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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Peanut Plant
+       Its Cultivation And Uses
+
+Author: B. W. Jones
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2009 [EBook #28594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEANUT PLANT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tom Roch, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  PEANUT PLANT.
+
+  ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.
+
+  "_Every species of plant requires certain physical conditions for its
+  growth and perfection; and these may be general or special. If general,
+  then it will be widely diffused; but if special, its distribution will
+  be limited._"
+
+  BY
+
+  B. W. JONES,
+
+  OF VIRGINIA.
+
+  ILLUSTRATED.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
+  1902
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by the
+                ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little work has been prepared mainly for those who have no
+practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the Peanut. Its
+directions, therefore, are intended for the beginner, and are such as
+will enable any intelligent person who has followed farming, to raise
+good crops of Peanuts, although he may have never before seen the
+growing plant.
+
+The writer has confined himself to a recital of the more important
+details, leaving the minor points to be discovered by the farmer
+himself. If the reader should think these pages devoid of vivacity, let
+him remember that we have treated of an every-day subject in an
+every-day style. The interest in the theme will increase when the
+beginner has pocketed the returns from his first year's crop. Until
+then, we leave him to plod his way through the details, trusting that
+the great Giver of the harvest will bless his labors, and amply reward
+his toils in this new field.
+
+                B. W. J.
+
+  WARREN PLACE, SURRY COUNTY, VA., 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE.
+
+  CHAPTER I.--DESCRIPTION.
+
+  Origin.--Natural History.--Varieties.--Possible Range.--Analysis.   5
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.--PLANTING.
+
+  Soil, and Mode of Preparation.--Seed.--Time and Mode of
+    Planting.--Fertilizers.--Replanting.--Moles, and Other
+    Depredators.--Critical Period.                                   14
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.--CULTIVATION.
+
+  First Plowing and Weeding.--Subsequent Workings.--Implements.--
+    When Cultivation should Cease.--Insect Enemies.--Effects of
+    Cold.--Effects of Drouth.--Appearance at this Period.            27
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--HARVESTING.
+
+  When to begin Harvesting.--Mode of Harvesting.--Why Cured in the
+    Field.--Depredators.--Detached Peanuts.--Saving Seed Peanuts.    37
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.--MARKETING.
+
+  Picking the Peanuts.--Price paid Pickers.--Cleaning and
+    Bagging.--Peanut "Factories."--The best Markets.--Picking
+    Machines.                                                        46
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI--USES.
+
+  Peanut Oil.--Roasted Peanuts.--Peanut Candy.--Peanut Coffee.--
+    Peanut Chocolate.--Peanut Bread.--Peanut Soap.--Peanuts as a
+    Food for Stock.--Peanut Hay.                                     55
+
+
+  APPENDIX.
+
+  A. Statistics.                                                     65
+
+  B. Costs.                                                          67
+
+  C. The Peanut Garden of America.                                   67
+
+
+
+
+THE PEANUT PLANT;
+
+ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DESCRIPTION.
+
+
+=Origin.=--The native country of the Peanut (_Arachis hypogæa_) is not
+definitely ascertained. Like many other extensively cultivated plants,
+it has not been found in a truly wild state. Some botanists regard the
+plant as a native of Africa, and brought to the New World soon after its
+discovery. Sloane, in his history of Jamaica, states that peanuts formed
+a part of the provisions taken by the slave ships for the support of the
+negroes on the voyage, and leaves it to be inferred that the plant was
+introduced in this manner. De Candolle, in _Géographie Botanique
+Raisonnée_, and his latter work on _L'Origine des Plantes Cultivées_,
+strongly inclines to the American origin of the Peanut. The absence of
+any mention of the plant by early Egyptian and Arabic writers, and the
+fact that there is no name for it in Sanscrit and Bengalese, are
+regarded as telling against its Oriental origin. Moreover, there are six
+other species of _Arachis_, natives of Brazil, and Bentham and Hooker,
+in their _Genera Plantarum_, ask if the plant so generally grown in warm
+countries may not be a cultivated form of a Brazilian species.
+
+If, as seems probable, the Peanut is really a native of America, then
+this Continent has contributed to the agricultural world five plants
+that have exerted, and will continue to exert, an immense influence on
+the industries and commerce of the world. These are: the Potato, Cotton,
+Tobacco, Indian Corn, and the Peanut. Of these five, the Peanut, the
+last to come into general and prominent notice, is destined to rival
+some of the others in importance.
+
+Whatever may have been its origin, the Peanut plant has gradually made
+its way over an extended area of the warmer parts of both the Old and
+New World, and in North America has gained a permanent foot-hold in the
+soil of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Nor has it yet reached its
+ultimate limits, for cultivation and acclimation will inure it to a
+sterner climate, until it becomes an important crop in latitudes
+considerably further north than Virginia. This is indicated by its rapid
+spread within the past few years. Remaining long in comparative
+obscurity, it was not until a recent period that the Peanut gained
+prominence as an agricultural and commercial staple, but since it fairly
+started, its progress has been rapid and sure.
+
+=Natural History.=--There are some peculiarities about the Peanut plant
+that make it interesting to the naturalist. Its habit of clinging close
+to the soil, the closing together of the leaves at sunset, or on the
+approach of a storm, the beautiful appearance of a field of it when full
+grown, and the remarkable wart-like excrescences found upon the roots,
+are some of its more notable characteristics. Its striking preference
+for a calcareous soil is another of its peculiarities, the Peanut
+producing more and better crops on this kind of soil than on any other.
+
+The Peanut belongs to the Natural Order _Leguminosæ_, or pod-bearing
+plants, and this particular member of it is as unlike all the rest with
+which we are acquainted, as can well be conceived. No other grows so
+recumbent upon the soil, and none but this produces seed under ground.
+
+The botanical name of the Peanut is _Arachis hypogæa_. The origin of the
+generic name _arachis_ is somewhat obscure; it is said to come from _a_,
+privative, and _rachis_, a branch, meaning having no branches, which is
+not true of this plant. The specific appellation, _hypogæa_, or
+"under-ground," describes the manner in which the pods grow. The
+following is a partially technical description of the plant:
+
+Root annual, branched, but not fibrous, yellowish, bitter, and warty;
+Stem procumbent, spreading, much-branched, somewhat hairy towards the
+extremities; Leaves compound, leaflets obovate, mucronate, margin
+entire, ciliate when young, smooth and almost leathery with age, leaves
+closing at night and in rainy weather; Flowers papilionaceous, yellow,
+borne upon the end of an axillary peduncle. After flowering, the
+forming-pod is, by the elongation of its stalk, pushed into the soil,
+beneath which it grows and ripens; Legume, or pod indehiscent, woody
+and veiny, one to four-seeded; Seed, with a reddish coat, the embryo
+with two large, fleshy cotyledons, and a very short, nearly straight,
+radicle. Figure 1 represents a portion of the Peanut plant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--PORTION OF THE PEANUT PLANT, showing
+how the minute pods from above-ground flowers are forced into the soil
+to grow and ripen.]
+
+=Varieties.=--While no botanical varieties of _Arachis hypogæa_ have
+been described, its long cultivation in different countries in unlike
+soils and climates, has produced several cultural varieties. Taking the
+Virginia Peanut as the typical form, there may be named as differing
+from it, the North Carolina Peanut, having very small but solid and
+heavy pods, that weigh twenty-eight pounds to the bushel. The Tennessee
+Peanut is about the size of the Virginia variety, but has a seed of a
+much redder color and less agreeable flavor. There is a Bunch variety,
+that does not spread out like a mat over the soil, but grows upright
+like the common field pea. This last kind has been raised to some extent
+in Virginia, but has never become popular with planters, and is fast
+passing out of cultivation. It is possible that the Bunch Peanut is a
+representative of the plant in its wild state. It produces fewer seeds
+and less vine than any other kind. The flat or spreading Peanut shows a
+tendency to sport in this direction, and in any large field of peanuts,
+quite a number of plants will be found that have the bunch form, and
+such are always barren or seedless hills.
+
+The small-podded, or North Carolina Peanut, is not at all popular with
+pickers, because it takes a great many more to make a basketful, and,
+unless they are paid an extra price for picking this sort, they cannot
+make as good wages. Nor do our planters seem to like it very well,
+finding it more trouble to handle than the larger variety. Hence it is
+but little cultivated in Virginia.
+
+The Peanut in its travels has also acquired a variety of names, such as
+ground-pea, earth-nut, goober[1] or guber, and pindar. Also "currency,"
+"cash," "credit," and other expressive titles. Of all these names,
+"Peanut" is the most generally used, but Ground-pea would be the more
+descriptive name.
+
+=Possible Range.=--From a somewhat careful study of the climatic
+requirements of the Peanut plant, and of the isotherms of summer
+temperature, we are satisfied that it would thrive as far north as the
+northern limit of the zone of the vine. This for the United States, as
+delineated in Mitchell's Physical Geography, starts on the Pacific Coast
+in the latitude of British Columbia, turns suddenly south along the
+Cordilleras to Colorado, then trends as suddenly northward to the
+northern limits of Iowa, strikes eastwardly along a line to the south of
+the great lakes, and enters the Atlantic in the vicinity of Cape Cod. If
+our view is correct, the Peanut will thrive on any suitable soil within
+the limits of the United States lying to the south of this line. This
+would make the cultivation of the Peanut possible in by far the greater
+part of the entire country. In fact, there is no doubt but that it may
+be grown successfully wherever Indian corn will thrive luxuriantly. Any
+section having a growing season of five months exempt from frost, may
+raise the Peanut. This gives the crop a much wider range than has been
+thought possible. It does not require a long period of extreme heat to
+mature it. The seeds are mostly formed in the cooler weather of the
+latter part of summer and the first of autumn. Planted in June,
+cultivated until August or a little later, and harvested the last of
+September, it can be perfected in four months, though the Virginia
+planter takes five months for it. Any good calcareous soil, west of New
+Jersey and southward, that is not too elevated, will grow the Peanut.
+
+=Analysis.=--This, perhaps, is not a matter of much practical importance
+to the planter. The best peanut soil and the proper fertilizer had been
+found out before an analysis of the plant had been made. Still there are
+some advantages in knowing what are the prominent elements that enter
+into the composition of this, or any other, cultivated plant, and an
+analysis is accordingly given.
+
+An analysis made by Doctor Thomas Antisell, chemist to the Department of
+Agriculture at Washington, and published in the Report of that
+Department about the year 1869, gives the following as the composition
+of the Peanut plant:
+
+In one hundred parts of the husk and nut taken together
+
+  Water                                    2.60
+  Albuminous, fibrous matter and starch   79.26
+  Oil                                     16.00
+  Ash                                      2.00
+  Loss                                      .14
+                                         ------
+                                         100.00
+
+In one hundred parts of the husk and seed separated:
+
+                                _Seed._    _Husk._
+  Moisture                        2.51       2.61
+  Albuminous matter and farina   79.71    traces.
+  Cellulose                                 85.48
+  Ash                             1.77      11.90
+  Oil                            16.00
+                                 -----      -----
+                                 99.99      99.99
+
+"The ash of the seed," it was stated by the same authority, "consists of
+salts wholly soluble in water, composed of the phosphates of alkalies,
+with traces of alkaline, chlorides, and sulphates. The ash of the husk
+differs, in consisting chiefly of common salt, phosphate of lime and
+magnesia."
+
+The analysis of the ash of the Peanut, furnished to the _American
+Agriculturist_, by H. B. Cornwall, Professor of Analytical Chemistry in
+the John C. Green School of Science, College of New Jersey, Princeton,
+and published in that Journal for July, 1880, gives the following as the
+mineral elements of this plant:
+
+PER ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF ASH.
+
+  Silica                  1.06
+  Potash                 44.73
+  Soda                   14.60
+  Lime                    1.71
+  Magnesia               12.65
+  Phosphoric acid        17.64
+  Sulphuric acid          2.53
+  Chlorine                0.15
+                         -----
+                         95.07
+
+In this analysis neither the carbonic acid nor carbon were determined.
+
+It was further stated that the kernels yielded 2.08 per cent. of
+ash.
+
+These analyses, the one of the ash, and the other of the seed and husk
+in their natural state, are sufficiently full for the purpose in view,
+and serve admirably to show the principal elements required in the
+growth of the Peanut plant. We see that albuminous matter and starch
+form a very large per cent., over three-fourths, of the seed. Of course
+an article so rich in fat-forming ingredients, must be well suited for
+the food of man or beast. This explains why hogs fed on peanuts take on
+fat so readily. Nothing will change the appearance of a poor hog sooner
+than a diet of peanuts. The amount of oil in the seed--sixteen per
+cent., makes the Peanut one of the best oil-producing plants in the
+world.
+
+Of the mineral constituents, potash forms by far the largest part--44.73
+per cent. Soda, magnesia, and phosphoric acid also enter quite largely
+into the composition of this plant. It will be noticed that common salt
+plays some part in the make-up of the Peanut.
+
+Some may wonder at the small amount of lime reported to be present in
+the ash. This may be explained by stating that lime is not _per se_ a
+manure, but a powerful chemical agent when applied to the soil, reducing
+inert matter into plant food. Lime appears to be the driving-wheel in
+the laboratory of the soil. Its presence is essential, but it does not
+do all the work itself. Of marl, the best fertilizer yet discovered for
+the Peanut, the principal ingredient of value, is carbonate of lime.
+Some of the Virginia marls range as high as seventy and eighty per cent.
+in carbonate of lime. This form of lime is very valuable for all
+agricultural purposes. Like its more caustic relative, it plays the part
+of a solvent and liberator, refines and vitalizes the soil, and causes
+other ingredients to perform their part in building up the framework of
+plants.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] While "goober" may be one of the names of the Peanut in some
+localities, the plant so-called in Georgia is _Amphicarpæa monoica_, a
+native leguminous plant with two kinds of flowers, one set always
+subterranean, and the other above ground. The under-ground flowers bear
+woody, rounded, one-seeded pods, with a seed closely resembling a
+bean.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PLANTING.
+
+
+=Soil, and Mode of Preparation.=--A warm soil is required by the Peanut.
+A light, porous soil in which sand predominates, but not too sandy, warm
+and dry, and yet not too dry, but containing some moisture, and open to
+capillary circulation, suits the Peanut best. In all cases the soil most
+suitable for the Peanut must contain a certain amount of calcareous
+constituents. The color of the soil should be gray, with few or no
+traces of iron to stain the pods. As a rule, the brightest pods bring
+the most money, and as the color of the pods is always influenced by
+that of the soil in which they grow, it becomes a matter of importance
+to select that which is of the right description. Land of the above
+nature and color may be regarded as first-class for this crop. But let
+it be distinctly borne in mind, that unless it contains a goodly
+per-centage of lime in some form, in an available state, no land will
+produce paying crops of pods, although it may yield large and luxuriant
+vines. Of all the forms of lime, that supplied by the marls of the
+seaboard section appears to be the best.
+
+But any soil that can be put into a friable condition, and kept so
+during the period of cultivation, will produce salable peanuts, provided
+it contains enough lime to insure solid pods. If it is known that a
+piece of land will produce sound corn, at the rate of from five to ten
+barrels per acre, the planter may rest satisfied, without further
+experiment, that it will yield from forty to seventy-five or eighty
+bushels of peanuts. As the cultivation extends, and more land is needed
+for this crop, much of it is being put upon clayey soil, and when well
+cultivated, it generally produces heavy peanuts. Indeed, more pounds per
+acre may be grown upon some stiff lands than on any light soil, however
+calcareous. But clayey land, or such as is dark or tenacious, will
+impart a stain or dark color to the pods that is objectionable to
+buyers, and hence soils of this nature are generally avoided. A
+tenacious soil is also colder and more inert than a light one during the
+earlier part of the summer, and as the Peanut plant requires a rather
+long term of warm weather to insure full growth and maturity, a warmer
+and quicker soil is preferable. Buyers, however, are not now quite so
+particular as formerly in regard to color, and hence there is more
+inducement to plant on any ground that will yield good, solid peanuts,
+and it is being more frequently done.
+
+But the actual or prospective peanut planter, who has an ash-colored or
+grayish soil, which is sandy and non-adhesive, is fortunate. If he will
+keep it well limed and trashed, or else rotate every fourth or fifth
+year with the Southern Field Pea, or other green crop, and marl, he will
+have land that will continue to produce paying crops of the brightest
+and most salable peanuts. There is an abundance of good peanut land all
+along the Atlantic seaboard, from New Jersey to Florida. Doubtless there
+is much of it in the Mississippi Valley, even as far north as the lake
+region, and on the Pacific coast from Oregon southward. There is no more
+reason for confining the cultivation of the Peanut to the narrow belts
+at present occupied, than there is for limiting tobacco to the States
+of North Carolina and Virginia.
+
+The quantity of lime or marl to use at one application depends very much
+on the nature of the soil and the amount of vegetable matter it
+contains. Generally, fifty bushels of lime, or one hundred and fifty
+bushels of marl is a safe application, but if the soil is quite thin,
+and contains but little vegetable mould, more than this at one time
+would be attended with risk. The safer plan is, to make several small
+annual applications of both marl, and vegetable matter, continuing this
+until a hundred and fifty bushels of lime, or two hundred and fifty, or
+three hundred bushels of marl have been applied. After this, no more
+calcareous matter will be needed in fifteen or twenty years. Land will
+bear large quantities of marl with perfect safety, if kept well stocked
+with some vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects. But as most of
+the best peanut soil is deficient in this respect, the planter should
+begin cautiously, using small quantities until he has deepened his soil
+and supplied it with vegetable mould by trashing the land or turning in
+green crops.
+
+In choosing land for a peanut crop, some attention should be paid to the
+previous crop. The Peanut requires a clean soil, one clear of roots,
+brush, stones, or rubbish of any kind, and hence it should follow some
+hoed crop, such as corn, cotton, or tobacco. In Virginia, corn land is
+generally preferred, and, as in the tide-water section, much of this
+land has been heavily marled, it commonly produces well.
+
+The preparation of the soil for the Peanut is the same as for corn, or
+any similar crop, except that more pains should be, and generally are
+taken, to get it in fine and mellow tilth. If it breaks up rough and
+turfy, as much land previously in corn is apt to do, it should be
+harrowed or dragged until it is fine. Generally, Virginia planters do
+not plow quite so deep for peanuts as they do for corn. This practice
+the writer believes to be unsound. Land should be plowed deep at the
+outset for all crops, whatever their nature or manner of growth. Deep
+plowing is a corrective of dry weather, and as drouth sometimes tells
+heavily on the Peanut plant, as was the case in the season of 1883, it
+is always well to plow deep, and give the moisture of the subsoil a
+chance to rise upward, and reach the roots during a dry spell. The
+formation of a fine, mellow seed bed, is all the preparation a peanut
+soil requires, previous to planting time, apart from the application of
+manures, which is spoken of elsewhere.
+
+=The Seed.=--With the peanut crop, more than with almost any other, good
+seed is a matter of paramount importance. The seed sometimes fails to
+germinate well; before this fact can be discovered, and the ground
+re-seeded, unless the first planting was made quite early, the best
+season for planting will have passed, and the crop planted late will
+never be so good as it might have been. On the other hand, a very early
+planting doubles the risk of failure, in fact almost challenges failure
+by committing the seed to a soil too cold for germination and a quick
+growth. It is highly important, then, to have good seed, and to wait
+until both weather and soil are favorable for speedy germination and
+growth.
+
+In order to determine whether the seed will germinate well or not, let
+the planter begin to test them early in the spring. Let him take a dozen
+or two kernels that appear to be in quality a fair average of the whole
+lot of seed on hand, place them in a tumbler with some dampened cotton,
+or a piece of sponge, and set the tumbler in a warm place, where the
+heat is uniform, and high enough to start the germ in a few days. In a
+day or two, if the seeds are good, they will begin to swell, and the
+embryo plant will soon begin to grow. Thus, according to the number of
+seeds that have germinated out of the number tested, the planter can
+calculate the probable per-centage of good seed. A glass of peanuts
+growing thus in dampened cotton, presents an interesting study, and is a
+pretty ornament for the sitting room.
+
+But the planter must not rest satisfied with one trial. As soon as the
+out-of-door temperature will admit of it, he should try quite a number
+of the seeds in the open ground. Selecting a warm, sunny spot, he should
+plant from fifty to one hundred kernels, and shelter the place as much
+as possible from the cold winds. If these germinate well, the seed may
+be relied upon as good, and no further trial need be made. It is in this
+way that the Virginia planter tests his seed every season. About the
+first of April there is a great testing of the seed peanuts, and,
+although nearly every planter endeavors to save his own seed, the
+quantity of doubtful seed is generally great enough to cause a brisk
+demand for good seed at advanced prices. The method of saving seed
+peanuts will be given in a subsequent chapter.
+
+Some weeks before planting time, the Virginia farmer, who plants from
+fifty to a hundred bushels of peanuts, starts about having them shelled
+and assorted, preparatory to planting. This must be done with care, and
+females are mostly employed to perform this work. The pods are popped
+open with the fingers and thumb, care being taken not to split or bruise
+the kernel; all shrivelled and dark colored kernels are rejected. After
+they are shelled, the seed must be put into bags or baskets, a small
+quantity in each parcel, and set where there is a free circulation of
+air, until wanted for planting. If a large quantity is bulked together
+after being shelled, or if put in a close box or barrel, even in small
+quantities, they are liable to heat, and be prevented from germinating.
+This fact is the result of some costly experience on the part of many
+planters. Thus it becomes necessary to handle the seed with great care
+and circumspection throughout. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of
+peanuts in the hull, or pod, is estimated to be enough to plant one acre
+of ground, the quantity depending on the quality of the seed and the
+distance apart they are to be planted.
+
+=Time of Planting.=--In Virginia, the first twenty days in May is
+regarded as, in the main, the most suitable time for planting. Some
+plant as early as the last week in April, and the seasons frequently
+favor this early start, and the crop does well. More, however, plant in
+June than in April, and sometimes planting is delayed until the middle
+or last of June. On warm and dry land, there is no great risk in
+planting the first week in May, but on colder land, the planter should
+wait until the ground has been warmed by the sun, say the latter part
+of the same month. If the farmer has reason to hope for a week or ten
+days of mild, fair weather, he may risk a planting quite early, as in
+that time the seed ought to germinate, and come up sufficiently to make
+it sure that it will grow. Once up, the plant will hold its own, and
+though cold rains or winds may retard its growth, and cause it to turn
+yellow, it will start anew with the first spell of sunny weather, and
+rapidly change color to its normal green. The above dates apply to the
+latitude of Virginia. In the far south, peanut planting begins early in
+April, while north of Virginia, the first half of June would, in most
+seasons, be quite early enough to commit the seed to the earth. It
+should not be done anywhere until all danger from frost is passed for
+the season. A very slight frost will destroy the Peanut.
+
+=How to Plant.=--I come now to consider the mode of planting. Here no
+very inflexible rules can be given. Practice varies greatly, almost
+every planter differing more or less from his brother planters. The
+chief points are, to get the seed into the ground at suitable distances
+apart both ways, to have the seed, after it is planted, raised slightly
+above the general level, and to have the soil so free from clods that
+there will be nothing to hinder the young plant from pushing through
+after it has started. Any mode of planting that will secure these ends
+will effect the purpose.
+
+If the ground has been once plowed in the early spring, let it be plowed
+again only a few days before planting time, and if at all rough, or
+cloddy, have it harrowed until in fine tilth. When ready to plant, draw
+furrows the same as for corn, two and a half or three feet apart. If
+the land is fresh and strong, and never before in peanuts, make the rows
+at least three feet apart. After a year or two on the same ground,
+peanut vines will not grow so large as at first, and need not be so far
+apart, either from row to row, or from hill to hill. When the land is
+thin, some plant as near as twenty-seven inches from row to row, and
+twelve inches from hill to hill.
+
+If any fertilizer is to be used, let it be put in the furrow before the
+ridge is formed; a man or boy following the plow and spreading the
+fertilizer by hand. A small ridge is then formed by lapping two furrows
+over the drill with the turn plow, after which the knocker and dotter
+follow, one leveling the ridge, and the other dotting the row by making
+little depressions in the soil the proper distance apart for the seeds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--THE KNOCKER AND DOTTER COMBINED.]
+
+=The Knocker and Dotter.=--Sometimes the knocker and dotter are combined
+in one, and it is withal a unique implement. Always home-made, it
+partakes of all the native roughness and varied ingenuity of the
+Southern planter. The engraving, figure 2, will illustrate the mode of
+constructing this implement. Two pieces of timber are sawed from a log
+to serve as wheels, such wood being selected as does not split easily.
+The diameter of the wheel is made the same as the desired distance
+between the hills, and three wooden pins are inserted equi-distant in
+the circumference, so that the wheels will make three dots, or signs,
+for planting, at each revolution. These wheels are connected by an axle,
+and set the same distance apart the rows are to be asunder. Two shafts
+are pinned to the axle, and braced in front of the wheels to keep them
+steady. A piece of heavy scantling, or a log of wood, six inches in
+diameter, is secured to the under side of the shafts just in front of
+the wheels. This is the knocker, and serves to level the ridge before
+the wheels. Properly adjusted, it does beautiful work, and leaves a
+flat, smooth ridge, in fine condition for the seed. The wheels pass
+along on the leveled ridge, making the dots, as shown in figure 2.
+Handles are fixed to the implement to enable the plowman to keep it in
+proper place, and for convenience in turning. One horse is fastened to
+this implement, and two rows are prepared for planting at the same time.
+This utensil would be troublesome to use in an orchard, or on stumpy
+ground. Peanuts, however, should always be planted on open ground clear
+of all impediments. Instead of the knocker and dotter combined, many
+planters omit the wheels, and make a separate implement with one wheel
+and a handle, to work by hand, as represented in figure 3. This can be
+run among trees and stumps. It resembles a wheelbarrow without the body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--THE DOTTER.]
+
+Hands--women, children, or men, follow the dotter, dropping a seed in
+each mark or depression, and carefully covering it with the foot, by
+pressing enough soil into the hole to just fill it. The holes are made
+one and a half to two inches deep, and the hands are cautioned not to
+get the seed covered deeper than that. One inch is deep enough to plant,
+if the soil is moist, but if quite dry the seed may be put deeper.
+Proceeding in this way, covering first with one foot and then with the
+other, the planters get on quite rapidly, although the hills are so near
+together. The planting is not at all tedious after one gets the knack of
+it, and is light and pleasant work. Some planters put two kernels
+instead of one in each hill, to insure a stand, but this practice
+increases the cost considerably, and is by no means general. After the
+seeds are planted they are very slightly, if at all, above the common
+level. In a week or ten days from the time of planting, the seeds will
+begin to heave or crack the ground, which shows that the germ has
+started, and greatly relieves the anxiety of the planter. Then, by
+counting the number of signs in a hundred hills, the farmer readily
+calculates what kind of a stand he will probably have.
+
+=Fertilizers.=--We have already intimated that a calcareous soil is
+indispensable to successful Peanut culture. If the soil is not
+calcareous by nature, it must be made so artificially. Hence the proper
+fertilizer to use is one that contains a large per cent. of lime in some
+of its forms, as the carbonate, the phosphate, the nitrate, or the
+sulphate, or the chloride of calcium. Recently, the sulphate of lime
+(gypsum), has been employed, even on limed or marled land, and its use
+has been attended with good results. Animal and nitrogenous manures are
+not suited to the crop. Such fertilizers produce a heavy growth of
+vines, but there will be no full, solid pods unless lime in some form is
+also present. Marl has been found to be the one specific fertilizer for
+the Peanut plant--better than any other form of lime; and the chief
+element of value in marl has been shown to be the carbonate of lime.
+Some Virginia marls contain as high as seventy-five or eighty per cent.
+of the carbonate, and all of them range over twenty-five or thirty per
+cent. Now, marl is plentiful and cheap all along the Atlantic seaboard,
+from New Jersey to Florida, the beds lying side by side of, and
+intersecting, the very land that is the best adapted to the Peanut--a
+rare and fortunate coincidence, that planters are learning to fully
+appreciate. And were it not that the New Jersey land-owner finds it more
+profitable to raise fruits and vegetables for the two great cities that
+lie on either hand of him, even he would find the Peanut to be a paying
+crop. With his warm, light sand and green marl, he could easily raise
+them. I mention this as one of the possibilities of the Peanut, though
+not likely to be realized for the reason named.
+
+=Replanting.=--In about two weeks from planting, if the weather has been
+mild, the young plants should be large enough to show where replanting
+is necessary. The planter goes along the row, making slight depressions
+with his heel at all the missing hills, drops a pea therein, and covers
+it with the foot, the same way as at the first. Instead of making
+depressions with the heel, some use a long stake, an inch or two in
+diameter, to the lower end of which is affixed a piece of plank,
+fastened two inches from the end, and four or five inches long (fig. 4).
+This is used for punching the holes, and the piece of plank near the end
+prevents it from making the impression too deep. This is another of the
+inventions of the Virginia Peanut-planter; so true is it that "necessity
+is the mother of invention," a new crop calls for new devices for its
+successful and profitable cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--STAKE.]
+
+In replanting, it is well to put two or more kernels to the hill, as the
+season will be getting late, and no time should be lost in securing a
+good stand. There can be no subsequent replanting with any profit.
+
+=Moles and other Depredators.=--The Peanut-planter has to contend with
+many enemies. In many cases moles are exceedingly destructive to the
+planted seed, burrowing along the rows, and eating the seed, hill by
+hill. Often raccoons, foxes, and squirrels grabble them up. And
+everywhere the larger birds, such as crows, doves, and partridges come
+in for a share of the seed, and annoy and hinder the farmer very much.
+There is no remedy but ceaseless vigilance. The planter must go armed at
+every turn to protect his crop. Sometimes planters tar the seed to
+prevent the moles, etc., from destroying them. It perhaps has some
+tendency to check the depredations, but does not prevent them entirely.
+Coal tar is oftenest used for the purpose, a half pint being enough to
+smear a bushel of seed. The seeds are afterwards rolled in dry earth to
+prevent adhesion and trouble in planting. Traps, guns, and scarecrows
+are resorted to with varying success, but if the depredators are
+numerous, the planter is generally the vanquished party.
+
+=The Critical Period.=--The first four or five weeks after the planting
+of this crop is its most critical period, and nothing but a good stand
+and the approach of warm weather will relieve the planter of his
+anxiety. At the first, many fears are reasonably entertained that the
+seed will not germinate well. And even should a pretty fair per-centage
+of the seed come up, cold and rainy weather may still seriously retard
+the growth of the plants, or the numerous depredators that have been
+named may so far reduce the number of hills as to greatly curtail the
+yield per acre. The very young Peanut is among the tenderest of plants,
+and a very slight mishap will serve to destroy or permanently injure it.
+Several days of cold weather at this period will make the struggling
+plants look pale and sickly, and if warm suns are too long delayed, many
+plants will fail altogether.
+
+Backward springs are a great drawback in the cultivation of this crop,
+and cause many farmers to delay planting until it is certain warm
+weather cannot be many days off. If the planter could always be sure of
+his seed, this would be the better plan, but if these late plantings
+fail to come up well, the season is too far advanced for replanted seed
+to make a crop. Further north than Virginia, however, it would, we
+think, be decidedly better to put off planting until both soil and air
+are warm enough to insure quick germination, and then, instead of
+replanting the missing hills with Peanuts, plant beans or field peas
+instead. If the planter can get through the first month successfully, he
+lays aside his fears, and enters upon his work with renewed hope and
+energy. To a recital of this work--the work of cultivation, we now
+invite the reader's attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CULTIVATION.
+
+
+=First Plowing and Weeding.=--Usually, the cultivation of the Peanut
+begins by first siding the rows with a turn-plow, small mould-board
+attached, by which the soil is thrown from the plants, and lapped into a
+small ridge in the middle of the balk. Care is taken to run the plow
+quite near to the plants, so as to leave as little as possible for the
+hoe to do. The hoes follow the plow, removing the grass between the
+hills, if any, and loosening the soil about the plants. Sometimes,
+however, in case the plants begin to get quite grassy very early in the
+season, the sides of the ridges are first scraped off with the hoe, the
+operator moving backward, and clearing off one side at a time. This
+removes the grass pretty well, but does not loosen the soil about the
+plants. If this method is pursued, the plow should be put on in a week
+from that time, to break the hard crust that will have been formed, and
+to let in the air and heat to the roots of the plants.
+
+If the first plan is followed, the missing hills may be replanted, if
+the former replanting has had time to come up, but otherwise the ground
+about the missing hills should not be disturbed. This, however, should
+depend upon the time at which the weeding begins. If very late, it is
+useless to replant.
+
+The time for the first weeding must depend somewhat on the nature of the
+soil and the quantity of grass that may have sprung up since planting.
+Usually the first working should begin by the time the plants are two
+weeks old, but if the land is mellow and there is but little grass, the
+work may be put off a week longer. But if rains have occurred and a
+crust has formed, and especially if grass is coming on rapidly, the
+planter should not wait for the plants to attain a certain age and size,
+but should proceed to work the crop as soon as the plants are clearly
+out of the ground, and have put forth one or two branches. Any practical
+farmer who knows how to plow and weed young corn, will not be likely to
+err very far in working a crop of peanuts. The operation is simple
+enough, the two points being to clear away the grass and make the soil
+fine and loose around the plants. Any plan of working that will secure
+these ends, will accomplish the purpose.
+
+=Subsequent Workings.=--The second plowing may be done with a
+cultivator, running twice in the row. This will level the ridge in the
+middle of the balk, make the soil loose and fine, and bring the loose
+earth up close to the plants, which will make easy and nice work for the
+hands with the hoes unless there is a great deal of grass. The second
+plowing and weeding is the most important working the crop receives, and
+it is highly important that it be done well. By this time (last of
+June), the days are long and hot, the grass everywhere is growing apace,
+and the Peanut must be kept growing too. The plants have now attained a
+size ranging from that of a saucer to that of a breakfast plate, and
+there will be some hand-picking of grass necessary, because some of it
+will be found growing too near the plants to be cut away with the hoe.
+If there is very little grass, the work goes on smoothly enough, the
+hoes proceed quite rapidly, three hands keeping up with one plow, and
+finishing about two acres a day.
+
+The third plowing may be given with a shovel or cotton-plow, or with the
+cultivator, again running twice in the row. The hoes need not follow at
+this plowing, but may wait until the fourth plowing, done usually toward
+the middle or last of July, or about the time the vines are a foot in
+diameter, and are sending down their peduncles, or stems, on which the
+young pods are forming. The plants begin to blossom by the first of July
+or before, and continue to flower for more than a month. The pods begin
+to form very soon after the flower appears, and by the time of the last
+weeding great care must be taken not to cut the stems. For this reason
+the hoes cannot proceed as fast as at the last weeding, and if there is
+much grass growing up through the vines to be hand picked, this working
+is tedious and laborious enough, and tires to the utmost the patience
+and endurance of the laborer. In fact, this is the worst period in the
+cultivation of the peanut crop. The weather is hot, close, and
+enervating; the frequent stooping and picking makes it doubly laborious;
+and, on account of the size the vines have attained, the plow must
+necessarily leave a wider surface for the hoe to go over. All this makes
+greatly against the hoe hands.
+
+It is no wonder, then, that, with laborers, many of whom are disposed to
+shirk their duty, the last working is too often poorly and inefficiently
+done. With more reliable labor, such as is to be had in the Northern and
+border States, better success would be easily attainable.
+
+The third weeding is the last working with the hoe that the crop
+receives, and next to the last usually given it with the plow. The
+Virginia planter, as a rule, stops weeding by the first of August, or as
+soon as the vines have well met along the row, and have sent down a
+goodly number of young pods. If there is any subsequent removal of
+grass, it is done by picking it out by hand, in order not to interfere
+with the pod stems. But after the last weeding, say in a week or ten
+days, one more plowing is usually given, generally with the cultivator
+or shovel-plow, run once in the row. This throws the soil up under the
+extremities of the vines, leaving the row of plants on a nice flat bed
+and a water furrow in the middle of the balk.
+
+The reader will observe that the cultivation required for the Peanut is
+such as will keep the soil mellow and loose on the surface and clear of
+grass, especially about the vines or plants. Any method of weeding and
+plowing that will secure these ends, will serve the purpose.
+Accordingly, there is a considerable diversity of practice in this
+particular, both as to the mode of plowing, times of working the crop,
+and implements used. The cultivation, however, is as easy and simple as
+that commonly bestowed on Indian corn or beans, but must be a little
+more thorough and painstaking. That is all. None need shrink from
+planting this crop through any apprehension that they will not work it
+properly. The three essential points are: keep the soil loose, the grass
+down, and do no harm to the young pods as they are forming on the vine.
+
+=Implements.=--This topic has been, in a measure, anticipated, allusion
+having already been made to the implements to be used in the cultivation
+of this crop. A few additional remarks, however, may not be out of
+place.
+
+The weeders should be armed with the best steel hoes, with factory-made
+helves of ash, light and slightly flexible. The superiority of this
+hoe--usually called the "goose-neck hoe" in Virginia--over the old style
+of weeding hoe, with the heavy and stiff home-made helve, cannot be
+estimated, except by those who have tried both. The same hand can
+perform an eighth more labor in a day with the light steel hoe, and do
+it better, and with more ease to himself. The "goose-neck" will last two
+or three seasons, costs but little more than the other kind, comes ready
+for work, and is, therefore, very cheap. The blades should be kept sharp
+by repeated filing.
