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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Delineations of the Ox Tribe
+       The Natural History of Bulls, Bisons, and Buffaloes.
+       Exhibiting all the Known Species and the More Remarkable
+       Varieties of the Genus Bos.
+
+Author: George Vasey
+
+Illustrator: George Vasey
+
+Release Date: February 3, 2009 [EBook #27975]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DELINEATIONS OF THE OX TRIBE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DELINEATIONS
+
+OF
+
+THE OX TRIBE.
+
+[Illustration: THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, _v._ p. 120.]
+
+
+
+
+DELINEATIONS
+
+OF
+
+THE OX TRIBE;
+
+OR,
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
+
+BULLS, BISONS, AND BUFFALOES.
+
+EXHIBITING
+
+ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES
+
+AND THE MORE REMARKABLE VARIETIES
+
+OF
+
+THE GENUS BOS.
+
+BY GEORGE VASEY.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY 72 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, BY THE AUTHOR.
+
+LONDON:
+PUBLISHED BY G. BIGGS, 421, STRAND.
+1851.
+
+
+C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+TO
+
+WILLIAM YARRELL, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,
+
+WHOSE SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON ZOOLOGY
+
+PLACE HIM IN THE FIRST RANK OF NATURALISTS;
+
+AND, MOREOVER,
+
+WHOSE UNOSTENTATIOUS KINDNESS IN CONSULTING THE FEELINGS
+
+AND ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS
+
+IS RARELY EQUALLED,
+
+This Volume is inscribed,
+
+BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND AND ADMIRER,
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The primary object of the present work, is to give as correct and
+comprehensive a view of the animals composing the Ox Tribe, as the
+present state of our knowledge will admit, accompanied by authentic
+figures of all the known species and the more remarkable varieties.
+
+Although this genus (comprising all those Ruminants called Buffaloes,
+Bisons, and Oxen generally,) is as distinct and well characterised as
+any other genus in the animal kingdom, yet the facts which are at
+present known respecting the various species which compose it, are not
+sufficiently numerous to enable the naturalist to divide them into
+sub-genera. This is abundantly proved by the unsuccessful result of
+those attempts which have already been made to arrange them into minor
+groups. Nor can we wonder at this want of success, when we consider that
+even many of the species usually regarded as distinct are by no means
+clearly defined.
+
+The second object, therefore, of this treatise, is (by bringing into
+juxta-position all the most important facts concerning the various
+individual specimens which have been described, and by adding several
+other facts of importance which have not hitherto been noticed,) to
+enable the naturalist to define, more correctly than has yet been done,
+the peculiarities of each species.
+
+A third object is to direct the attention of travellers more
+particularly to this subject; in order that, by their exertions, our
+information upon this class of animals may be rendered more complete.
+
+A new and important feature in the present Monograph, is the
+introduction of a Table of the Number of Vertebræ, carefully constructed
+from an examination of the actual skeletons, by which will be seen at a
+glance the principal osteological differences of species which have
+hitherto been confounded with each other. A Table of the Periods of
+Gestation is likewise added, which presents some equally interesting
+results.
+
+Several of the descriptions have been verified by a reference to the
+living animals, seven specimens of which are at present (1847) in the
+Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. The several Museums in
+the Metropolis have likewise been consulted with advantage.
+
+I am indebted to Judge FURNAM, of the United States, for some original
+information respecting the American Bison; and also to the late Mr.
+COLE, who was forty years park-keeper at Chillingham, for answers to
+several questions which I proposed to him on the subject of the
+Chillingham Cattle.
+
+I beg to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. CATLIN for kindly allowing me,
+not only to make extracts, but also to copy some of the outlines from
+his 'Letters and Notes on the North American Indians,' a work which I do
+not hesitate to pronounce one of the most curious and interesting which
+the present century has produced,--whether we regard the graphic merits
+of its literary or pictorial department.
+
+To Professor OWEN and the Officers of the Royal College of Surgeons, to
+the Officers of the Zoological Society, and to the Officers of the
+Zoological Department of the British Museum, my sincere thanks are due
+for the kindness and promptness with which every information has been
+given, and every facility afforded to my inquiries and investigations.
+
+With respect to the engraved figures, I have striven to produce correct
+delineations of form and texture, rather than to make pretty pictures by
+sacrificing truth and nature for the sake of ideal beauty and artistic
+effect.
+
+I cannot conclude this Preface without expressing my thanks to Messrs.
+ADLARD for the first-rate style in which this volume has been printed;
+particularly for the successful manner in which the impressions of the
+engravings have been produced, superior, in general, to India-proof
+impressions.
+
+    _King Street, Camden Town;_
+    _May, 1851._
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDUM.
+
+PENNANT--BUFFON--GOLDSMITH--BEWICK--BINGLEY.
+
+
+In addition to the critical remarks on the writings of others, on this
+subject, which the reader will find in the following pages, I have
+further to observe that, although Pennant and Buffon have held a very
+high character, for many years, as scientific naturalists, the portion
+of their works which treats of the _Genus Bos_, appears to have been the
+result of the most careless and superficial observation. With the
+exception of the facts and observations furnished by such men as
+Daubenton and Pallas, Buffon's works are little more than flimsy
+speculations. As to Pennant's history of the Ox Tribe, it is calculated
+rather to bewilder than to inform; it is, in fact, an incoherent mass of
+dubious statements, huddled together in a most inextricable confusion:
+as a piece of Natural History it is absolutely worse than nothing.
+
+Goldsmith, Bewick, and Bingley, three of our most popular writers on
+Natural History, appear to have done little more than compile from
+Pennant and Buffon, and consequently are but little deserving of credit.
+These strictures apply exclusively to such portions of their works as
+relate to the Ox Tribe.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                 Page
+
+Introduction                                        1
+
+American Bison                                     21
+
+Aurochs                                            40
+
+Yak                                                45
+
+Gyall                                              51
+
+Gayal                                              57
+
+Domestic Gayal                                     68
+
+Jungly Gau                                         71
+
+Buffalo                                            75
+
+Italian Buffalo                                    76
+
+Manilla Buffalo                                    81
+
+Condore Buffalo                                    84
+
+Cape Buffalo                                       86
+
+Pegasse                                            95
+
+Gaur                                               97
+
+Arnee                                             105
+
+Zamouse                                           112
+
+Musk Ox                                           115
+
+Galla Ox                                          120
+
+Zebu, or Brahmin Bull                             125
+
+Backeley Ox                                       133
+
+African Bull                                      137
+
+Chillingham Cattle                                140
+
+Kyloe, or Highland Ox                             150
+
+Table of the Number of Vertebræ                   152
+
+Table of the Periods of Gestation                 153
+
+Note on the Skeleton of the American Bison        154
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+                                                 Page
+
+Free Martin                                       155
+
+Short-nosed Ox                                    159
+
+On the utility of the Ox Tribe to Mankind         160
+
+Account of Alpine Cowherds
+  --Notice of Ranz des Vaches                     164
+
+Table of Habitat                                  168
+
+---- Mode of Life                                 169
+
+Indefinite Definitions of Col. H. Smith           170
+
+Mr. Swainson's Transcendental Attempt at
+  Classification                                  176
+
+On Species and Variety                            181
+
+Banteng (_Bos Bantiger_)                          185
+
+British Domestic Cattle                           186
+
+Influence of Colour in Breeding                   ib.
+
+Influence of Male in Breeding                     187
+
+Generative Precocity                              ib.
+
+Milk                                              188
+
+Butter                                            189
+
+Mr. Youatt's Philosophy of Rabies                 190
+
+Statistics                                        192
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
+
+(_The Engravings not otherwise acknowledged are from original
+Drawings._)
+
+
+                                                            Page
+
+1. Frontispiece.--The Sangu, or Abyssinian Ox                  i
+
+2. Stomach of Manilla Buffalo                                  4
+
+3. Gastro-duct (Oesophagean Canal), after Flourens             6
+
+4. Stomach of a young Calf                                    12
+
+5. Stomach of a full-grown Cow                                13
+
+6. Skull of Domestic Ox                                       17
+
+7. Skeleton of Domestic Ox                                    20
+
+8. American Bison                                             21
+
+9. Young Female Bison                                         23
+
+10. Wounded Bison                                             24
+
+11. Indian shooting a Bison                                   29
+
+12. Bison surrounded by Wolves                                32
+
+13. Bison Calf, after Cuvier                                  33
+
+14. Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians                         36
+
+15. Head of young Male Bison                                  39
+
+16. Aurochs, or European Bison                                40
+
+17. Yak, from Asiatic Transactions                            45
+
+18. Yak, from Oriental Annual                                 49
+
+19. Gyall (_Bos Frontalis_)                                   51
+
+20. Head of Gyall                                             53
+
+21. Gayal, from Asiatic Transactions                          58
+
+22. Head of Asseel Gayal                                      67
+
+23. Domestic Gayal                                            68
+
+24. Skull of Domestic Gayal                                   69
+
+25. Occipital View of the same Skull                          ib.
+
+26. Head of Domestic Gayal                                    ib.
+
+27. Jungly Gau, after Cuvier                                  71
+
+28. Syrian Ox, anon.                                          74
+
+29. Italian Buffalo--Brandt and Ratzeburg                     76
+
+30. Herefordshire Cow, after Howitt                           80
+
+31. Manilla Buffalo                                           81
+
+32. Outlines of Buffaloes Backs                               82
+
+33. Head of Manilla Buffalo                                   83
+
+34. Pulo Condore Buffalo                                      84
+
+35. Short-horned Bull, after Howitt                           85
+
+36. Cape Buffalo                                              86
+
+37. Young Cape Buffalo, after Col. Smith                      90
+
+38. Head of Cape Buffalo                                      94
+
+39. Pegasse, from a Drawing in the Berlin Library             95
+
+40. Horns of Cape Buffalo                                     96
+
+41. Gaur, from Specimen in British Museum                     97
+
+42. Horns of Gaur, Edin. Phil. Trans.                        103
+
+43. Head of Gaur                                             104
+
+44. Arnee, from Shaw's Zoology                               105
+
+45. Horns of Young Arnee, from 'The Bee'                     107
+
+46. Horns of Arnee, from Mus. Coll. Surg.                    108
+
+47. Horns of Arnee, from British Museum                      ib.
+
+48. Arnee from Indian Painting                               111
+
+49. Zamouse, or Bush Cow                                     112
+
+50. Head of Zamouse                                          114
+
+51. Musk Ox                                                  115
+
+52. Foot of Musk Ox, Griff., Cuv.                            117
+
+53. Head of Musk Ox                                          119
+
+54. Horns of Galla Ox, Mus. Coll. Surg.                      123
+
+55. Horns of Hungarian Ox, Brit. Mus.                        124
+
+56. Brahmin Bull, Harvey, Zool. Gar.                         125
+
+57. Zebu (var. beta), after Cuvier                           128
+
+58. Zebus (var. gamma) and Car, anon.                        129
+
+59. Zebu (var. delta), anon.                                 132
+
+60. African Bull, Harvey                                     137
+
+61. Eyes of African Bull, Harvey                             139
+
+62. Lateral Hoofs of African Bull, Harvey                    ib.
+
+63. Dewlap of African Bull, Harvey                           139
+
+64. Chillingham Bull                                         140
+
+65. Heads of Chillingham Cattle                              148
+
+66. Kyloe, or Highland Ox, Howitt                            150
+
+67. Free Martin, Hunter's Animal Economy                     156
+
+    Skull of Domestic Ox, (repetition of fig. 6)             158
+
+68. Skull of Short-nosed Ox of the Pampas                    159
+
+69. Outlines of Manilla Buffalo                              174
+
+70. Hungarian Ox, from British Museum                        175
+
+71. Banteng, from a Specimen in Brit. Mus.                   185
+
+72. Alderney Cow, after Howitt                               189
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Ruminantia is the term used by naturalists to designate those
+mammiferous quadrupeds which chew the cud; or, in other words, which
+swallow their food, in the first instance, with a very slight
+mastication, and afterwards regurgitate it, in order that it may undergo
+a second and more complete mastication: this second operation is called
+ruminating, or chewing the cud. The order of animals which possess this
+peculiarity, is divided into nine groups or genera, namely:--
+
+    CAMELS.
+    LLAMAS.
+    MUSKS.
+    DEER.
+    GIRAFFES.
+    ANTELOPES.
+    GOATS.
+    SHEEP.
+    OXEN.
+
+The last named forms the subject of the following pages, and is called,
+in zoological language, the _Genus Bos_, in popular language, the OX
+TRIBE.
+
+One of the most interesting occupations which the wide field of Zoology
+offers to the naturalist, is the investigation of those remarkable
+adaptations of organs to functions, and of these again to the
+necessities and well-being of the entire animal. Nor does it in the
+least diminish our interest in the investigation of individual
+adaptations, or our admiration on becoming acquainted with them, that we
+know, _à priori_, this universal truth, that all the constituents of
+every organised body, be that organisation what it may, are invariably
+adapted, in the most perfect manner, to each other, and to the whole.
+
+It is by a knowledge of this exact harmony in the animal economy, that
+the comparative anatomist can determine, with almost unerring precision,
+the genus, or even species of an animal, by an examination of any
+important part of its organisation, as the teeth, stomach, bones, or
+extremities. In some cases, a single bone, or even the fragment of a
+bone, is sufficient to convey an idea of the entire animal to which it
+belonged.
+
+In illustration of this:--if the viscera of an animal are so organised
+as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, we find that the
+jaws are so contracted as to fit them for devouring prey; the claws for
+seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its
+flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing
+and overtaking it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a
+distance. Moreover, the brain of the animal is also endowed with
+instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to
+catch its necessary prey.
+
+Again, we are well aware that all _hoofed_ animals must necessarily be
+herbivorous, or vegetable feeders, because they are possessed of no
+means of seizing prey. It is also evident, having no other use for their
+fore-legs than to support their bodies, that they have no occasion for
+a shoulder so vigorously organised as that of carnivorous animals; owing
+to which they have no clavicles, and their shoulder-blades are
+proportionally narrow. Having also no occasion to turn their forearms,
+their radius is joined by ossification to the ulna, or is at least
+articulated by gynglymus with the humerus. Their food being entirely
+herbaceous, requires teeth with flat surfaces, on purpose to bruise the
+seeds and plants on which they feed. For this purpose, also, these
+surfaces require to be unequal, and are, consequently, composed of
+alternate perpendicular layers of enamel and softer bone. Teeth of this
+structure necessarily require horizontal motions to enable them to
+triturate, or grind down the herbaceous food; and accordingly the
+condyles of the jaw could not be formed into such confined joints as in
+the carnivorous animals, but must have a flattened form, correspondent
+to sockets in the temporal bones. The depressions, also, of the temporal
+bones, having smaller muscles to contain, are narrower and not so deep;
+and so on, throughout the whole organisation.
+
+The digestive system of the ruminantia is more complicated in structure
+than that of any other class of animals; and, owing to this complexity,
+and the consequent difficulty of investigating it, its nature and
+functions have been less perfectly understood.
+
+The stomach of the Manilla Buffalo, which will serve as an example of
+all the other species, is divided into four cavities or ventricles,
+which are usually (but improperly) considered as four distinct
+stomachs.
+
+The following figure represents the form, relative size, and position of
+these four cavities when detached from the animal, and fully inflated.
+
+[Illustration: _a._ First cavity, called the paunch.
+
+_b._ Second ditto, the honeycomb bag.
+
+_c._ Third ditto, the many-plies.
+
+_d._ Fourth ditto, the reed, or rennet.
+
+_e._ A portion of the oesophagus, showing its connection with the
+stomach.
+
+_f._ The pylorus, or opening into the intestines.]
+
+The interior of those cavities present some remarkable differences in
+point of structure, which, in the present work, can only be alluded to
+in a very general manner. For a particular account of the internal
+anatomy of these complicated organs, the reader is referred to the
+interesting work on 'Cattle,' by W. Youatt.
+
+The paunch is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent
+and hard papillæ. The inner surface of the second cavity is very
+artificially divided into angular cells, giving it somewhat the
+appearance of honeycomb, whence its name "honeycomb-bag." The lining
+membrane of the third cavity forms numerous deep folds, lying upon each
+other like the leaves of a book, and beset with small hard tubercles.
+These folds vary in breadth in a regular alternate order, a narrow fold
+being placed between each of the broader ones. The fourth cavity is
+lined with a velvety mucous membrane disposed in longitudinal folds. It
+is this part of the stomach that furnishes the gastric juice, and,
+consequently, it is in this cavity that the proper digestion of the food
+takes place; it is here, also, that the milk taken by the calf is
+coagulated. The reed or fourth cavity of the calf's stomach retains its
+power of coagulating milk even after it has been taken from the animal.
+We have a familiar instance of its operation in the formation of curds
+and whey.
+
+The first and second cavities (_a_ and _b_) are placed parallel (or on a
+level) with each other; and the oesophagus (_e_) opens, almost
+equally, into them both. On each side of the termination of the
+oesophagus there is a muscular ridge projecting, so that the two
+together form a sort of groove or channel, which opens almost equally
+into the second and third cavities (_b_ and _c_).
+
+[As there has not been, as far as I am aware, any appropriate name given
+to this very remarkable part of the stomach of ruminants, I here take
+the liberty of suggesting the term _Gastro-duct_, by which epithet this
+muscular channel will be designated in the following pages.]
+
+[Illustration: View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens.
+
+_a._ A portion of the oesophagus cut open, showing the internal folds
+of the mucous membrane.
+
+_b._ The opening of the oesophagus into the paunch.
+
+_c, c._ The gastro-duct.
+
+_d, d._ Muscular fibres passing completely round the edge of the
+gastro-duct, and forming a sort of sphincter.
+
+_e._ The opening from the gastro-duct into the third cavity.]
+
+All these parts, namely, the oesophagus, the gastro-duct, and the
+first three cavities, not only communicate with each other, but they
+communicate by one common point, and that point is the gastro-duct. At
+the extremity of the third cavity, opposite to that at which the
+gastro-duct enters it, is an aperture which communicates immediately
+with the fourth cavity (_d_).
+
+Such is a very brief description of the complicated stomach of the Ox
+Tribe. In what manner the food passes through this curious arrangement
+of cavities is a problem which has engaged the attention of naturalists
+from a very early period. A host of great men might be cited who have
+failed to solve it. The French physiologist, M. Flourens, by his recent
+experiments, has done more than any or all of his predecessors to give
+clearness and precision to this intricate subject.
+
+The following is an abstract of the most important of his experiments:--
+
+A sheep having been fed on fresh trefoil, was killed and opened
+immediately,--that is, before the process of rumination had commenced.
+He (M. Flourens) found the greatest part of this herb (easily recognised
+by its leaves, which were still almost entire,) in the paunch; but he
+also found a certain portion (_une partie notable_) of those leaves (in
+the same unmasticated state) in the honeycomb. In the other two
+cavities, (the many-plies and the reed,) there was absolutely none.
+
+M. Flourens repeated this experiment a great many times, with herbs of
+various kinds, and the result was constantly the same: from which it
+appears, that herbaceous food, on its first deglutition, enters into the
+honeycomb, as well as into the paunch; the proportion, however, being
+considerably greater into the paunch than into the honeycomb. It appears
+equally certain that, in the first swallowing, this kind of food _only_
+enters into the first two cavities, and never passes into the many-plies
+or the reed.
+
+Having ascertained this fact with respect to _herbs_, he instituted a
+similar series of experiments, in which the animals were fed upon
+various kinds of _grain_,--rye, barley, wheat, oats, &c. The animals
+were killed and examined, as in the former experiments, immediately
+after being fed. He found the greater part of the grain unmasticated
+(_tout entier_) in the paunch; but, as in the case of the herbs, he also
+found a certain portion, in the same unmasticated state, in the
+honeycomb. Neither the many-plies nor the reed contained a single grain.
+He repeated these experiments many times, and always with the same
+result.
+
+He then tried the effect of carrots cut into pieces, from half an inch
+to an inch in length; and in order that the animals might not chew them,
+he passed them into the pharynx by means of a tube. In one of these
+sheep he found all the morsels in the paunch; but, in the other two,
+some of the morsels were in the honeycomb, and some in the paunch. In
+all the three cases, there was none either in the many-plies or in the
+reed.
+
+He then proceeded to ascertain the effect of substances previously
+comminuted. He caused a certain quantity of carrots to be reduced to a
+kind of mash, with which he fed two sheep, and opened them immediately
+afterwards. He found the greatest part of this mash in the paunch and in
+the honeycomb; but he likewise found a certain portion in the many-plies
+and in the reed.
+
+His next experiments were made upon plain fluids. It is the opinion of
+the generality of authors on this subject that fluids pass immediately
+and _entirely_, along the gastro-duct, into the third and fourth
+cavities. But, according to the experiments of M. Flourens, this is not
+the case. He found, by making artificial openings (_anus artificiel_) in
+the stomachs of various sheep, that, as the animals drank, the fluid
+came directly out at the opening, in whatever cavity it might have been
+made.
+
+It is clear, then, that fluids pass, in part, into the first and second
+cavities, and, in part, into the third and fourth; and they pass as
+directly into the former as into the latter.
+
+The following is the result of some experiments which M. Flourens made
+respecting the formation of the pellets.
