of happiness in this life, and the absence +of any satisfactory exercise of justice in the way of +reward or punishment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have +been applied by Buddhists to their great Master +himself, is only what we should expect to find. +Gautama is accredited by Buddhists with some +five hundred previous existences, in the course +of which he passed through numerous stages of +vegetable, animal and human life, until at length +he attained to the highest degree of manhood. +Throughout the changing circumstances of his +being, he is said to have exhibited a transcendent +and ever-increasing unselfishness and charity, +which culminated in his freely giving himself to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be re-born as Buddha for the world's deliverance. +And it is this belief, probably, which has been +the most potent factor in exalting the Philosopher +and the Guide to a height, which is scarcely, +if at all, distinguishable from the Throne of God. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage +from the late Dean Stanley's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Jewish +Church</span></span>, where he is referring to Gautama Buddha: +<span class="tei tei-q">“It is difficult for those who believe the permanent +elements of the Jewish and Christian religion to +be universal and Divine not to hail these corresponding +forms of truth and goodness elsewhere, or +to recognize that the mere appearance of such +saint-like and god-like characters in other parts +of the earth, if not directly preparing the way for +a greater manifestation, illustrates that manifestation +by showing how mighty has been the +witness borne to it even under circumstances of +such discouragement, and even with effects inadequate +to their grandeur.”</span><a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">III. Buddhism In Japan.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the last Chapter we sketched in outline the life +and teaching of Gautama Buddha; omitting the +many fanciful legends that have gathered round +his name, and confining ourselves to what would +be accepted by Buddhists generally. Of the long +period that divides the death of Sakya-muni from +the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about +550 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, it is no part of our purpose to treat +in detail. But enough must be said to connect in +some intelligible way these two events. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the death of Gautama, his disciples are +said to have gathered together, and recited all +that they remembered of his teaching, arranging +it in three divisions. This was the origin of the +sacred books known as the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Tripitaca</span></span>, i.e. the +<span class="tei tei-q">“three baskets,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“three receptacles.”</span> The +first of these—consisting of sayings, aphorisms, +parables, &c., attributed to Buddha, together with +his first sermon addressed to the ascetics, (the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Wheel of the Law,”</span>)—is known as the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Sutra</span></span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Canon;”</span> the second is called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Vinaya</span></span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Book of Discipline;”</span> and the third, the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Abhidharma</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +i.e. the <span class="tei tei-q">“Book of Metaphysics,”</span> the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Further Doctrine.”</span> Of the three books, the +Sutra, being mainly ethical, would have a more +general application than the other two; while the +Vinaya would be chiefly applicable to the Brotherhood, +and the Abhidharma concerned with abstruse +philosophical dissertations. The Tripitaca, of which +the Buddhists of Ceylon are the custodians, are +written in Pali, an early modification of Sanskrit, +and the sacred language of Buddhism; and they +are, undoubtedly, the oldest and purest of the +numerous Buddhist scriptures. The Sutra, in +particular, is believed to be a faithful record of +the actual teaching of Gautama. At the same +time, it must be remembered that for some centuries +after Sakya-muni's death, there is no proof of the +existence of any written Canon; the probability +being that his teaching was, for the most part, +transmitted orally from generation to generation, +and that it underwent in the process considerable +alteration and addition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With regard to the history of Buddhism, from +the time of its founder's death until the middle of +the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, we are practically without +information. It appears, however, that parties and +schools were already beginning to be formed. But +about 260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, India, from being divided into +a number of petty kingdoms, became almost wholly +united under the rule of one Asoka. Asoka's +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +grandfather—the founder of the empire that was +soon to assume such vast proportions—had revenged +himself for the contempt in which, for his +low birth, he was held by the Brahmans, by +patronizing Buddhism; and Asoka, in turn, +bestowed upon it all possible support. He made +Buddhism the state religion, founded an immense +number of monasteries, and sent forth missionaries +in all directions. China was one of the countries +visited; while a mission to Ceylon, in which +Mahendra, Asoka's own son, took a prominent part, +resulted in the conversion of the whole island. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shortly, however, after Asoka's death, his empire +collapsed, and Buddhism never afterwards exerted +the same influence in India; though it remained +widely prevalent until the eighth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, +and it was not until four centuries later that +it became practically extinct. The Brahmans now +regained their former ascendency; declared Gautama +to be an <span class="tei tei-q">“avatar”</span>—or incarnation—of their +god Vishnu; proceeded to incorporate into their +own creed some of the most popular features of +the Buddhist system; and then entered upon +a destruction of the monasteries, and a severe +persecution of all Buddhists living in India. But, +as in the history of the Christian Church, persecution +only resulted in the Gospel being afforded +a wider area, so was it now with Buddhism. <span class="tei tei-q">“They +that were scattered abroad went everywhere, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +preaching the word.”</span> Among other countries to +which the doctrine of Sakya-muni penetrated +was Cashmere, whose king, Kanishka, a contemporary +of Christ, extended to it his enthusiastic +support. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At this point was reached an important crisis +in the history of Buddhism. Already controversies +about discipline and various minor questions had +called into existence several different schools; but +now a breach occurred, of such magnitude and +destined to prove so lasting in its results, as +to often have suggested comparison with the +schism between Western and Eastern Christendom. +A council was held under king Kanishka, which +the Ceylon Buddhists refused to recognize; and +from that time Buddhism has been divided into +two main branches, known as the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Mahayana</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Hinayana</span></span>,—the <span class="tei tei-q">“Greater and Lesser Vehicles.”</span> +The division thus brought about became, to a great +extent, a geographical one; the Hinayana having +its home in Ceylon, and, somewhat less exclusively, +in Burmah and Siam, while the schools of the +Mahayana predominate in Cashmere, Thibet, China +and Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us glance, for a moment, at their respective +characteristics. The Hinayana and the Mahayana, +then, are the names given to two great systems, or +<span class="tei tei-q">“schools of thought,”</span> which offer to <span class="tei tei-q">“carry”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“convey”</span> their followers to the rest of Nirvana. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of the two, the Hinayana, or Lesser Conveyance, +presents a much closer resemblance to early +Buddhism. The distinguishing features of the +Hinayana may be declared to be its adherence to +the strict morality of primitive Buddhism, its +greater simplicity of worship, its smaller Canon of +scripture, and the fact that it appeals rather to the +comparatively few, to those, that is to say, who are +able and willing to make the surrender it requires. +Whereas, in the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, we +see a system characterized by that increased ease +and laxity, which too often accompany a season of +repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that +attends the establishment of a new movement. +The chief features of the Mahayana may be +pronounced to be its less exacting standard of +practical morality, its willingness to descend to the +level of the multitude, its subtle metaphysical +distinctions, its meditative inactivity, its elaborate +ceremonial, and its more extensive Canon of +scripture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We are now, at last, in a position to examine the +history of Japanese Buddhism. If an apology +seems needed for the length of our digression, +I can only say that it appeared to me necessary for +any profitable treatment of our subject. We have +already seen how, as early as 250 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, China was +visited by Buddhist missionaries from India. +These are said to have been eighteen in number; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and their effigies may be seen in many a Chinese +temple, where they are held in great veneration. +In the first century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, Buddhism in China +began to receive imperial patronage; some of its +books being about the same time translated into +the language of the country. The spirit of accommodation +and adaptation, which has always formed +so conspicuous a feature of Buddhism, manifested +itself now in an association with Taouism which +has continued ever since. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +552 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> is the date assigned to the introduction +of Buddhism into Japan, by way of Korea. At +first, it appears to have made little progress, until +the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it +into favour with the Court. Prostrating himself +one day, before the little son of the Mikado, the +priest declared that he recognized in him the +re-incarnation of one of the disciples of Buddha, +and one who was destined to effect a great spiritual +work in Japan. The Mikado was prevailed upon +to confide the boy's education to the Buddhist +priests; with the result that, when he grew up, he +supported their cause with such zeal as to cause +him to be sometimes spoken of as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Constantine +of Japanese Buddhism.”</span> Shotoku Taishi—for such +was his name—acted for some time as regent, but +never himself ascended the throne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is no doubt that the progress of Buddhism +in Japan was largely facilitated by the adoption of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +tactics, which had been successfully employed in +dealing with the barbarous tribes of India, and—as +we have just noticed,—with China also. Indeed, +its readiness to adapt itself to the circumstances, +instincts, and prejudices of the people, with whom +it has to do, is, as has already been implied, one of +the most powerful and most striking peculiarities +of Buddhism. In Japan, the Shinto demi-gods were +Buddhaized, and declared to be manifestations of +Gautama; while practices borrowed from the +ancient national creed were introduced into the +Buddhist ceremonial. In the eighth century, we +find orders issued for the erection of two temples +and a pagoda in every province; until, about the +twelfth century, the two religions became associated +in the manner indicated in our first chapter,—Buddhist +and Shinto clergy officiating by turns in +the same buildings, and the Shinto temples becoming +filled with images, alike of their own demi-gods, +and of Buddha and his companions. This state of +things continued until 1868, when the Shinto cult +was chosen to receive the exclusive recognition of +the State, many of the Buddhist monasteries at the +same time suffering spoliation. Within the last +few years, however, Buddhism has been making +strenuous efforts to recover its former power and +position, and there is little doubt that it still exerts +a real influence in Japan; while the collapse of +Shintoism is, as certainly, a matter of no distant +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time. At Tokio, the capital, where the number of +temples is enormous, the proportion of Buddhist to +Shinto is in the ratio of ten to one; and on several +occasions during my stay in Japan I noticed handsome +new Buddhist temples in course of erection, +or old ones being redecorated and restored. +On the other hand, numbers are closed, or falling +to pieces, for want of funds to maintain them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the present time, there are some twelve or +more <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">principal</span></em> Buddhist sects in Japan, several of +these being subdivided. The distinction between +the various schools is much more closely preserved +than in China; and, at least in the larger cities, +each sect will be found represented by a temple +of its own. The difference between the schools +consists not only in the varied attitudes adopted +towards some controverted question, but frequently +also in the degrees of importance attached to some +point which is held by all in common. For, +as cannot be too emphatically stated, Buddhism +is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">many-sided</span></em> religion.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> The following extract +from Sir Monier Williams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buddhism</span></span>, for instance, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +draws attention to the variety of aspects, from +which it may, and indeed needs to be regarded +by the student. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In different places and at different times, its +teaching has become both negative and positive, +agnostic and gnostic. It passes from apparent +atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and +spiritualism. It is, under one aspect, mere pessimism; +under another, pure philanthropy; under +another, monastic communion; under another, high +morality; under another, a variety of materialistic +philosophy; under another, simple demonology; +under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, +including necromancy, witchcraft, idolatry, and +fetishism. In some form or other it may be held +with almost any religion, and embraces something +from almost every creed.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the same effect writes Dr. Eitel in his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Buddhism</span></span> (pp. 1-2): <span class="tei tei-q">“Buddhism is +a system of vast magnitude, for it comprises the +earliest gropings after science throughout those +various branches of knowledge which our Western +nations have long been accustomed to divide for +separate study. It embodies in one living structure +grand and peculiar views of physical science, refined +and subtle theorems on abstract metaphysics, +an edifice of fanciful mysticism, a most elaborate +and far-reaching system of practical morality, and +finally a church organization as broad in its principles +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and as finely wrought in its most intricate +network as any in the world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would hardly be worth while to attempt +any detailed description of the many Buddhist +sects represented in Japan. To observe the main +characteristics of the principal ones, and their +points of difference from one another, will be amply +sufficient for our purpose. The greater number of +the schools were introduced from China, but a few +are Japanese developments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us take, first of all, the schools of the +Hinayana, or Minor Vehicle, which, as we should +expect, is not extensively represented in Japan. +The Hinayana is represented by four philosophical +schools, in two of which the materialistic element +predominates, and in the two other the idealistic; +while eschatological questions afford further ground +for difference. The points in dispute between these +philosophical schools of Buddhism are altogether so +subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of +comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in +such distinctions. Of the four sects referred to, one, +called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Kusha</span></span>, has for its characteristic the fact +that it bases its teaching on the Abhidharma Pitaca. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the Minor Vehicle belongs the curious system +known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Holy Path.”</span> This has been described +as a <span class="tei tei-q">“debtor and creditor account kept with +divine justice.”</span> Much less common than in China, +the system of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Holy Path”</span> is yet widely +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +practised in Japan. Elaborate tables are drawn up, +containing a list of all good and bad actions it is +possible to perform, with the numbers added which +each counts on the side of merit or demerit. The +numbers range from one to a hundred, or even +more; and the tables afford an insight into the +relative importance in which all kinds of actions +present themselves to the Oriental mind. He who +would tread life's journey along the Holy Path +must, at least, aim at setting off his bad deeds +by a corresponding number of good acts of equal +value. At the end of each year, the account is +balanced, and the overplus or deficit is transferred +to the succeeding one. That such a system is +liable to the gravest abuse, especially in the case of +the more ignorant, is obvious; though, when conscientiously +practised, it need not be supposed to +be unproductive of good.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At present we have made no mention of the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Madhyameka</span></span>, or Middle Vehicle, which, as its +name implies, occupies an intermediate place between +the Greater and Lesser Conveyances. A +compromise between these two great systems, +the Madhyameka may be said to be characterized +by a marked moderation, i.e. between an excessive +strictness, on the one hand, and a too great liberty +on the other. But though it is thus a faithful +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +exponent of Sakya-muni's original doctrine, the +Madhyameka has never attracted any extensive +following. It is represented in Japan by the sect +called the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Sanron</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We pass on to examine the schools of the Greater +Vehicle. In the same way that the Kusha sect +regards as its chief authority the Abhidharma +Pitaca, there are two schools belonging to the +Greater Vehicle, which base their teaching on the +Sutra and Vinaya Pitacas respectively. The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Kagon</span></span> +make the parables and sayings of Buddha contained +in the Sutra their especial study; while +the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Ritzu</span></span>, as adhering to the more ascetic side of +Buddhism, have for their favourite book the Vinaya, +or <span class="tei tei-q">“Discipline.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Dhyana</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Zen</span></span> +sect is a Chinese school with numerous sub-divisions. Its distinguishing +feature is the prominence it assigns to the life of +contemplation. Mysticism is represented by the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Shingon</span></span>, the Mantra school of India transferred +through China to Japan; and also by the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Tendai</span></span>, +so called from a mountain in China, where the +head-quarters of the sect are situated. The temples +of the Shingon may usually be recognized by the +two guardian figures at the entrance, with open +and shut mouths, suggesting the mystic syllable +A-UM. A peculiarity of both of these sects is the +use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common +in Thibet. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An element of mysticism also pervades the +influential <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Hokkai</span></span> sect, a Japanese offshoot of +the Tendai, founded in the thirteenth century by +a priest named Nichiren, who is said to have been +born supernaturally of a virgin mother. The +Hokkai are most jealously attached to their own +ritual, and to other observances peculiar to themselves; +and, inheriting the disposition attributed to +their founder, exhibit a narrowness and intolerance +rarely met with in Japan. Their characteristic +may be said to consist in an emotional fanaticism; +and a visitor to one of their temples will generally +find a number of devotees,—who thus remain engaged +for hours at a time,—chanting the invocation +of the sect, <span class="tei tei-q">“Adoration to the Lotus of the Law,”</span> +to a deafening accompaniment of drums. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two sects only now remain, but these by no +means the least interesting or least popular: the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Jodo</span></span> and the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Shin-Jodo</span></span> +(i.e. the New-Jodo). The +distinguishing features of these sects,—which also +find a place in the system of the Hokkai,—are +their acknowledgement of the need of external aid, +and their doctrine of the Western Paradise, presided +over by Amitabha Buddha. How marked a +departure from the original teaching of Sakya-muni, +as observed by us, these schools present is sufficiently +obvious; nevertheless, it is alleged that +the revelation of the Paradise in the West was first +made by Buddha himself to one of his principal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +disciples. In the distant West is said to dwell one +named Amida, or Amitabha, that is to say <span class="tei tei-q">“Illimitable +Light.”</span> Immortal himself, immortal also and +freed from all the trammels of transmigration are +the vast multitudes of men<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> who inhabit the boundless +regions which he rules. In that <span class="tei tei-q">“Pure +Land,”</span><a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> +that <span class="tei tei-q">“Undefiled Ground,”</span> everything beautiful +and enchanting has a place, neither is pain or +sorrow known; and thither nought that is evil or +that defileth can come. Whosoever would attain +to this heavenly country must rely, most of all, on +faithful invocation of the name of Amida; he +having, as is recorded, made a vow that he would +only accept Buddhahood on condition that salvation +should be placed within reach of all sincerely +desirous of achieving it. Such is the doctrine of +the Western Paradise, some of the descriptions of +which read almost like echoes of the last chapters +of the Bible. Unknown to the Buddhism of Ceylon, +Siam, and Burmah, it can be traced back as far as +the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, when it was certainly +known in Cashmere, though it was not until three +centuries later that it began to spread widely over +Northern Buddhism. But the whole question of +its origin remains wrapped in obscurity. At the +present day, the devotion to Amida is very widely +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +practised in Japan, and it is extremely popular. No +doubt, the more educated and intellectual Buddhist,—and +the distinction thus suggested needs constantly +to be insisted on,—would explain the +Paradise of the West as being a mere allegory, and +regard Amitabha, as he was originally conceived +to be, as merely an ideal personification of boundless +light. But to the people generally the Undefiled +Ground and its presiding deity are actual, +literal, realities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/kiyomizu-dera.png" width="700" height="499" alt="Illustration." title="Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have said that the two sects in which the +doctrine of the Western Paradise appears in greatest +prominence are called the Jodo and Shin-Jodo. +The former of these is Chinese in origin, but was +established in Japan about 1200 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> by a priest, +Enko Daishi by name, who was also a member of +the imperial family. The head-quarters of this sect +are at Kyoto, where the magnificent monastery of +Chion-in forms one of the principal sights of that +most interesting of Japanese cities. But of all the +temples of Japan, those of the New-Jodo (or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Monto</span></span>) +sect are at once the most handsome, the most frequented, +and the most attractive to the European +traveller. Everything here, too, is of a dignified +and stately character; there is a striking absence +of the tawdry and the puerile. Founded in the +year 1262, this sect is, at the present day, foremost +in learning, influence, and activity. Another purely +Japanese development, it is—owing to differences +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +about <span class="tei tei-q">“church government”</span>—composed of two sub-divisions, +the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Nishi-Hongwanji</span></span> and the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Higashi-Hongwanji</span></span>, +or the Eastern and Western Divisions +of the True Petition,—the reference being to the +vow of Amida. In most of the larger towns, +handsome temples of either branch are to be found, +situated usually in the poorer districts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is in the temples of the Shin-Jodo that the +remarkable similarity, of which every one has heard, +between the Buddhist ceremonial and that of the +Roman Church is most conspicuous. Nowhere, +perhaps, did the resemblance in question,—to which +I shall have occasion to refer again,—impress me +more forcibly than it did in the New-Jodo temple +at Nagasaki, at the first Buddhist service at which +I was ever present. The day of our visit chanced +to be the founder's anniversary, and from a raised +lectern in the chancel, a venerable priest, of benign +countenance,—wearing a rich vestment not unlike +a dalmatic, and a cap resembling a biretta,—was +recounting to a congregation, composed chiefly of +women, old men, and children, the virtues of their +deceased benefactor. Presently, the sermon came +to an end, and the colloquial delivery of the discourse +was changed for the monotone of a litany +recitation: the people answering with ready response, +and many of them employing the aid of +their rosaries. The fragrance of incense filled the +air; tapers and flowers adorned the altar, above +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which was the statue, not—as one entering by +chance might almost have expected to see—of +a Christian saint, but of some manifestation of +Gautama Buddha. Despite, however, its elaborate +ritual, the Shin-Jodo sect has been called the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Protestantism of Japan;”</span> the reason being that it +sanctions the marriage of its clergy, approves the +reading of the scriptures in the <span class="tei tei-q">“vulgar tongue,”</span> +permits a wider freedom in respect to food and +drink, and affords other indications of a <span class="tei tei-q">“reforming +spirit.”</span> The priesthood in this sect is, practically, +a hereditary office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Great Indian Religions</span></span> of the late +Mr. Bettany, there is given a summary of the Shin-Jodo +Belief, in the words of one of its principal +teachers. I will take the liberty of re-quoting it +here. <span class="tei tei-q">“Rejecting all religious austerities and other +action, giving up all idea of self-power, we rely +upon Amida Buddha with the whole heart for our +salvation in the future life, which is the most +important thing: believing that at the moment of +putting our faith in Amida Buddha our salvation +is settled. From that moment invocation of his +name is observed as an expression of gratitude and +thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being +thankful for the reception of this doctrine from the +founder and succeeding chief priests whose teachings +were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in +a dark night, we must also keep the laws which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are fixed for our duty during our whole life.”</span> The +mutual relation of faith and works is especially to +be noticed; and indeed the strikingly <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">evangelical</span></em> +character of the whole Confession. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/kwannon.png" width="700" height="432" alt="Illustration." title="Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Vast, however, as is the power attributed to +Amitabha, and great as is the merit to be acquired +by the invocation of his name, there is found in +the temples in which he is worshipped an image +which receives even more veneration than his. +That colossal female effigy, with the many heads +and countless hands, before which a number of +votaries, composed largely of women, are kneeling +in prayer, is meant to represent the mighty Avalokitesvara, +or—to substitute for the Sanskrit the +less formidable titles by which she is known in +China and Japan,—the all-powerful Kwanyin or +Kwannon. Here, again, we are confronted with +a devotion the origin of which is wrapped in +uncertainty, but which, closely connected with the +doctrine of the Western Paradise, seems to have +arisen some three centuries after the commencement +of our era. At the present day, it is spread +extensively over Thibet, Mongolia, China, and +Japan; but it is unknown to the countries of +Southern Buddhism. With regard to the meaning +of this great image before us, Kwannon is commonly +explained to be the reflex or spiritual son of +Amitabha Buddha, sent by him to earth to preside +on earth over the Buddhist faith, and appearing, at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +first in male and subsequently in female shape. +But the probability is that the various personages, +with whom Kwannon is supposed to be identified, +had merely a fictitious existence; and that in her +statues, we see simply an apotheosis of Mercy, an +allegorical <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Mater Misericordiae</span></span>, whose many +eyes and hands are intended to signify the unremitting +vigilance and the untiring energy with which she +ministers to all sorrow and distress.<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The island of Pootau, off Ning-po, in the Chusan +Archipelago, is the great centre of Kwannon +worship; the most popular of the many legends +concerning her associating her with this locality, +and offering an explanation of her thousand heads +and hands more clumsy even than is the manner +of such myths. The island belongs to the Buddhist +priesthood, and is a great resort of pilgrims. In +Japan, the shrines and statues of Kwannon are to +be met with everywhere: many of her images being +of enormous size, richly gilt and beautifully +wrought. Sometimes the statues are kept concealed +from view, either on account of alleged +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +miraculous properties, or for some other reason of +special sanctity. The highly-venerated image, for +instance, at the Asakusa temple, Tokio, is never +shown; it is only two inches high, and is accredited +with supernatural qualities. But of all +the shrines of Kwannon, it may be doubted whether +the impression created by any is greater than by +her temple of San-ju-san-gen-do at Kyoto, where +no less than 33,333 images of the goddess may be +seen. Of these a thousand are gilded statues, five feet +in height, and ranged in tiers along a vast gallery. +The remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads, +hands and nimbi of the larger ones. The +temple and its contents originated in the votive +offering of a Mikado of the twelfth century for +recovery from sickness. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/altar.png" width="700" height="431" alt="Illustration." title="The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do.</div></div> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> +<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">IV. Buddhism And Christianity.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/guardian-nio.png" width="430" height="700" alt="Illustration." title="Guardian Nio." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Guardian Nio.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Buddhist temples in Japan are for the +most part built on a much grander and more +elaborate scale than those belonging to the Shinto +worship. The roofing is not of thatch, but of +tiles; and instead of the torii, the entrance is +through a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Sammon</span></span>, or two-storied gateway, in +the recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious +appearance. These are called <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Nio</span></span>, and their +office is to guard the sacred precincts from the approach +of evil spirits. These images are commonly seen +spotted all over with pellets of paper. <span class="tei tei-q">“A worshipper +writes his petition on paper, or better still, +has it written for him by the priest, chews it to +a pulp, and spits it at the divinity. If, having +been well aimed, the paper sticks, it is a good +omen.”</span> Passing through the Sammon, and proceeding +in a straight direction—often between +rows of votive stone-lanterns—the visitor soon +arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple +group. One of these is the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Hondo</span></span>, or main +shrine; while the other may be either the Hall of the +Founder of the particular sect to which the Temple +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +belongs, or it may contain a colossal image of +Amida, and be specially dedicated to his worship. +Sometimes, again, this second building is known as +the Refectory, from the spiritual nourishment +supplied there in the form of sermons, for which +the preacher takes as his text some passage of the +Sutra, or, it may be, some saying of Confucius.<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> +Removing our boots, which we leave at the foot of +the wooden steps, we ascend to the Hondo, and, if +need be, push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered +woodwork, which afford access to the +building. Should no service chance to be in progress, +a little company of priests, acolytes, &c., will +probably be found, seated on the matting with +which the floor is covered,—engaged in the perusal +of book or newspaper, or chatting together over +miniature cups of tea, and, if it be winter-time, +spreading their hands to receive the grateful +warmth of the hibachi.<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> Beside them, on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +floor, is arranged a miscellaneous assortment +of sacred pictures, leaflets, candles, incense-sticks, +charms, and other articles; any of which may be +purchased by a very modest expenditure. As we +enter, we observe that several pairs of eyes are +fastened on us in undisguised curiosity; but our +low salutation is promptly responded to, if indeed it +has not been anticipated, and one of the group +will courteously come forward to supply us with +any assistance or information we require. Before +the railing, which encloses the sanctuary, two or +three worshippers are kneeling in prayer; and +these also examine us for a while with close +attention. Or, it may be that at the time of our +visit some religious function is proceeding. If so, +the clergy with their servers are found within the +chancel, clad in gorgeous yellow robes, and genuflecting +now and again before the images which +stand above the richly-vested altar. Outside the +sanctuary rails, the congregation is assembled in +greater or less numbers, according to the importance +of the day. Around is a profusion of lights +and flowers; while the air is fragrant with the +fumes of incense. The prayers, which the officiating +priest recites in monotone, are in Pali, a form of +Sanskrit; and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades +his devotions, let it be remembered that every day, +month after month, and year after year, he may be +found chanting these same litanies, of the significance +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of which he has but the vaguest idea. Not, +however, that he is without belief in their efficacy; +nay, it may be that his very ignorance of their +meaning causes the words he utters to have, in his +eyes, a transcendent value. Above the high altar, +in seated posture on lotus-blossoms,<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> are three +colossal images, cunningly wrought and richly +gilded, and bearing on their countenances an expression +of placid repose. Perhaps, it is the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Triratna</span></span>, +or Three Jewels, that these represent, the Trinity of +Buddha, the Law, and the Order. Or, possibly, +this is Buddha, in his triple forms of existence:—as +Sakya-muni, the form under which he lived as +man among men; as Amitabha, his metaphysical +existence in Nirvana; as Avalokitesvara, his reflex +in the world of forms, his spiritual son, generated +to propagate the religion established by him during +his earthly career. Or once again, these three +images may portray the Buddhas of the Past, +Present, and Future:—Gautama who <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">was</span></em>, the +historic founder of Buddhism; Kwannon, or +Avalokitesvara, the head of the present Buddhist +hierarchy, the Buddha who <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>; and Maitreya, or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Meroku, the deliverer yet <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to come</span></em>, the rehabilitation +of past Buddhas foretold by Sakya-muni. Now +and again one may meet with a Buddhist of +superior intellectual attainments, who would explain +the acts of worship he offers to these images, +as signifying merely reverence for Gautama's +teaching; but to the multitude, as has been seen +already, the images represent distinct and all-powerful +deities. Indeed, the people are encouraged +thus to regard them by their ecclesiastical +superiors; it being one of the methods of Buddhism +thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense +and ignorant minds. And thus it comes about +that a religion, commencing with agnosticism, meets +the <span class="tei tei-q">“craving for divinity,”</span> so deeply implanted in +the nature of our race, by passing into what is, +practically, a deification of humanity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/pagoda.png" width="427" height="700" alt="Illustration." title="Pagoda at Nikko." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Pagoda at Nikko.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leaving the Hondo, we next proceed to explore +the grounds and remaining buildings connected +with the temple. This lofty <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Pagoda</span></span>, for instance, +several stories high, is erected over some holy relic,—perhaps +the vitrified remains of the founder, +after cremation. A little further on, we come +to the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Rinzo</span></span>, or Revolving Library, containing an +entire set of the Buddhist scriptures. As these +consist altogether of some 6,700 or 6,800 large +volumes, it is clearly impossible for any one person +to read them all. This, however, need not be +regretted seeing that whatever merit might be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +obtained by a complete perusal, is freely extended +to all, who will take the trouble to make this huge +stand revolve; the structure being so arranged +that a single push is sufficient for the purpose! +The Rinzo was an invention of a Chinese priest, +and is said to date from the sixth century. Owing +to their costliness they are rarely met with; and +the only two I remember seeing were at Asakusa, +Tokio, and at Ikegami, the head-quarters of +the Hokkai sect. Elsewhere in the grounds we +come upon the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Shoro</span></span>, or Great Bell,—used not +for summoning the faithful, but for the purpose of +invocation and worship;—the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Koro</span></span>, or Drum-tower; +the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Emado</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Ex-voto”</span> Shed, the walls of which +are covered with pictures, charms, and other +offerings; cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +purification; a printing and publishing department; +and, perhaps, a grotto with ghastly representations +of the sufferings endured in the Buddhist hells. +Usually, too, to be found in the sacred precincts, is +a specimen of the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Ficus religiosa</span></span>, or sacred +tree, under which Sakya-muni attained his enlightenment. +At the rear of the temple buildings are +situated the priests' apartments,—often a quadrangle +enclosed by a colonnade,—the reception-rooms +of which are beautifully decorated with +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kakemonos</span></span>. Here the visitor is sometimes invited +to a light repast of tea, cake, and fruit; the +priests waiting on him the while with the most +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +courteous attention. And here may I be permitted +to say a word about the Buddhist priests of Japan +as I found them? They are commonly spoken +of as lazy and ignorant, mercenary and corrupt; +and it is to be feared that with regard to many, +especially of the lower orders of the clergy, this +witness is true. But speaking of those with whom +I came into direct contact—the priests, for the most +part, attached to the more important temples—I +feel bound to say, that the impression I formed of +them was, on the whole, a distinctly favourable one. +With countenances often indicating close spiritual +application, they appeared to perform their sacred +duties with reverence and attention; while of the +disinterested kindness and hospitality I received at +their hands, as well as of the courtesy and patience +with which they replied to my numerous questions, +I would speak in terms of grateful appreciation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/ikegami-temple.png" width="700" height="526" alt="Illustration." title="Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (Head-quarters of the Hokkai or Nichiren sect.) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate leads to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder's Hall. To the right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple is the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of the picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests' Apartments and Reception-rooms." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">Head-quarters +of the Hokkai or Nichiren sect.</span></span>) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate leads +to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder's Hall. To +the right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple +is the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of +the picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are +the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests' Apartments and +Reception-rooms.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A visit to a Buddhist temple, however, can hardly +fail to suggest to any, who are at all familiar with +the observances of the Roman ritual, a comparison +to which we have already referred,—I mean the +striking resemblance between the Buddhist ceremonies +and such as have found place in the +Christian Church. The high-altar with its haloed +statues, flowers, candelabra, and ever-burning +lamps; the side-altars, similarly adorned, above +one of which, it may be, is seen the image of +Maia, the mother of Gautama, bearing her infant-son +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in her arms; the priests, tonsured, mitred, +arrayed in their rich vestments, and attended by +their acolytes; the people, bending low in adoration, +or telling their rosaries as they pray; the tinkling of +bells and the perfume of incense; the dim light +of the sanctuary, and the monotonous chant, in +the unknown tongue, of the litanies uplifted for +living and for dead:—these are only some of the +points of correspondence with Roman Catholic +observances which meet us in almost every +Buddhist temple. Indeed, to attempt to specify +such resemblances in detail would prove a laborious +task. But while the similarity to which I refer +is far too close and remarkable to be accounted for +by mere coincidence, its explanation is by no means +easy. Some would solve the difficulty by referring to +the unquestionable fact that many of the ceremonies +practised in the Christian Church are adaptations of +ancient heathen rites: a leading captive of captivity +of which, as it seems to me, Christianity has far +more reason to be proud than ashamed. But +though the Buddhist observances are, without doubt, +of considerable antiquity, this explanation cannot +be said to be adequate to the requirements of the +case. Far more satisfactory is the theory that +ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of +China with some form of Christianity—probably +Nestorianism—and to the readiness which Buddhism +has ever exhibited to extend its influence +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by a conformity to other faiths. The problem, +however, is one which we must, to a great extent, +be satisfied to leave unsolved; the most eminent +authorities in Orientalism having confessed themselves +baffled. It is only the fact of the resemblance +that admits of no dispute. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/buddhist-priest.png" width="431" height="700" alt="Illustration." title="A Buddhist Priest." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">A Buddhist Priest.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to notice the different effects +produced by an observation of the Buddhist +ceremonial on the minds of Roman Catholic +missionaries upon their first arrival in the East. +By some its likeness to their own ritual has been +regarded as a manœuvre of Satan, designed for the +hindrance of Christian truth; while others have +regarded the resemblance with satisfaction, as calculated +to diminish the difficulties of their work. +Without entering further into this question, I may be +allowed to express the conviction that an elaborate +ceremonial forms at any rate no necessary factor of +Christian work in Japan. So far from this being +the case, I was informed, on no prejudiced authority, +that, the breach once made with the old associations, +converts are disposed to regard anything +tending even remotely to suggest them as more +of a hindrance than a help; and this view finds +support in the large number of adherents gained +by several of the Protestant Missions, with whom +anything in the way of ceremonial is reduced +to a minimum. On the other hand, must be +remembered the very successful work accomplished +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in Japan, alike by the Roman and Orthodox +Churches, whose combined total of some 65,000 +adherents is more than double that of the various +Protestant sects,—the Churches of England and +America, with 4,000 members, not being included +in this computation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hitherto, I have referred only to the resemblance +outwardly existing between the ceremonies and +observances of Christianity and Buddhism. But +an extension of the comparison results in what is, +at first sight, an even more startling similarity +between incidents recorded of Gautama Buddha, +and events in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated +in the Gospels. Thus, we are told that Gautama +was born of a virgin mother; that angels appeared +at his nativity; that an ancient seer prostrated +himself before him, and saluted him as one come +down from heaven; that, as a child, he confounded +his teachers by the understanding he displayed, and +the questions which he asked; that, assailed by the +Evil One<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> with the keenest +temptations,—including the offer of Sovereignty over all the world, if he +would renounce his mission,—he yet emerged victorious +from all; that once, being on a mountain, +he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light; +that he went down into hell; and that he ascended +into heaven. Indeed, the Christian may be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pardoned if, for the moment, he feels completely +staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf +of Sakya-muni; and if his perplexity only begins to +give place to relief, when he discovers that there is +absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence +in the early Buddhist writings, and that there is +no reason for supposing that these alleged events +in the life of Gautama were ever heard of until +the Christian era was already several centuries old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have now, as far as our limits permit, made +an examination of Buddhism with especial reference +to Japan. But before leaving this part of our +subject, I would humbly, but very earnestly, submit +the question, Is there in Buddhism generally,—is +there in Buddhism as it exists in Japan at the +present day,—nothing upon which Christianity +may profitably fasten, nothing to which Christianity +may properly appeal? Is that great proclamation +of Christian tact, which, eighteen centuries ago, the +Apostle Paul delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto +you,”</span> one that cannot, more often than it does, find +a place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day? +Is the position a useless one to take, that both the +faiths of Jesus Christ and of Buddha agree in this, +that either has for its object the amelioration of +man's lot, here and hereafter, and his release from +the curse of suffering; only, as we believe, with +this great difference, that the founder of Christianity +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was possessed of resources to which Sakya-muni +laid no claim? These are questions which were +constantly presenting themselves to my mind +during my visit to Japan; but they are questions +also which I heard asked more than once by men +who had closely studied the whole subject and were +deeply interested in mission work. But whatever +the true answer to these questions be, of this we +may be certain: that by no reckless denunciation +of a creed, of the very elements of which the +denouncer is content to be in ignorance, will any +victory of Christ's Cross be achieved. Be the +errors and shortcomings of Buddhism what they +may,—and we must, to be honest, pronounce them +in our judgment to be many and great,—it is, at +least, a system of very great antiquity, in whose +strength thousands of millions of our fellow-creatures +have lived and died, both better and +happier. Men cannot be expected lightly to +abandon their allegiance to such a faith as this, +nor would it be to their credit if they did; while +in Christianity, even when faithfully represented, +there is very much calculated to perplex and +estrange one who has been trained in the tenets of +Buddhism. Moreover, however little he may agree +with them, the Buddhist holds that the religious +convictions of others are entitled to respect, and +that their feelings should never be wounded, if this +can be avoided; it is only natural that he, in his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +turn, should be quickly alienated by unsympathetic +treatment. I was told by an English resident of +long standing that infidelity is largely on the +increase in Japan, especially among the men of +the upper and middle classes; and that among the +causes of this was certainly to be reckoned the +contemptuous and merely destructive attitude +towards Buddhism, with which some—let us hope +they are the very few—would think to serve +the cause of Jesus Christ. <span class="tei tei-q">“Depend upon it,”</span> it +was said to me, <span class="tei tei-q">“it is irreligion that commonly +succeeds to the vacant place, not Christianity. +Carlyle was right when he said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Better even to +believe a lie than to believe nothing.’</span> ”</span> And +Buddhism is not all a lie! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The perishing heathen.”</span> Many of us have been +revolted by such expressions when heard at home. +But it is only when one is living in the midst of +the people of whom they are spoken, that it is +possible to realize the full horror of their meaning. +That men, women, and little children, who are +distinguished by so many good qualities,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> and +who—with, as we believe, such immeasurably +inferior opportunities—present, in many points, so +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +favourable a contrast to ourselves, should be +condemned to a future of hopeless and unending +misery, for not believing that of which, it may be, +they have not even heard, or heard only in crude, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +distorted statement—can any man <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">really</span></em> think +this, who recognizes the providence of a Father of +Love; nay, I will dare to say, of a Deity of bare +Justice? And yet language thus fearfully misrepresenting +the Faith of Christ is still used by +some who are called by His name; and that it is +used is known by the people of Japan.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But again. There is, I have observed, much in +the scheme of Christianity calculated to prove +a stumbling-block to those who have been educated +in the doctrines of Buddhism. Let me proceed +to state some of the difficulties that would be +experienced, some of the objections that would be +raised, by a Buddhist of a certain amount of +intellectual capacity, when confronted with the +claims of the Christian Faith. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus, (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the Bible</span></em>. <span class="tei tei-q">“We are unable,”</span> the +Buddhist would say, <span class="tei tei-q">“to recognize in your Old and +New Testaments an inspired revelation. Why +should we accept your Scriptures, with all their +alleged miracles and supernatural occurrences, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +when you reject ours? Besides, you are not +agreed among yourselves as to inspiration, authenticity, +translation, interpretation. Some of you, +again, are for diffusing the Bible broadcast, others +would keep it in the background. Again, the +Christian doctrine of immortality appears to us +entirely absent from the pages of the Old Testament; +while even the Jews, <span class="tei tei-q">‘God's chosen people,’</span> refuse to +see in the New Testament the fulfilment of the Old.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">The Old Testament.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“We cannot regard the +story of Creation, as given in the Book of Genesis, +as anything more than a myth, containing a germ +of truth. Neither can we accept, as historically +true, the story of the temptation in the Garden of +Eden. And yet, upon this is made to rest your +whole theory of the Fall, of Original Sin, and of +Christian Redemption. As for the history of the +Jewish people, we can see in it nothing but one +long story of cruelty and bloodshed; how can +a Creator, a God of Love, be supposed to have +permitted and approved such things?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">The Incarnation.</span></em> The whole doctrine of the +Incarnation is full of difficulty to the mind of an +Oriental; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> because of its strangeness and +novelty, but owing to his very familiarity with +stories of miraculous birth in his own legends. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">The Atonement.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“Why should Jehovah +require the sacrifice of His own Son?”</span> This is +a difficulty that would present itself with especial +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +force to the Buddhist; by whom all life is held +sacred, and whom such texts as <span class="tei tei-q">“Without shedding +of blood there is no remission,”</span> fill with repugnance. +The explanation offered by Buddhists themselves +of the Christian doctrine of Atonement is, that its +origin must be sought in the fact that, from the +most ancient times, the idea of sacrifice, and of +human sacrifice, has existed; and this explanation +they go on to apply to the Holy Eucharist. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Eternal Punishment.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“How,”</span> it is asked, +<span class="tei tei-q">“is your doctrine of Everlasting Punishment +consistent with that of the Remission of Sins? +And how, on the other hand, is not your scheme of +salvation ethically wrong, if it allows people, after +sinning all their lives, to be forgiven on their +death-beds, that so they may enter a Paradise, +wherein good and bad alike have a place?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">f</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Faith and Belief.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“What right have you +to ask us to believe anything that does not accord +with science and experience, when you have no +better opportunities of knowing than we?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian Ethics.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“Some of these—e.g. the +doctrine of the Sermon on the Mount—we admit +to be good; but they are not peculiar to Christianity—our +own teaching is very similar. In other +of your ethics, we see only an ignoble and selfish +storing of treasure; it appears to us that a good +action, done for the sake of reward or gain, must +entirely lose its merit.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></span>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Missionary Work.</span></em> <span class="tei tei-q">“We do not claim that our +religion is the only way of salvation, but readily +recognize the good points in other systems as well. +You, on the contrary, appear to hold that there is +no other way but your own; and indeed it is only +on this supposition that we can understand the +strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to +abandon our religion for yours.”</span><a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It forms no part of my purpose to discuss these +objections; which, let me add, are merely representative, +and by no means exhaustive. With many +of them we are already familiar at home; and the +Japanese, I would mention, are fully aware of +the unbelief prevalent in England, and well +acquainted with its arguments. Indeed, few English +people, it is probable, have any idea how closely +their history and their literature are studied by +nations living at the other side of the globe, who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are to them simply <span class="tei tei-q">“the heathen.”