+
+With us the first plowing is generally done with the turn-plow, with a
+small mould-board attached, throwing the earth into the balk. For the
+second plowing, the cultivator or cotton-plow, is used, either one of
+which does fine work on smooth land, and makes it quite easy for the hoe
+hands. The third plowing is commonly performed with the cultivator, but
+if the ground is rough, the turn-plow will answer better. It is not
+common, however, to plant peanuts on very rough ground. For the fourth
+and fifth plowings the cultivator or shovel-plow is used. But should the
+crop get very grassy, (which should never be permitted), the turn-plow,
+with large mould-board attached, is used, in order to cover up as much
+of the grass as possible. This makes a large and objectionable ridge in
+the balk, but it is the best way to conquer the grass when it gets too
+strong a hold. The hoes follow the plow, and scrape off the remaining
+grass, except that near the plants, into the balk. Bunches of grass that
+have grown up among the vines have to be pulled out by hand. Thus, it
+will be seen that there is no plow made especially for cultivating the
+peanut crop, the same plows and implements that are used for other and
+general farming purposes answering equally well for the cultivation of
+this crop also.
+
+=When Cultivation should Cease.=--When the peanut vines have interlocked
+considerably along the rows, and have almost, or quite met across the
+balks, it is high time to cease cultivating them. When the vines are
+large, the cultivator or plow will tear and bruise them more or less,
+sometimes breaking off large branches, and, of course, destroying a
+number of pods. If there is not room for the plow to pass without
+pulling out the young peanuts and harming the vines, it should be taken
+off the field and the crop left to take care of itself. So long as the
+vines remain small, the crop may be worked to some extent, provided
+always that care be taken not to molest the stems that have penetrated
+the soil. Every one of these that is harmed now is a peanut lost. In
+Virginia, two months--June and July--covers the period of cultivation
+for the peanut crop, and it cannot be extended much beyond this time
+without some risk. In fact, a crop that has been faithfully worked
+during this time will not require anything more, and any extra labor is
+as good as thrown away.
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--Fortunately for the planter of peanuts, there is
+scarcely an insect that does them any material harm. At least, such has
+been the case, so far, in Virginia. What subsequent years may bring, is,
+of course, unknown. But up to the present, no insect has ever caused any
+extensive injury to this crop. It is true that ants do sometimes destroy
+a few hills on certain soils, by sucking the cotyledons of the plant
+before it has attained any considerable size and strength. But this is,
+by no means, general. Even the voracious and ubiquitous Colorado Beetle
+manifests no taste for this plant, although it has had abundant
+opportunity to test its edible qualities. To the credit of insects
+generally, be it said, they are not omnivorous.
+
+=Effects of Cold.=--The effect of severe and prolonged cold on the
+Peanut plant in the early part of the season, is often quite manifest.
+Cool nights and cold rains are much dreaded, they cause the plants to
+turn yellow and look sickly. The vines make little or no growth, the
+leaves become spotted and curled, as if they had been touched by fire,
+and the whole plant gets into that unthrifty looking state denominated,
+in the local parlance of the planter, "the pouts." But let a few days of
+warm sun occur, and all is speedily changed. The plants assume a fresh
+and lively green, and their growth is now rapid until they reach
+maturity.
+
+=Effects of Drouth.=--A very dry spring would cause the Peanut to come
+up badly, and would, therefore, seriously affect the crop. Such an
+occurrence, however, is very rare in Virginia, as well as in the country
+generally, and is not regarded with much apprehension. If the plant is
+once well established in the soil, being tap-rooted, it can stand a good
+deal of dry weather. It takes a long period of extremely dry weather to
+materially injure this crop. Such a season did occur in 1883, and the
+consequence was a great many blasted pods and a short crop. Generally,
+moderately dry summers are looked upon with favor by the planter,
+inasmuch as seasons of this kind enable him to keep the crop clean of
+grass at much less cost. Just here we would repeat what we said in
+Chapter II, in relation to deep plowing preparatory to planting. With a
+soil deeply broken in the outset, the Peanut will withstand successfully
+any period of dry weather ever likely to occur in this country. It has
+been noticed that the crops that suffer the most from drouths are those
+planted on land not well prepared, or in orchards of growing trees,
+which necessarily extract a great deal of moisture from the soil. Even
+in a season as severe as that of 1883, peanuts planted on a deep, mellow
+soil out of the reach of trees, did well, and were well seeded and
+filled. Deep preparation of the soil, then, is a corrective of drouth
+for this crop, as well as for any other. With this simple precaution, no
+great apprehension need be entertained of the effects of dry weather.
+Let the planter but do his part in preparation and cultivation, and
+nature will be sure to respond with liberal, if not overflowing crops.
+The corn-planter has more to fear from dry weather than the
+peanut-planter.
+
+=Appearance at this Period.=--The appearance of a thrifty crop of
+peanuts at the time of maturity, or a little after the last weeding, is
+simply magnificent. The vines have now met in both directions, and the
+whole field, from a little distance, looks as if covered with a carpet
+of velvet-plush. Nothing obstructs the view. The vines lie close on the
+soil, and the eye reaches every nook and corner of the field, and takes
+in the whole panorama at one glance. Few other crops afford so clear or
+so pleasing a prospect. Indian corn, in the tender green of summer, is a
+beautiful object to look upon, but it shuts out all view of distant
+parts of the farm. The golden wheat, as it bends to the passing breeze,
+is also beautiful, but one must go around it and not through it. A field
+of cotton, as the open bolls display the snowy lint, is a sight to
+please the admirer of nature, but it lacks the setting of green that is
+always pleasing to the eye. The peanut crop surpasses them all in
+beauty. It presents an air of freedom, of repose, of life, and of
+security from harm, of which no other can boast.
+
+Such is the crop to which we have invited the reader's attention, and
+the planting and cultivation of which we have endeavored to describe.
+Having proceeded thus far, let us pause a moment, as the writer has
+done, time and again, to survey the beautiful prospect of a field of
+peanuts in full maturity. There it is, a literal carpet of living green,
+covering acres on acres of mother earth, and beneath its velvet folds is
+quietly growing the wealth that is to make its owner independent, and by
+means of which the planter's family is to secure most of the necessaries
+and comforts of life. No crop outside of the market gardens, yields so
+much actual cash per acre as this. No wonder, then, that it readily
+becomes popular with all who try it, and that it never loses ground
+wherever introduced under favorable circumstances.
+
+An interval of about two months now elapses, during which the crop
+requires no attention. The seed pods are filling and maturing, and the
+whole plant is ripening for the harvest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HARVESTING.
+
+
+=When to begin Harvesting.=--We come now to the laborious and often
+difficult work of harvesting the peanut crop. We say difficult, for
+often rainy or other unpropitious weather at this period, makes it
+exceedingly hard to save the crop in good condition, and prevent the
+pods from becoming dark or spotted. Ordinarily, the harvesting should
+not begin so long as mild and growing weather continues, even though
+October may be far spent. It is important, of course, to get as many
+firm, matured pods on a vine as possible, and the longer the weather
+holds favorable for this, the more pods, as a rule, will there be.
+
+If, however, the crop has been planted early, and the leaves begin to
+fall from the vines, it is better to start the plow and dig the crop at
+once. When the Peanut plant gets fully matured, it is very apt to begin
+to cast its leaves, especially on ground that has been planted in
+peanuts often before. After the leaves fall off, the vines are of very
+little value as hay, and as most planters consider them excellent
+provender, they make it a point to harvest the crop in time to secure
+good hay. For the same reason, effort is made to dig and shock the vines
+before a killing frost occurs. Frost spoils the vines for fodder, though
+it does no harm to the pods, unless it be for seed. Some suppose that
+seed taken from frost-bitten vines will not come up well.
+
+In the latitude of Virginia the usual time for digging the peanut crop
+is the second and third weeks in October. That is, the great bulk of the
+crop is dug about this time, though some start the first week in that
+month, and others wait until the close, unless driven to start earlier
+by the weather. In rare cases, some planters dig by the twenty-fifth of
+September, but it is generally believed that all who start thus early
+lose more in weight and yield than they gain in time or price. Six or
+ten days of mild weather at this stage of the crop, will make an
+appreciable difference in the yield, and if the peanuts can remain in
+the ground until the latter part of October, there will be very few
+saps, or immature pods. But, in whatever latitude the planter may
+reside, the general rule should be, to dig before a killing frost
+occurs.
+
+=Mode of Harvesting.=--In Virginia, the general practice is as follows:
+First, plow the peanuts with a point having a long, narrow wing, and a
+small mould-board, so that the vines will be loosened without having any
+earth thrown upon them. The plow passes along on both sides of the rows,
+just near enough for the wing to fairly reach the tap-root, which it
+severs. Care is taken to put the plow deep enough to pass under the pods
+without severing them from the vines. This is important, as most of the
+detached pods are lost, and if the work is slovenly done, the loss will
+be great.
+
+Hands with pitchforks follow the plow, lift the vines from the loose
+soil, shake them well to get the earth off, and then lay them down,
+either singly or in small piles, to remain a day or two to wilt and cure
+in the sun. This is light work, and can be done rapidly, two hands being
+enough to keep up with one plow. If rain is feared, it is best to lay
+the vines down singly after shaking them, for, when in piles, if rain
+occurs, and the weather is warm, the pods are apt to speck and mildew
+before the vines can dry out. A rain falling on the pods after they are
+dug, and before they are shocked, does no harm, if the sun comes out
+soon to dry them before they can mildew.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--SHOCK STANDING.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--SHOCK REMOVED.]
+
+Instead of leaving the vines on the ground a day or two to cure, many
+shock them up at once. If the vines are perfectly dry, this is as good a
+plan as any. But if the weather should be warm, and the vines are wet
+with dew or rain when put up, they will be sure to heat, and the pods
+will turn dark. In cold weather the vines may be shocked both green and
+wet without risk.
+
+The method of shocking the Peanuts will be understood from figure 5,
+which represents a shock as it stands in the field. A shock as it is
+taken down for picking is shown in figure 6. The vines are first laid
+together in piles, about as much as one can handily carry on the fork at
+one time, three rows being put in one. The stakes, which have been
+previously prepared, are then set in the ground proper distances apart,
+and two billets of wood, four or five inches in diameter and two feet
+long, are placed beside each stake to keep the vines off the ground. A
+handful of vines is then laid, pods up, on one side of the stake for a
+bed, and the same on the other side. After this the vines are put on,
+pods down. The first are inverted to keep the pods off the ground,
+though this is a matter of trifling importance, if the billets of wood
+are large enough. The successive handfuls of vines are laid up with
+care, keeping the shock level, lapping the vines, and placing them on
+every side to make the work even. As the work progresses the vines may
+be pressed down with the hands, and the shocks are finished off round at
+top, the better to shed the water. No cap or covering for the shocks is
+used, though much would frequently be saved, could a cheap one be had. A
+board nailed on the top of the stakes would protect the top layer very
+much, and yet the planter who should adopt it would doubtless be laughed
+at.
+
+A fast hand can put up fifty or sixty shocks a day, with a boy to bring
+up the vines and assist in planting the stakes. Some shockers use the
+fork to lay up the vines, especially toward the top. The shocks are put
+up one in a place wherever needed, so as to make the work convenient for
+the carrier. Some, however, put three or more shocks together, as suits
+their fancy, in which case fence rails are usually employed to build
+the shocks upon.
+
+The above method is generally practised, but there are many variations
+in almost every detail. We have endeavored to give a clear idea of a
+safe method.
+
+=Why Cured in the Field.=--Perhaps some reader unacquainted with the
+cultivation of the Peanut, may ask: Why all this trouble to shock and
+cure the crop in the field? Why not pick the pods from the vines as soon
+as they are dug, and cure the peanuts on scaffolds, or elsewhere, and
+cure the vines on the ground, like hay?
+
+We answer, because the pods cure better in the shock than in any other
+way. They get dry sooner, and make heavier and brighter peanuts than
+could possibly be the case, were they gathered at once, and spread, even
+in very thin layers, on scaffolds to dry. Besides, as rain on the pods
+when they are about half cured, or during the process of curing, would
+be very harmful, it is found best to protect the pods by covering them
+in shock. They can get more air in shock than if spread on a scaffold,
+and a free circulation of air about them is important. A scaffold close
+enough to hold the pods would exclude the air in every direction, except
+from above. When shocks are put up well, the pods are very effectually
+protected, except a few on the top, and in about ten days are cured nice
+and bright, and ready to be picked off. The shocks may remain in the
+field many weeks, subject to repeated rains, without material injury. Of
+course rains of several days continuance would damage the peanuts more
+or less. It is best therefore, on this account, and because of the
+numerous depredators that prey upon the crop while it remains in the
+field, to house it as soon as sufficiently cured to render it certain
+the pods will not heat and spoil when in bulk.
+
+=Depredators.=--The creatures of the animal kingdom that levy their tax
+on the unwilling planter, and come in for a share--and often a large
+share--of the peanut crop, are of many kinds, and numerous in all. Of
+quadrupeds, the deer, fox, raccoon, squirrel, and sometimes even the
+dog, are more or less destructive; the raccoon, squirrel, and fox are
+particularly so, beginning their inroads early in the fall by scratching
+up the immature pods, and continuing their thefts daily and nightly as
+long as any remain in the field. In some localities, these animals are
+exceedingly annoying, and occasion great loss unless their depredations
+can be checked.
+
+Next to the animals named, birds are most destructive, while the peanuts
+are in shock. Such birds as the blue-jay, crow, partridge, yellow
+hammer, wild turkey, and blackbird, coming, as some of them do, not
+singly, but in companies and flocks of hundreds and thousands at a time,
+carry off vast quantities, unless the planter is always on the alert,
+gun in hand, ready to meet them at every turn. Near the James, and other
+large rivers, it is a common occurrence to see, not thousands only, but
+tens of thousands of blackbirds in a single field at one time. They
+often go in flocks covering acres on acres of ground, and with their
+ceaseless activity and endless trilling, present an appearance of which
+city-bred people can form no adequate idea. Of course they destroy a
+vast amount of peanuts in a short time, unless speedily driven off.
+
+There are also several species of field rats and mice, together with the
+domestic rats and mice that get into the shocks to feed on the pods,
+where they remain until disturbed by the pickers. Everything seems fond
+of the Peanut after it is made, and if the planter escapes the insect
+enemies in the summer, the exemption is more than offset by the numerous
+and voracious depredators of the fall and winter.
+
+And against most of them, there is no effective remedy, the planter
+cannot watch his crop all the time, and traps are hardly worth using. It
+is true, something may be done with steel traps for such animals as the
+fox, raccoon, and squirrel. But for the rest, despatch in removing the
+crop from the field, is the only certain preventive. Even then the
+planter does not entirely escape, for rats and mice follow him within
+doors, and riot in luxurious living so long as a single shock remains
+undisturbed. Perhaps no crop the Southern farmer grows is subject to
+heavier or oftener repeated losses than the Peanut. Yet, despite it all,
+it is a crop that often pays very handsome returns. It has been, and is,
+the sheet anchor of many an East Virginia farmer, and if prices hold up,
+will continue to be, so long as there are lands here that will produce
+thirty bushels of peanuts to the acre. This is but the minimum; the
+maximum is not known; a hundred and thirty bushels per acre has been
+attained.
+
+=Detached Peanuts.=--In the process of digging and shocking peanuts,
+many pods must necessarily become detached from the vines. Some of
+these remain in the soil, out of sight, and numbers more are scattered
+over the ground, from one side of the field to the other. If the vines
+are fully matured, and have changed color or shed their leaves, and
+especially if frost has touched them, the pods come off much more freely
+than if the vines are still green, or scarcely done growing. Generally,
+the detached pods are the best of the crop, being those first matured,
+and which are therefore solid and heavy.
+
+Of course these peanuts must not be lost. Women and children are
+employed to pick them up at so much per bushel. If it is found that many
+pods remain in the ground, a cultivator or light plow is run along the
+rows to bring them in sight. In this way the most of the loose peanuts
+are saved. Still, numbers will be left in the ground. The planter is at
+no loss, however, to secure these also, which he does by turning his
+fattening hogs on the ground as soon as he can remove the crop from the
+field. Hogs are exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and as soon as they find
+them out, they will continue to root for them as long as one can be had.
+Frequently, every square yard of large fields, will be burrowed over by
+the hogs in their search for the detached peanuts. No crop the planter
+grows will fatten a hog so quickly as the Peanut. Thus in the harvesting
+of this beautiful and profitable crop, nothing is allowed to be lost.
+
+=Saving Seed Peanuts.=--It now remains to say something of the method of
+saving seed peanuts. Every step in this process must have in view one
+principal point--keeping the pods from becoming the least heated, either
+in shock or in bulk. Perfect and continued ventilation must be secured.
+The vines should not be shocked while green, nor the pods kept in large
+bulk after being picked off. Neither should the vines be touched by
+frost, either before or after being dug.
+
+It is customary to dig and shake the vines as usual, and leave them in
+the field four or five days, or a week, before they are either piled or
+shocked. In this time, if the weather is fair, the vines will be so
+nearly cured that not enough moisture will remain in them to create a
+heat, even in very warm weather, and they may then be shocked with
+perfect safety, after which they should remain in the field until
+thoroughly dry. Rain falling on the vines while they are lying in the
+field, does no harm, except it be to turn the pods a little dark, which
+circumstance makes no difference with seed peanuts.
+
+When the seeds are picked off, keep them in baskets until ready to
+spread them in a cool, dry room, where they will be exposed to a free
+circulation of air. In no case should they be in bulk. Spread them
+thinly in some loft, where the air will reach them, and where they will
+be secure from rats and mice. They may be stored in sacks the same as
+for sale, and laid in an airy room to remain all winter. They should not
+be kept in a room where there is a stove, or one subject to currents of
+hot air.
+
+These suggestions embody all that need be done to secure good seed. If
+peanuts are fully cured when picked off, and are not kept too close,
+they will prove good seed, unless there is some radical defect of the
+germ or vital powers. Keep them from heating, and they will germinate
+and grow as readily as corn. Every planter may, and should, save his own
+seed. According to the number of acres that he thinks of planting, let
+him provide two bushels of seed (or forty-four pounds in the hull), for
+each acre, and he will have enough and some to spare.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MARKETING.
+
+
+It requires as much judgment to market a crop well, as it does to raise
+and harvest it, and often more. Unfortunately, the majority of planters
+are sadly deficient in that knowledge of commercial life, which would
+make them masters of the situation. Too often they are bound by lien or
+mortgage, or else they have run up a heavy bill at the country store,
+and when the crop is made and ready for market, they are obliged to sell
+forthwith. Generally too, this is the very time when prices are lowest,
+and so the planter is obliged to part with the fruits of his labor at
+the most unfavorable rates, and allow the middlemen to pocket the
+profits. It is only by careful economy and prudent management, on the
+part of each planter for himself, that this evil is to be corrected.
+Without entering into the details of commercial affairs, we will
+endeavor to show the planter how he may go into market with his crop,
+prepared to command the best prices. To this end, it is essential that
+he have his crop in the best marketable condition, remembering that a
+good article always sells well.
+
+=Picking off the Peanuts.=--This part of the work, usually done by women
+and children, may make or spoil the sale of the entire crop. If stems
+are gathered with the pods, and good, bad, and indifferent are all
+lumped together, with leaves and trash thrown in for good measure, a
+great deal of assorting and cleaning will subsequently be required, or
+else the sale of the crop will be impaired to the extent of one or two
+cents to the pound. In picking, the stems should be rejected, and the
+saps and inferior pods, if gathered at all, be kept apart from the rest.
+Only the best, brightest, and soundest pods should go into the A, No.
+1's, and these, if clean of earth and trash, will always bring top
+prices. The saps also will sell, at lower rates. It is the neglect of
+these few precautions that so sadly curtails the bill of sale of many a
+planter. If planters would offer pickers extra inducements for clean
+pods, this difficulty would, to a great extent, be obviated. When the
+same price is paid for all, without regard to the manner of picking, a
+premium is offered for slovenly work, and the careless get better paid
+than the painstaking.
+
+In picking, the pops should be refused altogether, and the saps and very
+dark pods go by themselves. Many planters, however, leave the saps on
+the vines, saving the best only. The saps, however, will sell, either in
+pod or shelled, and if numerous, will more than pay for picking them. It
+is, therefore, so much gained. It must be confessed, however, that the
+presence of a good many saps on the vines, makes them much more valuable
+as feed.
+
+Just here let us explain that "pops" are pods that have attained full
+size and firmness, but which are minus the seed. Dry weather, and the
+lack of calcareous manures in the soil, will cause many pops. "Saps" are
+immature pods, the last to form on the vine, and which might become good
+peanuts if they could have a longer period of growing weather. The
+presence of pops in the marketable peanuts is very detrimental to their
+sale, and hence should be carefully rejected in picking. Saps also are
+detrimental, but to a less extent than pops.
+
+=Price paid Pickers.=--The price paid pickers varies somewhat from one
+season to another, according to the quality of the peanuts, and the
+market price received for them. Hands commonly board themselves, and
+receive so much per bushel for picking. Of late years, the price has
+stood pretty uniformly, at twelve to fifteen cents per bushel. The
+peanuts are either measured or weighed. If weighed, twenty-four pounds
+are counted as a bushel in the first part of the season, the extra two
+pounds being taken to make up for the subsequent loss in weight. If a
+hand is boarded by the owner of the crop, he gets but ten cents a bushel
+for picking. A fast hand will pick from four to six bushels a day, the
+children are just as likely to do this as grown people. Hence, at this
+season of the year, women and children earn what is considered pretty
+fair wages. Under the most favorable circumstances, the best hands will
+pick seven bushels a day. Very much depends, however, on the quality of
+the peanuts, and something also on the weather. In very dry weather, the
+stems come off with the pod, and pickers cannot do as well.
+
+=Cleaning and Bagging.=--After the peanuts are picked off, they should
+be cleaned, before being sacked. The object of this, of course, is to
+rid them of the earth that may still be adhering to them. It makes the
+hull look cleaner, and brighter also, and thus enhances the sale.
+Formerly, the planter made his own cleaning machine, but recently, since
+the starting of what are called "Peanut factories," the planter very
+seldom runs his peanuts through any machine at all, but sells them just
+as they are picked. Being thus rid of much trouble and labor, it is
+doubtful whether it would now pay the planter to clean his peanuts, as
+he once did. The price paid for them now, is almost as much as he would
+realize, were he to take ever so much pains in cleaning them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--VIRGINIA PEANUT CLEANING MACHINE.]
+
+But as the reader in other parts of the country, may desire to know
+something of the mode of cleaning peanuts at home, we give a description
+of the Virginia machine for this purpose. There is no patent on this
+machine, and any one may make it for himself. A cylinder (figure 7), as
+large as a flour barrel; is formed by nailing narrow slats of plank, to
+two circular pieces of timber. The slats are put a little way apart, but
+not far enough for the pods to slip through when the cylinder is turned.
+A piece of timber runs lengthwise, through the centre of the cylinder,
+the ends of this project about a foot, and serve as an axle on which to
+turn it. A crank is attached to one end or both ends of the axle. Two
+pieces of scantling are fastened together in the shape of an X, one for
+each end, and these are held upright by having pieces nailed on
+horizontally, from one to the other. Several slats on the cylinder are
+fastened together to make a door, and this is attached to the cylinder
+by hinges, and fastened with a button.
+
+The peanuts are poured into the cylinder, two or three bushels at a
+time, and it is made to revolve slowly, until all the earth and litter
+has fallen out. The door is then opened, the peanuts turned out and
+bagged.
+
+In bagging the peanuts, care should be taken to have the sacks well
+filled. They are estimated to hold four bushels each, and if properly
+filled, good solid peanuts will over-run a little, especially in the
+first part of the season, before they are thoroughly cured. As the sacks
+are being sewed up, the corners must be packed with peanuts as long as
+any more can be got in. For sewing up the sacks, the planter needs a
+large peanut-sack needle and twine made purposely for this business.
+Sacks cost the farmer, at the present, ten cents each, and generally the
+peanuts are sold by gross weight and nothing paid for the sacks. In some
+markets the sacks are paid for, and a pound deducted from the gross
+weight, for each sack. If the planter sells to a merchant near home, he
+seldom sews up the sacks, but ties them, and they are emptied and
+returned to him at the store.
+
+=Peanut "Factories."=--It does not fall within our present plan to
+describe these establishments, any further than to give the reader,
+outside of the peanut belts, an idea of them. Formerly, many peanuts
+were sent into market without being properly assorted and cleaned, and
+it was found that, by assorting and re-cleaning them, a little margin of
+profit was left after paying expenses. One step led to another, and
+various appliances and machines were brought into requisition, until
+now, large buildings are devoted solely to the purpose of cleaning,
+assorting, and storing the peanuts. Some of these establishments employ
+many hands, both male and female, to clean, separate, and re-bag the
+peanuts ready for the trade.
+
+Thus it has happened, that the business of cleaning peanuts has been
+taken out of the hands of the farmer, reduced to a system, and made a
+new industry. In fact, a division of labor; and now the merchant buys
+the peanuts of the planter just as they are picked, and the "factories,"
+so-called, clean and assort them for the large buyers. Still, the
+merchant will pay more for Peanuts in nice order, and perhaps it would
+even now pay the farmer to properly clean and assort his crop before
+selling it.
+
+=The Best Markets.=--A few years ago, the city of Norfolk was the sole
+market for the Virginia and North Carolina planter, and New York for the
+wholesale dealer. Later on, Wilmington, Petersburg, Richmond, and
+several of the smaller towns began to buy peanuts, until now, every
+village and trading centre throughout the whole peanut belt, has become
+the repository for the crop of its own immediate section. Every year,
+the market has been coming nearer and nearer to the planter, until now
+he finds it about as profitable to sell to the nearest country merchant,
+as to ship to town, and sometimes more so. Frequently, the country
+merchant becomes the agent of some large buyer, who furnishes the
+capital, and he buys all the peanuts he can, at figures very near the
+ruling market price. Of course, this works very much to the planter's
+benefit. He sees his crop weighed, he escapes the middleman, with all
+the attendant expenses, such as commissions, freight, etc., he sells for
+cash, and he does not have to wait several weeks for returns.
+
+Under this state of affairs, the home market, or home buyer, becomes the
+best for the farmer. And with the constantly increasing demand, and
+close competition between buyers, the cleaning factories are also coming
+nearer the farmer, and already exist, or will soon exist, in each of the
+counties and sections where the Peanut is much grown. Thus the planters
+generally, will soon be enabled to sell directly to the cleaners, and
+the latter to the wholesale buyers. So the planter will get market
+prices, without the trouble of going to market. Perhaps the competition
+will eventually grow sharper still, until, not only will the peanuts be
+cleaned and bought at home, but will also be manufactured into oil,
+flour, and the other commercial forms, in the sections where they are
+grown. In everything, the tendency now is, to carry the factories to
+the raw material, and not the latter to the factories. It is not to be
+presumed that this crop will prove an exception.
+
+Thus it is, that the farmer's work is being narrowed down, by the
+inevitable and beneficial law of the division of labor. The planter may
+now turn his attention wholly to the cultivation of the crop. How to
+order it, so as to realize the largest possible yield from the smallest
+possible areas, is now the problem before him. He finds given to his
+hands, a great and growing staple with great, and still unknown,
+possibilities, and he sees the demand becoming larger and more earnest,
+until now, the buyer comes to his very door, and puts down the ready
+cash for all of this crop that he has to sell.
+
+Of course the planter must, and will bestir himself, to meet the
+ever-increasing demand. To do this with profit to himself, he must study
+this crop from beginning to end, he must learn the nature of the Peanut
+plant fully and correctly, and discovering how to increase the yield per
+acre to its maximum, unravel the secret of how to grow it at the least
+cost per bushel.
+
+=Picking Machines.=--It may be well here to allude to a question, which,
+doubtless, the thoughtful reader has already asked himself, namely: Why
+does not some one invent a machine for picking peanuts rapidly, instead
+of having to do it by the slow and tedious process of hand-picking? In
+reply we state, that numerous attempts to do so have been made, but with
+very indifferent success. None of the many picking machines, that have
+hitherto been offered, have given satisfaction. It seems that they
+cannot be made to do the work, and most planters appear to have given up
+looking for any help in this direction. Very recently, the writer has
+heard of one picking machine that is said to be giving satisfaction, but
+he has not seen it, or conversed with any one who has done so. That an
+efficient machine of this kind is an impossibility, is not believed, but
+whether anything can be made that would pay better than the old method,
+is the question. The planter must await developments. Perhaps some
+ingenious mechanic will take up the problem, and give the planter a
+perfect and cheap picking machine. Here is a field for ingenuity. A good
+machine would be a profitable invention. Who will try?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having now traced the Peanut plant through the whole process of its
+planting, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing, the practical part of
+our task is ended. If the directions are such as will enable the
+beginner in this branch of rural industry, to successfully cultivate and
+manage this crop, the end will have been attained, and this little book
+will not have been written in vain. It has been prepared for those
+having no practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the peanut
+crop, not for the old and experienced planter. And yet, without egotism,
+it is believed that even the latter may find something in it that will
+be of use to him. Practices vary in different sections, even among men
+of the same calling, and inasmuch as methods herein detailed, will be
+found to vary from those practiced in North Carolina, Tennessee,
+Georgia, or the far South, so will the planter in those States who may
+chance to read this treatise, be enabled to compare our methods with
+his, to see wherein they differ, and perchance may find here some point
+or plan a little better than his own.
+
+It only remains now to give, in another chapter, some of the many uses
+of the Peanut.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+USES.
+
+
+Some of the more important uses of the Peanut and its plant are here
+given. In the course of time, as new discoveries are made, it is not
+improbable that the Peanut may subserve other valuable ends. But if no
+more uses than are now known, are ever found for any part of this plant,
+it will continue to occupy an important position among the agricultural
+productions of the country. Its importance will increase year by year,
+its value being too well understood and appreciated for it ever to lose
+its place among our leading crops.
+
+=Peanut Oil.=--The use that gives the Peanut especial value as an
+American crop, is the place it occupies as an oil-producing plant. The
+oil of the Peanut is regarded as equal in all respects to sweet or olive
+oil, and may be employed for every purpose to which that is applied.
+This gives it at once a commanding position, and were no other use found
+for the plant, this would give it great importance among the economic
+productions of our country. Olive oil is largely consumed for culinary
+uses, in medicine, and in the arts. Except in California, the olive has
+never been planted upon a commercial scale in this country, and it is
+very important that we possess a plant, that will obviate our dependence
+upon foreign oil. Of course, it is not within our scope to describe the
+manufacture of Peanut oil. The farmer is satisfied with knowing that his
+crops are in demand, and need not trouble himself about the methods by
+which they are converted into this or that useful commodity.
+
+It is stated that a bushel of peanuts (twenty-two pounds in the hull)
+subjected to the hydraulic press, will yield one gallon of oil. The
+yield by cold pressure, is from forty to fifty per cent. of the shelled
+kernels, though if heat be used, a larger quantity of oil, but of
+inferior quality, is obtained. The best Peanut oil is nearly colorless,
+with a faint, agreeable odor, and a bland taste, resembling that of
+olive oil. It is more limpid than olive oil, and becomes thick when
+exposed to a temperature a few degrees below the freezing point of
+water. Peanut oil is not one of the drying oils. During the late war it
+was extensively employed in the Southern machine shops, and regarded as
+superior in its lubricating qualities to whale oil. For burning it is
+highly esteemed. The chief consumption of the oil is in making soap. For
+the production of oil for soap making, there were imported into
+Marseilles, France, from the West Coast of Africa, in one year, peanuts
+to the value of over five millions of dollars.
+
+The residuum, or oil cake, may be sold for cattle feed.
+
+=Roasted Peanuts.=--Almost every person residing in the eastern section
+of our country, must necessarily know something of the value of roasted
+peanuts. One cannot pass along the streets of any of our larger cities
+and towns, without encountering, at every turn, the little peanut
+stands, where roasted peanuts are sold by the pint. They are kept for
+sale in numerous shops, they are peddled on the railroad cars, and sold
+to the loungers at every depot. Roasted peanuts are more common than
+roasted chestnuts once were, and almost everybody eats them. Even the
+ladies are fond of them, and frequently have them at their parties.
+
+It is safe then to say, that everybody likes them, and finds them
+palatable, healthful, and fattening. From a pig to a school boy, no diet
+will fatten sooner than roasted peanuts. A person can live on them alone
+for an indefinite period, if eaten regularly and with moderation. The
+analysis of the Peanut shows it to be rich in the albuminoids, or
+flesh-forming elements. Roasted peanuts, therefore, form a very useful
+article of diet, and fill a place between the luxuries and the
+necessaries of common life. Wherever they have been once introduced,
+they cannot well be dispensed with; and as their use in this respect is
+constantly extending, this purpose alone would serve to keep the product
+before the public as a salable article. Once let the Peanut find its way
+to the great cities of Europe, and roasted peanuts be sold upon the
+streets there, as well as here, and the demand for them will far exceed
+the present limits, and the cultivation be necessarily extended over a
+much wider area than now. There is every reason to believe that the
+demand for the crop will continue to increase.
+
+=Peanut Candy.=--This is another of the purposes to which the Peanut has
+been applied, and serves to illustrate how varied and numerous are the
+uses of this remarkable production. Flat bars of sugar candy are stuck
+full of the broken kernels of the roasted nuts. It is quite good, and
+forms a pleasing addition to other kinds of confectionery.
+
+=Peanut Coffee.=--Here again the Peanut fills a useful end, especially
+in times of scarcity, or high prices for coffee. Taken alone, and
+without any addition whatever of the pure berry, the Peanut makes a
+quite good and palatable beverage. It closely resembles chocolate in
+flavor, is milder and less stimulating than pure coffee, and
+considerably cheaper than Rio or Java. If mixed, half and half, with
+pure coffee before parching, and roasted and ground together, the same
+quantity will go as far and make about as good a beverage as the pure
+article, and a better one than much of the ground and adulterated coffee
+offered in the market. Indeed, if people will adulterate their coffee,
+it were much to be wished that they would use nothing more harmful than
+the Peanut for this purpose.
+
+For making the beverage, the Peanut is parched and ground the same as
+coffee, the mode of decoction the same, and it is taken with cream and
+sugar, like the pure article.
+
+=Peanut Chocolate.=--True chocolate is made by roasting and grinding to
+a paste, by the aid of heat, a very oily seed, the Cocoa-bean. In the
+preparation of chocolate a great variety of articles are used to
+adulterate it and diminish its cost. Some of these, such as sugar and
+starchy substances, are harmless, while others, such as mineral coloring
+matters are injurious. Peanuts are largely used to adulterate chocolate,
+and so far as wholesomeness is concerned, are not objectionable. In
+containing a great deal of starch and oil, peanuts resemble the
+cocoa-bean, though without the nitrogenous principle, _theobromine_
+(which closely resembles _caffeine_), to which its nutritive qualities
+are largely due. Peanut chocolate is made in some Southern families by
+beating the properly roasted nuts in a mortar with sugar, and flavoring
+with cinnamon or vanilla as may be desired. Peanut chocolate, on so high
+an authority as the author, the late William Gilmore Simms, is vastly
+superior to peanut coffee.
+
+=Peanut Bread.=--If peanuts are first mashed or ground into a pulp, and
+then worked into the dough in the process of kneading, no lard will be
+required to make good biscuit, and the bread will have an agreeable
+flavor, different from that imparted by lard, but of such a mild and
+pleasant taste as to be entirely unlike the peanut flavor. The skin of
+the kernel must first be removed, or it will impart a bitterish and
+nutty taste. There is some difficulty in doing this. Scalding does not
+do it very well. Strong soda water or lye, will quickly loosen it, so
+that it may be readily removed by rubbing with the hands, but either
+fluid would soon convert the Peanut into soap, and is, therefore,
+impracticable for this purpose. Could some cheap and handy machine be
+invented, that would remove the skin from the kernel without loss, no
+doubt large quantities of peanuts would be used for bread-making
+purposes. Whether or not it would be economical, we cannot at present
+say.
+
+=Peanut Soap.=--If a fair article of soap can be made of corn shucks, as
+was done in the South during the late war, then there can be no doubt
+that a better quality can be made from Peanuts. Surely a vegetable
+product containing such a large per-centage of oil, would be easily
+acted upon by lye. The writer has not experimented in this direction,
+but we hear of some who have tried it, and who say they have made a good
+and serviceable soap from the kernels of the Peanut without the addition
+of other oil or grease. We have no doubt but very good soap may be made
+from the Peanut, but whether the manufacture of such an article would be
+profitable at present prices, is another question. Perhaps for ordinary
+laundry soap it would not, but for the higher grades of toilet soap it
+might be. Here is a field for experiment, and yet we mention this use,
+as well as those of bread-making and coffee from the same article, as
+one of the possibilities of this plant, rather than a result to be
+looked for in the near future, if at all. It is well that manufacturers,
+and all others, should know what is capable of being done with this
+promising product. The more we can multiply the uses of any product of
+our farms, the wider will be the demand for it, and this is what the
+farmers desire.
+
+=Peanuts as Feed for Stock.=--This is a use for the Peanut, about which
+we can speak with confidence, and from experience. We now refer to the
+peanut pod, including, of course, the kernel, and not the vine or hay.
+Every kind of stock, horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and poultry, are
+exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and will leave any other food to partake
+of it. Cows, horses, and sheep eat the whole pod, hull and kernel
+together. Hogs and poultry (except turkeys) reject the hull, eating the
+kernel only. Turkeys, as a rule, swallow the pod whole, and a real live
+turkey can hide away quite a quantity of the nuts in a short time, if
+allowed free access to them. In fact, all animals do not seem to know
+when they have enough of this food. All stock fattens readily on them.