+
+In the first place, after the animal has swallowed a certain quantity of
+food the first time, successive pellets are formed of this food, which
+remount singly to the mouth; secondly, there is a particular apparatus,
+which forms these pellets; and, thirdly, this apparatus consists of the
+two closed apertures (_ouvertures fermées_) of the many-plies, and of
+the oesophagus. Thus, the first two cavities, in contracting, push the
+aliments which they contain between the edges of the gastro-duct; and
+the gastro-duct, contracting in its turn, draws together the two
+openings of the many-plies and oesophagus; and these two openings,
+_closed_ at this moment of their action, seize a portion of the food,
+detach it, and form it into a pellet.
+
+The chief utility of rumination, as applicable to all the
+animals in which it takes place, and the final purpose of this
+wonderfully-complicated function in the animal economy, are still
+imperfectly known; what has been already suggested on these points is
+quite unsatisfactory. Perrault and others supposed that it contributed
+to the security of those animals, which are at once voracious and timid,
+by showing the necessity of their remaining long employed in chewing in
+an open pasture; but the Indian buffalo ruminates, although it does not
+fly even from the lion; and the wild goat dwells in Alpine countries,
+which are inaccessible to beasts of prey.
+
+Whatever may be our ignorance of the cause or the object of rumination,
+it is certain that the nature of the food has a considerable influence
+in increasing or diminishing the necessity for the performance of that
+function. Thus, dry food requires to be entirely subjected to a second
+mastication, before it can pass into the many-plies and reed; whilst a
+great portion of that which is moist and succulent passes readily into
+those cavities, on its first descent into the stomach.
+
+It has already been shown by the illustration, (p. 4,) that the paunch
+is the largest of the four cavities; but this is not the case with the
+stomach of the young calf, which, while it continues to suck, does not
+ruminate; in this case the _reed_, which is the true digestive cavity,
+is actually larger than the other three taken together.
+
+When the calf begins to feed upon solid food, then it begins to
+ruminate; and as the quantity of solid food is increased, so does the
+size of the paunch increase, until it attains its full dimensions. In
+this latter case, the _paunch_ has become considerably larger than the
+other three cavities taken together.
+
+A curious modification of an organ to adjust itself to the altered
+condition of the animal is beautifully shown in the instance now under
+consideration, the nature of which will be easily understood by a
+reference to the following diagrams, giving the exact relative
+proportions of the different cavities of the stomach to each other in
+the young calf and in the full-grown cow.
+
+     [I am informed by Professor Symonds, of the Royal Veterinary
+     College, that the two following sketches should be placed in
+     the page so as to be viewed with the oesophagus to the right,
+     and the pylorus to the left, instead of being, as they now are,
+     at the top and the bottom; but as the present object is only to
+     show the relative sizes of the different cavities, the error is
+     not of much consequence.]
+
+The letters refer to the same parts in each figure: _a_, the paunch;
+_b_, the honeycomb bag; _c_, the many-plies; _d_, the reed.
+
+[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old.]
+
+[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow.]
+
+[These engravings, illustrative of the comparative sizes of the
+different stomachal cavities, are copied from original drawings taken
+from preparations of the stomachs which I made expressly for this
+purpose.]
+
+In all herbivorous animals, and especially those of the ruminating kind,
+the alimentary canal is of an enormous length; measuring in a full grown
+ox, as much as sixty yards. The paunch, in such an animal, will hold
+from fifteen to eighteen gallons.
+
+Blumenbach observes, that the process of rumination supposes a power of
+voluntary motion in the oesophagus; and, indeed, the influence of the
+will throughout the whole process is incontestible. It is not confined
+to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to
+circumstances, even when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly
+stated of some men, who have had the power of ruminating, that it was
+quite voluntary with them. Blumenbach knew four men who ruminated their
+food, and they assured him they had a real enjoyment in doing it: two of
+them had the power of doing or abstaining from it at their pleasure.
+
+A case of human rumination occurred some years ago at Bristol, the
+particulars of which are minutely recorded in the 'Philosophical
+Transactions.' It seemed, in this instance, to have been hereditary, as
+the father of the individual was subject to the same habit. The young
+man usually began to chew his food over again, within a quarter of an
+hour after eating. His ruminating after a full meal generally lasted
+about an hour and a half; nor could he sleep until this task was
+completed. The victuals, upon its return, tasted even more pleasantly
+than at first; and seemed as if it had been beaten up in a mortar. If he
+ate a variety of things, that which he ate first, came up again first;
+and if this return was interrupted for any length of time, it produced
+sickness and disorder; nor was he ever well till it returned. These
+singular cases are caused, no doubt, by some abnormal structure of the
+interior of the stomach. No account has yet been given of the dissection
+of an individual so constituted.
+
+When cattle are at rest, or not employed in grazing or chewing the cud,
+they are observed frequently to lick themselves. By this means they
+raise up the hair of their coats, and often swallow it in considerable
+quantities. The hair thus swallowed gradually accumulates in the
+stomach, where it is formed into smooth round balls, which, in time,
+become invested with a hardish brown crust, composed, apparently, of
+inspissated mucilage, that, by continual friction from the coats of the
+stomach, becomes hard and glossy. It is generally in the paunch that
+these hair-balls are found. They vary in weight from a few ounces to six
+or seven pounds. Mr. Walton, author of an 'Account of the Peruvian
+Sheep,' makes mention of one that he had in his possession which weighed
+eight pounds and a quarter. This hair-ball had been taken from a cow
+that fed on the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was of a flat circular shape,
+and measured two feet eleven inches and a half in circumference; two
+feet eight inches round the flat part; nine inches diameter also in the
+flat part; eleven inches diameter in the cross part; and, on immersing
+it in water, it displaced upwards of eight quarts, which made its bulk
+correspond to 462 cubic inches. The digestive functions are sometimes
+seriously impaired by these concretions; a loss of appetite ensues, and
+general debility.
+
+In the Museum of Daniel Crosthwaite, there is a very extraordinary ball
+of hair, taken from a fatted calf only seven weeks old. The ball of
+hair, when taken out of the animal's stomach, and full of moisture,
+weighed eleven ounces. The calf was fatted by Daniel Thwaite, of Dale
+Head Hall, within six miles of Keswick; and slaughtered by John Fisher,
+butcher, Keswick. The calf was a particularly healthy animal.
+
+Before closing this brief sketch of the digestive apparatus of the ox,
+it may not be uninteresting to quote some of the quaint speculations of
+Nathaniel Grew on this subject, from his 'Comparative Anatomy of
+Stomachs and Guts.'
+
+He says: "The _voluntary_ motion of the stomach is that only which
+accompanies rumination. That it is truly voluntary, is clear, from the
+command that ruminating animals have of that action. For this purpose it
+is, that the muscules of their venters are so thick and strong; and have
+several duplicatures, as the bases of those muscules, whereupon the
+stress of their motion lies. By means whereof they are able with ease to
+rowl and tumble any part of the meat from one cell of the same venter to
+another; or from one venter to another; or from thence into the gullet,
+whensoever they are minded to do it; so that the ejectment of the meat,
+in rumination, is a voluntary eructation.
+
+"The pointed knots, like little papillæ, in the stomachs of ruminating
+beasts, are also of great use, namely, for the tasting of the meat. The
+inner membrane of the first three venters is fibrous (like the gustatory
+papillæ of the tongue) and not glandulous; the fourth only being
+glandulous, as in a man. Of the fibres of this membrane, and the
+nervous, are composed those pointed knots, which are, both in substance
+and shape, altogether like to those upon the tongue. Whence I doubt not,
+but that the said three ventricles, as they have a power of voluntary
+motion, so, likewise, that they are the seat of taste, and as truly the
+organs of that sense, as is the tongue itself."
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal
+College of Surgeons.]
+
+The mouth of animals of the Ox Tribe contains, when full, thirty-two
+teeth. Six molars in each jaw, above, below, and on either side; and
+eight incisors in the lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are no
+incisors; but instead thereof a fibrous and elastic pad, or cushion,
+which covers the convex extremity of the anterior maxillary bone, and
+which is well worthy of observation.
+
+The final cause of this pad (which stands in the place of upper incisor
+teeth) and the part it plays in the procuring of food, is thus described
+by Youatt. "The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the
+long and moveable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting
+teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and
+then by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage
+is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut.
+
+"The intention of this singular method of gathering the food, it is
+somewhat difficult satisfactorily to explain. It is peculiar to
+ruminants, who have one large stomach, in which the food is kept as a
+kind of reservoir until it is ready for the action of the other
+stomachs. While it is kept there it is in a state of maceration; it is
+exposed to the united influence of moisture and warmth, and the
+consequence of this is, that a species of decomposition sometimes
+commences, and a vast deal of gas is extricated.
+
+"That this should not take place in the natural process of retention and
+maceration, nature possibly established this mechanism for the first
+gathering of the food. It is impossible that half of that which is thus
+procured can be fairly cut through; part will be torn, and no little
+portion will be torn up by the roots. If cattle are observed while they
+are grazing, it will be seen that many a root mingles with the blades of
+grass; and these roots have sometimes no inconsiderable quantity of
+earth about them. The beast, however, seems not to regard this; he eats
+on, dirt and all, until his paunch is filled.
+
+"It was designed that this earth should be gathered and swallowed; it
+was the meaning of this mechanism. A portion of absorbent earth is found
+in every soil, sufficient not only to prevent the evil that would result
+from occasional decomposition, by neutralizing the acid principle as
+rapidly as it is evolved; but, perhaps, by its presence, preventing that
+decomposition from taking place. Hence the eagerness with which
+stall-fed cattle, who have not the opportunity of plucking up the roots
+of grass, evince for mould. It is seldom that a cow will pass a
+newly-raised mole hill without nuzzling into it, and devouring a
+considerable portion of it. This is particularly the case where there is
+any degree of indigestion."
+
+The general disposition of animals of this class, when unmolested, is
+inoffensive and retiring; but when excited and irritated, they are
+fierce and courageous, and extremely dangerous to encounter. It is a
+remarkable circumstance in their history, that they are generally
+provoked to attack at the sight of red, or any very bright and glaring
+colour.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    _a._ Cervical vertebræ.
+    _b._ Dorsal vertebræ.
+    _c._ Lumbar vertebræ.
+    _d._ Sacrum.
+    _e._ Caudal vertebræ, or coccygeal bones.
+    _f._ Ribs.
+    _g._ Costal cartilages.
+    _h._ Scapula.
+    _i._ Humerus,
+    _k._ Radius.
+    _l._ Ulna
+    _m._ Carpus, or knee.
+    _n._ Large metacarpal, or cannon.
+    _pp._ Sesamoid bones.
+    _qq._ Phalanges.
+    _r._ Pelvis.
+    _s._ Femur.
+    _t._ Patella.
+    _u._ Tibia.
+    _v._ Rudimentum fibulæ.
+    _w._ Hock and tarsals.
+    _x._ Large metatarsal.
+    _y._ Small metatarsal.
+
+    1. Inferior maxilla (lower jaw).
+    2. Superior maxilla (upper jaw).
+    3. Anterior maxilla
+    4. Nasal bone.
+    5. Frontal.
+    6. Parietal.
+    7. Occipital.
+
+Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of
+Surgeons.]
+
+
+
+
+THE OX TRIBE
+
+OR
+
+_Genus_ BOS,
+
+Is distinguished from other Genera of Ruminantia by possessing hollow
+persistent horns, growing on a bony core; the tail long, terminated by a
+tuft of hair; and four inguinal mammæ.
+
+
+
+
+THE AMERICAN BISON.
+
+_Bos Americanus._
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BISON. ]
+
+The head of this animal is enormously large; larger, in fact, in
+proportion to the size of its body, than that of any other species of
+the Ox Tribe. This huge head is supported by very powerful muscles,
+attached to the projecting spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ; and
+these muscles, together with a quantity of fat, constitute the hump on
+the shoulders. The horns are short, tapering, round, and very distant
+from each other, as are also the eyes, which are small and dark. The
+head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, to the knee-joints, are covered
+with long woolly hair, which likewise forms a beard under the mouth. The
+rest of the body is clothed only by short, close hair, which becomes
+rather woolly in the depth of winter. The colour is of a deep brown,
+nearly black on the head, and lighter about the neck and shoulders. The
+legs are firm and muscular; the tail is short, with a tuft at the end.
+
+The female is, in every respect, much smaller than the male; her horns
+are more slender, and the hair on her neck and shoulders is not so thick
+or long, nor the colour so dark. She brings forth in the spring, and
+rarely more than one. The calves continue to be suckled nearly twelve
+months, and follow the cows for a much longer period. It is said that
+the cows are not unfrequently followed by the calves of two, or even
+three, breeding seasons.
+
+These animals, both male and female, are timid and shy, notwithstanding
+their fierce appearance; unless they are wounded, or during the breeding
+season, when it is dangerous to approach. Their mode of attack is to
+throw down, by pushing, as they run with their head; then to crush, by
+trampling their enemy under their fore-feet, which, surmounted as they
+are, by their tremendous head and shoulder, form most effectual weapons
+of destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Young female Bison, after Cuvier.]
+
+The following account, by Dr. Richardson, affords an instance of the
+danger to be apprehended from these powerful animals, when wounded, and
+not disabled: "Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's
+clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening,
+having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look
+for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull, which
+was galloping over an eminence; and as he was hastening forward to see
+if this shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He
+had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on the
+forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a
+remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued
+until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered
+powerless; he then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became
+senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by his companions, lying
+bathed in his blood, being gored in several places, and the Bison was
+couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack, had he shown
+any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of
+the injuries, but he died a few months afterwards. Many instances might
+be mentioned of the tenaciousness with which this animal pursues its
+revenge; and I have been told of a hunter being detained for many hours
+in a tree, by an old bull, which had taken its post below, to watch
+him."
+
+[Illustration: Wounded Bison, after Catlin.]
+
+The capture of the Bison is effected in various ways, chiefly with the
+rifle, and on foot. Their sense of smelling, however, is so acute, that
+they are extremely difficult of approach, scenting their enemy from
+afar, and retiring with the greatest precipitation. Care, therefore,
+must be taken to go against the wind, in which case they may be
+approached very near, being almost blinded by the long hair hanging over
+their foreheads. The hunters generally aim at the shoulder, which, if
+effectually hit, causes them to drop at once; otherwise they are
+infuriated, and become dangerous antagonists, as was proved in the
+result of Mr. M'Donald's adventure.
+
+When flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost
+to halt, or attempt to obstruct the progress of the main body, as the
+throng in the rear, still rushing onwards, the leaders must advance,
+although destruction await the movement. The Indians take advantage of
+this circumstance to destroy great quantities of this favorite game; and
+certainly no method could be resorted to more effectually destructive,
+nor could a more terrible devastation be produced, than that of forcing
+a numerous herd of these large animals to leap from the brink of a
+dreadful precipice upon a rocky and broken surface, a hundred feet
+below.
+
+When the Indians determine to destroy Bisons in this way, one of their
+swiftest-footed and most active young men is selected, who is disguised
+in a Bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns adjusted on his own
+head, so as to make the deception very complete; and thus accoutred, he
+stations himself between the Bison herd and some of the precipices,
+which often extend for several miles along the rivers. The Indians
+surround the herd as nearly as possible, when, at a given signal, they
+show themselves, and rush forward with loud yells. The animals being
+alarmed, and seeing no way open but in the direction of the disguised
+Indian, run towards him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the
+precipice, where he suddenly secures himself in some previously
+ascertained crevice. The foremost of the herd arrives at the
+brink,--there is no possibility of retreat, no chance of escape; the
+foremost may, for an instant, shrink with terror, but the crowd behind,
+who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush forward with
+increasing impetuosity, and the aggregate force hurls them successively
+into the gulf, where certain death awaits them.
+
+Sometimes they are taken by the following method:--A great number of men
+divide and form a vast square; each band then sets fire to the dry grass
+of the savannah, where the herds are feeding; seeing the fire advance on
+all sides, they retire in great consternation to the centre of the
+square; the men then close and kill them without the least hazard.
+
+Great numbers are also taken in pounds, constructed with an embankment
+of such an elevation as to prevent the return of the Bisons when once
+they are driven into it. A general slaughter then takes place with
+rifles or arrows.
+
+The following vivid sketch is from the narrative of John Tanner, who,
+when about seven or eight years of age, was stolen from his parents by
+the Indians, and remained with them during a period of thirty years.
+
+"By the end of the second day after we left Pembinah we had not a
+mouthful to eat, and were beginning to be very hungry. When we laid down
+in our camp (near Craneberry River) at night, and put our ears close to
+the ground, we could hear the tramp of the buffaloes, but when we sat up
+we could hear nothing; and on the following morning nothing could be
+seen of them; though we could command a very extensive view of the
+prairie. As we knew they must not be far off in the direction of the
+sounds we had heard, eight men, of whom I was one, were selected and
+dispatched to kill some, and bring the meat to a point where it was
+agreed the party should stop next night. The noise we could still hear
+next morning, by applying our ears to the ground; and it seemed about as
+far distant, and in the same direction, as before. We started early, and
+rode some hours before we could begin to see them; and when we first
+discovered the margin of the herd, it must have been at least ten miles
+distant. It was like a black line drawn along the edge of the sky, or a
+low shore seen across a lake. The distance of the herd from the place
+where we first heard them could not have been less than twenty miles.
+But it was now the rutting season, and various parts of the herd were
+all the time kept in rapid motion by the severe fights of the bulls. To
+the noise produced by the knocking together of the two divisions of the
+hoof, when they raised their feet from the ground, and of their
+incessant tramping, was added the loud and furious roar of the bulls,
+engaged, as they all were, in their terrific and appalling conflicts. We
+were conscious that our approach to the herd would not occasion the
+alarm now, that it would at any other time, and we rode directly towards
+them. As we came near we killed a wounded bull, which scarcely made an
+effort to escape from us. He had wounds in his flanks, into which I
+could put my whole hand. As we knew that the flesh of the bulls was not
+now good to eat, we did not wish to kill them, though we might easily
+have shot any number. Dismounting, we put our horses in the care of some
+of our number, who were willing to stay back for that purpose, and then
+crept into the herd to try to kill some cows. I had separated from the
+others, and advancing, got entangled among the bulls. Before I found an
+opportunity to shoot a cow, the bulls began to fight very near me. In
+their fury they were totally unconscious of my presence, and came
+rushing towards me with such violence, that in some alarm for my safety,
+I took refuge in one of those holes which are so frequent where those
+animals abound, and which they themselves dig to wallow in. Here I found
+they were pressing directly upon me, and I was compelled to fire to
+disperse them, in which I did not succeed until I had killed four of
+them. By this firing the cows were so frightened, that I perceived I
+should not be able to kill any in this quarter; so regaining my horse, I
+rode to a distant part of the herd, where the Indians had succeeded in
+killing a fat cow. But from this cow, as is usual in similar cases, the
+herd had all moved off, except one bull, who, when I came up, still kept
+the Indians at bay. 'You are warriors,' said I, as I rode up, 'going far
+from your own country, to seek an enemy, but you cannot take his wife
+from that old bull, who has nothing in his hands.' So saying, I passed
+them directly towards the bull, then standing something more than two
+hundred yards distant. He no sooner saw me approach, than he came
+plunging towards me with such impetuosity, that, knowing the danger to
+my horse and myself, I turned and fled. The Indians laughed heartily at
+my repulse, but they did not give over their attempts to get at the cow.
+By dividing the attention of the bull, and creeping up to him on
+different sides, they at length shot him down. While we were cutting up
+the cow, the herd were at no great distance; and an old cow, which the
+Indians supposed to be the mother of the one we had killed, taking the
+scent of the blood, came running with great violence towards us. The
+Indians were alarmed and fled, many of them not having their guns in
+their hands; but I had carefully reloaded mine, and had it ready for
+use. Throwing myself down close to the body of the cow, and behind it, I
+waited till the other came up within a few yards of the carcase, when I
+fired upon her; she turned, gave one or two jumps, and fell dead. We had
+now the meat of two fat cows, which was as much as we wanted;
+accordingly we repaired, without delay, to the appointed place, where we
+found our party, whose hunger was already somewhat allayed by a deer one
+of them had killed."
+
+In hunting the Bison, the spear and the arrow are still much in use
+among the Indians. The following sketch (after Catlin) represents an
+Indian in the act of shooting a Bison with the arrow:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the 'Letters and Notes on the North-American Indians,' by Catlin,
+there are a great many interesting details of the Bison (or Buffalo, as
+it is there called).
+
+"Six days of severe travelling have brought us from the Camanchee
+village to the north bank of the Canadian, where we are snugly encamped
+on a beautiful plain, and in the midst of countless numbers of
+buffaloes; and halting a few days to recruit our horses and men, and dry
+meat to last us the remainder of our journey.
+
+"The plains around this, for many miles, seem actually speckled, in
+distance and in every direction, with herds of grazing buffaloes; and
+for several days, the officers and men have been indulged in a general
+license to gratify their sporting propensities; and a scene of bustle
+and cruel slaughter it has been, to be sure! From morning till night,
+the camp has been daily almost deserted. The men have dispersed in
+little squads, in all directions, and are dealing death to these poor
+creatures to a most cruel and wanton extent, merely for the pleasure of
+destroying, generally without stopping to cut out the meat. During
+yesterday and to day, several hundreds have undoubtedly been killed, and
+not so much as the flesh of half a dozen used. Such immense swarms of
+them are spread over this tract of country, and so divided and terrified
+have they become, finding their enemies in all directions where they
+run, that the poor beasts seem completely bewildered, running here and
+there, and, as often as otherwise, come singly advancing to the
+horsemen, as if to join them for their company, and are easily shot
+down. In the turmoil and confusion, when their assailants have been
+pushing them forward, they have galloped through our encampment, jumping
+over our fires, upsetting pots and kettles, driving horses from their
+fastenings, and throwing the whole encampment into the greatest
+consternation and alarm."