</span> Some, again, +of the above objections would seem to have been +suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of +Christian truth. I have thought it worth while to +refer to them, in the hope that the fact of such +questions being raised may serve to impress upon +us these two important points:—(i) the need of +missionaries, at the present day, being not only +men of holy and devoted lives, but also fully equal +in intellectual equipment and culture to our home +clergy; and (ii) the fallacy of trusting to the +circulation of the Bible, as an instrument of +mission work, unless it be accompanied—or rather +preceded—by the teaching of the living agent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must not, however, be imagined that the +obstacles to the progress of the Gospel in Japan are +wholly, or even mainly, of the character I have +referred to. Another great hindrance is most +unquestionably presented in the large number of +competing sects and organizations, which, here as in +other countries where mission work is being carried +on, address the people in the name of Christianity. +It is true that Buddhists themselves are divided +into numerous sects and schools; but between these +there can scarcely be said to be anything of party +animosity and strife. It will, indeed, be heard +with satisfaction that the feeling towards one +another of the various Christian bodies in Japan is, +speaking generally, free from bitterness; and that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +each would appear desirous of doing its own work, +in the wide field before it, without interference +with the efforts of others. <span class="tei tei-q">“The feeling here,”</span> it +was observed to me, <span class="tei tei-q">“is nothing like so bad as it +is at home.”</span><a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> And as in England bigotry and +suspicion are steadily giving place to mutual +toleration and respect, so may we hope that, both +in our colonies and abroad, counsels of charity may +more and more prevail. Still, at the best, so long +as Romanists, Orthodox, Anglicans, and Sectarians +adhere to the positions they at present occupy, so +long must any real unity of action be impossible; +neither can peace be sought by surrender or compromise +of principle. But meanwhile there is, of +course, a lamentable want of compactness among +the converts—as a recent writer in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan +Mail</span></span>, remarked <span class="tei tei-q">“they are more like scattered groups +of soldiers than an army”</span>;—while the perplexity +occasioned to those we are seeking to convince is +terrible and great. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following extract from Miss Bickersteth's +recently-published <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan as we saw it</span></span> (Sampson +Low, 1893), draws an able contrast between the +religious condition of Japan at the present day +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the position of Christianity in the time of +St. Francis Xavier. <span class="tei tei-q">“It was impossible not to be +struck with the present complication of religious +matters in the country as compared with the days +of Xavier. Then, on the one side, there was the +Buddhist-Shinto creed, undermined by no Western +science, still powerful in its attraction for the +popular mind, and presenting a more or less solid +resistance to the foreign missionary; and, on +the other, Christianity as represented by Roman +Catholicism, imperfect truly, but without a rival in +dogma or in ritual. Now the ranks of Buddhist-Shintoism +are hopelessly broken; the superstition +of its votaries is exposed by the strong light of +modern science, and their enthusiasm too often +quenched in the deeper darkness of atheism. +Christianity, though present in much greater force +than in the days of Xavier, is, alas, not proportionately +stronger. The divisions of Christendom +are nowhere more evident than in its foreign +missions to an intellectual people like the Japanese. +The Greek, the Roman, the Anglican churches, the +endless <span class="tei tei-q">‘splits’</span> of Nonconformity, must and do +present to the Japanese mind a bewildering +selection of possibilities in religious truth.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian +progress in Japan—which, although the last +mentioned, is by no means the least serious—I +mean the estimate formed by the natives of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the practical influence of the Christian religion +upon English people and upon other nations professing +it. Applying to Christianity the test of +its results, they urge that it has, at any rate, +only very partially succeeded. For instance, the +Japanese comment upon the fact that numbers +of Englishmen in Japan never attend the services +of their Church; and that the lives of many of +them display a flagrant disregard for the principles +which should regulate the conduct of Christians. +Without, however, denying either the justice of +these charges, or the reasonableness of the mood +which advances them, I think it may be urged +with fairness that the influence of Christianity on +us as a nation cannot rightly be estimated in this +particular way. As a rule, the Englishman can +scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. +Too often he assumes an attitude of insolent +superiority to the people whose guest he is; while +the position in which our countrymen are placed in +a country like Japan—coupled with the freedom +from restraint, so much greater than at home—has, +for reasons which we need not now enter into, its +peculiar difficulties. Neither is it by any means +certain that a Japanese, paying a short visit to +England, will gather any just impression of what +hold Christianity has on us as a people. In all +probability the range of his observations will be +very limited and superficial; his wanderings will +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the +principal cities; while the circle of his acquaintance +will, it is likely, be equally restricted, and +equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, +in saying this, we would seek to excuse ourselves, +or deny that there is far more truth than we could +wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges +brought against us. We would merely submit +that there is another side to the picture which +ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting +as we must, for instance, the great prevalence of +infidelity in our England of to-day, there is yet +to be placed over against it,—and may I not add, +drawing it out into the light?—the increased +activity of the Church during this last half-century, +the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting +herself to meet the needs of her times, the influence +for good that she has not only been in the past, but +remains at the present day, in the nation at large, +and in thousands and thousands of English homes. +<span class="tei tei-q">“By their fruits ye shall know them”</span>: and +Christianity must not and need not deprecate the +application of that test to herself. Only, we would +urge, that is not a fair judgment, which takes +account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ +has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, +in the strength of her Divine Head, she has been +permitted to accomplish. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> +<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">V. Christianity In Japan.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I propose now to place before my readers +some account of the various Missions at work +in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better +from having obtained, in the course of my visit, +a useful table, compiled by the Rev. H. Loomis, of +the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving +statistics of the different organizations up to the +beginning of the year 1893. The plan adopted by +Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three +classes: (1) <span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant Missions,”</span> (2) <span class="tei tei-q">“Catholic +Missions,”</span> and (3) <span class="tei tei-q">“The Greek Church in Japan.”</span> +Under the head of <span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant Missions,”</span> are included +the Church of England, the Episcopal +Church of America, a large number of other +American denominations, the Presbyterian Church +of Scotland, the Swiss Evangelical Protestant +Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., Universalists, +Unitarians and others; while under the +head of <span class="tei tei-q">“Catholic Missions”</span> we find particulars of +only one branch of the Holy Catholic Church—the +Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement +I should have made myself; but, as a matter of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +convenience, we will follow it more or less closely.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> +It is right to add that of the thirty <span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant +Missions”</span> seven are grouped together under the +title of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Church of Christ in Japan,”</span> and work, +it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian +principles. In the same way, the American +Episcopal Church, the Church of England—represented +by both the Church Missionary Society +and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel—and +the Mission of Wyckliffe College, Canada, +are associated together; leaving some twenty sects +working independently.<a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before, however, proceeding to an examination +of Mr. Loomis' table, we must briefly observe the +past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates +from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, +seven years after the country was discovered by +the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were permitted to prosecute their work without +molestation, and considerable progress was being +effected. A deputation of native priests appealed +to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. +With thirty-five religious sects already +represented in Japan, the country, he answered, +might very well find room for a thirty-sixth +religion, viz. Christianity. Presently, however, the +Jesuits being followed by the Dominicans and +Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, +elated by their success, some of the missionaries +began to adopt an attitude of high-handed intolerance +and interference. For the first time in their +history, the Japanese found themselves entangled +in all the turmoil and animosity of religious strife. +In 1587 the first persecution of the Christians took +place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, +however, was disregarded; and the fatal policy +of arrogance and oppression was still persisted in. +Native priests were put to death; Buddhist +monasteries were destroyed; the Inquisition was +set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese embassy +despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make +an act of submission to the spiritual supremacy of +the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, jealous of the +position that was being gained by the Portuguese +traders, accused the Roman propagandists to the +Japanese authorities of aiming at a territorial +ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +carried on by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the +Shogun there seems little doubt. In the massacre +which ensued several thousand Christians were put +to death. <span class="tei tei-q">“Their unflinching devotion compels +our admiration. One may search the grim history +of early Christian martyrology without finding +anything to surpass the heroism of the Roman +Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on stakes made +of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they +yet refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit +priest, Christopher Ferreya, who, after enduring +horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet +in such a way that his head was buried in a hole +in the ground from which air and light were +excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he +might make the sign of recantation. He hung for +four hours, and then made the sign; whereupon, +with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed +the president of the tribunal before which Christians +were brought for condemnation. Then, after +a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in +armed rebellion. After two months they were +forced to surrender, and 37,000 were slaughtered. +Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the +admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being +made in favour of the Chinese and Dutch. For +more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood +beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, +containing, among other prohibitions, the following:—<span class="tei tei-q">‘So +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +long as the sun shall warm the earth, let no +Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let +all know that the King of Spain himself, or the +Christians' God, or the great God of all, if he violate +this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.’</span> +For centuries the name <span class="tei tei-q">‘Christian’</span> would blanch the +cheek and pale the lip. Christianity was remembered +only as an awful scar on the national +annals. But in the Southern Island the smouldering +fire was never quite extinguished; while, as recently +as 1829, six men and an old woman were +crucified at Osaka.”</span><a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the time of the closing of the country to +foreigners, an exception was made of the one port +of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, +when thousands of native Christians were hurled +from a rocky islet into the sea. Here, however, +as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were +the only Europeans permitted to trade; they being +closely confined to the small island of Deshima. +In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they +were subjected to the closest espionage, not being +suffered, under any circumstances, to pass beyond +the narrow limits assigned to them. Several times +in each year they were summoned before the +authorities, and required to tread under foot +the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Faith. Several of the trampling-boards employed +on these occasions are still to be seen at the Ueno +Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, +quieted any qualms of conscience by regarding +their action as amounting to an abnegation, not of +Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until +thirty years ago that intercourse between Japan +and other nations began to be resumed; and that, +after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, +circumstances were brought about which enabled +both Roman Catholics and other Christians to work +without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against +Christianity was formally removed; and the release +from imprisonment and return from banishment +of hundreds of Christians took place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. +It has, indeed, its elements of glorious and heroic +martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on which +few of us can look back without a deep sense of +shame. Let us trust that by this time the people +of Japan have come to understand that the conflict +of their forefathers was not with Christianity, +but rather with Christians who had forgotten +<span class="tei tei-q">“what spirit they were of.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Turning now to the condition of Christian +Missions at the present day, it seems right to +commence with those of the Roman Church. Not +only has the Roman Church in Japan a history +which extends over three hundred years, but it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reckons at the present time considerably more than +double the number of adherents claimed by any +other Christian body. The Roman influence has +been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in +the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted +labours of the missionaries have won over a considerable +portion of the population. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, +three Bishops, seventy-eight missionary, and +fifteen native priests, with over 300 (native) minor +clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, +with 244 congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the +Order of St. Paul de Chartres are stationed in +Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. +Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, +with an average of over 100 children; twenty Industrial +Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a Hospital +for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with +sixty-two inmates, situated at Gotemba, at the +foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant baptisms +for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents +1,337, and Heathen parents 1,166; these, with +2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five <span class="tei tei-q">“conversions +of heretics,”</span> bringing the total of baptisms and conversions +for the year to 5,354. The work that is +being done by the Roman missionaries is commended +on all sides; a prominent feature in their +methods being a consideration for, and adaptation +to, the habits and prejudices of the people, that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +greatly facilitate their progress, especially among +the poor of the country districts. The whole +number of Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as +has been said already, to about 45,000. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, +or Orthodox Russian, Church in Japan; whose +relations with the Church of England are here, as +elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of +a very intimate character. Its head-quarters are +at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, situated on +high ground and in a central position, has recently +been erected. Unfortunately our information in this +case is very incomplete; but assuming the correctness +of the numbers before us, one is struck by the +paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and +three priests. To these must be added eighteen +native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers and +workers. There are in all 219 congregations. +The number of adult baptisms in 1892 is given as +952; and the total membership at the present time +exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they +indicate much activity and progress. The proximity +of Russian territory to Japan—Vladivostock +being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki—is, of +course, a circumstance highly favourable to the +Orthodox Mission. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Coming now to the various bodies arranged by +Mr. Loomis under the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant,”</span> we +will take first the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nippon Sei Kokwai</span></span>, or Church +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Japan, which is the name given to the union +formed by the Missions of the American Episcopal +Church, the Church of England, and the English +Church in Canada. It is, however, only fair to +say that the total number of adherents of the +Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the +number claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as +also by the Churches of the American Board's +Mission. The Missions, then, of the American +Church and of the Church of England are to +a great extent worked independently of each other, +each being under its own Episcopal control; but +at the same time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, +full intercommunion, and are practically one,—often +taking counsel together, and dividing the +various districts by mutual arrangement in such +a way as to make the best use of their resources. +To the American Church belongs the honour of +being the first body to commence Christian work in +Japan in the present century; the Rev. C. M. Williams, +afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, +establishing himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding +at once to translate portions of the Bible +and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit +of English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes +for the study of our language. There are now twelve +missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one female +missionaries; together with seven native clergy and +nineteen unordained workers and preachers. Of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +twenty-seven organized churches only one is +wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms +in 1892 was, adults 208, children fifty-eight; +while the total membership amounts to over 1,400, +with a like number of children receiving instruction +in Sunday Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming +was appointed missionary physician, and arrived +at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an +excellent work. A good deal of secular educational +work is also carried on in connexion with +the mission. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +</p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 100%; text-align: center"><img src="images/map.png" width="700" height="497" alt="Illustration." title="Sketch Map of Japan." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Sketch Map of Japan.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We next come to the work of the Church +Missionary Society, which commenced operations +in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two +missionary and seven native clergy engaged; forty-two +female missionaries, and sixty unordained +preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one +is self-supporting. The number of baptisms in +1892 was, adults 267, children 121; and the total +membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, +with 600 children in Sunday Schools. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel +commenced work in 1873; and has its headquarters +at Tokio. The work of the two Community +Missions, founded by Bishop Bickersteth in +1887, is apparently included in the statistics assigned +to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At +St. Andrew's University Mission, five clergy—all +of whom are University Graduates,—live in community +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with several native students preparing for +Ordination, while at St. Hilda's Mission, a staff of +English ladies is engaged in work, which includes +schools, a hospital, and a home for mission women. +Both these Missions are supported by the <span class="tei tei-q">“Guild of +St. Paul,”</span>—a society which has branches all over +England,—whose occasional papers are full of interesting +information. Several other priests of the +S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; +and these, with seven native ministers, make in +all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The +adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the +membership at the present time is given as 784. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by +the Canadian Church in 1888. At present it +provides only three clergy, who are engaged at +Nagoya, a flourishing commercial city situated +about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. Bishop +Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, +refers to its work in hopeful and appreciative +terms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei +Kokwai will thus be seen to be about 4,300 (with +upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these the +Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At +the same time evidence is by no means lacking +that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly +sound principles and along right lines; and there +are many reasons for believing that, with adequate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +resources, a future awaits it, under God, far exceeding +the calculations that might be suggested +by its present numerical strength. Some of the +readers of these pages may, possibly, be in greater +sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. +than of the C. M. S; but no consideration of this +sort should allow us to be inappreciative of the +splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the +past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. +Its chief centre in Japan is at Osaka, another huge +commercial city, some twenty miles from Kyoto +where there is a considerable European settlement. +Bishop Bickersteth—as does also the American +Bishop, Dr. Williams<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a>—resides +at Tokio, the capital; +where the services at St. Andrew's Church, adjoining +the Episcopal residence, are such as may well +gladden the heart of an English Churchman, who +finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, +I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking +feature of the Nippon Sei Kokwai is presented +in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which +have already been held. The Synods are composed +of clergy and laity, every congregation of twenty +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +persons being entitled to send its representative; +and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, +if ever, attained to by so youthful a Church. +In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is +not to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to +form a <span class="tei tei-q">“branch of the Church of England,”</span> but to +establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic +Christianity which we believe the Church of England +faithfully represents, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Church</span></em>, which may +be committed, as soon as ever circumstances allow, +entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Bishop's Pastoral Letter to his Clergy +(Advent 1892) treats, among other matters, of the +Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament +Criticism,—in the course of his comments upon +which, he makes the quotation, <span class="tei tei-q">“The central object +of our Faith is not the Bible, but our Lord”</span>—and +of the Bishop of Lincoln's case. It exhibits +throughout a tone of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified +prudence, and of Apostolic charity. The +Bishop's observations on the confirmation by the +Privy Council of the Lambeth Judgment will be +read with satisfaction by many:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The principle of allowed variety in matters +of ritual has now been authoritatively recognized. +Such recognition is essential to the welfare of a +great and living Church in our day. Among other +good results which may follow from the decision, +I cannot but hope will be the liberation of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +energies and interests of a great and historic party, +hitherto far too closely confined within the boundaries +of our own country, for wider and more +extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its +own position is now legally secured. Any outstanding +questions of ritual could be speedily +settled by the application to them of the same +principles which are embodied in the recent judgments. +This is so plain that probably no such +decisions will be challenged. May it not then be +hoped that there will shortly be a marked cessation +of controversy at home, as for some years past +we are told there has been in our sister Church +in the United States, and coincidently a far more +determined effort on the part of the whole Church +than has yet been known, inspired and sustained +by the Holy Spirit of Truth, to win the East to the +Faith of Christ?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We come next to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Church of Christ in Japan</span></span>, +another amalgamation of religious bodies; comprising, +in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the +United States, two or three other American sects, +and the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. +By far the greater number of denominations +engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this +is, practically, an American work; the Scotch +Presbyterians being represented by only two missionaries +with a single station, and only joining +the Mission in 1875—fifteen years after two of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +American bodies had commenced their work. The +number of male missionaries in connexion with +this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these +must be added fifty-three native ministers, 100 +female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and +workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no +less than one-third are wholly self-supporting. Baptisms +in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; and +the total present membership amounts to 11,190, +with over 2,000 children in Sunday Schools. The +fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have recently +adopted the Apostles' Creed as their Confession of +Faith, in place of the formularies with which their +bodies have hitherto been associated, is hardly the +occasion for satisfaction that would at first sight +appear; the course in question being, I understand, +to some extent due to the prevalence of +views similar to those held by a large number +of the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall +presently refer. The work of the Presbyterians +however, must be accounted among the most +successful efforts for the evangelization of the +country; while they have had from the beginning +the advantage of being supported by men of +national reputation and position. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We come now to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kumi-ai Churches</span></span> in connexion +with the American Board's Mission; i.e. the +Congregationalists. This work owes its foundation +to a Japanese gentleman,—a Mr. Neesima,—who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was converted to Christianity, whilst on a visit to +America. Its head-quarters are at Kyoto. Starting +in 1869—several years after the Presbyterians, their +relations with whom are of a cordial character,—the +Congregationalists very closely approach them in +numerical strength. The Mission is worked by +twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native +ministers; with fifty-seven female missionaries and +100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches +one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of +the converts belonging to the middle and upper +classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and +sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with +upwards of 6,000 children in Sunday Schools. In +connexion with this Mission is a large college, in +which the greater number of the students are +Christians, and many of these candidates for the +ministry; and mention must also be made of two +hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. +The above figures, without doubt, bear witness to +great energy on the part of the Congregationalist +body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves +compelled to regard them with somewhat modified +satisfaction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly +felt that systems which do not definitely teach +the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene +Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals +from the moral teaching which they impart, are +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not merely negative in tendency and results, but +retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in +Eastern lands.”</span> Such are the weighty words of +Bishop Bickersteth,<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> the occasion which drew them +forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists +of Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:—<span class="tei tei-q">“We +believe (i) in the One God, (ii) in Jesus Christ +who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the +Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) +in the Bible which shews us the way of salvation, +and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in +punishments and rewards given by God according +to our merits, in everlasting life if we are righteous, +and in the Resurrection of the Dead.”</span> Several of +the clauses in this statement are open to grave +objection; but the fact that the second clause was +deliberately adopted in place of the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“in +Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, +Who suffered and died to atone for the sins of the +world”</span>—an alteration which was heartily welcomed +by the Unitarians of Japan—is full of painful +significance. The Bishop, while expressing his +thankfulness that there are large numbers in the +Congregationalist body, who have no share in the +prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing +with others, with whom this is not the case, +nothing can be gained by any attempt at co-operation. +<span class="tei tei-q">“At such times a severe exclusiveness +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +may be the truest exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we +can only very briefly refer. The American Methodist +Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and +twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; +and a total following of nearly 4,000, exclusive of +children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian Methodists +number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist +Missionary Union (U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other +American sects place their total at 500 each. The +German Swiss Protestants number 240; the <span class="tei tei-q">“Universalists”</span> +seventy-eight; and the Society of +Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The Scandinavian +Church, whose mission has only recently commenced +its work, has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians +are represented by two ministers—my only +reason for mentioning these last-named bodies +together being that no further particulars of either +are to hand. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But it is time to be bringing these remarks to +a conclusion. We may, then, declare the total +number in Japan of those professing Christianity +in any form—[I should, by the way, have mentioned +that the number of male converts would +appear to exceed by about one-third the number of +women,]—to be not more than 100,000; while the +entire population of the country is estimated at +from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other words, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not more than one person in every 400 can be said +to be, in any sense, a Christian. I emphasize this +fact, not because I think it discouraging, but +because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause +of Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already +won. That Japan has still great changes and +developments to undergo in the near future scarcely +admits of question. <span class="tei tei-q">“The nation is working out +its spiritual redemption;”</span> and, as Mr. Loomis well +says in his letter to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Christian</span></span> before referred +to, <span class="tei tei-q">“As Japanese society advances, there will be all +the more a place for Christian influence. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">The +social problems of the people can only find solution +through religion.</span></em>”</span> We may well believe and hope +that, as time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ +and of His Church will more and more prevail. So, +too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been +laid, and that some real and steady progress has +been effected; we may hope that more is, even now, +being accomplished by the leaven of influence than +can at present find place in tables and statistics. +And yet, as we look the position boldly in the face, +we must see that elements to occasion anxiety +are by no means lacking; and especially must we +see how much more remains to be done that has +already been achieved. The possibility of some +form of Christianity being adopted as the national +religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which +it is extremely difficult to express an opinion, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +until the proposition assumes a more definite +shape than is likely for some time to be the case. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That both Christianity and Christians are subjected +to searching criticism at the hands of the +more educated natives we have already seen; +while, from time to time, tidings are received of +bitter opposition encountered by those engaged in +the work of evangelization among the poor of the +country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of +accommodation to which we have several times referred, +as forming so striking a feature of the +system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to +maintain its position in Japan, by a re-statement +of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself in +accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, +which have found such favour and acceptance with +the educated classes. At the same time, there is, +without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout +Japan—in many cases most reluctantly arrived at—that +the former ascendency of Buddhism has for +ever passed away. <span class="tei tei-q">“A dull apathy as regards +religion has settled down upon the educated classes +of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to +nothing before modern science and civilization, +and the glimmer of light and truth to which they +pointed has gone as well.”</span><a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> Sometimes, again, +Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms +which encourage us to hope that there are those +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive +step, are still <span class="tei tei-q">“not far from the kingdom of God.”</span> +Take, for examples, these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. +<span class="tei tei-q">“It is the glory of mankind that Jesus lived. +Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did +Christ's teaching come from man, or from above +man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ should +influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and +wisest morality of the world appears. So simple is +it, so easily understood and applied. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Love God +and love man,’</span> as central principles, suffice to +regenerate society and lead men to heaven. Christ's +character and teachings stand for ever.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With a brief reference to one or two further +points suggested by Mr. Loomis' table, I will bring +this, my last chapter, to a close. One of these is +the distinction he draws—and it is a distinction +quite worth drawing—between married and unmarried +missionaries. Of course, the Roman clergy +are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries +of the Orthodox Church; but when we come to the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant Missions,”</span> we find the numbers of +married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and +thirty-seven respectively. Indeed, with the exception +of the Church of England, the Scandinavian +Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal +Church, which supply six each, there is no mission +with more than two unmarried clergy, and several +have not even one. Now it is certain that this is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not the way in which great mission work has been +done in the past; but is the newer way better than +the old? Beyond observing that the presence of +female missionaries is in a very special degree +needed in Japan, be they the wives of the clergy or +not, I will not presume to answer that question +myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record +the opinion, emphatically expressed to me, of one +who has lived in the East for a great many years, +and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory +celibacy of the Roman priesthood. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> he +remarked, <span class="tei tei-q">“far too hastily assumed that the fact of +the married missionary usually bringing another +valuable ally to the work sufficiently determines the +question. But I am convinced that, speaking +generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that +wider opportunities of usefulness are extended. +Nor is it merely that his movements are entirely +free and unhampered—that he is exempt from +domestic obligations and anxieties—that he has +more time for study—and that he is thrown more +in the society of his brother clergy. As a man's +children begin to grow up, educational and other +considerations in connexion with these, urge upon +him the desirability of returning home, with the +result that, just as he has begun to master the +difficulties of language, and to enter into the +thought and habits of the people, his place is taken +by a tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have all his experience to gain.”</span> No doubt, there +is plenty of room for both married and unmarried +clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance +of the married in the case before us +may well serve to suggest the consideration:—Might +not more of that large and possibly increasing +number of unmarried clergy in England be drawn +to take part in a work of such fascinating interest—<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a +work</span></em>,”</span> if I may once more quote the words of +our Bishop in Japan, <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that must be done at once if +it is to be done at all</span></em>.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us +as we examine Mr. Loomis' statistics, is the large +number of <span class="tei tei-q">“dismissals and exclusions”</span> made by +those bodies which supply information under this +head, and amounting in some cases to several +hundreds in a year. That such measures are +not resorted to without grave reason may be +assumed, and that some exercise of discipline is +especially necessary in dealing with a young and +nascent church admits of no dispute. There is +indeed every reason to hope that by far the greater +number of converts are actuated by an intense +sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the +self-sacrifice to which they, in many ways, readily +submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, at +the same time, it is probable that the numbers in +question indicate an even larger proportion of +<span class="tei tei-q">“failures,”</span> than is the case with mission work +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +generally; and that they point not only to losses +through <span class="tei tei-q">“back-sliding,”</span> but to many instances of +insincerity on the part of those professing conversion. +It has been remarked that it does not belong +to the Japanese temperament to <span class="tei tei-q">“take things <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">au +grand serieux</span></span>;”</span> and this characteristic extends to +matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, +who, for some reason or another, thinks it <span class="tei tei-q">“worth +his while”</span> to conform to Christianity for a time, +will have the very smallest scruples about doing so; +and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will +baffle, at any rate for some time, the careful +scrutiny to which candidates are rightly subjected +by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. +The missionaries, I fear, are often imposed on; and +yet—anything, surely, is better than being over +suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to +do is to show these different nations to whom we +go, that Christ and His Church, and we, His +members, do really care for them, alike in things +temporal and eternal. Our Faith, to be really +preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully practised. +And especially in Japan, where the only idea that +such a phrase as <span class="tei tei-q">“eternal life”</span> would commonly +suggest is that of a series of painful and endless +transmigrations, must Christianity be ready to +prove herself man's friend in the things of this life, +if she would be looked to with confidence for the +things that lie beyond. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea01">[pg a01]</span><a name="Pga01" id="Pga01" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> +<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Church Hymns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +New Edition. Containing 658 Hymns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Words Only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition A.</span></span> Long Primer, demy 18mo. +In various bindings from 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> to 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition B.</span></span> Small Pica, small post 8vo. +In various bindings from 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +to 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition C.</span></span> Pearl, medium 32mo. +Paper cover, 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span>; limp cloth, cut flush, +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition D.</span></span> Diamond, medium 32mo. +Limp cloth, cut flush, 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Words And Music. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition E.</span></span> Nonpareil 8vo. +In various bindings from 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +to 5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edition F.</span></span> Long Primer, Imperial 16mo. +In various bindings from 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +to 9<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea02">[pg a02]</span><a name="Pga02" id="Pga02" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Works By Mrs. Rundle Charles, Author Of +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Beatitudes. Thoughts for All Saints' Day. Post 8vo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“By the Mystery of Thy Holy Incarnation.”</span> Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth +boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“By Thy Cross and Passion.”</span> Thoughts on the words spoken +around and on the Cross. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“By Thy Glorious Resurrection and Ascension.”</span> Easter +Thoughts. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“By the Coming of the Holy Ghost.”</span> Thoughts for Whitsuntide. +Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The True Vine. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Great Prayer of Christendom. Thoughts on the Lord's +Prayer. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An Old Story of Bethlehem. One link in the great Pedigree. +Fcap. 4to, with six plates, beautifully printed in colours. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth +boards.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">2s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Joan the Maid, Deliverer of England and France. Demy 8vo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Songs, Old and New. Demy 16mo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ecce Ancilla Domini. Mary the Mother of our Lord. Studies in +the Ideal of Womanhood. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ecce Homo, Ecce Rex. Pages from the Story of the Moral Conquests +of Christianity. Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Three Martyrs of the Nineteenth Century. Studies from the +Lives of Gordon, Livingstone, and Patteson. Crown 8vo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Martyrs and Saints of the First Twelve Centuries. Studies +from the Lives of the Black-letter Saints of the English +Calendar. Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Against the Stream. The Story of an Heroic Age in England. +With eight page woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Conquering and to Conquer. A Story of Rome in the days of +St. Jerome. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Attila and his Conquerors. A Story of the days of St. Patrick +and St. Leo the Great. Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea03">[pg a03]</span><a name="Pga03" id="Pga03" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Early Christian Missions of Ireland, Scotland, and England.</span></span> +Crown 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lapsed, not Lost.</span></span> A Story of Roman Carthage. Crown 8vo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Within the Veil.</span></span> Studies in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Post +8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Book of the Unveiling.</span></span> Studies in the Revelation of St. +John the Divine. Post 8vo. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lady Augusta Stanley.</span></span> Reminiscences. 18mo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Limp cloth.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sketches of the Women of Christendom.</span></span> Crown 8vo. +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Thoughts and Characters.</span></span> Being Selections from the Writings +of Mrs. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Charles</span></span>. Crown 8vo. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cloth boards.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Early Britain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Series has for its aim the presentation of Early Britain at great historic +periods. Each volume is the work of an accredited specialist, and the +whole gives the result of recent critical examinations of our Early Records. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Anglo-Saxon Britain.</span></span> By the late +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Grant Allen</span></span>. With Map. +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Celtic Britain.</span></span> By Professor +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Rhys</span></span>. With two Maps. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Norman Britain.</span></span> By the Rev. W. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Hunt</span></span>. With Map. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Post-Norman Britain.</span></span> By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Henry G. Hewlett</span></span>. With Map. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Roman Britain.</span></span> By the Rev. E. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Conybeare</span></span>. With Map. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Roman Roads in Britain.</span></span> By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Thomas Codrington</span></span>, M.Inst. +C.E., F.G.S. With several Maps. 5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Conversion Of The West. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These are intended to show the condition of the chief races of the West before +they were brought into contact with Christianity; and how their Conversion +was brought about, and the immediate results. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards, 2s. each.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Continental Teutons</span></span>, by the late Very +Rev. C. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Merivale</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The English</span></span>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maclear</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Northmen</span></span>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maclear</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Slavs</span></span>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maclear</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea04">[pg a04]</span><a name="Pga04" id="Pga04" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Dawn Of European Literature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A set of Works designed to present the chief races of Europe as they emerge +out of pre-historic darkness into the light furnished by their earliest recorded +words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Post 8vo, cloth boards, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Anglo Saxon Literature. By the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Earle</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +French Literature. By the late <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gustave Masson</span></span>, B.A. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Slavonic Literature. By W. R. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Morfill</span></span>, M.A. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Greek Epic. By George C. W. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Warr</span></span>, M.A. +3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Fathers For English Readers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A Series of Monograms on the Chief Fathers of the Church, the Fathers selected +being centres of influence at important periods of Church History, and in +important spheres of action. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Boniface</span></span>. By the Rev. Canon +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gregory Smith</span></span>. 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Clement of Alexandria</span></span>. By the +Rev. F. R. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Montgomery +Hitchcock</span></span>, B.D. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Leo the Great</span></span>. By the Right +Rev. C. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gore</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Gregory the Great</span></span>. By the +late Rev. J. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Barmby</span></span>, B.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Ambrose</span></span>: his Life, +Times, and Teaching. By +the Rev. R. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Thornton</span></span>, +D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Athanasius</span></span>: his Life +and Times. By the Rev. R. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Wheler Bush</span></span>. +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span>. 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Augustine</span></span>. By the late +Rev. E. L. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Cutts</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Basil the Great</span></span>. By the +Rev. R. T. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Smith</span></span>, B.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Bernard</span></span>: Abbot of +Clairvaux, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1091-1153. +By Rev. S. J. Eales. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span>. 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Jerome</span></span>. By the late Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Edward L. Cutts</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Hilary of Poitiers, and +Saint Martin of Tours.</span></span> +By the Rev. J. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Gibson +Cazenove</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint John of Damascus</span></span>. By +the Rev. J. H. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Lupton</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Saint Patrick</span></span>: his Life and +Teaching. By the Rev. E. J. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Newell</span></span>, M.A. +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span>. 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Synesius of Cyrene</span></span>, Philosopher +and Bishop. By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Alice Gardner</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Apostolic Fathers</span></span>. By +the Rev. Canon <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Scott +Holland.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Defenders of the Faith</span></span>; +or, The Christian Apologists +of the Second and Third +Centuries. By the Rev. F. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Watson</span></span>, D.D. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Venerable Bede</span></span>. By the +Right Rev. G. F. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Browne</span></span>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea05">[pg a05]</span><a name="Pga05" id="Pga05" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The History Of The Ancient +Peoples Of The Classic East. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Maspero</span></span>. Edited by the Rev. Professor +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sayce</span></span>. +Translated by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">M. L. McClure</span></span>. Each volume contains Maps, +coloured Plates, and numerous other Illustrations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Demy 4to, cloth, bevelled boards. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Volume I. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Dawn of Civilization: Egypt and Chaldaea.</span></span> +Fourth Edition. 24<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span>; half-morocco, 48<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Volume II. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria, and +Assyria.</span></span> 25<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span>; half-morocco, 50<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Volume III. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Passing of the Empires, 850 +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: 700">b.c.</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700">—330 </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: 700">b.c.</span></span></span> +25<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span>; half-morocco, 50<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ancient History From The +Monuments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Assyria, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh.</span></span> +By the late <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">George Smith</span></span>, of the British Museum. A New +and Revised Edition, by the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sayce</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sinai, from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty to the Present +Day.</span></span> By the late <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Henry S. Palmer</span></span>. A New Edition, +revised throughout by the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sayce</span></span>. With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Babylonia (The History of).</span></span> By the late +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">George Smith</span></span>. +Edited and brought up to date by the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sayce</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Persia, from the Earliest Period to the Arab Conquest.</span></span> By +the late <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. S. W. Vaux, M.A.</span></span> A New and Revised Edition, +by the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Sayce</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-weight: 700">“</span><span style="font-weight: 700">Higher Criticism</span><span style="font-weight: 700">”</span></span><span style="font-weight: 700"> and the Verdict of the Monuments.