+The hog will lay on flesh faster on a diet of peanuts, than on corn,
+potatoes, or any other product with which the writer is acquainted. The
+poorest scrub of a hog, turned into a peanut field, after the crop is
+removed, and where he can get nothing but the pods he may find by
+rooting for them, will change his appearance in three days, and in a
+week, will be so much improved as hardly to be recognized as the same
+animal. As a pork producer we believe that the Peanut has not its
+superior in any clime or country. It is a thorough fat-former. Poultry
+intended for laying should be sparingly fed with it.
+
+But we would not leave this subject without a grain of caution. While
+all stock fattens rapidly on the Peanut, it must be confessed that the
+fat is not always of the best quality. It is less firm and more oily
+than the fat derived from Indian corn, nor will the lard from hogs
+fattened upon peanuts show that pearly white and flaky appearance, which
+is the marked characteristic of pure lard made from corn. For this
+reason, most planters in the peanut belt, feed their peanut-fed hogs on
+corn only for two or three weeks before killing them. This is done to
+make the lard firm and white, and in this manner, good pork and lard are
+produced at only a trifling cost. The hogs get nearly fat from the
+detached peanuts left in the field, and which otherwise would be lost.
+In this way the peanut-planter derives a very important benefit from
+this crop, apart from its value as a source of ready money. Were there
+no other use for the peanut, it would still pay well to raise it for
+making pork. In this case, the planting and cultivation would be the
+sole cost, as the animals would do all the harvesting. A very small
+field would fatten quite a number of hogs. Poultry intended for market,
+might well be fed on Peanuts, instead of corn or oats. The fowls would
+fatten faster and at less cost. In fact, we believe it would be
+economical to buy peanuts at ruling prices for fattening stock,
+especially old stock.
+
+=Peanut Hay.=--If dug and cured before frost touches them, and before
+the leaves fall to any great extent, peanut vines make a very good
+provender for all stock. Some say it is better than blade fodder for
+horses and mules, but we are not prepared to advance this extravagant
+claim for it. It is, however, certainly an excellent article of fodder
+for cattle, sheep, mules, and horses, and if many sap peanuts are left
+on the vines, stock that is not worked much, will need no other feed
+during the winter months to keep them in good condition.
+
+Most planters, accordingly, make it an object to try to save the vines
+for hay, and aim to dig the crop before they are injured by frost.
+After a killing frost touches them, the vines are next to worthless as a
+feed. In fact, frost-bitten peanut vines are harmful, rather than
+beneficial, to stock, often causing colics, and endangering the life of
+a valuable horse or mule. Peanut vines, even the best of them, unharmed
+by frost, should not be fed very largely to horses. There is always a
+good deal of grit and dust upon them, and much of this taken into the
+stomach, cannot but be more or less harmful to the animals.
+
+And yet, despite these few drawbacks, peanut hay has proved to be a
+valuable forage, and one that the peanut-planter could not well dispense
+with, inasmuch as so many do not make enough of other forage to serve
+them, and must, therefore, depend on the peanut crop to help them out.
+Thus the planter is benefited in several ways through this crop. He gets
+a valuable staple to sell, and one that always commands the ready cash,
+he fattens his hogs on the pods left in the ground, and he secures a
+large amount of very good hay in the vines. Thus he is doubly benefited,
+and no matter how low the price of peanuts may be, the farmer does not,
+and cannot, ordinarily, lose much on the cultivation of this great crop.
+If he does not risk too much on commercial fertilizers, which no planter
+of this crop ever should do, he runs little risk of suffering any
+crushing loss thereon.
+
+Such is a brief but connected view of the Peanut crop from the time of
+planting the seed, to its sale and manufacture. The views and practice
+here advanced are all from original sources. We have not drawn upon any
+other writer for any part of this treatise. Indeed, save a few short
+articles scattered through the agricultural press of the past ten or
+fifteen years, we know of no source from whence material could be
+derived. So far as we are aware, this is the pioneer work in America on
+the Peanut plant. This being the case, it must, of course, be quite
+defective. We might easily have made it a larger book, and perhaps some
+few years hence, when the field and subject shall have enlarged, it will
+be found desirable to revise and enlarge this treatise. For the present,
+we must be satisfied with smaller things, and remain content with a few
+practical directions rather than an elaborate work. Until that time, if
+it comes at all, we lay aside the pen, and turn our hands (as it has
+been our wont to do during the past few weeks) to actual labors in
+connection with the Peanut plant.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+
+It was our design, at first, to present a somewhat full array of
+statistics in relation to the Peanut. This, however, was soon found to
+be impracticable. The more we studied the few data at hand, the more
+were we convinced of their utter unreliability. The fact is, so far as
+the writer is aware, there are no credible data of this crop existing.
+No authoritative and systematic attempt to gather and compile the
+statistics of the Peanut has ever been made, and until this is done we
+shall never know its full extent and value. The "estimates"--mere
+guesses--of certain mercantile houses and newspapers, to express the
+bulk of the crop are, beyond a doubt, far wide of the mark. The
+following from a Georgia paper, is of this class:
+
+"The goober[2] plays a more important part in commerce than might be
+supposed. We are all aware of its value as a social factor--of its
+influence upon oratory, music, and the drama--but how few of us know
+that one million nine hundred and seventy thousand bushels of this
+savory nut were consumed in this country during the twelve months ending
+on the thirtieth of September, 1883. These figures do not include the
+local consumption--say, for instance, in the rural districts of Georgia,
+where every substantial farmer has a patch of his own.
+
+"The figures relating to the goober crop make a column in the various
+prices current, but Georgia is not credited with any part of the crop.
+It seems that the goobers of commerce, so far as this country is
+concerned, are raised in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In
+1882, Virginia raised one million two hundred and fifty thousand
+bushels, Tennessee four hundred and sixty thousand, and North Carolina
+one hundred and forty thousand, making a total of one million eight
+hundred and fifty thousand. The aggregate value of the crop amounted to
+two million dollars. It is estimated that the peanut crop of 1883 will
+be at least two million bushels.
+
+"We regret that Georgia has no place in these estimates. Goobers can be
+raised in this State as readily as in Virginia, and there is no reason
+why our farmers should not take advantage of the demand for them. The
+little patches for home use, could easily be increased to patches
+calculated to yield a comfortable supply of pocket money. As Georgians
+are known as goober-grabblers, there is no reason why they should not be
+known as goober-growers."
+
+Still, these estimates serve a certain important end, and give an
+approximate idea of the magnitude of the crop. It is safe to say that it
+amounts to nearly three million bushels annually, and were all the
+information gathered that could be, it would doubtless be greater still.
+It is high time that the corps of statistical reporters to the National
+Department of Agriculture, were required to give the data for this crop,
+as well as for others, and some of them of less magnitude and value.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[2] See remarks on the term goober, in note on page 9.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+COSTS.
+
+
+Perhaps the attentive reader has expressed surprise that so little has
+been said about the cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting the
+peanut crop. This was because no estimate of costs that would suit one
+place, would apply in another and a distant locality. There is no
+uniformity in this matter, hence it was deemed best to leave each reader
+to count the costs for himself, based on his knowledge of his own local
+surroundings.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+THE PEANUT GARDEN OF AMERICA.
+
+
+The following article from the Suffolk, Va., "Herald," gives a concise
+view of the growth and development of this staple in Virginia, and
+illustrates how a portion of the Southside has become, perhaps, the
+leading peanut-producing section of our country:
+
+"When James H. Platt introduced his bill in Congress imposing a duty
+upon peanuts imported from Africa, a large majority of the members of
+that august body hardly knew what a peanut was. A few of them had eaten
+'Goobers' which had been carefully cultivated in the garden by their
+grandmothers, but as to why they needed protection, or how many of them
+there were to protect, but little was known even by the best informed.
+The culture of this important agricultural product was then in its
+infancy, and it was hardly recognized as an article of commerce.
+
+"Only a few short years have rolled by, and what a change has been
+effected. The peanut crop has assumed gigantic proportions, and the
+aggregate amounts to millions of dollars, while the nut is in demand
+from one end of the Union to the other at satisfactory prices.
+
+"The section of country contiguous to and lying south of James River,
+and between Norfolk and Petersburg, may be correctly termed the peanut
+garden of the world.
+
+"In this section peanut farming has been brought to the highest state of
+perfection, and the average production per acre greatly increased from
+what was considered a good yield a few years ago.
+
+"The one great difficulty in handling the crop seems to be, in the fact
+that no machine has yet been invented which will pick off the nuts from
+the vines in a satisfactory manner. This work must be done by hand, and
+as the entire crop matures at one and the same time, there is such a
+demand for labor during the picking off season that the supply is
+utterly inadequate to the demand. It is probable that within the next
+few years some plan will be devised for the successful storage of peas
+and vines until they can be conveniently picked off; and when this
+desirable end is accomplished, much of the rush and confusion incident
+to the gathering and marketing of the peanut crop will be avoided. This
+is already done by every thrifty planter who is able to hold his crop
+until such time as he sees fit to sell it. He stores his peanuts away,
+and picks them off, mostly with his own force, at convenient intervals
+through the winter and spring.
+
+"While so much has been done in the way of improvements in the
+production of the Peanut, those who have done the handling after
+reaching market have not been idle. In former years, only the bright
+shell and those well-filled, could be sold in the market. A dark color
+or half-filled pods was sufficient cause for rejection, and frequently
+they were on this account not even offered in market. Here, however,
+machinery was more successful. Various mechanical contrivances have been
+put in operation for cleaning and assorting the nuts, and to-day every
+grade of peanuts--from the large, plump, well-filled shell, to the
+smallest, blackest, and most insignificant half-filled pod--has a
+regular standard market value, according to the weight per bushel."
+
+
+
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+     By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care of
+     woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on
+     plains and mountains. The author has fully described those
+     European methods which have proved to be most useful in
+     maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This
+     experience has been adapted to the different climates and
+     trees of America, full instructions being given for forest
+     planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on
+     mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Soils and Crops of the Farm.=
+
+     By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The methods
+     of making available the plant food in the soil are described
+     in popular language. A short history of each of the farm
+     crops is accompanied by a discussion of its culture. The
+     useful discoveries of science are explained as applied in the
+     most approved methods of culture. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=American Fruit Culturist.=
+
+     By John J. Thomas. Containing practical directions for the
+     propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to the
+     United States. Twentieth thoroughly revised and greatly
+     enlarged edition by Wm. H. S. Wood. This new edition makes
+     the work practically almost a new book, containing everything
+     pertaining to large and small fruits as well as sub-tropical
+     and tropical fruits. Richly illustrated by nearly 800
+     engravings. 758 pp., 12mo. =$2.50=
+
+=Fertilizers.=
+
+     By Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey
+     Agricultural Experiment Station. It has been the aim of the
+     author to point out the underlying principles and to discuss
+     the important subjects connected with the use of fertilizer
+     materials. The natural fertility of the soil, the functions
+     of manures and fertilizers, and the need of artificial
+     fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Separate chapters are
+     devoted to the various fertilizing elements, to the purchase,
+     chemical analyses, methods of using fertilizers, and the best
+     fertilizers for each of the most important field, garden and
+     orchard crops. 335 pp. =$1.00=
+
+=Gardening for Profit.=
+
+     By Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and family
+     gardening. The successful experience of the author for more
+     than thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in
+     this work, the secret of his success for the benefit of
+     others, enables him to give most valuable information. The
+     book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers.=
+
+     By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester). This is
+     one of the best and most popular works on the horse prepared
+     in this country. A complete manual for horsemen, embracing:
+     How to breed a horse; how to buy a horse; how to break a
+     horse; how to use a horse; how to feed a horse; how to physic
+     a horse (allopathy or homoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how
+     to drive a horse: how to ride a horse, etc. Beautifully
+     illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Barn Plans and Outbuildings.=
+
+     Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable
+     work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the
+     construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers.
+     Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of
+     barns, grain barns, house barns, cattle barns, sheep barns,
+     corn houses, smoke houses, ice houses, pig pens, granaries,
+     etc. There are likewise chapters on bird houses, dog houses,
+     tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and
+     fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds,
+     barnyards, root pits, etc. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Cranberry Culture.=
+
+     By Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history of
+     cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground,
+     planting the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies
+     and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Ornamental Gardening for Americans.=
+
+     By Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on
+     beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain
+     and practical work with numerous illustrations and
+     instructions so plain that they may be readily followed.
+     Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Grape Culturist.=
+
+     By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the
+     culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all
+     departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
+     engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Turkeys and How to Grow Them.=
+
+     Edited by Herbert Myrick. A treatise on the natural history
+     and origin of the name of turkeys; the various breeds, the
+     best methods to insure success in the business of turkey
+     growing. With essays from practical turkey growers in
+     different parts of the United States and Canada. Copiously
+     illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Profits in Poultry.=
+
+     Useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management.
+     This excellent work contains the combined experience of a
+     number of practical men in all departments of poultry
+     raising. It is profusely illustrated and forms a unique and
+     important addition to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=How Crops Grow.=
+
+     By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. New and revised
+     edition. A treatise on the chemical composition, structure
+     and life of the plant. This book is a guide to the knowledge
+     of agricultural plants, their composition, their structure
+     and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+     organization of plants, and the use of the parts; the
+     germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both
+     from the air and the soil. The book is indispensable to all
+     real students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and
+     tables of analysis. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Coburn's Swine Husbandry.=
+
+     By F. D. Coburn. New, revised and enlarged edition. The
+     breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the
+     prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest
+     and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet
+     offered. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Stewart's Shepherd's Manual.=
+
+     By Henry Stewart. A valuable practical treatise on the sheep
+     for American farmers and sheep growers. It is so plain that a
+     farmer or a farmer's son who has never kept a sheep, may
+     learn from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and
+     yet so complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather
+     many suggestions from it. The results of personal experience
+     of some years with the characters of the various modern
+     breeds of sheep, and the sheep raising capabilities of many
+     portions of our extensive territory and that of Canada--and
+     the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep are
+     chiefly subject, with those by which they may eventually be
+     afflicted through unforeseen accidents--as well as the
+     methods of management called for under our circumstances, are
+     carefully described. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Feeds and Feeding.=
+
+     By W. A. Henry. This handbook for students and stock men
+     constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on
+     plant growth and animal nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding
+     animals and every detail pertaining to this important
+     subject. It is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is the
+     most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many
+     years. All the latest and best information is clearly and
+     systematically presented, making the work indispensable to
+     every owner of live stock. 658 pages, 8vo. Cloth. =$2.00=
+
+=Hunter and Trapper.=
+
+     By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. The
+     best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained, and
+     foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by
+     following his directions. Cloth, 12mo. =$.50=
+
+=The Ice Crop.=
+
+     By Theron L. Hiles. How to harvest, ship and use ice. A
+     complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice
+     dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, and
+     all interested in ice houses, cold storage, and the handling
+     or use of ice in any way. Including many recipes for iced
+     dishes and beverages. The book is illustrated by cuts of the
+     tools and machinery used in cutting and storing ice, and the
+     different forms of ice houses and cold storage buildings. 122
+     pp., ill., 16mo. Cloth. =$1.00=
+
+=Practical Forestry.=
+
+     By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+     and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and
+     popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United
+     States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable
+     exotic species. =$1.50=
+
+=Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.=
+
+     By Henry Stewart. This work is offered to those American
+     farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from painful
+     experience, can readily appreciate the losses which result
+     from the scarcity of water at critical periods. Fully
+     illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Market Gardening and Farm Notes.=
+
+     By Burnett Landreth. Experiences and observation for both
+     North and South, of interest to the amateur gardener, trucker
+     and farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of
+     farm and garden operations for each month of the year; the
+     chapters on fertilizers, transplanting, succession and
+     rotation of crops, the packing, shipping and marketing of
+     vegetables will be especially useful to market gardeners.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Fruit Garden.=
+
+     By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit trees, the
+     author having had over thirty years' practical experience at
+     the head of one of the largest nurseries in this country.
+     Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.50=
+
+=The Nut Culturist.=
+
+     By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+     and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to
+     the climate of the United States, with the scientific and
+     common names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or
+     otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer to increase
+     his income without adding to his expenses or labor. 12mo.
+     Cloth. =$1.50=
+
+=American Grape Growing and Wine Making.=
+
+     By George Husmann of California. New and enlarged edition.
+     With contributions from well-known grape growers, giving wide
+     range of experience. The author of this book is a recognized
+     authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Treat's Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden.=
+
+     By Mrs. Mary Treat. An original investigator who has added
+     much to our knowledge of both plants and insects, and those
+     who are familiar with Darwin's works are aware that he gives
+     her credit for important observation and discoveries. New and
+     enlarged edition. With an illustrated chapter on beneficial
+     insects. Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=The Dogs of Great Britain, America and Other Countries.=
+
+     New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, training
+     and management, in health and disease; comprising all the
+     essential parts of the two standard works on dogs by
+     "Stonehenge." It describes the best game and hunting grounds
+     in America. Contains over one hundred beautiful engravings,
+     embracing most noted dogs in both continents, making,
+     together with chapters by American writers, the most complete
+     dog book ever published. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Harris on the Pig.=
+
+     By Joseph Harris. New edition. Revised and enlarged by the
+     author. The points of the various English and American breeds
+     are thoroughly discussed, and the great advantage of using
+     thoroughbred males clearly shown. The work is equally
+     valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to the
+     breeder on an extensive scale. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=Pear Culture for Profit.=
+
+     By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist. Teaching how to
+     raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, how to
+     find out the character of the soil, the best methods of
+     preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing
+     conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing,
+     grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees come into
+     bearing, and, finally, of gathering and packing for market.
+     Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and How to Get Well from
+Sickness.=
+
+     By S. H. Platt, A. M., M. D., late member of the Connecticut
+     Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic Medical
+     Association, and honorary member of the National
+     Bacteriological Society of America; our medical editor and
+     author of "Talks With Our Doctor" and "Our Health Adviser."
+     Nearly 600 pages. Profusely illustrated. An index of 20
+     pages, so that any topic may be instantly consulted. A new
+     departure in medical knowledge for the people--the latest
+     progress, secrets and practices of all schools of healing
+     made available for the common people--health without
+     medicine, nature without humbug, common sense without folly,
+     science without fraud. 12mo. 576 pp., 81 illustrations.
+     Cloth. =$1.50=
+
+=Gardening for Young and Old.=
+
+     By Joseph Harris. A work intended to interest farmers' boys
+     in farm gardening, which means a better and more profitable
+     form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the familiar
+     manner so well known in the author's "Walks and Talks on the
+     Farm." Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Money in the Garden.=
+
+     By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style,
+     instructions on three distinct although closely connected
+     branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden and
+     field culture, from successful practical experience for a
+     term of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Pruning Book.=
+
+     By L. H. Bailey. This is the first American work exclusively
+     devoted to pruning. It differs from most other treatises on
+     this subject in that the author takes particular pains to
+     explain the principles of each operation in every detail.
+     Specific advice is given on the pruning of the various kinds
+     of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs and hedges.
+     Considerable space is devoted to the pruning and training of
+     grapevines, both American and foreign. Every part of the
+     subject is made so clear and plain that it can be readily
+     understood by even the merest beginner. Cloth, 8vo, 530
+     pages. Illustrated. =$1.50=
+
+
+
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                           |
+    |                                               |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+    |                                               |
+    | Page   7  privitive changed to privative      |
+    | Page  17  challanges changed to challenges    |
+    | Page  56  residum changed to residuum         |
+    | Page  64  poineer changed to pioneer          |
+    | Page  70  backneyed changed to hackneyed      |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones.
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Peanut Plant
+       Its Cultivation And Uses
+
+Author: B. W. Jones
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2009 [EBook #28594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEANUT PLANT ***
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+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>THE PEANUT PLANT.</h1>
+
+<h2>ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<div style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;"><h4>"<i>Every species of plant requires certain physical conditions for its growth
+  and perfection; and these may be general or special. If general, then it will
+  be widely diffused; but if special, its distribution will be limited.</i>"</h4></div>
+<br />
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2> B. W. JONES,</h2>
+
+<h4>OF VIRGINIA.</h4>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATED.</h3>
+
+<div class="img">
+<img border="0" src="images/deco.jpg" width="10%" alt="Publisher's Mark" />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<h4>NEW YORK:<br />
+ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,<br />
+1902</h4>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5>Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by the<br />
+ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,<br />
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.</h5>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This little work has been prepared mainly for those who have no
+practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the Peanut. Its
+directions, therefore, are intended for the beginner, and are such as
+will enable any intelligent person who has followed farming, to raise
+good crops of Peanuts, although he may have never before seen the
+growing plant.</p>
+
+<p>The writer has confined himself to a recital of the more important
+details, leaving the minor points to be discovered by the farmer
+himself. If the reader should think these pages devoid of vivacity, let
+him remember that we have treated of an every-day subject in an
+every-day style. The interest in the theme will increase when the
+beginner has pocketed the returns from his first year's crop. Until
+then, we leave him to plod his way through the details, trusting that
+the great Giver of the harvest will bless his labors, and amply reward
+his toils in this new field.</p>
+
+<p class="right">B. W. J.</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Warren Place, Surry County, Va., 1885.</span></p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="90%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%">PAGE.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Description.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Origin.&mdash;Natural History.&mdash;Varieties.&mdash;Possible Range.&mdash;Analysis.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Planting.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Soil, and Mode of Preparation.&mdash;Seed.&mdash;Time and Mode of
+    Planting.&mdash;Fertilizers.&mdash;Replanting.&mdash;Moles, and Other
+    Depredators.&mdash;Critical Period.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">14</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cultivation.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">First Plowing and Weeding.&mdash;Subsequent Workings.&mdash;Implements.&mdash;<br />When
+    Cultivation should Cease.&mdash;Insect Enemies.&mdash;Effects of Cold.<br />&mdash;Effects of
+    Drouth.&mdash;Appearance at this Period.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">27</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Harvesting.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">When to begin Harvesting.&mdash;Mode of Harvesting.&mdash;Why cured in the
+    Field.&mdash;Depredators.&mdash;Detached Peanuts.&mdash;Saving Seed Peanuts.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Marketing.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Picking the Peanuts.&mdash;Price paid Pickers.&mdash;Cleaning and
+    Bagging.&mdash;Peanut "Factories."&mdash;The best Markets.&mdash;Picking Machines.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">46</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Peanut Oil.&mdash;Roasted Peanuts.&mdash;Peanut Candy.&mdash;Peanut
+    Coffee.&mdash;Peanut Chocolate.&mdash;Peanut Bread.&mdash;Peanut Soap.&mdash;Peanuts as a
+    Food for Stock.&mdash;Peanut Hay.</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="vertical-align: bottom;">55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">APPENDIX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><a href="#A._Statistics">A. Statistics.</a></td>
+  <td class="tdrp">65</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><a href="#B._Costs">B. Costs.</a></td>
+  <td class="tdrp">67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><a href="#C._The">C. The Peanut Garden of America.</a></td>
+  <td class="tdrp">67</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+<h2>THE PEANUT PLANT;</h2>
+
+<h2>ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.</h2>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h2>DESCRIPTION.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p><b>Origin.</b>&mdash;The native country of the Peanut (<i>Arachis hypog&aelig;a</i>) is not
+definitely ascertained. Like many other extensively cultivated plants,
+it has not been found in a truly wild state. Some botanists regard the
+plant as a native of Africa, and brought to the New World soon after its
+discovery. Sloane, in his history of Jamaica, states that peanuts formed
+a part of the provisions taken by the slave ships for the support of the
+negroes on the voyage, and leaves it to be inferred that the plant was
+introduced in this manner. De Candolle, in <i>G&eacute;ographie Botanique
+Raisonn&eacute;e</i>, and his latter work on <i>L'Origine des Plantes Cultiv&eacute;es</i>,
+strongly inclines to the American origin of the Peanut. The absence of
+any mention of the plant by early Egyptian and Arabic writers, and the
+fact that there is no name for it in Sanscrit and Bengalese, are
+regarded as telling against its Oriental origin. Moreover, there are six
+other species of <i>Arachis</i>, natives of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>Brazil, and Bentham and Hooker,
+in their <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, ask if the plant so generally grown in warm
+countries may not be a cultivated form of a Brazilian species.</p>
+
+<p>If, as seems probable, the Peanut is really a native of America, then
+this Continent has contributed to the agricultural world five plants
+that have exerted, and will continue to exert, an immense influence on
+the industries and commerce of the world. These are: the Potato, Cotton,
+Tobacco, Indian Corn, and the Peanut. Of these five, the Peanut, the
+last to come into general and prominent notice, is destined to rival
+some of the others in importance.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may have been its origin, the Peanut plant has gradually made
+its way over an extended area of the warmer parts of both the Old and
+New World, and in North America has gained a permanent foot-hold in the
+soil of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Nor has it yet reached its
+ultimate limits, for cultivation and acclimation will inure it to a
+sterner climate, until it becomes an important crop in latitudes
+considerably further north than Virginia. This is indicated by its rapid
+spread within the past few years. Remaining long in comparative
+obscurity, it was not until a recent period that the Peanut gained
+prominence as an agricultural and commercial staple, but since it fairly
+started, its progress has been rapid and sure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Natural History.</b>&mdash;There are some peculiarities about the Peanut plant
+that make it interesting to the naturalist. Its habit of clinging close
+to the soil, the closing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>together of the leaves at sunset, or on the
+approach of a storm, the beautiful appearance of a field of it when full
+grown, and the remarkable wart-like excrescences found upon the roots,
+are some of its more notable characteristics. Its striking preference
+for a calcareous soil is another of its peculiarities, the Peanut
+producing more and better crops on this kind of soil than on any other.</p>
+
+<p>The Peanut belongs to the Natural Order <i>Leguminos&aelig;</i>, or pod-bearing
+plants, and this particular member of it is as unlike all the rest with
+which we are acquainted, as can well be conceived. No other grows so
+recumbent upon the soil, and none but this produces seed under ground.</p>
+
+<p>The botanical name of the Peanut is <i>Arachis hypog&aelig;a</i>. The origin of the
+generic name <i>arachis</i> is somewhat obscure; it is said to come from <i>a</i>,
+privative, and <i>rachis</i>, a branch, meaning having no branches, which is
+not true of this plant. The specific appellation, <i>hypog&aelig;a</i>, or
+"under-ground," describes the manner in which the pods grow. The
+following is a partially technical description of the plant:</p>
+
+<p>Root annual, branched, but not fibrous, yellowish, bitter, and warty;
+Stem procumbent, spreading, much-branched, somewhat hairy towards the
+extremities; Leaves compound, leaflets obovate, mucronate, margin
+entire, ciliate when young, smooth and almost leathery with age, leaves
+closing at night and in rainy weather; Flowers papilionaceous, yellow,
+borne upon the end of an axillary peduncle. After flowering, the
+forming-pod is, by the elongation of its stalk, pushed into the soil,
+beneath which it grows and ripens; Legume, or pod <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>indehiscent, woody
+and veiny, one to four-seeded; Seed, with a reddish coat, the embryo
+with two large, fleshy cotyledons, and a very short, nearly straight,
+radicle. Figure 1 represents a portion of the Peanut plant.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/imagep08.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep08.jpg" width="55%" alt="Figure 1" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">Fig. 1.&mdash;<span class="smcap">PORTION OF THE PEANUT PLANT</span>, showing
+how the minute pods from above-ground flowers are forced into the soil
+to grow and ripen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Varieties.</b>&mdash;While no botanical varieties of <i>Arachis hypog&aelig;a</i> have
+been described, its long cultivation in different countries in unlike
+soils and climates, has produced several cultural varieties. Taking the
+Virginia Peanut as the typical form, there may be named as differing
+from it, the North Carolina Peanut, having very small but solid and
+heavy pods, that weigh twenty-eight <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>pounds to the bushel. The Tennessee
+Peanut is about the size of the Virginia variety, but has a seed of a
+much redder color and less agreeable flavor. There is a Bunch variety,
+that does not spread out like a mat over the soil, but grows upright
+like the common field pea. This last kind has been raised to some extent
+in Virginia, but has never become popular with planters, and is fast
+passing out of cultivation. It is possible that the Bunch Peanut is a
+representative of the plant in its wild state. It produces fewer seeds
+and less vine than any other kind. The flat or spreading Peanut shows a
+tendency to sport in this direction, and in any large field of peanuts,
+quite a number of plants will be found that have the bunch form, and
+such are always barren or seedless hills.</p>
+
+<p>The small-podded, or North Carolina Peanut, is not at all popular with
+pickers, because it takes a great many more to make a basketful, and,
+unless they are paid an extra price for picking this sort, they cannot
+make as good wages. Nor do our planters seem to like it very well,
+finding it more trouble to handle than the larger variety. Hence it is
+but little cultivated in Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The Peanut in its travels has also acquired a variety of names, such as
+ground-pea, earth-nut, goober<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> or guber, and pindar. Also "currency,"
+"cash," "credit," and other expressive titles. Of all these names,
+"Peanut" <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>is the most generally used, but Ground-pea would be the more
+descriptive name.</p>
+
+<p><b>Possible Range.</b>&mdash;From a somewhat careful study of the climatic
+requirements of the Peanut plant, and of the isotherms of summer
+temperature, we are satisfied that it would thrive as far north as the
+northern limit of the zone of the vine. This for the United States, as
+delineated in Mitchell's Physical Geography, starts on the Pacific Coast
+in the latitude of British Columbia, turns suddenly south along the
+Cordilleras to Colorado, then trends as suddenly northward to the
+northern limits of Iowa, strikes eastwardly along a line to the south of
+the great lakes, and enters the Atlantic in the vicinity of Cape Cod. If
+our view is correct, the Peanut will thrive on any suitable soil within
+the limits of the United States lying to the south of this line. This
+would make the cultivation of the Peanut possible in by far the greater
+part of the entire country. In fact, there is no doubt but that it may
+be grown successfully wherever Indian corn will thrive luxuriantly. Any
+section having a growing season of five months exempt from frost, may
+raise the Peanut. This gives the crop a much wider range than has been
+thought possible. It does not require a long period of extreme heat to
+mature it. The seeds are mostly formed in the cooler weather of the
+latter part of summer and the first of autumn. Planted in June,
+cultivated until August or a little later, and harvested the last of
+September, it can be perfected in four months, though the Virginia
+planter takes five months for it. Any good calcareous soil, west of New
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>Jersey and southward, that is not too elevated, will grow the Peanut.</p>
+
+<p><b>Analysis.</b>&mdash;This, perhaps, is not a matter of much practical importance
+to the planter. The best peanut soil and the proper fertilizer had been
+found out before an analysis of the plant had been made. Still there are
+some advantages in knowing what are the prominent elements that enter
+into the composition of this, or any other, cultivated plant, and an
+analysis is accordingly given.</p>
+
+<p>An analysis made by Doctor Thomas Antisell, chemist to the Department of
+Agriculture at Washington, and published in the Report of that
+Department about the year 1869, gives the following as the composition
+of the Peanut plant:</p>
+
+<p>In one hundred parts of the husk and nut taken together</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Water">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="90%">Water</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">2.60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Albuminous, fibrous matter and starch</td>
+  <td class="tdr">79.26</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oil</td>
+  <td class="tdr">16.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Loss</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.14</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">100.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In one hundred parts of the husk and seed separated:</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="60%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Seed">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Seed.</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Husk.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="60%">Moisture</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="20%">&nbsp;&nbsp;2.51</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="20%">&nbsp;&nbsp;2.61</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Albuminous matter and farina</td>
+  <td class="tdc">79.71</td>
+  <td class="tdc">traces.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cellulose</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">85.48</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.77</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11.90</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oil</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">16.00</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">99.99</td>
+  <td class="tdc">99.99</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>"The ash of the seed," it was stated by the same authority, "consists of
+salts wholly soluble in water, composed of the phosphates of alkalies,
+with traces of alkaline, chlorides, and sulphates. The ash of the husk
+differs, in consisting chiefly of common salt, phosphate of lime and
+magnesia."</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of the ash of the Peanut, furnished to the <i>American
+Agriculturist</i>, by H. B. Cornwall, Professor of Analytical Chemistry in
+the John C. Green School of Science, College of New Jersey, Princeton,
+and published in that Journal for July, 1880, gives the following as the
+mineral elements of this plant:</p>
+
+<p class="cen">PER ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF ASH.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="40%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Silica">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="85%">Silica</td>
+  <td class="tdc" width="15%">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.06</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Potash</td>
+  <td class="tdc">44.73</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Soda</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14.60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lime</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;1.71</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Magnesia</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12.65</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Phosphoric acid</td>
+  <td class="tdc">17.64</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sulphuric acid</td>
+  <td class="tdc">&nbsp;&nbsp;2.53</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Chlorine</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="text-decoration: underline;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0.15</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc">95.07</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this analysis neither the carbonic acid nor carbon were determined.</p>
+
+<p>It was further stated that the kernels yielded 2.08 per cent. of
+ash.</p>
+
+<p>These analyses, the one of the ash, and the other of the seed and husk
+in their natural state, are sufficiently full for the purpose in view,
+and serve admirably to show the principal elements required in the
+growth of the Peanut plant. We see that albuminous matter and starch
+form a very large per cent., over three-fourths, of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>the seed. Of course
+an article so rich in fat-forming ingredients, must be well suited for
+the food of man or beast. This explains why hogs fed on peanuts take on
+fat so readily. Nothing will change the appearance of a poor hog sooner
+than a diet of peanuts. The amount of oil in the seed&mdash;sixteen per
+cent., makes the Peanut one of the best oil-producing plants in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>Of the mineral constituents, potash forms by far the largest part&mdash;44.73
+per cent. Soda, magnesia, and phosphoric acid also enter quite largely
+into the composition of this plant. It will be noticed that common salt
+plays some part in the make-up of the Peanut.</p>
+
+<p>Some may wonder at the small amount of lime reported to be present in
+the ash. This may be explained by stating that lime is not <i>per se</i> a
+manure, but a powerful chemical agent when applied to the soil, reducing
+inert matter into plant food. Lime appears to be the driving-wheel in
+the laboratory of the soil. Its presence is essential, but it does not
+do all the work itself. Of marl, the best fertilizer yet discovered for
+the Peanut, the principal ingredient of value, is carbonate of lime.
+Some of the Virginia marls range as high as seventy and eighty per cent.
+in carbonate of lime. This form of lime is very valuable for all
+agricultural purposes. Like its more caustic relative, it plays the part
+of a solvent and liberator, refines and vitalizes the soil, and causes
+other ingredients to perform their part in building up the framework of
+plants.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> While "goober" may be one of the names of the Peanut in
+some localities, the plant so-called in Georgia is <i>Amphicarp&aelig;a
+monoica</i>, a native leguminous plant with two kinds of flowers, one set
+always subterranean, and the other above ground. The under-ground
+flowers bear woody, rounded, one-seeded pods, with a seed closely
+resembling a bean.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h2>PLANTING.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p><b>Soil, and Mode of Preparation.</b>&mdash;A warm soil is required by the Peanut.