+
+Speaking of the attacks made upon them by the Wolves, he says, "When the
+herd is together the Wolves never attack them, as they instantly gather
+for combined resistance, which they effectually make. But when the herds
+are travelling, it often happens that an aged or wounded one lingers at
+a little distance behind, and when fairly out of sight of the herd, is
+set upon by the voracious hunters, which often gather to the number of
+fifty or more, and are sure at last to torture him to death, and use him
+up at a meal. The Buffalo, however, is a huge and furious animal, and
+when his retreat is cut off, makes desperate and deadly resistance,
+contending to the last moment for the right of life, and oftentimes
+deals death by wholesale to his canine assailants.
+
+"During my travels in these regions, I have several times come across
+such a gang of these animals surrounding an old or wounded bull, where
+it would seem, from appearances, that they had been for several days in
+attendance, and at intervals desperately engaged in the effort to take
+his life. But a short time since, as one of my hunting companions and
+myself were returning to our encampment, with our horses loaded with
+meat, we discovered at a distance a huge bull, encircled with a gang of
+white wolves. We rode up as near as we could without driving them away;
+and being within pistol-shot, we had a remarkably good view, where I sat
+for a few moments and made a sketch in my note-book. After which we rode
+up, and gave the signal for them to disperse, which they instantly did,
+withdrawing themselves to the distance of fifty or sixty rods, when we
+found, to our great surprise, that the animal had made desperate
+resistance, until his eyes were entirely eaten out of his head; the
+gristle of his nose was mostly gone; his tongue was half eaten off, and
+the skin and flesh of his legs torn almost literally into strings. In
+this tattered and torn condition the poor old veteran stood bracing up
+in the midst of his devourers, who had ceased hostilities for a few
+minutes, to enjoy a sort of parley, recovering strength to resume the
+attack in a few moments again. In this group, some were reclining to
+gain breath, whilst others were sneaking about, and licking their chaps
+in anxiety for a renewal of the attack; and others, less lucky, had been
+crushed to death by the feet or the horns of the bull. I rode nearer to
+the pitiable object, as he stood bleeding and trembling before me, and
+said to him,--"Now is your time, old fellow, and you had better be off."
+Though blind, and nearly destroyed, he straightened up, and, trembling
+with excitement, dashed off at full speed upon the prairie, in a
+straight line. We turned our horses, and resumed our march; and when we
+had advanced a mile or more, we looked back, and again saw the ill-fated
+animal surrounded by his tormentors, to whose insatiable voracity he
+unquestionably soon fell a victim."
+
+[Illustration: Bison surrounded by Wolves, after Catlin.]
+
+It has frequently been noticed, that whenever a female Bison, having a
+calf, is slain, the young one remains by its fallen dam, with signs of
+strong natural affection, and instinctively follows the inanimate
+carcase of its parent to the residence of the hunter. In this way many
+calves are secured.
+
+According to Mr. Catlin's account these young animals are induced to
+follow any one who merely breathes in their nostrils. "I have often,"
+says he, "in concurrence with a known custom of the country, held my
+hands over the eyes of the calf, and breathed a few strong breaths into
+its nostrils; after which I have, with my hunting companions, rode
+several miles into our encampment, with the little prisoner busily
+following the heels of my horse the whole way, as closely as its
+instinct would attach it to the company of its dam.
+
+[Illustration: Bison Calf, about three weeks old.]
+
+"This is one of the most extraordinary things that I have met with in
+the habits of this wild country; and although I had often heard of it,
+and felt unable exactly to believe it, I am now willing to bear
+testimony to the fact, from the numerous instances which I have
+witnessed since I came into the country. During the time that I resided
+at this post (Teton River) in the spring of the year, on my way up the
+river, I assisted in bringing in, in the above manner, several of these
+little prisoners, which sometimes followed for five or six miles close
+to our horse's heels, and even into the Fur Company's Fort, and into the
+stable where our horses were led. In this way, before I left for the
+head waters of the Missouri, I think we had collected about a dozen,
+which Mr. Laidlaw was successfully raising with the aid of a good milch
+cow, and which were to be committed to the care of Mr. Chouteau, to be
+transported, by the return of the steamer, to his extensive plantation
+in the vicinity of St. Louis."
+
+The uses which are made of the various parts of the Bison are numerous.
+The hide, which is thick and rather porous, is converted by the Indians
+into mocassins for the winter; they also make their shields of it. When
+dressed with the hair on, it is made into clothing by the natives, and
+most excellent blankets by the European settlers; so valuable, indeed,
+is it esteemed, that three or four pounds sterling a piece are not
+unfrequently given for good ones in Canada, where they are used as
+travelling cloaks. The fleece, which sometimes weighs eight pounds, is
+spun and wove into cloth. Stockings, gloves, garters, &c., are likewise
+knit with it, appearing and lasting as well as those made of the best
+sheep's wool. In England it has been made into remarkably fine cloth.
+
+"There are," says Catlin, "by a fair calculation, more than 300,000
+Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by
+these animals supplied with, all the luxuries of life which they
+desire, as they know of none others. The great variety of uses to which
+they convert the body and other parts of that animal, are almost
+incredible to the person who has not actually dwelt amongst these
+people, and closely studied their modes and customs. Every part of their
+flesh is converted into food, in one shape or other, and on it they
+entirely subsist. The skins of the animals are worn by the Indians
+instead of blankets; their skins, when tanned, are used as coverings for
+their lodges and for their beds; undressed, they are used for
+constructing canoes, for saddles, for bridles, l'arrêts, lasos, and
+thongs. The horns are shaped into ladles and spoons; the brains are used
+for dressing the skins; their bones are used for saddle-trees, for
+war-clubs, and scrapers for graining the robes; and others are broken up
+for the marrow fat which is contained in them. The sinews are used for
+strings and backs to their bows, for thread to string their beads and
+sew their dresses. The feet of the animals are boiled, with their hoofs,
+for the glue they contain, for fastening their arrow points, and many
+other uses. The hair from the head and shoulders, which is long, is
+twisted and braided into halters, and the tail is used for a fly-brush."
+
+Again (vol. ii, p. 138), he says, "I have introduced the skin canoes of
+the Mandans (of the Upper Missouri), which are made almost round like a
+tub, by straining a buffalo's skin over a frame of wicker-work, made of
+willow or other boughs. The woman, in paddling these awkward tubs,
+stands in the bow, and makes the stroke with the paddle, by reaching it
+forward in the water, and drawing it to her, by which means she pulls
+the canoe along with considerable speed. These very curious and
+rudely-constructed canoes are made in the form of the Welsh coracle;
+and, if I mistake not, propelled in the same manner, which is a very
+curious circumstance; inasmuch as they are found in the heart of the
+great wilderness of America, where all the surrounding tribes construct
+their canoes in decidedly different forms, and of different materials."
+
+[Illustration: Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians.]
+
+It is generally agreed by travellers, that the flesh of the Bison is
+little inferior to the beef of our domestic oxen. The tongue is
+considered a delicacy, and the hump is much esteemed. A kind of
+potted-beef, called _pemmican_, is made of the flesh of the Bison, in
+the following manner:--The flesh is spread on a skin, dried in the sun,
+and pounded with stones; then all the hair is carefully sifted out of
+it, and melted fat kneeded into it. This, when properly made and kept
+dry, will keep good for twelve months. The tallow of the Bison forms an
+important article of commerce; one fat bull yielding sometimes as much
+as 150 pounds weight.
+
+Mr. Turner, a gentleman long resident in America, is of opinion, that
+the Bison is superior even to our domestic cattle for the purposes of
+husbandry, and has expressed a wish to see this animal domesticated on
+the English farms. He informs us, that a farmer on the great Kenhawa
+broke a young Bison to the plough; and having yoked it with a steer,
+taken from his tame cattle, it performed its work to admiration. But
+there is another property in which the Bison far surpasses the Ox, and
+this is his strength. "Judging from the extraordinary size of his bones,
+and the depth and formation of the chest, (continues this gentleman,) I
+should not think it unreasonable to assign nearly a double portion of
+strength to this powerful inhabitant of the forest. Reclaim him, and you
+gain a capital quadruped, both for the draught and for the plough; his
+activity peculiarly fits him for the latter, in preference to the ox."
+
+As there are no Game Laws in America, (except in a very few confined
+instances on the Atlantic border,) the consequence is that the Bison is
+fast disappearing before the approach of the white settlers. At the
+commencement of the eighteenth century these wild cattle were found in
+large numbers all throughout the valley of the Ohio, of the Mississippi,
+in Western New York, in Virginia, &c. In the beginning of the present
+century they were still existing in the extreme western or southwestern
+part of the State of New York. As late as 1812 they were natives of
+Ohio, and numerous in that State. And now they are not to be seen in
+their native state in any part of the United States, east of the
+Mississippi River; nor are they now to be found in any considerable
+numbers west of that great river, until you have travelled some eighty
+or a hundred miles into the interior of the country.
+
+There were no Bisons west of the Rocky Mountains, when Lewis and Clarke
+travelled there in 1805. On their return from the Columbia, or Oregon
+River, in July of that year, the first Bison they saw was on the day
+after they commenced their descent of the Rocky Mountains towards the
+east. On the second day after that, they saw immense herds of them on
+the banks of the Medicine River. One collection of these animals which
+they subsequently saw, on the borders of the Missouri River, they
+estimated as being at least 20,000 in number.
+
+In 1823 it was discovered that the Bisons had crossed the Rocky
+Mountains, and some were to be seen in the vallies to the west of that
+range.
+
+East of that range of mountains, these animals migrate from the uplands
+or mountains to the plains, and from north to south, about the beginning
+of November; and return from the south to the north, and from the plains
+to the uplands, soon after the disappearance of the snow in the spring.
+
+The herds of Bisons wander over the country in search of food, usually
+led by a bull remarkable for strength and fierceness. While feeding,
+they are often scattered over a great extent of country; but when they
+move, they form a dense and almost impenetrable column, which, when once
+in motion, is scarcely to be impeded. Their line of march is seldom
+interrupted, even by considerable rivers, across which they swim,
+without fear or hesitation, nearly in the order in which they traverse
+the plains. The Bisons which frequent the woody parts of the country
+form smaller herds than those which roam over the plains, but are said
+to be individually of a greater size.
+
+The rutting takes place the latter part of July and the beginning of
+August, after which the cows separate from the bulls in distinct herds.
+They bring forth their young in April: from which it appears that the
+term of gestation is about nine months.
+
+The pair of American Bisons in the Zoological Gardens produced a calf in
+1849; from the observations made in that instance, the period of
+gestation was calculated at 270 days.
+
+The most important anatomical difference between the American and the
+European is, that the American has fifteen pairs of ribs, whereas the
+European has but fourteen.
+
+The following are the dimensions of a large specimen:--
+
+                                                    Ft. In.
+From the nose to the insertion of the tail           8   6
+Height at the shoulder                               6   0
+  "         at the croup                             5   0
+Length of the head                                   2   1
+
+Their weights vary from 1200 to 2000 pounds.
+
+[Illustration: Head of young male Bison.]
+
+
+
+
+THE AUROCHS, OR EUROPEAN BISON.
+
+_Bos Bison._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In this, as in the American species, the head is very broad, and the
+forehead arched; but the horns are longer, more curved, and end in a
+finer point than those of the American Bison. The eyes are large and
+dark; the hair on the forehead is long and wavy; under the chin and on
+the breast it forms a sort of beard. In winter, the whole of the neck,
+hump, and shoulders are covered with a long woolly hair of a dusky brown
+colour, intermingled with a short soft fur of a fawn colour. The long
+hair is gradually cast in the summer, to be again renewed as the
+inclemency of winter comes on. The legs, back, and posterior portions
+are covered with short, dark brown hair. The tail is of a moderate
+length, is covered with hair, and terminates in a large tuft.
+
+The females are not so large as the males, neither are they
+characterised by that abundance of hair on the anterior parts, which is
+so conspicuous in the bulls.
+
+These animals have never been domesticated, although calves have
+sometimes been caught, and confined in an enclosed pasture. An instance
+of this kind is recorded by Mr. Gilibert, who, while in Poland, had the
+opportunity of observing the character of four young ones thus reared in
+captivity. They were suckled by a she-goat, obstinately refusing to
+touch a common cow. This antipathy to the domestic cow, which they
+manifested so early, maintained its strength as they advanced in years;
+their anger was sure to be excited at the appearance of any domestic
+cattle, which, whenever introduced to them, they vigorously expelled
+from their pasture. They were, however, sufficiently tame to acknowledge
+the voice of their keeper.
+
+The geographical range of this animal is now comparatively very limited,
+being confined to the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
+some of the Caucasian mountain forests; yet there can be no doubt that,
+at an early period, they roamed at large over a great part of both
+Europe and Asia.
+
+Although they have never been, strictly speaking, domesticated, yet
+herds of them are kept in certain localities in the forest of
+Bialowieza, under the special protection of the Emperor of Russia, and
+under the immediate superintendence of twelve herdsmen, each herdsman
+keeping the number allotted to his charge in a particular department of
+the forest, near some river or stream. The estimated number of the
+twelve herds is about 800.
+
+They feed on grass and brushwood; also on the leaves and bark of young
+trees, particularly the willow, poplar, ash, and birch. In autumn they
+likewise browse on heath, and the lichens which cover the bark of trees.
+In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, fodder is provided for
+them.
+
+Their cry is quite peculiar, resembling a groan, or a grunt, more than
+the lowing of an ox.
+
+They do not attain their full stature until after the sixth year, and
+live till between thirty and forty.
+
+"The strength of the Zubr," says Dr. Weissenborn, "is enormous; and
+trees of five or six inches diameter cannot withstand the thrusts of old
+bulls. It is neither afraid of wolf nor bear, and assails its enemies
+both with its horns and hoofs. An old Zubr is a match for four wolves;
+packs of the latter animal, however, sometimes hunt down even old bulls
+when alone; but a herd of Zubrs has nothing to fear from any rapacious
+animal.
+
+"Notwithstanding the great bulk of its body, the Zubr can run very
+swiftly. In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its head, which it
+carries very low. The animal has, however, but little bottom, and seldom
+runs farther than one or two English miles. It swims well, and is very
+fond of bathing.
+
+"The zubr is generally exceedingly shy, and avoids the approach of man.
+They can only be approached from the leeward, as their smell is
+extremely acute. But when accidentally and suddenly fallen in with, they
+will passionately assail the intruder. In such fits of passion the
+animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its sides with its
+tail, and the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their sockets,
+and roll furiously. Such is their innate wildness, that none of them
+have been completely tamed. When taken young they become, it is true,
+accustomed to their keepers, but the approach of other persons renders
+them furious; and even their keepers must be careful always to wear the
+same sort of dress when going near them. Their great antipathy to the
+Bos Taurus, which they either avoid or kill, would render their
+domestication, if it were practicable, but little desirable. The
+experiments made with a view of obtaining a mixed breed from the Zubr
+and Bos Taurus have all failed, and are now strictly prohibited."
+
+The rutting season is in August, and continues for about a fortnight;
+the calves are produced in May; thus, the period of gestation is between
+nine and ten months. The calves continue to suckle nearly twelve months,
+and the cows seldom calve oftener than once in three years.
+
+The European Bison differs internally from the common ox in having
+fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas the common ox has but thirteen. The
+external differences between the two animals are too obvious to require
+pointing out.
+
+In 1845, the Emperor of Russia presented to the British Museum a very
+fine stuffed specimen of this animal, from which the figure at the head
+of this chapter was taken.
+
+The following are its dimensions:--
+
+                                                           Ft.  In.
+Length from the nose to the insertion of the tail          9    10
+Height at the withers                                      5     6
+  "       at the rump                                      4    11
+Length of head                                             1     8
+  "        of tail                                         3     0
+
+M. Dimitri de Dolmatoff, Master of the Imperial Forests in the
+Government of Grodno, in his note of the capture of the Aurochs,
+(written in 1847,) alludes to the statement (made by every writer who
+has treated of these animals), that the calves, although taken young,
+invariably refuse to be suckled by the Domestic Cow. This he contradicts
+in the most explicit manner, on the testimony of his own experience,
+having had several instances come under his observation, in which the
+young calves of the Aurochs were suckled and reared by cows of the
+common domestic species.
+
+Cæsar, in his account of the "Sylva Hercynia"--the Black Forest--thus
+mentions the Urus, amongst other animals, there found:
+
+"A third kind [of animals] are those called Uri. They are but little
+less than Elephants in size, and are of the species, colour, and form of
+a bull. Their strength is very great, and also their speed. They spare
+neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
+the sight of men, nor be tamed, even when taken young. The people who
+take them in pit-falls, assiduously destroy them; and young men harden
+themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this kind of
+chase; and those who have killed a great number--the horns being
+publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact--obtain great honour. The
+horns, in amplitude, shape, and species, differ much from the horns of
+our oxen. They are much sought after; and after having been edged with
+silver at their mouths, they are used for drinking vessels at great
+feasts." (_De Bello Gallico_, lib. vi.)
+
+
+
+
+THE YAK, OR SOORA-GOY.
+
+_Bos Grunniens._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The following interesting and circumstantial account of this curious
+species of Ox, is from the pen of Lieut. Samuel Turner. (_Asiatic
+Researches_, vol. iv.)
+
+"The Yak of Tartary, called Soora-Goy in Hindostan, and which I term the
+Bushy-tailed Bull of Tibet, is about the height of an English Bull,
+which he resembles in the figure of the body, head, and legs. I could
+distinguish between them no essential difference, except only that the
+Yak is covered all over with a thick coat of long hair. The head is
+rather short, crowned with two smooth round horns, that, tapering from
+the setting on, terminate in sharp points, arch inwardly, and near the
+extremities are a little turned back. The ears are small; the forehead
+appears prominent, being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are
+full and large; the nose smooth and convex; the nostrils small. The
+neck is short, describing a curvature nearly equal both above and below;
+the withers high and arched; the rump low. Over the shoulders rises a
+bunch, which at first sight would seem to be the same kind of exuberance
+peculiar to the cattle of Hindostan; but in reality it consists in the
+superior length of the hair only, which, as well as that along the ridge
+of the back to the setting on of the tail, grows long and erect, but not
+harsh. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing
+glossy hair, descending to the hock; and is so extremely well furnished,
+that not a joint of it is perceptible; but it has much the appearance of
+a large bunch of hair artificially set on. The shoulders, rump, and
+upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of thick soft wool, but
+the inferior parts with straight pendent hair that descends below the
+knee; and I have seen it so long in some cattle, which were in high
+health and condition, as to trail along the ground. From the chest,
+between the fore-legs, issues a large pointed tuft of hair, growing
+somewhat larger than the rest. The legs are very short. In every other
+respect, hoofs, &c., he resembles the ordinary Bull. There is a great
+variety of colours among them, but black and white are the most
+prevalent. It is not uncommon to see the long hair upon the ridge of the
+back, the tail, the tuft upon the chest, and the legs below the knee
+white, when all the rest of the animal is jet black.
+
+"These cattle, though not large boned, from the profuse quantity of hair
+with which they are provided, appear of great bulk. They have a down
+heavy look, but are fierce, and discover much impatience at the near
+approach of strangers. They do not low loud (like the cattle of
+England) any more than those of Hindostan; but make a low grunting
+noise, scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression
+of uneasiness. These cattle are pastured in the coldest part of Tibet,
+upon short herbage, peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains.
+That chain of lofty mountains situated between lat. 27° and 28°, which
+divides Tibet from Bootan, and whose summits are most commonly covered
+with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity the Southern glens
+afford them food and shelter during the severity of the winter; in
+milder seasons the Northern aspect is more congenial to their nature,
+and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable property to the
+tribes of illiterate Tartars, who live in tents, and tend them from
+place to place, affording their herdsmen a mode of conveyance, a good
+covering, and subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture, but
+are extremely useful as beasts of burden; for they are strong,
+sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manufactured
+of their hair, and I have seen, though amongst the humblest ranks of
+herdsmen, caps and jackets worn of their skins. Their tails are esteemed
+throughout the East, as far as luxury or parade have any influence on
+the manners of the people; and on the continent of India are found,
+under the denomination of Chowries, in the hands of the meanest grooms,
+as well as, occasionally, in those of the first ministers of state. Yet
+the best requital with which the care of their keepers is at length
+rewarded for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity
+of rich milk they give, yielding most excellent butter, which they have
+a custom of depositing in skins or bladders, and excluding the air; it
+keeps in this cold climate all the year, so that after some time
+tending their flocks, when a sufficient stock is accumulated, it remains
+only to load their cattle, and drive them to a proper market with their
+own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most
+material article of commerce."
+
+The soft fur upon the hump and shoulders is manufactured by the natives
+of Tibet into a fine but strong cloth; and, if submitted to the test of
+European skill, might no doubt be made to produce a very superior
+fabric.
+
+The herdsmen commonly convert the hides into a loose outer garment that
+covers the whole of their bodies, hanging down to the knees; and it
+proves a sufficient protection against the lowest temperature of the
+cold and desolate region which they inhabit. It furnishes at once a
+cloak by day and a bed by night.