</span></span> +By the Rev. Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. H. Sayce</span></span>. Demy 8vo. Buckram, +bevelled boards, 7<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea06">[pg a06]</span><a name="Pga06" id="Pga06" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Chief Ancient Philosophies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Series deals with the chief systems of Ancient Thought, not merely as dry +matters of History, but as having a bearing on Modern Speculation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Neoplatonism.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">C. Bigg, D.D.</span></span> +3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Platonism.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Thomas B. Strong, +M.A.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Epicureanism.</span></span> By the late Professor +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">William Wallace</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Stoicism.</span></span> By Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. W. Capes</span></span>, +Fellow of Hertford College. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Aristotelianism.</span></span> The Ethics of Aristotle. By the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">I. Gregory Smith</span></span>. The Logical Treatises, the Metaphysics, +the Psychology, the Politics. By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. Grundy</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Diocesan Histories. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Series furnishes a perfect Library of English Ecclesiastical History. Each +volume is complete in itself, and the possibility of repetition has been carefully +guarded against. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Bath and Wells.</span></span> By the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. Hunt</span></span>. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Canterbury.</span></span> By the late Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">R. C. Jenkins.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Carlisle.</span></span> By the late <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Richard +S. Ferguson.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Chester.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rupert +H. Morris.</span></span> With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Chichester.</span></span> By the late Very +Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. R. W. Stephens.</span></span> +With Map and Plan. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Durham.</span></span> By Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. L. Low.</span></span> +With Map and Plan. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hereford.</span></span> By the late Rev. +Canon <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Phillpott.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lichfield.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. +Beresford.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Lincoln.</span></span> By the late Rev. Canon +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">E. Venables</span></span>, and the late +Ven. Archdeacon <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Perry</span></span>. +With Map. 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Llandaff.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">E. J. +Newell, M.A.</span></span> With Map. +3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Norwich.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. +Jessopp, D.D.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Oxford.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">E. Marshall.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Peterborough.</span></span> By the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">G. A. Poole, M.A.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Rochester.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. J. +Pearman.</span></span> With Map. 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Salisbury.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. H. +Jones.</span></span> With Map. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Sodor and Man.</span></span> By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. W. +Moore, M.A.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. Asaph.</span></span> By the Ven. Archdeacon +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Thomas</span></span>. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. David's.</span></span> By the Rev. Canon +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Bevan</span></span>. With Map. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Winchester.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. +Benham, B.D.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Worcester.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">I. +Gregory Smith</span></span> and Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Phipps Onslow</span></span>. 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">York.</span></span> By the Rev. Canon +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Ornsby, M.A., F.S.A.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea07">[pg a07]</span><a name="Pga07" id="Pga07" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Non-Christian Religious Systems. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Buddhism</span></span>: being a sketch of the Life and Teachings of Gautama, +the Buddha. By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">T. W. Rhys Davids</span></span>, M.A., Ph.D. With +Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Buddhism in China.</span></span> By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">S. Beal.</span></span> +With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Christianity and Buddhism: a Comparison and a Contrast.</span></span> By +the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">T. Sterling Berry, D.D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Confucianism and Taouism.</span></span> By Professor <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Robert +K. Douglas</span></span>, of the British Museum. With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Hinduism.</span></span> By the late Sir +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">M. Monier-Williams, M.A., D.C.L.</span></span> With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Islam and its Founder.</span></span> By <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. W. H. +Stobart.</span></span> With Map. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Islam as a Missionary Religion.</span></span> By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Charles R. Haines.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Studies of Non-Christian Religions.</span></span> By +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Eliot Howard.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Coran:</span></span> its Composition and Teaching, and the Testimony it +bears to the Holy Scriptures. By Sir <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">William Muir, K.C.S.I.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Religion of the Crescent, or Islam:</span></span> its Strength, its Weakness, +its Origin, its Influence. By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. St. Clair +Tisdall, M.A.</span></span> 4<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Colonial Church Histories. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Diocese of Mackenzie River</span></span>, by the Right Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">W. C. Bompas, +D.D.</span></span>, Bishop of the Diocese. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">New Zealand</span></span>, by the late Very Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Henry Jacobs, D.D.</span></span>, Dean +of Christchurch. Containing the Dioceses of Auckland, Christchurch, +Dunedin, Nelson, Waiapu, Wellington and Melanesia. 5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">History of the Church in Eastern Canada and Newfoundland</span></span>, +by the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. Langtry.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Church in the West Indies</span></span>, +by the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. Caldecott. +B.D.</span></span> 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Story of the Australian Church,</span></span> +by the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">E. Symonds.</span></span> +2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagea08">[pg a08]</span><a name="Pga08" id="Pga08" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Early Church Classics. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Small post 8vo, cloth boards, 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">A Homily of Clement of Alexandria</span></span>, entitled, Who is the Rich +Man that is Being Saved? By Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">P. Mordaunt Barnard.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">Bishop Sarapion's Prayer-Book</span></span>: An Egyptian Pontifical dated +probably about 350-356 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> Translated from the Edition of +Dr. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">G. Wobbermin</span></span>. With Introduction, Notes, and Indices, +by the Right Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">John Wordsworth, D.D.</span></span> +1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. Cyprian on the Lord's Prayer.</span></span> An English Translation +with Introduction. By the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">T. Herbert Bindley, +M.A., D.D.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna.</span></span> By the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Blomfield Jackson, M.A.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles.</span></span> Translated into English, +with Introduction and Notes, by the Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Charles Bigg, D.D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Epistle of St. Clement, Bishop of Rome.</span></span> By the Rev. +John <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A. F. Gregg, M.A.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">St. Augustine's Treatise on the City of God.</span></span> +By Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">F. R. M. +Hitchcock, M.A., B.D.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Epistle of the Gallican Churches</span></span>: Lugdunum and Vienna. +With an Appendix containing Tertullian's Address to Martyrs +and the Passion of St. Perpetua. Translated, with Introduction +and Notes, by Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">T. Herbert Bindley, D.D.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Epistles of St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch.</span></span> +By Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">J. H. +Srawley, M.A.</span></span> In two volumes. 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> each. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Liturgy of the Eighth Book of </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-weight: 700">“</span><span style="font-weight: 700">the Apostolic Constitutions,</span><span style="font-weight: 700">”</span></span></span> +commonly called the Clementine Liturgy. Translated +into English, with Introduction and Notes, by Rev. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">R. H. +Cresswell, M.A.</span></span> 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> 6<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-weight: 700">The Shepherd of Hermas.</span></span> By the Rev. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">C. Taylor, D.D.</span></span>, Master +of St. John's College, Cambridge. Vol. I. 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.</span></span> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> + <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Edwin Arnold's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seas and Lands</span></span>, chap. xxvii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charles II's queen, +it will be remembered, was Katharine of +Braganza.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This rendering +seems preferable to the more usual <span class="tei tei-q">“Way of the +Gods.”</span> The term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Polytheism</span></em> is not, strictly speaking, applicable +to Shinto.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One +of the great temples at Shiba, Tokio, was burnt by the +Buddhists to prevent its falling into the hands of the Shinto +priests. It may be mentioned here, as an instance of the liberal +feeling of the present (Shinto) government, that one of this same +group of buildings was lent for the Church of England services, +before St. Andrew's church was built. It is the old nobility +who have been throughout the uncompromising opponents of +Christianity, and indeed of all change; and the most zealous supporters +of Buddhism.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eden's Japan, Historical and Descriptive.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even +an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the +lowest estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole +mass of Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that +in China, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number</span></em>, +both Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with +Buddhism. See Rhys Davids' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buddhism</span></span>, chap. I +(S.P.C.K.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thibet.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light of Asia</span></span>, +i. 142, and vi. 688.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures +on Buddhism</span></span>, pp. 62-3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legends +and Theories of the Buddhists</span></span>, p. 187.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prof. Max Müller, however +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hibbert Lectures</span></span>, 1878, p. 134 +note), gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> as the year of Buddha's +death.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The Buddhists +look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked upon +the Cross.”</span>—Rhys Davids' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buddhism</span></span>, +p. 37 note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is, no doubt, owing +largely to the influence of Buddhism that the passion of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anger</span></em> is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, +a Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would +consider it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray +itself.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Miss Isabella Bird +(Mrs. Bishop), authoress of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unbeaten Tracks +in Japan</span></span>, well describes the impression produced on the spectator +by the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in +Japan:—<span class="tei tei-q">“He is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, +he is not thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,—that is +all; his work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is +the Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given +opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, and, +as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from the +forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize +Illumination.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History +of the Jewish Church</span></span>, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This +is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">must</span></em> be true, +in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to minister +to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so dissimilarly +circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As we +proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of Buddhism +and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have suggested to us, +more than once, those different aspects of Christianity, which have +been the occasion of all our <span class="tei tei-q">“schools of thought,”</span> and, alas, of how +many of our divisions!</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Those who +would investigate the subject further are referred to +Alabaster's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Modern Buddhist</span></span> (Trübner, 1870).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For it is men only +who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy of attaining to it, +have changed their sex.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Jodo</span></span> means the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Pure Land.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Avalokitesvara=<span class="tei tei-q">“The +Lord who looks down from heaven.”</span> +The female form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to +the idea of the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate +nature; just as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother +has, for a like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives +of her Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when +conversing with Europeans, giving the name of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Kwanyin</span></span> +to the statues of the Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Chinese</span></span>, chap, xiv.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have +not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce +the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion +than a system of philosophy—political, social, moral. It may, however, +be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly esteemed +in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had a considerable +influence in forming the thought and character of its people. +The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned with the +things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being mainly +spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The great +Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University of +Japan. Now,—so entirely have the Western systems of education +supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,—the building has been +converted into a Museum.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Charcoal-brazier.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The +only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of +the lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the +symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and +though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, therefore, +men would but take it as their model, they would escape all the +contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, has +a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the assistance +of Buddha.”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unbeaten Tracks in Japan</span></span>, Vol. i. p. +292.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, +named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the +following extract from the speech of the Bishop of +Exeter at the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:—<span class="tei tei-q">“If you had +been asked to sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian +Missions, and when itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic +work among the nations of the far East, what, I ask, +would be the special characteristics of the land and people that you +would have desired? Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, +you would have said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Give us islands, inseparably and for ever +united, give us islands which can hold their sea-girt independence, +and yet near enough to the mainland to exert influence there.’</span> Such +is Japan—the Land of the Rising Sun. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Give us a hardy race, not +untrained in war by land and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when +won for Christ, fights best under the banner of the Cross—for we +are of the Church militant here on earth: give us brave men;’</span> +and such are the descendants of the old Daimios and two-sworded +Samurai of Japan. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Give us an industrial race, not idlers nor +loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but men who delight in +toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering craftsmen, shrewd men of +business;’</span> and such are the Japanese agriculturists, who win two +harvests a year from their grateful soil—such are the handicraftsmen +there, whose work is the envy of Western lands; such are the merchants, +who hold their own with us in commerce. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Give us men +of culture, with noble traditions, but not so wedded to the past that +they will not grasp the present and salute the future;’</span> and such +are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, who, with a marvellous +power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to engraft their +own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness their +Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active operation; +witness their museums and hospitals; witness their colleges +and universities. <span class="tei tei-q">‘But,’</span> you would also have said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘give us a race +whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, not +tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, but +who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;’</span> and +such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘give us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that +the religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are +therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;’</span> and such are the +thoughtful races of Japan.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on +this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Spirits in Prison</span></span>. The Christian can scarcely doubt that +Gautama has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,—knowing +at last the Name whereby he has been saved,—and has +heard from the Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be +bestowed on all men of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever +land, who have <span class="tei tei-q">“worked righteousness,”</span> and have faithfully +responded to whatever measure of light and opportunity has been +accorded them by God.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I may +observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, +but of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Athanasian Creed</span></span>, was quoted to me in this +connexion by a Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point +out to him,—how far convincingly I cannot say,—what at the +present day at least is generally recognized amongst us; that +for the Christian Church to warn her own children, in terms the +most emphatic just because the most loving, against becoming +entangled in the deadly errors prevalent at the time when the Creed +was drawn up, is a thing wholly distinct from passing any sentence +of eternal condemnation on, or, indeed, expressing any opinion as to +the future state of, such as live and die without ever having been +brought to a knowledge of the Faith. I added, of course, that any +acquaintance with the claims of Christianity is a responsibility for +which we believe all will have to give account.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I doubt if +the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite +realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and +intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits +of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement +that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of +controversy as still remain.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +the course of a letter appearing in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Christian</span></span> of April 20, +1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">forty thousand</span></em> +Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the +country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be +founded.”</span> But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership +of <span class="tei tei-q">“Protestant Missions”</span> at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church +at 20,300, and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty +thousand of these does Mr. Loomis—presumably—refuse the title of +<span class="tei tei-q">“Christian”</span>? and are we justified in acting thus towards any who +believe in the Holy Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the +Saviour of the World, Very God and Very Man?</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even Mr. Loomis' +list does not appear to be exhaustive! The +<span class="tei tei-q">“Plymouth Brethren,”</span> e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The above is +an abridgement of a passage in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conquests of the +Cross</span></span> (Messrs. Cassell & Co.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the course +of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim +has been raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams +continuing to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two +new Anglican Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of +Kyushu and Yezo respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, +Examining Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been +connected with the C. M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pastoral +Letter to his Clergy</span></span>, Advent, 1892.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Occasional +Paper</span></span>, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893.</dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader17" id="rightpageheader17"></a><a name="pgtoc18" id="pgtoc18"></a><a name="pdf19" id="pdf19"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">April 24, 2008 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by David King and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously made available by + The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader20" id="rightpageheader20"></a><a name="pgtoc21" id="pgtoc21"></a><a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 28598-h.html or + 28598-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/8/5/9/28598/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/2/8/5/9/28598/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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<7B07890466153BC28A8C0E8EF52E9735>] >> +startxref +1457886 +%%EOF diff --git a/28598-pdf.zip b/28598-pdf.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..66485cd --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-pdf.zip diff --git a/28598-tei.zip b/28598-tei.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae23113 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei.zip diff --git a/28598-tei/28598-tei.tei b/28598-tei/28598-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..716194f --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/28598-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,4444 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>Religion in Japan</title> + <author><name reg="Cobbold, George">George A. Cobbold, B.A.</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>April 24, 2009</date> + <idno type="etext-no">28598</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="la"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + <language id="ja"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2009-04-24">April 24, 2008</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by David King and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously made available by + The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Religion in Japan:</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">Shintoism—Buddhism—Christianity.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">George A. Cobbold, B.A.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Pembroke College, Oxford</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">With Illustrations.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Printed Under The Direction of the Tract Committee.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">London:</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge,</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Northumberland Avenue, W.C.; 43, Queen Victoria Street, E.C.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Brighton: 129, North Street</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">New York: E. S. Gorham</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1905</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Introductory.</head> + +<p> +It may well be questioned whether, in the course +of a like period of time, any country has ever +undergone greater transitions, or made more +rapid strides along the path of civilization +than has Japan during the last quarter of a century. +A group of numerous islands, situated on the +high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic +across the Pacific, between the Eastern and Western +hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding +Great Britain and Ireland,—Japan, until thirty +years ago, was a <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>terra incognita</foreign> to the rest +of the world; exceeding even China in its conservatism +and exclusiveness. And now, within +a space of some five-and-twenty years, such changes +have come about as to have given birth to the +expression,—<q>the transformation of Japan.</q> The +more conspicuous of these changes are summed +up by a recent writer in the following words:—<q>New +and enlightened criminal codes have +been enacted; the methods of judicial procedure +have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient +systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +of national education have been organized; an +army and a navy modelled after Western patterns +have been formed; the finances of the Empire have +been placed on a sound basis; railways, roads, and +harbours have been constructed; an efficient mercantile +marine has sprung into existence; the jail +system has been radically improved; an extensive +scheme of local government has been put into +operation; a competitive civil service has been +organized; the whole fiscal system has been revised; +an influential and widely-read newspaper press has +grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government +by parliament has been substituted for +monarchical absolutism.</q><note place='foot'>Sir Edwin Arnold's +<hi rend='italic'>Seas and Lands</hi>, chap. xxvii.</note> At the present day, an +Englishman travelling in Japan is constantly +meeting numbers of his countrymen, intent on +either business or pleasure; while at all the principal +cities and places of resort, handsome new +hotels, fitted in Western style, are to be found. The +Mikado may be seen driving through his Capital +in a carriage that would not be out of place in the +Parks of London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies +European dress is <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>de rigueur</foreign>. English is +taught in all the better-class schools, and at the +Universities the works of such authors as Bacon, +Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart Mill, Herbert +Spencer, are in constant request with the +students. In short, on every side evidence is +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +afforded, that be it for better or for worse, the old +order is fast changing and giving place to new. +</p> + +<p> +The circumstances which have brought about +these wonderful changes can only be very briefly +indicated here. It was towards the middle of the +sixteenth century that Japan first came into contact +with the Western world; the first traders to arrive +being the Portuguese, who were followed some sixty +years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few +English ships. To all of these alike a hospitable +reception appears to have been accorded; nor is +there any doubt that Japanese exclusiveness was +a thing of subsequent growth, and that it was +based only on a sincere conviction that the nation's +well-being and happiness would be best consulted +by refusing to have dealings with the outer world. +And indeed, that the Japanese should have arrived +at this decision is by no means to be wondered +at; their first experience of foreign intercourse +having been singularly unfortunate. The unhappy +breach, which eventually led to Japan entirely +closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would +seem, due partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance +and general interference adopted by certain of the +Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time +had arrived in the country: and partly to the +insinuations made by the Dutch that the Portuguese +were aiming at territorial aggrandizement. +Anyhow, in 1624, Japan was entirely closed to +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +foreign trade, save for some concessions,—accompanied +by the severest restrictions,—permitted to +the Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, +and no natives to leave, the empire; the missionaries +were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited +under pain of death. The Japanese, as has been +said, <q>suspected everybody and shut out the +world.</q> Previous to this crisis the English had +retired; but when, in 1673, our country sought to +resume friendly relations, the connexion existing +between the English and Portuguese courts proved +an insuperable obstacle.<note place='foot'>Charles II's queen, +it will be remembered, was Katharine of +Braganza.</note> Subsequent overtures +made in 1849, were courteously but firmly rejected; +though the period of Japan's isolation was, as later +events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the +Government of the United States despatched a fleet +across the Pacific, under the command of Commodore +Perry, to insist upon the surrender of +a policy which, it was urged, no one nation of the +world had a right to adopt towards the rest. +Whether the arguments with which this position +was advanced would of themselves have prevailed, +is impossible to say; but since it was evident that +should words fail, sterner measures would be +resorted to, Japan had no choice but to submit. +Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with the +United States, and subsequently with England +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +and other European powers; by virtue of which +a few ports were grudgingly opened, and Japanese +subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions +with the outside world. For the first few +years, it is certain that a strong feeling of suspicion +and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in +1868 events occurred which brought about a complete +change in the whole situation. For some +six hundred years a dual system of government +had existed in Japan. On the one hand, was the +Mikado, supposed to trace a lineage of unbroken +descent from the gods, and accorded a veneration +semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of +Kyoto, with such powers of administration as he +still retained confined to matters of religion and +education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, +or Tycoon, the acknowledged head of a feudalism, +which, while nominally recognizing the Mikado's +authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and +really governed the country. But in 1868, the +altered circumstances in which Japan found herself +brought about a revolution. The ancient nobility +were filled with indignation and disgust at the +Tycoon so far violating Japanese tradition as to +enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, +as a consequence of this rupture, the Shogunate, +whose power had for some time been waning, +completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to +imperial power, and at once entered upon a policy +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +which has been consistently adhered to, and received +with favour by the people generally, who +had grown impatient of the restraint which environed +them. That policy may be termed the +Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have +the explanation of the Japan of to-day. +</p> + +<p> +It is not surprising that the interest excited +in England, with regard to a country which has +experienced such remarkable changes, should be +of the greatest—especially when it is remembered +in how large a degree English influence has contributed +to produce them. We may be certain, +also, that the still further developments the future +has in store, will be followed in our own country +with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, +in these days of so great fashion and facility for +travelling, increasing numbers of English people +should avail themselves of the opportunity of +exploring a country so entirely unique, and so +rich in its attractions of nature and of art. These +circumstances have combined to call into existence +a large number of books on Japan, from which +any, who are unable to visit it in person, may +obtain as good an idea as is possible by reading +of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed +it is by no means easy for any writer now to +fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in which he +does not find himself forestalled. That, however, +on which, so far as I understand, least has been +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +written, is precisely that towards which my own +main attention was directed from the time of my +leaving England, and throughout the period of +my visit to the country,—namely, the <emph>religious</emph> +aspect. That the following pages must be very +imperfect in the statement they supply, I am well +aware; and that, despite my efforts to obtain +trustworthy information, they will not prove free +from inaccuracy or mistake is extremely probable. +But I was induced to enter upon their preparation +by a series of circumstances that appeared to +favour such a task, and need not be specified here. +For the material supplied to me, however, by one +kind friend in particular, without whose assistance +these articles would never have been attempted, +I must express my special obligation. I would +gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty +to do so without obtaining his permission, which +I have not, at the time of writing, the opportunity +of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted +on the subject, I must acknowledge my great +indebtedness to Messrs. Chamberlain and Mason's +excellent <hi rend='italic'>Handbook for Japan</hi> (Murray, 1891); +and to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel's <hi rend='italic'>Lectures on Buddhism</hi> +(Trübner, 1871), given me by the author, at +the close of a most interesting day spent under his +guidance. The sketch Map of Japan is inserted by +the kind permission of the <q>Guild of St. Paul.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>November, 1893.</hi> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>I. Shintoism.</head> + +<p> +When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, +Buddhism was introduced into Japan from China, +by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term +by which the ancient indigenous religion of the +country might be distinguished from the new +importation. The term thus adopted was <foreign rend='italic'>Shinto</foreign>, +or <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Kami-no-michi</foreign>; the former being a Chinese +word, and the latter its Japanese equivalent. The +meaning of either, in English, is the <q>Way of the +Genii, or Spirits.</q><note place='foot'>This rendering +seems preferable to the more usual <q>Way of the +Gods.</q> The term <emph>Polytheism</emph> is not, strictly speaking, applicable +to Shinto.</note> It will, accordingly, be seen +that the <emph>word</emph> <q>Shinto</q> has only been in use for +some thirteen centuries, while the creed it designates +claims to trace its origin from the remotest antiquity. +Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us +back not merely to the earliest annals of Japanese +history, but to the fabulous legends of a mythological +period. The history of Japan is commonly +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +reckoned to commence with the accession of the +Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which is given +as February 11, 660 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>; and when, in 1889, the +new Constitution was promulgated, the anniversary +of this event was the day selected—the idea +evidently being to confirm the popular belief in +the continuity of the country's history. This +Jimmu Tenno—accounted by the Japanese their +first human sovereign—is supposed to have been +descended from Ama-terasu, the sun-goddess, who +was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator +of Japan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification +in which the Emperors of Japan have ever +been held. It is, then, the countless heroes and +demi-gods of the mythological age referred to—the +children of Izanagi reigning over Japan, generation +after generation, for many thousands of years—that +are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; +for while it is usual to speak of Shintoism as +being a combination of ancestor-worship and +nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of +these elements was largely due to the contact of +Japan with the Taouism of China, and with metaphysical +Buddhism. Thus the essential principle +of Shintoism, it will be seen, is closely akin to that +filial piety, which forms so conspicuous a feature +in the religious, political, and social life of China, +and which—deserving as it is, in many ways, of +respect and admiration—presents, when carried +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +to excess, so vast a hindrance to development and +progress. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Shintoism,</q> in the words of Diayoro Goh, +Chancellor of the Japanese Consulate General in +London, <q>originated in the worship offered by +a barbarous people to the mythological persons of +its own invention.</q> To speak accurately, it is not +so much a religion as patriotism exalted to the +rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country's +heroes and benefactors of every age, legendary and +historical, ancient and more recent; the spirits of +these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven +with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to +a great extent obscuring it, is a worship of the +personified forces of nature; expressing itself often +in the most abject superstition, and, until lately, also +in that grosser symbolism with which the religion of +Ancient Egypt abounded. This latter feature was +widely prevalent in Japan at the time that the +country was first opened to foreigners; but after +the Revolution in 1868, it was everywhere suppressed. +It would appear that the personal cleanliness +for which the Japanese, as a nation, are +celebrated, had its origin in the idea of the purification +of the body symbolizing the cleansing +of the soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of +way, Shintoism would seem to recognize a future +state of bliss or misery, for which the present life +is a period of probation. Practically, however, +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +this is the only world with which Shintoism +concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of +morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being +accounted sufficient guides. It provides neither +public worship, nor sermons; while its application +is limited to subjects of the Mikado. <q>It is the +least exacting of all religions.</q> When this is +once understood, there ceases to be anything +surprising in the fact of two religions—of which +Shintoism was one, and the other a creed so +accommodating as Buddhism—running, side by +side, for centuries in the same country, and being +professed simultaneously by the same people, until +the two were so closely interwoven that it became +scarcely possible to distinguish their respective +elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt +was made to restore Shintoism to its primitive +simplicity, and to mould it into a philosophical +system which might minister to the higher aspirations +of humanity. But the movement was a failure, +and the Ryobu-Shinto, or <q>double religion,</q>—the +combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and +Buddhism—continued as before. It was only so +lately as the year 1868 that any important change +took place in the religious history of Japan. In +that year, Shintoism—for reasons wholly political—was +adopted as the State, or <q>established</q> religion; +Buddhism having always been the religion favoured +by the Shogunate, and the ancient nobility whom +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +the Shogun represented. Upon this, every temple +was required to declare itself either Shinto or +Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments +peculiar to the discarded cult, whichever +that might be. That no little excitement and +dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be +readily understood; especially when we bear in +mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist and +Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating +in the same buildings and at the same altars.<note place='foot'>One +of the great temples at Shiba, Tokio, was burnt by the +Buddhists to prevent its falling into the hands of the Shinto +priests. It may be mentioned here, as an instance of the liberal +feeling of the present (Shinto) government, that one of this same +group of buildings was lent for the Church of England services, +before St. Andrew's church was built. It is the old nobility +who have been throughout the uncompromising opponents of +Christianity, and indeed of all change; and the most zealous supporters +of Buddhism.</note> +A grant of some £60,000 a year was made by the +Government for the maintenance of the Shinto +temples and shrines, which are said to number in +all about 98,000, and to be dedicated to no less +than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, +however, Shintoism has lost the greater part of the +importance into which it was brought at the time +of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it +is supported out of the imperial revenues, and +that the presence of its principal officials is required +at certain of the state functions, its general position +has in no way improved. The people still practise +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +the observances of both religions alike; the only +difference being that, to effect this, they have now +to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born +child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both +Shinto and Buddhist temples, for the purpose of +solemn dedication. Another of the changes brought +about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted +by Buddhist priests, as was the case until 1868, +the dead are now buried by either Shinto or +Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of +the many signs which indicate that Shintoism has +well nigh run its course, not the least remarkable +was the announcement made last year (1892) by +the Government itself, to the effect that its rites +were to be regarded as simply traditional and +commemorative, and devoid of any real religious +significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds +and consciences of Christians in Japan was, as +might be supposed, very great. +</p> + +<p> +Of the various sects the <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Zhikko</foreign>,—founded +1541 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>,—is, perhaps, the most influential. This +sect—as indeed do Shintoists generally—recognizes one +eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; +and here—as in other heathen religions—we +find vague references to a Trinity engaged in +the work of Creation. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/shinto-priests.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Group of Shinto Priests With Torii.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +Despite the dissociation of the two religions, +many of the Shinto temples still retain traces of +the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, +which, however, is often found combined with +great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists +only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove +of trees; but, even in the case of large temples +with a complete group of buildings, the architecture +is extremely plain, the material employed +being unornamented white wood with a thatch +of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple +grounds is always through gateways, called +<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Torii</foreign>; +these are made sometimes of stone, but more +properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted +tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal +beam beneath. Near the entrance are +commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, +which are supposed to act as guardians. The +principal shrine, or <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Honsha</foreign>, is situated at the +further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided +by a railing into an ante-room and an inner +sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an altar is +erected, on which, however, no images or adornments +are seen, but simply offerings of rice, fruit, +wine, &c. Above the altar, in a conspicuous +position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in +a box beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. +These three,—the mirror, the sword, and the stone,—constitute +the Japanese regalia, and they are all +connected with the early legends. One of the traditions +respecting the sacred mirror deserves quotation. +</p> + +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> + +<p> +<q>When the time was come that Izanagi and his +consort should return together to the celestial +regions, he called his children together, bidding +them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his +last wishes. He then committed to them a disc of +polished silver, bidding them each morning place +themselves on their knees before it, and there see +reflected on their countenances the impress of any +evil passions deliberately indulged; and again each +night carefully to examine themselves, that their +last thoughts might be after the happiness of that +higher world whither their parents had preceded +them.</q> The legend goes on to relate with what +faithfulness <q>the children of Izanagi, and afterwards +their descendants, carried out these injunctions; +erecting an altar of wood to receive the sacred +mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,—and +how, as a reward for their obedience and devotion, +they became in their turn, the spirits of good, the +undying Kami.</q><note place='foot'>Eden's Japan, Historical and Descriptive.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Another of the most common of the Shinto +emblems is a slim wand of unpainted wood, called +<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Gohei</foreign>, to which strips of white +paper—originally they were of cloth—are attached. These are +thought to attract the deities, and are held in great +veneration. +</p> + +<p> +Leaving the principal shrine, and proceeding to +make the tour of the grounds, the visitor comes, in +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> +turn, to the buildings where the business arrangements +of the temple are transacted, and where the +priests, in some cases, reside; to smaller shrines and +oratories; to cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important +temples is found a long covered platform, +called the <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kagura-do</foreign>, where, on festivals and +special occasions, a number of girls—those I saw at Nara +were still quite children—perform the +<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kagura</foreign>, or +sacred dance. The dancing is in honour of the +divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and +commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological +period. In the grounds of Shinto and +Buddhist temples alike are frequently found +numerous stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive +offerings, and lighted on any great occasions. +</p> + +<p> +It has already been remarked that Shintoism has +nothing corresponding to our public worship; but +every morning and evening the priests—whose +office seems held in no particular sanctity, and who +are at liberty, at any time, to adopt a more secular +calling—perform a service before the altar, vested +in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and +confined at the waist by a girdle. The service +consists of the presentation of offerings and of the +recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. +The devotions of the people are remarkable for +their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, +on arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +a gong, to engage the attention of the deity he +desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest +possible value on to the matting within the +sanctuary rails; makes one or two prostrations; +and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his +patron that his business with him is over, retires—it +not being considered necessary to give to the +petition any verbal expression. The making of +pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent +place in the Shinto system, and though of late +years the number of pilgrims has considerably +decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the +great temple of the sun-goddess at Ise—the <q>Mecca +of Japan,</q>—and other celebrated shrines. The chief +object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of +<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>O-harai</foreign>, +or sacred charms, which can only be obtained on +the spot. These, when brought home, are placed +on the <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kamidana</foreign>, +or god-shelf—a miniature temple +of wood, found in every Shinto house, to which are +attached the names of various patron deities, and +the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase +of the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes +himself to the enjoyment of the various shows and +other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood +of the temple. +</p> + +<p> +To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such +influence as the cult still possesses may be +attributed to the superstition of the poor and +illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +more educated, to break with so venerable a past. +The latter, however, though they continue to +conform to them, do not regard its observances +seriously; while the importance attached to them +by the State is, as we have seen, wholly political. +In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course +of a lecture delivered in London two or three years +since: <q>Shintoism, being so restricted in its sphere, +offers little obstacle to the introduction of another +religion,</q>—provided, as he added, that the veneration +of the Mikado, which has always formed the +fundamental feature of Japanese government, is not +interfered with. The truth of this statement has +already been abundantly exemplified in the position +which Buddhism for so many centuries held in the +religious life of Japan. In the same way, when, +three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced +into the country by the Portuguese, it was +largely owing to the attitude which some of the +missionaries adopted towards these national rites, +that the complications arose, which eventually led +to the expulsion of foreigners, and the persecution +of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it +is not strange that an intense jealousy should be +exhibited on behalf of observances and ceremonies, +traceable back to such remote antiquity, and so +intimately bound up with the whole political and +social life of the nation. It is, indeed, highly +probable that, in the great changes Japan is undergoing, +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +she will find other methods of cherishing the +continuity of her, in many ways, illustrious past. +But meanwhile, Christians in Japan may rejoice +that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to +manifest a respectful regard for a system that is +by no means destitute of praiseworthy features. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>II. Buddhism.</head> + +<p> +It is quite possible that to some of the readers +of these pages the very name of Shintoism was +unknown; whereas all will have heard and read +at least something of Buddhism, one of the four +most prevalent religions of the world, and claiming +at the present day considerably more than four +hundred millions of adherents.<note place='foot'>Even +an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the +lowest estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole +mass of Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that +in China, <emph>which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number</emph>, +both Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with +Buddhism. See Rhys Davids' <hi rend='italic'>Buddhism</hi>, chap. I +(S.P.C.K.).</note> At the same time, +our inquiry into Buddhism cannot be comprised +within such narrow limits as sufficed for our examination +of the indigenous religion of Japan; the +subject being one of the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, +then, it may be better if, at the outset, I allude to +some of the literature, published within the last +few years, which has been most instrumental in +attracting attention, both in England and America, +to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +reference be omitted to the writings of the late +Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and their school; +though I refer to them only in order to caution my +readers against forming from them any estimate +of Buddhism. The only literature, as far as I know, +that has appeared in England from what claims to +be an enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings +are, I believe, calculated to convey a curiously +erroneous idea of the great system with which we +are now concerned, to any who would turn for +information to them exclusively. This, indeed, +becomes obvious when it is understood that the +Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, +is not the Buddhism of history and the sacred +books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular +religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at +the present day, but an <q>esoteric</q> Buddhism, a +knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined +to a comparative few, even in the country where it +is said to be most prevalent.<note place='foot'>Thibet.