+A light, porous soil in which sand predominates, but not too sandy, warm
+and dry, and yet not too dry, but containing some moisture, and open to
+capillary circulation, suits the Peanut best. In all cases the soil most
+suitable for the Peanut must contain a certain amount of calcareous
+constituents. The color of the soil should be gray, with few or no
+traces of iron to stain the pods. As a rule, the brightest pods bring
+the most money, and as the color of the pods is always influenced by
+that of the soil in which they grow, it becomes a matter of importance
+to select that which is of the right description. Land of the above
+nature and color may be regarded as first-class for this crop. But let
+it be distinctly borne in mind, that unless it contains a goodly
+per-centage of lime in some form, in an available state, no land will
+produce paying crops of pods, although it may yield large and luxuriant
+vines. Of all the forms of lime, that supplied by the marls of the
+seaboard section appears to be the best.</p>
+
+<p>But any soil that can be put into a friable condition, and kept so
+during the period of cultivation, will produce salable peanuts, provided
+it contains enough lime to insure solid pods. If it is known that a
+piece of land will produce sound corn, at the rate of from five to ten
+barrels per acre, the planter may rest satisfied, without further
+experiment, that it will yield from forty to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>seventy-five or eighty
+bushels of peanuts. As the cultivation extends, and more land is needed
+for this crop, much of it is being put upon clayey soil, and when well
+cultivated, it generally produces heavy peanuts. Indeed, more pounds per
+acre may be grown upon some stiff lands than on any light soil, however
+calcareous. But clayey land, or such as is dark or tenacious, will
+impart a stain or dark color to the pods that is objectionable to
+buyers, and hence soils of this nature are generally avoided. A
+tenacious soil is also colder and more inert than a light one during the
+earlier part of the summer, and as the Peanut plant requires a rather
+long term of warm weather to insure full growth and maturity, a warmer
+and quicker soil is preferable. Buyers, however, are not now quite so
+particular as formerly in regard to color, and hence there is more
+inducement to plant on any ground that will yield good, solid peanuts,
+and it is being more frequently done.</p>
+
+<p>But the actual or prospective peanut planter, who has an ash-colored or
+grayish soil, which is sandy and non-adhesive, is fortunate. If he will
+keep it well limed and trashed, or else rotate every fourth or fifth
+year with the Southern Field Pea, or other green crop, and marl, he will
+have land that will continue to produce paying crops of the brightest
+and most salable peanuts. There is an abundance of good peanut land all
+along the Atlantic seaboard, from New Jersey to Florida. Doubtless there
+is much of it in the Mississippi Valley, even as far north as the lake
+region, and on the Pacific coast from Oregon southward. There is no more
+reason for confining the cultivation of the Peanut to the narrow belts
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>at present occupied, than there is for limiting tobacco to the States
+of North Carolina and Virginia.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of lime or marl to use at one application depends very much
+on the nature of the soil and the amount of vegetable matter it
+contains. Generally, fifty bushels of lime, or one hundred and fifty
+bushels of marl is a safe application, but if the soil is quite thin,
+and contains but little vegetable mould, more than this at one time
+would be attended with risk. The safer plan is, to make several small
+annual applications of both marl, and vegetable matter, continuing this
+until a hundred and fifty bushels of lime, or two hundred and fifty, or
+three hundred bushels of marl have been applied. After this, no more
+calcareous matter will be needed in fifteen or twenty years. Land will
+bear large quantities of marl with perfect safety, if kept well stocked
+with some vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects. But as most of
+the best peanut soil is deficient in this respect, the planter should
+begin cautiously, using small quantities until he has deepened his soil
+and supplied it with vegetable mould by trashing the land or turning in
+green crops.</p>
+
+<p>In choosing land for a peanut crop, some attention should be paid to the
+previous crop. The Peanut requires a clean soil, one clear of roots,
+brush, stones, or rubbish of any kind, and hence it should follow some
+hoed crop, such as corn, cotton, or tobacco. In Virginia, corn land is
+generally preferred, and, as in the tide-water section, much of this
+land has been heavily marled, it commonly produces well.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the soil for the Peanut is the same <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>as for corn, or
+any similar crop, except that more pains should be, and generally are
+taken, to get it in fine and mellow tilth. If it breaks up rough and
+turfy, as much land previously in corn is apt to do, it should be
+harrowed or dragged until it is fine. Generally, Virginia planters do
+not plow quite so deep for peanuts as they do for corn. This practice
+the writer believes to be unsound. Land should be plowed deep at the
+outset for all crops, whatever their nature or manner of growth. Deep
+plowing is a corrective of dry weather, and as drouth sometimes tells
+heavily on the Peanut plant, as was the case in the season of 1883, it
+is always well to plow deep, and give the moisture of the subsoil a
+chance to rise upward, and reach the roots during a dry spell. The
+formation of a fine, mellow seed bed, is all the preparation a peanut
+soil requires, previous to planting time, apart from the application of
+manures, which is spoken of elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Seed.</b>&mdash;With the peanut crop, more than with almost any other, good
+seed is a matter of paramount importance. The seed sometimes fails to
+germinate well; before this fact can be discovered, and the ground
+re-seeded, unless the first planting was made quite early, the best
+season for planting will have passed, and the crop planted late will
+never be so good as it might have been. On the other hand, a very early
+planting doubles the risk of failure, in fact almost challenges failure
+by committing the seed to a soil too cold for germination and a quick
+growth. It is highly important, then, to have good seed, and to wait
+until both weather and soil are favorable for speedy germination and
+growth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>In order to determine whether the seed will germinate well or not, let
+the planter begin to test them early in the spring. Let him take a dozen
+or two kernels that appear to be in quality a fair average of the whole
+lot of seed on hand, place them in a tumbler with some dampened cotton,
+or a piece of sponge, and set the tumbler in a warm place, where the
+heat is uniform, and high enough to start the germ in a few days. In a
+day or two, if the seeds are good, they will begin to swell, and the
+embryo plant will soon begin to grow. Thus, according to the number of
+seeds that have germinated out of the number tested, the planter can
+calculate the probable per-centage of good seed. A glass of peanuts
+growing thus in dampened cotton, presents an interesting study, and is a
+pretty ornament for the sitting room.</p>
+
+<p>But the planter must not rest satisfied with one trial. As soon as the
+out-of-door temperature will admit of it, he should try quite a number
+of the seeds in the open ground. Selecting a warm, sunny spot, he should
+plant from fifty to one hundred kernels, and shelter the place as much
+as possible from the cold winds. If these germinate well, the seed may
+be relied upon as good, and no further trial need be made. It is in this
+way that the Virginia planter tests his seed every season. About the
+first of April there is a great testing of the seed peanuts, and,
+although nearly every planter endeavors to save his own seed, the
+quantity of doubtful seed is generally great enough to cause a brisk
+demand for good seed at advanced prices. The method of saving seed
+peanuts will be given in a subsequent chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Some weeks before planting time, the Virginia farmer, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>who plants from
+fifty to a hundred bushels of peanuts, starts about having them shelled
+and assorted, preparatory to planting. This must be done with care, and
+females are mostly employed to perform this work. The pods are popped
+open with the fingers and thumb, care being taken not to split or bruise
+the kernel; all shrivelled and dark colored kernels are rejected. After
+they are shelled, the seed must be put into bags or baskets, a small
+quantity in each parcel, and set where there is a free circulation of
+air, until wanted for planting. If a large quantity is bulked together
+after being shelled, or if put in a close box or barrel, even in small
+quantities, they are liable to heat, and be prevented from germinating.
+This fact is the result of some costly experience on the part of many
+planters. Thus it becomes necessary to handle the seed with great care
+and circumspection throughout. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of
+peanuts in the hull, or pod, is estimated to be enough to plant one acre
+of ground, the quantity depending on the quality of the seed and the
+distance apart they are to be planted.</p>
+
+<p><b>Time of Planting.</b>&mdash;In Virginia, the first twenty days in May is
+regarded as, in the main, the most suitable time for planting. Some
+plant as early as the last week in April, and the seasons frequently
+favor this early start, and the crop does well. More, however, plant in
+June than in April, and sometimes planting is delayed until the middle
+or last of June. On warm and dry land, there is no great risk in
+planting the first week in May, but on colder land, the planter should
+wait until the ground has been warmed by the sun, say the latter part
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>of the same month. If the farmer has reason to hope for a week or ten
+days of mild, fair weather, he may risk a planting quite early, as in
+that time the seed ought to germinate, and come up sufficiently to make
+it sure that it will grow. Once up, the plant will hold its own, and
+though cold rains or winds may retard its growth, and cause it to turn
+yellow, it will start anew with the first spell of sunny weather, and
+rapidly change color to its normal green. The above dates apply to the
+latitude of Virginia. In the far south, peanut planting begins early in
+April, while north of Virginia, the first half of June would, in most
+seasons, be quite early enough to commit the seed to the earth. It
+should not be done anywhere until all danger from frost is passed for
+the season. A very slight frost will destroy the Peanut.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to Plant.</b>&mdash;I come now to consider the mode of planting. Here no
+very inflexible rules can be given. Practice varies greatly, almost
+every planter differing more or less from his brother planters. The
+chief points are, to get the seed into the ground at suitable distances
+apart both ways, to have the seed, after it is planted, raised slightly
+above the general level, and to have the soil so free from clods that
+there will be nothing to hinder the young plant from pushing through
+after it has started. Any mode of planting that will secure these ends
+will effect the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>If the ground has been once plowed in the early spring, let it be plowed
+again only a few days before planting time, and if at all rough, or
+cloddy, have it harrowed until in fine tilth. When ready to plant, draw
+furrows <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>the same as for corn, two and a half or three feet apart. If
+the land is fresh and strong, and never before in peanuts, make the rows
+at least three feet apart. After a year or two on the same ground,
+peanut vines will not grow so large as at first, and need not be so far
+apart, either from row to row, or from hill to hill. When the land is
+thin, some plant as near as twenty-seven inches from row to row, and
+twelve inches from hill to hill.</p>
+
+<p>If any fertilizer is to be used, let it be put in the furrow before the
+ridge is formed; a man or boy following the plow and spreading the
+fertilizer by hand. A small ridge is then formed by lapping two furrows
+over the drill with the turn plow, after which the knocker and dotter
+follow, one leveling the ridge, and the other dotting the row by making
+little depressions in the soil the proper distance apart for the seeds.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/imagep21.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep21.jpg" width="45%" alt="Figure 2" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 2.&mdash;<span class="smcap">THE KNOCKER AND DOTTER COMBINED.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Knocker and Dotter.</b>&mdash;Sometimes the knocker and dotter are combined
+in one, and it is withal a unique implement. Always home-made, it
+partakes of all the native roughness and varied ingenuity of the
+Southern planter. The engraving, figure 2, will illustrate the mode of
+constructing this implement. Two pieces of timber are sawed from a log
+to serve as wheels, such wood being selected as does not split easily.
+The diameter of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>wheel is made the same as the desired distance
+between the hills, and three wooden pins are inserted equi-distant in
+the circumference, so that the wheels will make three dots, or signs,
+for planting, at each revolution. These wheels are connected by an axle,
+and set the same distance apart the rows are to be asunder. Two shafts
+are pinned to the axle, and braced in front of the wheels to keep them
+steady. A piece of heavy scantling, or a log of wood, six inches in
+diameter, is secured to the under side of the shafts just in front of
+the wheels. This is the knocker, and serves to level the ridge before
+the wheels. Properly adjusted, it does beautiful work, and leaves a
+flat, smooth ridge, in fine condition for the seed. The wheels pass
+along on the leveled ridge, making the dots, as shown in figure 2.
+Handles are fixed to the implement to enable the plowman to keep it in
+proper place, and for convenience in turning. One horse is fastened to
+this implement, and two rows are prepared for planting at the same time.
+This utensil would be troublesome to use in an orchard, or on stumpy
+ground. Peanuts, however, should always be planted on open ground clear
+of all impediments. Instead of the knocker and dotter combined, many
+planters omit the wheels, and make a separate implement with one wheel
+and a handle, to work by hand, as represented in figure 3. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>This can be
+run among trees and stumps. It resembles a wheelbarrow without the body.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/imagep22.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep22.jpg" width="45%" alt="Figure 3" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 3.&mdash;<span class="smcap">THE DOTTER.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hands&mdash;women, children, or men, follow the dotter, dropping a seed in
+each mark or depression, and carefully covering it with the foot, by
+pressing enough soil into the hole to just fill it. The holes are made
+one and a half to two inches deep, and the hands are cautioned not to
+get the seed covered deeper than that. One inch is deep enough to plant,
+if the soil is moist, but if quite dry the seed may be put deeper.
+Proceeding in this way, covering first with one foot and then with the
+other, the planters get on quite rapidly, although the hills are so near
+together. The planting is not at all tedious after one gets the knack of
+it, and is light and pleasant work. Some planters put two kernels
+instead of one in each hill, to insure a stand, but this practice
+increases the cost considerably, and is by no means general. After the
+seeds are planted they are very slightly, if at all, above the common
+level. In a week or ten days from the time of planting, the seeds will
+begin to heave or crack the ground, which shows that the germ has
+started, and greatly relieves the anxiety of the planter. Then, by
+counting the number of signs in a hundred hills, the farmer readily
+calculates what kind of a stand he will probably have.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fertilizers.</b>&mdash;We have already intimated that a calcareous soil is
+indispensable to successful Peanut culture. If the soil is not
+calcareous by nature, it must be made so artificially. Hence the proper
+fertilizer to use is one that contains a large per cent. of lime in some
+of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>forms, as the carbonate, the phosphate, the nitrate, or the
+sulphate, or the chloride of calcium. Recently, the sulphate of lime
+(gypsum), has been employed, even on limed or marled land, and its use
+has been attended with good results. Animal and nitrogenous manures are
+not suited to the crop. Such fertilizers produce a heavy growth of
+vines, but there will be no full, solid pods unless lime in some form is
+also present. Marl has been found to be the one specific fertilizer for
+the Peanut plant&mdash;better than any other form of lime; and the chief
+element of value in marl has been shown to be the carbonate of lime.
+Some Virginia marls contain as high as seventy-five or eighty per cent.
+of the carbonate, and all of them range over twenty-five or thirty per
+cent. Now, marl is plentiful and cheap all along the Atlantic seaboard,
+from New Jersey to Florida, the beds lying side by side of, and
+intersecting, the very land that is the best adapted to the Peanut&mdash;a
+rare and fortunate coincidence, that planters are learning to fully
+appreciate. And were it not that the New Jersey land-owner finds it more
+profitable to raise fruits and vegetables for the two great cities that
+lie on either hand of him, even he would find the Peanut to be a paying
+crop. With his warm, light sand and green marl, he could easily raise
+them. I mention this as one of the possibilities of the Peanut, though
+not likely to be realized for the reason named.</p>
+
+<div class="imgr" style="width: 10%;">
+<a href="images/imagep25.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep25.jpg" width="75%" alt="Figure 4" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 4.&mdash;<span class="smcap">STAKE.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Replanting.</b>&mdash;In about two weeks from planting, if the weather has been
+mild, the young plants should be large enough to show where replanting
+is necessary. The planter goes along the row, making slight <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>depressions
+with his heel at all the missing hills, drops a pea therein, and covers
+it with the foot, the same way as at the first. Instead of making
+depressions with the heel, some use a long stake, an inch or two in
+diameter, to the lower end of which is affixed a piece of plank,
+fastened two inches from the end, and four or five inches long (fig. 4).
+This is used for punching the holes, and the piece of plank near the end
+prevents it from making the impression too deep. This is another of the
+inventions of the Virginia Peanut-planter; so true is it that "necessity
+is the mother of invention," a new crop calls for new devices for its
+successful and profitable cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>In replanting, it is well to put two or more kernels to the hill, as the
+season will be getting late, and no time should be lost in securing a
+good stand. There can be no subsequent replanting with any profit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moles and other Depredators.</b>&mdash;The Peanut-planter has to contend with
+many enemies. In many cases moles are exceedingly destructive to the
+planted seed, burrowing along the rows, and eating the seed, hill by
+hill. Often raccoons, foxes, and squirrels grabble them up. And
+everywhere the larger birds, such as crows, doves, and partridges come
+in for a share of the seed, and annoy and hinder the farmer very much.
+There is no remedy but ceaseless vigilance. The planter must go armed at
+every turn to protect his crop. Sometimes planters tar the seed to
+prevent the moles, etc., from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>destroying them. It perhaps has some
+tendency to check the depredations, but does not prevent them entirely.
+Coal tar is oftenest used for the purpose, a half pint being enough to
+smear a bushel of seed. The seeds are afterwards rolled in dry earth to
+prevent adhesion and trouble in planting. Traps, guns, and scarecrows
+are resorted to with varying success, but if the depredators are
+numerous, the planter is generally the vanquished party.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Critical Period.</b>&mdash;The first four or five weeks after the planting
+of this crop is its most critical period, and nothing but a good stand
+and the approach of warm weather will relieve the planter of his
+anxiety. At the first, many fears are reasonably entertained that the
+seed will not germinate well. And even should a pretty fair per-centage
+of the seed come up, cold and rainy weather may still seriously retard
+the growth of the plants, or the numerous depredators that have been
+named may so far reduce the number of hills as to greatly curtail the
+yield per acre. The very young Peanut is among the tenderest of plants,
+and a very slight mishap will serve to destroy or permanently injure it.
+Several days of cold weather at this period will make the struggling
+plants look pale and sickly, and if warm suns are too long delayed, many
+plants will fail altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Backward springs are a great drawback in the cultivation of this crop,
+and cause many farmers to delay planting until it is certain warm
+weather cannot be many days off. If the planter could always be sure of
+his seed, this would be the better plan, but if these late plantings
+fail <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>to come up well, the season is too far advanced for replanted seed
+to make a crop. Further north than Virginia, however, it would, we
+think, be decidedly better to put off planting until both soil and air
+are warm enough to insure quick germination, and then, instead of
+replanting the missing hills with Peanuts, plant beans or field peas
+instead. If the planter can get through the first month successfully, he
+lays aside his fears, and enters upon his work with renewed hope and
+energy. To a recital of this work&mdash;the work of cultivation, we now
+invite the reader's attention.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr style="clear: both;" />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h2>CULTIVATION.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p><b>First Plowing and Weeding.</b>&mdash;Usually, the cultivation of the Peanut
+begins by first siding the rows with a turn-plow, small mould-board
+attached, by which the soil is thrown from the plants, and lapped into a
+small ridge in the middle of the balk. Care is taken to run the plow
+quite near to the plants, so as to leave as little as possible for the
+hoe to do. The hoes follow the plow, removing the grass between the
+hills, if any, and loosening the soil about the plants. Sometimes,
+however, in case the plants begin to get quite grassy very early in the
+season, the sides of the ridges are first scraped off with the hoe, the
+operator moving backward, and clearing off one side at a time. This
+removes the grass pretty well, but does not loosen the soil about the
+plants. If this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>method is pursued, the plow should be put on in a week
+from that time, to break the hard crust that will have been formed, and
+to let in the air and heat to the roots of the plants.</p>
+
+<p>If the first plan is followed, the missing hills may be replanted, if
+the former replanting has had time to come up, but otherwise the ground
+about the missing hills should not be disturbed. This, however, should
+depend upon the time at which the weeding begins. If very late, it is
+useless to replant.</p>
+
+<p>The time for the first weeding must depend somewhat on the nature of the
+soil and the quantity of grass that may have sprung up since planting.
+Usually the first working should begin by the time the plants are two
+weeks old, but if the land is mellow and there is but little grass, the
+work may be put off a week longer. But if rains have occurred and a
+crust has formed, and especially if grass is coming on rapidly, the
+planter should not wait for the plants to attain a certain age and size,
+but should proceed to work the crop as soon as the plants are clearly
+out of the ground, and have put forth one or two branches. Any practical
+farmer who knows how to plow and weed young corn, will not be likely to
+err very far in working a crop of peanuts. The operation is simple
+enough, the two points being to clear away the grass and make the soil
+fine and loose around the plants. Any plan of working that will secure
+these ends, will accomplish the purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b>Subsequent Workings.</b>&mdash;The second plowing may be done with a
+cultivator, running twice in the row. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>will level the ridge in the
+middle of the balk, make the soil loose and fine, and bring the loose
+earth up close to the plants, which will make easy and nice work for the
+hands with the hoes unless there is a great deal of grass. The second
+plowing and weeding is the most important working the crop receives, and
+it is highly important that it be done well. By this time (last of
+June), the days are long and hot, the grass everywhere is growing apace,
+and the Peanut must be kept growing too. The plants have now attained a
+size ranging from that of a saucer to that of a breakfast plate, and
+there will be some hand-picking of grass necessary, because some of it
+will be found growing too near the plants to be cut away with the hoe.
+If there is very little grass, the work goes on smoothly enough, the
+hoes proceed quite rapidly, three hands keeping up with one plow, and
+finishing about two acres a day.</p>
+
+<p>The third plowing may be given with a shovel or cotton-plow, or with the
+cultivator, again running twice in the row. The hoes need not follow at
+this plowing, but may wait until the fourth plowing, done usually toward
+the middle or last of July, or about the time the vines are a foot in
+diameter, and are sending down their peduncles, or stems, on which the
+young pods are forming. The plants begin to blossom by the first of July
+or before, and continue to flower for more than a month. The pods begin
+to form very soon after the flower appears, and by the time of the last
+weeding great care must be taken not to cut the stems. For this reason
+the hoes cannot proceed as fast as at the last weeding, and if there is
+much grass growing up through the vines to be hand <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>picked, this working
+is tedious and laborious enough, and tires to the utmost the patience
+and endurance of the laborer. In fact, this is the worst period in the
+cultivation of the peanut crop. The weather is hot, close, and
+enervating; the frequent stooping and picking makes it doubly laborious;
+and, on account of the size the vines have attained, the plow must
+necessarily leave a wider surface for the hoe to go over. All this makes
+greatly against the hoe hands.</p>
+
+<p>It is no wonder, then, that, with laborers, many of whom are disposed to
+shirk their duty, the last working is too often poorly and inefficiently
+done. With more reliable labor, such as is to be had in the Northern and
+border States, better success would be easily attainable.</p>
+
+<p>The third weeding is the last working with the hoe that the crop
+receives, and next to the last usually given it with the plow. The
+Virginia planter, as a rule, stops weeding by the first of August, or as
+soon as the vines have well met along the row, and have sent down a
+goodly number of young pods. If there is any subsequent removal of
+grass, it is done by picking it out by hand, in order not to interfere
+with the pod stems. But after the last weeding, say in a week or ten
+days, one more plowing is usually given, generally with the cultivator
+or shovel-plow, run once in the row. This throws the soil up under the
+extremities of the vines, leaving the row of plants on a nice flat bed
+and a water furrow in the middle of the balk.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will observe that the cultivation required for the Peanut is
+such as will keep the soil mellow and loose on the surface and clear of
+grass, especially about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>the vines or plants. Any method of weeding and
+plowing that will secure these ends, will serve the purpose.
+Accordingly, there is a considerable diversity of practice in this
+particular, both as to the mode of plowing, times of working the crop,
+and implements used. The cultivation, however, is as easy and simple as
+that commonly bestowed on Indian corn or beans, but must be a little
+more thorough and painstaking. That is all. None need shrink from
+planting this crop through any apprehension that they will not work it
+properly. The three essential points are: keep the soil loose, the grass
+down, and do no harm to the young pods as they are forming on the vine.</p>
+
+<p><b>Implements.</b>&mdash;This topic has been, in a measure, anticipated, allusion
+having already been made to the implements to be used in the cultivation
+of this crop. A few additional remarks, however, may not be out of
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The weeders should be armed with the best steel hoes, with factory-made
+helves of ash, light and slightly flexible. The superiority of this
+hoe&mdash;usually called the "goose-neck hoe" in Virginia&mdash;over the old style
+of weeding hoe, with the heavy and stiff home-made helve, cannot be
+estimated, except by those who have tried both. The same hand can
+perform an eighth more labor in a day with the light steel hoe, and do
+it better, and with more ease to himself. The "goose-neck" will last two
+or three seasons, costs but little more than the other kind, comes ready
+for work, and is, therefore, very cheap. The blades should be kept sharp
+by repeated filing.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>With us the first plowing is generally done with the turn-plow, with a
+small mould-board attached, throwing the earth into the balk. For the
+second plowing, the cultivator or cotton-plow, is used, either one of
+which does fine work on smooth land, and makes it quite easy for the hoe
+hands. The third plowing is commonly performed with the cultivator, but
+if the ground is rough, the turn-plow will answer better. It is not
+common, however, to plant peanuts on very rough ground. For the fourth
+and fifth plowings the cultivator or shovel-plow is used. But should the
+crop get very grassy, (which should never be permitted), the turn-plow,
+with large mould-board attached, is used, in order to cover up as much
+of the grass as possible. This makes a large and objectionable ridge in
+the balk, but it is the best way to conquer the grass when it gets too
+strong a hold. The hoes follow the plow, and scrape off the remaining
+grass, except that near the plants, into the balk. Bunches of grass that
+have grown up among the vines have to be pulled out by hand. Thus, it
+will be seen that there is no plow made especially for cultivating the
+peanut crop, the same plows and implements that are used for other and
+general farming purposes answering equally well for the cultivation of
+this crop also.</p>
+
+<p><b>When Cultivation should Cease.</b>&mdash;When the peanut vines have interlocked
+considerably along the rows, and have almost, or quite met across the
+balks, it is high time to cease cultivating them. When the vines are
+large, the cultivator or plow will tear and bruise them more or less,
+sometimes breaking off large branches, and, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>of course, destroying a
+number of pods. If there is not room for the plow to pass without
+pulling out the young peanuts and harming the vines, it should be taken
+off the field and the crop left to take care of itself. So long as the
+vines remain small, the crop may be worked to some extent, provided
+always that care be taken not to molest the stems that have penetrated
+the soil. Every one of these that is harmed now is a peanut lost. In
+Virginia, two months&mdash;June and July&mdash;covers the period of cultivation
+for the peanut crop, and it cannot be extended much beyond this time
+without some risk. In fact, a crop that has been faithfully worked
+during this time will not require anything more, and any extra labor is
+as good as thrown away.</p>
+
+<p><b>Insect Enemies.</b>&mdash;Fortunately for the planter of peanuts, there is
+scarcely an insect that does them any material harm. At least, such has
+been the case, so far, in Virginia. What subsequent years may bring, is,
+of course, unknown. But up to the present, no insect has ever caused any
+extensive injury to this crop. It is true that ants do sometimes destroy
+a few hills on certain soils, by sucking the cotyledons of the plant
+before it has attained any considerable size and strength. But this is,
+by no means, general. Even the voracious and ubiquitous Colorado Beetle
+manifests no taste for this plant, although it has had abundant
+opportunity to test its edible qualities. To the credit of insects
+generally, be it said, they are not omnivorous.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of Cold.</b>&mdash;The effect of severe and prolonged cold on the
+Peanut plant in the early part of the season, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>is often quite manifest.
+Cool nights and cold rains are much dreaded, they cause the plants to
+turn yellow and look sickly. The vines make little or no growth, the
+leaves become spotted and curled, as if they had been touched by fire,
+and the whole plant gets into that unthrifty looking state denominated,
+in the local parlance of the planter, "the pouts." But let a few days of
+warm sun occur, and all is speedily changed. The plants assume a fresh
+and lively green, and their growth is now rapid until they reach
+maturity.</p>
+
+<p><b>Effects of Drouth.</b>&mdash;A very dry spring would cause the Peanut to come
+up badly, and would, therefore, seriously affect the crop. Such an
+occurrence, however, is very rare in Virginia, as well as in the country
+generally, and is not regarded with much apprehension. If the plant is
+once well established in the soil, being tap-rooted, it can stand a good
+deal of dry weather. It takes a long period of extremely dry weather to
+materially injure this crop. Such a season did occur in 1883, and the
+consequence was a great many blasted pods and a short crop. Generally,
+moderately dry summers are looked upon with favor by the planter,
+inasmuch as seasons of this kind enable him to keep the crop clean of
+grass at much less cost. Just here we would repeat what we said in
+Chapter II, in relation to deep plowing preparatory to planting. With a
+soil deeply broken in the outset, the Peanut will withstand successfully
+any period of dry weather ever likely to occur in this country. It has
+been noticed that the crops that suffer the most from drouths are those
+planted on land not well prepared, or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>in orchards of growing trees,
+which necessarily extract a great deal of moisture from the soil. Even
+in a season as severe as that of 1883, peanuts planted on a deep, mellow
+soil out of the reach of trees, did well, and were well seeded and
+filled. Deep preparation of the soil, then, is a corrective of drouth
+for this crop, as well as for any other. With this simple precaution, no
+great apprehension need be entertained of the effects of dry weather.
+Let the planter but do his part in preparation and cultivation, and
+nature will be sure to respond with liberal, if not overflowing crops.
+The corn-planter has more to fear from dry weather than the
+peanut-planter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appearance at this Period.</b>&mdash;The appearance of a thrifty crop of
+peanuts at the time of maturity, or a little after the last weeding, is
+simply magnificent. The vines have now met in both directions, and the
+whole field, from a little distance, looks as if covered with a carpet
+of velvet-plush. Nothing obstructs the view. The vines lie close on the
+soil, and the eye reaches every nook and corner of the field, and takes
+in the whole panorama at one glance. Few other crops afford so clear or
+so pleasing a prospect. Indian corn, in the tender green of summer, is a
+beautiful object to look upon, but it shuts out all view of distant
+parts of the farm. The golden wheat, as it bends to the passing breeze,
+is also beautiful, but one must go around it and not through it. A field
+of cotton, as the open bolls display the snowy lint, is a sight to
+please the admirer of nature, but it lacks the setting of green that is
+always pleasing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>to the eye. The peanut crop surpasses them all in
+beauty. It presents an air of freedom, of repose, of life, and of
+security from harm, of which no other can boast.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the crop to which we have invited the reader's attention, and
+the planting and cultivation of which we have endeavored to describe.
+Having proceeded thus far, let us pause a moment, as the writer has
+done, time and again, to survey the beautiful prospect of a field of
+peanuts in full maturity. There it is, a literal carpet of living green,
+covering acres on acres of mother earth, and beneath its velvet folds is
+quietly growing the wealth that is to make its owner independent, and by
+means of which the planter's family is to secure most of the necessaries
+and comforts of life. No crop outside of the market gardens, yields so
+much actual cash per acre as this. No wonder, then, that it readily
+becomes popular with all who try it, and that it never loses ground
+wherever introduced under favorable circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>An interval of about two months now elapses, during which the crop
+requires no attention. The seed pods are filling and maturing, and the
+whole plant is ripening for the harvest.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h2>HARVESTING.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p><b>When to begin Harvesting.</b>&mdash;We come now to the laborious and often
+difficult work of harvesting the peanut crop. We say difficult, for
+often rainy or other unpropitious weather at this period, makes it
+exceedingly hard to save the crop in good condition, and prevent the
+pods from becoming dark or spotted. Ordinarily, the harvesting should
+not begin so long as mild and growing weather continues, even though
+October may be far spent. It is important, of course, to get as many
+firm, matured pods on a vine as possible, and the longer the weather
+holds favorable for this, the more pods, as a rule, will there be.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the crop has been planted early, and the leaves begin to
+fall from the vines, it is better to start the plow and dig the crop at
+once. When the Peanut plant gets fully matured, it is very apt to begin
+to cast its leaves, especially on ground that has been planted in
+peanuts often before. After the leaves fall off, the vines are of very
+little value as hay, and as most planters consider them excellent
+provender, they make it a point to harvest the crop in time to secure
+good hay. For the same reason, effort is made to dig and shock the vines
+before a killing frost occurs. Frost spoils the vines for fodder, though
+it does no harm to the pods, unless it be for seed. Some suppose that
+seed taken from frost-bitten vines will not come up well.</p>
+
+<p>In the latitude of Virginia the usual time for digging <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>the peanut crop
+is the second and third weeks in October. That is, the great bulk of the
+crop is dug about this time, though some start the first week in that
+month, and others wait until the close, unless driven to start earlier
+by the weather. In rare cases, some planters dig by the twenty-fifth of
+September, but it is generally believed that all who start thus early
+lose more in weight and yield than they gain in time or price. Six or
+ten days of mild weather at this stage of the crop, will make an
+appreciable difference in the yield, and if the peanuts can remain in
+the ground until the latter part of October, there will be very few
+saps, or immature pods. But, in whatever latitude the planter may
+reside, the general rule should be, to dig before a killing frost
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mode of Harvesting.</b>&mdash;In Virginia, the general practice is as follows:
+First, plow the peanuts with a point having a long, narrow wing, and a
+small mould-board, so that the vines will be loosened without having any
+earth thrown upon them. The plow passes along on both sides of the rows,
+just near enough for the wing to fairly reach the tap-root, which it
+severs. Care is taken to put the plow deep enough to pass under the pods
+without severing them from the vines. This is important, as most of the
+detached pods are lost, and if the work is slovenly done, the loss will
+be great.</p>
+
+<p>Hands with pitchforks follow the plow, lift the vines from the loose
+soil, shake them well to get the earth off, and then lay them down,
+either singly or in small piles, to remain a day or two to wilt and cure
+in the sun. This is light work, and can be done rapidly, two hands being
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>enough to keep up with one plow. If rain is feared, it is best to lay
+the vines down singly after shaking them, for, when in piles, if rain
+occurs, and the weather is warm, the pods are apt to speck and mildew
+before the vines can dry out. A rain falling on the pods after they are
+dug, and before they are shocked, does no harm, if the sun comes out
+soon to dry them before they can mildew.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/imagep39.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep39.jpg" width="55%" alt="Figure 5 and 6" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 5.&mdash;<span class="smcap">SHOCK STANDING.</span>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Fig. 6.&mdash;<span class="smcap">SHOCK REMOVED.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Instead of leaving the vines on the ground a day or two to cure, many
+shock them up at once. If the vines are perfectly dry, this is as good a
+plan as any. But if the weather should be warm, and the vines are wet
+with dew or rain when put up, they will be sure to heat, and the pods
+will turn dark. In cold weather the vines may be shocked both green and
+wet without risk.</p>
+
+<p>The method of shocking the Peanuts will be understood from figure 5,
+which represents a shock as it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>stands in the field. A shock as it is
+taken down for picking is shown in figure 6. The vines are first laid
+together in piles, about as much as one can handily carry on the fork at
+one time, three rows being put in one. The stakes, which have been
+previously prepared, are then set in the ground proper distances apart,
+and two billets of wood, four or five inches in diameter and two feet
+long, are placed beside each stake to keep the vines off the ground. A
+handful of vines is then laid, pods up, on one side of the stake for a
+bed, and the same on the other side. After this the vines are put on,
+pods down. The first are inverted to keep the pods off the ground,
+though this is a matter of trifling importance, if the billets of wood
+are large enough. The successive handfuls of vines are laid up with
+care, keeping the shock level, lapping the vines, and placing them on
+every side to make the work even. As the work progresses the vines may
+be pressed down with the hands, and the shocks are finished off round at
+top, the better to shed the water. No cap or covering for the shocks is
+used, though much would frequently be saved, could a cheap one be had. A
+board nailed on the top of the stakes would protect the top layer very
+much, and yet the planter who should adopt it would doubtless be laughed
+at.</p>
+
+<p>A fast hand can put up fifty or sixty shocks a day, with a boy to bring
+up the vines and assist in planting the stakes. Some shockers use the
+fork to lay up the vines, especially toward the top. The shocks are put
+up one in a place wherever needed, so as to make the work convenient for
+the carrier. Some, however, put three or more shocks together, as suits
+their fancy, in which case <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>fence rails are usually employed to build
+the shocks upon.</p>
+
+<p>The above method is generally practised, but there are many variations
+in almost every detail. We have endeavored to give a clear idea of a
+safe method.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Why Cured in the Field.</b>&mdash;Perhaps some reader unacquainted with the
+cultivation of the Peanut, may ask: Why all this trouble to shock and
+cure the crop in the field? Why not pick the pods from the vines as soon
+as they are dug, and cure the peanuts on scaffolds, or elsewhere, and
+cure the vines on the ground, like hay?</p>
+
+<p>We answer, because the pods cure better in the shock than in any other
+way. They get dry sooner, and make heavier and brighter peanuts than
+could possibly be the case, were they gathered at once, and spread, even
+in very thin layers, on scaffolds to dry. Besides, as rain on the pods
+when they are about half cured, or during the process of curing, would
+be very harmful, it is found best to protect the pods by covering them
+in shock. They can get more air in shock than if spread on a scaffold,
+and a free circulation of air about them is important. A scaffold close
+enough to hold the pods would exclude the air in every direction, except
+from above. When shocks are put up well, the pods are very effectually
+protected, except a few on the top, and in about ten days are cured nice
+and bright, and ready to be picked off. The shocks may remain in the
+field many weeks, subject to repeated rains, without material injury. Of
+course rains of several days continuance would damage the peanuts more
+or less. It is best therefore, on this account, and because <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>of the
+numerous depredators that prey upon the crop while it remains in the
+field, to house it as soon as sufficiently cured to render it certain
+the pods will not heat and spoil when in bulk.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Depredators.</b>&mdash;The creatures of the animal kingdom that levy their tax
+on the unwilling planter, and come in for a share&mdash;and often a large
+share&mdash;of the peanut crop, are of many kinds, and numerous in all. Of
+quadrupeds, the deer, fox, raccoon, squirrel, and sometimes even the
+dog, are more or less destructive; the raccoon, squirrel, and fox are
+particularly so, beginning their inroads early in the fall by scratching
+up the immature pods, and continuing their thefts daily and nightly as
+long as any remain in the field. In some localities, these animals are
+exceedingly annoying, and occasion great loss unless their depredations
+can be checked.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the animals named, birds are most destructive, while the peanuts
+are in shock. Such birds as the blue-jay, crow, partridge, yellow
+hammer, wild turkey, and blackbird, coming, as some of them do, not
+singly, but in companies and flocks of hundreds and thousands at a time,
+carry off vast quantities, unless the planter is always on the alert,
+gun in hand, ready to meet them at every turn. Near the James, and other
+large rivers, it is a common occurrence to see, not thousands only, but
+tens of thousands of blackbirds in a single field at one time. They
+often go in flocks covering acres on acres of ground, and with their
+ceaseless activity and endless trilling, present an appearance of which
+city-bred people can form no adequate idea. Of course they destroy a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>vast amount of peanuts in a short time, unless speedily driven off.</p>
+
+<p>There are also several species of field rats and mice, together with the
+domestic rats and mice that get into the shocks to feed on the pods,
+where they remain until disturbed by the pickers. Everything seems fond
+of the Peanut after it is made, and if the planter escapes the insect
+enemies in the summer, the exemption is more than offset by the numerous
+and voracious depredators of the fall and winter.</p>
+
+<p>And against most of them, there is no effective remedy, the planter
+cannot watch his crop all the time, and traps are hardly worth using. It
+is true, something may be done with steel traps for such animals as the
+fox, raccoon, and squirrel. But for the rest, despatch in removing the
+crop from the field, is the only certain preventive. Even then the
+planter does not entirely escape, for rats and mice follow him within
+doors, and riot in luxurious living so long as a single shock remains
+undisturbed. Perhaps no crop the Southern farmer grows is subject to
+heavier or oftener repeated losses than the Peanut. Yet, despite it all,
+it is a crop that often pays very handsome returns. It has been, and is,
+the sheet anchor of many an East Virginia farmer, and if prices hold up,
+will continue to be, so long as there are lands here that will produce
+thirty bushels of peanuts to the acre. This is but the minimum; the
+maximum is not known; a hundred and thirty bushels per acre has been
+attained.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Detached Peanuts.</b>&mdash;In the process of digging and shocking peanuts,
+many pods must necessarily become <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>detached from the vines. Some of
+these remain in the soil, out of sight, and numbers more are scattered
+over the ground, from one side of the field to the other. If the vines
+are fully matured, and have changed color or shed their leaves, and
+especially if frost has touched them, the pods come off much more freely
+than if the vines are still green, or scarcely done growing. Generally,
+the detached pods are the best of the crop, being those first matured,
+and which are therefore solid and heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Of course these peanuts must not be lost. Women and children are
+employed to pick them up at so much per bushel. If it is found that many
+pods remain in the ground, a cultivator or light plow is run along the
+rows to bring them in sight. In this way the most of the loose peanuts
+are saved. Still, numbers will be left in the ground. The planter is at
+no loss, however, to secure these also, which he does by turning his
+fattening hogs on the ground as soon as he can remove the crop from the
+field. Hogs are exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and as soon as they find
+them out, they will continue to root for them as long as one can be had.