+
+The Yak is not generally fierce, but, if intruded upon by strangers, it
+sometimes manifests very formidable symptoms of impatience, stamping its
+feet, whisking its tail aloft, and tossing its head. When excited, it is
+not easily appeased, and is exceedingly tenacious of injury, always
+showing great fierceness whenever any one approaches who has chanced to
+provoke it.
+
+The cow is called _Dhe_, of which the wandering Tartars possess great
+numbers, having no means of subsistence but those supplied by their
+flocks and herds.
+
+A fine male specimen of this Ox was brought to England by Warren
+Hastings, and several attempts were made to procure a cross between it
+and the common English Cow, but without success. He invariably refused
+to associate with ordinary cattle, and exhibited a decided antipathy to
+them. His portrait was painted, and is now in the Museum of the College
+of Surgeons, London. The following figure (taken from the 'Oriental
+Annual') is so much like the portrait of Warren Hastings's Yak, that it
+might almost be taken for a copy of it.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+There is the skin of a Yak in the Zoological Museum, which coincides
+pretty nearly with the foregoing description. There is also a stuffed
+specimen of a female in the British Museum.
+
+Like the European Bison, the skeleton of the Yak has fourteen pairs of
+ribs. Period of gestation not recorded.
+
+
+
+
+THE GYALL, (_Bos Frontalis_ of Lambert;)
+
+THE GAYAL, (_Bos Gavæus_ of Colebrooke;)
+
+THE JUNGLY GAU, (_Bos Sylhetanus_ of F. Cuvier.)
+
+
+Of the animals named in the foregoing list, we have had several very
+interesting accounts; but none of these have been sufficiently precise
+to enable us to determine the specific character of the animals
+described.
+
+Are they, as some affirm, merely different names for the same animal; or
+do they designate animals which are really and truly distinct?
+
+Nothing short of an appeal to structure can satisfactorily settle this
+or any other disputed point of a similar nature; but, unfortunately for
+zoology, the opportunities for such appeals are rare, and, when they do
+occur, are seldom taken advantage of. Let us hope that this hint will
+not be lost on some of our intelligent countrymen in the East; and that
+before long we may be favoured with the result of their researches.
+
+In the meantime, and in order to facilitate as much as possible the
+endeavours of those who may have opportunities for such inquiries, the
+following epitome is given of the various papers which have already
+appeared on the subject, but which, in their present scattered form, are
+of very little general utility.
+
+
+
+
+THE GYALL.
+
+
+The earliest descriptive notice we have of the Gyall was that given in a
+paper read before the Linnean Society, in 1802, by Mr. Lambert, on the
+occasion of a bull of this species arriving in London from India.
+
+"_Bos Frontalis._
+
+"General colour a blueish-black; the frontal fascia gray; the horns
+short, thick, and distant at their bases, the tail nearly naked,
+slender, and with a tuft at the end. The Gyall has no mane; its coat is
+soft; the edge of the under lip is white, and is fringed with bristling
+hair. The horns are pale, with their bases included in the frontal
+fascia."
+
+[Illustration: The Gyall, reduced--from the Linnean Transactions.]
+
+The animal of which this description is given, appeared to be between
+two and three years old, very tame, and inoffensive. A drawing was
+taken of it, which was engraved and published in the Linnean
+Transactions.
+
+The following are its dimensions:
+
+                                                                Ft.   In.
+From tip of nose to end of tail                                 9     2
+ "   tip of hoof of fore foot to top of the rising of
+           back                                                 4     1-1/2
+Girth of largest part of abdomen                                5     7
+From the tip of the hoof of the hind leg to the
+           highest part of the rump                             4     0-1/2
+  "      the tip of forehead to end of nose                     1     9
+Girth of head over the angle of the jaws                        2    11-1/2
+Between tips of horns                                           1     8-1/2
+Length of horn, externally                                      0     8-1/2
+Girth of horn at largest part                                   1     1
+
+In reply to some inquiries respecting this animal which he made of a
+gentleman, (Mr. Harris,) resident in India, Mr. Lambert received the
+following:
+
+"DEAR SIR,--I have before me your note, with the drawing, which
+undoubtedly appears to me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned to
+have in my possession. Some parts of the drawing seem to be rather too
+much enlarged, as in the base of the horns, and the rising between the
+fore shoulders.
+
+"The animal I described to you, and which I have kept and reared these
+last seven years, and know by the name of the Gyall, is a native of the
+hills to the north east and east of the Company's province of
+Chittagong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills which separates it
+from the country of Arracan.
+
+"The male Gyall is like our Bull in shape and appearance, but I conceive
+not quite so tall; it is of a blackish-brown colour; the horns short,
+but thick and strong towards the base, round which, and across the
+frons, the hair is bushy, and of a dirty white colour; the chest and
+forehead are broad and thick. He is naturally very bold, and will defend
+himself against any of the beasts of prey.
+
+"The female differs a little in appearance; her horns are not quite so
+large, and her make is somewhat more slender. She is very quiet, and is
+used for all the purposes of the dairy; as also, (I have been informed
+by the natives,) for tilling the ground, and is more tractable than the
+Buffalo. The milk which these cows give has a peculiar richness in it,
+arising, I should conceive, from their always feeding on the young
+shoots and branches of trees in preference to grass.
+
+[Illustration: (Head of Gyall, from Linnean Transactions.)]
+
+"I constantly made it a practice to allow them to range abroad, amongst
+the hills and jungles at Chittagong, during the day, to browse; a keeper
+attending to prevent their straying so far as to endanger losing them.
+They do not thrive so well in any part of Bengal as in the
+afore-mentioned province, and in the adjoining one, Pipperah, where, I
+believe, the animal is also to be found. I have heard of a female Gyall
+breeding with a common Bull. I wish it were in my power to give you more
+particulars, but I am describing entirely from memory."
+
+In February, 1804, Mr. Lambert again addressed the Linnean Society on
+the same subject. He says, "Since I presented to the Society the last
+account of the Bos Frontalis, or Gyall of India, Mr. Fleming, a
+gentleman who has just returned from that country, has very obligingly
+communicated to me the following further particulars. This account was
+transmitted to Mr. Fleming by Mr. Macrae, resident at Chittagong, in a
+letter, dated March 22, 1802, and was accompanied with a drawing, by
+which it appears that the animal from which my figure was taken was full
+grown." (See the figure, p. 51.)
+
+
+MR. MACRAE'S ACCOUNT.
+
+The Gyall is a species of cow peculiar to the mountains, which form the
+eastern boundary of the province of Chittagong, where it is found
+running wild in the woods; and it is also reared as a domestic animal by
+the Kookies, or Lunclas, the inhabitants of those hills. It delights to
+live in the deepest jungles, feeding on the tender leaves and shoots of
+the brushwood; and is never met with on the plains below, except when
+brought there. Such of them as have been kept by the gentlemen at
+Chittagong, have always preferred browsing among the thickets on the
+adjacent hills to feeding on the grass of the plains.
+
+It is of a dull heavy appearance, yet of a form that indicates both
+strength and activity; and approaches nearly to that of the wild
+Buffalo. Its head is set on like the Buffalo's, and it carries it much
+in the same manner, with the nose projecting forward; but in the shape
+of the head it differs materially from both the Buffalo and the Cow, the
+head of the Gyall being much shorter from the crown to the nose, but
+much broader between the horns than that of either. The withers and
+shoulders of the Gyall rise higher in proportion than those of Buffalo
+or Cow, and its tail is small and short, seldom falling lower than the
+bend in the ham. Its colour is in general brown, varying from a light to
+a deep shade; it has at times a white forehead, and _white legs_, with a
+white belly and brush. The hair of the belly is invariably of a lighter
+colour than that of the back and flanks. The Gyall calf is of a dull red
+colour, which gradually changes to a brown as it advances in age.
+
+The female Gyall receives the bull at three years of age; her term of
+gestation is eleven months, when she brings forth, and does not again
+admit the male until the second year thereafter, thus producing a calf
+once in three years only. So long an interval between each birth must
+tend to make the species rare. In the length of time she goes with
+young, as well as in that between each conception, the Gyall differs
+from the Buffalo and Cow. The Gyall does not give much milk, but what
+she yields is nearly as rich as the cream of other milk. The calf sucks
+its dam for eight or nine months, when it is capable of supporting
+itself. The Kookies tie up the calf until he is sufficiently strong to
+do so.
+
+The Gyalls live to the age of from fifteen to twenty. They lose their
+sight as they grow old, and are subject to a disease of the hoof, which
+often proves fatal at an early age. When the Kookies consider the
+disease beyond the hope of cure, he kills the animal and eats the
+flesh, which constitutes his first article of luxury.
+
+The Kookies have a very simple method of catching the wild Gyalls, which
+is as follows:--On discovering a herd of wild Gyalls in the jungles,
+they prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man's head, composed of
+a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their tame
+Gyalls towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet, and
+assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the
+females of the other, and _vice versâ_. The Kookies now scatter their
+balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely
+to pass, and watch its motions. The Gyalls, on meeting these balls as
+they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin
+to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the salt,
+and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place until
+all the balls are consumed. The Kookies having observed the Gyalls to
+have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to
+answer the intended purpose; and as the Gyalls lick them up, they throw
+down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that
+the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally
+goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during
+which time the tame and the wild Gyalls are always together, licking the
+decoy balls; and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being
+so, makes his appearance, at such a distance as not to alarm the wild
+ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the
+sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his
+tame Gyalls on the back and neck, without frightening away the wild
+ones. He next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the
+same time giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the
+short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the
+tame ones, to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of
+force; and so attached do the Gyalls become to the parrah, that when the
+Kookies migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary
+to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gyalls
+should return to them from the new grounds.
+
+It is worthy of remark that the new and full moon are the periods at
+which the Kookies in general commence their operations of catching the
+wild Gyalls, from having observed that at these changes the two sexes
+are most inclined to associate. The same observation has been made with
+respect to Elephants.
+
+
+
+
+THE GAYAL.
+
+
+About four years after the publication of Mr. Macrae's account of the
+Gyall (namely in 1808,) there appeared, in the Eighth volume of 'Asiatic
+Researches,' a description of a species of Ox, named Gayal, communicated
+by H. T. Colebrooke.
+
+He commences by observing, that "the Gayal was mentioned in an early
+volume of the 'Researches of the Asiatic Society,' (vol. ii, p. 188,
+1790,) by its Indian name, which was explained by the phrase "Cattle of
+the mountains." It had been obscurely noticed (if indeed the same
+species of Ox be meant) by Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon
+(p. 21), and it has been imperfectly described by Captain Turner, in
+his journey through Bootan, ('Embassy to Tibet,' p. 160).
+
+"Herds of this species of cattle have been long kept by many gentlemen
+in the eastern districts of Bengal, and also in other parts of this
+province; but no detailed account of the animal and of its habits has
+been yet published in India. To remedy this deficiency, Dr. Roxburgh
+undertook, at my solicitation, to describe the Gayal, from those seen by
+him in a herd belonging to the Governor-General. Dr. Buchanan has also
+obligingly communicated his observations on the same cattle; with
+information obtained from several gentlemen at Tipura, Sylhet, and
+Chatgaon, relative to the habits of the animal. The original drawing
+from which the plate has been taken was drawn by a native artist."
+
+[Illustration: Reduced copy of the Plate just referred to.]
+
+This representation does not appear to have been taken from a specimen
+of the animals here described: it bears a much stronger resemblance to
+our figure of the Gaur, which was taken from the stuffed specimen in the
+British Museum (see p. 97), than it does to the Gyall (_Bos frontalis_
+of Lambert, see p. 51), or to the Gayal, which died in the Zoological
+Gardens in 1846, from which our figure was taken, which is given on p.
+68.
+
+Dr. Roxburgh, who undertook, at the solicitation of Mr. Colebrooke, to
+describe the Gayal, appears to have done so by the very simple method of
+copying Mr. Macrae's description of the Gyall, which appeared in the
+'Linnean Transactions,' in 1804, to which he has added, that the dewlap
+is deep and pendant; and this, according to every other account, is not
+the fact.
+
+With respect to the account given by Dr. Buchanan, I have thought it
+best to quote it in full; because (although it repeats several of the
+characteristics already given,) it appears to flow from the pen of one
+who really observed what he describes.
+
+He says: "The Gayal generally carries its head with the mouth projecting
+forward, like that of a Buffalo. The head, at the upper part, is very
+broad and flat, and is contracted suddenly towards the nose, which is
+naked, like that of the common cow. From the upper angle of the forehead
+proceed two thick, short, horizontal processes of bone, which are
+covered with hair; on these are placed the horns, which are smooth,
+shorter than the head, and lie nearly in the plane of the forehead. They
+diverge outward, and turn upward with a gentle curve. At the bases they
+are very thick, and are slightly compressed, the flat side being toward
+the front and the tail. The edge next the ear is rather the thinnest, so
+that a transverse section would be somewhat ovate. Toward their tips
+the horns are rounded, and end in a sharp point. The eyes resemble those
+of the common Ox; the ears are much longer, broader, and blunter than
+those of that animal.
+
+"The neck is very slender near the head, at some distance from which a
+dewlap commences, but this is not so deep, nor so much undulated as in
+the Zebu or Indian Ox. The dewlap is covered with strong longish hairs,
+so as to form a kind of mane on the lower part of the neck; but this is
+not very conspicuous, especially when the animal is young.
+
+"In place of the hump (which is situated between the shoulders of the
+Zebu) the Gayal has a sharp ridge, which commences on the hinder part of
+the neck, slopes gradually up till it comes over the shoulder-joint,
+then runs horizontally almost a third part of the length of the back,
+where it terminates with a very sudden slope. The height of this ridge
+makes the neck appear much depressed, and also adds greatly to the
+clumsiness of the chest, which, although narrow, is very deep. The
+sternum is covered by a continuation of the dewlap. The rump, or os
+sacrum, has a more considerable declivity than that of the European Ox,
+but less than that of the Zebu.
+
+"The tail is covered with short hair, except near the end, where it has
+a tuft like that of the common Ox; but in the Gayal the tail descends no
+lower than the extremity of the tibia.
+
+"The legs, especially the fore ones, are thick and clumsy. The false
+hoofs are much larger than those of the Zebu. The hinder parts are
+weaker in proportion than the fore; and, owing to the contraction of the
+belly, the hinder legs, although in fact the shortest, appear to be the
+longest.
+
+"The whole body is covered with a thick coat of short hair, which is
+lengthened out into a mane on the dewlap, and into a pencil-like tuft on
+the end of the tail. From the summit of the head there diverges, with a
+whirl, a bunch of rather long coarse hair, which lies flat, is usually
+lighter-coloured than that which is adjacent, and extends towards the
+horns and over the forehead. The general colour of the animal is brown,
+in various shades, which very often approaches to black, but sometimes
+is rather light. Some parts, especially about the legs and belly, are
+usually white; but in different individuals these are very differently
+disposed."
+
+The following is the measurement of a full-grown cow:--
+
+                                      Ft.    In.
+From nose to summit of head            1     6
+Between roots of horns                 0    10
+From horns to shoulder                 3     3
+From shoulder to insertion of tail     4     3
+Height at shoulder                     4     9
+Height at loins                        4     4
+Depth of chest                         2     9
+Circumference of chest                 6     7
+Circumference at loins                 5    10
+Length of horns                        1     2
+Length of ears                         0    10
+
+"The different species of the Ox kind may be readily distinguished from
+the Gayal by the following marks; the European and Indian oxen by the
+length of their tails, which reach to the false hoofs; the American Ox,
+by the gibbosity on its back; the _Bovis moschatus_, Caffer, and
+_pumilus_, by having their horns approximated at their bases; the _Bos
+grunniens_ by it's whole tail being covered with long silky hairs; the
+_Bos bubalus_,(at least the Indian buffalo,) by having the whole length
+of its horns compressed, and by their being longer than the head, and
+wrinkled--also by its thin coat of hair, by its want of a dewlap, and
+above all by its manners; the _Bos barbatus_, by the long beard on its
+chin.
+
+"The cry of the Gayal has no resemblance to the grunt of the Indian Ox,
+but a good deal resembles that of the Buffalo. It is a kind of lowing,
+but shriller, and not near so loud as that of the European Ox. To this,
+however, the Gayal approaches much nearer than it does to the Buffalo."
+
+Mr. Macrae, who furnished the account in 1804, is again consulted; and
+from his second account, the following additional particulars have been
+gleaned. [Now, however, as the reader will observe, the name is Gayal,
+and not Gyall; although, according to Mr. Macrae's own derivation of the
+word, it would appear to be more correctly Gyall.]
+
+"The Gayal is found wild in the range of mountains that form the eastern
+boundary of the provinces of Aracan, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and
+Sylhet.
+
+"The Cucis, or Lunclas, a race of people inhabiting the hills
+immediately to the eastward of Chatgaon, have herds of the Gayal in a
+domesticated state. By them he is called Shial, from which, most
+probably, his name of Gayal [Gyall] is derived; as he is never seen on
+the plains, except when he is brought there. It appears, however, that
+he is an animal very little known beyond the limits of his native
+mountains, except by the inhabitants of the provinces above mentioned.
+
+"His disposition is gentle: even when wild in his native hills, he is
+not considered to be a dangerous animal; never standing the approach of
+man, much less bearing his attack.
+
+"To avoid the noon-day heat, he retires to the deepest shade of the
+forest; preferring the dry acclivity of the hill to repose on, rather
+than the low swampy ground below; and never, like the Buffalo, wallowing
+in mud.
+
+"Gayals have been domesticated among the Cucis from time immemorial; and
+without any variation in their appearance from the wild stock. No
+difference whatever is observed in the colour of the wild and tame
+breeds; brown of different shades being the general colour of both.
+
+"The wild Gayal is about the size of the wild Buffalo of India. The tame
+Gayals among the Cucis, being bred in nearly the same habits of freedom,
+and on the same food, without ever undergoing any labour, grow to the
+same size with the wild ones.
+
+"The Cucis makes no use whatever of the milk, but rear the Gayals
+entirely for the sake of their flesh and skins; they make their shields
+of the hides of these animals. The flesh of the Gayal is in the highest
+estimation among the Cucis; so much so, that no solemn festival is ever
+celebrated without slaughtering one or more Gayals, according to the
+importance of the occasion.
+
+"The domesticated Gayals are allowed by the Cucis to roam at large
+during the day, through the forest, in the neighbourhood of the village;
+but as evening approaches, they all return home of their own accord; the
+young Gayal being early taught this habit, by being regularly fed every
+night with salt, of which he is very fond; and from the occasional
+continuance of this practice, as he grows up, the attachment of the
+Gayal to his native village becomes so strong, that when the Cucis
+migrate from it, they are obliged to set fire to the huts which they are
+about to leave, lest their Gayals should return thither from their new
+place of residence, before they become equally attached to it, as to the
+former, through the same means.
+
+"The wild Gayal sometimes steals out from the forest in the night, and
+feeds in the rice fields bordering on the hills. The Cucis give no grain
+to their cattle. With us (at Chatgaon) the tame Gayals feed on Caláï
+_(phaseolus max_); but as our hills abound with shrubs, it has not been
+remarked what particular kind of grass they prefer.
+
+"The Hindus in this province will not kill the Gabay (or Gayal) which
+they hold in equal veneration with the cow. But the As'l Gayal, or
+Seloï, they hunt and kill, as they do the wild Buffalo. The animal here
+alluded to is another species of Gayal found wild in the hills of
+Chatgaon. He has never been domesticated, and is in appearance and
+disposition very different from the common Gayal which has just been
+described. The natives call him the As'l Gayal, in contra-distinction to
+the Gabay. The Cucis distinguish him by the name of Seloï; and the Mugs
+and Burmas by that of P'hanj, and they consider him, next to the tiger,
+the most dangerous and fiercest animal of their forests."
+
+Mr. Elliot, in writing from Tipura, says,--"I have some Gayals at
+Munnamutty, and from their mode of feeding I presume that they keep on
+the skirts of the vallies, to enable them to feed on the sides of the
+mountain, where they can browse; they will not touch grass, if they can
+find shrubs.
+
+"While kept at Camerlah, which is situated in a level country, they used
+to resort to the banks, and eat on the sides; frequently betaking
+themselves to the water, to avoid the heat of the sun. However, they
+became sickly and emaciated, and their eyes suffered much; but, on being
+sent to the hills, they soon recovered, and are now (1808) in a healthy
+condition. They seem fond of the shade, and are observed in the hot
+weather to take the turn of the hills, so as to be always sheltered from
+the sun. They do not wallow in mud, like Buffaloes, but delight in
+water, and stand in it during the greatest heat of the day, with the
+front of their heads above the surface.
+
+"Each Cow yields from two and a half to about four sérs [from five to
+eight pounds] of milk, which is rich, sweet, and almost as thick as
+cream; it is of a high flavour, and makes excellent butter."
+
+We learn from Mr. Dick that the Gayal is called Gaujangali in the
+Persian language, Gavaya in Sanscrit, and Mat'hana by the mountaineers;
+but others name the animal Gobay-goru.
+
+The tame Gayals, however long they may have been domesticated, do not at
+all differ from the wild ones, unless in temper, for the wild ones are
+fierce and untractable. The colour of both is the same, namely, that of
+the Antelope, but some are white and others black, none are spotted or
+piebald. They graze and range like other cattle, and eat rice, mustard,
+chiches, and any cultivated produce, as also chaff and chopped straw.