</note> In short, the +<q>esoteric Buddhism</q> of Mr. Sinnett and his friends +would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable +from the movement which has recently acquired +a brief notoriety in England under the name of +Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper—i.e. +the historical, popular Buddhism with which we +have to do—can hardly be said to have anything +in common. +</p> + +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> + +<p> +With the book, however, which probably more +than any other work of the day has been the +means of drawing the attention of English-speaking +people to Buddhism, we cannot deal in so +summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin Arnold's +poem, <hi rend='italic'>The Light of Asia</hi>, we have a work which is +simply a rendering of the life of Buddha, in general +accordance with the received traditions, and one, +moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome +at the hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned +that the book is a production of great +power, or that it appeals altogether to a very +different class of readers from that likely to be +influenced by the <hi rend='italic'>Occult World</hi>, +or <hi rend='italic'>Isis Unveiled</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and +the book's consequent popularity, that only make +the more necessary a reference which must to some +extent take the form of a protest. To put it +briefly, the case is this:—Men and women have risen +from a perusal of the <hi rend='italic'>Light of Asia</hi> with a sense of +damage done to their Christian faith, and with +a feeling—confused, perhaps, but not the less real—that +in Gautama Buddha they have been confronted +with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far +the poem is responsible for this result we will not +attempt to determine; and that such was no part of +the author's intention we may readily believe. But +that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and +disturbed by the reading of this book is a certain +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +fact; making it neither surprising nor regrettable +that its publication should have been followed by +works on the subject, written from an emphatically +Christian point of view. To the fullest and ablest +of these,—the Rev. S. H. Kellogg's <hi rend='italic'>The Light of Asia +and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the +Legend, the Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, +with the Story, the Doctrine and the Ethics of Christ</hi> +(Macmillan, 1885),—I would refer those desirous of +investigating fully the points at issue; contenting +myself now with a few brief observations. +</p> + +<p> +It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. +Arnold's poem is written in the person, and from +the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist. This +is indicated plainly on the title-page, in the preface, +and in the course of the poem itself; and +when the book comes to be read by the light of +this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of +its more startling language. To take, for instance, +such expressions as <q>Our Lord,</q> <q>Saviour,</q> <q>come +to save the world,</q> constantly assigned to Buddha +in the course of the poem. However accustomed +Christians may be to associate such terms with +One only, and however pained they may feel at +their being referred, under any circumstances and +with any restrictions, to another, still it is obvious +that their use becomes less open to objection, when +placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the +praise of his Master,—and that Master, one who, +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean +work of deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting +of satisfactory explanation are passages +in the book in which we find transferred to +Buddha and Buddhism ideas and language distinctively +Christian; the solemn saying of Simeon +to the Holy Mother, <q>A sword shall pierce +through thine own soul also,</q> and the still more +solemn, <q>It is finished</q> of the Cross, being made +to supply particularly distressing instances of such +treatment.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Light of Asia</hi>, +i. 142, and vi. 688.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Or once again: but what I would say now has +already been urged by Dr. Eitel, in words which +I cannot do better than quote. <q>I believe,</q> he says, +<q>it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer +and childish sayings with which the Buddhist +Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books +abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism +is little better than a string of nonsense. +It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist +texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike +our Bible, the Buddhist canon has undergone +wholesale textual alterations.... As to the popular +literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we +might as well collect those little pamphlets on +dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky days, on +the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate +among Roman Catholic peasants,—but would that +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +give us a true picture of Roman Catholicism? +Thus it is with Buddhism.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Lectures +on Buddhism</hi>, pp. 62-3.</note> In other words, +Dr. Eitel would urge that in order to deal fairly +with such a subject, we must try to distinguish +the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and +follies that may, from time to time, have gathered +round it; and this, it is to be feared, has not +always been done by English writers, in treating +of Buddhism. +</p> + +<p> +For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to +trace a brief outline of the life of Buddha, according +to the belief of Buddhists generally, and stripped +of such legends and superstitions as find no credence +with the more educated and intellectual. +It is true that a doubt has sometimes been expressed +as to the existence of Gautama Buddha +at all; while even so eminent an authority as +Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, +owing to the lack of really authentic information, +<q>it is impossible to rely implicitly on any single +statement made in relation to him.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Legends +and Theories of the Buddhists</hi>, p. 187.</note> But even +supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received +traditions to be, whether in part or in entirety, +a mere creation of Indian thought, the case undergoes +no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the +religion of Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, +and only in quite a subordinate degree with the +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +person of its supposed founder. The point is one +that deserves careful attention, suggesting as it +does at once the essential difference between +Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable +distance which divides the two. For of Christianity +it is no exaggeration to say that upon the truth of +the received accounts of its Founder's Life and +Person its whole position absolutely depends; +whereas, could it be proved that Gautama never +even lived, the system associated with his name +would suffer no material loss,—and this, because +in Buddha we are invited to contemplate only +a teacher and a guide, one who would have men +seek purification and deliverance by the same +means as he himself needed to employ, and one +who never claimed to be more than human. Most +persons, however, will prefer to accept as, in the +main, historically correct the commonly accepted +outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be +given— +</p> + +<p> +The reputed founder of Buddhism was one +Siddhartha, known in later life as Gautama, and +later still, by the title of Buddha, or the <q>Enlightened +One.</q> Siddhartha was a prince of the +Sakya tribe, whose territories were situated some +hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. +Hence he is often spoken of under the name of +<foreign rend='italic'>Sakya-muni</foreign>, or the <q>Sakya sage.</q> As regards his +date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +it is placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as +late as the third century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> The most competent +authorities, however, agree in following the +Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> as the date +of his death.<note place='foot'>Prof. Max Müller, however +(<hi rend='italic'>Hibbert Lectures</hi>, 1878, p. 134 +note), gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> as the year of Buddha's +death.</note> His father's name was Suddhodana; +his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier years +of Siddhartha's life we have little information that +is at all to be relied on; but his early manhood +appears to have been spent amid the luxury and +self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. +Gautama, however, was a man of great benevolence, +and we are told that, while still quite young, he +pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and +suffering which held the human race in bondage. +Presently, becoming dissatisfied with his own life +of ease and pleasure, he made the <q>Great Renunciation;</q> +turning his back, at the age of thirty, +on wife and parents, home and wealth. After +spending some years in travel, he retired to the +forest, where he attached himself to a little band of +ascetics, and practised severe forms of discipline +and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover the +secret of release from suffering. But meeting with +no success, and still fast bound by the trammels of +ignorance, he betook himself to contemplation; +until one day, as he was seated beneath the Bo-tree,—henceforth +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +to be accounted sacred<note place='foot'><q>The Buddhists +look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked upon +the Cross.</q>—Rhys Davids' <hi rend='italic'>Buddhism</hi>, +p. 37 note.</note>—the +struggles of his soul prevailed, and he passed out +of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He +who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to +the knowledge of which Gautama thus attained, +and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist +doctrine, are these—(i) That man is born to suffering, +both mental and physical: he experiences it +himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that this +suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the +condition of suffering in which man finds himself +admits of amelioration and relief; (iv) the way +of release, and the attainment to Nirvana. +</p> + +<p> +Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What +is meant by <foreign rend='italic'>Nirvana</foreign>,—the goal of the Buddhist's +hope and aim? Literally, the word means <q>extinction</q>; +and hence it has often come to be +regarded as a mere synonym for annihilation. +The variety of opinions held by European scholars +as to its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the +fact that Buddhists themselves are by no means +agreed as to its precise significance. Is Nirvana +a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the +personality perpetuated, or is the <emph>ego</emph> absorbed,—i.e. +into Buddha? Such questions are differently +answered by the different schools. Concerning +the nature of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +agnosticism, would seem to have been almost wholly +silent. He appears to have simply taught that by +the suppression and <q>extinction</q> of the natural +passions and desires—anger, avarice, sorrow, and +the like<note place='foot'>It is, no doubt, owing +largely to the influence of Buddhism that the passion of +<emph>anger</emph> is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, +a Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would +consider it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray +itself.</note>—it was possible even here to enter upon +a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should +attain hereafter to more perfect fulfilment. Of the +various meanings attached to Nirvana by the +different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it +scarcely distinguishable from complete annihilation, +while the opposite extreme introduces us to the +doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land +presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of +perfect happiness and delight. This remarkable +development of Buddhism will claim our attention +later.<note place='foot'><p>Miss Isabella Bird +(Mrs. Bishop), authoress of <hi rend='italic'>Unbeaten Tracks +in Japan</hi>, well describes the impression produced on the spectator +by the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in +Japan:—<q>He is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, +he is not thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,—that is +all; his work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is +the Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate.</q> +</p> +<p> +The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given +opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, and, +as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from the +forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize +Illumination.</p></note> +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/daibatsu.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Daibatsu At Kamakura.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> + +<p> +To return. After his enlightenment, it is said +that Gautama was seized by the temptation to +enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming +his doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation +from him, he began his ministry by announcing +the tidings of release to the companions of his +ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at +length convinced. In the course of this, his first +sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the eight +steps on the path which leads to Nirvana—(i) Right +faith, (ii) right resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) +right action, (v) right living, (vi) right effort, (vii) +right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As +time went on, Gautama began to gather round him +a number of disciples, who became his constant +companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and +retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and +receiving such as, attracted by his growing reputation, +sought him out. The remaining months he +occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming +the good news of deliverance in the towns +and villages through which he passed. Soon we +find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; +the members of which severed their connexion +with all worldly things, handed over their property +to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive +dress, and, following the Master's doctrine with +strictness themselves, devoted their lives to its +propagation. Any member, however, was at +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +liberty to leave the Brotherhood, should he wish to +do so. It is noticeable that Buddha's earliest +followers were chiefly drawn—not, as in the case +of a Greater than he, from the ranks of the poor +and simple—but from the upper classes. Indeed, +Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and +ignorant as incapable of receiving his teaching. +Children are hardly mentioned in the early Buddhist +writings; and with regard to women, it was only +with great reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually +consented to the formation of a Sisterhood, the +members of which were, as far as possible, to +observe the same rules as the men—together with +several additional ones, chiefly concerned with +their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, +it is still the teaching of Buddhism that it should +be a woman's highest aspiration to be reborn as +a man, in a future state of existence. When, however, +the two Orders—for men and for women—had +been formed, there still remained a large +number of either sex, who, without leaving their +places in the world, were desirous of being reckoned +among Buddha's followers. These were admitted +as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being +to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren. +</p> + +<p> +Having exercised his public ministry for forty +years—without, as would appear, encountering any +great opposition—and having committed his work +to the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +Buddha died, aged about eighty, and was buried +with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time +of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples' +expressions of apprehension and sorrow, by +saying that when he should no longer be with +them in person, he would still be present with +them in his sayings, in his doctrine. Another point +on which he laid great stress before his death was +that the Brotherhood should regularly assemble in +convocation. Hence it came about that from very +early times, the declaration, <q>I seek refuge in +Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood),</q> +was adopted as the formula which any one, +desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to +profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, +represented to-day by the three great images above +the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its +multitude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not +that three several divinities are the objects of their +adoration and their prayer. +</p> + +<p> +Such, then, as would appear, was the origin +of Buddhism. Strictly speaking, and apart from +its later developments, Buddhism is a religion +which knows no God, which attaches no value +to prayer, which has no place for a priesthood. +Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous +than in the five main prohibitions, which +are addressed alike to clergy and laity. The <emph>first</emph> of +these forbids the taking of life,—human life chiefly, +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +but other life as well; the <emph>second</emph> is against theft, +whether by force or fraud; the <emph>third</emph> is against +falsehood; the <emph>fourth</emph> forbids impurity, in act, +word, or thought; the <emph>fifth</emph> requires abstinence from +all intoxicants. The whole idea of <hi rend='italic'>GOD</hi>, it will +be noticed, is entirely absent from the Buddhist +Commandments. Infinitely removed above that +other agnosticism, which cries, <q>Let us eat and +drink, for to-morrow we die,</q> Buddhism starts +with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. +But a self-denial that is undertaken, not for God, +and in God for man, but merely to secure one's +own peace and well-being—what is this but +selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that +is essentially negative—the natural product of that +blank despair of the world and of human nature +which led to the Great Renunciation—Buddhism, +as a religious system, has yielded but scanty fruits +of positive holiness, of active benevolence. And +yet,—wholly inadequate as such a system as this, +even at its purest and best, must be to meet the +needs of humanity,—false and even debased as are +sometimes its teachings,—the one great message that +Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if +most imperfect, truth: the truth that would have +man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to self-deliverance +by means of self-control. <q>Work out your +own salvation</q> is the injunction of Christianity. +<q>By one's self,</q> taught Sakya-muni, <q>the evil is +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +one; by one's self must come remedy and release.</q> +So far the two systems are at one; the difference +between them lies in the fact that the one places in +our hands those supernatural weapons which alone +make real victory possible, and that these the other +knows not how to supply. +</p> + +<p> +Hitherto, we have made no reference to the +relation of Buddhism to Brahmanism. And yet +we can no more hope to understand the work of +Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion +with Brahmanism, than we could afford to omit all +mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, +in speaking of the liberation wrought by our +Lord Jesus Christ. The work and doctrine of +Gautama Buddha,—with their mean between an +ascetic severity, on the one hand, and a licentious +self-indulgence on the other—their disregard of +caste distinctions—their rejection of burdensome +and profitless traditions—may be said to bear to +the heavy yoke of Brahmanism a relation not +dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. +Laying hold of that which was ready to his hand, if +so be he might mould and purify it, Buddha was +a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone +before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of +metempsychosis, or, as it is commonly called, the +<q>transmigration of souls.</q> No doubt, there is +a great deal connected with this doctrine in the +Buddhist books that cannot but appear to us +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> +puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, +we do not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such +strange fancies on Buddha, or on Buddhism, as +though it were from these that they sprang. So +far from Sakya-muni being the originator of the +theory of transmigration, a belief in it had, for +centuries previously, been almost universal throughout +the East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied +an antidote to the belief in a practically interminable +series of metempsychoses current at the +time. With the theory of transmigration accepted +on all sides, Buddha seems to have made use of +it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient +solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal +distribution of happiness in this life, and the absence +of any satisfactory exercise of justice in the way of +reward or punishment. +</p> + +<p> +That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have +been applied by Buddhists to their great Master +himself, is only what we should expect to find. +Gautama is accredited by Buddhists with some +five hundred previous existences, in the course +of which he passed through numerous stages of +vegetable, animal and human life, until at length +he attained to the highest degree of manhood. +Throughout the changing circumstances of his +being, he is said to have exhibited a transcendent +and ever-increasing unselfishness and charity, +which culminated in his freely giving himself to +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +be re-born as Buddha for the world's deliverance. +And it is this belief, probably, which has been +the most potent factor in exalting the Philosopher +and the Guide to a height, which is scarcely, +if at all, distinguishable from the Throne of God. +</p> + +<p> +I may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage +from the late Dean Stanley's <hi rend='italic'>History of the Jewish +Church</hi>, where he is referring to Gautama Buddha: +<q>It is difficult for those who believe the permanent +elements of the Jewish and Christian religion to +be universal and Divine not to hail these corresponding +forms of truth and goodness elsewhere, or +to recognize that the mere appearance of such +saint-like and god-like characters in other parts +of the earth, if not directly preparing the way for +a greater manifestation, illustrates that manifestation +by showing how mighty has been the +witness borne to it even under circumstances of +such discouragement, and even with effects inadequate +to their grandeur.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>History +of the Jewish Church</hi>, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>III. Buddhism In Japan.</head> + +<p> +In the last Chapter we sketched in outline the life +and teaching of Gautama Buddha; omitting the +many fanciful legends that have gathered round +his name, and confining ourselves to what would +be accepted by Buddhists generally. Of the long +period that divides the death of Sakya-muni from +the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about +550 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, it is no part of our purpose to treat +in detail. But enough must be said to connect in +some intelligible way these two events. +</p> + +<p> +After the death of Gautama, his disciples are +said to have gathered together, and recited all +that they remembered of his teaching, arranging +it in three divisions. This was the origin of the +sacred books known as the <foreign rend='italic'>Tripitaca</foreign>, i.e. the +<q>three baskets,</q> the <q>three receptacles.</q> The +first of these—consisting of sayings, aphorisms, +parables, &c., attributed to Buddha, together with +his first sermon addressed to the ascetics, (the +<q>Wheel of the Law,</q>)—is known as the <foreign rend='italic'>Sutra</foreign> or +<q>Canon;</q> the second is called the <foreign rend='italic'>Vinaya</foreign> or +<q>Book of Discipline;</q> and the third, the +<foreign rend='italic'>Abhidharma</foreign>, +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +i.e. the <q>Book of Metaphysics,</q> the +<q>Further Doctrine.</q> Of the three books, the +Sutra, being mainly ethical, would have a more +general application than the other two; while the +Vinaya would be chiefly applicable to the Brotherhood, +and the Abhidharma concerned with abstruse +philosophical dissertations. The Tripitaca, of which +the Buddhists of Ceylon are the custodians, are +written in Pali, an early modification of Sanskrit, +and the sacred language of Buddhism; and they +are, undoubtedly, the oldest and purest of the +numerous Buddhist scriptures. The Sutra, in +particular, is believed to be a faithful record of +the actual teaching of Gautama. At the same +time, it must be remembered that for some centuries +after Sakya-muni's death, there is no proof of the +existence of any written Canon; the probability +being that his teaching was, for the most part, +transmitted orally from generation to generation, +and that it underwent in the process considerable +alteration and addition. +</p> + +<p> +With regard to the history of Buddhism, from +the time of its founder's death until the middle of +the third century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, we are practically without +information. It appears, however, that parties and +schools were already beginning to be formed. But +about 260 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, India, from being divided into +a number of petty kingdoms, became almost wholly +united under the rule of one Asoka. Asoka's +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +grandfather—the founder of the empire that was +soon to assume such vast proportions—had revenged +himself for the contempt in which, for his +low birth, he was held by the Brahmans, by +patronizing Buddhism; and Asoka, in turn, +bestowed upon it all possible support. He made +Buddhism the state religion, founded an immense +number of monasteries, and sent forth missionaries +in all directions. China was one of the countries +visited; while a mission to Ceylon, in which +Mahendra, Asoka's own son, took a prominent part, +resulted in the conversion of the whole island. +</p> + +<p> +Shortly, however, after Asoka's death, his empire +collapsed, and Buddhism never afterwards exerted +the same influence in India; though it remained +widely prevalent until the eighth century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, +and it was not until four centuries later that +it became practically extinct. The Brahmans now +regained their former ascendency; declared Gautama +to be an <q>avatar</q>—or incarnation—of their +god Vishnu; proceeded to incorporate into their +own creed some of the most popular features of +the Buddhist system; and then entered upon +a destruction of the monasteries, and a severe +persecution of all Buddhists living in India. But, +as in the history of the Christian Church, persecution +only resulted in the Gospel being afforded +a wider area, so was it now with Buddhism. <q>They +that were scattered abroad went everywhere, +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +preaching the word.</q> Among other countries to +which the doctrine of Sakya-muni penetrated +was Cashmere, whose king, Kanishka, a contemporary +of Christ, extended to it his enthusiastic +support. +</p> + +<p> +At this point was reached an important crisis +in the history of Buddhism. Already controversies +about discipline and various minor questions had +called into existence several different schools; but +now a breach occurred, of such magnitude and +destined to prove so lasting in its results, as +to often have suggested comparison with the +schism between Western and Eastern Christendom. +A council was held under king Kanishka, which +the Ceylon Buddhists refused to recognize; and +from that time Buddhism has been divided into +two main branches, known as the <foreign rend='italic'>Mahayana</foreign> and +<foreign rend='italic'>Hinayana</foreign>,—the <q>Greater and Lesser Vehicles.</q> +The division thus brought about became, to a great +extent, a geographical one; the Hinayana having +its home in Ceylon, and, somewhat less exclusively, +in Burmah and Siam, while the schools of the +Mahayana predominate in Cashmere, Thibet, China +and Japan. +</p> + +<p> +Let us glance, for a moment, at their respective +characteristics. The Hinayana and the Mahayana, +then, are the names given to two great systems, or +<q>schools of thought,</q> which offer to <q>carry</q> or +<q>convey</q> their followers to the rest of Nirvana. +</p> + +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> + +<p> +Of the two, the Hinayana, or Lesser Conveyance, +presents a much closer resemblance to early +Buddhism. The distinguishing features of the +Hinayana may be declared to be its adherence to +the strict morality of primitive Buddhism, its +greater simplicity of worship, its smaller Canon of +scripture, and the fact that it appeals rather to the +comparatively few, to those, that is to say, who are +able and willing to make the surrender it requires. +Whereas, in the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, we +see a system characterized by that increased ease +and laxity, which too often accompany a season of +repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that +attends the establishment of a new movement. +The chief features of the Mahayana may be +pronounced to be its less exacting standard of +practical morality, its willingness to descend to the +level of the multitude, its subtle metaphysical +distinctions, its meditative inactivity, its elaborate +ceremonial, and its more extensive Canon of +scripture. +</p> + +<p> +We are now, at last, in a position to examine the +history of Japanese Buddhism. If an apology +seems needed for the length of our digression, +I can only say that it appeared to me necessary for +any profitable treatment of our subject. We have +already seen how, as early as 250 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, China was +visited by Buddhist missionaries from India. +These are said to have been eighteen in number; +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +and their effigies may be seen in many a Chinese +temple, where they are held in great veneration. +In the first century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, Buddhism in China +began to receive imperial patronage; some of its +books being about the same time translated into +the language of the country. The spirit of accommodation +and adaptation, which has always formed +so conspicuous a feature of Buddhism, manifested +itself now in an association with Taouism which +has continued ever since. +</p> + +<p> +552 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> is the date assigned to the introduction +of Buddhism into Japan, by way of Korea. At +first, it appears to have made little progress, until +the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it +into favour with the Court. Prostrating himself +one day, before the little son of the Mikado, the +priest declared that he recognized in him the +re-incarnation of one of the disciples of Buddha, +and one who was destined to effect a great spiritual +work in Japan. The Mikado was prevailed upon +to confide the boy's education to the Buddhist +priests; with the result that, when he grew up, he +supported their cause with such zeal as to cause +him to be sometimes spoken of as the <q>Constantine +of Japanese Buddhism.</q> Shotoku Taishi—for such +was his name—acted for some time as regent, but +never himself ascended the throne. +</p> + +<p> +There is no doubt that the progress of Buddhism +in Japan was largely facilitated by the adoption of +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +tactics, which had been successfully employed in +dealing with the barbarous tribes of India, and—as +we have just noticed,—with China also. Indeed, +its readiness to adapt itself to the circumstances, +instincts, and prejudices of the people, with whom +it has to do, is, as has already been implied, one of +the most powerful and most striking peculiarities +of Buddhism. In Japan, the Shinto demi-gods were +Buddhaized, and declared to be manifestations of +Gautama; while practices borrowed from the +ancient national creed were introduced into the +Buddhist ceremonial. In the eighth century, we +find orders issued for the erection of two temples +and a pagoda in every province; until, about the +twelfth century, the two religions became associated +in the manner indicated in our first chapter,—Buddhist +and Shinto clergy officiating by turns in +the same buildings, and the Shinto temples becoming +filled with images, alike of their own demi-gods, +and of Buddha and his companions. This state of +things continued until 1868, when the Shinto cult +was chosen to receive the exclusive recognition of +the State, many of the Buddhist monasteries at the +same time suffering spoliation. Within the last +few years, however, Buddhism has been making +strenuous efforts to recover its former power and +position, and there is little doubt that it still exerts +a real influence in Japan; while the collapse of +Shintoism is, as certainly, a matter of no distant +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +time. At Tokio, the capital, where the number of +temples is enormous, the proportion of Buddhist to +Shinto is in the ratio of ten to one; and on several +occasions during my stay in Japan I noticed handsome +new Buddhist temples in course of erection, +or old ones being redecorated and restored. +On the other hand, numbers are closed, or falling +to pieces, for want of funds to maintain them. +</p> + +<p> +At the present time, there are some twelve or +more <emph>principal</emph> Buddhist sects in Japan, several of +these being subdivided. The distinction between +the various schools is much more closely preserved +than in China; and, at least in the larger cities, +each sect will be found represented by a temple +of its own. The difference between the schools +consists not only in the varied attitudes adopted +towards some controverted question, but frequently +also in the degrees of importance attached to some +point which is held by all in common. For, +as cannot be too emphatically stated, Buddhism +is a <emph>many-sided</emph> religion.<note place='foot'>This +is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it <emph>must</emph> be true, +in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to minister +to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so dissimilarly +circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As we +proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of Buddhism +and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have suggested to us, +more than once, those different aspects of Christianity, which have +been the occasion of all our <q>schools of thought,</q> and, alas, of how +many of our divisions!</note> The following extract +from Sir Monier Williams' <hi rend='italic'>Buddhism</hi>, for instance, +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +draws attention to the variety of aspects, from +which it may, and indeed needs to be regarded +by the student. +</p> + +<p> +<q>In different places and at different times, its +teaching has become both negative and positive, +agnostic and gnostic. It passes from apparent +atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and +spiritualism. It is, under one aspect, mere pessimism; +under another, pure philanthropy; under +another, monastic communion; under another, high +morality; under another, a variety of materialistic +philosophy; under another, simple demonology; +under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, +including necromancy, witchcraft, idolatry, and +fetishism. In some form or other it may be held +with almost any religion, and embraces something +from almost every creed.</q> +</p> + +<p> +To the same effect writes Dr. Eitel in his +<hi rend='italic'>Lectures on Buddhism</hi> (pp. 1-2): <q>Buddhism is +a system of vast magnitude, for it comprises the +earliest gropings after science throughout those +various branches of knowledge which our Western +nations have long been accustomed to divide for +separate study. It embodies in one living structure +grand and peculiar views of physical science, refined +and subtle theorems on abstract metaphysics, +an edifice of fanciful mysticism, a most elaborate +and far-reaching system of practical morality, and +finally a church organization as broad in its principles +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +and as finely wrought in its most intricate +network as any in the world.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It would hardly be worth while to attempt +any detailed description of the many Buddhist +sects represented in Japan. To observe the main +characteristics of the principal ones, and their +points of difference from one another, will be amply +sufficient for our purpose. The greater number of +the schools were introduced from China, but a few +are Japanese developments. +</p> + +<p> +Let us take, first of all, the schools of the +Hinayana, or Minor Vehicle, which, as we should +expect, is not extensively represented in Japan. +The Hinayana is represented by four philosophical +schools, in two of which the materialistic element +predominates, and in the two other the idealistic; +while eschatological questions afford further ground +for difference. The points in dispute between these +philosophical schools of Buddhism are altogether so +subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of +comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in +such distinctions. Of the four sects referred to, one, +called the <foreign rend='italic'>Kusha</foreign>, has for its characteristic the fact +that it bases its teaching on the Abhidharma Pitaca. +</p> + +<p> +To the Minor Vehicle belongs the curious system +known as the <q>Holy Path.</q> This has been described +as a <q>debtor and creditor account kept with +divine justice.</q> Much less common than in China, +the system of the <q>Holy Path</q> is yet widely +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +practised in Japan. Elaborate tables are drawn up, +containing a list of all good and bad actions it is +possible to perform, with the numbers added which +each counts on the side of merit or demerit. The +numbers range from one to a hundred, or even +more; and the tables afford an insight into the +relative importance in which all kinds of actions +present themselves to the Oriental mind. He who +would tread life's journey along the Holy Path +must, at least, aim at setting off his bad deeds +by a corresponding number of good acts of equal +value. At the end of each year, the account is +balanced, and the overplus or deficit is transferred +to the succeeding one. That such a system is +liable to the gravest abuse, especially in the case of +the more ignorant, is obvious; though, when conscientiously +practised, it need not be supposed to +be unproductive of good.<note place='foot'>Those who +would investigate the subject further are referred to +Alabaster's <hi rend='italic'>The Modern Buddhist</hi> (Trübner, 1870).</note> +</p> + +<p> +At present we have made no mention of the +<foreign rend='italic'>Madhyameka</foreign>, or Middle Vehicle, which, as its +name implies, occupies an intermediate place between +the Greater and Lesser Conveyances. A +compromise between these two great systems, +the Madhyameka may be said to be characterized +by a marked moderation, i.e. between an excessive +strictness, on the one hand, and a too great liberty +on the other. But though it is thus a faithful +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +exponent of Sakya-muni's original doctrine, the +Madhyameka has never attracted any extensive +following. It is represented in Japan by the sect +called the <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Sanron</foreign>. +</p> + +<p> +We pass on to examine the schools of the Greater +Vehicle. In the same way that the Kusha sect +regards as its chief authority the Abhidharma +Pitaca, there are two schools belonging to the +Greater Vehicle, which base their teaching on the +Sutra and Vinaya Pitacas respectively. The <foreign rend='italic'>Kagon</foreign> +make the parables and sayings of Buddha contained +in the Sutra their especial study; while +the <foreign rend='italic'>Ritzu</foreign>, as adhering to the more ascetic side of +Buddhism, have for their favourite book the Vinaya, +or <q>Discipline.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The <foreign rend='italic'>Dhyana</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Zen</foreign> +sect is a Chinese school with numerous sub-divisions. Its distinguishing +feature is the prominence it assigns to the life of +contemplation. Mysticism is represented by the +<foreign rend='italic'>Shingon</foreign>, the Mantra school of India transferred +through China to Japan; and also by the <foreign rend='italic'>Tendai</foreign>, +so called from a mountain in China, where the +head-quarters of the sect are situated. The temples +of the Shingon may usually be recognized by the +two guardian figures at the entrance, with open +and shut mouths, suggesting the mystic syllable +A-UM. A peculiarity of both of these sects is the +use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common +in Thibet. +</p> + +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> + +<p> +An element of mysticism also pervades the +influential <foreign rend='italic'>Hokkai</foreign> sect, a Japanese offshoot of +the Tendai, founded in the thirteenth century by +a priest named Nichiren, who is said to have been +born supernaturally of a virgin mother. The +Hokkai are most jealously attached to their own +ritual, and to other observances peculiar to themselves; +and, inheriting the disposition attributed to +their founder, exhibit a narrowness and intolerance +rarely met with in Japan. Their characteristic +may be said to consist in an emotional fanaticism; +and a visitor to one of their temples will generally +find a number of devotees,—who thus remain engaged +for hours at a time,—chanting the invocation +of the sect, <q>Adoration to the Lotus of the Law,</q> +to a deafening accompaniment of drums. +</p> + +<p> +Two sects only now remain, but these by no +means the least interesting or least popular: the +<foreign rend='italic'>Jodo</foreign> and the <foreign rend='italic'>Shin-Jodo</foreign> +(i.e. the New-Jodo). The +distinguishing features of these sects,—which also +find a place in the system of the Hokkai,—are +their acknowledgement of the need of external aid, +and their doctrine of the Western Paradise, presided +over by Amitabha Buddha. How marked a +departure from the original teaching of Sakya-muni, +as observed by us, these schools present is sufficiently +obvious; nevertheless, it is alleged that +the revelation of the Paradise in the West was first +made by Buddha himself to one of his principal +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +disciples. In the distant West is said to dwell one +named Amida, or Amitabha, that is to say <q>Illimitable +Light.</q> Immortal himself, immortal also and +freed from all the trammels of transmigration are +the vast multitudes of men<note place='foot'>For it is men only +who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy of attaining to it, +have changed their sex.</note> who inhabit the boundless +regions which he rules. In that <q>Pure +Land,</q><note place='foot'><foreign rend='italic'>Jodo</foreign> means the +<q>Pure Land.</q></note> +that <q>Undefiled Ground,</q> everything beautiful +and enchanting has a place, neither is pain or +sorrow known; and thither nought that is evil or +that defileth can come. Whosoever would attain +to this heavenly country must rely, most of all, on +faithful invocation of the name of Amida; he +having, as is recorded, made a vow that he would +only accept Buddhahood on condition that salvation +should be placed within reach of all sincerely +desirous of achieving it. Such is the doctrine of +the Western Paradise, some of the descriptions of +which read almost like echoes of the last chapters +of the Bible. Unknown to the Buddhism of Ceylon, +Siam, and Burmah, it can be traced back as far as +the second century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, when it was certainly +known in Cashmere, though it was not until three +centuries later that it began to spread widely over +Northern Buddhism. But the whole question of +its origin remains wrapped in obscurity. At the +present day, the devotion to Amida is very widely +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +practised in Japan, and it is extremely popular. No +doubt, the more educated and intellectual Buddhist,—and +the distinction thus suggested needs constantly +to be insisted on,—would explain the +Paradise of the West as being a mere allegory, and +regard Amitabha, as he was originally conceived +to be, as merely an ideal personification of boundless +light. But to the people generally the Undefiled +Ground and its presiding deity are actual, +literal, realities. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/kiyomizu-dera.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +We have said that the two sects in which the +doctrine of the Western Paradise appears in greatest +prominence are called the Jodo and Shin-Jodo. +The former of these is Chinese in origin, but was +established in Japan about 1200 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> by a priest, +Enko Daishi by name, who was also a member of +the imperial family. The head-quarters of this sect +are at Kyoto, where the magnificent monastery of +Chion-in forms one of the principal sights of that +most interesting of Japanese cities. But of all the +temples of Japan, those of the New-Jodo (or <foreign rend='italic'>Monto</foreign>) +sect are at once the most handsome, the most frequented, +and the most attractive to the European +traveller. Everything here, too, is of a dignified +and stately character; there is a striking absence +of the tawdry and the puerile. Founded in the +year 1262, this sect is, at the present day, foremost +in learning, influence, and activity. Another purely +Japanese development, it is—owing to differences +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +about <q>church government</q>—composed of two sub-divisions, +the <foreign rend='italic'>Nishi-Hongwanji</foreign> and the +<foreign rend='italic'>Higashi-Hongwanji</foreign>, +or the Eastern and Western Divisions +of the True Petition,—the reference being to the +vow of Amida. In most of the larger towns, +handsome temples of either branch are to be found, +situated usually in the poorer districts. +</p> + +<p> +It is in the temples of the Shin-Jodo that the +remarkable similarity, of which every one has heard, +between the Buddhist ceremonial and that of the +Roman Church is most conspicuous. Nowhere, +perhaps, did the resemblance in question,—to which +I shall have occasion to refer again,—impress me +more forcibly than it did in the New-Jodo temple +at Nagasaki, at the first Buddhist service at which +I was ever present. The day of our visit chanced +to be the founder's anniversary, and from a raised +lectern in the chancel, a venerable priest, of benign +countenance,—wearing a rich vestment not unlike +a dalmatic, and a cap resembling a biretta,—was +recounting to a congregation, composed chiefly of +women, old men, and children, the virtues of their +deceased benefactor. Presently, the sermon came +to an end, and the colloquial delivery of the discourse +was changed for the monotone of a litany +recitation: the people answering with ready response, +and many of them employing the aid of +their rosaries. The fragrance of incense filled the +air; tapers and flowers adorned the altar, above +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +which was the statue, not—as one entering by +chance might almost have expected to see—of +a Christian saint, but of some manifestation of +Gautama Buddha. Despite, however, its elaborate +ritual, the Shin-Jodo sect has been called the +<q>Protestantism of Japan;</q> the reason being that it +sanctions the marriage of its clergy, approves the +reading of the scriptures in the <q>vulgar tongue,</q> +permits a wider freedom in respect to food and +drink, and affords other indications of a <q>reforming +spirit.</q> The priesthood in this sect is, practically, +a hereditary office. +</p> + +<p> +In the <hi rend='italic'>Great Indian Religions</hi> of the late +Mr. Bettany, there is given a summary of the Shin-Jodo +Belief, in the words of one of its principal +teachers. I will take the liberty of re-quoting it +here. <q>Rejecting all religious austerities and other +action, giving up all idea of self-power, we rely +upon Amida Buddha with the whole heart for our +salvation in the future life, which is the most +important thing: believing that at the moment of +putting our faith in Amida Buddha our salvation +is settled. From that moment invocation of his +name is observed as an expression of gratitude and +thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being +thankful for the reception of this doctrine from the +founder and succeeding chief priests whose teachings +were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in +a dark night, we must also keep the laws which +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +are fixed for our duty during our whole life.</q> The +mutual relation of faith and works is especially to +be noticed; and indeed the strikingly <emph>evangelical</emph> +character of the whole Confession. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/kwannon.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +Vast, however, as is the power attributed to +Amitabha, and great as is the merit to be acquired +by the invocation of his name, there is found in +the temples in which he is worshipped an image +which receives even more veneration than his. +That colossal female effigy, with the many heads +and countless hands, before which a number of +votaries, composed largely of women, are kneeling +in prayer, is meant to represent the mighty Avalokitesvara, +or—to substitute for the Sanskrit the +less formidable titles by which she is known in +China and Japan,—the all-powerful Kwanyin or +Kwannon. Here, again, we are confronted with +a devotion the origin of which is wrapped in +uncertainty, but which, closely connected with the +doctrine of the Western Paradise, seems to have +arisen some three centuries after the commencement +of our era. At the present day, it is spread +extensively over Thibet, Mongolia, China, and +Japan; but it is unknown to the countries of +Southern Buddhism. With regard to the meaning +of this great image before us, Kwannon is commonly +explained to be the reflex or spiritual son of +Amitabha Buddha, sent by him to earth to preside +on earth over the Buddhist faith, and appearing, at +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +first in male and subsequently in female shape. +But the probability is that the various personages, +with whom Kwannon is supposed to be identified, +had merely a fictitious existence; and that in her +statues, we see simply an apotheosis of Mercy, an +allegorical <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Mater Misericordiae</foreign>, whose many +eyes and hands are intended to signify the unremitting +vigilance and the untiring energy with which she +ministers to all sorrow and distress.<note place='foot'>Avalokitesvara=<q>The +Lord who looks down from heaven.</q> +The female form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to +the idea of the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate +nature; just as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother +has, for a like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives +of her Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when +conversing with Europeans, giving the name of <foreign rend='italic'>Kwanyin</foreign> +to the statues of the Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis' <hi rend='italic'>The +Chinese</hi>, chap, xiv.)</note> +</p> + +<p> +The island of Pootau, off Ning-po, in the Chusan +Archipelago, is the great centre of Kwannon +worship; the most popular of the many legends +concerning her associating her with this locality, +and offering an explanation of her thousand heads +and hands more clumsy even than is the manner +of such myths. The island belongs to the Buddhist +priesthood, and is a great resort of pilgrims. In +Japan, the shrines and statues of Kwannon are to +be met with everywhere: many of her images being +of enormous size, richly gilt and beautifully +wrought. Sometimes the statues are kept concealed +from view, either on account of alleged +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +miraculous properties, or for some other reason of +special sanctity. The highly-venerated image, for +instance, at the Asakusa temple, Tokio, is never +shown; it is only two inches high, and is accredited +with supernatural qualities. But of all +the shrines of Kwannon, it may be doubted whether +the impression created by any is greater than by +her temple of San-ju-san-gen-do at Kyoto, where +no less than 33,333 images of the goddess may be +seen. Of these a thousand are gilded statues, five feet +in height, and ranged in tiers along a vast gallery. +The remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads, +hands and nimbi of the larger ones. The +temple and its contents originated in the votive +offering of a Mikado of the twelfth century for +recovery from sickness. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/altar.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IV. Buddhism And Christianity.</head> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/guardian-nio.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Guardian Nio.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +The Buddhist temples in Japan are for the +most part built on a much grander and more +elaborate scale than those belonging to the Shinto +worship. The roofing is not of thatch, but of +tiles; and instead of the torii, the entrance is +through a <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Sammon</foreign>, or two-storied gateway, in +the recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious +appearance. These are called <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Nio</foreign>, and their +office is to guard the sacred precincts from the approach +of evil spirits. These images are commonly seen +spotted all over with pellets of paper. <q>A worshipper +writes his petition on paper, or better still, +has it written for him by the priest, chews it to +a pulp, and spits it at the divinity. If, having +been well aimed, the paper sticks, it is a good +omen.</q> Passing through the Sammon, and proceeding +in a straight direction—often between +rows of votive stone-lanterns—the visitor soon +arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple +group. One of these is the <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Hondo</foreign>, or main +shrine; while the other may be either the Hall of the +Founder of the particular sect to which the Temple +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +belongs, or it may contain a colossal image of +Amida, and be specially dedicated to his worship. +Sometimes, again, this second building is known as +the Refectory, from the spiritual nourishment +supplied there in the form of sermons, for which +the preacher takes as his text some passage of the +Sutra, or, it may be, some saying of Confucius.<note place='foot'>I have +not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce +the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion +than a system of philosophy—political, social, moral. It may, however, +be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly esteemed +in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had a considerable +influence in forming the thought and character of its people. +The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned with the +things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being mainly +spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The great +Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University of +Japan. Now,—so entirely have the Western systems of education +supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,—the building has been +converted into a Museum.</note> +Removing our boots, which we leave at the foot of +the wooden steps, we ascend to the Hondo, and, if +need be, push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered +woodwork, which afford access to the +building. Should no service chance to be in progress, +a little company of priests, acolytes, &c., will +probably be found, seated on the matting with +which the floor is covered,—engaged in the perusal +of book or newspaper, or chatting together over +miniature cups of tea, and, if it be winter-time, +spreading their hands to receive the grateful +warmth of the hibachi.<note place='foot'>Charcoal-brazier.</note> Beside them, on the +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +floor, is arranged a miscellaneous assortment +of sacred pictures, leaflets, candles, incense-sticks, +charms, and other articles; any of which may be +purchased by a very modest expenditure. As we +enter, we observe that several pairs of eyes are +fastened on us in undisguised curiosity; but our +low salutation is promptly responded to, if indeed it +has not been anticipated, and one of the group +will courteously come forward to supply us with +any assistance or information we require. Before +the railing, which encloses the sanctuary, two or +three worshippers are kneeling in prayer; and +these also examine us for a while with close +attention. Or, it may be that at the time of our +visit some religious function is proceeding. If so, +the clergy with their servers are found within the +chancel, clad in gorgeous yellow robes, and genuflecting +now and again before the images which +stand above the richly-vested altar. Outside the +sanctuary rails, the congregation is assembled in +greater or less numbers, according to the importance +of the day. Around is a profusion of lights +and flowers; while the air is fragrant with the +fumes of incense. The prayers, which the officiating +priest recites in monotone, are in Pali, a form of +Sanskrit; and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades +his devotions, let it be remembered that every day, +month after month, and year after year, he may be +found chanting these same litanies, of the significance +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +of which he has but the vaguest idea. Not, +however, that he is without belief in their efficacy; +nay, it may be that his very ignorance of their +meaning causes the words he utters to have, in his +eyes, a transcendent value. Above the high altar, +in seated posture on lotus-blossoms,<note place='foot'><q>The +only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of +the lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the +symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and +though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, therefore, +men would but take it as their model, they would escape all the +contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, has +a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the assistance +of Buddha.</q> <hi rend='italic'>Unbeaten Tracks in Japan</hi>, Vol. i. p. +292.</note> are three +colossal images, cunningly wrought and richly +gilded, and bearing on their countenances an expression +of placid repose. Perhaps, it is the <foreign rend='italic'>Triratna</foreign>, +or Three Jewels, that these represent, the Trinity of +Buddha, the Law, and the Order. Or, possibly, +this is Buddha, in his triple forms of existence:—as +Sakya-muni, the form under which he lived as +man among men; as Amitabha, his metaphysical +existence in Nirvana; as Avalokitesvara, his reflex +in the world of forms, his spiritual son, generated +to propagate the religion established by him during +his earthly career. Or once again, these three +images may portray the Buddhas of the Past, +Present, and Future:—Gautama who <emph>was</emph>, the +historic founder of Buddhism; Kwannon, or +Avalokitesvara, the head of the present Buddhist +hierarchy, the Buddha who <emph>is</emph>; and Maitreya, or +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +Meroku, the deliverer yet <emph>to come</emph>, the rehabilitation +of past Buddhas foretold by Sakya-muni. Now +and again one may meet with a Buddhist of +superior intellectual attainments, who would explain +the acts of worship he offers to these images, +as signifying merely reverence for Gautama's +teaching; but to the multitude, as has been seen +already, the images represent distinct and all-powerful +deities. Indeed, the people are encouraged +thus to regard them by their ecclesiastical +superiors; it being one of the methods of Buddhism +thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense +and ignorant minds. And thus it comes about +that a religion, commencing with agnosticism, meets +the <q>craving for divinity,</q> so deeply implanted in +the nature of our race, by passing into what is, +practically, a deification of humanity. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/pagoda.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Pagoda at Nikko.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +Leaving the Hondo, we next proceed to explore +the grounds and remaining buildings connected +with the temple. This lofty <foreign rend='italic'>Pagoda</foreign>, for instance, +several stories high, is erected over some holy relic,—perhaps +the vitrified remains of the founder, +after cremation. A little further on, we come +to the <foreign rend='italic'>Rinzo</foreign>, or Revolving Library, containing an +entire set of the Buddhist scriptures. As these +consist altogether of some 6,700 or 6,800 large +volumes, it is clearly impossible for any one person +to read them all. This, however, need not be +regretted seeing that whatever merit might be +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +obtained by a complete perusal, is freely extended +to all, who will take the trouble to make this huge +stand revolve; the structure being so arranged +that a single push is sufficient for the purpose! +The Rinzo was an invention of a Chinese priest, +and is said to date from the sixth century. Owing +to their costliness they are rarely met with; and +the only two I remember seeing were at Asakusa, +Tokio, and at Ikegami, the head-quarters of +the Hokkai sect. Elsewhere in the grounds we +come upon the <foreign rend='italic'>Shoro</foreign>, or Great Bell,—used not +for summoning the faithful, but for the purpose of +invocation and worship;—the <foreign rend='italic'>Koro</foreign>, or Drum-tower; +the <foreign rend='italic'>Emado</foreign>, or <q>Ex-voto</q> Shed, the walls of which +are covered with pictures, charms, and other +offerings; cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +purification; a printing and publishing department; +and, perhaps, a grotto with ghastly representations +of the sufferings endured in the Buddhist hells. +Usually, too, to be found in the sacred precincts, is +a specimen of the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ficus religiosa</foreign>, or sacred +tree, under which Sakya-muni attained his enlightenment. +At the rear of the temple buildings are +situated the priests' apartments,—often a quadrangle +enclosed by a colonnade,—the reception-rooms +of which are beautifully decorated with +<foreign rend='italic'>kakemonos</foreign>. Here the visitor is sometimes invited +to a light repast of tea, cake, and fruit; the +priests waiting on him the while with the most +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +courteous attention. And here may I be permitted +to say a word about the Buddhist priests of Japan +as I found them? They are commonly spoken +of as lazy and ignorant, mercenary and corrupt; +and it is to be feared that with regard to many, +especially of the lower orders of the clergy, this +witness is true. But speaking of those with whom +I came into direct contact—the priests, for the most +part, attached to the more important temples—I +feel bound to say, that the impression I formed of +them was, on the whole, a distinctly favourable one. +With countenances often indicating close spiritual +application, they appeared to perform their sacred +duties with reverence and attention; while of the +disinterested kindness and hospitality I received at +their hands, as well as of the courtesy and patience +with which they replied to my numerous questions, +I would speak in terms of grateful appreciation. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/ikegami-temple.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (<hi rend='italic'>Head-quarters +of the Hokkai or Nichiren sect.</hi>) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate leads +to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder's Hall. To +the right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple +is the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of +the picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are +the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests' Apartments and +Reception-rooms.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +A visit to a Buddhist temple, however, can hardly +fail to suggest to any, who are at all familiar with +the observances of the Roman ritual, a comparison +to which we have already referred,—I mean the +striking resemblance between the Buddhist ceremonies +and such as have found place in the +Christian Church. The high-altar with its haloed +statues, flowers, candelabra, and ever-burning +lamps; the side-altars, similarly adorned, above +one of which, it may be, is seen the image of +Maia, the mother of Gautama, bearing her infant-son +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +in her arms; the priests, tonsured, mitred, +arrayed in their rich vestments, and attended by +their acolytes; the people, bending low in adoration, +or telling their rosaries as they pray; the tinkling of +bells and the perfume of incense; the dim light +of the sanctuary, and the monotonous chant, in +the unknown tongue, of the litanies uplifted for +living and for dead:—these are only some of the +points of correspondence with Roman Catholic +observances which meet us in almost every +Buddhist temple. Indeed, to attempt to specify +such resemblances in detail would prove a laborious +task. But while the similarity to which I refer +is far too close and remarkable to be accounted for +by mere coincidence, its explanation is by no means +easy. Some would solve the difficulty by referring to +the unquestionable fact that many of the ceremonies +practised in the Christian Church are adaptations of +ancient heathen rites: a leading captive of captivity +of which, as it seems to me, Christianity has far +more reason to be proud than ashamed. But +though the Buddhist observances are, without doubt, +of considerable antiquity, this explanation cannot +be said to be adequate to the requirements of the +case. Far more satisfactory is the theory that +ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of +China with some form of Christianity—probably +Nestorianism—and to the readiness which Buddhism +has ever exhibited to extend its influence +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +by a conformity to other faiths. The problem, +however, is one which we must, to a great extent, +be satisfied to leave unsolved; the most eminent +authorities in Orientalism having confessed themselves +baffled. It is only the fact of the resemblance +that admits of no dispute. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/buddhist-priest.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>A Buddhist Priest.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to notice the different effects +produced by an observation of the Buddhist +ceremonial on the minds of Roman Catholic +missionaries upon their first arrival in the East. +By some its likeness to their own ritual has been +regarded as a manœuvre of Satan, designed for the +hindrance of Christian truth; while others have +regarded the resemblance with satisfaction, as calculated +to diminish the difficulties of their work. +Without entering further into this question, I may be +allowed to express the conviction that an elaborate +ceremonial forms at any rate no necessary factor of +Christian work in Japan. So far from this being +the case, I was informed, on no prejudiced authority, +that, the breach once made with the old associations, +converts are disposed to regard anything +tending even remotely to suggest them as more +of a hindrance than a help; and this view finds +support in the large number of adherents gained +by several of the Protestant Missions, with whom +anything in the way of ceremonial is reduced +to a minimum. On the other hand, must be +remembered the very successful work accomplished +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +in Japan, alike by the Roman and Orthodox +Churches, whose combined total of some 65,000 +adherents is more than double that of the various +Protestant sects,—the Churches of England and +America, with 4,000 members, not being included +in this computation. +</p> + +<p> +Hitherto, I have referred only to the resemblance +outwardly existing between the ceremonies and +observances of Christianity and Buddhism. But +an extension of the comparison results in what is, +at first sight, an even more startling similarity +between incidents recorded of Gautama Buddha, +and events in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated +in the Gospels. Thus, we are told that Gautama +was born of a virgin mother; that angels appeared +at his nativity; that an ancient seer prostrated +himself before him, and saluted him as one come +down from heaven; that, as a child, he confounded +his teachers by the understanding he displayed, and +the questions which he asked; that, assailed by the +Evil One<note place='foot'>Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, +named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil.</note> with the keenest +temptations,—including the offer of Sovereignty over all the world, if he +would renounce his mission,—he yet emerged victorious +from all; that once, being on a mountain, +he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light; +that he went down into hell; and that he ascended +into heaven. Indeed, the Christian may be +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +pardoned if, for the moment, he feels completely +staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf +of Sakya-muni; and if his perplexity only begins to +give place to relief, when he discovers that there is +absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence +in the early Buddhist writings, and that there is +no reason for supposing that these alleged events +in the life of Gautama were ever heard of until +the Christian era was already several centuries old. +</p> + +<p> +We have now, as far as our limits permit, made +an examination of Buddhism with especial reference +to Japan. But before leaving this part of our +subject, I would humbly, but very earnestly, submit +the question, Is there in Buddhism generally,—is +there in Buddhism as it exists in Japan at the +present day,—nothing upon which Christianity +may profitably fasten, nothing to which Christianity +may properly appeal? Is that great proclamation +of Christian tact, which, eighteen centuries ago, the +Apostle Paul delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, +<q>Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto +you,</q> one that cannot, more often than it does, find +a place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day? +Is the position a useless one to take, that both the +faiths of Jesus Christ and of Buddha agree in this, +that either has for its object the amelioration of +man's lot, here and hereafter, and his release from +the curse of suffering; only, as we believe, with +this great difference, that the founder of Christianity +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> +was possessed of resources to which Sakya-muni +laid no claim? These are questions which were +constantly presenting themselves to my mind +during my visit to Japan; but they are questions +also which I heard asked more than once by men +who had closely studied the whole subject and were +deeply interested in mission work. But whatever +the true answer to these questions be, of this we +may be certain: that by no reckless denunciation +of a creed, of the very elements of which the +denouncer is content to be in ignorance, will any +victory of Christ's Cross be achieved. Be the +errors and shortcomings of Buddhism what they +may,—and we must, to be honest, pronounce them +in our judgment to be many and great,—it is, at +least, a system of very great antiquity, in whose +strength thousands of millions of our fellow-creatures +have lived and died, both better and +happier. Men cannot be expected lightly to +abandon their allegiance to such a faith as this, +nor would it be to their credit if they did; while +in Christianity, even when faithfully represented, +there is very much calculated to perplex and +estrange one who has been trained in the tenets of +Buddhism. Moreover, however little he may agree +with them, the Buddhist holds that the religious +convictions of others are entitled to respect, and +that their feelings should never be wounded, if this +can be avoided; it is only natural that he, in his +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +turn, should be quickly alienated by unsympathetic +treatment. I was told by an English resident of +long standing that infidelity is largely on the +increase in Japan, especially among the men of +the upper and middle classes; and that among the +causes of this was certainly to be reckoned the +contemptuous and merely destructive attitude +towards Buddhism, with which some—let us hope +they are the very few—would think to serve +the cause of Jesus Christ. <q>Depend upon it,</q> it +was said to me, <q>it is irreligion that commonly +succeeds to the vacant place, not Christianity. +Carlyle was right when he said, <q>Better even to +believe a lie than to believe nothing.</q></q> And +Buddhism is not all a lie! +</p> + +<p> +<q>The perishing heathen.</q> Many of us have been +revolted by such expressions when heard at home. +But it is only when one is living in the midst of +the people of whom they are spoken, that it is +possible to realize the full horror of their meaning. +That men, women, and little children, who are +distinguished by so many good qualities,<note place='foot'>Cf. the +following extract from the speech of the Bishop of +Exeter at the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:—<q>If you had +been asked to sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian +Missions, and when itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic +work among the nations of the far East, what, I ask, +would be the special characteristics of the land and people that you +would have desired? Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, +you would have said, <q>Give us islands, inseparably and for ever +united, give us islands which can hold their sea-girt independence, +and yet near enough to the mainland to exert influence there.</q> Such +is Japan—the Land of the Rising Sun. <q>Give us a hardy race, not +untrained in war by land and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when +won for Christ, fights best under the banner of the Cross—for we +are of the Church militant here on earth: give us brave men;</q> +and such are the descendants of the old Daimios and two-sworded +Samurai of Japan. <q>Give us an industrial race, not idlers nor +loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but men who delight in +toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering craftsmen, shrewd men of +business;</q> and such are the Japanese agriculturists, who win two +harvests a year from their grateful soil—such are the handicraftsmen +there, whose work is the envy of Western lands; such are the merchants, +who hold their own with us in commerce. <q>Give us men +of culture, with noble traditions, but not so wedded to the past that +they will not grasp the present and salute the future;</q> and such +are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, who, with a marvellous +power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to engraft their +own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness their +Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active operation; +witness their museums and hospitals; witness their colleges +and universities. <q>But,</q> you would also have said, <q>give us a race +whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, not +tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, but +who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;</q> and +such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, +<q>give us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that +the religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are +therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;</q> and such are the +thoughtful races of Japan.</q></note> and +who—with, as we believe, such immeasurably +inferior opportunities—present, in many points, so +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +favourable a contrast to ourselves, should be +condemned to a future of hopeless and unending +misery, for not believing that of which, it may be, +they have not even heard, or heard only in crude, +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +distorted statement—can any man <emph>really</emph> think +this, who recognizes the providence of a Father of +Love; nay, I will dare to say, of a Deity of bare +Justice? And yet language thus fearfully misrepresenting +the Faith of Christ is still used by +some who are called by His name; and that it is +used is known by the people of Japan.<note place='foot'>See on +this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre's +<hi rend='italic'>The Spirits in Prison</hi>. The Christian can scarcely doubt that +Gautama has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,—knowing +at last the Name whereby he has been saved,—and has +heard from the Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be +bestowed on all men of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever +land, who have <q>worked righteousness,</q> and have faithfully +responded to whatever measure of light and opportunity has been +accorded them by God.</note> +</p> + +<p> +But again. There is, I have observed, much in +the scheme of Christianity calculated to prove +a stumbling-block to those who have been educated +in the doctrines of Buddhism. Let me proceed +to state some of the difficulties that would be +experienced, some of the objections that would be +raised, by a Buddhist of a certain amount of +intellectual capacity, when confronted with the +claims of the Christian Faith. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, (<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>) <emph>the Bible</emph>. <q>We are unable,</q> the +Buddhist would say, <q>to recognize in your Old and +New Testaments an inspired revelation. Why +should we accept your Scriptures, with all their +alleged miracles and supernatural occurrences, +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +when you reject ours? Besides, you are not +agreed among yourselves as to inspiration, authenticity, +translation, interpretation. Some of you, +again, are for diffusing the Bible broadcast, others +would keep it in the background. Again, the +Christian doctrine of immortality appears to us +entirely absent from the pages of the Old Testament; +while even the Jews, <q>God's chosen people,</q> refuse to +see in the New Testament the fulfilment of the Old.</q> +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>b</hi>) <emph>The Old Testament.</emph> <q>We cannot regard the +story of Creation, as given in the Book of Genesis, +as anything more than a myth, containing a germ +of truth. Neither can we accept, as historically +true, the story of the temptation in the Garden of +Eden. And yet, upon this is made to rest your +whole theory of the Fall, of Original Sin, and of +Christian Redemption. As for the history of the +Jewish people, we can see in it nothing but one +long story of cruelty and bloodshed; how can +a Creator, a God of Love, be supposed to have +permitted and approved such things?</q> +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>c</hi>) <emph>The Incarnation.</emph> The whole doctrine of the +Incarnation is full of difficulty to the mind of an +Oriental; <emph>not</emph> because of its strangeness and +novelty, but owing to his very familiarity with +stories of miraculous birth in his own legends. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>) <emph>The Atonement.</emph> <q>Why should Jehovah +require the sacrifice of His own Son?</q> This is +a difficulty that would present itself with especial +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +force to the Buddhist; by whom all life is held +sacred, and whom such texts as <q>Without shedding +of blood there is no remission,</q> fill with repugnance. +The explanation offered by Buddhists themselves +of the Christian doctrine of Atonement is, that its +origin must be sought in the fact that, from the +most ancient times, the idea of sacrifice, and of +human sacrifice, has existed; and this explanation +they go on to apply to the Holy Eucharist. +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>e</hi>) <emph>Eternal Punishment.</emph> <q>How,</q> it is asked, +<q>is your doctrine of Everlasting Punishment +consistent with that of the Remission of Sins? +And how, on the other hand, is not your scheme of +salvation ethically wrong, if it allows people, after +sinning all their lives, to be forgiven on their +death-beds, that so they may enter a Paradise, +wherein good and bad alike have a place?</q> +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>f</hi>) <emph>Faith and Belief.</emph> <q>What right have you +to ask us to believe anything that does not accord +with science and experience, when you have no +better opportunities of knowing than we?</q> +</p> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>g</hi>) <emph>Christian Ethics.</emph> <q>Some of these—e.g. the +doctrine of the Sermon on the Mount—we admit +to be good; but they are not peculiar to Christianity—our +own teaching is very similar. In other +of your ethics, we see only an ignoble and selfish +storing of treasure; it appears to us that a good +action, done for the sake of reward or gain, must +entirely lose its merit.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> + +<p> +(<hi rend='italic'>h</hi>) <emph>Missionary Work.</emph> <q>We do not claim that our +religion is the only way of salvation, but readily +recognize the good points in other systems as well. +You, on the contrary, appear to hold that there is +no other way but your own; and indeed it is only +on this supposition that we can understand the +strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to +abandon our religion for yours.</q><note place='foot'>I may +observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, +but of the <hi rend='italic'>Athanasian Creed</hi>, was quoted to me in this +connexion by a Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point +out to him,—how far convincingly I cannot say,—what at the +present day at least is generally recognized amongst us; that +for the Christian Church to warn her own children, in terms the +most emphatic just because the most loving, against becoming +entangled in the deadly errors prevalent at the time when the Creed +was drawn up, is a thing wholly distinct from passing any sentence +of eternal condemnation on, or, indeed, expressing any opinion as to +the future state of, such as live and die without ever having been +brought to a knowledge of the Faith. I added, of course, that any +acquaintance with the claims of Christianity is a responsibility for +which we believe all will have to give account.</note> +</p> + +<p> +It forms no part of my purpose to discuss these +objections; which, let me add, are merely representative, +and by no means exhaustive. With many +of them we are already familiar at home; and the +Japanese, I would mention, are fully aware of +the unbelief prevalent in England, and well +acquainted with its arguments. Indeed, few English +people, it is probable, have any idea how closely +their history and their literature are studied by +nations living at the other side of the globe, who +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +are to them simply <q>the heathen.</q> Some, again, +of the above objections would seem to have been +suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of +Christian truth. I have thought it worth while to +refer to them, in the hope that the fact of such +questions being raised may serve to impress upon +us these two important points:—(i) the need of +missionaries, at the present day, being not only +men of holy and devoted lives, but also fully equal +in intellectual equipment and culture to our home +clergy; and (ii) the fallacy of trusting to the +circulation of the Bible, as an instrument of +mission work, unless it be accompanied—or rather +preceded—by the teaching of the living agent. +</p> + +<p> +It must not, however, be imagined that the +obstacles to the progress of the Gospel in Japan are +wholly, or even mainly, of the character I have +referred to. Another great hindrance is most +unquestionably presented in the large number of +competing sects and organizations, which, here as in +other countries where mission work is being carried +on, address the people in the name of Christianity. +It is true that Buddhists themselves are divided +into numerous sects and schools; but between these +there can scarcely be said to be anything of party +animosity and strife. It will, indeed, be heard +with satisfaction that the feeling towards one +another of the various Christian bodies in Japan is, +speaking generally, free from bitterness; and that +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +each would appear desirous of doing its own work, +in the wide field before it, without interference +with the efforts of others. <q>The feeling here,</q> it +was observed to me, <q>is nothing like so bad as it +is at home.</q><note place='foot'>I doubt if +the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite +realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and +intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits +of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement +that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of +controversy as still remain.</note> And as in England bigotry and +suspicion are steadily giving place to mutual +toleration and respect, so may we hope that, both +in our colonies and abroad, counsels of charity may +more and more prevail. Still, at the best, so long +as Romanists, Orthodox, Anglicans, and Sectarians +adhere to the positions they at present occupy, so +long must any real unity of action be impossible; +neither can peace be sought by surrender or compromise +of principle. But meanwhile there is, of +course, a lamentable want of compactness among +the converts—as a recent writer in the <hi rend='italic'>Japan +Mail</hi>, remarked <q>they are more like scattered groups +of soldiers than an army</q>;—while the perplexity +occasioned to those we are seeking to convince is +terrible and great. +</p> + +<p> +The following extract from Miss Bickersteth's +recently-published <hi rend='italic'>Japan as we saw it</hi> (Sampson +Low, 1893), draws an able contrast between the +religious condition of Japan at the present day +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +and the position of Christianity in the time of +St. Francis Xavier. <q>It was impossible not to be +struck with the present complication of religious +matters in the country as compared with the days +of Xavier. Then, on the one side, there was the +Buddhist-Shinto creed, undermined by no Western +science, still powerful in its attraction for the +popular mind, and presenting a more or less solid +resistance to the foreign missionary; and, on +the other, Christianity as represented by Roman +Catholicism, imperfect truly, but without a rival in +dogma or in ritual. Now the ranks of Buddhist-Shintoism +are hopelessly broken; the superstition +of its votaries is exposed by the strong light of +modern science, and their enthusiasm too often +quenched in the deeper darkness of atheism. +Christianity, though present in much greater force +than in the days of Xavier, is, alas, not proportionately +stronger. The divisions of Christendom +are nowhere more evident than in its foreign +missions to an intellectual people like the Japanese. +The Greek, the Roman, the Anglican churches, the +endless <q>splits</q> of Nonconformity, must and do +present to the Japanese mind a bewildering +selection of possibilities in religious truth.</q> +</p> + +<p> +To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian +progress in Japan—which, although the last +mentioned, is by no means the least serious—I +mean the estimate formed by the natives of +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +the practical influence of the Christian religion +upon English people and upon other nations professing +it. Applying to Christianity the test of +its results, they urge that it has, at any rate, +only very partially succeeded. For instance, the +Japanese comment upon the fact that numbers +of Englishmen in Japan never attend the services +of their Church; and that the lives of many of +them display a flagrant disregard for the principles +which should regulate the conduct of Christians. +Without, however, denying either the justice of +these charges, or the reasonableness of the mood +which advances them, I think it may be urged +with fairness that the influence of Christianity on +us as a nation cannot rightly be estimated in this +particular way. As a rule, the Englishman can +scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. +Too often he assumes an attitude of insolent +superiority to the people whose guest he is; while +the position in which our countrymen are placed in +a country like Japan—coupled with the freedom +from restraint, so much greater than at home—has, +for reasons which we need not now enter into, its +peculiar difficulties. Neither is it by any means +certain that a Japanese, paying a short visit to +England, will gather any just impression of what +hold Christianity has on us as a people. In all +probability the range of his observations will be +very limited and superficial; his wanderings will +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +be chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the +principal cities; while the circle of his acquaintance +will, it is likely, be equally restricted, and +equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, +in saying this, we would seek to excuse ourselves, +or deny that there is far more truth than we could +wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges +brought against us. We would merely submit +that there is another side to the picture which +ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting +as we must, for instance, the great prevalence of +infidelity in our England of to-day, there is yet +to be placed over against it,—and may I not add, +drawing it out into the light?—the increased +activity of the Church during this last half-century, +the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting +herself to meet the needs of her times, the influence +for good that she has not only been in the past, but +remains at the present day, in the nation at large, +and in thousands and thousands of English homes. +<q>By their fruits ye shall know them</q>: and +Christianity must not and need not deprecate the +application of that test to herself. Only, we would +urge, that is not a fair judgment, which takes +account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ +has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, +in the strength of her Divine Head, she has been +permitted to accomplish. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>V. Christianity In Japan.</head> + +<p> +I propose now to place before my readers +some account of the various Missions at work +in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better +from having obtained, in the course of my visit, +a useful table, compiled by the Rev. H. Loomis, of +the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving +statistics of the different organizations up to the +beginning of the year 1893. The plan adopted by +Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three +classes: (1) <q>Protestant Missions,</q> (2) <q>Catholic +Missions,</q> and (3) <q>The Greek Church in Japan.</q> +Under the head of <q>Protestant Missions,</q> are included +the Church of England, the Episcopal +Church of America, a large number of other +American denominations, the Presbyterian Church +of Scotland, the Swiss Evangelical Protestant +Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., Universalists, +Unitarians and others; while under the +head of <q>Catholic Missions</q> we find particulars of +only one branch of the Holy Catholic Church—the +Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement +I should have made myself; but, as a matter of +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +convenience, we will follow it more or less closely.<note place='foot'>In +the course of a letter appearing in <hi rend='italic'>The Christian</hi> of April 20, +1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, <q>Let the <emph>forty thousand</emph> +Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the +country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be +founded.</q> But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership +of <q>Protestant Missions</q> at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church +at 20,300, and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty +thousand of these does Mr. Loomis—presumably—refuse the title of +<q>Christian</q>? and are we justified in acting thus towards any who +believe in the Holy Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the +Saviour of the World, Very God and Very Man?</note> +It is right to add that of the thirty <q>Protestant +Missions</q> seven are grouped together under the +title of the <q>Church of Christ in Japan,</q> and work, +it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian +principles. In the same way, the American +Episcopal Church, the Church of England—represented +by both the Church Missionary Society +and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel—and +the Mission of Wyckliffe College, Canada, +are associated together; leaving some twenty sects +working independently.<note place='foot'>Even Mr. Loomis' +list does not appear to be exhaustive! The +<q>Plymouth Brethren,</q> e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Before, however, proceeding to an examination +of Mr. Loomis' table, we must briefly observe the +past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates +from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, +seven years after the country was discovered by +the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +were permitted to prosecute their work without +molestation, and considerable progress was being +effected. A deputation of native priests appealed +to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. +With thirty-five religious sects already +represented in Japan, the country, he answered, +might very well find room for a thirty-sixth +religion, viz. Christianity. Presently, however, the +Jesuits being followed by the Dominicans and +Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, +elated by their success, some of the missionaries +began to adopt an attitude of high-handed intolerance +and interference. For the first time in their +history, the Japanese found themselves entangled +in all the turmoil and animosity of religious strife. +In 1587 the first persecution of the Christians took +place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, +however, was disregarded; and the fatal policy +of arrogance and oppression was still persisted in. +Native priests were put to death; Buddhist +monasteries were destroyed; the Inquisition was +set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese embassy +despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make +an act of submission to the spiritual supremacy of +the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, jealous of the +position that was being gained by the Portuguese +traders, accused the Roman propagandists to the +Japanese authorities of aiming at a territorial +ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +carried on by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the +Shogun there seems little doubt. In the massacre +which ensued several thousand Christians were put +to death. <q>Their unflinching devotion compels +our admiration. One may search the grim history +of early Christian martyrology without finding +anything to surpass the heroism of the Roman +Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on stakes made +of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they +yet refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit +priest, Christopher Ferreya, who, after enduring +horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet +in such a way that his head was buried in a hole +in the ground from which air and light were +excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he +might make the sign of recantation. He hung for +four hours, and then made the sign; whereupon, +with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed +the president of the tribunal before which Christians +were brought for condemnation. Then, after +a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in +armed rebellion. After two months they were +forced to surrender, and 37,000 were slaughtered. +Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the +admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being +made in favour of the Chinese and Dutch. For +more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood +beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, +containing, among other prohibitions, the following:—<q>So +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +long as the sun shall warm the earth, let no +Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let +all know that the King of Spain himself, or the +Christians' God, or the great God of all, if he violate +this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.</q> +For centuries the name <q>Christian</q> would blanch the +cheek and pale the lip. Christianity was remembered +only as an awful scar on the national +annals. But in the Southern Island the smouldering +fire was never quite extinguished; while, as recently +as 1829, six men and an old woman were +crucified at Osaka.</q><note place='foot'>The above is +an abridgement of a passage in the <hi rend='italic'>Conquests of the +Cross</hi> (Messrs. Cassell & Co.).</note> +</p> + +<p> +At the time of the closing of the country to +foreigners, an exception was made of the one port +of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, +when thousands of native Christians were hurled +from a rocky islet into the sea. Here, however, +as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were +the only Europeans permitted to trade; they being +closely confined to the small island of Deshima. +In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they +were subjected to the closest espionage, not being +suffered, under any circumstances, to pass beyond +the narrow limits assigned to them. Several times +in each year they were summoned before the +authorities, and required to tread under foot +the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +Faith. Several of the trampling-boards employed +on these occasions are still to be seen at the Ueno +Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, +quieted any qualms of conscience by regarding +their action as amounting to an abnegation, not of +Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until +thirty years ago that intercourse between Japan +and other nations began to be resumed; and that, +after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, +circumstances were brought about which enabled +both Roman Catholics and other Christians to work +without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against +Christianity was formally removed; and the release +from imprisonment and return from banishment +of hundreds of Christians took place. +</p> + +<p> +Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. +It has, indeed, its elements of glorious and heroic +martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on which +few of us can look back without a deep sense of +shame. Let us trust that by this time the people +of Japan have come to understand that the conflict +of their forefathers was not with Christianity, +but rather with Christians who had forgotten +<q>what spirit they were of.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Turning now to the condition of Christian +Missions at the present day, it seems right to +commence with those of the Roman Church. Not +only has the Roman Church in Japan a history +which extends over three hundred years, but it +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +reckons at the present time considerably more than +double the number of adherents claimed by any +other Christian body. The Roman influence has +been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in +the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted +labours of the missionaries have won over a considerable +portion of the population. +</p> + +<p> +To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, +three Bishops, seventy-eight missionary, and +fifteen native priests, with over 300 (native) minor +clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, +with 244 congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the +Order of St. Paul de Chartres are stationed in +Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. +Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, +with an average of over 100 children; twenty Industrial +Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a Hospital +for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with +sixty-two inmates, situated at Gotemba, at the +foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant baptisms +for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents +1,337, and Heathen parents 1,166; these, with +2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five <q>conversions +of heretics,</q> bringing the total of baptisms and conversions +for the year to 5,354. The work that is +being done by the Roman missionaries is commended +on all sides; a prominent feature in their +methods being a consideration for, and adaptation +to, the habits and prejudices of the people, that +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +greatly facilitate their progress, especially among +the poor of the country districts. The whole +number of Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as +has been said already, to about 45,000. +</p> + +<p> +I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, +or Orthodox Russian, Church in Japan; whose +relations with the Church of England are here, as +elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of +a very intimate character. Its head-quarters are +at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, situated on +high ground and in a central position, has recently +been erected. Unfortunately our information in this +case is very incomplete; but assuming the correctness +of the numbers before us, one is struck by the +paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and +three priests. To these must be added eighteen +native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers and +workers. There are in all 219 congregations. +The number of adult baptisms in 1892 is given as +952; and the total membership at the present time +exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they +indicate much activity and progress. The proximity +of Russian territory to Japan—Vladivostock +being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki—is, of +course, a circumstance highly favourable to the +Orthodox Mission. +</p> + +<p> +Coming now to the various bodies arranged by +Mr. Loomis under the title of <q>Protestant,</q> we +will take first the <hi rend='italic'>Nippon Sei Kokwai</hi>, or Church +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +of Japan, which is the name given to the union +formed by the Missions of the American Episcopal +Church, the Church of England, and the English +Church in Canada. It is, however, only fair to +say that the total number of adherents of the +Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the +number claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as +also by the Churches of the American Board's +Mission. The Missions, then, of the American +Church and of the Church of England are to +a great extent worked independently of each other, +each being under its own Episcopal control; but +at the same time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, +full intercommunion, and are practically one,—often +taking counsel together, and dividing the +various districts by mutual arrangement in such +a way as to make the best use of their resources. +To the American Church belongs the honour of +being the first body to commence Christian work in +Japan in the present century; the Rev. C. M. Williams, +afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, +establishing himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding +at once to translate portions of the Bible +and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit +of English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes +for the study of our language. There are now twelve +missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one female +missionaries; together with seven native clergy and +nineteen unordained workers and preachers. Of the +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +twenty-seven organized churches only one is +wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms +in 1892 was, adults 208, children fifty-eight; +while the total membership amounts to over 1,400, +with a like number of children receiving instruction +in Sunday Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming +was appointed missionary physician, and arrived +at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an +excellent work. A good deal of secular educational +work is also carried on in connexion with +the mission. +</p> + +<p rend="text-align: center"> +<figure url="images/map.png" rend="width: 100%"> + <head>Sketch Map of Japan.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration.</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> + +<p> +We next come to the work of the Church +Missionary Society, which commenced operations +in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two +missionary and seven native clergy engaged; forty-two +female missionaries, and sixty unordained +preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one +is self-supporting. The number of baptisms in +1892 was, adults 267, children 121; and the total +membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, +with 600 children in Sunday Schools. +</p> + +<p> +The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel +commenced work in 1873; and has its headquarters +at Tokio. The work of the two Community +Missions, founded by Bishop Bickersteth in +1887, is apparently included in the statistics assigned +to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At +St. Andrew's University Mission, five clergy—all +of whom are University Graduates,—live in community +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +with several native students preparing for +Ordination, while at St. Hilda's Mission, a staff of +English ladies is engaged in work, which includes +schools, a hospital, and a home for mission women. +Both these Missions are supported by the <q>Guild of +St. Paul,</q>—a society which has branches all over +England,—whose occasional papers are full of interesting +information. Several other priests of the +S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; +and these, with seven native ministers, make in +all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The +adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the +membership at the present time is given as 784. +</p> + +<p> +The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by +the Canadian Church in 1888. At present it +provides only three clergy, who are engaged at +Nagoya, a flourishing commercial city situated +about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. Bishop +Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, +refers to its work in hopeful and appreciative +terms. +</p> + +<p> +The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei +Kokwai will thus be seen to be about 4,300 (with +upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these the +Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At +the same time evidence is by no means lacking +that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly +sound principles and along right lines; and there +are many reasons for believing that, with adequate +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +resources, a future awaits it, under God, far exceeding +the calculations that might be suggested +by its present numerical strength. Some of the +readers of these pages may, possibly, be in greater +sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. +than of the C. M. S; but no consideration of this +sort should allow us to be inappreciative of the +splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the +past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. +Its chief centre in Japan is at Osaka, another huge +commercial city, some twenty miles from Kyoto +where there is a considerable European settlement. +Bishop Bickersteth—as does also the American +Bishop, Dr. Williams<note place='foot'>In the course +of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim +has been raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams +continuing to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two +new Anglican Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of +Kyushu and Yezo respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, +Examining Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been +connected with the C. M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874.</note>—resides +at Tokio, the capital; +where the services at St. Andrew's Church, adjoining +the Episcopal residence, are such as may well +gladden the heart of an English Churchman, who +finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, +I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking +feature of the Nippon Sei Kokwai is presented +in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which +have already been held. The Synods are composed +of clergy and laity, every congregation of twenty +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +persons being entitled to send its representative; +and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, +if ever, attained to by so youthful a Church. +In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is +not to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to +form a <q>branch of the Church of England,</q> but to +establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic +Christianity which we believe the Church of England +faithfully represents, a <emph>Japanese Church</emph>, which may +be committed, as soon as ever circumstances allow, +entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves. +</p> + +<p> +The Bishop's Pastoral Letter to his Clergy +(Advent 1892) treats, among other matters, of the +Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament +Criticism,—in the course of his comments upon +which, he makes the quotation, <q>The central object +of our Faith is not the Bible, but our Lord</q>—and +of the Bishop of Lincoln's case. It exhibits +throughout a tone of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified +prudence, and of Apostolic charity. The +Bishop's observations on the confirmation by the +Privy Council of the Lambeth Judgment will be +read with satisfaction by many:— +</p> + +<p> +<q>The principle of allowed variety in matters +of ritual has now been authoritatively recognized. +Such recognition is essential to the welfare of a +great and living Church in our day. Among other +good results which may follow from the decision, +I cannot but hope will be the liberation of the +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +energies and interests of a great and historic party, +hitherto far too closely confined within the boundaries +of our own country, for wider and more +extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its +own position is now legally secured. Any outstanding +questions of ritual could be speedily +settled by the application to them of the same +principles which are embodied in the recent judgments. +This is so plain that probably no such +decisions will be challenged. May it not then be +hoped that there will shortly be a marked cessation +of controversy at home, as for some years past +we are told there has been in our sister Church +in the United States, and coincidently a far more +determined effort on the part of the whole Church +than has yet been known, inspired and sustained +by the Holy Spirit of Truth, to win the East to the +Faith of Christ?</q> +</p> + +<p> +We come next to the <hi rend='italic'>Church of Christ in Japan</hi>, +another amalgamation of religious bodies; comprising, +in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the +United States, two or three other American sects, +and the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. +By far the greater number of denominations +engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this +is, practically, an American work; the Scotch +Presbyterians being represented by only two missionaries +with a single station, and only joining +the Mission in 1875—fifteen years after two of the +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +American bodies had commenced their work. The +number of male missionaries in connexion with +this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these +must be added fifty-three native ministers, 100 +female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and +workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no +less than one-third are wholly self-supporting. Baptisms +in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; and +the total present membership amounts to 11,190, +with over 2,000 children in Sunday Schools. The +fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have recently +adopted the Apostles' Creed as their Confession of +Faith, in place of the formularies with which their +bodies have hitherto been associated, is hardly the +occasion for satisfaction that would at first sight +appear; the course in question being, I understand, +to some extent due to the prevalence of +views similar to those held by a large number +of the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall +presently refer. The work of the Presbyterians +however, must be accounted among the most +successful efforts for the evangelization of the +country; while they have had from the beginning +the advantage of being supported by men of +national reputation and position. +</p> + +<p> +We come now to the <hi rend='italic'>Kumi-ai Churches</hi> in connexion +with the American Board's Mission; i.e. the +Congregationalists. This work owes its foundation +to a Japanese gentleman,—a Mr. Neesima,—who +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +was converted to Christianity, whilst on a visit to +America. Its head-quarters are at Kyoto. Starting +in 1869—several years after the Presbyterians, their +relations with whom are of a cordial character,—the +Congregationalists very closely approach them in +numerical strength. The Mission is worked by +twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native +ministers; with fifty-seven female missionaries and +100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches +one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of +the converts belonging to the middle and upper +classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and +sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with +upwards of 6,000 children in Sunday Schools. In +connexion with this Mission is a large college, in +which the greater number of the students are +Christians, and many of these candidates for the +ministry; and mention must also be made of two +hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. +The above figures, without doubt, bear witness to +great energy on the part of the Congregationalist +body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves +compelled to regard them with somewhat modified +satisfaction. +</p> + +<p> +<q>Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly +felt that systems which do not definitely teach +the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene +Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals +from the moral teaching which they impart, are +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +not merely negative in tendency and results, but +retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in +Eastern lands.</q> Such are the weighty words of +Bishop Bickersteth,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Pastoral +Letter to his Clergy</hi>, Advent, 1892.</note> the occasion which drew them +forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists +of Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:—<q>We +believe (i) in the One God, (ii) in Jesus Christ +who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the +Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) +in the Bible which shews us the way of salvation, +and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in +punishments and rewards given by God according +to our merits, in everlasting life if we are righteous, +and in the Resurrection of the Dead.</q> Several of +the clauses in this statement are open to grave +objection; but the fact that the second clause was +deliberately adopted in place of the words, <q>in +Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, +Who suffered and died to atone for the sins of the +world</q>—an alteration which was heartily welcomed +by the Unitarians of Japan—is full of painful +significance. The Bishop, while expressing his +thankfulness that there are large numbers in the +Congregationalist body, who have no share in the +prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing +with others, with whom this is not the case, +nothing can be gained by any attempt at co-operation. +<q>At such times a severe exclusiveness +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +may be the truest exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy.</q> +</p> + +<p> +To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we +can only very briefly refer. The American Methodist +Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and +twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; +and a total following of nearly 4,000, exclusive of +children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian Methodists +number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist +Missionary Union (U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other +American sects place their total at 500 each. The +German Swiss Protestants number 240; the <q>Universalists</q> +seventy-eight; and the Society of +Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The Scandinavian +Church, whose mission has only recently commenced +its work, has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians +are represented by two ministers—my only +reason for mentioning these last-named bodies +together being that no further particulars of either +are to hand. +</p> + +<p> +But it is time to be bringing these remarks to +a conclusion. We may, then, declare the total +number in Japan of those professing Christianity +in any form—[I should, by the way, have mentioned +that the number of male converts would +appear to exceed by about one-third the number of +women,]—to be not more than 100,000; while the +entire population of the country is estimated at +from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other words, +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +not more than one person in every 400 can be said +to be, in any sense, a Christian. I emphasize this +fact, not because I think it discouraging, but +because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause +of Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already +won. That Japan has still great changes and +developments to undergo in the near future scarcely +admits of question. <q>The nation is working out +its spiritual redemption;</q> and, as Mr. Loomis well +says in his letter to <hi rend='italic'>The Christian</hi> before referred +to, <q>As Japanese society advances, there will be all +the more a place for Christian influence. <emph>The +social problems of the people can only find solution +through religion.