+Frequently, every square yard of large fields, will be burrowed over by
+the hogs in their search for the detached peanuts. No crop the planter
+grows will fatten a hog so quickly as the Peanut. Thus in the harvesting
+of this beautiful and profitable crop, nothing is allowed to be lost.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Saving Seed Peanuts.</b>&mdash;It now remains to say something of the method of
+saving seed peanuts. Every step in this process must have in view one
+principal point&mdash;keeping the pods from becoming the least heated, either
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>in shock or in bulk. Perfect and continued ventilation must be secured.
+The vines should not be shocked while green, nor the pods kept in large
+bulk after being picked off. Neither should the vines be touched by
+frost, either before or after being dug.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to dig and shake the vines as usual, and leave them in
+the field four or five days, or a week, before they are either piled or
+shocked. In this time, if the weather is fair, the vines will be so
+nearly cured that not enough moisture will remain in them to create a
+heat, even in very warm weather, and they may then be shocked with
+perfect safety, after which they should remain in the field until
+thoroughly dry. Rain falling on the vines while they are lying in the
+field, does no harm, except it be to turn the pods a little dark, which
+circumstance makes no difference with seed peanuts.</p>
+
+<p>When the seeds are picked off, keep them in baskets until ready to
+spread them in a cool, dry room, where they will be exposed to a free
+circulation of air. In no case should they be in bulk. Spread them
+thinly in some loft, where the air will reach them, and where they will
+be secure from rats and mice. They may be stored in sacks the same as
+for sale, and laid in an airy room to remain all winter. They should not
+be kept in a room where there is a stove, or one subject to currents of
+hot air.</p>
+
+<p>These suggestions embody all that need be done to secure good seed. If
+peanuts are fully cured when picked off, and are not kept too close,
+they will prove good seed, unless there is some radical defect of the
+germ or vital powers. Keep them from heating, and they will <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>germinate
+and grow as readily as corn. Every planter may, and should, save his own
+seed. According to the number of acres that he thinks of planting, let
+him provide two bushels of seed (or forty-four pounds in the hull), for
+each acre, and he will have enough and some to spare.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h2>MARKETING.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>It requires as much judgment to market a crop well, as it does to raise
+and harvest it, and often more. Unfortunately, the majority of planters
+are sadly deficient in that knowledge of commercial life, which would
+make them masters of the situation. Too often they are bound by lien or
+mortgage, or else they have run up a heavy bill at the country store,
+and when the crop is made and ready for market, they are obliged to sell
+forthwith. Generally too, this is the very time when prices are lowest,
+and so the planter is obliged to part with the fruits of his labor at
+the most unfavorable rates, and allow the middlemen to pocket the
+profits. It is only by careful economy and prudent management, on the
+part of each planter for himself, that this evil is to be corrected.
+Without entering into the details of commercial affairs, we will
+endeavor to show the planter how he may go into market with his crop,
+prepared to command the best prices. To this end, it is essential that
+he have his crop in the best marketable condition, remembering that a
+good article always sells well.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span><b>Picking off the Peanuts.</b>&mdash;This part of the work, usually done by women
+and children, may make or spoil the sale of the entire crop. If stems
+are gathered with the pods, and good, bad, and indifferent are all
+lumped together, with leaves and trash thrown in for good measure, a
+great deal of assorting and cleaning will subsequently be required, or
+else the sale of the crop will be impaired to the extent of one or two
+cents to the pound. In picking, the stems should be rejected, and the
+saps and inferior pods, if gathered at all, be kept apart from the rest.
+Only the best, brightest, and soundest pods should go into the A, No.
+1's, and these, if clean of earth and trash, will always bring top
+prices. The saps also will sell, at lower rates. It is the neglect of
+these few precautions that so sadly curtails the bill of sale of many a
+planter. If planters would offer pickers extra inducements for clean
+pods, this difficulty would, to a great extent, be obviated. When the
+same price is paid for all, without regard to the manner of picking, a
+premium is offered for slovenly work, and the careless get better paid
+than the painstaking.</p>
+
+<p>In picking, the pops should be refused altogether, and the saps and very
+dark pods go by themselves. Many planters, however, leave the saps on
+the vines, saving the best only. The saps, however, will sell, either in
+pod or shelled, and if numerous, will more than pay for picking them. It
+is, therefore, so much gained. It must be confessed, however, that the
+presence of a good many saps on the vines, makes them much more valuable
+as feed.</p>
+
+<p>Just here let us explain that "pops" are pods that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>have attained full
+size and firmness, but which are minus the seed. Dry weather, and the
+lack of calcareous manures in the soil, will cause many pops. "Saps" are
+immature pods, the last to form on the vine, and which might become good
+peanuts if they could have a longer period of growing weather. The
+presence of pops in the marketable peanuts is very detrimental to their
+sale, and hence should be carefully rejected in picking. Saps also are
+detrimental, but to a less extent than pops.</p>
+
+<p><b>Price paid Pickers.</b>&mdash;The price paid pickers varies somewhat from one
+season to another, according to the quality of the peanuts, and the
+market price received for them. Hands commonly board themselves, and
+receive so much per bushel for picking. Of late years, the price has
+stood pretty uniformly, at twelve to fifteen cents per bushel. The
+peanuts are either measured or weighed. If weighed, twenty-four pounds
+are counted as a bushel in the first part of the season, the extra two
+pounds being taken to make up for the subsequent loss in weight. If a
+hand is boarded by the owner of the crop, he gets but ten cents a bushel
+for picking. A fast hand will pick from four to six bushels a day, the
+children are just as likely to do this as grown people. Hence, at this
+season of the year, women and children earn what is considered pretty
+fair wages. Under the most favorable circumstances, the best hands will
+pick seven bushels a day. Very much depends, however, on the quality of
+the peanuts, and something also on the weather. In very dry weather, the
+stems come off with the pod, and pickers cannot do as well.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span><b>Cleaning and Bagging.</b>&mdash;After the peanuts are picked off, they should
+be cleaned, before being sacked. The object of this, of course, is to
+rid them of the earth that may still be adhering to them. It makes the
+hull look cleaner, and brighter also, and thus enhances the sale.
+Formerly, the planter made his own cleaning machine, but recently, since
+the starting of what are called "Peanut factories," the planter very
+seldom runs his peanuts through any machine at all, but sells them just
+as they are picked. Being thus rid of much trouble and labor, it is
+doubtful whether it would now pay the planter to clean his peanuts, as
+he once did. The price paid for them now, is almost as much as he would
+realize, were he to take ever so much pains in cleaning them.</p>
+
+<div class="img">
+<a href="images/imagep49.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep49.jpg" width="55%" alt="Figure 7" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Fig. 7.&mdash;<span class="smcap">VIRGINIA PEANUT CLEANING MACHINE.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But as the reader in other parts of the country, may desire to know
+something of the mode of cleaning peanuts at home, we give a description
+of the Virginia machine for this purpose. There is no patent on this
+machine, and any one may make it for himself. A cylinder (figure 7), as
+large as a flour barrel; is formed by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>nailing narrow slats of plank, to
+two circular pieces of timber. The slats are put a little way apart, but
+not far enough for the pods to slip through when the cylinder is turned.
+A piece of timber runs lengthwise, through the centre of the cylinder,
+the ends of this project about a foot, and serve as an axle on which to
+turn it. A crank is attached to one end or both ends of the axle. Two
+pieces of scantling are fastened together in the shape of an X, one for
+each end, and these are held upright by having pieces nailed on
+horizontally, from one to the other. Several slats on the cylinder are
+fastened together to make a door, and this is attached to the cylinder
+by hinges, and fastened with a button.</p>
+
+<p>The peanuts are poured into the cylinder, two or three bushels at a
+time, and it is made to revolve slowly, until all the earth and litter
+has fallen out. The door is then opened, the peanuts turned out and
+bagged.</p>
+
+<p>In bagging the peanuts, care should be taken to have the sacks well
+filled. They are estimated to hold four bushels each, and if properly
+filled, good solid peanuts will over-run a little, especially in the
+first part of the season, before they are thoroughly cured. As the sacks
+are being sewed up, the corners must be packed with peanuts as long as
+any more can be got in. For sewing up the sacks, the planter needs a
+large peanut-sack needle and twine made purposely for this business.
+Sacks cost the farmer, at the present, ten cents each, and generally the
+peanuts are sold by gross weight and nothing paid for the sacks. In some
+markets the sacks are paid for, and a pound deducted from the gross
+weight, for each sack. If the planter sells to a merchant near home, he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>seldom sews up the sacks, but ties them, and they are emptied and
+returned to him at the store.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut "Factories."</b>&mdash;It does not fall within our present plan to
+describe these establishments, any further than to give the reader,
+outside of the peanut belts, an idea of them. Formerly, many peanuts
+were sent into market without being properly assorted and cleaned, and
+it was found that, by assorting and re-cleaning them, a little margin of
+profit was left after paying expenses. One step led to another, and
+various appliances and machines were brought into requisition, until
+now, large buildings are devoted solely to the purpose of cleaning,
+assorting, and storing the peanuts. Some of these establishments employ
+many hands, both male and female, to clean, separate, and re-bag the
+peanuts ready for the trade.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it has happened, that the business of cleaning peanuts has been
+taken out of the hands of the farmer, reduced to a system, and made a
+new industry. In fact, a division of labor; and now the merchant buys
+the peanuts of the planter just as they are picked, and the "factories,"
+so-called, clean and assort them for the large buyers. Still, the
+merchant will pay more for Peanuts in nice order, and perhaps it would
+even now pay the farmer to properly clean and assort his crop before
+selling it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Best Markets.</b>&mdash;A few years ago, the city of Norfolk was the sole
+market for the Virginia and North Carolina planter, and New York for the
+wholesale dealer. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>Later on, Wilmington, Petersburg, Richmond, and
+several of the smaller towns began to buy peanuts, until now, every
+village and trading centre throughout the whole peanut belt, has become
+the repository for the crop of its own immediate section. Every year,
+the market has been coming nearer and nearer to the planter, until now
+he finds it about as profitable to sell to the nearest country merchant,
+as to ship to town, and sometimes more so. Frequently, the country
+merchant becomes the agent of some large buyer, who furnishes the
+capital, and he buys all the peanuts he can, at figures very near the
+ruling market price. Of course, this works very much to the planter's
+benefit. He sees his crop weighed, he escapes the middleman, with all
+the attendant expenses, such as commissions, freight, etc., he sells for
+cash, and he does not have to wait several weeks for returns.</p>
+
+<p>Under this state of affairs, the home market, or home buyer, becomes the
+best for the farmer. And with the constantly increasing demand, and
+close competition between buyers, the cleaning factories are also coming
+nearer the farmer, and already exist, or will soon exist, in each of the
+counties and sections where the Peanut is much grown. Thus the planters
+generally, will soon be enabled to sell directly to the cleaners, and
+the latter to the wholesale buyers. So the planter will get market
+prices, without the trouble of going to market. Perhaps the competition
+will eventually grow sharper still, until, not only will the peanuts be
+cleaned and bought at home, but will also be manufactured into oil,
+flour, and the other commercial forms, in the sections where they are
+grown. In everything, the tendency now is, to carry <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>the factories to
+the raw material, and not the latter to the factories. It is not to be
+presumed that this crop will prove an exception.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is, that the farmer's work is being narrowed down, by the
+inevitable and beneficial law of the division of labor. The planter may
+now turn his attention wholly to the cultivation of the crop. How to
+order it, so as to realize the largest possible yield from the smallest
+possible areas, is now the problem before him. He finds given to his
+hands, a great and growing staple with great, and still unknown,
+possibilities, and he sees the demand becoming larger and more earnest,
+until now, the buyer comes to his very door, and puts down the ready
+cash for all of this crop that he has to sell.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the planter must, and will bestir himself, to meet the
+ever-increasing demand. To do this with profit to himself, he must study
+this crop from beginning to end, he must learn the nature of the Peanut
+plant fully and correctly, and discovering how to increase the yield per
+acre to its maximum, unravel the secret of how to grow it at the least
+cost per bushel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Picking Machines.</b>&mdash;It may be well here to allude to a question, which,
+doubtless, the thoughtful reader has already asked himself, namely: Why
+does not some one invent a machine for picking peanuts rapidly, instead
+of having to do it by the slow and tedious process of hand-picking? In
+reply we state, that numerous attempts to do so have been made, but with
+very indifferent success. None of the many picking machines, that have
+hitherto been offered, have given satisfaction. It <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>seems that they
+cannot be made to do the work, and most planters appear to have given up
+looking for any help in this direction. Very recently, the writer has
+heard of one picking machine that is said to be giving satisfaction, but
+he has not seen it, or conversed with any one who has done so. That an
+efficient machine of this kind is an impossibility, is not believed, but
+whether anything can be made that would pay better than the old method,
+is the question. The planter must await developments. Perhaps some
+ingenious mechanic will take up the problem, and give the planter a
+perfect and cheap picking machine. Here is a field for ingenuity. A good
+machine would be a profitable invention. Who will try?</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Having now traced the Peanut plant through the whole process of its
+planting, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing, the practical part of
+our task is ended. If the directions are such as will enable the
+beginner in this branch of rural industry, to successfully cultivate and
+manage this crop, the end will have been attained, and this little book
+will not have been written in vain. It has been prepared for those
+having no practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the peanut
+crop, not for the old and experienced planter. And yet, without egotism,
+it is believed that even the latter may find something in it that will
+be of use to him. Practices vary in different sections, even among men
+of the same calling, and inasmuch as methods herein detailed, will be
+found to vary from those practiced in North Carolina, Tennessee,
+Georgia, or the far South, so will the planter in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>those States who may
+chance to read this treatise, be enabled to compare our methods with
+his, to see wherein they differ, and perchance may find here some point
+or plan a little better than his own.</p>
+
+<p>It only remains now to give, in another chapter, some of the many uses
+of the Peanut.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h2>USES.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>Some of the more important uses of the Peanut and its plant are here
+given. In the course of time, as new discoveries are made, it is not
+improbable that the Peanut may subserve other valuable ends. But if no
+more uses than are now known, are ever found for any part of this plant,
+it will continue to occupy an important position among the agricultural
+productions of the country. Its importance will increase year by year,
+its value being too well understood and appreciated for it ever to lose
+its place among our leading crops.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Oil.</b>&mdash;The use that gives the Peanut especial value as an
+American crop, is the place it occupies as an oil-producing plant. The
+oil of the Peanut is regarded as equal in all respects to sweet or olive
+oil, and may be employed for every purpose to which that is applied.
+This gives it at once a commanding position, and were no other use found
+for the plant, this would give it great importance among the economic
+productions of our <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>country. Olive oil is largely consumed for culinary
+uses, in medicine, and in the arts. Except in California, the olive has
+never been planted upon a commercial scale in this country, and it is
+very important that we possess a plant, that will obviate our dependence
+upon foreign oil. Of course, it is not within our scope to describe the
+manufacture of Peanut oil. The farmer is satisfied with knowing that his
+crops are in demand, and need not trouble himself about the methods by
+which they are converted into this or that useful commodity.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that a bushel of peanuts (twenty-two pounds in the hull)
+subjected to the hydraulic press, will yield one gallon of oil. The
+yield by cold pressure, is from forty to fifty per cent. of the shelled
+kernels, though if heat be used, a larger quantity of oil, but of
+inferior quality, is obtained. The best Peanut oil is nearly colorless,
+with a faint, agreeable odor, and a bland taste, resembling that of
+olive oil. It is more limpid than olive oil, and becomes thick when
+exposed to a temperature a few degrees below the freezing point of
+water. Peanut oil is not one of the drying oils. During the late war it
+was extensively employed in the Southern machine shops, and regarded as
+superior in its lubricating qualities to whale oil. For burning it is
+highly esteemed. The chief consumption of the oil is in making soap. For
+the production of oil for soap making, there were imported into
+Marseilles, France, from the West Coast of Africa, in one year, peanuts
+to the value of over five millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The residuum, or oil cake, may be sold for cattle feed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roasted Peanuts.</b>&mdash;Almost every person residing in the eastern section
+of our country, must necessarily know <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>something of the value of roasted
+peanuts. One cannot pass along the streets of any of our larger cities
+and towns, without encountering, at every turn, the little peanut
+stands, where roasted peanuts are sold by the pint. They are kept for
+sale in numerous shops, they are peddled on the railroad cars, and sold
+to the loungers at every depot. Roasted peanuts are more common than
+roasted chestnuts once were, and almost everybody eats them. Even the
+ladies are fond of them, and frequently have them at their parties.</p>
+
+<p>It is safe then to say, that everybody likes them, and finds them
+palatable, healthful, and fattening. From a pig to a school boy, no diet
+will fatten sooner than roasted peanuts. A person can live on them alone
+for an indefinite period, if eaten regularly and with moderation. The
+analysis of the Peanut shows it to be rich in the albuminoids, or
+flesh-forming elements. Roasted peanuts, therefore, form a very useful
+article of diet, and fill a place between the luxuries and the
+necessaries of common life. Wherever they have been once introduced,
+they cannot well be dispensed with; and as their use in this respect is
+constantly extending, this purpose alone would serve to keep the product
+before the public as a salable article. Once let the Peanut find its way
+to the great cities of Europe, and roasted peanuts be sold upon the
+streets there, as well as here, and the demand for them will far exceed
+the present limits, and the cultivation be necessarily extended over a
+much wider area than now. There is every reason to believe that the
+demand for the crop will continue to increase.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span><b>Peanut Candy.</b>&mdash;This is another of the purposes to which the Peanut has
+been applied, and serves to illustrate how varied and numerous are the
+uses of this remarkable production. Flat bars of sugar candy are stuck
+full of the broken kernels of the roasted nuts. It is quite good, and
+forms a pleasing addition to other kinds of confectionery.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Coffee.</b>&mdash;Here again the Peanut fills a useful end, especially
+in times of scarcity, or high prices for coffee. Taken alone, and
+without any addition whatever of the pure berry, the Peanut makes a
+quite good and palatable beverage. It closely resembles chocolate in
+flavor, is milder and less stimulating than pure coffee, and
+considerably cheaper than Rio or Java. If mixed, half and half, with
+pure coffee before parching, and roasted and ground together, the same
+quantity will go as far and make about as good a beverage as the pure
+article, and a better one than much of the ground and adulterated coffee
+offered in the market. Indeed, if people will adulterate their coffee,
+it were much to be wished that they would use nothing more harmful than
+the Peanut for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>For making the beverage, the Peanut is parched and ground the same as
+coffee, the mode of decoction the same, and it is taken with cream and
+sugar, like the pure article.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Chocolate.</b>&mdash;True chocolate is made by roasting and grinding to
+a paste, by the aid of heat, a very oily seed, the Cocoa-bean. In the
+preparation of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>chocolate a great variety of articles are used to
+adulterate it and diminish its cost. Some of these, such as sugar and
+starchy substances, are harmless, while others, such as mineral coloring
+matters are injurious. Peanuts are largely used to adulterate chocolate,
+and so far as wholesomeness is concerned, are not objectionable. In
+containing a great deal of starch and oil, peanuts resemble the
+cocoa-bean, though without the nitrogenous principle, <i>theobromine</i>
+(which closely resembles <i>caffeine</i>), to which its nutritive qualities
+are largely due. Peanut chocolate is made in some Southern families by
+beating the properly roasted nuts in a mortar with sugar, and flavoring
+with cinnamon or vanilla as may be desired. Peanut chocolate, on so high
+an authority as the author, the late William Gilmore Simms, is vastly
+superior to peanut coffee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Bread.</b>&mdash;If peanuts are first mashed or ground into a pulp, and
+then worked into the dough in the process of kneading, no lard will be
+required to make good biscuit, and the bread will have an agreeable
+flavor, different from that imparted by lard, but of such a mild and
+pleasant taste as to be entirely unlike the peanut flavor. The skin of
+the kernel must first be removed, or it will impart a bitterish and
+nutty taste. There is some difficulty in doing this. Scalding does not
+do it very well. Strong soda water or lye, will quickly loosen it, so
+that it may be readily removed by rubbing with the hands, but either
+fluid would soon convert the Peanut into soap, and is, therefore,
+impracticable for this purpose. Could some cheap and handy machine be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>invented, that would remove the skin from the kernel without loss, no
+doubt large quantities of peanuts would be used for bread-making
+purposes. Whether or not it would be economical, we cannot at present
+say.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Soap.</b>&mdash;If a fair article of soap can be made of corn shucks, as
+was done in the South during the late war, then there can be no doubt
+that a better quality can be made from Peanuts. Surely a vegetable
+product containing such a large per-centage of oil, would be easily
+acted upon by lye. The writer has not experimented in this direction,
+but we hear of some who have tried it, and who say they have made a good
+and serviceable soap from the kernels of the Peanut without the addition
+of other oil or grease. We have no doubt but very good soap may be made
+from the Peanut, but whether the manufacture of such an article would be
+profitable at present prices, is another question. Perhaps for ordinary
+laundry soap it would not, but for the higher grades of toilet soap it
+might be. Here is a field for experiment, and yet we mention this use,
+as well as those of bread-making and coffee from the same article, as
+one of the possibilities of this plant, rather than a result to be
+looked for in the near future, if at all. It is well that manufacturers,
+and all others, should know what is capable of being done with this
+promising product. The more we can multiply the uses of any product of
+our farms, the wider will be the demand for it, and this is what the
+farmers desire.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanuts as Feed for Stock.</b>&mdash;This is a use for the Peanut, about which
+we can speak with confidence, and from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>experience. We now refer to the
+peanut pod, including, of course, the kernel, and not the vine or hay.
+Every kind of stock, horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and poultry, are
+exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and will leave any other food to partake
+of it. Cows, horses, and sheep eat the whole pod, hull and kernel
+together. Hogs and poultry (except turkeys) reject the hull, eating the
+kernel only. Turkeys, as a rule, swallow the pod whole, and a real live
+turkey can hide away quite a quantity of the nuts in a short time, if
+allowed free access to them. In fact, all animals do not seem to know
+when they have enough of this food. All stock fattens readily on them.
+The hog will lay on flesh faster on a diet of peanuts, than on corn,
+potatoes, or any other product with which the writer is acquainted. The
+poorest scrub of a hog, turned into a peanut field, after the crop is
+removed, and where he can get nothing but the pods he may find by
+rooting for them, will change his appearance in three days, and in a
+week, will be so much improved as hardly to be recognized as the same
+animal. As a pork producer we believe that the Peanut has not its
+superior in any clime or country. It is a thorough fat-former. Poultry
+intended for laying should be sparingly fed with it.</p>
+
+<p>But we would not leave this subject without a grain of caution. While
+all stock fattens rapidly on the Peanut, it must be confessed that the
+fat is not always of the best quality. It is less firm and more oily
+than the fat derived from Indian corn, nor will the lard from hogs
+fattened upon peanuts show that pearly white and flaky appearance, which
+is the marked characteristic of pure lard made from corn. For this
+reason, most planters in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>the peanut belt, feed their peanut-fed hogs on
+corn only for two or three weeks before killing them. This is done to
+make the lard firm and white, and in this manner, good pork and lard are
+produced at only a trifling cost. The hogs get nearly fat from the
+detached peanuts left in the field, and which otherwise would be lost.
+In this way the peanut-planter derives a very important benefit from
+this crop, apart from its value as a source of ready money. Were there
+no other use for the peanut, it would still pay well to raise it for
+making pork. In this case, the planting and cultivation would be the
+sole cost, as the animals would do all the harvesting. A very small
+field would fatten quite a number of hogs. Poultry intended for market,
+might well be fed on Peanuts, instead of corn or oats. The fowls would
+fatten faster and at less cost. In fact, we believe it would be
+economical to buy peanuts at ruling prices for fattening stock,
+especially old stock.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peanut Hay.</b>&mdash;If dug and cured before frost touches them, and before
+the leaves fall to any great extent, peanut vines make a very good
+provender for all stock. Some say it is better than blade fodder for
+horses and mules, but we are not prepared to advance this extravagant
+claim for it. It is, however, certainly an excellent article of fodder
+for cattle, sheep, mules, and horses, and if many sap peanuts are left
+on the vines, stock that is not worked much, will need no other feed
+during the winter months to keep them in good condition.</p>
+
+<p>Most planters, accordingly, make it an object to try to save the vines
+for hay, and aim to dig the crop before <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>they are injured by frost.
+After a killing frost touches them, the vines are next to worthless as a
+feed. In fact, frost-bitten peanut vines are harmful, rather than
+beneficial, to stock, often causing colics, and endangering the life of
+a valuable horse or mule. Peanut vines, even the best of them, unharmed
+by frost, should not be fed very largely to horses. There is always a
+good deal of grit and dust upon them, and much of this taken into the
+stomach, cannot but be more or less harmful to the animals.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, despite these few drawbacks, peanut hay has proved to be a
+valuable forage, and one that the peanut-planter could not well dispense
+with, inasmuch as so many do not make enough of other forage to serve
+them, and must, therefore, depend on the peanut crop to help them out.
+Thus the planter is benefited in several ways through this crop. He gets
+a valuable staple to sell, and one that always commands the ready cash,
+he fattens his hogs on the pods left in the ground, and he secures a
+large amount of very good hay in the vines. Thus he is doubly benefited,
+and no matter how low the price of peanuts may be, the farmer does not,
+and cannot, ordinarily, lose much on the cultivation of this great crop.
+If he does not risk too much on commercial fertilizers, which no planter
+of this crop ever should do, he runs little risk of suffering any
+crushing loss thereon.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief but connected view of the Peanut crop from the time of
+planting the seed, to its sale and manufacture. The views and practice
+here advanced are all from original sources. We have not drawn upon any
+other writer for any part of this treatise. Indeed, save <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>a few short
+articles scattered through the agricultural press of the past ten or
+fifteen years, we know of no source from whence material could be
+derived. So far as we are aware, this is the pioneer work in America on
+the Peanut plant. This being the case, it must, of course, be quite
+defective. We might easily have made it a larger book, and perhaps some
+few years hence, when the field and subject shall have enlarged, it will
+be found desirable to revise and enlarge this treatise. For the present,
+we must be satisfied with smaller things, and remain content with a few
+practical directions rather than an elaborate work. Until that time, if
+it comes at all, we lay aside the pen, and turn our hands (as it has
+been our wont to do during the past few weeks) to actual labors in
+connection with the Peanut plant.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="A._Statistics" id="A._Statistics"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>APPENDIX A.</h2>
+
+<h2>STATISTICS.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>It was our design, at first, to present a somewhat full array of
+statistics in relation to the Peanut. This, however, was soon found to
+be impracticable. The more we studied the few data at hand, the more
+were we convinced of their utter unreliability. The fact is, so far as
+the writer is aware, there are no credible data of this crop existing.
+No authoritative and systematic attempt to gather and compile the
+statistics of the Peanut has ever been made, and until this is done we
+shall never know its full extent and value. The "estimates"&mdash;mere
+guesses&mdash;of certain mercantile houses and newspapers, to express the
+bulk of the crop are, beyond a doubt, far wide of the mark. The
+following from a Georgia paper, is of this class:</p>
+
+<p>"The goober<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> plays a more important part in commerce than might be
+supposed. We are all aware of its value as a social factor&mdash;of its
+influence upon oratory, music, and the drama&mdash;but how few of us know
+that one million nine hundred and seventy thousand bushels of this
+savory nut were consumed in this country during the twelve months ending
+on the thirtieth of September, 1883. These figures do not include the
+local consumption&mdash;say, for instance, in the rural districts of Georgia,
+where every substantial farmer has a patch of his own.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>"The figures relating to the goober crop make a column in the various
+prices current, but Georgia is not credited with any part of the crop.
+It seems that the goobers of commerce, so far as this country is
+concerned, are raised in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In
+1882, Virginia raised one million two hundred and fifty thousand
+bushels, Tennessee four hundred and sixty thousand, and North Carolina
+one hundred and forty thousand, making a total of one million eight
+hundred and fifty thousand. The aggregate value of the crop amounted to
+two million dollars. It is estimated that the peanut crop of 1883 will
+be at least two million bushels.</p>
+
+<p>"We regret that Georgia has no place in these estimates. Goobers can be
+raised in this State as readily as in Virginia, and there is no reason
+why our farmers should not take advantage of the demand for them. The
+little patches for home use, could easily be increased to patches
+calculated to yield a comfortable supply of pocket money. As Georgians
+are known as goober-grabblers, there is no reason why they should not be
+known as goober-growers."</p>
+
+<p>Still, these estimates serve a certain important end, and give an
+approximate idea of the magnitude of the crop. It is safe to say that it
+amounts to nearly three million bushels annually, and were all the
+information gathered that could be, it would doubtless be greater still.
+It is high time that the corps of statistical reporters to the National
+Department of Agriculture, were required to give the data for this crop,
+as well as for others, and some of them of less magnitude and value.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See remarks on the term goober, in note on page 9.</p></div>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="B._Costs" id="B._Costs"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>APPENDIX B.</h2>
+
+<h2>COSTS.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>Perhaps the attentive reader has expressed surprise that so little has
+been said about the cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting the
+peanut crop. This was because no estimate of costs that would suit one
+place, would apply in another and a distant locality. There is no
+uniformity in this matter, hence it was deemed best to leave each reader
+to count the costs for himself, based on his knowledge of his own local
+surroundings.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><a name="C._The" id="C._The"></a>
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>APPENDIX C.</h2>
+
+<h2>THE PEANUT GARDEN OF AMERICA.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The following article from the Suffolk, Va., "Herald," gives a concise
+view of the growth and development of this staple in Virginia, and
+illustrates how a portion of the Southside has become, perhaps, the
+leading peanut-producing section of our country:</p>
+
+<p>"When James H. Platt introduced his bill in Congress imposing a duty
+upon peanuts imported from Africa, a large majority of the members of
+that august body hardly knew what a peanut was. A few of them had eaten
+'Goobers' which had been carefully cultivated in the garden by their
+grandmothers, but as to why they needed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>protection, or how many of them
+there were to protect, but little was known even by the best informed.
+The culture of this important agricultural product was then in its
+infancy, and it was hardly recognized as an article of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>"Only a few short years have rolled by, and what a change has been
+effected. The peanut crop has assumed gigantic proportions, and the
+aggregate amounts to millions of dollars, while the nut is in demand
+from one end of the Union to the other at satisfactory prices.</p>
+
+<p>"The section of country contiguous to and lying south of James River,
+and between Norfolk and Petersburg, may be correctly termed the peanut
+garden of the world.</p>
+
+<p>"In this section peanut farming has been brought to the highest state of
+perfection, and the average production per acre greatly increased from
+what was considered a good yield a few years ago.</p>
+
+<p>"The one great difficulty in handling the crop seems to be, in the fact
+that no machine has yet been invented which will pick off the nuts from
+the vines in a satisfactory manner. This work must be done by hand, and
+as the entire crop matures at one and the same time, there is such a
+demand for labor during the picking off season that the supply is
+utterly inadequate to the demand. It is probable that within the next
+few years some plan will be devised for the successful storage of peas
+and vines until they can be conveniently picked off; and when this
+desirable end is accomplished, much of the rush and confusion incident
+to the gathering and marketing of the peanut crop will be avoided. This
+is already done by every thrifty planter who is able to hold his crop
+until <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>such time as he sees fit to sell it. He stores his peanuts away,
+and picks them off, mostly with his own force, at convenient intervals
+through the winter and spring.</p>
+
+<p>"While so much has been done in the way of improvements in the
+production of the Peanut, those who have done the handling after
+reaching market have not been idle. In former years, only the bright
+shell and those well-filled, could be sold in the market. A dark color
+or half-filled pods was sufficient cause for rejection, and frequently
+they were on this account not even offered in market. Here, however,
+machinery was more successful. Various mechanical contrivances have been
+put in operation for cleaning and assorting the nuts, and to-day every
+grade of peanuts&mdash;from the large, plump, well-filled shell, to the
+smallest, blackest, and most insignificant half-filled pod&mdash;has a
+regular standard market value, according to the weight per bushel."</p>
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+
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+
+<h4>52 and 54 Lafayette Place<br />
+NEW YORK</h4>
+
+<h4>BOOKS WILL BE FORWARDED, POSTPAID, ON<br />RECEIPT OF PRICE</h4>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<p><b>Greenhouse Construction.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on greenhouse
+structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles
+of plant houses for professional florists as well as
+amateurs. All the best and most approved structures are so
+fully and clearly described that anyone who desires to build
+a greenhouse will have no difficulty in determining the kind
+best suited to his purpose. The modern and most successful
+methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated upon.
+Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing
+of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of
+hotbeds and frames receives appropriate attention. Over one
+hundred excellent illustrations, specially engraved for this
+work, make every point clear to the reader and add
+considerably to the artistic appearance of the book. Cloth,
+12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Greenhouse Management.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By L. R. Taft. This book forms an almost indispensable
+companion volume to Greenhouse Construction. In it the author
+gives the results of his many years experience, together with
+that of the most successful florists and gardeners, in the
+management of growing plants under glass. So minute and
+practical are the various systems and methods of growing and
+forcing roses, violets, carnations, and all the most
+important florists' plants, as well as fruits and vegetables
+described, that by a careful study of this work and the
+following of its teachings, failure is almost impossible.
+Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the history,
+description, methods of propagation and full directions for
+the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and
+greenhouse. As generally treated, bulbs are an expensive
+luxury, while when properly managed, they afford the greatest
+amount of pleasure at the least cost. The author of this book
+has for many years made bulb growing a specialty, and is a
+recognized authority on their cultivation and management. The
+illustrations which embellish this work have been drawn from
+nature, and have been engraved especially for this book. The
+cultural directions are plainly stated, practical and to the
+point. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Irrigation Farming.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Lute Wilcox. A handbook for the practical application of
+water in the production of crops. A complete treatise on
+water supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes
+for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure, methods
+of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the garden, the
+orchard and vineyard; windmills and pumps, appliances and
+contrivances. Profusely, handsomely illustrated. Cloth. 12mo.
+<b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Landscape Gardening.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture, University of
+Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing
+outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in
+the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is short,
+terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the
+discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty
+of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made
+entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated,
+12mo. Cloth. <b>$.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Fungi and Fungicides.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Prof. Clarence M. Weed. A practical manual concerning the
+fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of
+preventing their ravages. The author has endeavored to give
+such a concise account of the most important facts relating
+to these as will enable the cultivator to combat them
+intelligently. 222 pp., 90 ill., 12mo. Paper, 50 cents;
+cloth. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Talks on Manure.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Joseph Harris, M. S. A series of familiar and practical
+talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor, and
+other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures and
+fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for it by
+Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Insects and Insecticides.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc., Prof. of entomology and zoology,
+New Hampshire college of agriculture. A practical manual
+concerning noxious insects, and methods of preventing their
+injuries. 334 pages, with many illustrations. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Mushrooms. How to Grow Them.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Wm. Falconer. This is the most practical work on the
+subject ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms
+published in America. The author describes how he grows
+mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by the leading
+market gardeners, and for home use by the most successful
+private growers. Engravings drawn from nature expressly for
+this work. Cloth. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Handbook of Plants and General Horticulture.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Peter Henderson. This new edition comprises about 50 per
+cent. more genera than the former one, and embraces the
+botanical name, derivation, natural order, etc., together
+with a short history of the different genera, concise
+instructions for their propagation and culture, and all the
+leading local or common English names, together with a
+comprehensive glossary of botanical and technical terms.
+Plain instructions are also given for the cultivation of the
+principal vegetables, fruits and flowers. Cloth, large 8vo.