+
+According to this gentleman the Gayal lives to the age of twenty or
+twenty-five years, and reaches its full growth at five years. The
+female is generally higher than the male. She receives the bull in her
+fifth year, and bears after ten months.
+
+In reference to the case of Mr. Bird's Gayal breeding with the common
+Zebu, I may observe that this proves nothing beyond the bare fact
+stated; no inference whatever of an identity of species can be drawn
+from a thousand such cases. It is pretty well known that animals of
+perfectly distinct species will, when artificially brought together,
+produce hybrids, as in the familiar examples of the Horse and the Ass,
+the Canary and the Goldfinch; but a hybrid is neither a species nor
+(zoologically speaking) a variety.
+
+In a paper on the Gour, by General Hardwicke, ('Zoological Journal,'
+Vol. III,) he introduces the following observations on the Gayal: "Of
+the Gayal (_Bos Gavæas_ of Colebrooke) there appears to be more than one
+species. The provinces of Chatgong and Sylhet produce the wild, or, as
+the Natives term it, the Asseel Gayal, and the domesticated one. The
+former is considered an untameable animal, extremely fierce, and not to
+be taken alive. It rarely quits the mountain tract of the south-east
+frontier, and never mixes with the Gobbay, or village Gayal of the
+plains. I succeeded in obtaining the skin, with the head, of the Asseel
+Gayal, which is deposited in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company,
+in Leadenhall Street." [A drawing was taken of this head, of which the
+engraving on the opposite page is a copy.]
+
+"I may notice another species of Gayal, of which a male and female were
+in the Governor General's park, at Barrackpore. This species differs in
+some particulars from the domesticated Gayal, and also from the Asseel,
+or true Gayal; first, in size, being a larger animal than the domestic
+one; secondly, in the largeness of the dewlap, which is deeper and more
+undulated than in either the wild or tame species; and, thirdly, in the
+size and form of the horns."
+
+Thus, according to the opinion of General Hardwicke, there are three
+distinct species of the Gayal; but in this matter nothing can be decided
+without further evidence, which we hope will soon appear in the shape of
+complete skeletons, and accurate drawings and descriptions.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE TAME OR DOMESTIC GAYAL.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The representation of the Gayal here given was taken from a living
+specimen in the Zoological Gardens, 1846.
+
+The scanty information I was able to glean concerning it, consists in
+its having been procured at Chitagong, and shipped, as a commercial
+speculation, from Calcutta for London, in January 1844, when about two
+years and a half old. It remained in the Zoological Gardens till the
+summer of 1846, when it died from inflammation of the bowels, brought on
+chiefly by eating too much green food.
+
+I had the above particulars from Mr. Bartlett, naturalist, &c., who had
+been commissioned to dispose of it. He preserved the skeleton, which he
+kindly allowed me to examine, and from which I made the sketches of the
+skull and horns, which appear on the following page.
+
+The skeleton has fourteen pairs of ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Gayal, viewed in front, with Section of
+Horn.]
+
+                                                  Inches.
+
+Distance from tip to tip (_a_ to _a_)               39
+Length of horn (_a_ to _b_)                         16
+Circumference of horn at base                       17
+Distance of bases (_b_ to _b_)                      11
+Length of skull (_c_ to _c_)                        19
+
+Fig. _d_, section of the horn, at the base.
+
+[Illustration: Occipital view of the same Skull.]
+
+[Illustration: Head of Domestic Gayal.]
+
+In concluding these details of the Gayal and Gyall, let it be remarked
+that, when we hear one animal called Gayal and another Gyall, we are
+not, _on that account merely_, to set them down as of the same species.
+It is hardly necessary to say, that similarity or even identity of name,
+is not the slightest criterion of identity of species. The name Elephant
+is popularly applied to that animal, whether brought from Africa or
+Asia; they are, nevertheless, anatomically distinct. The same
+observation may be made respecting the Lions of those countries, and
+various other animals.
+
+It may further be observed, that the value of external characters in
+determining a species is very different when applied to ascertain the
+distinctions of domestic races, to what it is when applied to ascertain
+the distinctions of animals living in a natural state. In domestication,
+varieties ramify to an indefinite extent, and under such circumstances
+external characters are comparatively valueless. But wild animals retain
+their external characters with undeviating exactness; exceptional cases
+may indeed occur, but so very rarely, that they are not worth taking
+into the account; consequently, external forms, and in some cases even
+colours, become of importance in ascertaining specific distinction.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUNGLY GAU.
+
+_Bos Sylhetanus._ (Cuv.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Further information is requisite to decide the specific character of
+this animal. According to the opinion of Col. Smith, (see 'Synopsis of
+the Species of Mammalia' in Griffith's Translation of Cuvier's Animal
+Kingdom,) it is a mere variety of the Gayal (_Bos Gavæus_); and Mr. J.
+E. Gray, in his 'List of the Specimens of Mammalia in the Collection of
+the British Museum,' classes it as a domestic variety of the same
+animal, but Mr. Fred. Cuvier regards it as an entirely new species.
+
+The following account of the Jungly Gau (which is the only one that has
+been published), is a translation from the splendid folio work of
+Messrs. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier.
+
+This species of Ox, which is entirely new, appears to be the most
+nearly allied to our domestic cattle. Those ruminants which are classed
+under the generic name of Ox, may be very naturally divided into two
+distinct groups. The first includes the Buffaloes, animals in some
+measure aquatic, living in low, swampy localities, or near rivers, in
+which they remain half immersed a great part of the day; having
+broad-based horns, partly spreading over their foreheads, flat on their
+internal side, and round on their external; tongue soft, &c. The second
+is that of the Ox, properly so called. These are distinguished from the
+first by their dwelling on more elevated lands, or in the vicinity of
+forests; having smooth round horns, without enlargement at their base;
+tongue covered with horny papillæ, &c.
+
+It is to this second family, consisting of the American Bison, the
+Aurox, the Yak, and the domestic Ox, with its varieties, that the Jungly
+Gau undoubtedly belongs. It however differs from the first two in being
+entirely destitute of the thick shaggy mane; and, instead of the long
+silky hair of the third, it is clothed with close, short hair, equal in
+uniformity of texture to the sleekest of our domestic cattle. To judge
+from its general appearance, we might be even tempted to take it for a
+mere variety of the domestic species, so close is the resemblance. But
+the information furnished by M. Alfred Duvaucel, in the only description
+which has been given, leaves no doubt as to its being a new species.
+
+The following is M. Duvaucel's account:--"The horns of the Jungly Gau
+rise from the sides of the occiput, first outward, then forward, with a
+slight inclination backward of the upper extremity, forming a double
+lunation, and separated by a space which gradually diminishes as the
+animal grows older; standing equally apart in every individual of the
+same age and sex; are round, except at their base, which is slightly
+compressed; and they become smoother as the animal advances in age.
+
+"The hump, which is characteristic of the generality of Indian oxen, is
+reduced in this to a slight prominence, extending to the middle of the
+back, and is covered with a grayish, woolly hair, rather longer than
+that on the other parts of the body, which spreads likewise over the
+occiput and the front. The rest of the hair is black except the legs,
+which are white from the knees downwards. The tail terminates in a large
+tuft of hair; and, in bulls of two or three years old, the under part of
+the neck is slightly furnished with long, black, silky hair.
+
+"The female is smaller than the male, with horns of a still less
+proportionate size. The front of the head, instead of being convex, as
+in the male, appears to be slightly depressed, in consequence of the
+superior elevation of the muzzle. The colour of the female is not so
+deep a black; the gray on the top of the neck and the shoulders extends
+to the sides, and the inferior part of the muzzle is white.
+
+"I have long entertained the opinion," continues M. Duvaucel, "that
+these oxen were essentially the same as the domestic--that they were
+both varieties of the same species; but this opinion was formed on the
+inspection only of such specimens as I had seen in the menagerie at
+Barracpour. Since that time, I have pursued them myself near the
+mountains of Sylhet; and I have likewise learned from various sources
+that they are as numerous and as generally diffused as the common
+Buffalo; but they appear to be wilder than the Buffalo, and not so
+bold, never approaching where man has established his dominion.
+Nevertheless, when caught, they are easily subdued, and become quite
+domesticated in a few months. The milk of this species is said to be
+more abundant and nourishing than that of any other."
+
+From all that is at present known respecting this animal, it is regarded
+by M. F. Cuvier as a new species added to the genus _Bos_; and, from the
+circumstance of its having been first seen in a wild state near the
+mountains of Sylhet, he has given it the specific name of _Sylhetanus_.
+
+The animal represented in the following vignette is the Syrian Ox, which
+is considered as a variety of _Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+
+The animal generally known under the name of the _Common_ Buffalo is
+evidently a different species from the _Cape_ Buffalo. Much confusion,
+however, prevails in the accounts, both of travellers and naturalists,
+on the subject of these two animals. Descriptions of the one are mingled
+with descriptions of the other, and anecdotes are related of the one
+which, there is good reason for believing, ought to be referred to the
+other. It is highly probable that future and more accurate observations
+will show that more than one species has been confounded under the
+general epithets of "the common Buffalo," "the domestic Buffalo," "the
+tame Buffalo," or, more indeterminate still, "_the_ Buffalo."
+
+The accounts furnished by travellers of the various animals in Asia and
+Africa, described by them as Buffaloes, are altogether vague and
+unsatisfactory, and frequently erroneous; not from any desire on the
+part of the authors to deceive, but merely because their observations
+have been made in the most careless and indifferent manner; and, in many
+instances, their information is obtained from the verbal communications
+of ignorant natives.
+
+In those descriptions which are confined to the Buffalo, as it at
+present exists in Italy and the south of Europe, tolerable reliance may
+be placed, as their character and habits are there well known, being of
+every day observation; yet, even in this case, little or nothing is
+known of the anatomy of the animal, and its period of gestation has
+never been precisely stated. The following information on this latter
+point is given in Griffith's 'Cuvier,' (vol. iv, p. 383,) "Gestation _is
+said_ to last twelve months, but _it appears_ not to exceed ten."
+
+
+
+
+THE ITALIAN BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Bubalus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This animal is more bulky than the domestic Ox, and its limbs are
+stouter. The head is larger, in proportion to the size of the body, than
+that of the domestic Ox, and is generally carried with the muzzle
+projecting; the forehead is rather convex, and higher than broad; the
+horns are large, slightly compressed, and recline towards the neck, with
+the points turned up; dewlap of a moderate size.
+
+Throughout the whole range of the Italian peninsula Buffaloes are used
+as beasts of burden, and their immense strength renders their services
+invaluable in the marshy and swampy districts, where the services of
+horses, or ordinary oxen, would be totally unavailing. The roads through
+which they are obliged to pass are frequently covered to a depth of two
+or three feet, through which they work their way with wonderful
+perseverance.
+
+On the great plain of Apulia the Buffalo is the ordinary beast of
+draught; and at the annual fair held at Foggia, at the end of May,
+immense droves of almost wild Buffaloes are brought to the town for
+sale. Fearful accidents occasionally happen; enraged animals breaking
+from the dense mass, in spite of all the exertions of their drovers, and
+rushing upon some object of their vengeance, whom they strike down, and
+trample to death. It is dangerous to overwork or irritate the Buffalo,
+and instances have been known in which, when released by the brutal
+driver from the cart, they have instantly turned upon the man and killed
+him on the spot.
+
+The following part of their history is remarkable: They appear to be
+most numerous, and to thrive best in those districts which are most
+infected with malaria. In the Pontine marshes they find a favorite
+retreat, and in the pestilential Maremma scarcely any other animals are
+to be seen. In the northern portions of Italy, where malaria is much
+less frequent than in the south. Buffaloes are to be found in the
+greatest numbers precisely in those localities where malaria is the most
+prevalent.
+
+They are particularly fond of the long rank herbage, which springs up in
+moist and undrained lands. In their habits they are almost amphibious,
+lying for hours half submerged in water and mud.
+
+When travellers make use of the name "common Buffalo," they are usually
+understood to mean an animal identical with the Italian species; if this
+really be the case, its geographical range must be very extensive. It is
+said to inhabit the extensive regions of Hindostan, China, Cochin-China,
+Malabar, Coromandel, Persia, and the Crimea; also Abyssinia, Egypt, and
+the south of Europe; to which may be added, most of the large islands in
+the Indian Sea.
+
+As an article of food, the flesh of this animal is inferior to the beef
+of the domestic Ox, but the milk of the female is particularly rich and
+abundant; the semi-fluid butter, called _ghee_ in India, is made from
+it. According to the testimony of Colonel Sykes, the long-horned variety
+is reared in vast numbers in the Mawals, or hilly tracts lying along the
+Ghauts:--"In those tracts much rice is planted, and the male Buffalo,
+from his superior hardihood, is much better suited to resist the effects
+of the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the rice than the
+bullock. The female is also infinitely more valuable than the cow, from
+the very much greater quantity of milk she yields." The hide is also
+much valued for its strength and durability.
+
+In India they are used as beasts of burden; but the nature of the goods
+they carry must be such as will not suffer from being wet, as they have
+an invincible propensity to lie down in water. The native princes use
+them to fight with tigers in their public shows; and from their fierce
+and active nature, when excited, they frequently prove more than a match
+for their formidable assailants. With the native herdsman, however, they
+are generally docile: these men ride on their favorites, and spend the
+night with them in the midst of jungles and forests, without fear of
+wild beasts. When driven along, the herds keep close together, so that
+the driver, if necessary, walks from the back of one to the other,
+perfectly at his ease. In the south of Europe they are managed by means
+of a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India it is a
+mere rope.
+
+Their fierceness and courage are well exemplified in the following
+anecdote, related by Mr. D. Johnson in his interesting 'Sketches of
+Indian Field Sports:' "Two Biparies, or carriers of grain and
+merchandise on the backs of bullocks, were driving a loaded string of
+these animals from Palamow to Chittrah: when they were come within a few
+miles of the latter place, a tiger seized on the man in the rear, which
+was seen by a Guallah (herdsman), as he was watching his Buffaloes
+grazing. He boldly ran up to the man's assistance, and cut the tiger
+severely with his sword; upon which he dropped the Biparie, and seized
+the herdsman. The Buffaloes observing it, attacked the tiger, and
+rescued the herdsman; they tossed him about from one to the other, and,
+to the best of my recollection, killed him. Both the wounded men were
+brought to me; the Biparie recovered, and the herdsman died."
+
+Speaking of the Buffalo at Malabar, Dillon says, "It is an ugly animal,
+almost destitute of hair, goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens.
+Herds may be seen, as of common cows; and they afford milk, which serves
+to make butter and cheese. Their flesh is good, though less delicate,
+than that of the ox: the animal swims perfectly well, and traverses the
+broadest rivers. Besides the tame ones, there are wild Buffaloes, which
+are extremely dangerous, tearing men to pieces, or crushing them with a
+single blow of the head; they are less to be dreaded in woods than
+elsewhere, because their horns often catch in the branches, and give
+time for the persons pursued to escape by flight. The skins of these
+animals serve for an infinity of purposes, and even cruses are made of
+them for holding water or liquors. The animals on the coast of Malabar
+are all wild, and strangers are not prevented from hunting them for
+their flesh."
+
+Whether the animals alluded to, in all these cases, constitute only one
+species, or consist of several, the accounts which have been given of
+them (from their vagueness and want of precision) afford no means of
+deciding.
+
+The following tail-piece is a representation of the Herefordshire Cow,
+_Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+The Manilla Buffalo.
+
+_Bos Bubalis?_
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The animal which is represented in the above engraving, was living in
+the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, in 1846, at which time the sketch
+was taken.
+
+In size the Manilla Buffalo is about equal to the Kyloe Ox. The horns
+are of a similar shape, and take nearly the same direction, as those of
+the Italian Buffalo. They differ, however, from the horns of the Italian
+Buffalo in three particulars: first, in not being above half so thick or
+bulky; second, in having a much larger curve; and third, in being
+considerably more compressed, which compression exists throughout their
+entire length: the colour of the upper surface of the horn is lightish,
+on the lower side nearly black. The head is narrow, and the muzzle fine;
+the ears are long and nearly naked; the eyes large and bright, with a
+peculiarly timid and suspicious expression. The limbs are slender, and
+indeed the whole frame is slight, and seems to betoken greater speed
+than strength.
+
+We have a notable example of the uncertainty of framing generic
+characters, before the peculiar attributes of each species are known,
+in Griffiths' work, already referred to (vol. iv, p. 382). "Buffaloes
+_in general_" are there said to possess _strong and solid_ limbs,
+_large_ head, _broad_ muzzle, _long_ and slender tail, back _rather_
+straight. Here we have an animal (a Buffalo by universal consent) whose
+limbs are _slender_, head _small_, muzzle _fine_; whose tail is _not_
+long, and whose back is any thing but straight. The Cape Buffalo, also,
+(see p. 86,) has _rather_ a small head, its tail is absolutely _short_,
+and its back has very considerable curvature.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The preceding outline of the backs of four Buffaloes will show how
+inappropriate the character of a _straight back_ is, when applied to
+"Buffaloes _in general_." The lowest outline (5), inserted by way of
+contrast, represents the back of the Domestic Ox, to which the character
+of straight might very properly be applied. (1) Italian Buffalo. (2)
+Manilla Buffalo. (3) Pulo Condore Buffalo. (4) Cape Buffalo.
+
+Generic characters should be such (and such _only_) as will apply to
+every species included in the genus.
+
+The period of gestation of the Manilla Buffalo is between forty-eight
+and forty-nine weeks. In two actual cases of a female now living in the
+Zoological Gardens, the periods were, in the one case, 340 days, in the
+other, 341 days; being 70 days longer than the ordinary term of the
+domestic Cow.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Manilla Buffalo--female.]
+
+
+
+
+PULO CONDORE BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Bubalus?_
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Not much is known of the Buffalo which is found in the island of Pulo
+Condore. It is related by those navigators who completed the voyage to
+the Pacific Ocean, begun by Captain Cook, that when at Pulo Condore,
+they procured eight Buffaloes, which were to be conducted to the ships
+by means of ropes put through their nostrils and round their horns; but
+when they were brought within sight of the sailors, they became so
+furious that some of them tore out the cartilage of their nostrils, and
+set themselves at liberty. All attempts to get them on board would have
+proved fruitless, had it not been for some children, whom the animals
+would suffer to approach them, and by whose puerile management their
+rage was quickly appeased; and when the animals were brought to the
+beach, it was by their assistance, in twisting ropes around their legs,
+that the men were enabled to throw them down, and by that means get them
+into the boats. And what appears to have been no less singular than this
+circumstance was, that they had not been a day on board before they
+became perfectly gentle.
+
+Whether this be a distinct species, or merely a variety, we have not, at
+present, the least means of ascertaining.
+
+Osteology unknown.
+
+Period of gestation unknown.
+
+The tail-piece below represents a short-horned Bull of the Domestic
+species, _Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE CAPE BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Caffer._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This species of ox is only to be found in Africa, and is chiefly
+confined to the wooded districts lying north of the Cape of Good Hope.
+What Lavater endeavours to prove of the human being, namely, that the
+face is the index of the mind or disposition, may be applied, with at
+least equal truth, to the Cape Buffalo. His broad, projecting muzzle,
+lowering eyebrows, shaggy pendulous ears, surmounted by a pair of huge
+horns, give a look of bold determination to this animal, which forms a
+tolerably correct index of his character; his firm-set limbs and bulky
+body convey a no less adequate idea of his enormous strength.
+
+These animals are gregarious, living in small herds in the brushwoods or
+open forests, of Caffraria, occasionally uniting in large droves. Old
+bulls are often met with alone; but though they are fiercer than the
+young ones, they are less dangerous, because less active, and less
+inclined to exertion.
+
+It is worthy of observation, that the males of every species of the
+Genus Bos are remarkably bold and courageous, as are likewise the
+females when they have calves. It is not, therefore, surprising that the
+hunting of this animal should be attended with danger, and frequently
+with fatal consequences. The European colonists generally pursue the
+sport on horseback; but the Caffers and other natives, who are more
+active, and accustomed to the intricacies of the forest, prefer
+following the game on foot.
+
+Professor Thunberg, whilst investigating the interior of Caffraria, in
+1772, in company with a sergeant and a European gardener, who had
+resided in the colony some time, and who acted as guide on the occasion,
+met with the following perilous adventure:--
+
+"We had not advanced far into the wood," says the traveller, "before we
+had the misfortune of meeting with a large old male Buffalo, which was
+lying down quite alone, in a spot that was free from bushes for the
+space of a few square yards. He no sooner discovered Auge, the gardener,
+who went first, than, roaring horribly, he rushed upon him. The gardener
+turning his horse short round, behind a large tree, by that means got in
+some measure out of the Buffalo's sight, which now rushed straight
+forward towards the sergeant, who followed next, and gored his horse in
+the belly in such a terrible manner, that it fell on its back that
+instant, with its feet turned up in the air, and all its entrails
+hanging out, in which state it lived almost half an hour. The gardener
+and the sergeant, in the meantime, had climbed up into trees, where
+they thought themselves secure. The Buffalo, after this first
+achievement, still appeared to take his course in the same direction,
+and, therefore, could not have failed in his way to pay his compliments
+to me, who all the while was coming towards him, and, in the narrow pass
+formed by the boughs and branches of the trees, and on account of the
+rustling noise these made against my saddle and baggage, had neither
+seen nor heard anything of what had passed; as in my way I frequently
+stopped to take up plants, and put them into my handkerchief, I
+generally kept behind my companions.