</emph></q> We may well believe and hope +that, as time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ +and of His Church will more and more prevail. So, +too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been +laid, and that some real and steady progress has +been effected; we may hope that more is, even now, +being accomplished by the leaven of influence than +can at present find place in tables and statistics. +And yet, as we look the position boldly in the face, +we must see that elements to occasion anxiety +are by no means lacking; and especially must we +see how much more remains to be done that has +already been achieved. The possibility of some +form of Christianity being adopted as the national +religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which +it is extremely difficult to express an opinion, +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +until the proposition assumes a more definite +shape than is likely for some time to be the case. +</p> + +<p> +That both Christianity and Christians are subjected +to searching criticism at the hands of the +more educated natives we have already seen; +while, from time to time, tidings are received of +bitter opposition encountered by those engaged in +the work of evangelization among the poor of the +country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of +accommodation to which we have several times referred, +as forming so striking a feature of the +system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to +maintain its position in Japan, by a re-statement +of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself in +accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, +which have found such favour and acceptance with +the educated classes. At the same time, there is, +without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout +Japan—in many cases most reluctantly arrived at—that +the former ascendency of Buddhism has for +ever passed away. <q>A dull apathy as regards +religion has settled down upon the educated classes +of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to +nothing before modern science and civilization, +and the glimmer of light and truth to which they +pointed has gone as well.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Occasional +Paper</hi>, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893.</note> Sometimes, again, +Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms +which encourage us to hope that there are those +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> +who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive +step, are still <q>not far from the kingdom of God.</q> +Take, for examples, these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. +<q>It is the glory of mankind that Jesus lived. +Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did +Christ's teaching come from man, or from above +man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ should +influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and +wisest morality of the world appears. So simple is +it, so easily understood and applied. <q>Love God +and love man,</q> as central principles, suffice to +regenerate society and lead men to heaven. Christ's +character and teachings stand for ever.</q> +</p> + +<p> +With a brief reference to one or two further +points suggested by Mr. Loomis' table, I will bring +this, my last chapter, to a close. One of these is +the distinction he draws—and it is a distinction +quite worth drawing—between married and unmarried +missionaries. Of course, the Roman clergy +are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries +of the Orthodox Church; but when we come to the +<q>Protestant Missions,</q> we find the numbers of +married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and +thirty-seven respectively. Indeed, with the exception +of the Church of England, the Scandinavian +Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal +Church, which supply six each, there is no mission +with more than two unmarried clergy, and several +have not even one. Now it is certain that this is +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +not the way in which great mission work has been +done in the past; but is the newer way better than +the old? Beyond observing that the presence of +female missionaries is in a very special degree +needed in Japan, be they the wives of the clergy or +not, I will not presume to answer that question +myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record +the opinion, emphatically expressed to me, of one +who has lived in the East for a great many years, +and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory +celibacy of the Roman priesthood. <q>It is,</q> he +remarked, <q>far too hastily assumed that the fact of +the married missionary usually bringing another +valuable ally to the work sufficiently determines the +question. But I am convinced that, speaking +generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that +wider opportunities of usefulness are extended. +Nor is it merely that his movements are entirely +free and unhampered—that he is exempt from +domestic obligations and anxieties—that he has +more time for study—and that he is thrown more +in the society of his brother clergy. As a man's +children begin to grow up, educational and other +considerations in connexion with these, urge upon +him the desirability of returning home, with the +result that, just as he has begun to master the +difficulties of language, and to enter into the +thought and habits of the people, his place is taken +by a tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +have all his experience to gain.</q> No doubt, there +is plenty of room for both married and unmarried +clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance +of the married in the case before us +may well serve to suggest the consideration:—Might +not more of that large and possibly increasing +number of unmarried clergy in England be drawn +to take part in a work of such fascinating interest—<q><emph>a +work</emph>,</q> if I may once more quote the words of +our Bishop in Japan, <q><emph>that must be done at once if +it is to be done at all</emph>.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us +as we examine Mr. Loomis' statistics, is the large +number of <q>dismissals and exclusions</q> made by +those bodies which supply information under this +head, and amounting in some cases to several +hundreds in a year. That such measures are +not resorted to without grave reason may be +assumed, and that some exercise of discipline is +especially necessary in dealing with a young and +nascent church admits of no dispute. There is +indeed every reason to hope that by far the greater +number of converts are actuated by an intense +sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the +self-sacrifice to which they, in many ways, readily +submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, at +the same time, it is probable that the numbers in +question indicate an even larger proportion of +<q>failures,</q> than is the case with mission work +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +generally; and that they point not only to losses +through <q>back-sliding,</q> but to many instances of +insincerity on the part of those professing conversion. +It has been remarked that it does not belong +to the Japanese temperament to <q>take things <foreign rend='italic'>au +grand serieux</foreign>;</q> and this characteristic extends to +matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, +who, for some reason or another, thinks it <q>worth +his while</q> to conform to Christianity for a time, +will have the very smallest scruples about doing so; +and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will +baffle, at any rate for some time, the careful +scrutiny to which candidates are rightly subjected +by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. +The missionaries, I fear, are often imposed on; and +yet—anything, surely, is better than being over +suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to +do is to show these different nations to whom we +go, that Christ and His Church, and we, His +members, do really care for them, alike in things +temporal and eternal. Our Faith, to be really +preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully practised. +And especially in Japan, where the only idea that +such a phrase as <q>eternal life</q> would commonly +suggest is that of a series of painful and endless +transmigrations, must Christianity be ready to +prove herself man's friend in the things of this life, +if she would be looked to with confidence for the +things that lie beyond. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='a01'/><anchor id='Pga01'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</head> + +<p> +Church Hymns. +</p> + +<p> +New Edition. Containing 658 Hymns. +</p> + +<p> +Words Only. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition A.</hi> Long Primer, demy 18mo. +In various bindings from 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> to 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition B.</hi> Small Pica, small post 8vo. +In various bindings from 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +to 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition C.</hi> Pearl, medium 32mo. +Paper cover, 1<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi>; limp cloth, cut flush, +2<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition D.</hi> Diamond, medium 32mo. +Limp cloth, cut flush, 4<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Words And Music. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition E.</hi> Nonpareil 8vo. +In various bindings from 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 4<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +to 5<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>Edition F.</hi> Long Primer, Imperial 16mo. +In various bindings from 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +to 9<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='a02'/><anchor id='Pga02'/> + +<p> +Works By Mrs. Rundle Charles, Author Of +<q>The Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Beatitudes. Thoughts for All Saints' Day. Post 8vo. +<hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<q>By the Mystery of Thy Holy Incarnation.</q> Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth +boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<q>By Thy Cross and Passion.</q> Thoughts on the words spoken +around and on the Cross. Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<q>By Thy Glorious Resurrection and Ascension.</q> Easter +Thoughts. Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<q>By the Coming of the Holy Ghost.</q> Thoughts for Whitsuntide. +Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The True Vine. Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The Great Prayer of Christendom. Thoughts on the Lord's +Prayer. 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Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Three Martyrs of the Nineteenth Century. Studies from the +Lives of Gordon, Livingstone, and Patteson. Crown 8vo. +<hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Martyrs and Saints of the First Twelve Centuries. Studies +from the Lives of the Black-letter Saints of the English +Calendar. Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Against the Stream. The Story of an Heroic Age in England. +With eight page woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Conquering and to Conquer. A Story of Rome in the days of +St. Jerome. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Attila and his Conquerors. A Story of the days of St. Patrick +and St. Leo the Great. Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='a03'/><anchor id='Pga03'/> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Early Christian Missions of Ireland, Scotland, and England.</hi> +Crown 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Lapsed, not Lost.</hi> A Story of Roman Carthage. Crown 8vo. +<hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Within the Veil.</hi> Studies in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Post +8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Book of the Unveiling.</hi> Studies in the Revelation of St. +John the Divine. Post 8vo. <hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Lady Augusta Stanley.</hi> Reminiscences. 18mo. +<hi rend='italic'>Limp cloth.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Sketches of the Women of Christendom.</hi> Crown 8vo. +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Thoughts and Characters.</hi> Being Selections from the Writings +of Mrs. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Charles</hi>. Crown 8vo. +<hi rend='italic'>Cloth boards.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Early Britain. +</p> + +<p> +This Series has for its aim the presentation of Early Britain at great historic +periods. Each volume is the work of an accredited specialist, and the +whole gives the result of recent critical examinations of our Early Records. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Anglo-Saxon Britain.</hi> By the late +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Grant Allen</hi>. With Map. +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Celtic Britain.</hi> By Professor +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Rhys</hi>. With two Maps. 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Norman Britain.</hi> By the Rev. W. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Hunt</hi>. With Map. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Post-Norman Britain.</hi> By +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Henry G. Hewlett</hi>. With Map. 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Roman Britain.</hi> By the Rev. E. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Conybeare</hi>. With Map. 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Roman Roads in Britain.</hi> By +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Thomas Codrington</hi>, M.Inst. +C.E., F.G.S. With several Maps. 5<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Conversion Of The West. +</p> + +<p> +These are intended to show the condition of the chief races of the West before +they were brought into contact with Christianity; and how their Conversion +was brought about, and the immediate results. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards, 2s. each.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Continental Teutons</hi>, by the late Very +Rev. C. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Merivale</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The English</hi>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Maclear</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Northmen</hi>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Maclear</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Slavs</hi>, by the late Rev. G. F. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Maclear</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<pb n='a04'/><anchor id='Pga04'/> + +<p> +The Dawn Of European Literature. +</p> + +<p> +A set of Works designed to present the chief races of Europe as they emerge +out of pre-historic darkness into the light furnished by their earliest recorded +words. +</p> + +<p> +Post 8vo, cloth boards, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +Anglo Saxon Literature. By the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Earle</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +French Literature. By the late <hi rend='smallcaps'>Gustave Masson</hi>, B.A. +</p> + +<p> +Slavonic Literature. By W. R. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Morfill</hi>, M.A. +</p> + +<p> +The Greek Epic. By George C. W. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Warr</hi>, M.A. +3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +The Fathers For English Readers. +</p> + +<p> +A Series of Monograms on the Chief Fathers of the Church, the Fathers selected +being centres of influence at important periods of Church History, and in +important spheres of action. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Boniface</hi>. By the Rev. Canon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Gregory Smith</hi>. 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Clement of Alexandria</hi>. By the +Rev. F. R. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Montgomery +Hitchcock</hi>, B.D. 3<hi rend='italic'>s</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Leo the Great</hi>. By the Right +Rev. C. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Gore</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Gregory the Great</hi>. By the +late Rev. J. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Barmby</hi>, B.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Ambrose</hi>: his Life, +Times, and Teaching. By +the Rev. R. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Thornton</hi>, +D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Athanasius</hi>: his Life +and Times. By the Rev. R. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Wheler Bush</hi>. +2<hi rend='italic'>s</hi>. 6<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Augustine</hi>. By the late +Rev. E. L. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Cutts</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Basil the Great</hi>. By the +Rev. R. T. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Smith</hi>, B.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Bernard</hi>: Abbot of +Clairvaux, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1091-1153. +By Rev. S. J. Eales. 2<hi rend='italic'>s</hi>. 6<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Jerome</hi>. By the late Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Edward L. Cutts</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Hilary of Poitiers, and +Saint Martin of Tours.</hi> +By the Rev. J. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Gibson +Cazenove</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint John of Damascus</hi>. By +the Rev. J. H. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Lupton</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Saint Patrick</hi>: his Life and +Teaching. By the Rev. E. J. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Newell</hi>, M.A. +2<hi rend='italic'>s</hi>. 6<hi rend='italic'>d</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Synesius of Cyrene</hi>, Philosopher +and Bishop. By +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Alice Gardner</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Apostolic Fathers</hi>. By +the Rev. Canon <hi rend='smallcaps'>Scott +Holland.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Defenders of the Faith</hi>; +or, The Christian Apologists +of the Second and Third +Centuries. By the Rev. F. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Watson</hi>, D.D. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Venerable Bede</hi>. By the +Right Rev. G. F. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Browne</hi>. +</p> + +<pb n='a05'/><anchor id='Pga05'/> + +<p> +The History Of The Ancient +Peoples Of The Classic East. +</p> + +<p> +By Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Maspero</hi>. Edited by the Rev. Professor +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Sayce</hi>. +Translated by <hi rend='smallcaps'>M. L. McClure</hi>. Each volume contains Maps, +coloured Plates, and numerous other Illustrations. +</p> + +<p> +Demy 4to, cloth, bevelled boards. +</p> + +<p> +Volume I. <hi rend='bold'>The Dawn of Civilization: Egypt and Chaldaea.</hi> +Fourth Edition. 24<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi>; half-morocco, 48<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Volume II. <hi rend='bold'>The Struggle of the Nations: Egypt, Syria, and +Assyria.</hi> 25<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi>; half-morocco, 50<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Volume III. <hi rend='bold'>The Passing of the Empires, 850 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>—330 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi></hi> +25<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi>; half-morocco, 50<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Ancient History From The +Monuments. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Assyria, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh.</hi> +By the late <hi rend='smallcaps'>George Smith</hi>, of the British Museum. A New +and Revised Edition, by the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Sayce</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Sinai, from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty to the Present +Day.</hi> By the late <hi rend='smallcaps'>Henry S. Palmer</hi>. A New Edition, +revised throughout by the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Sayce</hi>. With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Babylonia (The History of).</hi> By the late +<hi rend='smallcaps'>George Smith</hi>. +Edited and brought up to date by the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Sayce</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Persia, from the Earliest Period to the Arab Conquest.</hi> By +the late <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. S. W. Vaux, M.A.</hi> A New and Revised Edition, +by the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Sayce</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The <q>Higher Criticism</q> and the Verdict of the Monuments.</hi> +By the Rev. Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. H. Sayce</hi>. Demy 8vo. Buckram, +bevelled boards, 7<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='a06'/><anchor id='Pga06'/> + +<p> +Chief Ancient Philosophies. +</p> + +<p> +This Series deals with the chief systems of Ancient Thought, not merely as dry +matters of History, but as having a bearing on Modern Speculation. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Neoplatonism.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='bold'>C. Bigg, D.D.</hi> +3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Platonism.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Thomas B. Strong, +M.A.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Epicureanism.</hi> By the late Professor +<hi rend='smallcaps'>William Wallace</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Stoicism.</hi> By Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. W. Capes</hi>, +Fellow of Hertford College. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Aristotelianism.</hi> The Ethics of Aristotle. By the Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>I. Gregory Smith</hi>. The Logical Treatises, the Metaphysics, +the Psychology, the Politics. By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. Grundy</hi>. +</p> + +<p> +Diocesan Histories. +</p> + +<p> +This Series furnishes a perfect Library of English Ecclesiastical History. Each +volume is complete in itself, and the possibility of repetition has been carefully +guarded against. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Bath and Wells.</hi> By the Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>W. Hunt</hi>. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Canterbury.</hi> By the late Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>R. C. Jenkins.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Carlisle.</hi> By the late <hi rend='smallcaps'>Richard +S. Ferguson.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Chester.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='italic'>Rupert +H. Morris.</hi> With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Chichester.</hi> By the late Very +Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. R. W. Stephens.</hi> +With Map and Plan. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Durham.</hi> By Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>J. L. Low.</hi> +With Map and Plan. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Hereford.</hi> By the late Rev. +Canon <hi rend='smallcaps'>Phillpott.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Lichfield.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. +Beresford.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Lincoln.</hi> By the late Rev. Canon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>E. Venables</hi>, and the late +Ven. Archdeacon <hi rend='smallcaps'>Perry</hi>. +With Map. 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Llandaff.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>E. J. +Newell, M.A.</hi> With Map. +3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Norwich.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. +Jessopp, D.D.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Oxford.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>E. Marshall.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Peterborough.</hi> By the Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>G. A. Poole, M.A.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Rochester.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. J. +Pearman.</hi> With Map. 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Salisbury.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. H. +Jones.</hi> With Map. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Sodor and Man.</hi> By <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. W. +Moore, M.A.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>St. Asaph.</hi> By the Ven. Archdeacon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Thomas</hi>. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>St. David's.</hi> By the Rev. Canon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Bevan</hi>. With Map. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Winchester.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. +Benham, B.D.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Worcester.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>I. +Gregory Smith</hi> and Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Phipps Onslow</hi>. 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>York.</hi> By the Rev. Canon +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Ornsby, M.A., F.S.A.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='a07'/><anchor id='Pga07'/> + +<p> +Non-Christian Religious Systems. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, cloth boards, 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Buddhism</hi>: being a sketch of the Life and Teachings of Gautama, +the Buddha. By <hi rend='smallcaps'>T. W. Rhys Davids</hi>, M.A., Ph.D. With +Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Buddhism in China.</hi> By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>S. Beal.</hi> +With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Christianity and Buddhism: a Comparison and a Contrast.</hi> By +the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>T. Sterling Berry, D.D.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Confucianism and Taouism.</hi> By Professor <hi rend='smallcaps'>Robert +K. Douglas</hi>, of the British Museum. With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Hinduism.</hi> By the late Sir +<hi rend='smallcaps'>M. Monier-Williams, M.A., D.C.L.</hi> With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Islam and its Founder.</hi> By <hi rend='smallcaps'>J. W. H. +Stobart.</hi> With Map. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Islam as a Missionary Religion.</hi> By +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Charles R. Haines.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Studies of Non-Christian Religions.</hi> By +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Eliot Howard.</hi> 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Coran:</hi> its Composition and Teaching, and the Testimony it +bears to the Holy Scriptures. By Sir <hi rend='smallcaps'>William Muir, K.C.S.I.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Religion of the Crescent, or Islam:</hi> its Strength, its Weakness, +its Origin, its Influence. By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>W. St. Clair +Tisdall, M.A.</hi> 4<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +Colonial Church Histories. +</p> + +<p> +Fcap. 8vo, with Map, cloth boards. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Diocese of Mackenzie River</hi>, by the Right Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>W. C. Bompas, +D.D.</hi>, Bishop of the Diocese. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>New Zealand</hi>, by the late Very Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Henry Jacobs, D.D.</hi>, Dean +of Christchurch. Containing the Dioceses of Auckland, Christchurch, +Dunedin, Nelson, Waiapu, Wellington and Melanesia. 5<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>History of the Church in Eastern Canada and Newfoundland</hi>, +by the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>J. Langtry.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Church in the West Indies</hi>, +by the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. Caldecott. +B.D.</hi> 3<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Story of the Australian Church,</hi> +by the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>E. Symonds.</hi> +2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<pb n='a08'/><anchor id='Pga08'/> + +<p> +Early Church Classics. +</p> + +<p> +Small post 8vo, cloth boards, 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>A Homily of Clement of Alexandria</hi>, entitled, Who is the Rich +Man that is Being Saved? By Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>P. Mordaunt Barnard.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>Bishop Sarapion's Prayer-Book</hi>: An Egyptian Pontifical dated +probably about 350-356 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> Translated from the Edition of +Dr. <hi rend='smallcaps'>G. Wobbermin</hi>. With Introduction, Notes, and Indices, +by the Right Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>John Wordsworth, D.D.</hi> +1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>St. Cyprian on the Lord's Prayer.</hi> An English Translation +with Introduction. By the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>T. Herbert Bindley, +M.A., D.D.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna.</hi> By the Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Blomfield Jackson, M.A.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles.</hi> Translated into English, +with Introduction and Notes, by the Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>Charles Bigg, D.D.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Epistle of St. Clement, Bishop of Rome.</hi> By the Rev. +John <hi rend='smallcaps'>A. F. Gregg, M.A.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>St. Augustine's Treatise on the City of God.</hi> +By Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>F. R. M. +Hitchcock, M.A., B.D.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Epistle of the Gallican Churches</hi>: Lugdunum and Vienna. +With an Appendix containing Tertullian's Address to Martyrs +and the Passion of St. Perpetua. Translated, with Introduction +and Notes, by Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>T. Herbert Bindley, D.D.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Epistles of St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch.</hi> +By Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>J. H. +Srawley, M.A.</hi> In two volumes. 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> each. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Liturgy of the Eighth Book of <q>the Apostolic Constitutions,</q></hi> +commonly called the Clementine Liturgy. Translated +into English, with Introduction and Notes, by Rev. <hi rend='smallcaps'>R. H. +Cresswell, M.A.</hi> 1<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> 6<hi rend='italic'>d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='bold'>The Shepherd of Hermas.</hi> By the Rev. +<hi rend='smallcaps'>C. Taylor, D.D.</hi>, Master +of St. John's College, Cambridge. Vol. I. 2<hi rend='italic'>s.</hi> +</p> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> diff --git a/28598-tei/images/altar.png b/28598-tei/images/altar.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..059306c --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/altar.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/buddhist-priest.png b/28598-tei/images/buddhist-priest.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c0caa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/buddhist-priest.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/daibatsu.png b/28598-tei/images/daibatsu.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b90b96f --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/daibatsu.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/guardian-nio.png b/28598-tei/images/guardian-nio.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..35869e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/guardian-nio.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/ikegami-temple.png b/28598-tei/images/ikegami-temple.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8d93d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/ikegami-temple.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/kiyomizu-dera.png b/28598-tei/images/kiyomizu-dera.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ff91c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/kiyomizu-dera.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/kwannon.png b/28598-tei/images/kwannon.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8d5327 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/kwannon.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/map.png b/28598-tei/images/map.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..89f3cb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/map.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/pagoda.png b/28598-tei/images/pagoda.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3045b80 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/pagoda.png diff --git a/28598-tei/images/shinto-priests.png b/28598-tei/images/shinto-priests.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..182a9fd --- /dev/null +++ b/28598-tei/images/shinto-priests.png diff --git a/28598.txt b/28598.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..151a5b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/28598.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3271 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Religion in Japan by George A. Cobbold, +B.A. + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Religion in Japan + +Author: George A. Cobbold, B.A. + +Release Date: April 24, 2009 [Ebook #28598] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + + + + Religion in Japan: + + Shintoism--Buddhism--Christianity. + + By + + George A. Cobbold, B.A. + + Pembroke College, Oxford + + With Illustrations. + + Printed Under The Direction of the Tract Committee. + + London: + + Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, + + Northumberland Avenue, W.C.; 43, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. + + Brighton: 129, North Street + + New York: E. S. Gorham + + 1905 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Introductory. +I. Shintoism. +II. Buddhism. +III. Buddhism In Japan. +IV. Buddhism And Christianity. +V. Christianity In Japan. +Publications Of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. +Footnotes + + + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +It may well be questioned whether, in the course of a like period of time, +any country has ever undergone greater transitions, or made more rapid +strides along the path of civilization than has Japan during the last +quarter of a century. A group of numerous islands, situated on the +high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic across the Pacific, between +the Eastern and Western hemispheres, and in area considerably exceeding +Great Britain and Ireland,--Japan, until thirty years ago, was a _terra +incognita_ to the rest of the world; exceeding even China in its +conservatism and exclusiveness. And now, within a space of some +five-and-twenty years, such changes have come about as to have given birth +to the expression,--"the transformation of Japan." The more conspicuous of +these changes are summed up by a recent writer in the following +words:--"New and enlightened criminal codes have been enacted; the methods +of judicial procedure have been entirely changed; thoroughly efficient +systems of police, of posts, of telegraphs, and of national education have +been organized; an army and a navy modelled after Western patterns have +been formed; the finances of the Empire have been placed on a sound basis; +railways, roads, and harbours have been constructed; an efficient +mercantile marine has sprung into existence; the jail system has been +radically improved; an extensive scheme of local government has been put +into operation; a competitive civil service has been organized; the whole +fiscal system has been revised; an influential and widely-read newspaper +press has grown up with extraordinary rapidity; and government by +parliament has been substituted for monarchical absolutism."(1) At the +present day, an Englishman travelling in Japan is constantly meeting +numbers of his countrymen, intent on either business or pleasure; while at +all the principal cities and places of resort, handsome new hotels, fitted +in Western style, are to be found. The Mikado may be seen driving through +his Capital in a carriage that would not be out of place in the Parks of +London or Paris; and at Court ceremonies European dress is _de rigueur_. +English is taught in all the better-class schools, and at the Universities +the works of such authors as Bacon, Locke, Macaulay, Darwin, John Stuart +Mill, Herbert Spencer, are in constant request with the students. In +short, on every side evidence is afforded, that be it for better or for +worse, the old order is fast changing and giving place to new. + +The circumstances which have brought about these wonderful changes can +only be very briefly indicated here. It was towards the middle of the +sixteenth century that Japan first came into contact with the Western +world; the first traders to arrive being the Portuguese, who were followed +some sixty years later by the Dutch, and in 1613 by a few English ships. +To all of these alike a hospitable reception appears to have been +accorded; nor is there any doubt that Japanese exclusiveness was a thing +of subsequent growth, and that it was based only on a sincere conviction +that the nation's well-being and happiness would be best consulted by +refusing to have dealings with the outer world. And indeed, that the +Japanese should have arrived at this decision is by no means to be +wondered at; their first experience of foreign intercourse having been +singularly unfortunate. The unhappy breach, which eventually led to Japan +entirely closing her ports to foreign traffic, was, it would seem, due +partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance and general interference +adopted by certain of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who by this time +had arrived in the country: and partly to the insinuations made by the +Dutch that the Portuguese were aiming at territorial aggrandizement. +Anyhow, in 1624, Japan was entirely closed to foreign trade, save for some +concessions,--accompanied by the severest restrictions,--permitted to the +Dutch; no foreigners were allowed to enter, and no natives to leave, the +empire; the missionaries were expelled, and Christianity was prohibited +under pain of death. The Japanese, as has been said, "suspected everybody +and shut out the world." Previous to this crisis the English had retired; +but when, in 1673, our country sought to resume friendly relations, the +connexion existing between the English and Portuguese courts proved an +insuperable obstacle.(2) Subsequent overtures made in 1849, were +courteously but firmly rejected; though the period of Japan's isolation +was, as later events proved, almost at an end. In 1853, the Government of +the United States despatched a fleet across the Pacific, under the command +of Commodore Perry, to insist upon the surrender of a policy which, it was +urged, no one nation of the world had a right to adopt towards the rest. +Whether the arguments with which this position was advanced would of +themselves have prevailed, is impossible to say; but since it was evident +that should words fail, sterner measures would be resorted to, Japan had +no choice but to submit. Treaties were accordingly concluded, first with +the United States, and subsequently with England and other European +powers; by virtue of which a few ports were grudgingly opened, and +Japanese subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions with the +outside world. For the first few years, it is certain that a strong +feeling of suspicion and dislike towards foreigners was rife; but in 1868 +events occurred which brought about a complete change in the whole +situation. For some six hundred years a dual system of government had +existed in Japan. On the one hand, was the Mikado, supposed to trace a +lineage of unbroken descent from the gods, and accorded a veneration +semi-divine, but living in seclusion at the city of Kyoto, with such +powers of administration as he still retained confined to matters of +religion and education. On the other hand, was the Shogun, or Tycoon, the +acknowledged head of a feudalism, which, while nominally recognizing the +Mikado's authority, had usurped the sovereign power, and really governed +the country. But in 1868, the altered circumstances in which Japan found +herself brought about a revolution. The ancient nobility were filled with +indignation and disgust at the Tycoon so far violating Japanese tradition +as to enter into treaties with foreign countries; and, as a consequence of +this rupture, the Shogunate, whose power had for some time been waning, +completely collapsed. The Mikado was restored to imperial power, and at +once entered upon a policy which has been consistently adhered to, and +received with favour by the people generally, who had grown impatient of +the restraint which environed them. That policy may be termed the +Europeanization of the Empire; and in it we have the explanation of the +Japan of to-day. + +It is not surprising that the interest excited in England, with regard to +a country which has experienced such remarkable changes, should be of the +greatest--especially when it is remembered in how large a degree English +influence has contributed to produce them. We may be certain, also, that +the still further developments the future has in store, will be followed +in our own country with a close attention. Equally natural is it that, in +these days of so great fashion and facility for travelling, increasing +numbers of English people should avail themselves of the opportunity of +exploring a country so entirely unique, and so rich in its attractions of +nature and of art. These circumstances have combined to call into +existence a large number of books on Japan, from which any, who are unable +to visit it in person, may obtain as good an idea as is possible by +reading of the country, its people, and its customs. Indeed it is by no +means easy for any writer now to fasten upon an aspect of the subject, in +which he does not find himself forestalled. That, however, on which, so +far as I understand, least has been written, is precisely that towards +which my own main attention was directed from the time of my leaving +England, and throughout the period of my visit to the country,--namely, the +_religious_ aspect. That the following pages must be very imperfect in the +statement they supply, I am well aware; and that, despite my efforts to +obtain trustworthy information, they will not prove free from inaccuracy +or mistake is extremely probable. But I was induced to enter upon their +preparation by a series of circumstances that appeared to favour such a +task, and need not be specified here. For the material supplied to me, +however, by one kind friend in particular, without whose assistance these +articles would never have been attempted, I must express my special +obligation. I would gladly refer to him by name, did I feel at liberty to +do so without obtaining his permission, which I have not, at the time of +writing, the opportunity of asking. Also, among the books I have consulted +on the subject, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to Messrs. +Chamberlain and Mason's excellent _Handbook for Japan_ (Murray, 1891); and +to a copy of Dr. E. J. Eitel's _Lectures on Buddhism_ (Truebner, 1871), +given me by the author, at the close of a most interesting day spent under +his guidance. The sketch Map of Japan is inserted by the kind permission +of the "Guild of St. Paul." + +_November, 1893._ + + + + + +I. SHINTOISM. + + +When, in the sixth century of the Christian era, Buddhism was introduced +into Japan from China, by way of Korea, the need was felt of some term by +which the ancient indigenous religion of the country might be +distinguished from the new importation. The term thus adopted was +_Shinto_, or _Kami-no-michi_; the former being a Chinese word, and the +latter its Japanese equivalent. The meaning of either, in English, is the +"Way of the Genii, or Spirits."(3) It will, accordingly, be seen that the +_word_ "Shinto" has only been in use for some thirteen centuries, while +the creed it designates claims to trace its origin from the remotest +antiquity. Indeed, the investigation of Shintoism takes us back not merely +to the earliest annals of Japanese history, but to the fabulous legends of +a mythological period. The history of Japan is commonly reckoned to +commence with the accession of the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the date of which +is given as February 11, 660 B.C.; and when, in 1889, the new Constitution +was promulgated, the anniversary of this event was the day selected--the +idea evidently being to confirm the popular belief in the continuity of +the country's history. This Jimmu Tenno--accounted by the Japanese their +first human sovereign--is supposed to have been descended from Ama-terasu, +the sun-goddess, who was born from the left eye of Izanagi, the creator of +Japan; and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification in which the +Emperors of Japan have ever been held. It is, then, the countless heroes +and demi-gods of the mythological age referred to--the children of Izanagi +reigning over Japan, generation after generation, for many thousands of +years--that are the chief objects of Shinto veneration; for while it is +usual to speak of Shintoism as being a combination of ancestor-worship and +nature-worship, it would seem that the latter of these elements was +largely due to the contact of Japan with the Taouism of China, and with +metaphysical Buddhism. Thus the essential principle of Shintoism, it will +be seen, is closely akin to that filial piety, which forms so conspicuous +a feature in the religious, political, and social life of China, and +which--deserving as it is, in many ways, of respect and +admiration--presents, when carried to excess, so vast a hindrance to +development and progress. + +"Shintoism," in the words of Diayoro Goh, Chancellor of the Japanese +Consulate General in London, "originated in the worship offered by a +barbarous people to the mythological persons of its own invention." To +speak accurately, it is not so much a religion as patriotism exalted to +the rank of a creed. It is a veneration of the country's heroes and +benefactors of every age, legendary and historical, ancient and more +recent; the spirits of these being appealed to for protection. Interwoven +with this, its fundamental characteristic, and to a great extent obscuring +it, is a worship of the personified forces of nature; expressing itself +often in the most abject superstition, and, until lately, also in that +grosser symbolism with which the religion of Ancient Egypt abounded. This +latter feature was widely prevalent in Japan at the time that the country +was first opened to foreigners; but after the Revolution in 1868, it was +everywhere suppressed. It would appear that the personal cleanliness for +which the Japanese, as a nation, are celebrated, had its origin in the +idea of the purification of the body symbolizing the cleansing of the +soul; and in a vague and hazy sort of way, Shintoism would seem to +recognize a future state of bliss or misery, for which the present life is +a period of probation. Practically, however, this is the only world with +which Shintoism concerns itself; nor does it inculcate any laws of +morality or conduct, conscience and the heart being accounted sufficient +guides. It provides neither public worship, nor sermons; while its +application is limited to subjects of the Mikado. "It is the least +exacting of all religions." When this is once understood, there ceases to +be anything surprising in the fact of two religions--of which Shintoism was +one, and the other a creed so accommodating as Buddhism--running, side by +side, for centuries in the same country, and being professed +simultaneously by the same people, until the two were so closely +interwoven that it became scarcely possible to distinguish their +respective elements. In the eighteenth century an attempt was made to +restore Shintoism to its primitive simplicity, and to mould it into a +philosophical system which might minister to the higher aspirations of +humanity. But the movement was a failure, and the Ryobu-Shinto, or "double +religion,"--the combination, that is to say, of Shintoism and +Buddhism--continued as before. It was only so lately as the year 1868 that +any important change took place in the religious history of Japan. In that +year, Shintoism--for reasons wholly political--was adopted as the State, or +"established" religion; Buddhism having always been the religion favoured +by the Shogunate, and the ancient nobility whom the Shogun represented. +Upon this, every temple was required to declare itself either Shinto or +Buddhist, and to remove the emblems and ornaments peculiar to the +discarded cult, whichever that might be. That no little excitement and +dispute followed upon this proclamation, will be readily understood; +especially when we bear in mind that, for several hundred years, Buddhist +and Shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating in the same +buildings and at the same altars.(4) A grant of some L60,000 a year was +made by the Government for the maintenance of the Shinto temples and +shrines, which are said to number in all about 98,000, and to be dedicated +to no less than 3,700 different Genii, or Kami. Already, however, +Shintoism has lost the greater part of the importance into which it was +brought at the time of the Revolution; and, apart from the fact that it is +supported out of the imperial revenues, and that the presence of its +principal officials is required at certain of the state functions, its +general position has in no way improved. The people still practise the +observances of both religions alike; the only difference being that, to +effect this, they have now to visit two temples instead of one. A new-born +child, for instance, is taken by its parents to both Shinto and Buddhist +temples, for the purpose of solemn dedication. Another of the changes +brought about is that, instead of all funerals being conducted by Buddhist +priests, as was the case until 1868, the dead are now buried by either +Shinto or Buddhist clergy, as the relatives may prefer. Of the many signs +which indicate that Shintoism has well nigh run its course, not the least +remarkable was the announcement made last year (1892) by the Government +itself, to the effect that its rites were to be regarded as simply +traditional and commemorative, and devoid of any real religious +significance. The relief thus afforded to the minds and consciences of +Christians in Japan was, as might be supposed, very great. + +Of the various sects the _Zhikko_,--founded 1541 A.D.,--is, perhaps, the +most influential. This sect--as indeed do Shintoists generally--recognizes +one eternal absolute Deity, a being of infinite benevolence; and here--as +in other heathen religions--we find vague references to a Trinity engaged +in the work of Creation. + + [Illustration.] + + Group of Shinto Priests With Torii. + + +Despite the dissociation of the two religions, many of the Shinto temples +still retain traces of the Buddhist influence. Of Shintoism proper the +prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity, which, however, is often +found combined with great artistic beauty. Sometimes the shrine consists +only of a rude altar, situated amid a grove of trees; but, even in the +case of large temples with a complete group of buildings, the architecture +is extremely plain, the material employed being unornamented white wood +with a thatch of chamaecyparis. The entrance to the temple grounds is +always through gateways, called _Torii_; these are made sometimes of +stone, but more properly of wood, and consist of two unpainted +tree-trunks, with another on the top and a horizontal beam beneath. Near +the entrance are commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions, which are +supposed to act as guardians. The principal shrine, or _Honsha_, is +situated at the further end of the sacred enclosure, and is divided by a +railing into an ante-room and an inner sanctuary. Within the sanctuary an +altar is erected, on which, however, no images or adornments are seen, but +simply offerings of rice, fruit, wine, &c. Above the altar, in a +conspicuous position, a large mirror is generally placed; and in a box +beneath are usually kept a sword, and a stone. These three,--the mirror, +the sword, and the stone,--constitute the Japanese regalia, and they are +all connected with the early legends. One of the traditions respecting the +sacred mirror deserves quotation. + +"When the time was come that Izanagi and his consort should return +together to the celestial regions, he called his children together, +bidding them dry their tears, and listen attentively to his last wishes. +He then committed to them a disc of polished silver, bidding them each +morning place themselves on their knees before it, and there see reflected +on their countenances the impress of any evil passions deliberately +indulged; and again each night carefully to examine themselves, that their +last thoughts might be after the happiness of that higher world whither +their parents had preceded them." The legend goes on to relate with what +faithfulness "the children of Izanagi, and afterwards their descendants, +carried out these injunctions; erecting an altar of wood to receive the +sacred mirror, and placing upon it vases and flowers,--and how, as a reward +for their obedience and devotion, they became in their turn, the spirits +of good, the undying Kami."(5) + +Another of the most common of the Shinto emblems is a slim wand of +unpainted wood, called _Gohei_, to which strips of white paper--originally +they were of cloth--are attached. These are thought to attract the deities, +and are held in great veneration. + +Leaving the principal shrine, and proceeding to make the tour of the +grounds, the visitor comes, in turn, to the buildings where the business +arrangements of the temple are transacted, and where the priests, in some +cases, reside; to smaller shrines and oratories; to cisterns for the +purpose of ceremonial ablution, &c. Sometimes, also, at the more important +temples is found a long covered platform, called the _Kagura-do_, where, +on festivals and special occasions, a number of girls--those I saw at Nara +were still quite children--perform the _Kagura_, or sacred dance. The +dancing is in honour of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated; and +commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological period. In the +grounds of Shinto and Buddhist temples alike are frequently found numerous +stone-lanterns, erected by way of votive offerings, and lighted on any +great occasions. + +It has already been remarked that Shintoism has nothing corresponding to +our public worship; but every morning and evening the priests--whose office +seems held in no particular sanctity, and who are at liberty, at any time, +to adopt a more secular calling--perform a service before the altar, vested +in white dresses, somewhat resembling albs and confined at the waist by a +girdle. The service consists of the presentation of offerings and of the +recital of various invocations, chiefly laudatory. The devotions of the +people are remarkable for their brevity and simplicity. The worshipper, on +arriving at the shrine, rings a bell, or sounds a gong, to engage the +attention of the deity he desires to invoke; throws a coin of the smallest +possible value on to the matting within the sanctuary rails; makes one or +two prostrations; and then, clapping his hands, to intimate to his patron +that his business with him is over, retires--it not being considered +necessary to give to the petition any verbal expression. The making of +pilgrimages, however, still occupies a prominent place in the Shinto +system, and though of late years the number of pilgrims has considerably +decreased, long journeys are still undertaken to the great temple of the +sun-goddess at Ise--the "Mecca of Japan,"--and other celebrated shrines. The +chief object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of _O-harai_, or sacred +charms, which can only be obtained on the spot. These, when brought home, +are placed on the _Kamidana_, or god-shelf--a miniature temple of wood, +found in every Shinto house, to which are attached the names of various +patron deities, and the monumental tablets of the family. His purchase of +the O-harai completed, the pilgrim betakes himself to the enjoyment of the +various shows and other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood +of the temple. + +To conclude this brief sketch of Shintoism. Such influence as the cult +still possesses may be attributed to the superstition of the poor and +illiterate; and to a reluctance, on the part of the more educated, to +break with so venerable a past. The latter, however, though they continue +to conform to them, do not regard its observances seriously; while the +importance attached to them by the State is, as we have seen, wholly +political. In the words of Diayoro Goh, spoken in the course of a lecture +delivered in London two or three years since: "Shintoism, being so +restricted in its sphere, offers little obstacle to the introduction of +another religion,"--provided, as he added, that the veneration of the +Mikado, which has always formed the fundamental feature of Japanese +government, is not interfered with. The truth of this statement has +already been abundantly exemplified in the position which Buddhism for so +many centuries held in the religious life of Japan. In the same way, when, +three hundred years ago, Christianity was introduced into the country by +the Portuguese, it was largely owing to the attitude which some of the +missionaries adopted towards these national rites, that the complications +arose, which eventually led to the expulsion of foreigners, and the +persecution of Christians. And surely, when we think of it, it is not +strange that an intense jealousy should be exhibited on behalf of +observances and ceremonies, traceable back to such remote antiquity, and +so intimately bound up with the whole political and social life of the +nation. It is, indeed, highly probable that, in the great changes Japan is +undergoing, she will find other methods of cherishing the continuity of +her, in many ways, illustrious past. But meanwhile, Christians in Japan +may rejoice that they are permitted, with a quiet conscience, to manifest +a respectful regard for a system that is by no means destitute of +praiseworthy features. + + + + + +II. BUDDHISM. + + +It is quite possible that to some of the readers of these pages the very +name of Shintoism was unknown; whereas all will have heard and read at +least something of Buddhism, one of the four most prevalent religions of +the world, and claiming at the present day considerably more than four +hundred millions of adherents.