+<b>$3.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and Market Value.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its history and
+botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with
+either seed or roots, soil, climate and location,
+preparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial
+propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for
+improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may
+be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and
+profusely illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who
+expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to
+add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens,
+without interfering with the regular work. 12mo. <b>$.35</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Land Draining.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of
+draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended
+experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the
+laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable
+the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and
+the disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual
+for practical farmers will also be found convenient for
+references in regard to many questions that may arise in crop
+growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which
+it treats. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Henderson's Practical Floriculture.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
+cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for
+florists and gardeners only; but the amateur's wants are
+constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise
+on the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open
+air, suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as
+those who make them a matter of trade. Beautifully
+illustrated. New and enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco Leaf.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture and Cure,
+Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook on the most
+approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and
+selling tobacco, with an account of the operations in every
+department of tobacco manufacture. The contents of this book
+are based on actual experiments in field, curing barn,
+packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the only work of
+the kind in existence, and is destined to be the standard
+practical and scientific authority on the whole subject of
+tobacco for many years. Upwards of 500 pages and 150 original
+engravings. <b>$2.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Play and Profit in My Garden.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky
+hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out
+of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of
+$1,000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary
+labor. It is very rarely that so much literary taste and
+skill are mated to so much agricultural experience and good
+sense. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Forest Planting.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care of
+woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on
+plains and mountains. The author has fully described those
+European methods which have proved to be most useful in
+maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This
+experience has been adapted to the different climates and
+trees of America, full instructions being given for forest
+planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on
+mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Soils and Crops of the Farm.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The methods
+of making available the plant food in the soil are described
+in popular language. A short history of each of the farm
+crops is accompanied by a discussion of its culture. The
+useful discoveries of science are explained as applied in the
+most approved methods of culture. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>American Fruit Culturist.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By John J. Thomas. Containing practical directions for the
+propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to the
+United States. Twentieth thoroughly revised and greatly
+enlarged edition by Wm. H. S. Wood. This new edition makes
+the work practically almost a new book, containing everything
+pertaining to large and small fruits as well as sub-tropical
+and tropical fruits. Richly illustrated by nearly 800
+engravings. 758 pp., 12mo. <b>$2.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Fertilizers.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey
+Agricultural Experiment Station. It has been the aim of the
+author to point out the underlying principles and to discuss
+the important subjects connected with the use of fertilizer
+materials. The natural fertility of the soil, the functions
+of manures and fertilizers, and the need of artificial
+fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Separate chapters are
+devoted to the various fertilizing elements, to the purchase,
+chemical analyses, methods of using fertilizers, and the best
+fertilizers for each of the most important field, garden and
+orchard crops. 335 pp. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Gardening for Profit.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and family
+gardening. The successful experience of the author for more
+than thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in
+this work, the secret of his success for the benefit of
+others, enables him to give most valuable information. The
+book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester). This is
+one of the best and most popular works on the horse prepared
+in this country. A complete manual for horsemen, embracing:
+How to breed a horse; how to buy a horse; how to break a
+horse; how to use a horse; how to feed a horse; how to physic
+a horse (allopathy or homoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how
+to drive a horse: how to ride a horse, etc. Beautifully
+illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Barn Plans and Outbuildings.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable
+work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the
+construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers.
+Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of
+barns, grain barns, house barns, cattle barns, sheep barns,
+corn houses, smoke houses, ice houses, pig pens, granaries,
+etc. There are likewise chapters on bird houses, dog houses,
+tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and
+fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds,
+barnyards, root pits, etc. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Cranberry Culture.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history of
+cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground,
+planting the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies
+and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss.
+Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Ornamental Gardening for Americans.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on
+beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain
+and practical work with numerous illustrations and
+instructions so plain that they may be readily followed.
+Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Grape Culturist.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the
+culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all
+departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
+engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
+Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Turkeys and How to Grow Them.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Edited by Herbert Myrick. A treatise on the natural history
+and origin of the name of turkeys; the various breeds, the
+best methods to insure success in the business of turkey
+growing. With essays from practical turkey growers in
+different parts of the United States and Canada. Copiously
+illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Profits in Poultry.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management.
+This excellent work contains the combined experience of a
+number of practical men in all departments of poultry
+raising. It is profusely illustrated and forms a unique and
+important addition to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>How Crops Grow.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. New and revised
+edition. A treatise on the chemical composition, structure
+and life of the plant. This book is a guide to the knowledge
+of agricultural plants, their composition, their structure
+and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+organization of plants, and the use of the parts; the
+germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both
+from the air and the soil. The book is indispensable to all
+real students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and
+tables of analysis. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Coburn's Swine Husbandry.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By F. D. Coburn. New, revised and enlarged edition. The
+breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the
+prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest
+and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet
+offered. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Stewart's Shepherd's Manual.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Henry Stewart. A valuable practical treatise on the sheep
+for American farmers and sheep growers. It is so plain that a
+farmer or a farmer's son who has never kept a sheep, may
+learn from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and
+yet so complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather
+many suggestions from it. The results of personal experience
+of some years with the characters of the various modern
+breeds of sheep, and the sheep raising capabilities of many
+portions of our extensive territory and that of Canada&mdash;and
+the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep are
+chiefly subject, with those by which they may eventually be
+afflicted through unforeseen accidents&mdash;as well as the
+methods of management called for under our circumstances, are
+carefully described. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Feeds and Feeding.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By W. A. Henry. This handbook for students and stock men
+constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on
+plant growth and animal nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding
+animals and every detail pertaining to this important
+subject. It is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is the
+most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many
+years. All the latest and best information is clearly and
+systematically presented, making the work indispensable to
+every owner of live stock. 658 pages, 8vo. Cloth. <b>$2.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Hunter and Trapper.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. The
+best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained, and
+foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by
+following his directions. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Ice Crop.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Theron L. Hiles. How to harvest, ship and use ice. A
+complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice
+dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, and
+all interested in ice houses, cold storage, and the handling
+or use of ice in any way. Including many recipes for iced
+dishes and beverages. The book is illustrated by cuts of the
+tools and machinery used in cutting and storing ice, and the
+different forms of ice houses and cold storage buildings. 122
+pp., ill., 16mo. Cloth. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Practical Forestry.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and
+popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United
+States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable
+exotic species. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Henry Stewart. This work is offered to those American
+farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from painful
+experience, can readily appreciate the losses which result
+from the scarcity of water at critical periods. Fully
+illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Market Gardening and Farm Notes.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Burnett Landreth. Experiences and observation for both
+North and South, of interest to the amateur gardener, trucker
+and farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of
+farm and garden operations for each month of the year; the
+chapters on fertilizers, transplanting, succession and
+rotation of crops, the packing, shipping and marketing of
+vegetables will be especially useful to market gardeners.
+Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Fruit Garden.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit trees, the
+author having had over thirty years' practical experience at
+the head of one of the largest nurseries in this country.
+Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Nut Culturist.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to
+the climate of the United States, with the scientific and
+common names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or
+otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer to increase
+his income without adding to his expenses or labor. 12mo.
+Cloth. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>American Grape Growing and Wine Making.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By George Husmann of California. New and enlarged edition.
+With contributions from well-known grape growers, giving wide
+range of experience. The author of this book is a recognized
+authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Treat's Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Mrs. Mary Treat. An original investigator who has added
+much to our knowledge of both plants and insects, and those
+who are familiar with Darwin's works are aware that he gives
+her credit for important observation and discoveries. New and
+enlarged edition. With an illustrated chapter on beneficial
+insects. Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Dogs of Great Britain, America and Other Countries.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, training
+and management, in health and disease; comprising all the
+essential parts of the two standard works on dogs by
+"Stonehenge." It describes the best game and hunting grounds
+in America. Contains over one hundred beautiful engravings,
+embracing most noted dogs in both continents, making,
+together with chapters by American writers, the most complete
+dog book ever published. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Harris on the Pig.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Joseph Harris. New edition. Revised and enlarged by the
+author. The points of the various English and American breeds
+are thoroughly discussed, and the great advantage of using
+thoroughbred males clearly shown. The work is equally
+valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to the
+breeder on an extensive scale. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+<b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Pear Culture for Profit.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist. Teaching how to
+raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, how to
+find out the character of the soil, the best methods of
+preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing
+conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing,
+grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees come into
+bearing, and, finally, of gathering and packing for market.
+Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and How to Get Well from
+Sickness.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By S. H. Platt, A. M., M. D., late member of the Connecticut
+Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic Medical
+Association, and honorary member of the National
+Bacteriological Society of America; our medical editor and
+author of "Talks With Our Doctor" and "Our Health Adviser."
+Nearly 600 pages. Profusely illustrated. An index of 20
+pages, so that any topic may be instantly consulted. A new
+departure in medical knowledge for the people&mdash;the latest
+progress, secrets and practices of all schools of healing
+made available for the common people&mdash;health without
+medicine, nature without humbug, common sense without folly,
+science without fraud. 12mo. 576 pp., 81 illustrations.
+Cloth. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Gardening for Young and Old.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Joseph Harris. A work intended to interest farmers' boys
+in farm gardening, which means a better and more profitable
+form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the familiar
+manner so well known in the author's "Walks and Talks on the
+Farm." Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Money in the Garden.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style,
+instructions on three distinct although closely connected
+branches of gardening&mdash;the kitchen garden, market garden and
+field culture, from successful practical experience for a
+term of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. <b>$1.00</b></p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Pruning Book.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By L. H. Bailey. This is the first American work exclusively
+devoted to pruning. It differs from most other treatises on
+this subject in that the author takes particular pains to
+explain the principles of each operation in every detail.
+Specific advice is given on the pruning of the various kinds
+of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs and hedges.
+Considerable space is devoted to the pruning and training of
+grapevines, both American and foreign. Every part of the
+subject is made so clear and plain that it can be readily
+understood by even the merest beginner. Cloth, 8vo, 530
+pages. Illustrated. <b>$1.50</b></p></div>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p>
+<br />
+
+Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br />
+<br />
+
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;   7&nbsp;&nbsp;  privitive changed to privative<br />
+Page&nbsp;  17&nbsp;&nbsp;  challanges changed to challenges<br />
+Page&nbsp;  56&nbsp;&nbsp;  residum changed to residuum<br />
+Page&nbsp;  64&nbsp;&nbsp;  poineer changed to pioneer<br />
+Page&nbsp;  70&nbsp;&nbsp;  backneyed changed to hackneyed<br />
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEANUT PLANT ***
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Peanut Plant
+       Its Cultivation And Uses
+
+Author: B. W. Jones
+
+Release Date: April 23, 2009 [EBook #28594]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEANUT PLANT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tom Roch, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  PEANUT PLANT.
+
+  ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.
+
+  "_Every species of plant requires certain physical conditions for its
+  growth and perfection; and these may be general or special. If general,
+  then it will be widely diffused; but if special, its distribution will
+  be limited._"
+
+  BY
+
+  B. W. JONES,
+
+  OF VIRGINIA.
+
+  ILLUSTRATED.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
+  1902
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by the
+                ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little work has been prepared mainly for those who have no
+practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the Peanut. Its
+directions, therefore, are intended for the beginner, and are such as
+will enable any intelligent person who has followed farming, to raise
+good crops of Peanuts, although he may have never before seen the
+growing plant.
+
+The writer has confined himself to a recital of the more important
+details, leaving the minor points to be discovered by the farmer
+himself. If the reader should think these pages devoid of vivacity, let
+him remember that we have treated of an every-day subject in an
+every-day style. The interest in the theme will increase when the
+beginner has pocketed the returns from his first year's crop. Until
+then, we leave him to plod his way through the details, trusting that
+the great Giver of the harvest will bless his labors, and amply reward
+his toils in this new field.
+
+                B. W. J.
+
+  WARREN PLACE, SURRY COUNTY, VA., 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE.
+
+  CHAPTER I.--DESCRIPTION.
+
+  Origin.--Natural History.--Varieties.--Possible Range.--Analysis.   5
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.--PLANTING.
+
+  Soil, and Mode of Preparation.--Seed.--Time and Mode of
+    Planting.--Fertilizers.--Replanting.--Moles, and Other
+    Depredators.--Critical Period.                                   14
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.--CULTIVATION.
+
+  First Plowing and Weeding.--Subsequent Workings.--Implements.--
+    When Cultivation should Cease.--Insect Enemies.--Effects of
+    Cold.--Effects of Drouth.--Appearance at this Period.            27
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--HARVESTING.
+
+  When to begin Harvesting.--Mode of Harvesting.--Why Cured in the
+    Field.--Depredators.--Detached Peanuts.--Saving Seed Peanuts.    37
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.--MARKETING.
+
+  Picking the Peanuts.--Price paid Pickers.--Cleaning and
+    Bagging.--Peanut "Factories."--The best Markets.--Picking
+    Machines.                                                        46
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI--USES.
+
+  Peanut Oil.--Roasted Peanuts.--Peanut Candy.--Peanut Coffee.--
+    Peanut Chocolate.--Peanut Bread.--Peanut Soap.--Peanuts as a
+    Food for Stock.--Peanut Hay.                                     55
+
+
+  APPENDIX.
+
+  A. Statistics.                                                     65
+
+  B. Costs.                                                          67
+
+  C. The Peanut Garden of America.                                   67
+
+
+
+
+THE PEANUT PLANT;
+
+ITS CULTIVATION AND USES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DESCRIPTION.
+
+
+=Origin.=--The native country of the Peanut (_Arachis hypogaea_) is not
+definitely ascertained. Like many other extensively cultivated plants,
+it has not been found in a truly wild state. Some botanists regard the
+plant as a native of Africa, and brought to the New World soon after its
+discovery. Sloane, in his history of Jamaica, states that peanuts formed
+a part of the provisions taken by the slave ships for the support of the
+negroes on the voyage, and leaves it to be inferred that the plant was
+introduced in this manner. De Candolle, in _Geographie Botanique
+Raisonnee_, and his latter work on _L'Origine des Plantes Cultivees_,
+strongly inclines to the American origin of the Peanut. The absence of
+any mention of the plant by early Egyptian and Arabic writers, and the
+fact that there is no name for it in Sanscrit and Bengalese, are
+regarded as telling against its Oriental origin. Moreover, there are six
+other species of _Arachis_, natives of Brazil, and Bentham and Hooker,
+in their _Genera Plantarum_, ask if the plant so generally grown in warm
+countries may not be a cultivated form of a Brazilian species.
+
+If, as seems probable, the Peanut is really a native of America, then
+this Continent has contributed to the agricultural world five plants
+that have exerted, and will continue to exert, an immense influence on
+the industries and commerce of the world. These are: the Potato, Cotton,
+Tobacco, Indian Corn, and the Peanut. Of these five, the Peanut, the
+last to come into general and prominent notice, is destined to rival
+some of the others in importance.
+
+Whatever may have been its origin, the Peanut plant has gradually made
+its way over an extended area of the warmer parts of both the Old and
+New World, and in North America has gained a permanent foot-hold in the
+soil of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Nor has it yet reached its
+ultimate limits, for cultivation and acclimation will inure it to a
+sterner climate, until it becomes an important crop in latitudes
+considerably further north than Virginia. This is indicated by its rapid
+spread within the past few years. Remaining long in comparative
+obscurity, it was not until a recent period that the Peanut gained
+prominence as an agricultural and commercial staple, but since it fairly
+started, its progress has been rapid and sure.
+
+=Natural History.=--There are some peculiarities about the Peanut plant
+that make it interesting to the naturalist. Its habit of clinging close
+to the soil, the closing together of the leaves at sunset, or on the
+approach of a storm, the beautiful appearance of a field of it when full
+grown, and the remarkable wart-like excrescences found upon the roots,
+are some of its more notable characteristics. Its striking preference
+for a calcareous soil is another of its peculiarities, the Peanut
+producing more and better crops on this kind of soil than on any other.
+
+The Peanut belongs to the Natural Order _Leguminosae_, or pod-bearing
+plants, and this particular member of it is as unlike all the rest with
+which we are acquainted, as can well be conceived. No other grows so
+recumbent upon the soil, and none but this produces seed under ground.
+
+The botanical name of the Peanut is _Arachis hypogaea_. The origin of the
+generic name _arachis_ is somewhat obscure; it is said to come from _a_,
+privative, and _rachis_, a branch, meaning having no branches, which is
+not true of this plant. The specific appellation, _hypogaea_, or
+"under-ground," describes the manner in which the pods grow. The
+following is a partially technical description of the plant:
+
+Root annual, branched, but not fibrous, yellowish, bitter, and warty;
+Stem procumbent, spreading, much-branched, somewhat hairy towards the
+extremities; Leaves compound, leaflets obovate, mucronate, margin
+entire, ciliate when young, smooth and almost leathery with age, leaves
+closing at night and in rainy weather; Flowers papilionaceous, yellow,
+borne upon the end of an axillary peduncle. After flowering, the
+forming-pod is, by the elongation of its stalk, pushed into the soil,
+beneath which it grows and ripens; Legume, or pod indehiscent, woody
+and veiny, one to four-seeded; Seed, with a reddish coat, the embryo
+with two large, fleshy cotyledons, and a very short, nearly straight,
+radicle. Figure 1 represents a portion of the Peanut plant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--PORTION OF THE PEANUT PLANT, showing
+how the minute pods from above-ground flowers are forced into the soil
+to grow and ripen.]
+
+=Varieties.=--While no botanical varieties of _Arachis hypogaea_ have
+been described, its long cultivation in different countries in unlike
+soils and climates, has produced several cultural varieties. Taking the
+Virginia Peanut as the typical form, there may be named as differing
+from it, the North Carolina Peanut, having very small but solid and
+heavy pods, that weigh twenty-eight pounds to the bushel. The Tennessee
+Peanut is about the size of the Virginia variety, but has a seed of a
+much redder color and less agreeable flavor. There is a Bunch variety,
+that does not spread out like a mat over the soil, but grows upright
+like the common field pea. This last kind has been raised to some extent
+in Virginia, but has never become popular with planters, and is fast
+passing out of cultivation. It is possible that the Bunch Peanut is a
+representative of the plant in its wild state. It produces fewer seeds
+and less vine than any other kind. The flat or spreading Peanut shows a
+tendency to sport in this direction, and in any large field of peanuts,
+quite a number of plants will be found that have the bunch form, and
+such are always barren or seedless hills.
+
+The small-podded, or North Carolina Peanut, is not at all popular with
+pickers, because it takes a great many more to make a basketful, and,
+unless they are paid an extra price for picking this sort, they cannot
+make as good wages. Nor do our planters seem to like it very well,
+finding it more trouble to handle than the larger variety. Hence it is
+but little cultivated in Virginia.
+
+The Peanut in its travels has also acquired a variety of names, such as
+ground-pea, earth-nut, goober[1] or guber, and pindar. Also "currency,"
+"cash," "credit," and other expressive titles. Of all these names,
+"Peanut" is the most generally used, but Ground-pea would be the more
+descriptive name.
+
+=Possible Range.=--From a somewhat careful study of the climatic
+requirements of the Peanut plant, and of the isotherms of summer
+temperature, we are satisfied that it would thrive as far north as the
+northern limit of the zone of the vine. This for the United States, as
+delineated in Mitchell's Physical Geography, starts on the Pacific Coast
+in the latitude of British Columbia, turns suddenly south along the
+Cordilleras to Colorado, then trends as suddenly northward to the
+northern limits of Iowa, strikes eastwardly along a line to the south of
+the great lakes, and enters the Atlantic in the vicinity of Cape Cod. If
+our view is correct, the Peanut will thrive on any suitable soil within
+the limits of the United States lying to the south of this line. This
+would make the cultivation of the Peanut possible in by far the greater
+part of the entire country. In fact, there is no doubt but that it may
+be grown successfully wherever Indian corn will thrive luxuriantly. Any
+section having a growing season of five months exempt from frost, may
+raise the Peanut. This gives the crop a much wider range than has been
+thought possible. It does not require a long period of extreme heat to
+mature it. The seeds are mostly formed in the cooler weather of the
+latter part of summer and the first of autumn. Planted in June,
+cultivated until August or a little later, and harvested the last of
+September, it can be perfected in four months, though the Virginia
+planter takes five months for it. Any good calcareous soil, west of New
+Jersey and southward, that is not too elevated, will grow the Peanut.
+
+=Analysis.=--This, perhaps, is not a matter of much practical importance
+to the planter. The best peanut soil and the proper fertilizer had been
+found out before an analysis of the plant had been made. Still there are
+some advantages in knowing what are the prominent elements that enter
+into the composition of this, or any other, cultivated plant, and an
+analysis is accordingly given.
+
+An analysis made by Doctor Thomas Antisell, chemist to the Department of
+Agriculture at Washington, and published in the Report of that
+Department about the year 1869, gives the following as the composition
+of the Peanut plant:
+
+In one hundred parts of the husk and nut taken together
+
+  Water                                    2.60
+  Albuminous, fibrous matter and starch   79.26
+  Oil                                     16.00
+  Ash                                      2.00
+  Loss                                      .14
+                                         ------
+                                         100.00
+
+In one hundred parts of the husk and seed separated:
+
+                                _Seed._    _Husk._
+  Moisture                        2.51       2.61
+  Albuminous matter and farina   79.71    traces.
+  Cellulose                                 85.48
+  Ash                             1.77      11.90
+  Oil                            16.00
+                                 -----      -----
+                                 99.99      99.99
+
+"The ash of the seed," it was stated by the same authority, "consists of
+salts wholly soluble in water, composed of the phosphates of alkalies,
+with traces of alkaline, chlorides, and sulphates. The ash of the husk
+differs, in consisting chiefly of common salt, phosphate of lime and
+magnesia."
+
+The analysis of the ash of the Peanut, furnished to the _American
+Agriculturist_, by H. B. Cornwall, Professor of Analytical Chemistry in
+the John C. Green School of Science, College of New Jersey, Princeton,
+and published in that Journal for July, 1880, gives the following as the
+mineral elements of this plant:
+
+PER ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF ASH.
+
+  Silica                  1.06
+  Potash                 44.73
+  Soda                   14.60
+  Lime                    1.71
+  Magnesia               12.65
+  Phosphoric acid        17.64
+  Sulphuric acid          2.53
+  Chlorine                0.15
+                         -----
+                         95.07
+
+In this analysis neither the carbonic acid nor carbon were determined.
+
+It was further stated that the kernels yielded 2.08 per cent. of
+ash.
+
+These analyses, the one of the ash, and the other of the seed and husk
+in their natural state, are sufficiently full for the purpose in view,
+and serve admirably to show the principal elements required in the
+growth of the Peanut plant. We see that albuminous matter and starch
+form a very large per cent., over three-fourths, of the seed. Of course
+an article so rich in fat-forming ingredients, must be well suited for
+the food of man or beast. This explains why hogs fed on peanuts take on
+fat so readily. Nothing will change the appearance of a poor hog sooner
+than a diet of peanuts. The amount of oil in the seed--sixteen per
+cent., makes the Peanut one of the best oil-producing plants in the
+world.
+
+Of the mineral constituents, potash forms by far the largest part--44.73
+per cent. Soda, magnesia, and phosphoric acid also enter quite largely
+into the composition of this plant. It will be noticed that common salt
+plays some part in the make-up of the Peanut.
+
+Some may wonder at the small amount of lime reported to be present in
+the ash. This may be explained by stating that lime is not _per se_ a
+manure, but a powerful chemical agent when applied to the soil, reducing
+inert matter into plant food. Lime appears to be the driving-wheel in
+the laboratory of the soil. Its presence is essential, but it does not
+do all the work itself. Of marl, the best fertilizer yet discovered for
+the Peanut, the principal ingredient of value, is carbonate of lime.
+Some of the Virginia marls range as high as seventy and eighty per cent.
+in carbonate of lime. This form of lime is very valuable for all
+agricultural purposes. Like its more caustic relative, it plays the part
+of a solvent and liberator, refines and vitalizes the soil, and causes
+other ingredients to perform their part in building up the framework of
+plants.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] While "goober" may be one of the names of the Peanut in some
+localities, the plant so-called in Georgia is _Amphicarpaea monoica_, a
+native leguminous plant with two kinds of flowers, one set always
+subterranean, and the other above ground. The under-ground flowers bear
+woody, rounded, one-seeded pods, with a seed closely resembling a
+bean.--ED.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PLANTING.
+
+
+=Soil, and Mode of Preparation.=--A warm soil is required by the Peanut.
+A light, porous soil in which sand predominates, but not too sandy, warm
+and dry, and yet not too dry, but containing some moisture, and open to
+capillary circulation, suits the Peanut best. In all cases the soil most
+suitable for the Peanut must contain a certain amount of calcareous
+constituents. The color of the soil should be gray, with few or no
+traces of iron to stain the pods. As a rule, the brightest pods bring
+the most money, and as the color of the pods is always influenced by
+that of the soil in which they grow, it becomes a matter of importance
+to select that which is of the right description. Land of the above
+nature and color may be regarded as first-class for this crop. But let
+it be distinctly borne in mind, that unless it contains a goodly
+per-centage of lime in some form, in an available state, no land will
+produce paying crops of pods, although it may yield large and luxuriant
+vines. Of all the forms of lime, that supplied by the marls of the
+seaboard section appears to be the best.
+
+But any soil that can be put into a friable condition, and kept so
+during the period of cultivation, will produce salable peanuts, provided
+it contains enough lime to insure solid pods. If it is known that a
+piece of land will produce sound corn, at the rate of from five to ten
+barrels per acre, the planter may rest satisfied, without further
+experiment, that it will yield from forty to seventy-five or eighty
+bushels of peanuts. As the cultivation extends, and more land is needed
+for this crop, much of it is being put upon clayey soil, and when well
+cultivated, it generally produces heavy peanuts. Indeed, more pounds per
+acre may be grown upon some stiff lands than on any light soil, however
+calcareous. But clayey land, or such as is dark or tenacious, will
+impart a stain or dark color to the pods that is objectionable to
+buyers, and hence soils of this nature are generally avoided. A
+tenacious soil is also colder and more inert than a light one during the
+earlier part of the summer, and as the Peanut plant requires a rather
+long term of warm weather to insure full growth and maturity, a warmer
+and quicker soil is preferable. Buyers, however, are not now quite so
+particular as formerly in regard to color, and hence there is more
+inducement to plant on any ground that will yield good, solid peanuts,
+and it is being more frequently done.
+
+But the actual or prospective peanut planter, who has an ash-colored or
+grayish soil, which is sandy and non-adhesive, is fortunate. If he will
+keep it well limed and trashed, or else rotate every fourth or fifth
+year with the Southern Field Pea, or other green crop, and marl, he will
+have land that will continue to produce paying crops of the brightest
+and most salable peanuts. There is an abundance of good peanut land all
+along the Atlantic seaboard, from New Jersey to Florida. Doubtless there
+is much of it in the Mississippi Valley, even as far north as the lake
+region, and on the Pacific coast from Oregon southward. There is no more
+reason for confining the cultivation of the Peanut to the narrow belts
+at present occupied, than there is for limiting tobacco to the States
+of North Carolina and Virginia.
+
+The quantity of lime or marl to use at one application depends very much
+on the nature of the soil and the amount of vegetable matter it
+contains. Generally, fifty bushels of lime, or one hundred and fifty
+bushels of marl is a safe application, but if the soil is quite thin,
+and contains but little vegetable mould, more than this at one time
+would be attended with risk. The safer plan is, to make several small
+annual applications of both marl, and vegetable matter, continuing this
+until a hundred and fifty bushels of lime, or two hundred and fifty, or
+three hundred bushels of marl have been applied. After this, no more
+calcareous matter will be needed in fifteen or twenty years. Land will
+bear large quantities of marl with perfect safety, if kept well stocked
+with some vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects. But as most of
+the best peanut soil is deficient in this respect, the planter should
+begin cautiously, using small quantities until he has deepened his soil
+and supplied it with vegetable mould by trashing the land or turning in
+green crops.
+
+In choosing land for a peanut crop, some attention should be paid to the
+previous crop. The Peanut requires a clean soil, one clear of roots,
+brush, stones, or rubbish of any kind, and hence it should follow some
+hoed crop, such as corn, cotton, or tobacco. In Virginia, corn land is
+generally preferred, and, as in the tide-water section, much of this
+land has been heavily marled, it commonly produces well.
+
+The preparation of the soil for the Peanut is the same as for corn, or
+any similar crop, except that more pains should be, and generally are
+taken, to get it in fine and mellow tilth. If it breaks up rough and
+turfy, as much land previously in corn is apt to do, it should be
+harrowed or dragged until it is fine. Generally, Virginia planters do
+not plow quite so deep for peanuts as they do for corn. This practice
+the writer believes to be unsound. Land should be plowed deep at the
+outset for all crops, whatever their nature or manner of growth. Deep
+plowing is a corrective of dry weather, and as drouth sometimes tells
+heavily on the Peanut plant, as was the case in the season of 1883, it
+is always well to plow deep, and give the moisture of the subsoil a
+chance to rise upward, and reach the roots during a dry spell. The
+formation of a fine, mellow seed bed, is all the preparation a peanut
+soil requires, previous to planting time, apart from the application of
+manures, which is spoken of elsewhere.
+
+=The Seed.=--With the peanut crop, more than with almost any other, good
+seed is a matter of paramount importance. The seed sometimes fails to
+germinate well; before this fact can be discovered, and the ground
+re-seeded, unless the first planting was made quite early, the best
+season for planting will have passed, and the crop planted late will
+never be so good as it might have been. On the other hand, a very early
+planting doubles the risk of failure, in fact almost challenges failure
+by committing the seed to a soil too cold for germination and a quick
+growth. It is highly important, then, to have good seed, and to wait
+until both weather and soil are favorable for speedy germination and
+growth.
+
+In order to determine whether the seed will germinate well or not, let
+the planter begin to test them early in the spring. Let him take a dozen
+or two kernels that appear to be in quality a fair average of the whole
+lot of seed on hand, place them in a tumbler with some dampened cotton,
+or a piece of sponge, and set the tumbler in a warm place, where the
+heat is uniform, and high enough to start the germ in a few days. In a
+day or two, if the seeds are good, they will begin to swell, and the
+embryo plant will soon begin to grow. Thus, according to the number of
+seeds that have germinated out of the number tested, the planter can
+calculate the probable per-centage of good seed. A glass of peanuts
+growing thus in dampened cotton, presents an interesting study, and is a
+pretty ornament for the sitting room.
+
+But the planter must not rest satisfied with one trial. As soon as the
+out-of-door temperature will admit of it, he should try quite a number
+of the seeds in the open ground. Selecting a warm, sunny spot, he should
+plant from fifty to one hundred kernels, and shelter the place as much
+as possible from the cold winds. If these germinate well, the seed may
+be relied upon as good, and no further trial need be made. It is in this
+way that the Virginia planter tests his seed every season. About the
+first of April there is a great testing of the seed peanuts, and,
+although nearly every planter endeavors to save his own seed, the
+quantity of doubtful seed is generally great enough to cause a brisk
+demand for good seed at advanced prices. The method of saving seed
+peanuts will be given in a subsequent chapter.
+
+Some weeks before planting time, the Virginia farmer, who plants from
+fifty to a hundred bushels of peanuts, starts about having them shelled
+and assorted, preparatory to planting. This must be done with care, and
+females are mostly employed to perform this work. The pods are popped
+open with the fingers and thumb, care being taken not to split or bruise
+the kernel; all shrivelled and dark colored kernels are rejected. After
+they are shelled, the seed must be put into bags or baskets, a small
+quantity in each parcel, and set where there is a free circulation of
+air, until wanted for planting. If a large quantity is bulked together
+after being shelled, or if put in a close box or barrel, even in small
+quantities, they are liable to heat, and be prevented from germinating.
+This fact is the result of some costly experience on the part of many
+planters. Thus it becomes necessary to handle the seed with great care
+and circumspection throughout. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of
+peanuts in the hull, or pod, is estimated to be enough to plant one acre
+of ground, the quantity depending on the quality of the seed and the
+distance apart they are to be planted.
+
+=Time of Planting.=--In Virginia, the first twenty days in May is
+regarded as, in the main, the most suitable time for planting. Some
+plant as early as the last week in April, and the seasons frequently
+favor this early start, and the crop does well. More, however, plant in
+June than in April, and sometimes planting is delayed until the middle
+or last of June. On warm and dry land, there is no great risk in
+planting the first week in May, but on colder land, the planter should
+wait until the ground has been warmed by the sun, say the latter part
+of the same month. If the farmer has reason to hope for a week or ten
+days of mild, fair weather, he may risk a planting quite early, as in
+that time the seed ought to germinate, and come up sufficiently to make
+it sure that it will grow. Once up, the plant will hold its own, and
+though cold rains or winds may retard its growth, and cause it to turn
+yellow, it will start anew with the first spell of sunny weather, and
+rapidly change color to its normal green. The above dates apply to the
+latitude of Virginia. In the far south, peanut planting begins early in
+April, while north of Virginia, the first half of June would, in most
+seasons, be quite early enough to commit the seed to the earth. It
+should not be done anywhere until all danger from frost is passed for
+the season. A very slight frost will destroy the Peanut.
+
+=How to Plant.=--I come now to consider the mode of planting. Here no
+very inflexible rules can be given. Practice varies greatly, almost
+every planter differing more or less from his brother planters. The
+chief points are, to get the seed into the ground at suitable distances
+apart both ways, to have the seed, after it is planted, raised slightly
+above the general level, and to have the soil so free from clods that
+there will be nothing to hinder the young plant from pushing through
+after it has started. Any mode of planting that will secure these ends
+will effect the purpose.
+
+If the ground has been once plowed in the early spring, let it be plowed
+again only a few days before planting time, and if at all rough, or
+cloddy, have it harrowed until in fine tilth. When ready to plant, draw
+furrows the same as for corn, two and a half or three feet apart. If
+the land is fresh and strong, and never before in peanuts, make the rows
+at least three feet apart. After a year or two on the same ground,
+peanut vines will not grow so large as at first, and need not be so far
+apart, either from row to row, or from hill to hill. When the land is
+thin, some plant as near as twenty-seven inches from row to row, and
+twelve inches from hill to hill.
+
+If any fertilizer is to be used, let it be put in the furrow before the
+ridge is formed; a man or boy following the plow and spreading the
+fertilizer by hand. A small ridge is then formed by lapping two furrows
+over the drill with the turn plow, after which the knocker and dotter
+follow, one leveling the ridge, and the other dotting the row by making
+little depressions in the soil the proper distance apart for the seeds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--THE KNOCKER AND DOTTER COMBINED.]
+
+=The Knocker and Dotter.=--Sometimes the knocker and dotter are combined
+in one, and it is withal a unique implement. Always home-made, it
+partakes of all the native roughness and varied ingenuity of the
+Southern planter. The engraving, figure 2, will illustrate the mode of
+constructing this implement. Two pieces of timber are sawed from a log
+to serve as wheels, such wood being selected as does not split easily.
+The diameter of the wheel is made the same as the desired distance
+between the hills, and three wooden pins are inserted equi-distant in
+the circumference, so that the wheels will make three dots, or signs,
+for planting, at each revolution. These wheels are connected by an axle,
+and set the same distance apart the rows are to be asunder. Two shafts
+are pinned to the axle, and braced in front of the wheels to keep them
+steady. A piece of heavy scantling, or a log of wood, six inches in
+diameter, is secured to the under side of the shafts just in front of
+the wheels. This is the knocker, and serves to level the ridge before
+the wheels. Properly adjusted, it does beautiful work, and leaves a
+flat, smooth ridge, in fine condition for the seed. The wheels pass
+along on the leveled ridge, making the dots, as shown in figure 2.
+Handles are fixed to the implement to enable the plowman to keep it in
+proper place, and for convenience in turning. One horse is fastened to
+this implement, and two rows are prepared for planting at the same time.
+This utensil would be troublesome to use in an orchard, or on stumpy
+ground. Peanuts, however, should always be planted on open ground clear
+of all impediments. Instead of the knocker and dotter combined, many
+planters omit the wheels, and make a separate implement with one wheel
+and a handle, to work by hand, as represented in figure 3. This can be
+run among trees and stumps. It resembles a wheelbarrow without the body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--THE DOTTER.]
+
+Hands--women, children, or men, follow the dotter, dropping a seed in
+each mark or depression, and carefully covering it with the foot, by
+pressing enough soil into the hole to just fill it. The holes are made
+one and a half to two inches deep, and the hands are cautioned not to
+get the seed covered deeper than that. One inch is deep enough to plant,
+if the soil is moist, but if quite dry the seed may be put deeper.
+Proceeding in this way, covering first with one foot and then with the
+other, the planters get on quite rapidly, although the hills are so near
+together. The planting is not at all tedious after one gets the knack of
+it, and is light and pleasant work. Some planters put two kernels
+instead of one in each hill, to insure a stand, but this practice
+increases the cost considerably, and is by no means general. After the
+seeds are planted they are very slightly, if at all, above the common
+level. In a week or ten days from the time of planting, the seeds will
+begin to heave or crack the ground, which shows that the germ has
+started, and greatly relieves the anxiety of the planter. Then, by
+counting the number of signs in a hundred hills, the farmer readily
+calculates what kind of a stand he will probably have.
+
+=Fertilizers.=--We have already intimated that a calcareous soil is
+indispensable to successful Peanut culture. If the soil is not
+calcareous by nature, it must be made so artificially. Hence the proper
+fertilizer to use is one that contains a large per cent. of lime in some
+of its forms, as the carbonate, the phosphate, the nitrate, or the
+sulphate, or the chloride of calcium. Recently, the sulphate of lime
+(gypsum), has been employed, even on limed or marled land, and its use
+has been attended with good results. Animal and nitrogenous manures are
+not suited to the crop. Such fertilizers produce a heavy growth of
+vines, but there will be no full, solid pods unless lime in some form is
+also present. Marl has been found to be the one specific fertilizer for
+the Peanut plant--better than any other form of lime; and the chief
+element of value in marl has been shown to be the carbonate of lime.
+Some Virginia marls contain as high as seventy-five or eighty per cent.
+of the carbonate, and all of them range over twenty-five or thirty per
+cent. Now, marl is plentiful and cheap all along the Atlantic seaboard,
+from New Jersey to Florida, the beds lying side by side of, and
+intersecting, the very land that is the best adapted to the Peanut--a
+rare and fortunate coincidence, that planters are learning to fully
+appreciate. And were it not that the New Jersey land-owner finds it more
+profitable to raise fruits and vegetables for the two great cities that
+lie on either hand of him, even he would find the Peanut to be a paying
+crop. With his warm, light sand and green marl, he could easily raise
+them. I mention this as one of the possibilities of the Peanut, though
+not likely to be realized for the reason named.