+
+"The sergeant had brought two horses with him for the journey. One of
+them had already been despatched, and the other now stood just in the
+way of the Buffalo, who was going out of the wood. As soon as the
+Buffalo saw this second horse, he became more outrageous than before,
+and he attacked it with such fury, that he not only drove his horns into
+the horse's breast, and out again through the very saddle, but also
+threw it to the ground with such violence, that it died that very
+instant, and most of its bones were broken. Just at the moment that he
+was occupied with this latter horse, I came up to the opening, where the
+wood was so thick that I had neither room to turn my horse, nor to get
+on one side; I was, therefore, obliged to abandon him to his fate, and
+take refuge in a tolerably high tree, up which I climbed.
+
+"The Buffalo, having finished this his second exploit, suddenly turned
+round, and shaped his course the same way which we had intended to take.
+
+"From the height of my situation in the tree, I could plainly perceive
+one of the horses quite dead; the other sprawling with his feet, and
+endeavouring to rise, which it had not strength to do; the other two
+horses shivering with fear, and unable to make their escape; but I could
+neither see nor hear anything of my fellow-travellers, which induced me
+to fear that they had fallen victims to the first transports of the
+Buffalo's fury. I, therefore, made all possible haste to search for
+them, to see if I could, in any way, assist them; but not discovering
+any trace of them in the whole field of battle, I began to call out
+after them, when I discovered these magnanimous heroes sitting fast,
+like two cats, on the trees, with their guns on their backs, loaded with
+fine shot, and unable to utter a single word.
+
+"I encouraged them as well as I could, and advised them to come down,
+and get away as fast as possible from such a dangerous place, where we
+ran the risk of being once more attacked. The sergeant at length burst
+out into tears, deploring the loss of his two spirited steeds; but the
+gardener was so strongly affected, that he could scarcely speak for some
+days after."
+
+Speaking of a small settlement in the interior, he says: "Buffaloes were
+shot here by a Hottentot, who had been trained to the business by the
+farmer, and in this manner found the whole family in meat, without
+having recourse to the herd. The balls were counted out to him every
+time he went a shooting, and he was obliged to furnish the same number
+of dead Buffaloes as he received of balls. Thus the many Hottentots that
+lived here were supported without expense, and without the decrease of
+the tame cattle which constitute the whole of the farmer's wealth. The
+greatest part of the flesh of the Buffalo falls to the share of the
+Hottentots, but the hide to that of the master."
+
+[Illustration: Young Cape Buffalo.]
+
+The Caffres, who at that time (1772) did not possess fire-arms, were,
+nevertheless, dextrous in the use of their javelins. When a Caffre has
+discovered a spot where several Buffaloes are assembled, he blows a
+pipe, made of the thigh-bone of a sheep, which is heard at a great
+distance. In consequence of this, several of his comrades run up to the
+spot, and surrounding the Buffaloes, at the same time approaching them
+by degrees, throw their javelins at them. In this case, out of ten or
+twelve Buffaloes, it is very rare for one to escape. It sometimes
+happens, however, that while the Buffaloes are running off, some one of
+the hunters, who stands in the way of them, is tossed and killed, which,
+by the people of this nation, is not much regarded. When the chase is
+over, each one takes his share of the game.
+
+Since the introduction of fire-arms by the Europeans, the natives, as
+well as the colonists, bring down the Buffalo by means of the gun.
+Nevertheless, great circumspection is required in following the sport,
+as the animal is sometimes capable of revenging himself even after being
+severely wounded. On one occasion a party of huntsmen discovered a small
+herd of Buffaloes grazing on a piece of marshy ground. As it was
+impossible to get near enough without crossing a marsh, which did not
+afford a safe footing for their horses, they left them in charge of the
+Hottentots, and proceeded on foot, thinking, that if the Buffaloes
+should turn upon them, it would be easy to retreat by crossing the
+quagmire, which, though firm enough to support a man, would not bear the
+weight of a Buffalo. They advanced accordingly, and, under shelter of
+the bushes, approached with such advantage, that the first volley
+brought down three of the fattest of the herd, and so severely wounded
+the great bull leader, that he dropped on his knees, bellowing most
+furiously. Supposing him mortally wounded, the foremost of the huntsmen
+issued from the covert, and began reloading his musket as he advanced,
+to give him a finishing shot; but no sooner did the enraged animal see
+his enemy in front of him than he sprang up, and ran furiously upon him.
+The man, throwing down his gun, fled towards the quagmire; but the beast
+was so close upon him, that, despairing to escape in that direction, he
+suddenly turned round a clump of copsewood, and began to ascend a tree.
+The raging animal, however, was too quick for him, and bounding forward
+with a tremendous roar, he caught the unfortunate man with his terrible
+horns, just as he had nearly escaped his reach, and tossed him into the
+air with such force, that the body fell dreadfully mangled into the
+cleft of a tree. The Buffalo ran round the tree once or twice,
+apparently looking for the man, until weakened with loss of blood, he
+again sank on his knees. The rest of the party, recovering from their
+confusion, then came up and despatched him, though too late to save
+their comrade, whose body was hanging in the tree quite dead.
+
+The length of a full-grown Buffalo is about eight feet from horns to
+root of tail, and the height five feet and a half. The horns are massive
+and heavy, measuring from six to nine feet, following the curve from tip
+to tip. They are broad at the base, and very nearly meet on the centre
+of the forehead. Hamilton Smith says, they are "in contact at the base;"
+but this is not the case in the several specimens which I have examined,
+namely, three in the College of Surgeons, four in the British Museum,
+and two in the Zoological Gardens.
+
+In the living specimen in the Zoological Gardens, from which the figure
+at the head of this article was taken, there is a good deal of hair of a
+dark brown colour on the neck and shoulders, and some small tufts on the
+fore-legs, but the rest of the body is almost naked. The tail is short,
+with a tuft at the end.
+
+The individual here referred to is by no means a large specimen, being
+only four feet ten inches high at the shoulders; probably he is young,
+and not yet full-grown. He is so active, as to be able to clear a
+four-feet fence, and he frequently leaps over the half-door (about three
+feet high,) which separates his little enclosure from his dormitory. His
+intelligence is much superior to that of ordinary cattle: the entrance
+to his apartment is furnished with four doors, two on each door-post;
+and when closed, they of course meet in the middle of the entrance. When
+he is outside, (as the doors all open inwardly,) a mere push with his
+horns sends them open. But when he is inside, it requires four distinct
+operations to shut them, and these he performs with the greatest
+adroitness, going from one to the other, until all are closed. He opens
+them also from within with equal skill, by applying the tip of one of
+his horns to each separately, and retiring a step or two to allow them
+room to open.
+
+The flesh of the Cape Buffalo is reckoned excellent eating, especially
+that of the young calf, which is equal to the veal of the domestic calf.
+The horns are made into various articles, having a fine close grain, and
+taking a beautiful polish. But the hide is the most valuable part of
+this animal, being so thick and tough, that shields, proof against a
+musket-shot, are formed of it; and it affords the strongest and best
+thongs for harness and whips. The skin of the living Buffalo is so
+dense that it is impenetrable, in many parts, to an ordinary
+musket-ball; the balls used by the huntsmen are, therefore, mixed with
+tin, and even these are often flattened by the resistance. In examining
+the skeleton of this Buffalo, the ribs are found to be remarkably strong
+and wide--measuring from three inches to three inches and seven-tenths
+in width, and overlapping each other like the scales of a fish: the
+difficulty of wounding this animal may be partly owing to this
+arrangement of the ribs.
+
+Since the increase of the settlements about the Cape of Good Hope, the
+Buffalo has become rather a rare animal in the colony; but, on the
+plains of Caffraria, they are so common that herds of a hundred and
+fifty, or two hundred, may be frequently seen grazing together towards
+the evening, but during the day they lie retired among the woods and
+thickets. They range along the eastern side of Africa, to an unknown
+distance in the interior.
+
+Sparrman says that the period of gestation is twelve months.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Cape Buffalo.]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEGASSE.
+
+_Bos Pegasus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above figure is copied from an engraving in the fourth volume of
+Griffiths' 'Cuvier,' of which the following account is given: "In the
+collection of drawings, formerly the property of Prince John Maurice of
+Nassau, now in the Berlin library, there is the figure of a ruminant
+with the name Pacasse written under it. Judging from the general
+appearance of the painting, it represents a young animal, although the
+horns are already about as long as the head. They are of a darkish
+colour, with something like ridges passing transversely, commencing at
+the sides of the frontal ridge, turned down and outwards, with the
+points slightly upwards; the head is short, thick, abrupt at the nose;
+the forehead wide; the eyes large and full, dark, with a crimson
+canthus; the neck maned with a dense and rough mane; the tail descending
+below the hough, entirely covered with dark, long hair, appearing
+woolly; the carcass short, and the legs high and clumsy; but the most
+remarkable character appears to consist in pendulous ears, nearly as
+long as the head. The mane and tail are dark; the head, neck, body, and
+limbs dark brown, excepting the pastern joints, which are white; this
+figure cannot be referred to a known species, and is sufficiently
+curious to merit an engraving."
+
+Swainson says that this animal only occurs in the interior of Western
+Africa; but he does not mention on what authority.
+
+As the exploration of the interior of Africa is becoming an object of
+increasing importance and interest, we may expect, before long, to be
+furnished with some authentic details of the Pegasse, if such an animal
+really exist.
+
+[Illustration: Occipital View of Horns of _Bos Caffer_, from a Specimen
+in the Zoological Society's Museum.]
+
+
+
+
+THE GAUR, OR GOUR.
+
+_Bos Gaurus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above representation of this animal was sketched from a stuffed
+specimen in the British Museum, the dimensions of which are given on p.
+102.
+
+The following interesting particulars are taken from Mr. T. S. Traill's
+paper on the Gour, in the 'Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' October,
+1824.
+
+"The Gaur is considered by the Indians as of a species totally distinct
+from either the Arna or the common Buffalo. The only animal with which
+it appears to have affinity is the Gayal, or Bos Gavæus, described by
+Mr. Colebrook, in the 'Asiatic Researches,' vol. viii. That animal is
+said to exist, both wild and domestic, in the hilly countries of Upper
+India, and to have a high dorsal ridge, somewhat similar to what we
+shall immediately find in the Gaur; but the very different form of its
+head, _the presence of a distinct dewlap_, and the general habit of the
+Gayal, appear sufficient to distinguish it from the Gaur.
+
+The Gaur occurs in several mountainous parts of central India, but is
+chiefly found in Myn Pat, or Mine Paut, (Pat or Paut, in Hindostanee,
+signifies table-land,) a high, insulated mountain, with a tabular
+summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South Bahar.
+
+This table-land is about 36 miles in length, by 24 or 25 in medial
+breadth, and rises above the neighbouring plains probably 2000 feet. The
+sides of the mountain slope with considerable steepness, and are
+furrowed by streams that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks of
+which are the favorite haunts of Gaurs. On being disturbed, they retreat
+into the thick jungles (of saul-trees), which cover the sides of the
+whole range. The south-east side of the mountain presents an extensive
+mural precipice from 20 to 40 feet high. The rugged slopes at its foot
+are covered by impenetrable green jungle, and abound with dens formed of
+fallen blocks of rock, the suitable retreats of Tigers, Bears, and
+Hyænas. The western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is parched, and
+the forests seem withered by excess of heat. The summit of the mountain
+presents a mixture of open lawns and woods. There were once twenty-five
+villages on Myn Pat, but they have long been deserted, on account of the
+number and ferocity of the beasts of prey. On this mountain, however,
+the Gaur maintains his seat. The Indians assert that even the Tiger has
+no chance in combat with the full-grown Gaur, though he may
+occasionally succeed in carrying off an unprotected calf. The wild
+Buffalo abounds in the plains below the mountains; but he so much dreads
+the Gaur, according to the natives, that he rarely attempts to invade
+his haunts. The forests which shield the Gaur abound, however, in
+Hog-deer, Saumurs, and Porcupines.
+
+The size of the Gaur is its most striking peculiarity. The following
+measurement of one not fully grown will show the enormous bulk of the
+animal:--
+
+                                        Ft.  In.
+Height from the hoof to the withers      5   11-3/4
+Length from nose to end of tail         11   11-3/4
+
+The form of the Gaur is not so lengthened as that of the Arna. Its back
+is strongly arched, so as to form a pretty uniform curve from the nose
+to the origin of the tail, when the animal stands still. This appearance
+is partly owing to the curved form of the nose and forehead, and still
+more to a remarkable ridge, of no great thickness, which rises six or
+seven inches above the general line of the back, from the last of the
+cervical to beyond the middle of the dorsal vertebræ, from which it
+gradually is lost in the outline of the back. This peculiarity proceeds
+from an unusual elongation of the spinous processes of the dorsal
+column. It is very conspicuous in the Gaurs of all ages, although loaded
+with fat; and has no resemblance to the hunch which is found on some of
+the domestic cattle of India. It bears some resemblance, certainly, to
+the ridge _described_ as existing in the Gayal; but the Gaur is said to
+be distinguished from that animal by the remarkable peculiarity of a
+_total want of a dewlap._ Neither the male nor female Gaur, at any age,
+has the slightest trace of this appendage, which is found on every
+other known animal of this genus.
+
+The colour of the Gaur is a very deep brownish black, almost approaching
+to blueish black, except a tuft of curling dirty white hair between the
+horns, and rings of the same colour just above the hoof. The hair over
+the skin is extremely short and sleek, and has somewhat of the _oily_
+appearance of a fresh seal-skin.
+
+The character of the head differs little from that of the domestic Bull,
+excepting that the outline of the face is more curved--the os-frontis
+more solid and projecting. The horns are short, thick at the base,
+considerably curved towards the tip, slightly compressed on one side,
+and in the natural state are rough. They are, however, capable of a good
+polish, when they are of a horn gray colour, with black solid tips. A
+pair in my possession measure one foot eleven inches along their convex
+sides; one foot from the centre of the base to the tip, in a straight
+line; and one foot in their widest circumference; but as they are cut
+and polished, a portion of their length and thickness has been lost.
+They are of a very dense substance, as their weight indicates, for even
+in their dressed state the pair weigh 5 lbs. 11 oz. avoirdupois.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The limbs of the Gaur have more of the form of the deer than any other
+of the bovine genus. This is particularly observable in the acuteness of
+the angle formed by the tibia and tarsus, and in the slenderness of the
+lower part of the legs. They give the idea, however, of great strength
+combined with fleetness; and the animal is observed to _canter_ with
+great velocity. The form of the hoof, too, is longer, neater, and
+stronger than in the ox, and the whole foot appears to have greater
+flexibility.
+
+When wounded the Gaur utters a short bellow, which may be best imitated
+by the syllable--ugh-ugh.
+
+It is said that the Gaur will not live in a state of captivity; even
+when taken very young, the calf soon droops and dies. The bull-calf of
+the first year is called, by the natives, Purorah; the female, Pareeah;
+and when full-grown the cow is called Gourin.
+
+Gaurs associate in herds consisting usually of from ten to twenty
+animals. So numerous are they on Myn Pat, that, in one day hunting, the
+party computed that not less than eighty had passed through the station
+occupied by the sportsmen.
+
+The Gaurs browse on the leaves and tender shoots of trees and shrubs,
+and also graze on the banks of the streams. During the cold season they
+remain concealed in the _saul_ forests, but in hot weather come out to
+feed in the green vallies and lawns, which occur on the mountain of Myn
+Pat. They show no disposition to wallow in mire or swamps, like the
+Buffalo; a habit, indeed, which the sleekness of their skins renders not
+at all probable.
+
+The period of gestation is said to be twelve months, and they bring
+forth usually in August."
+
+To the preceding observations of Dr. Traill, I have to add the
+important fact (which of itself will be sufficient to constitute a
+specific difference between the Gaur and the Gayal), namely, that in the
+skeleton of the Gaur there are only thirteen pairs of ribs, whilst the
+skeleton of the Gayal possesses fourteen pairs. This fact I have
+ascertained from an examination of both the skeletons; that of the Gaur
+in the museum of the Zoological Society, and that of the Gayal, in the
+possession of Mr. Bartlett, Russell Street, Covent Garden. (See p. 68.)
+
+The skeleton of the Gaur just referred to, strikingly confirms Dr.
+Traill's account of the elevated dorsal ridge of this animal; several of
+the dorsal vertebræ measuring, with their spinous processes, upwards of
+seventeen inches each, the longest being twenty inches and a half.
+
+The Gaur, from which this skeleton was taken, was killed at Nicecond,
+November 8, 1843. There is another fine specimen of the skull and horns
+of the Gaur, in the Museum of the Zoological Society, taken from an
+animal killed by Lieut. Nelson, on the Neilsburry Hills, Salem district.
+This animal measured nineteen hands and half an inch at the shoulder.
+
+Dimensions of the Figure in the British Museum:--
+
+                                                              Ft. In.
+Length from nose to insertion of tail, measuring over the
+  forehead and along the back                                  11  0
+Height at the highest part of the dorsal ridge                  5  7-1/2
+Height at the croup                                             5  4
+Length of the tail                                              3  1
+
+In Mr. D. Johnson's Sketches, the Gaur is described as a kind of wild
+bullock, of prodigious size, residing in the Ramghur district, not well
+known to Europeans. Mr. Johnson says: "I have never obtained a sight of
+them, but have often seen the print of their feet, the impression of
+one of them covering as large a space as a common china plate. According
+to the account I received from a number of persons they are much larger
+than the largest of our oxen; light brown colour, with short horns, and
+inhabit the thickest covers. They keep together in herds, and a herd of
+them is always near the Luggo-hill; they are also in the heavy jungles
+between Ramghur and Nagpoor. I saw the skin of one that had been killed
+by Rajah Futty Narrain; its exact size I do not recollect, but I well
+remember that it astonished me, having never seen the skin of any animal
+so large. Some gentlemen at Chittrah have tried all in their power to
+procure a calf without success. The Shecarries and villagers are so much
+afraid of these animals, that they cannot be prevailed on to go near
+them, or to endeavour to catch any of their young. It is a prevailing
+opinion in the country, that if they are in the least molested, they
+will attack the persons disturbing them, and never quit them until they
+are destroyed; and should they get into a tree, they will remain near it
+for many days."
+
+The word Gau, or Ghoo, as it is sometimes spelled by European writers,
+appears to be used both as a generic and specific term, in Persia and
+Hindostan; and as it has the same meaning, and nearly the same sound, as
+the German word _Kuh_, and the English _Cow_, it is highly probable that
+its origin is the same. As the word _ur_, in Hindostan, appears to have
+the meaning of _wild_, or _savage,_ the name Gaur, or Gau-ur, literally
+signifies the _wild cow._ Should the prefix _aur_, in the German word
+_Aurochs_, be merely a form, or different mode of spelling the prefix
+_ur,_ then the name _Aurochs_ would be precisely synonymous with the
+Hindostanee _Gau-ur_. That _aur_ is, in this instance, merely a
+different spelling of the prefix _ur_, would appear to be corroborated
+by the circumstance that the term _Urus_ is the latinized form of the
+German _Aurochs_.--_From a MS. Note by Mr. W. A. Chatto._
+
+[Illustration: Head of Gaur, from the stuffed Specimen in the British
+Museum.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ARNEE, OR ARNA.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It does not appear, that the Arnee had been noticed by Europeans until
+the year 1792, when the following detailed account appeared in a weekly
+Miscellany, called '_The Bee_,' conducted by Dr. J. Anderson.
+
+This animal is hitherto unknown among the naturalists of Europe. It is a
+native of the higher parts of Hindostan, being scarcely ever found lower
+down than the Plains of Plassy, above which they are found in
+considerable numbers, and are well known by the natives.
+
+The figure, which is given at the end of this article, is copied from a
+curious Indian painting, in the possession of Gilbert Innes, of Stow. It
+forms one of a numerous group of figures, represented at a grand Eastern
+festival. There are two more of them in the same painting. In this and
+both the others, the horns bend inwards in a circular form; and it would
+seem, too, that if a transverse section of the horn was made at any
+place, that also would be circular. But this is a defect in the
+painting, for although all the horns of the Arnee tribe bend in a
+circular form, yet if the horn be cut transversely, the section is not
+circular, but rather of a triangular shape. The horns of the Arnee rise
+in a curve upwards, nearly in the same plane with the forehead, neither
+bending forward nor backward. That part of the horn which fronts you
+when the animal looks you in the face, is nearly flat, having a ridge
+projecting a little forward all along, nearer the outer curvature of the
+horn; from that ridge outward it goes backward, not at right angles, but
+bending a little outward; and near the back part there is another obtuse
+rounded ridge, where it turns inward, so as to join another obtuse,
+rounded angle, at the inner curvature of the horn. Along the whole
+length, especially toward the base of the horn, there are irregular
+transverse dimples, or hollows and rugosities, more nearly resembling
+those of a ram, than that of a common ox's horn, but no appearance of
+rings, denoting the age of the animal, as in the horns of our cattle.