(6) At the same time, our inquiry into +Buddhism cannot be comprised within such narrow limits as sufficed for our +examination of the indigenous religion of Japan; the subject being one of +the vastest dimensions. Perhaps, then, it may be better if, at the outset, +I allude to some of the literature, published within the last few years, +which has been most instrumental in attracting attention, both in England +and America, to the subject. Nor, in this connexion, can all reference be +omitted to the writings of the late Madame Blavatsky, Mr. Sinnett, and +their school; though I refer to them only in order to caution my readers +against forming from them any estimate of Buddhism. The only literature, +as far as I know, that has appeared in England from what claims to be an +enthusiastic Buddhist stand-point, these writings are, I believe, +calculated to convey a curiously erroneous idea of the great system with +which we are now concerned, to any who would turn for information to them +exclusively. This, indeed, becomes obvious when it is understood that the +Buddhism, of which these books profess to treat, is not the Buddhism of +history and the sacred books, not the Buddhism which forms the popular +religion of hundreds of millions of Asiatics at the present day, but an +"esoteric" Buddhism, a knowledge of which, it is admitted, is confined to +a comparative few, even in the country where it is said to be most +prevalent.(7) In short, the "esoteric Buddhism" of Mr. Sinnett and his +friends would seem to be scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the +movement which has recently acquired a brief notoriety in England under +the name of Theosophy; and with this, Buddhism proper--i.e. the historical, +popular Buddhism with which we have to do--can hardly be said to have +anything in common. + +With the book, however, which probably more than any other work of the day +has been the means of drawing the attention of English-speaking people to +Buddhism, we cannot deal in so summary a fashion. For in Sir Edwin +Arnold's poem, _The Light of Asia_, we have a work which is simply a +rendering of the life of Buddha, in general accordance with the received +traditions, and one, moreover, which has met with a cordial welcome at the +hands of Buddhists. Nor can it be questioned that the book is a production +of great power, or that it appeals altogether to a very different class of +readers from that likely to be influenced by the _Occult World_, or _Isis +Unveiled_. + +It is indeed, the great beauty of its poetry, and the book's consequent +popularity, that only make the more necessary a reference which must to +some extent take the form of a protest. To put it briefly, the case is +this:--Men and women have risen from a perusal of the _Light of Asia_ with +a sense of damage done to their Christian faith, and with a +feeling--confused, perhaps, but not the less real--that in Gautama Buddha +they have been confronted with a formidable rival to Jesus Christ. How far +the poem is responsible for this result we will not attempt to determine; +and that such was no part of the author's intention we may readily +believe. But that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and disturbed +by the reading of this book is a certain fact; making it neither +surprising nor regrettable that its publication should have been followed +by works on the subject, written from an emphatically Christian point of +view. To the fullest and ablest of these,--the Rev. S. H. Kellogg's _The +Light of Asia and the Light of the World: a Comparison of the Legend, the +Doctrine and the Ethics of the Buddha, with the Story, the Doctrine and +the Ethics of Christ_ (Macmillan, 1885),--I would refer those desirous of +investigating fully the points at issue; contenting myself now with a few +brief observations. + +It is, then, important to bear in mind that Sir E. Arnold's poem is +written in the person, and from the stand-point of an imaginary Buddhist. +This is indicated plainly on the title-page, in the preface, and in the +course of the poem itself; and when the book comes to be read by the light +of this explanation, a limitation is cast about much of its more startling +language. To take, for instance, such expressions as "Our Lord," +"Saviour," "come to save the world," constantly assigned to Buddha in the +course of the poem. However accustomed Christians may be to associate such +terms with One only, and however pained they may feel at their being +referred, under any circumstances and with any restrictions, to another, +still it is obvious that their use becomes less open to objection, when +placed in the mouth of a disciple, singing the praise of his Master,--and +that Master, one who, it can hardly be disputed, wrought no mean work of +deliverance on the earth. Far less admitting of satisfactory explanation +are passages in the book in which we find transferred to Buddha and +Buddhism ideas and language distinctively Christian; the solemn saying of +Simeon to the Holy Mother, "A sword shall pierce through thine own soul +also," and the still more solemn, "It is finished" of the Cross, being +made to supply particularly distressing instances of such treatment.(8) + +Or once again: but what I would say now has already been urged by Dr. +Eitel, in words which I cannot do better than quote. "I believe," he says, +"it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer and childish sayings +with which the Buddhist Scriptures and especially popular Buddhist books +abound, and to lead people to imagine that Buddhism is little better than +a string of nonsense. It is even doubtful whether the earliest Buddhist +texts contained such statements at all; for, unlike our Bible, the +Buddhist canon has undergone wholesale textual alterations.... As to the +popular literature of Buddhism, and its absurdities, we might as well +collect those little pamphlets on dreams, on sorcery, on lucky and unlucky +days, on the lives and miracles of saints, which circulate among Roman +Catholic peasants,--but would that give us a true picture of Roman +Catholicism? Thus it is with Buddhism."(9) In other words, Dr. Eitel would +urge that in order to deal fairly with such a subject, we must try to +distinguish the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and follies +that may, from time to time, have gathered round it; and this, it is to be +feared, has not always been done by English writers, in treating of +Buddhism. + +For the sake of clearness, we may next proceed to trace a brief outline of +the life of Buddha, according to the belief of Buddhists generally, and +stripped of such legends and superstitions as find no credence with the +more educated and intellectual. It is true that a doubt has sometimes been +expressed as to the existence of Gautama Buddha at all; while even so +eminent an authority as Mr. Spence Hardy declares his conviction that, +owing to the lack of really authentic information, "it is impossible to +rely implicitly on any single statement made in relation to him."(10) But +even supposing the Buddha of the commonly-received traditions to be, +whether in part or in entirety, a mere creation of Indian thought, the +case undergoes no vital alteration; seeing that it is with the religion of +Buddhism that we are mainly concerned, and only in quite a subordinate +degree with the person of its supposed founder. The point is one that +deserves careful attention, suggesting as it does at once the essential +difference between Buddhism and Christianity, and the immeasurable +distance which divides the two. For of Christianity it is no exaggeration +to say that upon the truth of the received accounts of its Founder's Life +and Person its whole position absolutely depends; whereas, could it be +proved that Gautama never even lived, the system associated with his name +would suffer no material loss,--and this, because in Buddha we are invited +to contemplate only a teacher and a guide, one who would have men seek +purification and deliverance by the same means as he himself needed to +employ, and one who never claimed to be more than human. Most persons, +however, will prefer to accept as, in the main, historically correct the +commonly accepted outline of the life of Buddha which may thus be given-- + +The reputed founder of Buddhism was one Siddhartha, known in later life as +Gautama, and later still, by the title of Buddha, or the "Enlightened +One." Siddhartha was a prince of the Sakya tribe, whose territories were +situated some hundred miles north-east of the city of Benares. Hence he is +often spoken of under the name of _Sakya-muni_, or the "Sakya sage." As +regards his date, widely different opinions are held; sometimes it is +placed as early as the tenth, and sometimes as late as the third century +B.C. The most competent authorities, however, agree in following the +Buddhists of Ceylon, and take 543 B.C. as the date of his death.(11) His +father's name was Suddhodana; his mother was called Maia. Of the earlier +years of Siddhartha's life we have little information that is at all to be +relied on; but his early manhood appears to have been spent amid the +luxury and self-indulgence customary with Oriental princes. Gautama, +however, was a man of great benevolence, and we are told that, while still +quite young, he pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and suffering +which held the human race in bondage. Presently, becoming dissatisfied +with his own life of ease and pleasure, he made the "Great Renunciation;" +turning his back, at the age of thirty, on wife and parents, home and +wealth. After spending some years in travel, he retired to the forest, +where he attached himself to a little band of ascetics, and practised +severe forms of discipline and self-mortification; hoping thus to discover +the secret of release from suffering. But meeting with no success, and +still fast bound by the trammels of ignorance, he betook himself to +contemplation; until one day, as he was seated beneath the +Bo-tree,--henceforth to be accounted sacred(12)--the struggles of his soul +prevailed, and he passed out of darkness into light. He was now Buddha, He +who Knew, the Enlightened. The four truths to the knowledge of which +Gautama thus attained, and which form the very foundation of the Buddhist +doctrine, are these--(i) That man is born to suffering, both mental and +physical: he experiences it himself, he inflicts it upon others; (ii) that +this suffering is occasioned by desire; (iii) that the condition of +suffering in which man finds himself admits of amelioration and relief; +(iv) the way of release, and the attainment to Nirvana. + +Here we must pause to make the inquiry, What is meant by _Nirvana_,--the +goal of the Buddhist's hope and aim? Literally, the word means +"extinction"; and hence it has often come to be regarded as a mere synonym +for annihilation. The variety of opinions held by European scholars as to +its meaning is, there is little doubt, due to the fact that Buddhists +themselves are by no means agreed as to its precise significance. Is +Nirvana a state of consciousness or unconsciousness? Is the personality +perpetuated, or is the _ego_ absorbed,--i.e. into Buddha? Such questions +are differently answered by the different schools. Concerning the nature +of Nirvana, Buddha himself, in his agnosticism, would seem to have been +almost wholly silent. He appears to have simply taught that by the +suppression and "extinction" of the natural passions and desires--anger, +avarice, sorrow, and the like(13)--it was possible even here to enter upon +a state of tranquillity, rest, and peace, which should attain hereafter to +more perfect fulfilment. Of the various meanings attached to Nirvana by +the different Buddhist sects, one extreme makes it scarcely +distinguishable from complete annihilation, while the opposite extreme +introduces us to the doctrine of the Paradise of the West, the Pure Land +presided over by Amitabha Buddha, the abode of perfect happiness and +delight. This remarkable development of Buddhism will claim our attention +later.(14) + + [Illustration.] + + Daibatsu At Kamakura. + + +To return. After his enlightenment, it is said that Gautama was seized by +the temptation to enter at once into Nirvana, without proclaiming his +doctrine to the world. But putting the temptation from him, he began his +ministry by announcing the tidings of release to the companions of his +ascetic life, who, after scoffing for awhile, were at length convinced. In +the course of this, his first sermon, Buddha proceeded to enunciate the +eight steps on the path which leads to Nirvana--(i) Right faith, (ii) right +resolution, (iii) right speech, (iv) right action, (v) right living, (vi) +right effort, (vii) right thought, (viii) right self-concentration. As +time went on, Gautama began to gather round him a number of disciples, who +became his constant companions. Part of each year he spent in rest and +retirement; teaching and training his disciples, and receiving such as, +attracted by his growing reputation, sought him out. The remaining months +he occupied in travelling from place to place, proclaiming the good news +of deliverance in the towns and villages through which he passed. Soon we +find him establishing a Society or Brotherhood; the members of which +severed their connexion with all worldly things, handed over their +property to the Order, adopted the tonsure and a distinctive dress, and, +following the Master's doctrine with strictness themselves, devoted their +lives to its propagation. Any member, however, was at liberty to leave the +Brotherhood, should he wish to do so. It is noticeable that Buddha's +earliest followers were chiefly drawn--not, as in the case of a Greater +than he, from the ranks of the poor and simple--but from the upper classes. +Indeed, Gautama seems to have regarded the weak and ignorant as incapable +of receiving his teaching. Children are hardly mentioned in the early +Buddhist writings; and with regard to women, it was only with great +reluctance that Sakya-muni eventually consented to the formation of a +Sisterhood, the members of which were, as far as possible, to observe the +same rules as the men--together with several additional ones, chiefly +concerned with their subjection to the Brethren. In the same way, it is +still the teaching of Buddhism that it should be a woman's highest +aspiration to be reborn as a man, in a future state of existence. When, +however, the two Orders--for men and for women--had been formed, there still +remained a large number of either sex, who, without leaving their places +in the world, were desirous of being reckoned among Buddha's followers. +These were admitted as lay-adherents, one of their chief obligations being +to contribute to the maintenance of the Brethren. + +Having exercised his public ministry for forty years--without, as would +appear, encountering any great opposition--and having committed his work to +the Brotherhood, to carry on after his decease, Buddha died, aged about +eighty, and was buried with great pomp. It is recorded that, as the time +of his departure drew nigh, he replied to his disciples' expressions of +apprehension and sorrow, by saying that when he should no longer be with +them in person, he would still be present with them in his sayings, in his +doctrine. Another point on which he laid great stress before his death was +that the Brotherhood should regularly assemble in convocation. Hence it +came about that from very early times, the declaration, "I seek refuge in +Buddha, Dharma (the Law), Samgha (the Brotherhood)," was adopted as the +formula which any one, desirous of becoming a Buddhist, was required to +profess. And it is the Trinity thus formed, which, represented to-day by +the three great images above the altar of many a Buddhist temple, has its +multitude of ignorant worshippers, who doubt not that three several +divinities are the objects of their adoration and their prayer. + +Such, then, as would appear, was the origin of Buddhism. Strictly +speaking, and apart from its later developments, Buddhism is a religion +which knows no God, which attaches no value to prayer, which has no place +for a priesthood. Nowhere, perhaps, is its agnosticism more conspicuous +than in the five main prohibitions, which are addressed alike to clergy +and laity. The _first_ of these forbids the taking of life,--human life +chiefly, but other life as well; the _second_ is against theft, whether by +force or fraud; the _third_ is against falsehood; the _fourth_ forbids +impurity, in act, word, or thought; the _fifth_ requires abstinence from +all intoxicants. The whole idea of _GOD_, it will be noticed, is entirely +absent from the Buddhist Commandments. Infinitely removed above that other +agnosticism, which cries, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die," +Buddhism starts with the idea of the entire abnegation of self. But a +self-denial that is undertaken, not for God, and in God for man, but +merely to secure one's own peace and well-being--what is this but +selfishness after all? Enjoining a rule of life that is essentially +negative--the natural product of that blank despair of the world and of +human nature which led to the Great Renunciation--Buddhism, as a religious +system, has yielded but scanty fruits of positive holiness, of active +benevolence. And yet,--wholly inadequate as such a system as this, even at +its purest and best, must be to meet the needs of humanity,--false and even +debased as are sometimes its teachings,--the one great message that +Buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable, if most imperfect, truth: +the truth that would have man cultivate self-reliance, and attain to +self-deliverance by means of self-control. "Work out your own salvation" +is the injunction of Christianity. "By one's self," taught Sakya-muni, +"the evil is one; by one's self must come remedy and release." So far the +two systems are at one; the difference between them lies in the fact that +the one places in our hands those supernatural weapons which alone make +real victory possible, and that these the other knows not how to supply. + +Hitherto, we have made no reference to the relation of Buddhism to +Brahmanism. And yet we can no more hope to understand the work of +Sakya-muni, without observing its connexion with Brahmanism, than we could +afford to omit all mention of the Jewish Law and of Jewish Pharisaism, in +speaking of the liberation wrought by our Lord Jesus Christ. The work and +doctrine of Gautama Buddha,--with their mean between an ascetic severity, +on the one hand, and a licentious self-indulgence on the other--their +disregard of caste distinctions--their rejection of burdensome and +profitless traditions--may be said to bear to the heavy yoke of Brahmanism +a relation not dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage. Laying +hold of that which was ready to his hand, if so be he might mould and +purify it, Buddha was a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone +before. Let us take, for example, the doctrine of metempsychosis, or, as +it is commonly called, the "transmigration of souls." No doubt, there is a +great deal connected with this doctrine in the Buddhist books that cannot +but appear to us puerile and shocking; but still, we do not well, we do +not justly, if, as do so many, we fasten such strange fancies on Buddha, +or on Buddhism, as though it were from these that they sprang. So far from +Sakya-muni being the originator of the theory of transmigration, a belief +in it had, for centuries previously, been almost universal throughout the +East; and his doctrine of Nirvana supplied an antidote to the belief in a +practically interminable series of metempsychoses current at the time. +With the theory of transmigration accepted on all sides, Buddha seems to +have made use of it to the extent that he did, as affording a convenient +solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal distribution of +happiness in this life, and the absence of any satisfactory exercise of +justice in the way of reward or punishment. + +That the doctrine of metempsychosis should have been applied by Buddhists +to their great Master himself, is only what we should expect to find. +Gautama is accredited by Buddhists with some five hundred previous +existences, in the course of which he passed through numerous stages of +vegetable, animal and human life, until at length he attained to the +highest degree of manhood. Throughout the changing circumstances of his +being, he is said to have exhibited a transcendent and ever-increasing +unselfishness and charity, which culminated in his freely giving himself +to be re-born as Buddha for the world's deliverance. And it is this +belief, probably, which has been the most potent factor in exalting the +Philosopher and the Guide to a height, which is scarcely, if at all, +distinguishable from the Throne of God. + +I may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage from the late Dean +Stanley's _History of the Jewish Church_, where he is referring to Gautama +Buddha: "It is difficult for those who believe the permanent elements of +the Jewish and Christian religion to be universal and Divine not to hail +these corresponding forms of truth and goodness elsewhere, or to recognize +that the mere appearance of such saint-like and god-like characters in +other parts of the earth, if not directly preparing the way for a greater +manifestation, illustrates that manifestation by showing how mighty has +been the witness borne to it even under circumstances of such +discouragement, and even with effects inadequate to their grandeur."(15) + + + + + +III. BUDDHISM IN JAPAN. + + +In the last Chapter we sketched in outline the life and teaching of +Gautama Buddha; omitting the many fanciful legends that have gathered +round his name, and confining ourselves to what would be accepted by +Buddhists generally. Of the long period that divides the death of +Sakya-muni from the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about 550 A.D., it +is no part of our purpose to treat in detail. But enough must be said to +connect in some intelligible way these two events. + +After the death of Gautama, his disciples are said to have gathered +together, and recited all that they remembered of his teaching, arranging +it in three divisions. This was the origin of the sacred books known as +the _Tripitaca_, i.e. the "three baskets," the "three receptacles." The +first of these--consisting of sayings, aphorisms, parables, &c., attributed +to Buddha, together with his first sermon addressed to the ascetics, (the +"Wheel of the Law,")--is known as the _Sutra_ or "Canon;" the second is +called the _Vinaya_ or "Book of Discipline;" and the third, the +_Abhidharma_, i.e. the "Book of Metaphysics," the "Further Doctrine." Of +the three books, the Sutra, being mainly ethical, would have a more +general application than the other two; while the Vinaya would be chiefly +applicable to the Brotherhood, and the Abhidharma concerned with abstruse +philosophical dissertations. The Tripitaca, of which the Buddhists of +Ceylon are the custodians, are written in Pali, an early modification of +Sanskrit, and the sacred language of Buddhism; and they are, undoubtedly, +the oldest and purest of the numerous Buddhist scriptures. The Sutra, in +particular, is believed to be a faithful record of the actual teaching of +Gautama. At the same time, it must be remembered that for some centuries +after Sakya-muni's death, there is no proof of the existence of any +written Canon; the probability being that his teaching was, for the most +part, transmitted orally from generation to generation, and that it +underwent in the process considerable alteration and addition. + +With regard to the history of Buddhism, from the time of its founder's +death until the middle of the third century B.C., we are practically +without information. It appears, however, that parties and schools were +already beginning to be formed. But about 260 B.C., India, from being +divided into a number of petty kingdoms, became almost wholly united under +the rule of one Asoka. Asoka's grandfather--the founder of the empire that +was soon to assume such vast proportions--had revenged himself for the +contempt in which, for his low birth, he was held by the Brahmans, by +patronizing Buddhism; and Asoka, in turn, bestowed upon it all possible +support. He made Buddhism the state religion, founded an immense number of +monasteries, and sent forth missionaries in all directions. China was one +of the countries visited; while a mission to Ceylon, in which Mahendra, +Asoka's own son, took a prominent part, resulted in the conversion of the +whole island. + +Shortly, however, after Asoka's death, his empire collapsed, and Buddhism +never afterwards exerted the same influence in India; though it remained +widely prevalent until the eighth century A.D., and it was not until four +centuries later that it became practically extinct. The Brahmans now +regained their former ascendency; declared Gautama to be an "avatar"--or +incarnation--of their god Vishnu; proceeded to incorporate into their own +creed some of the most popular features of the Buddhist system; and then +entered upon a destruction of the monasteries, and a severe persecution of +all Buddhists living in India. But, as in the history of the Christian +Church, persecution only resulted in the Gospel being afforded a wider +area, so was it now with Buddhism. "They that were scattered abroad went +everywhere, preaching the word." Among other countries to which the +doctrine of Sakya-muni penetrated was Cashmere, whose king, Kanishka, a +contemporary of Christ, extended to it his enthusiastic support. + +At this point was reached an important crisis in the history of Buddhism. +Already controversies about discipline and various minor questions had +called into existence several different schools; but now a breach +occurred, of such magnitude and destined to prove so lasting in its +results, as to often have suggested comparison with the schism between +Western and Eastern Christendom. A council was held under king Kanishka, +which the Ceylon Buddhists refused to recognize; and from that time +Buddhism has been divided into two main branches, known as the _Mahayana_ +and _Hinayana_,--the "Greater and Lesser Vehicles." The division thus +brought about became, to a great extent, a geographical one; the Hinayana +having its home in Ceylon, and, somewhat less exclusively, in Burmah and +Siam, while the schools of the Mahayana predominate in Cashmere, Thibet, +China and Japan. + +Let us glance, for a moment, at their respective characteristics. The +Hinayana and the Mahayana, then, are the names given to two great systems, +or "schools of thought," which offer to "carry" or "convey" their +followers to the rest of Nirvana. + +Of the two, the Hinayana, or Lesser Conveyance, presents a much closer +resemblance to early Buddhism. The distinguishing features of the Hinayana +may be declared to be its adherence to the strict morality of primitive +Buddhism, its greater simplicity of worship, its smaller Canon of +scripture, and the fact that it appeals rather to the comparatively few, +to those, that is to say, who are able and willing to make the surrender +it requires. Whereas, in the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, we see a system +characterized by that increased ease and laxity, which too often accompany +a season of repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that attends the +establishment of a new movement. The chief features of the Mahayana may be +pronounced to be its less exacting standard of practical morality, its +willingness to descend to the level of the multitude, its subtle +metaphysical distinctions, its meditative inactivity, its elaborate +ceremonial, and its more extensive Canon of scripture. + +We are now, at last, in a position to examine the history of Japanese +Buddhism. If an apology seems needed for the length of our digression, I +can only say that it appeared to me necessary for any profitable treatment +of our subject. We have already seen how, as early as 250 B.C., China was +visited by Buddhist missionaries from India. These are said to have been +eighteen in number; and their effigies may be seen in many a Chinese +temple, where they are held in great veneration. In the first century +A.D., Buddhism in China began to receive imperial patronage; some of its +books being about the same time translated into the language of the +country. The spirit of accommodation and adaptation, which has always +formed so conspicuous a feature of Buddhism, manifested itself now in an +association with Taouism which has continued ever since. + +552 A.D. is the date assigned to the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, +by way of Korea. At first, it appears to have made little progress, until +the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it into favour with the +Court. Prostrating himself one day, before the little son of the Mikado, +the priest declared that he recognized in him the re-incarnation of one of +the disciples of Buddha, and one who was destined to effect a great +spiritual work in Japan. The Mikado was prevailed upon to confide the +boy's education to the Buddhist priests; with the result that, when he +grew up, he supported their cause with such zeal as to cause him to be +sometimes spoken of as the "Constantine of Japanese Buddhism." Shotoku +Taishi--for such was his name--acted for some time as regent, but never +himself ascended the throne. + +There is no doubt that the progress of Buddhism in Japan was largely +facilitated by the adoption of tactics, which had been successfully +employed in dealing with the barbarous tribes of India, and--as we have +just noticed,--with China also. Indeed, its readiness to adapt itself to +the circumstances, instincts, and prejudices of the people, with whom it +has to do, is, as has already been implied, one of the most powerful and +most striking peculiarities of Buddhism. In Japan, the Shinto demi-gods +were Buddhaized, and declared to be manifestations of Gautama; while +practices borrowed from the ancient national creed were introduced into +the Buddhist ceremonial. In the eighth century, we find orders issued for +the erection of two temples and a pagoda in every province; until, about +the twelfth century, the two religions became associated in the manner +indicated in our first chapter,--Buddhist and Shinto clergy officiating by +turns in the same buildings, and the Shinto temples becoming filled with +images, alike of their own demi-gods, and of Buddha and his companions. +This state of things continued until 1868, when the Shinto cult was chosen +to receive the exclusive recognition of the State, many of the Buddhist +monasteries at the same time suffering spoliation. Within the last few +years, however, Buddhism has been making strenuous efforts to recover its +former power and position, and there is little doubt that it still exerts +a real influence in Japan; while the collapse of Shintoism is, as +certainly, a matter of no distant time. At Tokio, the capital, where the +number of temples is enormous, the proportion of Buddhist to Shinto is in +the ratio of ten to one; and on several occasions during my stay in Japan +I noticed handsome new Buddhist temples in course of erection, or old ones +being redecorated and restored. On the other hand, numbers are closed, or +falling to pieces, for want of funds to maintain them. + +At the present time, there are some twelve or more _principal_ Buddhist +sects in Japan, several of these being subdivided. The distinction between +the various schools is much more closely preserved than in China; and, at +least in the larger cities, each sect will be found represented by a +temple of its own. The difference between the schools consists not only in +the varied attitudes adopted towards some controverted question, but +frequently also in the degrees of importance attached to some point which +is held by all in common. For, as cannot be too emphatically stated, +Buddhism is a _many-sided_ religion.(16) The following extract from Sir +Monier Williams' _Buddhism_, for instance, draws attention to the variety +of aspects, from which it may, and indeed needs to be regarded by the +student. + +"In different places and at different times, its teaching has become both +negative and positive, agnostic and gnostic. It passes from apparent +atheism and materialism to theism, polytheism, and spiritualism. It is, +under one aspect, mere pessimism; under another, pure philanthropy; under +another, monastic communion; under another, high morality; under another, +a variety of materialistic philosophy; under another, simple demonology; +under another, a mere farrago of superstitions, including necromancy, +witchcraft, idolatry, and fetishism. In some form or other it may be held +with almost any religion, and embraces something from almost every creed." + +To the same effect writes Dr. Eitel in his _Lectures on Buddhism_ (pp. +1-2): "Buddhism is a system of vast magnitude, for it comprises the +earliest gropings after science throughout those various branches of +knowledge which our Western nations have long been accustomed to divide +for separate study. It embodies in one living structure grand and peculiar +views of physical science, refined and subtle theorems on abstract +metaphysics, an edifice of fanciful mysticism, a most elaborate and +far-reaching system of practical morality, and finally a church +organization as broad in its principles and as finely wrought in its most +intricate network as any in the world." + +It would hardly be worth while to attempt any detailed description of the +many Buddhist sects represented in Japan. To observe the main +characteristics of the principal ones, and their points of difference from +one another, will be amply sufficient for our purpose. The greater number +of the schools were introduced from China, but a few are Japanese +developments. + +Let us take, first of all, the schools of the Hinayana, or Minor Vehicle, +which, as we should expect, is not extensively represented in Japan. The +Hinayana is represented by four philosophical schools, in two of which the +materialistic element predominates, and in the two other the idealistic; +while eschatological questions afford further ground for difference. The +points in dispute between these philosophical schools of Buddhism are +altogether so subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of +comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in such distinctions. Of the +four sects referred to, one, called the _Kusha_, has for its +characteristic the fact that it bases its teaching on the Abhidharma +Pitaca. + +To the Minor Vehicle belongs the curious system known as the "Holy Path." +This has been described as a "debtor and creditor account kept with divine +justice." Much less common than in China, the system of the "Holy Path" is +yet widely practised in Japan. Elaborate tables are drawn up, containing a +list of all good and bad actions it is possible to perform, with the +numbers added which each counts on the side of merit or demerit. The +numbers range from one to a hundred, or even more; and the tables afford +an insight into the relative importance in which all kinds of actions +present themselves to the Oriental mind. He who would tread life's journey +along the Holy Path must, at least, aim at setting off his bad deeds by a +corresponding number of good acts of equal value. At the end of each year, +the account is balanced, and the overplus or deficit is transferred to the +succeeding one. That such a system is liable to the gravest abuse, +especially in the case of the more ignorant, is obvious; though, when +conscientiously practised, it need not be supposed to be unproductive of +good.(17) + +At present we have made no mention of the _Madhyameka_, or Middle Vehicle, +which, as its name implies, occupies an intermediate place between the +Greater and Lesser Conveyances. A compromise between these two great +systems, the Madhyameka may be said to be characterized by a marked +moderation, i.e. between an excessive strictness, on the one hand, and a +too great liberty on the other. But though it is thus a faithful exponent +of Sakya-muni's original doctrine, the Madhyameka has never attracted any +extensive following. It is represented in Japan by the sect called the +_Sanron_. + +We pass on to examine the schools of the Greater Vehicle. In the same way +that the Kusha sect regards as its chief authority the Abhidharma Pitaca, +there are two schools belonging to the Greater Vehicle, which base their +teaching on the Sutra and Vinaya Pitacas respectively. The _Kagon_ make +the parables and sayings of Buddha contained in the Sutra their especial +study; while the _Ritzu_, as adhering to the more ascetic side of +Buddhism, have for their favourite book the Vinaya, or "Discipline." + +The _Dhyana_ or _Zen_ sect is a Chinese school with numerous +sub-divisions. Its distinguishing feature is the prominence it assigns to +the life of contemplation. Mysticism is represented by the _Shingon_, the +Mantra school of India transferred through China to Japan; and also by the +_Tendai_, so called from a mountain in China, where the head-quarters of +the sect are situated. The temples of the Shingon may usually be +recognized by the two guardian figures at the entrance, with open and shut +mouths, suggesting the mystic syllable A-UM. A peculiarity of both of +these sects is the use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common in +Thibet. + +An element of mysticism also pervades the influential _Hokkai_ sect, a +Japanese offshoot of the Tendai, founded in the thirteenth century by a +priest named Nichiren, who is said to have been born supernaturally of a +virgin mother. The Hokkai are most jealously attached to their own ritual, +and to other observances peculiar to themselves; and, inheriting the +disposition attributed to their founder, exhibit a narrowness and +intolerance rarely met with in Japan. Their characteristic may be said to +consist in an emotional fanaticism; and a visitor to one of their temples +will generally find a number of devotees,--who thus remain engaged for +hours at a time,--chanting the invocation of the sect, "Adoration to the +Lotus of the Law," to a deafening accompaniment of drums. + +Two sects only now remain, but these by no means the least interesting or +least popular: the _Jodo_ and the _Shin-Jodo_ (i.e. the New-Jodo). The +distinguishing features of these sects,--which also find a place in the +system of the Hokkai,--are their acknowledgement of the need of external +aid, and their doctrine of the Western Paradise, presided over by Amitabha +Buddha. How marked a departure from the original teaching of Sakya-muni, +as observed by us, these schools present is sufficiently obvious; +nevertheless, it is alleged that the revelation of the Paradise in the +West was first made by Buddha himself to one of his principal disciples. +In the distant West is said to dwell one named Amida, or Amitabha, that is +to say "Illimitable Light." Immortal himself, immortal also and freed from +all the trammels of transmigration are the vast multitudes of men(18) who +inhabit the boundless regions which he rules. In that "Pure Land,"(19) +that "Undefiled Ground," everything beautiful and enchanting has a place, +neither is pain or sorrow known; and thither nought that is evil or that +defileth can come. Whosoever would attain to this heavenly country must +rely, most of all, on faithful invocation of the name of Amida; he having, +as is recorded, made a vow that he would only accept Buddhahood on +condition that salvation should be placed within reach of all sincerely +desirous of achieving it. Such is the doctrine of the Western Paradise, +some of the descriptions of which read almost like echoes of the last +chapters of the Bible. Unknown to the Buddhism of Ceylon, Siam, and +Burmah, it can be traced back as far as the second century A.D., when it +was certainly known in Cashmere, though it was not until three centuries +later that it began to spread widely over Northern Buddhism. But the whole +question of its origin remains wrapped in obscurity. At the present day, +the devotion to Amida is very widely practised in Japan, and it is +extremely popular. No doubt, the more educated and intellectual +Buddhist,--and the distinction thus suggested needs constantly to be +insisted on,--would explain the Paradise of the West as being a mere +allegory, and regard Amitabha, as he was originally conceived to be, as +merely an ideal personification of boundless light. But to the people +generally the Undefiled Ground and its presiding deity are actual, +literal, realities. + + [Illustration.] + + Kiyomizu-Dera, Kyoto. + + +We have said that the two sects in which the doctrine of the Western +Paradise appears in greatest prominence are called the Jodo and Shin-Jodo. +The former of these is Chinese in origin, but was established in Japan +about 1200 A.D. by a priest, Enko Daishi by name, who was also a member of +the imperial family. The head-quarters of this sect are at Kyoto, where +the magnificent monastery of Chion-in forms one of the principal sights of +that most interesting of Japanese cities. But of all the temples of Japan, +those of the New-Jodo (or _Monto_) sect are at once the most handsome, the +most frequented, and the most attractive to the European traveller. +Everything here, too, is of a dignified and stately character; there is a +striking absence of the tawdry and the puerile. Founded in the year 1262, +this sect is, at the present day, foremost in learning, influence, and +activity. Another purely Japanese development, it is--owing to differences +about "church government"--composed of two sub-divisions, the +_Nishi-Hongwanji_ and the _Higashi-Hongwanji_, or the Eastern and Western +Divisions of the True Petition,--the reference being to the vow of Amida. +In most of the larger towns, handsome temples of either branch are to be +found, situated usually in the poorer districts. + +It is in the temples of the Shin-Jodo that the remarkable similarity, of +which every one has heard, between the Buddhist ceremonial and that of the +Roman Church is most conspicuous. Nowhere, perhaps, did the resemblance in +question,--to which I shall have occasion to refer again,--impress me more +forcibly than it did in the New-Jodo temple at Nagasaki, at the first +Buddhist service at which I was ever present. The day of our visit chanced +to be the founder's anniversary, and from a raised lectern in the chancel, +a venerable priest, of benign countenance,--wearing a rich vestment not +unlike a dalmatic, and a cap resembling a biretta,--was recounting to a +congregation, composed chiefly of women, old men, and children, the +virtues of their deceased benefactor. Presently, the sermon came to an +end, and the colloquial delivery of the discourse was changed for the +monotone of a litany recitation: the people answering with ready response, +and many of them employing the aid of their rosaries. The fragrance of +incense filled the air; tapers and flowers adorned the altar, above which +was the statue, not--as one entering by chance might almost have expected +to see--of a Christian saint, but of some manifestation of Gautama Buddha. +Despite, however, its elaborate ritual, the Shin-Jodo sect has been called +the "Protestantism of Japan;" the reason being that it sanctions the +marriage of its clergy, approves the reading of the scriptures in the +"vulgar tongue," permits a wider freedom in respect to food and drink, and +affords other indications of a "reforming spirit." The priesthood in this +sect is, practically, a hereditary office. + +In the _Great Indian Religions_ of the late Mr. Bettany, there is given a +summary of the Shin-Jodo Belief, in the words of one of its principal +teachers. I will take the liberty of re-quoting it here. "Rejecting all +religious austerities and other action, giving up all idea of self-power, +we rely upon Amida Buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the +future life, which is the most important thing: believing that at the +moment of putting our faith in Amida Buddha our salvation is settled. From +that moment invocation of his name is observed as an expression of +gratitude and thankfulness for Buddha's mercy. Moreover, being thankful +for the reception of this doctrine from the founder and succeeding chief +priests whose teachings were so benevolent, and as welcome as light in a +dark night, we must also keep the laws which are fixed for our duty during +our whole life." The mutual relation of faith and works is especially to +be noticed; and indeed the strikingly _evangelical_ character of the whole +Confession. + + [Illustration.] + + Statues of Kwannon, San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + +Vast, however, as is the power attributed to Amitabha, and great as is the +merit to be acquired by the invocation of his name, there is found in the +temples in which he is worshipped an image which receives even more +veneration than his. That colossal female effigy, with the many heads and +countless hands, before which a number of votaries, composed largely of +women, are kneeling in prayer, is meant to represent the mighty +Avalokitesvara, or--to substitute for the Sanskrit the less formidable +titles by which she is known in China and Japan,--the all-powerful Kwanyin +or Kwannon. Here, again, we are confronted with a devotion the origin of +which is wrapped in uncertainty, but which, closely connected with the +doctrine of the Western Paradise, seems to have arisen some three +centuries after the commencement of our era. At the present day, it is +spread extensively over Thibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan; but it is +unknown to the countries of Southern Buddhism. With regard to the meaning +of this great image before us, Kwannon is commonly explained to be the +reflex or spiritual son of Amitabha Buddha, sent by him to earth to +preside on earth over the Buddhist faith, and appearing, at first in male +and subsequently in female shape. But the probability is that the various +personages, with whom Kwannon is supposed to be identified, had merely a +fictitious existence; and that in her statues, we see simply an apotheosis +of Mercy, an allegorical _Mater Misericordiae_, whose many eyes and hands +are intended to signify the unremitting vigilance and the untiring energy +with which she ministers to all sorrow and distress.(20) + +The island of Pootau, off Ning-po, in the Chusan Archipelago, is the great +centre of Kwannon worship; the most popular of the many legends concerning +her associating her with this locality, and offering an explanation of her +thousand heads and hands more clumsy even than is the manner of such +myths. The island belongs to the Buddhist priesthood, and is a great +resort of pilgrims. In Japan, the shrines and statues of Kwannon are to be +met with everywhere: many of her images being of enormous size, richly +gilt and beautifully wrought. Sometimes the statues are kept concealed +from view, either on account of alleged miraculous properties, or for some +other reason of special sanctity. The highly-venerated image, for +instance, at the Asakusa temple, Tokio, is never shown; it is only two +inches high, and is accredited with supernatural qualities. But of all the +shrines of Kwannon, it may be doubted whether the impression created by +any is greater than by her temple of San-ju-san-gen-do at Kyoto, where no +less than 33,333 images of the goddess may be seen. Of these a thousand +are gilded statues, five feet in height, and ranged in tiers along a vast +gallery. The remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads, hands and +nimbi of the larger ones. The temple and its contents originated in the +votive offering of a Mikado of the twelfth century for recovery from +sickness. + + [Illustration.] + + The Altar of San-Ju-San-Gen-Do. + + + + + +IV. BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. + + + [Illustration.] + + Guardian Nio. + + +The Buddhist temples in Japan are for the most part built on a much +grander and more elaborate scale than those belonging to the Shinto +worship. The roofing is not of thatch, but of tiles; and instead of the +torii, the entrance is through a _Sammon_, or two-storied gateway, in the +recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious appearance. These +are called _Nio_, and their office is to guard the sacred precincts from +the approach of evil spirits. These images are commonly seen spotted all +over with pellets of paper. "A worshipper writes his petition on paper, or +better still, has it written for him by the priest, chews it to a pulp, +and spits it at the divinity. If, having been well aimed, the paper +sticks, it is a good omen." Passing through the Sammon, and proceeding in +a straight direction--often between rows of votive stone-lanterns--the +visitor soon arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple group. One +of these is the _Hondo_, or main shrine; while the other may be either the +Hall of the Founder of the particular sect to which the Temple belongs, or +it may contain a colossal image of Amida, and be specially dedicated to +his worship. Sometimes, again, this second building is known as the +Refectory, from the spiritual nourishment supplied there in the form of +sermons, for which the preacher takes as his text some passage of the +Sutra, or, it may be, some saying of Confucius.(21) Removing our boots, +which we leave at the foot of the wooden steps, we ascend to the Hondo, +and, if need be, push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered woodwork, +which afford access to the building. Should no service chance to be in +progress, a little company of priests, acolytes, &c., will probably be +found, seated on the matting with which the floor is covered,--engaged in +the perusal of book or newspaper, or chatting together over miniature cups +of tea, and, if it be winter-time, spreading their hands to receive the +grateful warmth of the hibachi.(22) Beside them, on the floor, is arranged +a miscellaneous assortment of sacred pictures, leaflets, candles, +incense-sticks, charms, and other articles; any of which may be purchased +by a very modest expenditure. As we enter, we observe that several pairs +of eyes are fastened on us in undisguised curiosity; but our low +salutation is promptly responded to, if indeed it has not been +anticipated, and one of the group will courteously come forward to supply +us with any assistance or information we require. Before the railing, +which encloses the sanctuary, two or three worshippers are kneeling in +prayer; and these also examine us for a while with close attention. Or, it +may be that at the time of our visit some religious function is +proceeding. If so, the clergy with their servers are found within the +chancel, clad in gorgeous yellow robes, and genuflecting now and again +before the images which stand above the richly-vested altar. Outside the +sanctuary rails, the congregation is assembled in greater or less numbers, +according to the importance of the day. Around is a profusion of lights +and flowers; while the air is fragrant with the fumes of incense. The +prayers, which the officiating priest recites in monotone, are in Pali, a +form of Sanskrit; and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades his devotions, +let it be remembered that every day, month after month, and year after +year, he may be found chanting these same litanies, of the significance of +which he has but the vaguest idea. Not, however, that he is without belief +in their efficacy; nay, it may be that his very ignorance of their meaning +causes the words he utters to have, in his eyes, a transcendent value. +Above the high altar, in seated posture on lotus-blossoms,(23) are three +colossal images, cunningly wrought and richly gilded, and bearing on their +countenances an expression of placid repose. Perhaps, it is the +_Triratna_, or Three Jewels, that these represent, the Trinity of Buddha, +the Law, and the Order. Or, possibly, this is Buddha, in his triple forms +of existence:--as Sakya-muni, the form under which he lived as man among +men; as Amitabha, his metaphysical existence in Nirvana; as +Avalokitesvara, his reflex in the world of forms, his spiritual son, +generated to propagate the religion established by him during his earthly +career. Or once again, these three images may portray the Buddhas of the +Past, Present, and Future:--Gautama who _was_, the historic founder of +Buddhism; Kwannon, or Avalokitesvara, the head of the present Buddhist +hierarchy, the Buddha who _is_; and Maitreya, or Meroku, the deliverer yet +_to come_, the rehabilitation of past Buddhas foretold by Sakya-muni. Now +and again one may meet with a Buddhist of superior intellectual +attainments, who would explain the acts of worship he offers to these +images, as signifying merely reverence for Gautama's teaching; but to the +multitude, as has been seen already, the images represent distinct and +all-powerful deities. Indeed, the people are encouraged thus to regard +them by their ecclesiastical superiors; it being one of the methods of +Buddhism thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense and ignorant +minds. And thus it comes about that a religion, commencing with +agnosticism, meets the "craving for divinity," so deeply implanted in the +nature of our race, by passing into what is, practically, a deification of +humanity. + + [Illustration.] + + Pagoda at Nikko. + + +Leaving the Hondo, we next proceed to explore the grounds and remaining +buildings connected with the temple. This lofty _Pagoda_, for instance, +several stories high, is erected over some holy relic,--perhaps the +vitrified remains of the founder, after cremation. A little further on, we +come to the _Rinzo_, or Revolving Library, containing an entire set of the +Buddhist scriptures. As these consist altogether of some 6,700 or 6,800 +large volumes, it is clearly impossible for any one person to read them +all. This, however, need not be regretted seeing that whatever merit might +be obtained by a complete perusal, is freely extended to all, who will +take the trouble to make this huge stand revolve; the structure being so +arranged that a single push is sufficient for the purpose! The Rinzo was +an invention of a Chinese priest, and is said to date from the sixth +century. Owing to their costliness they are rarely met with; and the only +two I remember seeing were at Asakusa, Tokio, and at Ikegami, the +head-quarters of the Hokkai sect. Elsewhere in the grounds we come upon +the _Shoro_, or Great Bell,--used not for summoning the faithful, but for +the purpose of invocation and worship;--the _Koro_, or Drum-tower; the +_Emado_, or "Ex-voto" Shed, the walls of which are covered with pictures, +charms, and other offerings; cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial +purification; a printing and publishing department; and, perhaps, a grotto +with ghastly representations of the sufferings endured in the Buddhist +hells. Usually, too, to be found in the sacred precincts, is a specimen of +the _Ficus religiosa_, or sacred tree, under which Sakya-muni attained his +enlightenment. At the rear of the temple buildings are situated the +priests' apartments,--often a quadrangle enclosed by a colonnade,--the +reception-rooms of which are beautifully decorated with _kakemonos_. Here +the visitor is sometimes invited to a light repast of tea, cake, and +fruit; the priests waiting on him the while with the most courteous +attention. And here may I be permitted to say a word about the Buddhist +priests of Japan as I found them? They are commonly spoken of as lazy and +ignorant, mercenary and corrupt; and it is to be feared that with regard +to many, especially of the lower orders of the clergy, this witness is +true. But speaking of those with whom I came into direct contact--the +priests, for the most part, attached to the more important temples--I feel +bound to say, that the impression I formed of them was, on the whole, a +distinctly favourable one. With countenances often indicating close +spiritual application, they appeared to perform their sacred duties with +reverence and attention; while of the disinterested kindness and +hospitality I received at their hands, as well as of the courtesy and +patience with which they replied to my numerous questions, I would speak +in terms of grateful appreciation. + + [Illustration.] + + Plan Of Buddhist Temple At Ikegami, Near Tokio. (_Head-quarters of the + Hokkai or Nichiren sect._) The path to the left from the Entrance Gate +leads to the Main Temple; that to the right to the Founder's Hall. To the +right of the plan are the Drum-tower and Pagoda. Behind the Main Temple is + the Rinzo or Revolving Library; and in the lower left-hand corner of the + picture is the Reliquary. The two small buildings in the foreground are + the Belfry and the Emado. In the background are the Priests' Apartments + and Reception-rooms. + + +A visit to a Buddhist temple, however, can hardly fail to suggest to any, +who are at all familiar with the observances of the Roman ritual, a +comparison to which we have already referred,--I mean the striking +resemblance between the Buddhist ceremonies and such as have found place +in the Christian Church. The high-altar with its haloed statues, flowers, +candelabra, and ever-burning lamps; the side-altars, similarly adorned, +above one of which, it may be, is seen the image of Maia, the mother of +Gautama, bearing her infant-son in her arms; the priests, tonsured, +mitred, arrayed in their rich vestments, and attended by their acolytes; +the people, bending low in adoration, or telling their rosaries as they +pray; the tinkling of bells and the perfume of incense; the dim light of +the sanctuary, and the monotonous chant, in the unknown tongue, of the +litanies uplifted for living and for dead:--these are only some of the +points of correspondence with Roman Catholic observances which meet us in +almost every Buddhist temple. Indeed, to attempt to specify such +resemblances in detail would prove a laborious task. But while the +similarity to which I refer is far too close and remarkable to be +accounted for by mere coincidence, its explanation is by no means easy. +Some would solve the difficulty by referring to the unquestionable fact +that many of the ceremonies practised in the Christian Church are +adaptations of ancient heathen rites: a leading captive of captivity of +which, as it seems to me, Christianity has far more reason to be proud +than ashamed. But though the Buddhist observances are, without doubt, of +considerable antiquity, this explanation cannot be said to be adequate to +the requirements of the case. Far more satisfactory is the theory that +ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of China with some form of +Christianity--probably Nestorianism--and to the readiness which Buddhism has +ever exhibited to extend its influence by a conformity to other faiths. +The problem, however, is one which we must, to a great extent, be +satisfied to leave unsolved; the most eminent authorities in Orientalism +having confessed themselves baffled. It is only the fact of the +resemblance that admits of no dispute. + + [Illustration.] + + A Buddhist Priest. + + +It is curious to notice the different effects produced by an observation +of the Buddhist ceremonial on the minds of Roman Catholic missionaries +upon their first arrival in the East. By some its likeness to their own +ritual has been regarded as a manoeuvre of Satan, designed for the +hindrance of Christian truth; while others have regarded the resemblance +with satisfaction, as calculated to diminish the difficulties of their +work. Without entering further into this question, I may be allowed to +express the conviction that an elaborate ceremonial forms at any rate no +necessary factor of Christian work in Japan. So far from this being the +case, I was informed, on no prejudiced authority, that, the breach once +made with the old associations, converts are disposed to regard anything +tending even remotely to suggest them as more of a hindrance than a help; +and this view finds support in the large number of adherents gained by +several of the Protestant Missions, with whom anything in the way of +ceremonial is reduced to a minimum. On the other hand, must be remembered +the very successful work accomplished in Japan, alike by the Roman and +Orthodox Churches, whose combined total of some 65,000 adherents is more +than double that of the various Protestant sects,--the Churches of England +and America, with 4,000 members, not being included in this computation. + +Hitherto, I have referred only to the resemblance outwardly existing +between the ceremonies and observances of Christianity and Buddhism. But +an extension of the comparison results in what is, at first sight, an even +more startling similarity between incidents recorded of Gautama Buddha, +and events in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated in the Gospels. Thus, +we are told that Gautama was born of a virgin mother; that angels appeared +at his nativity; that an ancient seer prostrated himself before him, and +saluted him as one come down from heaven; that, as a child, he confounded +his teachers by the understanding he displayed, and the questions which he +asked; that, assailed by the Evil One(24) with the keenest +temptations,--including the offer of Sovereignty over all the world, if he +would renounce his mission,--he yet emerged victorious from all; that once, +being on a mountain, he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light; that +he went down into hell; and that he ascended into heaven. Indeed, the +Christian may be pardoned if, for the moment, he feels completely +staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf of Sakya-muni; and if +his perplexity only begins to give place to relief, when he discovers that +there is absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence in the +early Buddhist writings, and that there is no reason for supposing that +these alleged events in the life of Gautama were ever heard of until the +Christian era was already several centuries old. + +We have now, as far as our limits permit, made an examination of Buddhism +with especial reference to Japan. But before leaving this part of our +subject, I would humbly, but very earnestly, submit the question, Is there +in Buddhism generally,--is there in Buddhism as it exists in Japan at the +present day,--nothing upon which Christianity may profitably fasten, +nothing to which Christianity may properly appeal? Is that great +proclamation of Christian tact, which, eighteen centuries ago, the Apostle +Paul delivered on the Areopagus at Athens, "Whom ye ignorantly worship, +Him declare I unto you," one that cannot, more often than it does, find a +place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day? Is the position a useless +one to take, that both the faiths of Jesus Christ and of Buddha agree in +this, that either has for its object the amelioration of man's lot, here +and hereafter, and his release from the curse of suffering; only, as we +believe, with this great difference, that the founder of Christianity was +possessed of resources to which Sakya-muni laid no claim? These are +questions which were constantly presenting themselves to my mind during my +visit to Japan; but they are questions also which I heard asked more than +once by men who had closely studied the whole subject and were deeply +interested in mission work. But whatever the true answer to these +questions be, of this we may be certain: that by no reckless denunciation +of a creed, of the very elements of which the denouncer is content to be +in ignorance, will any victory of Christ's Cross be achieved. Be the +errors and shortcomings of Buddhism what they may,--and we must, to be +honest, pronounce them in our judgment to be many and great,--it is, at +least, a system of very great antiquity, in whose strength thousands of +millions of our fellow-creatures have lived and died, both better and +happier. Men cannot be expected lightly to abandon their allegiance to +such a faith as this, nor would it be to their credit if they did; while +in Christianity, even when faithfully represented, there is very much +calculated to perplex and estrange one who has been trained in the tenets +of Buddhism. Moreover, however little he may agree with them, the Buddhist +holds that the religious convictions of others are entitled to respect, +and that their feelings should never be wounded, if this can be avoided; +it is only natural that he, in his turn, should be quickly alienated by +unsympathetic treatment. I was told by an English resident of long +standing that infidelity is largely on the increase in Japan, especially +among the men of the upper and middle classes; and that among the causes +of this was certainly to be reckoned the contemptuous and merely +destructive attitude towards Buddhism, with which some--let us hope they +are the very few--would think to serve the cause of Jesus Christ. "Depend +upon it," it was said to me, "it is irreligion that commonly succeeds to +the vacant place, not Christianity. Carlyle was right when he said, +'Better even to believe a lie than to believe nothing.' " And Buddhism is +not all a lie! + +"The perishing heathen." Many of us have been revolted by such expressions +when heard at home. But it is only when one is living in the midst of the +people of whom they are spoken, that it is possible to realize the full +horror of their meaning. That men, women, and little children, who are +distinguished by so many good qualities,(25) and who--with, as we believe, +such immeasurably inferior opportunities--present, in many points, so +favourable a contrast to ourselves, should be condemned to a future of +hopeless and unending misery, for not believing that of which, it may be, +they have not even heard, or heard only in crude, distorted statement--can +any man _really_ think this, who recognizes the providence of a Father of +Love; nay, I will dare to say, of a Deity of bare Justice? And yet +language thus fearfully misrepresenting the Faith of Christ is still used +by some who are called by His name; and that it is used is known by the +people of Japan.