+
+=Replanting.=--In about two weeks from planting, if the weather has been
+mild, the young plants should be large enough to show where replanting
+is necessary. The planter goes along the row, making slight depressions
+with his heel at all the missing hills, drops a pea therein, and covers
+it with the foot, the same way as at the first. Instead of making
+depressions with the heel, some use a long stake, an inch or two in
+diameter, to the lower end of which is affixed a piece of plank,
+fastened two inches from the end, and four or five inches long (fig. 4).
+This is used for punching the holes, and the piece of plank near the end
+prevents it from making the impression too deep. This is another of the
+inventions of the Virginia Peanut-planter; so true is it that "necessity
+is the mother of invention," a new crop calls for new devices for its
+successful and profitable cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--STAKE.]
+
+In replanting, it is well to put two or more kernels to the hill, as the
+season will be getting late, and no time should be lost in securing a
+good stand. There can be no subsequent replanting with any profit.
+
+=Moles and other Depredators.=--The Peanut-planter has to contend with
+many enemies. In many cases moles are exceedingly destructive to the
+planted seed, burrowing along the rows, and eating the seed, hill by
+hill. Often raccoons, foxes, and squirrels grabble them up. And
+everywhere the larger birds, such as crows, doves, and partridges come
+in for a share of the seed, and annoy and hinder the farmer very much.
+There is no remedy but ceaseless vigilance. The planter must go armed at
+every turn to protect his crop. Sometimes planters tar the seed to
+prevent the moles, etc., from destroying them. It perhaps has some
+tendency to check the depredations, but does not prevent them entirely.
+Coal tar is oftenest used for the purpose, a half pint being enough to
+smear a bushel of seed. The seeds are afterwards rolled in dry earth to
+prevent adhesion and trouble in planting. Traps, guns, and scarecrows
+are resorted to with varying success, but if the depredators are
+numerous, the planter is generally the vanquished party.
+
+=The Critical Period.=--The first four or five weeks after the planting
+of this crop is its most critical period, and nothing but a good stand
+and the approach of warm weather will relieve the planter of his
+anxiety. At the first, many fears are reasonably entertained that the
+seed will not germinate well. And even should a pretty fair per-centage
+of the seed come up, cold and rainy weather may still seriously retard
+the growth of the plants, or the numerous depredators that have been
+named may so far reduce the number of hills as to greatly curtail the
+yield per acre. The very young Peanut is among the tenderest of plants,
+and a very slight mishap will serve to destroy or permanently injure it.
+Several days of cold weather at this period will make the struggling
+plants look pale and sickly, and if warm suns are too long delayed, many
+plants will fail altogether.
+
+Backward springs are a great drawback in the cultivation of this crop,
+and cause many farmers to delay planting until it is certain warm
+weather cannot be many days off. If the planter could always be sure of
+his seed, this would be the better plan, but if these late plantings
+fail to come up well, the season is too far advanced for replanted seed
+to make a crop. Further north than Virginia, however, it would, we
+think, be decidedly better to put off planting until both soil and air
+are warm enough to insure quick germination, and then, instead of
+replanting the missing hills with Peanuts, plant beans or field peas
+instead. If the planter can get through the first month successfully, he
+lays aside his fears, and enters upon his work with renewed hope and
+energy. To a recital of this work--the work of cultivation, we now
+invite the reader's attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+CULTIVATION.
+
+
+=First Plowing and Weeding.=--Usually, the cultivation of the Peanut
+begins by first siding the rows with a turn-plow, small mould-board
+attached, by which the soil is thrown from the plants, and lapped into a
+small ridge in the middle of the balk. Care is taken to run the plow
+quite near to the plants, so as to leave as little as possible for the
+hoe to do. The hoes follow the plow, removing the grass between the
+hills, if any, and loosening the soil about the plants. Sometimes,
+however, in case the plants begin to get quite grassy very early in the
+season, the sides of the ridges are first scraped off with the hoe, the
+operator moving backward, and clearing off one side at a time. This
+removes the grass pretty well, but does not loosen the soil about the
+plants. If this method is pursued, the plow should be put on in a week
+from that time, to break the hard crust that will have been formed, and
+to let in the air and heat to the roots of the plants.
+
+If the first plan is followed, the missing hills may be replanted, if
+the former replanting has had time to come up, but otherwise the ground
+about the missing hills should not be disturbed. This, however, should
+depend upon the time at which the weeding begins. If very late, it is
+useless to replant.
+
+The time for the first weeding must depend somewhat on the nature of the
+soil and the quantity of grass that may have sprung up since planting.
+Usually the first working should begin by the time the plants are two
+weeks old, but if the land is mellow and there is but little grass, the
+work may be put off a week longer. But if rains have occurred and a
+crust has formed, and especially if grass is coming on rapidly, the
+planter should not wait for the plants to attain a certain age and size,
+but should proceed to work the crop as soon as the plants are clearly
+out of the ground, and have put forth one or two branches. Any practical
+farmer who knows how to plow and weed young corn, will not be likely to
+err very far in working a crop of peanuts. The operation is simple
+enough, the two points being to clear away the grass and make the soil
+fine and loose around the plants. Any plan of working that will secure
+these ends, will accomplish the purpose.
+
+=Subsequent Workings.=--The second plowing may be done with a
+cultivator, running twice in the row. This will level the ridge in the
+middle of the balk, make the soil loose and fine, and bring the loose
+earth up close to the plants, which will make easy and nice work for the
+hands with the hoes unless there is a great deal of grass. The second
+plowing and weeding is the most important working the crop receives, and
+it is highly important that it be done well. By this time (last of
+June), the days are long and hot, the grass everywhere is growing apace,
+and the Peanut must be kept growing too. The plants have now attained a
+size ranging from that of a saucer to that of a breakfast plate, and
+there will be some hand-picking of grass necessary, because some of it
+will be found growing too near the plants to be cut away with the hoe.
+If there is very little grass, the work goes on smoothly enough, the
+hoes proceed quite rapidly, three hands keeping up with one plow, and
+finishing about two acres a day.
+
+The third plowing may be given with a shovel or cotton-plow, or with the
+cultivator, again running twice in the row. The hoes need not follow at
+this plowing, but may wait until the fourth plowing, done usually toward
+the middle or last of July, or about the time the vines are a foot in
+diameter, and are sending down their peduncles, or stems, on which the
+young pods are forming. The plants begin to blossom by the first of July
+or before, and continue to flower for more than a month. The pods begin
+to form very soon after the flower appears, and by the time of the last
+weeding great care must be taken not to cut the stems. For this reason
+the hoes cannot proceed as fast as at the last weeding, and if there is
+much grass growing up through the vines to be hand picked, this working
+is tedious and laborious enough, and tires to the utmost the patience
+and endurance of the laborer. In fact, this is the worst period in the
+cultivation of the peanut crop. The weather is hot, close, and
+enervating; the frequent stooping and picking makes it doubly laborious;
+and, on account of the size the vines have attained, the plow must
+necessarily leave a wider surface for the hoe to go over. All this makes
+greatly against the hoe hands.
+
+It is no wonder, then, that, with laborers, many of whom are disposed to
+shirk their duty, the last working is too often poorly and inefficiently
+done. With more reliable labor, such as is to be had in the Northern and
+border States, better success would be easily attainable.
+
+The third weeding is the last working with the hoe that the crop
+receives, and next to the last usually given it with the plow. The
+Virginia planter, as a rule, stops weeding by the first of August, or as
+soon as the vines have well met along the row, and have sent down a
+goodly number of young pods. If there is any subsequent removal of
+grass, it is done by picking it out by hand, in order not to interfere
+with the pod stems. But after the last weeding, say in a week or ten
+days, one more plowing is usually given, generally with the cultivator
+or shovel-plow, run once in the row. This throws the soil up under the
+extremities of the vines, leaving the row of plants on a nice flat bed
+and a water furrow in the middle of the balk.
+
+The reader will observe that the cultivation required for the Peanut is
+such as will keep the soil mellow and loose on the surface and clear of
+grass, especially about the vines or plants. Any method of weeding and
+plowing that will secure these ends, will serve the purpose.
+Accordingly, there is a considerable diversity of practice in this
+particular, both as to the mode of plowing, times of working the crop,
+and implements used. The cultivation, however, is as easy and simple as
+that commonly bestowed on Indian corn or beans, but must be a little
+more thorough and painstaking. That is all. None need shrink from
+planting this crop through any apprehension that they will not work it
+properly. The three essential points are: keep the soil loose, the grass
+down, and do no harm to the young pods as they are forming on the vine.
+
+=Implements.=--This topic has been, in a measure, anticipated, allusion
+having already been made to the implements to be used in the cultivation
+of this crop. A few additional remarks, however, may not be out of
+place.
+
+The weeders should be armed with the best steel hoes, with factory-made
+helves of ash, light and slightly flexible. The superiority of this
+hoe--usually called the "goose-neck hoe" in Virginia--over the old style
+of weeding hoe, with the heavy and stiff home-made helve, cannot be
+estimated, except by those who have tried both. The same hand can
+perform an eighth more labor in a day with the light steel hoe, and do
+it better, and with more ease to himself. The "goose-neck" will last two
+or three seasons, costs but little more than the other kind, comes ready
+for work, and is, therefore, very cheap. The blades should be kept sharp
+by repeated filing.
+
+With us the first plowing is generally done with the turn-plow, with a
+small mould-board attached, throwing the earth into the balk. For the
+second plowing, the cultivator or cotton-plow, is used, either one of
+which does fine work on smooth land, and makes it quite easy for the hoe
+hands. The third plowing is commonly performed with the cultivator, but
+if the ground is rough, the turn-plow will answer better. It is not
+common, however, to plant peanuts on very rough ground. For the fourth
+and fifth plowings the cultivator or shovel-plow is used. But should the
+crop get very grassy, (which should never be permitted), the turn-plow,
+with large mould-board attached, is used, in order to cover up as much
+of the grass as possible. This makes a large and objectionable ridge in
+the balk, but it is the best way to conquer the grass when it gets too
+strong a hold. The hoes follow the plow, and scrape off the remaining
+grass, except that near the plants, into the balk. Bunches of grass that
+have grown up among the vines have to be pulled out by hand. Thus, it
+will be seen that there is no plow made especially for cultivating the
+peanut crop, the same plows and implements that are used for other and
+general farming purposes answering equally well for the cultivation of
+this crop also.
+
+=When Cultivation should Cease.=--When the peanut vines have interlocked
+considerably along the rows, and have almost, or quite met across the
+balks, it is high time to cease cultivating them. When the vines are
+large, the cultivator or plow will tear and bruise them more or less,
+sometimes breaking off large branches, and, of course, destroying a
+number of pods. If there is not room for the plow to pass without
+pulling out the young peanuts and harming the vines, it should be taken
+off the field and the crop left to take care of itself. So long as the
+vines remain small, the crop may be worked to some extent, provided
+always that care be taken not to molest the stems that have penetrated
+the soil. Every one of these that is harmed now is a peanut lost. In
+Virginia, two months--June and July--covers the period of cultivation
+for the peanut crop, and it cannot be extended much beyond this time
+without some risk. In fact, a crop that has been faithfully worked
+during this time will not require anything more, and any extra labor is
+as good as thrown away.
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--Fortunately for the planter of peanuts, there is
+scarcely an insect that does them any material harm. At least, such has
+been the case, so far, in Virginia. What subsequent years may bring, is,
+of course, unknown. But up to the present, no insect has ever caused any
+extensive injury to this crop. It is true that ants do sometimes destroy
+a few hills on certain soils, by sucking the cotyledons of the plant
+before it has attained any considerable size and strength. But this is,
+by no means, general. Even the voracious and ubiquitous Colorado Beetle
+manifests no taste for this plant, although it has had abundant
+opportunity to test its edible qualities. To the credit of insects
+generally, be it said, they are not omnivorous.
+
+=Effects of Cold.=--The effect of severe and prolonged cold on the
+Peanut plant in the early part of the season, is often quite manifest.
+Cool nights and cold rains are much dreaded, they cause the plants to
+turn yellow and look sickly. The vines make little or no growth, the
+leaves become spotted and curled, as if they had been touched by fire,
+and the whole plant gets into that unthrifty looking state denominated,
+in the local parlance of the planter, "the pouts." But let a few days of
+warm sun occur, and all is speedily changed. The plants assume a fresh
+and lively green, and their growth is now rapid until they reach
+maturity.
+
+=Effects of Drouth.=--A very dry spring would cause the Peanut to come
+up badly, and would, therefore, seriously affect the crop. Such an
+occurrence, however, is very rare in Virginia, as well as in the country
+generally, and is not regarded with much apprehension. If the plant is
+once well established in the soil, being tap-rooted, it can stand a good
+deal of dry weather. It takes a long period of extremely dry weather to
+materially injure this crop. Such a season did occur in 1883, and the
+consequence was a great many blasted pods and a short crop. Generally,
+moderately dry summers are looked upon with favor by the planter,
+inasmuch as seasons of this kind enable him to keep the crop clean of
+grass at much less cost. Just here we would repeat what we said in
+Chapter II, in relation to deep plowing preparatory to planting. With a
+soil deeply broken in the outset, the Peanut will withstand successfully
+any period of dry weather ever likely to occur in this country. It has
+been noticed that the crops that suffer the most from drouths are those
+planted on land not well prepared, or in orchards of growing trees,
+which necessarily extract a great deal of moisture from the soil. Even
+in a season as severe as that of 1883, peanuts planted on a deep, mellow
+soil out of the reach of trees, did well, and were well seeded and
+filled. Deep preparation of the soil, then, is a corrective of drouth
+for this crop, as well as for any other. With this simple precaution, no
+great apprehension need be entertained of the effects of dry weather.
+Let the planter but do his part in preparation and cultivation, and
+nature will be sure to respond with liberal, if not overflowing crops.
+The corn-planter has more to fear from dry weather than the
+peanut-planter.
+
+=Appearance at this Period.=--The appearance of a thrifty crop of
+peanuts at the time of maturity, or a little after the last weeding, is
+simply magnificent. The vines have now met in both directions, and the
+whole field, from a little distance, looks as if covered with a carpet
+of velvet-plush. Nothing obstructs the view. The vines lie close on the
+soil, and the eye reaches every nook and corner of the field, and takes
+in the whole panorama at one glance. Few other crops afford so clear or
+so pleasing a prospect. Indian corn, in the tender green of summer, is a
+beautiful object to look upon, but it shuts out all view of distant
+parts of the farm. The golden wheat, as it bends to the passing breeze,
+is also beautiful, but one must go around it and not through it. A field
+of cotton, as the open bolls display the snowy lint, is a sight to
+please the admirer of nature, but it lacks the setting of green that is
+always pleasing to the eye. The peanut crop surpasses them all in
+beauty. It presents an air of freedom, of repose, of life, and of
+security from harm, of which no other can boast.
+
+Such is the crop to which we have invited the reader's attention, and
+the planting and cultivation of which we have endeavored to describe.
+Having proceeded thus far, let us pause a moment, as the writer has
+done, time and again, to survey the beautiful prospect of a field of
+peanuts in full maturity. There it is, a literal carpet of living green,
+covering acres on acres of mother earth, and beneath its velvet folds is
+quietly growing the wealth that is to make its owner independent, and by
+means of which the planter's family is to secure most of the necessaries
+and comforts of life. No crop outside of the market gardens, yields so
+much actual cash per acre as this. No wonder, then, that it readily
+becomes popular with all who try it, and that it never loses ground
+wherever introduced under favorable circumstances.
+
+An interval of about two months now elapses, during which the crop
+requires no attention. The seed pods are filling and maturing, and the
+whole plant is ripening for the harvest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HARVESTING.
+
+
+=When to begin Harvesting.=--We come now to the laborious and often
+difficult work of harvesting the peanut crop. We say difficult, for
+often rainy or other unpropitious weather at this period, makes it
+exceedingly hard to save the crop in good condition, and prevent the
+pods from becoming dark or spotted. Ordinarily, the harvesting should
+not begin so long as mild and growing weather continues, even though
+October may be far spent. It is important, of course, to get as many
+firm, matured pods on a vine as possible, and the longer the weather
+holds favorable for this, the more pods, as a rule, will there be.
+
+If, however, the crop has been planted early, and the leaves begin to
+fall from the vines, it is better to start the plow and dig the crop at
+once. When the Peanut plant gets fully matured, it is very apt to begin
+to cast its leaves, especially on ground that has been planted in
+peanuts often before. After the leaves fall off, the vines are of very
+little value as hay, and as most planters consider them excellent
+provender, they make it a point to harvest the crop in time to secure
+good hay. For the same reason, effort is made to dig and shock the vines
+before a killing frost occurs. Frost spoils the vines for fodder, though
+it does no harm to the pods, unless it be for seed. Some suppose that
+seed taken from frost-bitten vines will not come up well.
+
+In the latitude of Virginia the usual time for digging the peanut crop
+is the second and third weeks in October. That is, the great bulk of the
+crop is dug about this time, though some start the first week in that
+month, and others wait until the close, unless driven to start earlier
+by the weather. In rare cases, some planters dig by the twenty-fifth of
+September, but it is generally believed that all who start thus early
+lose more in weight and yield than they gain in time or price. Six or
+ten days of mild weather at this stage of the crop, will make an
+appreciable difference in the yield, and if the peanuts can remain in
+the ground until the latter part of October, there will be very few
+saps, or immature pods. But, in whatever latitude the planter may
+reside, the general rule should be, to dig before a killing frost
+occurs.
+
+=Mode of Harvesting.=--In Virginia, the general practice is as follows:
+First, plow the peanuts with a point having a long, narrow wing, and a
+small mould-board, so that the vines will be loosened without having any
+earth thrown upon them. The plow passes along on both sides of the rows,
+just near enough for the wing to fairly reach the tap-root, which it
+severs. Care is taken to put the plow deep enough to pass under the pods
+without severing them from the vines. This is important, as most of the
+detached pods are lost, and if the work is slovenly done, the loss will
+be great.
+
+Hands with pitchforks follow the plow, lift the vines from the loose
+soil, shake them well to get the earth off, and then lay them down,
+either singly or in small piles, to remain a day or two to wilt and cure
+in the sun. This is light work, and can be done rapidly, two hands being
+enough to keep up with one plow. If rain is feared, it is best to lay
+the vines down singly after shaking them, for, when in piles, if rain
+occurs, and the weather is warm, the pods are apt to speck and mildew
+before the vines can dry out. A rain falling on the pods after they are
+dug, and before they are shocked, does no harm, if the sun comes out
+soon to dry them before they can mildew.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--SHOCK STANDING.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--SHOCK REMOVED.]
+
+Instead of leaving the vines on the ground a day or two to cure, many
+shock them up at once. If the vines are perfectly dry, this is as good a
+plan as any. But if the weather should be warm, and the vines are wet
+with dew or rain when put up, they will be sure to heat, and the pods
+will turn dark. In cold weather the vines may be shocked both green and
+wet without risk.
+
+The method of shocking the Peanuts will be understood from figure 5,
+which represents a shock as it stands in the field. A shock as it is
+taken down for picking is shown in figure 6. The vines are first laid
+together in piles, about as much as one can handily carry on the fork at
+one time, three rows being put in one. The stakes, which have been
+previously prepared, are then set in the ground proper distances apart,
+and two billets of wood, four or five inches in diameter and two feet
+long, are placed beside each stake to keep the vines off the ground. A
+handful of vines is then laid, pods up, on one side of the stake for a
+bed, and the same on the other side. After this the vines are put on,
+pods down. The first are inverted to keep the pods off the ground,
+though this is a matter of trifling importance, if the billets of wood
+are large enough. The successive handfuls of vines are laid up with
+care, keeping the shock level, lapping the vines, and placing them on
+every side to make the work even. As the work progresses the vines may
+be pressed down with the hands, and the shocks are finished off round at
+top, the better to shed the water. No cap or covering for the shocks is
+used, though much would frequently be saved, could a cheap one be had. A
+board nailed on the top of the stakes would protect the top layer very
+much, and yet the planter who should adopt it would doubtless be laughed
+at.
+
+A fast hand can put up fifty or sixty shocks a day, with a boy to bring
+up the vines and assist in planting the stakes. Some shockers use the
+fork to lay up the vines, especially toward the top. The shocks are put
+up one in a place wherever needed, so as to make the work convenient for
+the carrier. Some, however, put three or more shocks together, as suits
+their fancy, in which case fence rails are usually employed to build
+the shocks upon.
+
+The above method is generally practised, but there are many variations
+in almost every detail. We have endeavored to give a clear idea of a
+safe method.
+
+=Why Cured in the Field.=--Perhaps some reader unacquainted with the
+cultivation of the Peanut, may ask: Why all this trouble to shock and
+cure the crop in the field? Why not pick the pods from the vines as soon
+as they are dug, and cure the peanuts on scaffolds, or elsewhere, and
+cure the vines on the ground, like hay?
+
+We answer, because the pods cure better in the shock than in any other
+way. They get dry sooner, and make heavier and brighter peanuts than
+could possibly be the case, were they gathered at once, and spread, even
+in very thin layers, on scaffolds to dry. Besides, as rain on the pods
+when they are about half cured, or during the process of curing, would
+be very harmful, it is found best to protect the pods by covering them
+in shock. They can get more air in shock than if spread on a scaffold,
+and a free circulation of air about them is important. A scaffold close
+enough to hold the pods would exclude the air in every direction, except
+from above. When shocks are put up well, the pods are very effectually
+protected, except a few on the top, and in about ten days are cured nice
+and bright, and ready to be picked off. The shocks may remain in the
+field many weeks, subject to repeated rains, without material injury. Of
+course rains of several days continuance would damage the peanuts more
+or less. It is best therefore, on this account, and because of the
+numerous depredators that prey upon the crop while it remains in the
+field, to house it as soon as sufficiently cured to render it certain
+the pods will not heat and spoil when in bulk.
+
+=Depredators.=--The creatures of the animal kingdom that levy their tax
+on the unwilling planter, and come in for a share--and often a large
+share--of the peanut crop, are of many kinds, and numerous in all. Of
+quadrupeds, the deer, fox, raccoon, squirrel, and sometimes even the
+dog, are more or less destructive; the raccoon, squirrel, and fox are
+particularly so, beginning their inroads early in the fall by scratching
+up the immature pods, and continuing their thefts daily and nightly as
+long as any remain in the field. In some localities, these animals are
+exceedingly annoying, and occasion great loss unless their depredations
+can be checked.
+
+Next to the animals named, birds are most destructive, while the peanuts
+are in shock. Such birds as the blue-jay, crow, partridge, yellow
+hammer, wild turkey, and blackbird, coming, as some of them do, not
+singly, but in companies and flocks of hundreds and thousands at a time,
+carry off vast quantities, unless the planter is always on the alert,
+gun in hand, ready to meet them at every turn. Near the James, and other
+large rivers, it is a common occurrence to see, not thousands only, but
+tens of thousands of blackbirds in a single field at one time. They
+often go in flocks covering acres on acres of ground, and with their
+ceaseless activity and endless trilling, present an appearance of which
+city-bred people can form no adequate idea. Of course they destroy a
+vast amount of peanuts in a short time, unless speedily driven off.
+
+There are also several species of field rats and mice, together with the
+domestic rats and mice that get into the shocks to feed on the pods,
+where they remain until disturbed by the pickers. Everything seems fond
+of the Peanut after it is made, and if the planter escapes the insect
+enemies in the summer, the exemption is more than offset by the numerous
+and voracious depredators of the fall and winter.
+
+And against most of them, there is no effective remedy, the planter
+cannot watch his crop all the time, and traps are hardly worth using. It
+is true, something may be done with steel traps for such animals as the
+fox, raccoon, and squirrel. But for the rest, despatch in removing the
+crop from the field, is the only certain preventive. Even then the
+planter does not entirely escape, for rats and mice follow him within
+doors, and riot in luxurious living so long as a single shock remains
+undisturbed. Perhaps no crop the Southern farmer grows is subject to
+heavier or oftener repeated losses than the Peanut. Yet, despite it all,
+it is a crop that often pays very handsome returns. It has been, and is,
+the sheet anchor of many an East Virginia farmer, and if prices hold up,
+will continue to be, so long as there are lands here that will produce
+thirty bushels of peanuts to the acre. This is but the minimum; the
+maximum is not known; a hundred and thirty bushels per acre has been
+attained.
+
+=Detached Peanuts.=--In the process of digging and shocking peanuts,
+many pods must necessarily become detached from the vines. Some of
+these remain in the soil, out of sight, and numbers more are scattered
+over the ground, from one side of the field to the other. If the vines
+are fully matured, and have changed color or shed their leaves, and
+especially if frost has touched them, the pods come off much more freely
+than if the vines are still green, or scarcely done growing. Generally,
+the detached pods are the best of the crop, being those first matured,
+and which are therefore solid and heavy.
+
+Of course these peanuts must not be lost. Women and children are
+employed to pick them up at so much per bushel. If it is found that many
+pods remain in the ground, a cultivator or light plow is run along the
+rows to bring them in sight. In this way the most of the loose peanuts
+are saved. Still, numbers will be left in the ground. The planter is at
+no loss, however, to secure these also, which he does by turning his
+fattening hogs on the ground as soon as he can remove the crop from the
+field. Hogs are exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and as soon as they find
+them out, they will continue to root for them as long as one can be had.
+Frequently, every square yard of large fields, will be burrowed over by
+the hogs in their search for the detached peanuts. No crop the planter
+grows will fatten a hog so quickly as the Peanut. Thus in the harvesting
+of this beautiful and profitable crop, nothing is allowed to be lost.
+
+=Saving Seed Peanuts.=--It now remains to say something of the method of
+saving seed peanuts. Every step in this process must have in view one
+principal point--keeping the pods from becoming the least heated, either
+in shock or in bulk. Perfect and continued ventilation must be secured.
+The vines should not be shocked while green, nor the pods kept in large
+bulk after being picked off. Neither should the vines be touched by
+frost, either before or after being dug.
+
+It is customary to dig and shake the vines as usual, and leave them in
+the field four or five days, or a week, before they are either piled or
+shocked. In this time, if the weather is fair, the vines will be so
+nearly cured that not enough moisture will remain in them to create a
+heat, even in very warm weather, and they may then be shocked with
+perfect safety, after which they should remain in the field until
+thoroughly dry. Rain falling on the vines while they are lying in the
+field, does no harm, except it be to turn the pods a little dark, which
+circumstance makes no difference with seed peanuts.
+
+When the seeds are picked off, keep them in baskets until ready to
+spread them in a cool, dry room, where they will be exposed to a free
+circulation of air. In no case should they be in bulk. Spread them
+thinly in some loft, where the air will reach them, and where they will
+be secure from rats and mice. They may be stored in sacks the same as
+for sale, and laid in an airy room to remain all winter. They should not
+be kept in a room where there is a stove, or one subject to currents of
+hot air.
+
+These suggestions embody all that need be done to secure good seed. If
+peanuts are fully cured when picked off, and are not kept too close,
+they will prove good seed, unless there is some radical defect of the
+germ or vital powers. Keep them from heating, and they will germinate
+and grow as readily as corn. Every planter may, and should, save his own
+seed. According to the number of acres that he thinks of planting, let
+him provide two bushels of seed (or forty-four pounds in the hull), for
+each acre, and he will have enough and some to spare.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MARKETING.
+
+
+It requires as much judgment to market a crop well, as it does to raise
+and harvest it, and often more. Unfortunately, the majority of planters
+are sadly deficient in that knowledge of commercial life, which would
+make them masters of the situation. Too often they are bound by lien or
+mortgage, or else they have run up a heavy bill at the country store,
+and when the crop is made and ready for market, they are obliged to sell
+forthwith. Generally too, this is the very time when prices are lowest,
+and so the planter is obliged to part with the fruits of his labor at
+the most unfavorable rates, and allow the middlemen to pocket the
+profits. It is only by careful economy and prudent management, on the
+part of each planter for himself, that this evil is to be corrected.
+Without entering into the details of commercial affairs, we will
+endeavor to show the planter how he may go into market with his crop,
+prepared to command the best prices. To this end, it is essential that
+he have his crop in the best marketable condition, remembering that a
+good article always sells well.
+
+=Picking off the Peanuts.=--This part of the work, usually done by women
+and children, may make or spoil the sale of the entire crop. If stems
+are gathered with the pods, and good, bad, and indifferent are all
+lumped together, with leaves and trash thrown in for good measure, a
+great deal of assorting and cleaning will subsequently be required, or
+else the sale of the crop will be impaired to the extent of one or two
+cents to the pound. In picking, the stems should be rejected, and the
+saps and inferior pods, if gathered at all, be kept apart from the rest.
+Only the best, brightest, and soundest pods should go into the A, No.
+1's, and these, if clean of earth and trash, will always bring top
+prices. The saps also will sell, at lower rates. It is the neglect of
+these few precautions that so sadly curtails the bill of sale of many a
+planter. If planters would offer pickers extra inducements for clean
+pods, this difficulty would, to a great extent, be obviated. When the
+same price is paid for all, without regard to the manner of picking, a
+premium is offered for slovenly work, and the careless get better paid
+than the painstaking.
+
+In picking, the pops should be refused altogether, and the saps and very
+dark pods go by themselves. Many planters, however, leave the saps on
+the vines, saving the best only. The saps, however, will sell, either in
+pod or shelled, and if numerous, will more than pay for picking them. It
+is, therefore, so much gained. It must be confessed, however, that the
+presence of a good many saps on the vines, makes them much more valuable
+as feed.
+
+Just here let us explain that "pops" are pods that have attained full
+size and firmness, but which are minus the seed. Dry weather, and the
+lack of calcareous manures in the soil, will cause many pops. "Saps" are
+immature pods, the last to form on the vine, and which might become good
+peanuts if they could have a longer period of growing weather. The
+presence of pops in the marketable peanuts is very detrimental to their
+sale, and hence should be carefully rejected in picking. Saps also are
+detrimental, but to a less extent than pops.
+
+=Price paid Pickers.=--The price paid pickers varies somewhat from one
+season to another, according to the quality of the peanuts, and the
+market price received for them. Hands commonly board themselves, and
+receive so much per bushel for picking. Of late years, the price has
+stood pretty uniformly, at twelve to fifteen cents per bushel. The
+peanuts are either measured or weighed. If weighed, twenty-four pounds
+are counted as a bushel in the first part of the season, the extra two
+pounds being taken to make up for the subsequent loss in weight. If a
+hand is boarded by the owner of the crop, he gets but ten cents a bushel
+for picking. A fast hand will pick from four to six bushels a day, the
+children are just as likely to do this as grown people. Hence, at this
+season of the year, women and children earn what is considered pretty
+fair wages. Under the most favorable circumstances, the best hands will
+pick seven bushels a day. Very much depends, however, on the quality of
+the peanuts, and something also on the weather. In very dry weather, the
+stems come off with the pod, and pickers cannot do as well.
+
+=Cleaning and Bagging.=--After the peanuts are picked off, they should
+be cleaned, before being sacked. The object of this, of course, is to
+rid them of the earth that may still be adhering to them. It makes the
+hull look cleaner, and brighter also, and thus enhances the sale.
+Formerly, the planter made his own cleaning machine, but recently, since
+the starting of what are called "Peanut factories," the planter very
+seldom runs his peanuts through any machine at all, but sells them just
+as they are picked. Being thus rid of much trouble and labor, it is
+doubtful whether it would now pay the planter to clean his peanuts, as
+he once did. The price paid for them now, is almost as much as he would
+realize, were he to take ever so much pains in cleaning them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--VIRGINIA PEANUT CLEANING MACHINE.]
+
+But as the reader in other parts of the country, may desire to know
+something of the mode of cleaning peanuts at home, we give a description
+of the Virginia machine for this purpose. There is no patent on this
+machine, and any one may make it for himself. A cylinder (figure 7), as
+large as a flour barrel; is formed by nailing narrow slats of plank, to
+two circular pieces of timber. The slats are put a little way apart, but
+not far enough for the pods to slip through when the cylinder is turned.
+A piece of timber runs lengthwise, through the centre of the cylinder,
+the ends of this project about a foot, and serve as an axle on which to
+turn it. A crank is attached to one end or both ends of the axle. Two
+pieces of scantling are fastened together in the shape of an X, one for
+each end, and these are held upright by having pieces nailed on
+horizontally, from one to the other. Several slats on the cylinder are
+fastened together to make a door, and this is attached to the cylinder
+by hinges, and fastened with a button.
+
+The peanuts are poured into the cylinder, two or three bushels at a
+time, and it is made to revolve slowly, until all the earth and litter
+has fallen out. The door is then opened, the peanuts turned out and
+bagged.
+
+In bagging the peanuts, care should be taken to have the sacks well
+filled. They are estimated to hold four bushels each, and if properly
+filled, good solid peanuts will over-run a little, especially in the
+first part of the season, before they are thoroughly cured. As the sacks
+are being sewed up, the corners must be packed with peanuts as long as
+any more can be got in. For sewing up the sacks, the planter needs a
+large peanut-sack needle and twine made purposely for this business.
+Sacks cost the farmer, at the present, ten cents each, and generally the
+peanuts are sold by gross weight and nothing paid for the sacks. In some
+markets the sacks are paid for, and a pound deducted from the gross
+weight, for each sack. If the planter sells to a merchant near home, he
+seldom sews up the sacks, but ties them, and they are emptied and
+returned to him at the store.
+
+=Peanut "Factories."=--It does not fall within our present plan to
+describe these establishments, any further than to give the reader,
+outside of the peanut belts, an idea of them. Formerly, many peanuts
+were sent into market without being properly assorted and cleaned, and
+it was found that, by assorting and re-cleaning them, a little margin of
+profit was left after paying expenses. One step led to another, and
+various appliances and machines were brought into requisition, until
+now, large buildings are devoted solely to the purpose of cleaning,
+assorting, and storing the peanuts. Some of these establishments employ
+many hands, both male and female, to clean, separate, and re-bag the
+peanuts ready for the trade.
+
+Thus it has happened, that the business of cleaning peanuts has been
+taken out of the hands of the farmer, reduced to a system, and made a
+new industry. In fact, a division of labor; and now the merchant buys
+the peanuts of the planter just as they are picked, and the "factories,"
+so-called, clean and assort them for the large buyers. Still, the
+merchant will pay more for Peanuts in nice order, and perhaps it would
+even now pay the farmer to properly clean and assort his crop before
+selling it.
+
+=The Best Markets.=--A few years ago, the city of Norfolk was the sole
+market for the Virginia and North Carolina planter, and New York for the
+wholesale dealer. Later on, Wilmington, Petersburg, Richmond, and
+several of the smaller towns began to buy peanuts, until now, every
+village and trading centre throughout the whole peanut belt, has become
+the repository for the crop of its own immediate section. Every year,
+the market has been coming nearer and nearer to the planter, until now
+he finds it about as profitable to sell to the nearest country merchant,
+as to ship to town, and sometimes more so. Frequently, the country
+merchant becomes the agent of some large buyer, who furnishes the
+capital, and he buys all the peanuts he can, at figures very near the
+ruling market price. Of course, this works very much to the planter's
+benefit. He sees his crop weighed, he escapes the middleman, with all
+the attendant expenses, such as commissions, freight, etc., he sells for
+cash, and he does not have to wait several weeks for returns.
+
+Under this state of affairs, the home market, or home buyer, becomes the
+best for the farmer. And with the constantly increasing demand, and
+close competition between buyers, the cleaning factories are also coming
+nearer the farmer, and already exist, or will soon exist, in each of the
+counties and sections where the Peanut is much grown. Thus the planters
+generally, will soon be enabled to sell directly to the cleaners, and
+the latter to the wholesale buyers. So the planter will get market
+prices, without the trouble of going to market. Perhaps the competition
+will eventually grow sharper still, until, not only will the peanuts be
+cleaned and bought at home, but will also be manufactured into oil,
+flour, and the other commercial forms, in the sections where they are
+grown. In everything, the tendency now is, to carry the factories to
+the raw material, and not the latter to the factories. It is not to be
+presumed that this crop will prove an exception.
+
+Thus it is, that the farmer's work is being narrowed down, by the
+inevitable and beneficial law of the division of labor. The planter may
+now turn his attention wholly to the cultivation of the crop. How to
+order it, so as to realize the largest possible yield from the smallest
+possible areas, is now the problem before him. He finds given to his
+hands, a great and growing staple with great, and still unknown,
+possibilities, and he sees the demand becoming larger and more earnest,
+until now, the buyer comes to his very door, and puts down the ready
+cash for all of this crop that he has to sell.
+
+Of course the planter must, and will bestir himself, to meet the
+ever-increasing demand. To do this with profit to himself, he must study
+this crop from beginning to end, he must learn the nature of the Peanut
+plant fully and correctly, and discovering how to increase the yield per
+acre to its maximum, unravel the secret of how to grow it at the least
+cost per bushel.