+
+This description of the horns is taken from a pair of real horns of the
+animal, now in the possession of Mr. James Haig, merchant in Leith, that
+were sent home to him this year (1792) by his brother, Mr. W. Haig, of
+the 'Hawkesbury' East-Indiaman, and of which the following cut
+represents a front view. The little figure marked _a_, represents a
+section of the horn near its base.
+
+[Illustration: (1).--Horns of young Arnee--Scale of Half an Inch to a
+Foot.]
+
+In this young specimen (1) the length of the skull is exactly two feet,
+and the distance between the tops of the horns thirty-five inches. In
+the following sketch (2) from the Museum of the College of Surgeons, the
+length of the skull is likewise two feet, and the distance between the
+tips of the horns three feet four inches and a half.
+
+The young animal just referred to, was found in a situation near which
+no other animal of this sort had ever before been discovered: it was
+killed by the crew of the 'Hawkesbury,' in the river Ganges, about fifty
+miles below Calcutta, at the place where the ships usually lie.
+
+The flesh was eaten by the ship's company, by whom it was considered
+very good meat. Although conjectured to be only two years old, it
+weighed, when cut up, 360 lbs. the quarter, which is 1440 lbs. the
+carcase, exclusive of head, legs, hide, and entrails.
+
+[Illustration: (2).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: (3).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.]
+
+This last sketch (3) is from a pair of horns in the British Museum, of
+which the following are the dimensions:--
+
+                                                                 Ft. In.
+
+The horn _a_, from tip to base, along the outer curve         6   6
+The horn _b_               ditto            ditto             6   3
+Circumference at the base of horn _a_                         1   5
+        Ditto       ditto of horn _b_                         1   6[A]
+
+The Arnee is by far the largest animal of the Ox tribe yet known. In its
+native country _it is said_ to measure usually twelve, sometimes
+fourteen, feet from the ground to the highest part of the back! The one
+in the vignette, p. 111, comparing it with the man on its back, would
+not seem to be quite so tall.
+
+From the appearance of the three Arnees in the painting before
+mentioned, it would seem that they are quite docile, and easily tamed;
+for they are all standing quietly, with a person on their back, who
+guides them by means of a rein, formed of a cord fastened to the gristle
+of the nose, in the Eastern manner. The colour of the animal, in all the
+three figures, is a pure black, except between the horns, where there is
+a small tuft of longish hair of a bright red colour.
+
+From the accounts of more recent travellers, there seem to be two or
+three varieties of this animal, which exist, both in a wild and domestic
+state, in China as well as India.
+
+According to Major Smith, the gigantic or Taur-elephant Arnee, appears
+to be rare; found only single, or in small families, in the upper
+eastern provinces and forests at the foot of the Himalaya. A party of
+officers of the British Cavalry, stationed in the north of Bengal, went
+on a three months' hunting expedition to the eastward, and destroyed in
+that time forty-two Tigers, and numerous wild Buffaloes, but only one
+Arnee. When the head of this specimen rested perpendicularly on the
+ground, it required the out-stretched arms of a man to hold the points
+of the horns. These are described as angular, with the broadest side to
+the rear; the two others anterior and inferior; they are of a brownish
+colour, and wrinkled; standing outwards, and not bent back; straight for
+near two thirds of their length, then curving inwards, with the tips
+rather back. The face is nearly straight, and the breadth of the
+forehead is carried down with little diminution to the foremost grinder.
+
+There is a spirited figure of a long-horned Buffalo in Captain
+Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports,' which Major Smith considers to be
+a representation of the great Arnee; and of which Captain Williamson
+relates the following anecdote:--
+
+"The late Dr. Baillie, who was a very keen and capable sportsman, used,
+in my idea, to run many very foolish risks among Buffaloes. I often
+remonstrated with him on his temerity, but he was so infatuated, that it
+was all to no purpose. One morning, as we were riding on the same
+elephant to the hunting-ground, to save our horses as much as possible,
+we saw a very large Buffalo lying on the grass, which was rather short
+and thin; as usual, the doctor would have a touch at him, and, heedless
+of my expostulation, dismounted with his gun. The Buffalo, seeing him
+approach, rose and shook his head as a prelude to immediate hostilities.
+My friend fired, and hit him on the side. The enraged brute came
+thundering at the doctor, who lost no time in running round to the
+opposite side of the elephant; the _mohout_, at the same time, pushed
+forward, to meet and screen him from the Buffalo, which absolutely put
+his horns under the elephant's belly, and endeavoured to raise him from
+the ground. We had no other gun, and might, perhaps, have felt some more
+severe effects from the doctor's frolic, had not the Buffalo, from loss
+of blood, dropped at our side. The Buffalo was upwards of six feet high
+at the shoulder, and measured nearly a yard in breadth at the chest. His
+horns were above five feet and a half in length."
+
+In systems of classification, even of very recent date, the Arnee is
+considered merely as a variety of the Buffalo. It appears to me,
+however, that our information on the subject is not yet sufficiently
+precise to determine this point.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] In Shaw's 'Zoology,' it is mentioned that a Mr. Dillon saw some
+horns in India which were ten feet long.
+
+
+
+
+THE ZAMOUSE, OR BUSH COW.
+
+_Bos Brachyceros._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[The following extract, from the 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii, p.
+284, is from the pen of Mr. J. E. Gray.]
+
+"Captain Clapperton and Colonel Denham, when they returned from their
+expedition in Northern and Central Africa, brought with them two heads
+of a species of Ox, covered with their skins. These heads are the
+specimens which are mentioned in Messrs. Children and Vigors' accounts
+of the animals collected in the expedition, as belonging to the
+Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and they are stated to be called _Zamouse_ by
+the natives; but, as no particular locality is given for the head, this
+name is probably the one applied to the common Buffalo, which is found
+in most parts of North Africa.
+
+"Having some years ago compared these heads with the skull of the common
+Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and satisfied myself, from the difference in the
+form and position of the horns, that they were a distinct species, in
+the 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' for 1837 (new series, vol. i, p. 589), I
+indicated them as a new species, under the name of _Bos Brachyceros_.
+
+"In the course of this summer (1838), Mr. Cross, of the Surrey
+Zoological Gardens, received from Sierra Leone, under the name of the
+_Bush Cow_, a specimen which serves more fully to establish the species.
+It differs from the Buffalo and all other oxen in several important
+characters, especially in the large size and particular bearding of the
+ears, and in being totally deficient in any dewlap. It also differs from
+the Buffalo in its forehead, being flatter and quite destitute of the
+convex form which is so striking in all the varieties of that animal.
+
+"Mr. Cross's cow is, like the head in the Museum, of a nearly uniform
+pale chesnut colour. The hair is rather scattered, and nearly
+perpendicular to the surface of the body. The legs, about the knees and
+hocks, are rather darker. The ears are very large, with two rows of very
+long hairs on the inner side, and a tuft of long hairs at the tips. The
+body is short and barrel-shaped, and the tail reaches to the hocks,
+rather thin and tapering, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The
+chest is rounded and rather dependent, but without the least appearance
+of a dewlap; and the horns nearly resemble those of the Museum
+specimen, but are less developed, from the sex and evidently greater
+youth of the animal. The Rev. Mr. Morgan informs me that the animal is
+not rare in the bush near Sierra Leone.
+
+"I have added a slight sketch of Mr. Cross's animal, which I hope will
+enable any person to distinguish this very distinct and interesting
+addition to the species of this useful genus."
+
+The engraving at the head of this article is a reduced copy of Mr.
+Gray's figure just alluded to. The following representation of the head
+is from a specimen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE MUSK OX.
+
+_Bos Moschatus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Musk-ox, in its external appearance, more nearly resembles the Yak
+of Thibet than any other member of the Bos genus; and they both inhabit
+mountainous districts near regions of perpetual snow.
+
+The horns of the Musk Bull are remarkably broad at their bases, which
+are closely united; they bend down on each side of the head, with an
+outward curve turning upwards towards their ends, which taper to a sharp
+point. They are two feet long measured along the curvature, and two feet
+in girth at the base; the weight of a pair of these horns is sometimes
+sixty pounds. The broad base of the horn is hollow on the inside, and of
+a form approaching to a square; when this is separated from the head and
+the other part of the horn, it forms a convenient dish, which is very
+generally used by the native Esquimaux for many domestic purposes.
+
+The horns of the cow are nine inches distant from each other at the
+base, and are placed exactly on the sides of the head; they are thirteen
+inches long, and eight or nine inches round at the base.
+
+The head and the body generally is covered with very long silky hairs of
+a dark colour; some of which are seventeen inches long; on the middle of
+the back (which is broad and flat), the hair is lighter and not so long.
+Beneath the long hairs, in all parts, there is a thick coat of cinereous
+wool of exquisite fineness. M. Jeramie brought some to France, of which
+stockings were made more beautiful than silk.
+
+The tail is only three inches long, and completely covered with very
+long hairs, so as to be undistinguishable to the sight. Of this tail,
+the Esquimaux of the northwest side of Hudson's Bay, make a cap of a
+most horrible appearance, for the hairs fall all round their heads, and
+cover their faces; yet it is of singular service in keeping off the
+musquitoes, which would otherwise be intolerable.
+
+The ears are only three inches long, quite erect, and sharp pointed, but
+dilate much in the middle; they are thickly lined with hair of a dusky
+colour, marked with a stripe of white.
+
+The frog in the hoof is soft, partially covered with hair, and
+transversely ribbed. The following sketch represents the under surface
+of the foot of the Musk-ox, the external hoof being rounded, the
+internal pointed.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The foot-marks of the Musk-ox and those of the rein-deer are so much
+alike, that it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish
+them. The mark of the Musk-ox's hoof, however, is a little narrower.
+
+The food of the Musk-ox is the same with that of the rein-deer--lichens
+and grass; and sometimes twigs and shoots of willow, birch, and pine.
+
+At present this animal is not found in a lower latitude than 66°; but
+formerly they came much further to the south; and their flesh used to be
+brought by the natives to Fort Churchill in latitude 58°. It would
+appear that they are retiring northward, probably owing to the alarm
+created by the attacks made upon them by fire-arms. It is worthy of
+remark, that the American Bison has also retreated considerably to the
+north. According to Dr. Richardson, the Musk-ox inhabits the North
+Georgian Islands in the summer months. They arrive in Melville Island in
+the middle of May, crossing the ice from the southward, and quit it on
+their return towards the end of September.
+
+The Musk-oxen, like the Bison, herd together in bands, and generally
+frequent barren grounds during the summer months, keeping near the
+rivers; but retire to the woods in winter. They seem to be less watchful
+than most other wild animals; and when feeding are not difficult of
+approach, provided the hunters go against the wind. When two or three
+men get so near a herd as to fire at them from different points, these
+animals, instead of separating or running away, huddle closer together,
+and in this case they are easily shot down; but if the wound is not
+mortal, they become enraged, and dart in the most furious manner at the
+hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade them; for, notwithstanding
+the shortness of their legs, they can run with great rapidity, and climb
+hills and rocks, with great ease. They can defend themselves by their
+powerful horns against wolves and bears, which, as the Indians say, they
+not unfrequently kill.--(Capt. Franklin's 'Journey to the Polar Sea.')
+
+They are hunted in their winter retreats by the Esquimaux only, the
+Indian tribes never visiting the barren grounds at that season.
+
+When the Musk-ox is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and it is then
+preferred by the Copper Indians to the rein-deer. The flesh of bulls is
+high-flavoured; but both bulls and cows smell strongly of musk, their
+flesh at the same time being very dark and tough. The contents of the
+paunch, and other intestinal parts, are relished as much by the Indian
+as the similar parts of the rein-deer.--(Appendix to Capt. Parry's
+'Second Voyage.')
+
+The weight of the bulls killed during Capt. Parry's Second Voyage was,
+on an average about 700 lbs., yielding about 400 lbs. of meat. Their
+height, at the withers, was about ten hands and a half.
+
+They were observed by Capt. Franklin's party to rut in the end of
+August and beginning of September; and Hearne says, that they bring
+forth one calf in the latter end of May, or beginning of June; thus the
+period of gestation is about nine months.
+
+The figure at the beginning of this article, as well as the following
+cut of the head, are from the beautiful specimen of the Musk Ox, in the
+British Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Musk Ox.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SANGA, OR GALLA OX.
+
+_(See Frontispiece). Bos ----?_
+
+
+This singular animal is only found in Abyssinia, and is famous on
+account of its horns, which are of an almost incredible size.
+
+Bruce the traveller, in speaking of these horns, says, "The animal
+furnishing these monstrous horns is a cow or bull which would be
+considered of a middling size in England. This extraordinary size of its
+horns proceeds from a disease that the cattle have in these countries,
+of which they die, and is probably derived from their pasture and
+climate. When the animal shows symptoms of this disorder, he is set
+apart in the very best and quietest grazing place, and never driven or
+molested from that moment. His value lies then in his horns, for his
+body becomes emaciated and lank, in proportion as the horns grow large;
+at the last period of his life, the weight of his head is so great that
+he is unable to lift it up, or at least for any space of time. The
+joints of his neck become callous at last, so that it is not any longer
+in his power to lift his head. In this situation he dies, with scarcely
+flesh to cover his bones, and it is then his horns are of the greatest
+value. I have seen horns that would contain as much as a common sized
+water-pail, such as they make use of in the houses in England."[B]
+
+So far Mr. Bruce. Mr. Salt, who visited Abyssinia some years afterwards,
+gives a somewhat different account. He says: "Here [_i. e._ at Gibba],
+for the first time, I was gratified by the sight of the Galla Oxen, or
+Sanga, celebrated throughout Abyssinia for the remarkable size of its
+horns. Three of these animals were grazing among the other cattle in
+perfect health, which circumstance, together with the testimony of the
+natives, 'that the size of the horns is in no instance occasioned by
+disease,' completely refutes the fanciful theory given by Mr. Bruce
+respecting this creature. It appears by the papers annexed to the last
+edition of Mr. Bruce's work, that he never met with the Sanga; but that
+he made many attempts to procure specimens of the horns, through Yanni,
+a Greek, residing at Adowa. This old man very correctly speaks of them,
+in his letters, as being only brought by the Cafilas from Antalo; and I
+have now ascertained that they are sent to this country as valuable
+presents, by the chiefs of the Galla, whose tribes are spread to the
+southward of Enderta. So far, then, as to the description of the horns,
+and the purposes to which they are applied by the Abyssinians, Mr.
+Bruce's statements may be considered as correct; but with respect to
+'the disease which occasions their size, probably derived from their
+pasture and climate,' 'the care taken of them to encourage this
+disease,' 'the emaciation of the animal,' and 'the extending of the
+disorder to the spine of the neck, which at last becomes callous, so
+that it is not any longer in the power of the animal to lift its head,'
+they all prove to be mere ingenious conjectures, thrown out by the
+author solely for the exercise of his own ingenuity.
+
+"I should not venture to speak so positively upon this matter, had I
+not indisputably ascertained the facts; for the Ras having subsequently
+made me a present of three of these animals alive, I found them not only
+in excellent health, but so exceedingly wild, that I was obliged to have
+them shot. The horns of one of these are now deposited in the Museum of
+the Surgeons' College, and a still larger pair are placed in the
+collection of Lord Valentia, at Arley Hall. The length of the largest
+horn of this description was nearly four feet, and its circumference at
+the base twenty-one inches.
+
+"It might have been expected that the animal, carrying horns of so
+extraordinary a magnitude, would have proved larger than others
+belonging to the same genus; but in every instance which came under my
+observation, this was by no means the case. The etching on the following
+page, which was copied from an original sketch (taken from the life),
+may serve to convince the reader of this fact; and it will convey a
+better idea of the animal than any description in writing I can pretend
+to give. I shall only further observe, that its colour appeared to vary
+as much as in the other species of its genus, and that the peculiarity
+of the size of the horns was not confined to the male, the female being
+very amply provided with this ornamental appendage to her forehead."
+
+Notwithstanding the bold and confident tone of Mr. Salt's
+counter-statement, it must be confessed, that the figure which he
+himself gives from the life (and of which the frontispiece to this
+volume is an exact copy), seems rather to coincide with Mr. Bruce's
+account, being, to all appearance, both "lank and emaciated."
+
+Engraving of the horns presented by Mr. Salt to the
+Museum of the College of Surgeons.
+
+[Illustration: Horns of Galla Ox.]
+
+                                                Ft.  In.
+
+Length of each round the outer curve            3   10-1/2
+Distance between the tips                       3    4
+Circumference at the base                       1    3
+Distance between the bases at the forehead      0    3-1/2
+
+The Sanga is usually considered as a mere variety of _Bos Taurus_. This
+may possibly be the fact; but we have no proof whatever that it is so:
+no information on this point has been presented beyond mere conjecture.
+This being the case, and in the absence of direct anatomical evidence,
+we may be pardoned in considering it, at least, as doubtful; especially
+as there are so many points of external dissimilarity. The principal
+differences are: 1st, in the shoulder, upon which there is a hump; 2d,
+in the back, which descends (as in the Buffaloes and Zebus), abruptly
+towards the tail; 3d, in the greater length of the legs; and 4th, in the
+forehead, which is only three inches and a half between the bases of the
+horns, whilst in the Common Ox it is nine inches.
+
+The horns represented in the following sketch, are those of the
+Hungarian Ox (a variety of _Bos Taurus_), and are almost as remarkable
+for their length and expansion as those of the Abyssinian Sanga. The
+length of each horn is three feet four inches and a half, and the
+distance between the tips is five feet one inch. The sketch is from a
+specimen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[B] Jerom Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, mentions that some of the
+horns of the Buffaloes of that country will hold ten quarts.
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN DOMESTIC CATTLE.
+
+_Bos ----?_
+
+
+
+
+THE ZEBU, OR BRAHMIN OX.--(_Var. alpha._)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The opinions expressed in the following extract from Mr. Bennett's
+description of the Indian Ox (Gardens and Menag. of the Zool. Soc.), may
+be taken as a correct exposition of the views of naturalists generally
+on the subject:--
+
+"There can be little doubt that the Zebu, or Indian Ox, is merely a
+variety of the Common Ox, although it is difficult to ascertain the
+causes by which the distinctive characters of the two races have been in
+the process of time gradually produced. But whatever the causes may
+have been, their effects rapidly disappear by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations. This
+intermixture and its results would alone furnish a sufficient proof of
+identity of origin; which, consequently, scarcely requires the
+confirmation to be derived from the perfect agreement of their internal
+structure, and of all the more essential particulars of their external
+confirmation. These, however, are not wanting; not only is their
+anatomical structure the same, but the form of their heads, which
+affords the only certain means of distinguishing the actual species of
+this genus from each other, presents no difference whatever. In both the
+forehead is flat, or more properly slightly depressed; nearly square in
+its outline, its height being equal to its breadth; and bounded above by
+a prominent line, forming an angular protuberance, passing directly
+across the skull between the bases of the horns. The only circumstances
+in fact in which the two animals differ, consists in the fatty hump on
+the shoulders of the Zebu, and in the somewhat more slender and delicate
+make of its legs."
+
+In a scientific work, it is not sufficient for the author merely to make
+an assertion; it is not even sufficient for him to say that he has made
+an experiment or observation, and merely give the result; he should, in
+every case where it is practicable, describe the nature of his
+experiment,--the _when_, the _where_, the _how_;--and the means and
+opportunity he had of making his observations, that the curious or
+sceptical inquirer may be enabled to perform the experiment, or make the
+observation for himself.
+
+Mr. Bennett tells us, that the differences observable in the Indian Ox
+and the Common Ox "_rapidly_ disappear by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations;" but he
+does not refer to a single instance of this, authentic or otherwise; nor
+are we aware that any such instance ever occurred.
+
+Again, he states that "their anatomical structure is the same;" but he
+does not inform us when, or where, or how, the comparison was made which
+enabled him to arrive at that conclusion.
+
+Wishing to satisfy myself, as far as possible, on this point, I have
+examined the skeleton both of the British Domestic Ox and the Zebu; and
+the following is the result of that examination:--
+
+                      NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ.
+
+                     Cerv.   Dors.    Lumb.       Sac.   Caud.     Total.
+In the Zebu           7       13        6          4       18    =   48
+In the Common Ox      7       13        6          5       21    =   52
+
+The skeletons may still be seen in the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons.
+
+Furthermore, the period of gestation of the Brahmin Cow (according to
+the MS. records of the Zoological Society), is 300 days, while that of
+the Common Cow is only 270 days.
+
+Whether the differences here pointed out are sufficient to constitute
+specific distinction, is left for the umpires to decide.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZEBU.--(_Var. beta._)]
+
+These Indian Cattle are extremely gentle, and admirably adapted to
+harness. Some of the eastern princes attach them to their artillery; but
+generally they employ the finest to draw their light carriages, which in
+form are very similar to those of the ancients. In mountainous
+countries, they have them shod. Their pace is a kind of amble, and they
+are able to sustain a journey of about twenty leagues a day. Guided by a
+cord which passes through the nasal cartilage, they obey the hand with
+as much precision as a horse.
+
+In the same provinces are seen a race of dwarf Bisons, which are
+scarcely as tall as our calves of two months old, generally described
+under the name of _Zebu_. They are lively, well proportioned, and
+trained to be mounted by children, or to draw a light car. In both cases
+their pace is a sort of amble, the same as that of the larger species.
+
+[Illustration: Zebus (_Var. gamma_) and Car.]
+
+The curious Hindoo customs in relation to this animal have been recorded
+by almost every traveller.