(26) + +But again. There is, I have observed, much in the scheme of Christianity +calculated to prove a stumbling-block to those who have been educated in +the doctrines of Buddhism. Let me proceed to state some of the +difficulties that would be experienced, some of the objections that would +be raised, by a Buddhist of a certain amount of intellectual capacity, +when confronted with the claims of the Christian Faith. + +Thus, (_a_) _the Bible_. "We are unable," the Buddhist would say, "to +recognize in your Old and New Testaments an inspired revelation. Why +should we accept your Scriptures, with all their alleged miracles and +supernatural occurrences, when you reject ours? Besides, you are not +agreed among yourselves as to inspiration, authenticity, translation, +interpretation. Some of you, again, are for diffusing the Bible broadcast, +others would keep it in the background. Again, the Christian doctrine of +immortality appears to us entirely absent from the pages of the Old +Testament; while even the Jews, 'God's chosen people,' refuse to see in +the New Testament the fulfilment of the Old." + +(_b_) _The Old Testament._ "We cannot regard the story of Creation, as +given in the Book of Genesis, as anything more than a myth, containing a +germ of truth. Neither can we accept, as historically true, the story of +the temptation in the Garden of Eden. And yet, upon this is made to rest +your whole theory of the Fall, of Original Sin, and of Christian +Redemption. As for the history of the Jewish people, we can see in it +nothing but one long story of cruelty and bloodshed; how can a Creator, a +God of Love, be supposed to have permitted and approved such things?" + +(_c_) _The Incarnation._ The whole doctrine of the Incarnation is full of +difficulty to the mind of an Oriental; _not_ because of its strangeness +and novelty, but owing to his very familiarity with stories of miraculous +birth in his own legends. + +(_d_) _The Atonement._ "Why should Jehovah require the sacrifice of His +own Son?" This is a difficulty that would present itself with especial +force to the Buddhist; by whom all life is held sacred, and whom such +texts as "Without shedding of blood there is no remission," fill with +repugnance. The explanation offered by Buddhists themselves of the +Christian doctrine of Atonement is, that its origin must be sought in the +fact that, from the most ancient times, the idea of sacrifice, and of +human sacrifice, has existed; and this explanation they go on to apply to +the Holy Eucharist. + +(_e_) _Eternal Punishment._ "How," it is asked, "is your doctrine of +Everlasting Punishment consistent with that of the Remission of Sins? And +how, on the other hand, is not your scheme of salvation ethically wrong, +if it allows people, after sinning all their lives, to be forgiven on +their death-beds, that so they may enter a Paradise, wherein good and bad +alike have a place?" + +(_f_) _Faith and Belief._ "What right have you to ask us to believe +anything that does not accord with science and experience, when you have +no better opportunities of knowing than we?" + +(_g_) _Christian Ethics._ "Some of these--e.g. the doctrine of the Sermon +on the Mount--we admit to be good; but they are not peculiar to +Christianity--our own teaching is very similar. In other of your ethics, we +see only an ignoble and selfish storing of treasure; it appears to us that +a good action, done for the sake of reward or gain, must entirely lose its +merit." + +(_h_) _Missionary Work._ "We do not claim that our religion is the only +way of salvation, but readily recognize the good points in other systems +as well. You, on the contrary, appear to hold that there is no other way +but your own; and indeed it is only on this supposition that we can +understand the strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to abandon our +religion for yours."(27) + +It forms no part of my purpose to discuss these objections; which, let me +add, are merely representative, and by no means exhaustive. With many of +them we are already familiar at home; and the Japanese, I would mention, +are fully aware of the unbelief prevalent in England, and well acquainted +with its arguments. Indeed, few English people, it is probable, have any +idea how closely their history and their literature are studied by nations +living at the other side of the globe, who are to them simply "the +heathen." Some, again, of the above objections would seem to have been +suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of Christian truth. I have +thought it worth while to refer to them, in the hope that the fact of such +questions being raised may serve to impress upon us these two important +points:--(i) the need of missionaries, at the present day, being not only +men of holy and devoted lives, but also fully equal in intellectual +equipment and culture to our home clergy; and (ii) the fallacy of trusting +to the circulation of the Bible, as an instrument of mission work, unless +it be accompanied--or rather preceded--by the teaching of the living agent. + +It must not, however, be imagined that the obstacles to the progress of +the Gospel in Japan are wholly, or even mainly, of the character I have +referred to. Another great hindrance is most unquestionably presented in +the large number of competing sects and organizations, which, here as in +other countries where mission work is being carried on, address the people +in the name of Christianity. It is true that Buddhists themselves are +divided into numerous sects and schools; but between these there can +scarcely be said to be anything of party animosity and strife. It will, +indeed, be heard with satisfaction that the feeling towards one another of +the various Christian bodies in Japan is, speaking generally, free from +bitterness; and that each would appear desirous of doing its own work, in +the wide field before it, without interference with the efforts of others. +"The feeling here," it was observed to me, "is nothing like so bad as it +is at home."(28) And as in England bigotry and suspicion are steadily +giving place to mutual toleration and respect, so may we hope that, both +in our colonies and abroad, counsels of charity may more and more prevail. +Still, at the best, so long as Romanists, Orthodox, Anglicans, and +Sectarians adhere to the positions they at present occupy, so long must +any real unity of action be impossible; neither can peace be sought by +surrender or compromise of principle. But meanwhile there is, of course, a +lamentable want of compactness among the converts--as a recent writer in +the _Japan Mail_, remarked "they are more like scattered groups of +soldiers than an army";--while the perplexity occasioned to those we are +seeking to convince is terrible and great. + +The following extract from Miss Bickersteth's recently-published _Japan as +we saw it_ (Sampson Low, 1893), draws an able contrast between the +religious condition of Japan at the present day and the position of +Christianity in the time of St. Francis Xavier. "It was impossible not to +be struck with the present complication of religious matters in the +country as compared with the days of Xavier. Then, on the one side, there +was the Buddhist-Shinto creed, undermined by no Western science, still +powerful in its attraction for the popular mind, and presenting a more or +less solid resistance to the foreign missionary; and, on the other, +Christianity as represented by Roman Catholicism, imperfect truly, but +without a rival in dogma or in ritual. Now the ranks of Buddhist-Shintoism +are hopelessly broken; the superstition of its votaries is exposed by the +strong light of modern science, and their enthusiasm too often quenched in +the deeper darkness of atheism. Christianity, though present in much +greater force than in the days of Xavier, is, alas, not proportionately +stronger. The divisions of Christendom are nowhere more evident than in +its foreign missions to an intellectual people like the Japanese. The +Greek, the Roman, the Anglican churches, the endless 'splits' of +Nonconformity, must and do present to the Japanese mind a bewildering +selection of possibilities in religious truth." + +To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian progress in Japan--which, +although the last mentioned, is by no means the least serious--I mean the +estimate formed by the natives of the practical influence of the Christian +religion upon English people and upon other nations professing it. +Applying to Christianity the test of its results, they urge that it has, +at any rate, only very partially succeeded. For instance, the Japanese +comment upon the fact that numbers of Englishmen in Japan never attend the +services of their Church; and that the lives of many of them display a +flagrant disregard for the principles which should regulate the conduct of +Christians. Without, however, denying either the justice of these charges, +or the reasonableness of the mood which advances them, I think it may be +urged with fairness that the influence of Christianity on us as a nation +cannot rightly be estimated in this particular way. As a rule, the +Englishman can scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. Too often +he assumes an attitude of insolent superiority to the people whose guest +he is; while the position in which our countrymen are placed in a country +like Japan--coupled with the freedom from restraint, so much greater than +at home--has, for reasons which we need not now enter into, its peculiar +difficulties. Neither is it by any means certain that a Japanese, paying a +short visit to England, will gather any just impression of what hold +Christianity has on us as a people. In all probability the range of his +observations will be very limited and superficial; his wanderings will be +chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the principal cities; while +the circle of his acquaintance will, it is likely, be equally restricted, +and equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, in saying this, we +would seek to excuse ourselves, or deny that there is far more truth than +we could wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges brought against +us. We would merely submit that there is another side to the picture which +ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting as we must, for +instance, the great prevalence of infidelity in our England of to-day, +there is yet to be placed over against it,--and may I not add, drawing it +out into the light?--the increased activity of the Church during this last +half-century, the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting herself +to meet the needs of her times, the influence for good that she has not +only been in the past, but remains at the present day, in the nation at +large, and in thousands and thousands of English homes. "By their fruits +ye shall know them": and Christianity must not and need not deprecate the +application of that test to herself. Only, we would urge, that is not a +fair judgment, which takes account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ +has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, in the strength of +her Divine Head, she has been permitted to accomplish. + + + + + +V. CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN. + + +I propose now to place before my readers some account of the various +Missions at work in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better from having +obtained, in the course of my visit, a useful table, compiled by the Rev. +H. Loomis, of the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving statistics of +the different organizations up to the beginning of the year 1893. The plan +adopted by Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three classes: (1) +"Protestant Missions," (2) "Catholic Missions," and (3) "The Greek Church +in Japan." Under the head of "Protestant Missions," are included the +Church of England, the Episcopal Church of America, a large number of +other American denominations, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the +Swiss Evangelical Protestant Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., +Universalists, Unitarians and others; while under the head of "Catholic +Missions" we find particulars of only one branch of the Holy Catholic +Church--the Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement I should have made +myself; but, as a matter of convenience, we will follow it more or less +closely.(29) It is right to add that of the thirty "Protestant Missions" +seven are grouped together under the title of the "Church of Christ in +Japan," and work, it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian +principles. In the same way, the American Episcopal Church, the Church of +England--represented by both the Church Missionary Society and the Society +for the Propagation of the Gospel--and the Mission of Wyckliffe College, +Canada, are associated together; leaving some twenty sects working +independently.(30) + +Before, however, proceeding to an examination of Mr. Loomis' table, we +must briefly observe the past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates +from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, seven years after the +country was discovered by the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries +were permitted to prosecute their work without molestation, and +considerable progress was being effected. A deputation of native priests +appealed to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. With +thirty-five religious sects already represented in Japan, the country, he +answered, might very well find room for a thirty-sixth religion, viz. +Christianity. Presently, however, the Jesuits being followed by the +Dominicans and Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, elated by +their success, some of the missionaries began to adopt an attitude of +high-handed intolerance and interference. For the first time in their +history, the Japanese found themselves entangled in all the turmoil and +animosity of religious strife. In 1587 the first persecution of the +Christians took place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, however, +was disregarded; and the fatal policy of arrogance and oppression was +still persisted in. Native priests were put to death; Buddhist monasteries +were destroyed; the Inquisition was set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese +embassy despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make an act of +submission to the spiritual supremacy of the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, +jealous of the position that was being gained by the Portuguese traders, +accused the Roman propagandists to the Japanese authorities of aiming at a +territorial ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being carried on +by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the Shogun there seems little doubt. +In the massacre which ensued several thousand Christians were put to +death. "Their unflinching devotion compels our admiration. One may search +the grim history of early Christian martyrology without finding anything +to surpass the heroism of the Roman Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on +stakes made of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they yet +refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit priest, Christopher Ferreya, +who, after enduring horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet in +such a way that his head was buried in a hole in the ground from which air +and light were excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he might make +the sign of recantation. He hung for four hours, and then made the sign; +whereupon, with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed the +president of the tribunal before which Christians were brought for +condemnation. Then, after a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in +armed rebellion. After two months they were forced to surrender, and +37,000 were slaughtered. Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the +admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being made in favour of the +Chinese and Dutch. For more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood +beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, containing, among other +prohibitions, the following:--'So long as the sun shall warm the earth, let +no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let all know that the +King of Spain himself, or the Christians' God, or the great God of all, if +he violate this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.' For +centuries the name 'Christian' would blanch the cheek and pale the lip. +Christianity was remembered only as an awful scar on the national annals. +But in the Southern Island the smouldering fire was never quite +extinguished; while, as recently as 1829, six men and an old woman were +crucified at Osaka."(31) + +At the time of the closing of the country to foreigners, an exception was +made of the one port of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, +when thousands of native Christians were hurled from a rocky islet into +the sea. Here, however, as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were the +only Europeans permitted to trade; they being closely confined to the +small island of Deshima. In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they +were subjected to the closest espionage, not being suffered, under any +circumstances, to pass beyond the narrow limits assigned to them. Several +times in each year they were summoned before the authorities, and required +to tread under foot the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic Faith. +Several of the trampling-boards employed on these occasions are still to +be seen at the Ueno Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, quieted any +qualms of conscience by regarding their action as amounting to an +abnegation, not of Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until thirty +years ago that intercourse between Japan and other nations began to be +resumed; and that, after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, +circumstances were brought about which enabled both Roman Catholics and +other Christians to work without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against +Christianity was formally removed; and the release from imprisonment and +return from banishment of hundreds of Christians took place. + +Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. It has, indeed, its +elements of glorious and heroic martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on +which few of us can look back without a deep sense of shame. Let us trust +that by this time the people of Japan have come to understand that the +conflict of their forefathers was not with Christianity, but rather with +Christians who had forgotten "what spirit they were of." + +Turning now to the condition of Christian Missions at the present day, it +seems right to commence with those of the Roman Church. Not only has the +Roman Church in Japan a history which extends over three hundred years, +but it reckons at the present time considerably more than double the +number of adherents claimed by any other Christian body. The Roman +influence has been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in the +neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted labours of the missionaries +have won over a considerable portion of the population. + +To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, three Bishops, +seventy-eight missionary, and fifteen native priests, with over 300 +(native) minor clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, with 244 +congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the Order of St. Paul de Chartres +are stationed in Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. +Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, with an average of over 100 +children; twenty Industrial Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a +Hospital for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with sixty-two inmates, +situated at Gotemba, at the foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant +baptisms for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents 1,337, and +Heathen parents 1,166; these, with 2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five +"conversions of heretics," bringing the total of baptisms and conversions +for the year to 5,354. The work that is being done by the Roman +missionaries is commended on all sides; a prominent feature in their +methods being a consideration for, and adaptation to, the habits and +prejudices of the people, that greatly facilitate their progress, +especially among the poor of the country districts. The whole number of +Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as has been said already, to about +45,000. + +I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, or Orthodox Russian, +Church in Japan; whose relations with the Church of England are here, as +elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of a very intimate +character. Its head-quarters are at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, +situated on high ground and in a central position, has recently been +erected. Unfortunately our information in this case is very incomplete; +but assuming the correctness of the numbers before us, one is struck by +the paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and three priests. To +these must be added eighteen native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers +and workers. There are in all 219 congregations. The number of adult +baptisms in 1892 is given as 952; and the total membership at the present +time exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they indicate much +activity and progress. The proximity of Russian territory to +Japan--Vladivostock being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki--is, of course, +a circumstance highly favourable to the Orthodox Mission. + +Coming now to the various bodies arranged by Mr. Loomis under the title of +"Protestant," we will take first the _Nippon Sei Kokwai_, or Church of +Japan, which is the name given to the union formed by the Missions of the +American Episcopal Church, the Church of England, and the English Church +in Canada. It is, however, only fair to say that the total number of +adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the number +claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as also by the Churches of the +American Board's Mission. The Missions, then, of the American Church and +of the Church of England are to a great extent worked independently of +each other, each being under its own Episcopal control; but at the same +time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, full intercommunion, and are +practically one,--often taking counsel together, and dividing the various +districts by mutual arrangement in such a way as to make the best use of +their resources. To the American Church belongs the honour of being the +first body to commence Christian work in Japan in the present century; the +Rev. C. M. Williams, afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, establishing +himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding at once to translate portions of +the Bible and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit of +English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes for the study of our +language. There are now twelve missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one +female missionaries; together with seven native clergy and nineteen +unordained workers and preachers. Of the twenty-seven organized churches +only one is wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, +adults 208, children fifty-eight; while the total membership amounts to +over 1,400, with a like number of children receiving instruction in Sunday +Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming was appointed missionary physician, and +arrived at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an excellent work. +A good deal of secular educational work is also carried on in connexion +with the mission. + + [Illustration.] + + Sketch Map of Japan. + + +We next come to the work of the Church Missionary Society, which commenced +operations in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two missionary and +seven native clergy engaged; forty-two female missionaries, and sixty +unordained preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one is +self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, adults 267, children +121; and the total membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, with +600 children in Sunday Schools. + +The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel commenced work in 1873; and +has its headquarters at Tokio. The work of the two Community Missions, +founded by Bishop Bickersteth in 1887, is apparently included in the +statistics assigned to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At St. +Andrew's University Mission, five clergy--all of whom are University +Graduates,--live in community with several native students preparing for +Ordination, while at St. Hilda's Mission, a staff of English ladies is +engaged in work, which includes schools, a hospital, and a home for +mission women. Both these Missions are supported by the "Guild of St. +Paul,"--a society which has branches all over England,--whose occasional +papers are full of interesting information. Several other priests of the +S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; and these, with seven +native ministers, make in all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The +adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the membership at the present +time is given as 784. + +The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by the Canadian Church in 1888. +At present it provides only three clergy, who are engaged at Nagoya, a +flourishing commercial city situated about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. +Bishop Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, refers to its +work in hopeful and appreciative terms. + +The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai will thus be seen +to be about 4,300 (with upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these +the Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At the same time evidence is +by no means lacking that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly +sound principles and along right lines; and there are many reasons for +believing that, with adequate resources, a future awaits it, under God, +far exceeding the calculations that might be suggested by its present +numerical strength. Some of the readers of these pages may, possibly, be +in greater sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. than of the +C. M. S; but no consideration of this sort should allow us to be +inappreciative of the splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the +past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. Its chief centre in +Japan is at Osaka, another huge commercial city, some twenty miles from +Kyoto where there is a considerable European settlement. Bishop +Bickersteth--as does also the American Bishop, Dr. Williams(32)--resides at +Tokio, the capital; where the services at St. Andrew's Church, adjoining +the Episcopal residence, are such as may well gladden the heart of an +English Churchman, who finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, +I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking feature of the Nippon Sei +Kokwai is presented in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which +have already been held. The Synods are composed of clergy and laity, every +congregation of twenty persons being entitled to send its representative; +and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, if ever, attained to by +so youthful a Church. In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is not +to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to form a "branch of the Church +of England," but to establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic +Christianity which we believe the Church of England faithfully represents, +a _Japanese Church_, which may be committed, as soon as ever circumstances +allow, entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves. + +The Bishop's Pastoral Letter to his Clergy (Advent 1892) treats, among +other matters, of the Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament +Criticism,--in the course of his comments upon which, he makes the +quotation, "The central object of our Faith is not the Bible, but our +Lord"--and of the Bishop of Lincoln's case. It exhibits throughout a tone +of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified prudence, and of Apostolic charity. +The Bishop's observations on the confirmation by the Privy Council of the +Lambeth Judgment will be read with satisfaction by many:-- + +"The principle of allowed variety in matters of ritual has now been +authoritatively recognized. Such recognition is essential to the welfare +of a great and living Church in our day. Among other good results which +may follow from the decision, I cannot but hope will be the liberation of +the energies and interests of a great and historic party, hitherto far too +closely confined within the boundaries of our own country, for wider and +more extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its own position is +now legally secured. Any outstanding questions of ritual could be speedily +settled by the application to them of the same principles which are +embodied in the recent judgments. This is so plain that probably no such +decisions will be challenged. May it not then be hoped that there will +shortly be a marked cessation of controversy at home, as for some years +past we are told there has been in our sister Church in the United States, +and coincidently a far more determined effort on the part of the whole +Church than has yet been known, inspired and sustained by the Holy Spirit +of Truth, to win the East to the Faith of Christ?" + +We come next to the _Church of Christ in Japan_, another amalgamation of +religious bodies; comprising, in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the +United States, two or three other American sects, and the United +Presbyterian Church of Scotland. By far the greater number of +denominations engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this is, +practically, an American work; the Scotch Presbyterians being represented +by only two missionaries with a single station, and only joining the +Mission in 1875--fifteen years after two of the American bodies had +commenced their work. The number of male missionaries in connexion with +this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these must be added fifty-three +native ministers, 100 female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and +workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no less than one-third are +wholly self-supporting. Baptisms in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; +and the total present membership amounts to 11,190, with over 2,000 +children in Sunday Schools. The fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have +recently adopted the Apostles' Creed as their Confession of Faith, in +place of the formularies with which their bodies have hitherto been +associated, is hardly the occasion for satisfaction that would at first +sight appear; the course in question being, I understand, to some extent +due to the prevalence of views similar to those held by a large number of +the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall presently refer. The +work of the Presbyterians however, must be accounted among the most +successful efforts for the evangelization of the country; while they have +had from the beginning the advantage of being supported by men of national +reputation and position. + +We come now to the _Kumi-ai Churches_ in connexion with the American +Board's Mission; i.e. the Congregationalists. This work owes its +foundation to a Japanese gentleman,--a Mr. Neesima,--who was converted to +Christianity, whilst on a visit to America. Its head-quarters are at +Kyoto. Starting in 1869--several years after the Presbyterians, their +relations with whom are of a cordial character,--the Congregationalists +very closely approach them in numerical strength. The Mission is worked by +twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native ministers; with fifty-seven +female missionaries and 100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches +one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of the converts belonging +to the middle and upper classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and +sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with upwards of 6,000 children +in Sunday Schools. In connexion with this Mission is a large college, in +which the greater number of the students are Christians, and many of these +candidates for the ministry; and mention must also be made of two +hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. The above figures, +without doubt, bear witness to great energy on the part of the +Congregationalist body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves +compelled to regard them with somewhat modified satisfaction. + +"Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly felt that systems which do +not definitely teach the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene +Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals from the moral +teaching which they impart, are not merely negative in tendency and +results, but retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in Eastern +lands." Such are the weighty words of Bishop Bickersteth,(33) the occasion +which drew them forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists of +Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:--"We believe (i) in the One +God, (ii) in Jesus Christ who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the +Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) in the Bible which shews +us the way of salvation, and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in +punishments and rewards given by God according to our merits, in +everlasting life if we are righteous, and in the Resurrection of the +Dead." Several of the clauses in this statement are open to grave +objection; but the fact that the second clause was deliberately adopted in +place of the words, "in Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, Who +suffered and died to atone for the sins of the world"--an alteration which +was heartily welcomed by the Unitarians of Japan--is full of painful +significance. The Bishop, while expressing his thankfulness that there are +large numbers in the Congregationalist body, who have no share in the +prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing with others, with whom +this is not the case, nothing can be gained by any attempt at +co-operation. "At such times a severe exclusiveness may be the truest +exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy." + +To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we can only very briefly refer. +The American Methodist Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and +twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; and a total following +of nearly 4,000, exclusive of children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian +Methodists number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist Missionary Union +(U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other American sects place their total at 500 +each. The German Swiss Protestants number 240; the "Universalists" +seventy-eight; and the Society of Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The +Scandinavian Church, whose mission has only recently commenced its work, +has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians are represented by two +ministers--my only reason for mentioning these last-named bodies together +being that no further particulars of either are to hand. + +But it is time to be bringing these remarks to a conclusion. We may, then, +declare the total number in Japan of those professing Christianity in any +form--[I should, by the way, have mentioned that the number of male +converts would appear to exceed by about one-third the number of +women,]--to be not more than 100,000; while the entire population of the +country is estimated at from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other +words, not more than one person in every 400 can be said to be, in any +sense, a Christian. I emphasize this fact, not because I think it +discouraging, but because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause of +Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already won. That Japan has still +great changes and developments to undergo in the near future scarcely +admits of question. "The nation is working out its spiritual redemption;" +and, as Mr. Loomis well says in his letter to _The Christian_ before +referred to, "As Japanese society advances, there will be all the more a +place for Christian influence. _The social problems of the people can only +find solution through religion._" We may well believe and hope that, as +time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ and of His Church will more +and more prevail. So, too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been +laid, and that some real and steady progress has been effected; we may +hope that more is, even now, being accomplished by the leaven of influence +than can at present find place in tables and statistics. And yet, as we +look the position boldly in the face, we must see that elements to +occasion anxiety are by no means lacking; and especially must we see how +much more remains to be done that has already been achieved. The +possibility of some form of Christianity being adopted as the national +religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which it is extremely +difficult to express an opinion, until the proposition assumes a more +definite shape than is likely for some time to be the case. + +That both Christianity and Christians are subjected to searching criticism +at the hands of the more educated natives we have already seen; while, +from time to time, tidings are received of bitter opposition encountered +by those engaged in the work of evangelization among the poor of the +country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of accommodation to which we +have several times referred, as forming so striking a feature of the +system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to maintain its position in +Japan, by a re-statement of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself +in accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, which have found such +favour and acceptance with the educated classes. At the same time, there +is, without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout Japan--in many cases +most reluctantly arrived at--that the former ascendency of Buddhism has for +ever passed away. "A dull apathy as regards religion has settled down upon +the educated classes of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to +nothing before modern science and civilization, and the glimmer of light +and truth to which they pointed has gone as well."(34) Sometimes, again, +Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms which encourage us to hope +that there are those who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive +step, are still "not far from the kingdom of God." Take, for examples, +these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. "It is the glory of mankind that Jesus +lived. Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did Christ's teaching +come from man, or from above man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ +should influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and wisest morality +of the world appears. So simple is it, so easily understood and applied. +'Love God and love man,' as central principles, suffice to regenerate +society and lead men to heaven. Christ's character and teachings stand for +ever." + +With a brief reference to one or two further points suggested by Mr. +Loomis' table, I will bring this, my last chapter, to a close. One of +these is the distinction he draws--and it is a distinction quite worth +drawing--between married and unmarried missionaries. Of course, the Roman +clergy are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries of the +Orthodox Church; but when we come to the "Protestant Missions," we find +the numbers of married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and thirty-seven +respectively. Indeed, with the exception of the Church of England, the +Scandinavian Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal Church, which +supply six each, there is no mission with more than two unmarried clergy, +and several have not even one. Now it is certain that this is not the way +in which great mission work has been done in the past; but is the newer +way better than the old? Beyond observing that the presence of female +missionaries is in a very special degree needed in Japan, be they the +wives of the clergy or not, I will not presume to answer that question +myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record the opinion, emphatically +expressed to me, of one who has lived in the East for a great many years, +and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory celibacy of the Roman +priesthood. "It is," he remarked, "far too hastily assumed that the fact +of the married missionary usually bringing another valuable ally to the +work sufficiently determines the question. But I am convinced that, +speaking generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that wider +opportunities of usefulness are extended. Nor is it merely that his +movements are entirely free and unhampered--that he is exempt from domestic +obligations and anxieties--that he has more time for study--and that he is +thrown more in the society of his brother clergy. As a man's children +begin to grow up, educational and other considerations in connexion with +these, urge upon him the desirability of returning home, with the result +that, just as he has begun to master the difficulties of language, and to +enter into the thought and habits of the people, his place is taken by a +tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but have all his experience to +gain." No doubt, there is plenty of room for both married and unmarried +clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance of the married in +the case before us may well serve to suggest the consideration:--Might not +more of that large and possibly increasing number of unmarried clergy in +England be drawn to take part in a work of such fascinating interest--"_a +work_," if I may once more quote the words of our Bishop in Japan, "_that +must be done at once if it is to be done at all_." + +Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us as we examine Mr. +Loomis' statistics, is the large number of "dismissals and exclusions" +made by those bodies which supply information under this head, and +amounting in some cases to several hundreds in a year. That such measures +are not resorted to without grave reason may be assumed, and that some +exercise of discipline is especially necessary in dealing with a young and +nascent church admits of no dispute. There is indeed every reason to hope +that by far the greater number of converts are actuated by an intense +sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the self-sacrifice to which +they, in many ways, readily submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, +at the same time, it is probable that the numbers in question indicate an +even larger proportion of "failures," than is the case with mission work +generally; and that they point not only to losses through "back-sliding," +but to many instances of insincerity on the part of those professing +conversion. It has been remarked that it does not belong to the Japanese +temperament to "take things _au grand serieux_;" and this characteristic +extends to matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, who, for +some reason or another, thinks it "worth his while" to conform to +Christianity for a time, will have the very smallest scruples about doing +so; and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will baffle, at any +rate for some time, the careful scrutiny to which candidates are rightly +subjected by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. The missionaries, +I fear, are often imposed on; and yet--anything, surely, is better than +being over suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to do is to show +these different nations to whom we go, that Christ and His Church, and we, +His members, do really care for them, alike in things temporal and +eternal. Our Faith, to be really preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully +practised. 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It is the old nobility who have been + throughout the uncompromising opponents of Christianity, and indeed + of all change; and the most zealous supporters of Buddhism. + + 5 Eden's Japan, Historical and Descriptive. + + 6 Even an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the lowest + estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole mass of + Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that in China, + _which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number_, both + Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with Buddhism. + See Rhys Davids' _Buddhism_, chap. I (S.P.C.K.). + + 7 Thibet. + +_ 8 Light of Asia_, i. 142, and vi. 688. + +_ 9 Lectures on Buddhism_, pp. 62-3. + +_ 10 Legends and Theories of the Buddhists_, p. 187. + + 11 Prof. Max Mueller, however (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1878, p. 134 note), + gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 B.C. as the year of Buddha's + death. + + 12 "The Buddhists look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked + upon the Cross."--Rhys Davids' _Buddhism_, p. 37 note. + + 13 It is, no doubt, owing largely to the influence of Buddhism that the + passion of _anger_ is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, a + Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would consider + it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray itself. + + 14 Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs. Bishop), authoress of _Unbeaten Tracks in + Japan_, well describes the impression produced on the spectator by + the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in Japan:--"He + is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, he is not + thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,--that is all; his + work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is the + Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate." + + The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given + opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, + and, as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from + the forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize + Illumination. + +_ 15 History of the Jewish Church_, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv. + + 16 This is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it _must_ be true, + in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to + minister to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so + dissimilarly circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As + we proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of + Buddhism and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have + suggested to us, more than once, those different aspects of + Christianity, which have been the occasion of all our "schools of + thought," and, alas, of how many of our divisions! + + 17 Those who would investigate the subject further are referred to + Alabaster's _The Modern Buddhist_ (Truebner, 1870). + + 18 For it is men only who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy + of attaining to it, have changed their sex. + +_ 19 Jodo_ means the "Pure Land." + + 20 Avalokitesvara="The Lord who looks down from heaven." The female + form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to the idea of + the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate nature; just + as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother has, for a + like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives of her + Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when conversing + with Europeans, giving the name of _Kwanyin_ to the statues of the + Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis' _The Chinese_, chap, + xiv.) + + 21 I have not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce + the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion + than a system of philosophy--political, social, moral. It may, + however, be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly + esteemed in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had + a considerable influence in forming the thought and character of its + people. The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned + with the things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being + mainly spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The + great Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University + of Japan. Now,--so entirely have the Western systems of education + supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,--the building has been + converted into a Museum. + + 22 Charcoal-brazier. + + 23 "The only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of the + lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the + symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and + though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, + therefore, men would but take it as their model, they would escape + all the contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, + has a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the + assistance of Buddha." _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, Vol. i. p. 292. + + 24 Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, + named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil. + + 25 Cf. the following extract from the speech of the Bishop of Exeter at + the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:--"If you had been asked to + sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian Missions, and when + itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic work among the + nations of the far East, what, I ask, would be the special + characteristics of the land and people that you would have desired? + Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, you would have said, + 'Give us islands, inseparably and for ever united, give us islands + which can hold their sea-girt independence, and yet near enough to + the mainland to exert influence there.' Such is Japan--the Land of + the Rising Sun. 'Give us a hardy race, not untrained in war by land + and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when won for Christ, fights best + under the banner of the Cross--for we are of the Church militant here + on earth: give us brave men;' and such are the descendants of the + old Daimios and two-sworded Samurai of Japan. 'Give us an industrial + race, not idlers nor loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but + men who delight in toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering + craftsmen, shrewd men of business;' and such are the Japanese + agriculturists, who win two harvests a year from their grateful + soil--such are the handicraftsmen there, whose work is the envy of + Western lands; such are the merchants, who hold their own with us in + commerce. 'Give us men of culture, with noble traditions, but not so + wedded to the past that they will not grasp the present and salute + the future;' and such are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, + who, with a marvellous power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to + engraft their own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness + their Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active + operation; witness their museums and hospitals; witness their + colleges and universities. 'But,' you would also have said, 'give us + a race whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, + not tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, + but who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;' and + such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, 'give + us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that the + religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are + therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;' and such are the + thoughtful races of Japan." + + 26 See on this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre's _The + Spirits in Prison_. The Christian can scarcely doubt that Gautama + has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,--knowing at + last the Name whereby he has been saved,--and has heard from the + Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be bestowed on all men + of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever land, who have "worked + righteousness," and have faithfully responded to whatever measure of + light and opportunity has been accorded them by God. + + 27 I may observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, but + of the _Athanasian Creed_, was quoted to me in this connexion by a + Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point out to him,--how far + convincingly I cannot say,--what at the present day at least is + generally recognized amongst us; that for the Christian Church to + warn her own children, in terms the most emphatic just because the + most loving, against becoming entangled in the deadly errors + prevalent at the time when the Creed was drawn up, is a thing wholly + distinct from passing any sentence of eternal condemnation on, or, + indeed, expressing any opinion as to the future state of, such as + live and die without ever having been brought to a knowledge of the + Faith. I added, of course, that any acquaintance with the claims of + Christianity is a responsibility for which we believe all will have + to give account. + + 28 I doubt if the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite + realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and + intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits + of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement + that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of + controversy as still remain. + + 29 In the course of a letter appearing in _The Christian_ of April 20, + 1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, "Let the _forty thousand_ + Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the + country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be + founded." But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership of + "Protestant Missions" at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church at 20,300, + and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty thousand of these + does Mr. Loomis--presumably--refuse the title of "Christian"? and are + we justified in acting thus towards any who believe in the Holy + Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the World, + Very God and Very Man? + + 30 Even Mr. Loomis' list does not appear to be exhaustive! The + "Plymouth Brethren," e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio. + + 31 The above is an abridgement of a passage in the _Conquests of the + Cross_ (Messrs. Cassell & Co.). + + 32 In the course of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim has been + raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams continuing + to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two new Anglican + Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of Kyushu and Yezo + respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, Examining + Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been connected with the C. + M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874. + +_ 33 Pastoral Letter to his Clergy_, Advent, 1892. + +_ 34 Occasional Paper_, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION IN JAPAN*** + + + +CREDITS + + +April 24, 2008 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David King and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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