+
+=Picking Machines.=--It may be well here to allude to a question, which,
+doubtless, the thoughtful reader has already asked himself, namely: Why
+does not some one invent a machine for picking peanuts rapidly, instead
+of having to do it by the slow and tedious process of hand-picking? In
+reply we state, that numerous attempts to do so have been made, but with
+very indifferent success. None of the many picking machines, that have
+hitherto been offered, have given satisfaction. It seems that they
+cannot be made to do the work, and most planters appear to have given up
+looking for any help in this direction. Very recently, the writer has
+heard of one picking machine that is said to be giving satisfaction, but
+he has not seen it, or conversed with any one who has done so. That an
+efficient machine of this kind is an impossibility, is not believed, but
+whether anything can be made that would pay better than the old method,
+is the question. The planter must await developments. Perhaps some
+ingenious mechanic will take up the problem, and give the planter a
+perfect and cheap picking machine. Here is a field for ingenuity. A good
+machine would be a profitable invention. Who will try?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having now traced the Peanut plant through the whole process of its
+planting, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing, the practical part of
+our task is ended. If the directions are such as will enable the
+beginner in this branch of rural industry, to successfully cultivate and
+manage this crop, the end will have been attained, and this little book
+will not have been written in vain. It has been prepared for those
+having no practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the peanut
+crop, not for the old and experienced planter. And yet, without egotism,
+it is believed that even the latter may find something in it that will
+be of use to him. Practices vary in different sections, even among men
+of the same calling, and inasmuch as methods herein detailed, will be
+found to vary from those practiced in North Carolina, Tennessee,
+Georgia, or the far South, so will the planter in those States who may
+chance to read this treatise, be enabled to compare our methods with
+his, to see wherein they differ, and perchance may find here some point
+or plan a little better than his own.
+
+It only remains now to give, in another chapter, some of the many uses
+of the Peanut.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+USES.
+
+
+Some of the more important uses of the Peanut and its plant are here
+given. In the course of time, as new discoveries are made, it is not
+improbable that the Peanut may subserve other valuable ends. But if no
+more uses than are now known, are ever found for any part of this plant,
+it will continue to occupy an important position among the agricultural
+productions of the country. Its importance will increase year by year,
+its value being too well understood and appreciated for it ever to lose
+its place among our leading crops.
+
+=Peanut Oil.=--The use that gives the Peanut especial value as an
+American crop, is the place it occupies as an oil-producing plant. The
+oil of the Peanut is regarded as equal in all respects to sweet or olive
+oil, and may be employed for every purpose to which that is applied.
+This gives it at once a commanding position, and were no other use found
+for the plant, this would give it great importance among the economic
+productions of our country. Olive oil is largely consumed for culinary
+uses, in medicine, and in the arts. Except in California, the olive has
+never been planted upon a commercial scale in this country, and it is
+very important that we possess a plant, that will obviate our dependence
+upon foreign oil. Of course, it is not within our scope to describe the
+manufacture of Peanut oil. The farmer is satisfied with knowing that his
+crops are in demand, and need not trouble himself about the methods by
+which they are converted into this or that useful commodity.
+
+It is stated that a bushel of peanuts (twenty-two pounds in the hull)
+subjected to the hydraulic press, will yield one gallon of oil. The
+yield by cold pressure, is from forty to fifty per cent. of the shelled
+kernels, though if heat be used, a larger quantity of oil, but of
+inferior quality, is obtained. The best Peanut oil is nearly colorless,
+with a faint, agreeable odor, and a bland taste, resembling that of
+olive oil. It is more limpid than olive oil, and becomes thick when
+exposed to a temperature a few degrees below the freezing point of
+water. Peanut oil is not one of the drying oils. During the late war it
+was extensively employed in the Southern machine shops, and regarded as
+superior in its lubricating qualities to whale oil. For burning it is
+highly esteemed. The chief consumption of the oil is in making soap. For
+the production of oil for soap making, there were imported into
+Marseilles, France, from the West Coast of Africa, in one year, peanuts
+to the value of over five millions of dollars.
+
+The residuum, or oil cake, may be sold for cattle feed.
+
+=Roasted Peanuts.=--Almost every person residing in the eastern section
+of our country, must necessarily know something of the value of roasted
+peanuts. One cannot pass along the streets of any of our larger cities
+and towns, without encountering, at every turn, the little peanut
+stands, where roasted peanuts are sold by the pint. They are kept for
+sale in numerous shops, they are peddled on the railroad cars, and sold
+to the loungers at every depot. Roasted peanuts are more common than
+roasted chestnuts once were, and almost everybody eats them. Even the
+ladies are fond of them, and frequently have them at their parties.
+
+It is safe then to say, that everybody likes them, and finds them
+palatable, healthful, and fattening. From a pig to a school boy, no diet
+will fatten sooner than roasted peanuts. A person can live on them alone
+for an indefinite period, if eaten regularly and with moderation. The
+analysis of the Peanut shows it to be rich in the albuminoids, or
+flesh-forming elements. Roasted peanuts, therefore, form a very useful
+article of diet, and fill a place between the luxuries and the
+necessaries of common life. Wherever they have been once introduced,
+they cannot well be dispensed with; and as their use in this respect is
+constantly extending, this purpose alone would serve to keep the product
+before the public as a salable article. Once let the Peanut find its way
+to the great cities of Europe, and roasted peanuts be sold upon the
+streets there, as well as here, and the demand for them will far exceed
+the present limits, and the cultivation be necessarily extended over a
+much wider area than now. There is every reason to believe that the
+demand for the crop will continue to increase.
+
+=Peanut Candy.=--This is another of the purposes to which the Peanut has
+been applied, and serves to illustrate how varied and numerous are the
+uses of this remarkable production. Flat bars of sugar candy are stuck
+full of the broken kernels of the roasted nuts. It is quite good, and
+forms a pleasing addition to other kinds of confectionery.
+
+=Peanut Coffee.=--Here again the Peanut fills a useful end, especially
+in times of scarcity, or high prices for coffee. Taken alone, and
+without any addition whatever of the pure berry, the Peanut makes a
+quite good and palatable beverage. It closely resembles chocolate in
+flavor, is milder and less stimulating than pure coffee, and
+considerably cheaper than Rio or Java. If mixed, half and half, with
+pure coffee before parching, and roasted and ground together, the same
+quantity will go as far and make about as good a beverage as the pure
+article, and a better one than much of the ground and adulterated coffee
+offered in the market. Indeed, if people will adulterate their coffee,
+it were much to be wished that they would use nothing more harmful than
+the Peanut for this purpose.
+
+For making the beverage, the Peanut is parched and ground the same as
+coffee, the mode of decoction the same, and it is taken with cream and
+sugar, like the pure article.
+
+=Peanut Chocolate.=--True chocolate is made by roasting and grinding to
+a paste, by the aid of heat, a very oily seed, the Cocoa-bean. In the
+preparation of chocolate a great variety of articles are used to
+adulterate it and diminish its cost. Some of these, such as sugar and
+starchy substances, are harmless, while others, such as mineral coloring
+matters are injurious. Peanuts are largely used to adulterate chocolate,
+and so far as wholesomeness is concerned, are not objectionable. In
+containing a great deal of starch and oil, peanuts resemble the
+cocoa-bean, though without the nitrogenous principle, _theobromine_
+(which closely resembles _caffeine_), to which its nutritive qualities
+are largely due. Peanut chocolate is made in some Southern families by
+beating the properly roasted nuts in a mortar with sugar, and flavoring
+with cinnamon or vanilla as may be desired. Peanut chocolate, on so high
+an authority as the author, the late William Gilmore Simms, is vastly
+superior to peanut coffee.
+
+=Peanut Bread.=--If peanuts are first mashed or ground into a pulp, and
+then worked into the dough in the process of kneading, no lard will be
+required to make good biscuit, and the bread will have an agreeable
+flavor, different from that imparted by lard, but of such a mild and
+pleasant taste as to be entirely unlike the peanut flavor. The skin of
+the kernel must first be removed, or it will impart a bitterish and
+nutty taste. There is some difficulty in doing this. Scalding does not
+do it very well. Strong soda water or lye, will quickly loosen it, so
+that it may be readily removed by rubbing with the hands, but either
+fluid would soon convert the Peanut into soap, and is, therefore,
+impracticable for this purpose. Could some cheap and handy machine be
+invented, that would remove the skin from the kernel without loss, no
+doubt large quantities of peanuts would be used for bread-making
+purposes. Whether or not it would be economical, we cannot at present
+say.
+
+=Peanut Soap.=--If a fair article of soap can be made of corn shucks, as
+was done in the South during the late war, then there can be no doubt
+that a better quality can be made from Peanuts. Surely a vegetable
+product containing such a large per-centage of oil, would be easily
+acted upon by lye. The writer has not experimented in this direction,
+but we hear of some who have tried it, and who say they have made a good
+and serviceable soap from the kernels of the Peanut without the addition
+of other oil or grease. We have no doubt but very good soap may be made
+from the Peanut, but whether the manufacture of such an article would be
+profitable at present prices, is another question. Perhaps for ordinary
+laundry soap it would not, but for the higher grades of toilet soap it
+might be. Here is a field for experiment, and yet we mention this use,
+as well as those of bread-making and coffee from the same article, as
+one of the possibilities of this plant, rather than a result to be
+looked for in the near future, if at all. It is well that manufacturers,
+and all others, should know what is capable of being done with this
+promising product. The more we can multiply the uses of any product of
+our farms, the wider will be the demand for it, and this is what the
+farmers desire.
+
+=Peanuts as Feed for Stock.=--This is a use for the Peanut, about which
+we can speak with confidence, and from experience. We now refer to the
+peanut pod, including, of course, the kernel, and not the vine or hay.
+Every kind of stock, horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and poultry, are
+exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and will leave any other food to partake
+of it. Cows, horses, and sheep eat the whole pod, hull and kernel
+together. Hogs and poultry (except turkeys) reject the hull, eating the
+kernel only. Turkeys, as a rule, swallow the pod whole, and a real live
+turkey can hide away quite a quantity of the nuts in a short time, if
+allowed free access to them. In fact, all animals do not seem to know
+when they have enough of this food. All stock fattens readily on them.
+The hog will lay on flesh faster on a diet of peanuts, than on corn,
+potatoes, or any other product with which the writer is acquainted. The
+poorest scrub of a hog, turned into a peanut field, after the crop is
+removed, and where he can get nothing but the pods he may find by
+rooting for them, will change his appearance in three days, and in a
+week, will be so much improved as hardly to be recognized as the same
+animal. As a pork producer we believe that the Peanut has not its
+superior in any clime or country. It is a thorough fat-former. Poultry
+intended for laying should be sparingly fed with it.
+
+But we would not leave this subject without a grain of caution. While
+all stock fattens rapidly on the Peanut, it must be confessed that the
+fat is not always of the best quality. It is less firm and more oily
+than the fat derived from Indian corn, nor will the lard from hogs
+fattened upon peanuts show that pearly white and flaky appearance, which
+is the marked characteristic of pure lard made from corn. For this
+reason, most planters in the peanut belt, feed their peanut-fed hogs on
+corn only for two or three weeks before killing them. This is done to
+make the lard firm and white, and in this manner, good pork and lard are
+produced at only a trifling cost. The hogs get nearly fat from the
+detached peanuts left in the field, and which otherwise would be lost.
+In this way the peanut-planter derives a very important benefit from
+this crop, apart from its value as a source of ready money. Were there
+no other use for the peanut, it would still pay well to raise it for
+making pork. In this case, the planting and cultivation would be the
+sole cost, as the animals would do all the harvesting. A very small
+field would fatten quite a number of hogs. Poultry intended for market,
+might well be fed on Peanuts, instead of corn or oats. The fowls would
+fatten faster and at less cost. In fact, we believe it would be
+economical to buy peanuts at ruling prices for fattening stock,
+especially old stock.
+
+=Peanut Hay.=--If dug and cured before frost touches them, and before
+the leaves fall to any great extent, peanut vines make a very good
+provender for all stock. Some say it is better than blade fodder for
+horses and mules, but we are not prepared to advance this extravagant
+claim for it. It is, however, certainly an excellent article of fodder
+for cattle, sheep, mules, and horses, and if many sap peanuts are left
+on the vines, stock that is not worked much, will need no other feed
+during the winter months to keep them in good condition.
+
+Most planters, accordingly, make it an object to try to save the vines
+for hay, and aim to dig the crop before they are injured by frost.
+After a killing frost touches them, the vines are next to worthless as a
+feed. In fact, frost-bitten peanut vines are harmful, rather than
+beneficial, to stock, often causing colics, and endangering the life of
+a valuable horse or mule. Peanut vines, even the best of them, unharmed
+by frost, should not be fed very largely to horses. There is always a
+good deal of grit and dust upon them, and much of this taken into the
+stomach, cannot but be more or less harmful to the animals.
+
+And yet, despite these few drawbacks, peanut hay has proved to be a
+valuable forage, and one that the peanut-planter could not well dispense
+with, inasmuch as so many do not make enough of other forage to serve
+them, and must, therefore, depend on the peanut crop to help them out.
+Thus the planter is benefited in several ways through this crop. He gets
+a valuable staple to sell, and one that always commands the ready cash,
+he fattens his hogs on the pods left in the ground, and he secures a
+large amount of very good hay in the vines. Thus he is doubly benefited,
+and no matter how low the price of peanuts may be, the farmer does not,
+and cannot, ordinarily, lose much on the cultivation of this great crop.
+If he does not risk too much on commercial fertilizers, which no planter
+of this crop ever should do, he runs little risk of suffering any
+crushing loss thereon.
+
+Such is a brief but connected view of the Peanut crop from the time of
+planting the seed, to its sale and manufacture. The views and practice
+here advanced are all from original sources. We have not drawn upon any
+other writer for any part of this treatise. Indeed, save a few short
+articles scattered through the agricultural press of the past ten or
+fifteen years, we know of no source from whence material could be
+derived. So far as we are aware, this is the pioneer work in America on
+the Peanut plant. This being the case, it must, of course, be quite
+defective. We might easily have made it a larger book, and perhaps some
+few years hence, when the field and subject shall have enlarged, it will
+be found desirable to revise and enlarge this treatise. For the present,
+we must be satisfied with smaller things, and remain content with a few
+practical directions rather than an elaborate work. Until that time, if
+it comes at all, we lay aside the pen, and turn our hands (as it has
+been our wont to do during the past few weeks) to actual labors in
+connection with the Peanut plant.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A.
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+
+It was our design, at first, to present a somewhat full array of
+statistics in relation to the Peanut. This, however, was soon found to
+be impracticable. The more we studied the few data at hand, the more
+were we convinced of their utter unreliability. The fact is, so far as
+the writer is aware, there are no credible data of this crop existing.
+No authoritative and systematic attempt to gather and compile the
+statistics of the Peanut has ever been made, and until this is done we
+shall never know its full extent and value. The "estimates"--mere
+guesses--of certain mercantile houses and newspapers, to express the
+bulk of the crop are, beyond a doubt, far wide of the mark. The
+following from a Georgia paper, is of this class:
+
+"The goober[2] plays a more important part in commerce than might be
+supposed. We are all aware of its value as a social factor--of its
+influence upon oratory, music, and the drama--but how few of us know
+that one million nine hundred and seventy thousand bushels of this
+savory nut were consumed in this country during the twelve months ending
+on the thirtieth of September, 1883. These figures do not include the
+local consumption--say, for instance, in the rural districts of Georgia,
+where every substantial farmer has a patch of his own.
+
+"The figures relating to the goober crop make a column in the various
+prices current, but Georgia is not credited with any part of the crop.
+It seems that the goobers of commerce, so far as this country is
+concerned, are raised in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In
+1882, Virginia raised one million two hundred and fifty thousand
+bushels, Tennessee four hundred and sixty thousand, and North Carolina
+one hundred and forty thousand, making a total of one million eight
+hundred and fifty thousand. The aggregate value of the crop amounted to
+two million dollars. It is estimated that the peanut crop of 1883 will
+be at least two million bushels.
+
+"We regret that Georgia has no place in these estimates. Goobers can be
+raised in this State as readily as in Virginia, and there is no reason
+why our farmers should not take advantage of the demand for them. The
+little patches for home use, could easily be increased to patches
+calculated to yield a comfortable supply of pocket money. As Georgians
+are known as goober-grabblers, there is no reason why they should not be
+known as goober-growers."
+
+Still, these estimates serve a certain important end, and give an
+approximate idea of the magnitude of the crop. It is safe to say that it
+amounts to nearly three million bushels annually, and were all the
+information gathered that could be, it would doubtless be greater still.
+It is high time that the corps of statistical reporters to the National
+Department of Agriculture, were required to give the data for this crop,
+as well as for others, and some of them of less magnitude and value.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[2] See remarks on the term goober, in note on page 9.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B.
+
+COSTS.
+
+
+Perhaps the attentive reader has expressed surprise that so little has
+been said about the cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting the
+peanut crop. This was because no estimate of costs that would suit one
+place, would apply in another and a distant locality. There is no
+uniformity in this matter, hence it was deemed best to leave each reader
+to count the costs for himself, based on his knowledge of his own local
+surroundings.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C.
+
+THE PEANUT GARDEN OF AMERICA.
+
+
+The following article from the Suffolk, Va., "Herald," gives a concise
+view of the growth and development of this staple in Virginia, and
+illustrates how a portion of the Southside has become, perhaps, the
+leading peanut-producing section of our country:
+
+"When James H. Platt introduced his bill in Congress imposing a duty
+upon peanuts imported from Africa, a large majority of the members of
+that august body hardly knew what a peanut was. A few of them had eaten
+'Goobers' which had been carefully cultivated in the garden by their
+grandmothers, but as to why they needed protection, or how many of them
+there were to protect, but little was known even by the best informed.
+The culture of this important agricultural product was then in its
+infancy, and it was hardly recognized as an article of commerce.
+
+"Only a few short years have rolled by, and what a change has been
+effected. The peanut crop has assumed gigantic proportions, and the
+aggregate amounts to millions of dollars, while the nut is in demand
+from one end of the Union to the other at satisfactory prices.
+
+"The section of country contiguous to and lying south of James River,
+and between Norfolk and Petersburg, may be correctly termed the peanut
+garden of the world.
+
+"In this section peanut farming has been brought to the highest state of
+perfection, and the average production per acre greatly increased from
+what was considered a good yield a few years ago.
+
+"The one great difficulty in handling the crop seems to be, in the fact
+that no machine has yet been invented which will pick off the nuts from
+the vines in a satisfactory manner. This work must be done by hand, and
+as the entire crop matures at one and the same time, there is such a
+demand for labor during the picking off season that the supply is
+utterly inadequate to the demand. It is probable that within the next
+few years some plan will be devised for the successful storage of peas
+and vines until they can be conveniently picked off; and when this
+desirable end is accomplished, much of the rush and confusion incident
+to the gathering and marketing of the peanut crop will be avoided. This
+is already done by every thrifty planter who is able to hold his crop
+until such time as he sees fit to sell it. He stores his peanuts away,
+and picks them off, mostly with his own force, at convenient intervals
+through the winter and spring.
+
+"While so much has been done in the way of improvements in the
+production of the Peanut, those who have done the handling after
+reaching market have not been idle. In former years, only the bright
+shell and those well-filled, could be sold in the market. A dark color
+or half-filled pods was sufficient cause for rejection, and frequently
+they were on this account not even offered in market. Here, however,
+machinery was more successful. Various mechanical contrivances have been
+put in operation for cleaning and assorting the nuts, and to-day every
+grade of peanuts--from the large, plump, well-filled shell, to the
+smallest, blackest, and most insignificant half-filled pod--has a
+regular standard market value, according to the weight per bushel."
+
+
+
+
+STANDARD BOOKS.
+
+Commended by the Greatest Educators of Germany, England and the United
+States. Endorsed by Officials, and adopted in many Schools
+
+New Methods in Education
+
+Art, Real Manual Training, Nature Study. Explaining Processes whereby
+Hand, Eye and Mind are Educated by Means that Conserve Vitality and
+Develop a Union of Thought and Action
+
+By J. Liberty Tadd
+
+_Director of the Public School of Industrial Art of Manual Training and
+Art in the R. C. High School, and in several Night Schools, Member of
+the Art Club, Sketch Club, and Educational Club, and of the Academy of
+Natural Sciences, Philadelphia_
+
+Based on twenty-two years' experience with thousands of children and
+hundreds of teachers. "A method reasonable, feasible and without great
+cost, adapted to all grades, from child to adult; a plan that can be
+applied without friction to every kind of educational institution or to
+the family, and limited only by the capacity of the individual; a method
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+itself; a process that unfolds the capacities of children as unfold the
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+the plan and part of life, and enables them to work out their own
+salvation on the true lines of design and work as illustrated in every
+natural thing."
+
+=A Wealth of Illustration--478 Pictures and 44 Full-Page Plates=
+
+showing children and teachers practicing these new methods or their
+work. A revelation to all interested in developing the wonderful
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+child, imbuing it with a desire to do likewise. Teachers and parents at
+once become enthusiastic and delighted over the Tadd methods which this
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+stale picture. Fresh, new, practical, scientific, inspiring
+
+=AMONG THOSE WHO ENDORSE THE WORK ARE=
+
+HERBERT SPENCER, DR. W. W. KEENE, PRESIDENT HUEY--Of the Philadelphia
+board of education.
+
+SECRETARY GOTZE--Of the leading pedagogical society of Germany (by which
+the book is being translated into German for publication at Berlin).
+
+CHARLES H. THURBER--Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago.
+
+TALCOTT WILLIAMS--Editor Philadelphia Press, Book News, etc.
+
+R. H. WEBSTER--Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco.
+
+DR. A. E. WINSHIP--Editor Journal of Education.
+
+W. F. SLOCUM--President Colorado College.
+
+FREDERICK WINSOR--Head master The Country School for Boys of Baltimore
+City, under the auspices of Johns Hopkins University.
+
+G. B. MORRISON--Principal Manual Training High School, Kansas City.
+
+DR. EDWARD KIRK--Dean University of Penn.
+
+G. E. DAWSON--(Clark University), Professor of Psychology. Bible Normal
+College.
+
+ROMAN STEINER--Baltimore.
+
+=SPECIFICATIONS=: Size, 7-1/2 x 10-1/2 inches, almost a quarto; 456
+pages, fine plate paper, beautifully bound in cloth and boards, cover
+illuminated in gold; weight, 4-1/2 lbs. Boxed, price $3.00 net, postpaid
+to any part of the world.
+
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+
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+
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+=Greenhouse Construction.=
+
+     By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on greenhouse
+     structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles
+     of plant houses for professional florists as well as
+     amateurs. All the best and most approved structures are so
+     fully and clearly described that anyone who desires to build
+     a greenhouse will have no difficulty in determining the kind
+     best suited to his purpose. The modern and most successful
+     methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated upon.
+     Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing
+     of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of
+     hotbeds and frames receives appropriate attention. Over one
+     hundred excellent illustrations, specially engraved for this
+     work, make every point clear to the reader and add
+     considerably to the artistic appearance of the book. Cloth,
+     12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Greenhouse Management.=
+
+     By L. R. Taft. This book forms an almost indispensable
+     companion volume to Greenhouse Construction. In it the author
+     gives the results of his many years experience, together with
+     that of the most successful florists and gardeners, in the
+     management of growing plants under glass. So minute and
+     practical are the various systems and methods of growing and
+     forcing roses, violets, carnations, and all the most
+     important florists' plants, as well as fruits and vegetables
+     described, that by a careful study of this work and the
+     following of its teachings, failure is almost impossible.
+     Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.=
+
+     By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the history,
+     description, methods of propagation and full directions for
+     the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and
+     greenhouse. As generally treated, bulbs are an expensive
+     luxury, while when properly managed, they afford the greatest
+     amount of pleasure at the least cost. The author of this book
+     has for many years made bulb growing a specialty, and is a
+     recognized authority on their cultivation and management. The
+     illustrations which embellish this work have been drawn from
+     nature, and have been engraved especially for this book. The
+     cultural directions are plainly stated, practical and to the
+     point. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Irrigation Farming.=
+
+     By Lute Wilcox. A handbook for the practical application of
+     water in the production of crops. A complete treatise on
+     water supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes
+     for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure, methods
+     of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the garden, the
+     orchard and vineyard; windmills and pumps, appliances and
+     contrivances. Profusely, handsomely illustrated. Cloth. 12mo.
+     =$1.50=
+
+=Landscape Gardening.=
+
+     By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture, University of
+     Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing
+     outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in
+     the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is short,
+     terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the
+     discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty
+     of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made
+     entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated,
+     12mo. Cloth. =$.50=
+
+=Fungi and Fungicides.=
+
+     By Prof. Clarence M. Weed. A practical manual concerning the
+     fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of
+     preventing their ravages. The author has endeavored to give
+     such a concise account of the most important facts relating
+     to these as will enable the cultivator to combat them
+     intelligently. 222 pp., 90 ill., 12mo. Paper, 50 cents;
+     cloth. =$1.00=
+
+=Talks on Manure.=
+
+     By Joseph Harris, M. S. A series of familiar and practical
+     talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor, and
+     other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures and
+     fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for it by
+     Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.50=
+
+=Insects and Insecticides.=
+
+     By Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc., Prof. of entomology and zoology,
+     New Hampshire college of agriculture. A practical manual
+     concerning noxious insects, and methods of preventing their
+     injuries. 334 pages, with many illustrations. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.50=
+
+=Mushrooms. How to Grow Them.=
+
+     By Wm. Falconer. This is the most practical work on the
+     subject ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms
+     published in America. The author describes how he grows
+     mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by the leading
+     market gardeners, and for home use by the most successful
+     private growers. Engravings drawn from nature expressly for
+     this work. Cloth. =$1.00=
+
+=Handbook of Plants and General Horticulture.=
+
+     By Peter Henderson. This new edition comprises about 50 per
+     cent. more genera than the former one, and embraces the
+     botanical name, derivation, natural order, etc., together
+     with a short history of the different genera, concise
+     instructions for their propagation and culture, and all the
+     leading local or common English names, together with a
+     comprehensive glossary of botanical and technical terms.
+     Plain instructions are also given for the cultivation of the
+     principal vegetables, fruits and flowers. Cloth, large 8vo.
+     =$3.00=
+
+=Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and Market Value.=
+
+     By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its history and
+     botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with
+     either seed or roots, soil, climate and location,
+     preparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial
+     propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for
+     improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may
+     be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and
+     profusely illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who
+     expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to
+     add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens,
+     without interfering with the regular work. 12mo. =$.35=
+
+=Land Draining.=
+
+     A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of
+     draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended
+     experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the
+     laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable
+     the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and
+     the disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual
+     for practical farmers will also be found convenient for
+     references in regard to many questions that may arise in crop
+     growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which
+     it treats. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Henderson's Practical Floriculture.=
+
+     By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
+     cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for
+     florists and gardeners only; but the amateur's wants are
+     constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise
+     on the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open
+     air, suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as
+     those who make them a matter of trade. Beautifully
+     illustrated. New and enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Tobacco Leaf.=
+
+     By J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture and Cure,
+     Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook on the most
+     approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and
+     selling tobacco, with an account of the operations in every
+     department of tobacco manufacture. The contents of this book
+     are based on actual experiments in field, curing barn,
+     packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the only work of
+     the kind in existence, and is destined to be the standard
+     practical and scientific authority on the whole subject of
+     tobacco for many years. Upwards of 500 pages and 150 original
+     engravings. =$2.00=
+
+=Play and Profit in My Garden.=
+
+     By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky
+     hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out
+     of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of
+     $1,000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary
+     labor. It is very rarely that so much literary taste and
+     skill are mated to so much agricultural experience and good
+     sense. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Forest Planting.=
+
+     By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care of
+     woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on
+     plains and mountains. The author has fully described those
+     European methods which have proved to be most useful in
+     maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This
+     experience has been adapted to the different climates and
+     trees of America, full instructions being given for forest
+     planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on
+     mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Soils and Crops of the Farm.=
+
+     By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The methods
+     of making available the plant food in the soil are described
+     in popular language. A short history of each of the farm
+     crops is accompanied by a discussion of its culture. The
+     useful discoveries of science are explained as applied in the
+     most approved methods of culture. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=American Fruit Culturist.=
+
+     By John J. Thomas. Containing practical directions for the
+     propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to the
+     United States. Twentieth thoroughly revised and greatly
+     enlarged edition by Wm. H. S. Wood. This new edition makes
+     the work practically almost a new book, containing everything
+     pertaining to large and small fruits as well as sub-tropical
+     and tropical fruits. Richly illustrated by nearly 800
+     engravings. 758 pp., 12mo. =$2.50=
+
+=Fertilizers.=
+
+     By Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey
+     Agricultural Experiment Station. It has been the aim of the
+     author to point out the underlying principles and to discuss
+     the important subjects connected with the use of fertilizer
+     materials. The natural fertility of the soil, the functions
+     of manures and fertilizers, and the need of artificial
+     fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Separate chapters are
+     devoted to the various fertilizing elements, to the purchase,
+     chemical analyses, methods of using fertilizers, and the best
+     fertilizers for each of the most important field, garden and
+     orchard crops. 335 pp. =$1.00=
+
+=Gardening for Profit.=
+
+     By Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and family
+     gardening. The successful experience of the author for more
+     than thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in
+     this work, the secret of his success for the benefit of
+     others, enables him to give most valuable information. The
+     book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers.=
+
+     By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester). This is
+     one of the best and most popular works on the horse prepared
+     in this country. A complete manual for horsemen, embracing:
+     How to breed a horse; how to buy a horse; how to break a
+     horse; how to use a horse; how to feed a horse; how to physic
+     a horse (allopathy or homoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how
+     to drive a horse: how to ride a horse, etc. Beautifully
+     illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Barn Plans and Outbuildings.=
+
+     Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable
+     work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the
+     construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers.
+     Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of
+     barns, grain barns, house barns, cattle barns, sheep barns,
+     corn houses, smoke houses, ice houses, pig pens, granaries,
+     etc. There are likewise chapters on bird houses, dog houses,
+     tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and
+     fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds,
+     barnyards, root pits, etc. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Cranberry Culture.=
+
+     By Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history of
+     cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground,
+     planting the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies
+     and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Ornamental Gardening for Americans.=
+
+     By Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on
+     beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain
+     and practical work with numerous illustrations and
+     instructions so plain that they may be readily followed.
+     Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Grape Culturist.=
+
+     By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the
+     culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all
+     departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
+     engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Turkeys and How to Grow Them.=
+
+     Edited by Herbert Myrick. A treatise on the natural history
+     and origin of the name of turkeys; the various breeds, the
+     best methods to insure success in the business of turkey
+     growing. With essays from practical turkey growers in
+     different parts of the United States and Canada. Copiously
+     illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Profits in Poultry.=
+
+     Useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management.
+     This excellent work contains the combined experience of a
+     number of practical men in all departments of poultry
+     raising. It is profusely illustrated and forms a unique and
+     important addition to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=How Crops Grow.=
+
+     By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. New and revised
+     edition. A treatise on the chemical composition, structure
+     and life of the plant. This book is a guide to the knowledge
+     of agricultural plants, their composition, their structure
+     and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+     organization of plants, and the use of the parts; the
+     germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both
+     from the air and the soil. The book is indispensable to all
+     real students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and
+     tables of analysis. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Coburn's Swine Husbandry.=
+
+     By F. D. Coburn. New, revised and enlarged edition. The
+     breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the
+     prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest
+     and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet
+     offered. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Stewart's Shepherd's Manual.=
+
+     By Henry Stewart. A valuable practical treatise on the sheep
+     for American farmers and sheep growers. It is so plain that a
+     farmer or a farmer's son who has never kept a sheep, may
+     learn from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and
+     yet so complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather
+     many suggestions from it. The results of personal experience
+     of some years with the characters of the various modern
+     breeds of sheep, and the sheep raising capabilities of many
+     portions of our extensive territory and that of Canada--and
+     the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep are
+     chiefly subject, with those by which they may eventually be
+     afflicted through unforeseen accidents--as well as the
+     methods of management called for under our circumstances, are
+     carefully described. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Feeds and Feeding.=
+
+     By W. A. Henry. This handbook for students and stock men
+     constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on
+     plant growth and animal nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding
+     animals and every detail pertaining to this important
+     subject. It is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is the
+     most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many
+     years. All the latest and best information is clearly and
+     systematically presented, making the work indispensable to
+     every owner of live stock. 658 pages, 8vo. Cloth. =$2.00=
+
+=Hunter and Trapper.=
+
+     By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. The
+     best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained, and
+     foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by
+     following his directions. Cloth, 12mo. =$.50=
+
+=The Ice Crop.=
+
+     By Theron L. Hiles. How to harvest, ship and use ice. A
+     complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice
+     dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, and
+     all interested in ice houses, cold storage, and the handling
+     or use of ice in any way. Including many recipes for iced
+     dishes and beverages. The book is illustrated by cuts of the
+     tools and machinery used in cutting and storing ice, and the
+     different forms of ice houses and cold storage buildings. 122
+     pp., ill., 16mo. Cloth. =$1.00=
+
+=Practical Forestry.=
+
+     By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+     and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and
+     popular names of all the indigenous trees of the United
+     States, and notes on a large number of the most valuable
+     exotic species. =$1.50=
+
+=Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.=
+
+     By Henry Stewart. This work is offered to those American
+     farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from painful
+     experience, can readily appreciate the losses which result
+     from the scarcity of water at critical periods. Fully
+     illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Market Gardening and Farm Notes.=
+
+     By Burnett Landreth. Experiences and observation for both
+     North and South, of interest to the amateur gardener, trucker
+     and farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of
+     farm and garden operations for each month of the year; the
+     chapters on fertilizers, transplanting, succession and
+     rotation of crops, the packing, shipping and marketing of
+     vegetables will be especially useful to market gardeners.
+     Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Fruit Garden.=
+
+     By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit trees, the
+     author having had over thirty years' practical experience at
+     the head of one of the largest nurseries in this country.
+     Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.50=
+
+=The Nut Culturist.=
+
+     By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, planting
+     and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to
+     the climate of the United States, with the scientific and
+     common names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or
+     otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer to increase
+     his income without adding to his expenses or labor. 12mo.
+     Cloth. =$1.50=
+
+=American Grape Growing and Wine Making.=
+
+     By George Husmann of California. New and enlarged edition.
+     With contributions from well-known grape growers, giving wide
+     range of experience. The author of this book is a recognized
+     authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Treat's Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden.=
+
+     By Mrs. Mary Treat. An original investigator who has added
+     much to our knowledge of both plants and insects, and those
+     who are familiar with Darwin's works are aware that he gives
+     her credit for important observation and discoveries. New and
+     enlarged edition. With an illustrated chapter on beneficial
+     insects. Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=The Dogs of Great Britain, America and Other Countries.=
+
+     New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, training
+     and management, in health and disease; comprising all the
+     essential parts of the two standard works on dogs by
+     "Stonehenge." It describes the best game and hunting grounds
+     in America. Contains over one hundred beautiful engravings,
+     embracing most noted dogs in both continents, making,
+     together with chapters by American writers, the most complete
+     dog book ever published. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.50=
+
+=Harris on the Pig.=
+
+     By Joseph Harris. New edition. Revised and enlarged by the
+     author. The points of the various English and American breeds
+     are thoroughly discussed, and the great advantage of using
+     thoroughbred males clearly shown. The work is equally
+     valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to the
+     breeder on an extensive scale. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.
+     =$1.00=
+
+=Pear Culture for Profit.=
+
+     By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist. Teaching how to
+     raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, how to
+     find out the character of the soil, the best methods of
+     preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing
+     conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing,
+     grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees come into
+     bearing, and, finally, of gathering and packing for market.
+     Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and How to Get Well from
+Sickness.=
+
+     By S. H. Platt, A. M., M. D., late member of the Connecticut
+     Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic Medical
+     Association, and honorary member of the National
+     Bacteriological Society of America; our medical editor and
+     author of "Talks With Our Doctor" and "Our Health Adviser."
+     Nearly 600 pages. Profusely illustrated. An index of 20
+     pages, so that any topic may be instantly consulted. A new
+     departure in medical knowledge for the people--the latest
+     progress, secrets and practices of all schools of healing
+     made available for the common people--health without
+     medicine, nature without humbug, common sense without folly,
+     science without fraud. 12mo. 576 pp., 81 illustrations.
+     Cloth. =$1.50=
+
+=Gardening for Young and Old.=
+
+     By Joseph Harris. A work intended to interest farmers' boys
+     in farm gardening, which means a better and more profitable
+     form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the familiar
+     manner so well known in the author's "Walks and Talks on the
+     Farm." Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=Money in the Garden.=
+
+     By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style,
+     instructions on three distinct although closely connected
+     branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden and
+     field culture, from successful practical experience for a
+     term of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00=
+
+=The Pruning Book.=
+
+     By L. H. Bailey. This is the first American work exclusively
+     devoted to pruning. It differs from most other treatises on
+     this subject in that the author takes particular pains to
+     explain the principles of each operation in every detail.
+     Specific advice is given on the pruning of the various kinds
+     of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs and hedges.
+     Considerable space is devoted to the pruning and training of
+     grapevines, both American and foreign. Every part of the
+     subject is made so clear and plain that it can be readily
+     understood by even the merest beginner. Cloth, 8vo, 530
+     pages. Illustrated. =$1.50=
+
+
+
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                           |
+    |                                               |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+    |                                               |
+    | Page   7  privitive changed to privative      |
+    | Page  17  challanges changed to challenges    |
+    | Page  56  residum changed to residuum         |
+    | Page  64  poineer changed to pioneer          |
+    | Page  70  backneyed changed to hackneyed      |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Peanut Plant, by B. W. Jones
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