+
+Neither the horse, the sheep, nor the goat, have any peculiar sanctity
+annexed to them by the Braminical superstition; it is otherwise with the
+cow, which in India is everywhere regarded with veneration, and is an
+object of peculiar worship. Representations of objects are made upon the
+walls with cow-dung, and these enter deeply into their routine of daily
+observances. The same materials are also dried, and used as fuel for
+dressing their victuals; for this purpose the women collect it, and bake
+it into cakes, which are placed in a position where they soon become dry
+and fit for use. The sacred character of the cow probably gives this
+fuel a preference to every other in the imagination of a Hindoo, for it
+is used in Calcutta, where wood is in abundance.
+
+On certain occasions it is customary for the Hindoos to consecrate a
+bull as an offering to their deities; particular ceremonies are then
+performed, and a mark is impressed upon the animal, expressive of his
+future condition to all the inhabitants. No consideration will induce
+the pious Bengalee to hurt or even control one of these consecrated
+animals. You may see them every day roaming at large through the streets
+of Calcutta, and tasting rice, grain, or flour in the Bazar, according
+to their pleasure. The utmost a native will do, when he observes the
+animal doing too much honour to his goods, is to urge him, by the
+gentlest hints, to taste of the vegetables or grain of his neighbour's
+stall. (_Tennant's 'Indian Recreations.'_)
+
+One of the doctrines of the Brahmins is to believe that kine have in
+them somewhat of sacred and divine; that happy is the man who can be
+sprinkled over with the ashes of a cow, burnt by the hand of a Brahmin;
+but thrice happy is he who, in dying, lays hold of a cow's tail and
+expires with it between his hands; for thus assisted, the soul departs
+out of the body purified, and sometimes returns into the body of a cow.
+That such a favour, notwithstanding, is not conferred but on heroic
+souls, who contemn life, and die generously, either by casting
+themselves headlong from a precipice, or leaping into a kindled pile, or
+throwing themselves under the holy chariot wheels, to be crushed to
+death by the Pagods, when they are carried in triumph about the
+town.--(_Life of St. Francis Xavier, translated by Dryden, 1688._)
+
+
+AFRICAN AND OTHER VARIETIES.
+
+In Shaw's Zoology, the following species or varieties are noticed:--
+
+
+LOOSE-HORNED OX.
+
+This is said to be found in Abyssinia and in Madagascar, and is
+distinguished by pendulous ears, and horns _attached only to the skin,
+so as to hang down on each side_!
+
+
+THE BOURY.
+
+Of the size of a camel, and of a snowy whiteness, with a protuberance on
+the back, is a native of Madagascar and some other islands.
+
+
+THE TINIAN OX.
+
+Of a white colour, with black ears. Inhabits the island of Tinian.
+
+Bewick mentions that in Persia there are many oxen entirely white, with
+small blunt horns and humps on their backs. They are very strong, and
+carry heavy burdens. When about to be loaded, they drop down on their
+knees like the Camel, and rise again when their burdens are properly
+fastened.
+
+
+THE BORNOU OX,
+
+which Col. Smith considers a distinct species, is likewise white, of a
+very large size, with hunched back, and very large horns, which are
+couched outwards and downwards, like those of the African Buffalo, with
+the tip forming a small half-spiral revolution. The corneous external
+coat is very soft, distinctly fibrous, and at the base not much thicker
+than a human nail; the osseous core full of vascular grooves, and inside
+very cellular, the pair scarcely weighing four pounds. The skin passes
+insensibly to the horny state, so that there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences or the other ends. The dimension of a horn
+are:--length measured on the curve, three feet seven inches;
+circumference at base, two feet; circumference midway, one foot six
+inches; circumference two thirds up the horn, one foot; length in a
+straight line, from base to tip, one foot five inches and a half. The
+species has a small neck, and is the common domestic breed of Bornou,
+where the Buffalo is said to have small horns.
+
+Leguat, in his 'Voyages in 1720,' states that the oxen are of three
+sorts at the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and very active;
+some have a hump on the back, others have the horns long and pendent,
+while others have them turned up and well shaped, as in English cattle.
+
+[Illustration: Zebu.--(_Var. delta._)]
+
+
+
+
+THE DOMESTIC OXEN OF THE HOTTENTOTS, CALLED BACKELEYS, BACKELEYERS, OR
+BAKELY-OSSE.
+
+_Bos ----?_
+
+
+The following particulars relating to these Oxen are taken from the
+highly interesting work '_The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_,'
+by Peter Kolben, who visited that colony in 1705, and remained there
+during a period of eight years.
+
+"The Hottentots have a sort of oxen they call Backeleyers, or fighting
+oxen; they use them in their wars, as some nations do elephants; of the
+taming and farming of which last creatures upon the like discipline the
+Hottentots as yet know nothing. They are of great use to them, too, in
+the government of their herds at pasture; for, upon a signal from their
+commanders, they will fetch in stragglers, and bring the herds within
+compass. They will likewise run very furiously at strangers, and
+therefore are of good defence against the Buschies, or robbers who steal
+cattle. They are the stateliest oxen of the herd: every Kraal has
+half-a-dozen of these oxen at the least. When one of them dies, or grows
+so old, that, being unfit for business, his owner kills him, a young one
+is chosen out of the herd to succeed him, by an ancient Hottentot, who
+is judged best able to discern his capacity for instruction. This young
+ox is associated with an old Backeleyer, and taught, by blows and other
+means, to follow him. At night they tie them together by the horns; and
+for some part of the day they fasten them together in the same manner,
+till at length, by this and I know not what other means, the young ox
+is fully instructed, and becomes a watchful guardian of the herds, and
+an able auxiliary in war.
+
+"The Backeleyers (so called from the Hottentot word Backeley for war)
+know every inhabitant of the Kraal they belong to, men, women, and
+children, and pay them all just the same respect that is paid by a dog
+to every person who dwells in his master's house. Any of the inhabitants
+may, therefore, at any time present themselves very safely on any side
+of the herds; the Backeleyers will in nowise offend them. But if a
+stranger, especially a European, shall approach the herds, without the
+company of a Hottentot of the Kraal they belong to, he must look sharp
+to himself; for these Backeleyers, which generally feed at the skirts of
+the herds, quickly discover him, and make at him upon a full gallop. And
+if he is not within hearing of any of the Hottentots who keep the herds,
+or has not a fire-arm, or a light pair of heels, or there is not a tree
+at hand which he can immediately climb, he is certainly demolished. The
+Backeleyers mind not sticks or the throwing of stones at them. This is
+one great reason why the Europeans always travel the Hottentot countries
+with fire-arms. But the first thing a European does, upon the appearance
+of such an enemy, is to shout and call to the Hottentots that look to
+the herds. The Hottentot that hears him hastens to his assistance,
+making all the way a very shrill whistling through his fingers. The
+Backeleyers no sooner hear the whistling of their keepers, which they
+very well know, than they stop, turn about, and return leisurely to the
+herds.
+
+"But if a European, in such a case, does not (upon his shouting and
+calling to the keepers), hear the whistle, before the Backeleyers come
+up with him, he discharges his fire-arm,--frightened with the report of
+which, the Backeleyers run away.
+
+"I have been often run at by the Backeleyers myself. As soon as I saw
+them sallying out upon me, I shouted and called to the keepers. But I
+could not often make them hear before the Backeleyers came up with me,
+when I have been obliged to discharge my fire-arm (for I always carried
+one about with me), upon which they always turned about and left me.
+
+"In the wars of the Hottentots with one another, these Backeleyers make
+very terrible impressions. They gore, and kick, and trample to death,
+with incredible fury. Each army has a drove of them, which they take
+their opportunity to turn upon the enemy. And if an army, against which
+the Backeleyers are sent, is not alert and upon all its guard, these
+creatures quickly force their way through it, tearing, shattering, and
+confounding all the troops that oppose them, and paving for their
+masters an easy way to victory. The courage of these creatures is
+amazing; and the discipline upon which they are formed does not a little
+honour to the Hottentot genius and dexterity.
+
+"The Hottentots have likewise great numbers of oxen for carriage. These,
+too, are very strong and stately creatures, chosen out of the herds, at
+about the age of two years, by old men, well skilled in cattle. When
+they have destined an ox to carry burdens, they take and throw him on
+his back on the ground; and fastening his head and feet with strong
+ropes to stakes firmly fixed in the ground, they make a hole with a
+sharp knife through his upper lip, between his nostrils. Into this hole
+they put a stick, about half an inch thick, and a foot and a half long,
+with a hook at top to prevent its falling through. By this hooked stick
+they break him to obedience and good behaviour; for if he refuses to be
+governed, or to carry the burdens they lay upon him, they fix his nose
+by this hooked stick to the ground, and there hold it till he comes to a
+better temper.
+
+"It is an exquisite torture to an Ox to be fastened to the ground by the
+nose in this manner. He is not, therefore, long exercised this way,
+before he gets a notion of his duty, and becomes tractable. After which,
+the very sight alone of the stick, when he is wanton or refractory, will
+humble and reduce him to the will of his driver. The terror of this
+stick, likewise makes the carriage oxen so attentive to the words of
+command the Hottentots use to them, that they quickly conceive and, ever
+while they live, afterwards retain the intention of them. I have a
+thousand times been surprised at the ready obedience the carriage oxen
+have paid to a Hottentot's bare words. They are as quick at
+apprehending, and as exact in performing the orders of their driver, as
+is any taught dog in Europe at conceiving and accomplishing the orders
+of his master. The stick--the terrible stick--makes them all attention
+and diligence."
+
+
+
+
+AFRICAN BULL.
+
+
+The following notice, which will explain itself, appeared in Loudon's
+'Magazine of Natural History,' for July, 1828.
+
+"Some Account of a particular Variety of Bull (_Bos Taurus_), now
+exhibiting in London. By Mrs. Harvey.
+
+"Sir,--Agreeably to your request, Mr. Harvey has taken a portrait of
+this animal; and as he has made the drawing on the wood himself, the
+engraving will be a very perfect resemblance.[C] I have, on my part,
+drawn up the following particulars, from what my husband told me, and I
+shall be happy if they prove of any interest to you or your readers:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+"This animal belongs to a French woman, who says he was brought from
+Africa to Bordeaux when a calf; and, after having been shown in
+different parts of the Continent, was taken to London, and exhibited at
+the Grand Bazaar in King's Street, Portman Square, last autumn. He is
+at present five years old, four feet high at the shoulder and seven feet
+in length, from the horns to the insertion of the tail. The length of
+his face is one foot eight inches, and the girth round the collar seven
+feet six inches. His hair is short and silky, and the colour a cream or
+yellowish white, except two black tufts which appear on each foot. On
+the back of the neck there is a hump or swelling, which seems confined
+to this variety. The general aspect of the animal is mild and docile;
+but, when irritated, his expression is very remarkable, exhibiting
+itself principally in the eye. This, in its ordinary state, is very
+peculiar, (fig. 1, _a_,) rising more than one-half above the orbit, and
+bearing a resemblance to a cup and ball, thus enabling the animal to see
+on all sides with equal ease. The iris is naturally of a pale blue
+colour; but, when the animal is irritated, it varies from a very pale
+blue or lilac to a deep crimson. Its form is also very remarkable, being
+a small oval, or rather a parallelogram, with the ends cut off, and
+lying transversely across the ball, (fig. 1, _b_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+"The black tufts, mentioned above, are the lateral hoofs (fig. 2), which
+the animal sheds annually, and which grow to the length of five or six
+inches. They are not shed together, or at stated periods; for those of
+the fore-feet, (_a_, _b_,) in this example, are at present of different
+ages, and, consequently, of different lengths; the difference between
+them being exactly that represented in the sketch.
+
+"On the hump or collar, the hair grows much longer than on the other
+parts of the body, forming a sort of curled mane, resembling, I should
+imagine, that of the Bison. It is perfectly white, growing to the length
+of one foot six inches, and adding greatly to the height of the rising
+part behind the horns. At present the hair is only beginning to grow;
+but it will be in full beauty at the approach of the winter months, and
+will fall off gradually again in the early part of the succeeding spring.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.]
+
+"The keeper pointed out to Mr. Harvey, as a remarkable peculiarity, that
+the dewlap (fig. 3), in passing between the fore-legs (_a_), and under
+the body (_b_), seemed to divide itself into three parts, which they
+called the three stomachs, (1, 2, 3,) from their being very much acted
+on in the progress of digestion."
+
+    I remain. Sir, &c.
+        M. HARVEY.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[C] The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and
+dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLINGHAM WHITE CATTLE.
+
+_Bos Taurus.--Restricted Variety._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Considerable interest has always been connected with the history of
+those herds of white cattle which have been kept secluded, apparently
+from time immemorial, in the parks of some of our aristocracy.[D] It has
+been, and still is, a matter of lordly pride to their noble owners,
+that these cattle are held to be of a distinct and untameable race.
+
+Feeling a full share of the interest attached to them, and anxious to
+gain the most accurate and circumstantial information, I was induced to
+pay a visit, during the summer of 1845, to the beautifully wooded and
+undulating Park of Chillingham, in which a herd of these cattle is
+preserved; and, although I have not been able to gather material for a
+perfect history of these animals, I think it will not be difficult to
+show that matters respecting them have been set forth as facts which are
+fictions; and that from some points of their history which have been
+correctly detailed, inferences have been drawn, which are by no means
+warranted by the facts.
+
+In endeavouring to point out these errors and false reasonings, it will
+be necessary to make quotations from the old history of the white
+cattle, in Culley's 'Observations on Live Stock,' which has been so
+often repeated in works on natural history, and is, moreover, so
+thoroughly accredited, that it may now appear something like presumption
+to call it in question. To what extent it is called in question on the
+present occasion, and the reasons for so doing, will be seen in the
+running commentary which accompanies these quotations.
+
+Culley says: "The Wild Breed, from being untameable, can only be kept
+within walls or good fences; consequently very few of them are now to be
+met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for
+ornament, and as a curiosity: those I have seen are at Chillingham
+Castle, in Northumberland, a seat belonging to the Earl of Tankerville."
+
+The statement of their being untameable is a mere assertion, founded
+upon no evidence whatever. But so far is it from being the fact, that,
+notwithstanding every means are used to preserve their wildness, such as
+allowing them to range in an extensive park--seldom intruding upon
+them--hunting and shooting them now and then--notwithstanding these
+means are taken to preserve their wildness, they are even now so far
+domesticated as voluntarily to present themselves every winter, at a
+place prepared for them, for the purpose of being fed. From which it may
+reasonably be concluded, that were they restricted in their pasture,
+gradually familiarised with the presence of human beings, and in every
+other respect treated as ordinary cattle, they would, in the course of
+two or three generations, be equally tame and tractable.
+
+Whilst writing the foregoing I was not aware that any attempt had been
+made to domesticate these so-called untameable oxen; but on reading an
+account of these cattle by Mr. Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+(bearing date about 1837,) I find the following paragraph.
+
+"By taking the calves at a very early age, and treating them gently, the
+present keeper succeeded in domesticating an ox and a cow. _They became
+as tame as domestic animals_, and the ox fed as rapidly as a
+short-horned steer. He lived eighteen years, and when at his best was
+computed at 8 cwt. 14 lbs. The cow only lived five or six years. She
+gave little milk, but the quality was rich. She was crossed by a country
+bull, but her progeny very closely resembled herself, being entirely
+white, excepting the ears, which were brown, and the legs, which were
+mottled." These facts speak for themselves.
+
+Culley, in giving their distinguishing characteristics, says: "Their
+colour is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the whole of the
+inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside, from the tips
+downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent
+upwards; some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a
+half, or two inches long."
+
+That their colour is invariably white is simply owing to the care that
+is taken to destroy all the calves that are born of a different
+description. It is pretty well known to the farmers about Chillingham
+(although pains are taken to conceal the fact,) that the wild cows in
+the park not unfrequently drop calves variously spotted. With respect to
+the redness of the ears, this is by no means an invariable character,
+many young ones having been produced without that distinctive mark; and
+Bewick records, that about twenty years before he wrote, there existed a
+few in the herd with _black_ ears, but they were destroyed. So far from
+the character here given of the horns being confined to those white
+cattle, it is precisely the description of the horns of the Kyloe oxen,
+or black cattle. The investiture of some of the bulls with a mane is
+equally gratuitous; Cole, who was park-keeper for more than forty years,
+and of course had ample means of observation, distinctly informed me
+that they had no mane, but only some curly hair, about the neck, which
+is likewise an attribute of the Kyloe Oxen.
+
+Culley goes on to say: "From the nature of their pasture, and the
+frequent agitation they are put into by the curiosity of strangers, it
+is scarce to be expected that they should get very fat; yet the six
+years old oxen are generally very good beef, from whence it may be
+fairly supposed, that in proper situations they would feed well."
+
+It would naturally be inferred from this, that the park in which they
+are kept is visited by strangers every day, who are allowed to drive
+them about, and disturb them in their feeding and ruminating, as boys
+hunt geese or donkeys on a common. This, however, is so far from being
+the case, that it frequently happens that the park is not visited for
+many weeks in succession, and certainly on an average it is not visited
+once a week. What is here meant by "the nature of their pasture," and
+"in proper situations they would feed well," it is difficult to say. The
+fact is, their pasture is both good and extensive, and they feed as well
+as animals always do who are left to themselves with plenty of food.
+
+Their behaviour to strangers is thus described: "At the first appearance
+of any person, they set off at full speed, and gallop a considerable
+distance, when they make a wheel round, and come boldly up again,
+tossing their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden, they make a full
+stop, at a distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the
+object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being made, they
+turn round again, and gallop off with equal speed; but forming a shorter
+circle, and, returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect, they
+approach much nearer, when they make another stand, and again gallop
+off. This they do several times, shortening their distance, and
+approaching nearer, till they come within a few yards, when most people
+think it prudent to leave them."
+
+In the instance in which I had an opportunity of witnessing their method
+of receiving visitors, the fashion was somewhat different. The
+park-keeper who accompanied me described, as we rode through the park in
+quest of them, what would be their mode of procedure on our approach.
+This he did from observations so repeatedly made, as to warrant him in
+saying that it was their invariable mode. It was perfectly simple, and I
+found it precisely as he had described it. When we came in sight of
+them, they were tranquilly ruminating under a clump of shady trees, some
+of the herd standing, others lying. On their first observing us, those
+that were lying rose up, and they all then began to move _slowly_ away,
+not exactly to a greater distance from us, but in the direction of a
+thickly wooded part of the park, which was as distant on our left as the
+herd was on our right. To reach this wooded part they had to pass over
+some elevated ground. They continued to walk at a gradually accelerating
+pace, till they gained the most elevated part, when they broke out into
+a trot, then into a canter, which at last gave way to a full gallop, a
+sort of "devil-take-the-hindmost" race, by which they speedily buried
+themselves in the thickest recesses of the wood. What they may have done
+in Mr. Culley's time, we must take upon that gentleman's word; but at
+present, and for so long as the present park-keeper can recollect, they
+have never been in the habit of describing those curious concentric
+circles of which Mr. Culley makes mention in the last quotation.
+
+The late mode of killing them is described as "perhaps the only modern
+remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that
+a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood came mounted and armed with guns, &c., sometimes to the
+amount of a hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon
+walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the
+rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and
+shot. At some of these huntings twenty or thirty shots have been fired
+before he was subdued. On these occasions the bleeding victim grew
+desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of
+savage joy that were echoing from every side. But from the number of
+accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised
+of late years, the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a
+rifled gun at one shot."
+
+This vivid portraiture of a scene, which the writer is pleased to
+consider _grand_, does not appear to have much relation to the history
+of the _Genus Bos_: it however, exhibits the brutal and ferocious habits
+of two varieties of _Genus Homo_, namely _Nob_ility and _Mob_ility--two
+varieties which, although distinguished by some external marks of
+difference, possess in common many questionable characteristics.
+
+Culley proceeds:--"When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a
+week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them
+two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap
+their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide
+themselves; _this is a proof of their native wildness_, and is
+corroborated by the following circumstance that happened to Mr. Bailey,
+of Chillingham, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean and
+very weak. On stroking its head it got up, pawed two or three times like
+an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and bolted at
+his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed,
+stepped back, and bolted as before; but knowing its intention, and
+stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could
+not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough: the
+whole herd were alarmed, and, coming to its rescue, obliged him to
+retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without
+attacking them with impetuous ferocity."
+
+It seems almost unnecessary to remind the reader that all animals are
+naturally wild; and that even those animals that have been the longest
+under the dominion of man, are born with a strong tendency to the wild
+state, to which they would immediately resort, if left to themselves: it
+appears, therefore, rather gratuitous to tell us that the NATURAL
+_actions of young animals_ (whose parents have been allowed to run
+wild), _are proofs of their native mildness_!
+
+The concluding paragraph requires no observation:--"When a calf is
+intended to be castrated, the park-keeper marks the place where it is
+hid, and, when the herd are at a distance, takes an assistant with him
+on horseback; they tie a handkerchief round the calf s mouth, to prevent
+its bellowing, and then perform the operation in the usual way. When any
+one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or
+sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death."
+
+The following engraving exhibits the effects of castration on the
+curvature and length of the horns.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the
+emasculated animal.]
+
+We learn, on the authority of the present Lord Tankerville, that during
+the early part of the life-time of his father, the bulls in the herd had
+been reduced to three; two of them fought and killed each other, and the
+third was discovered to be impotent; so that the means of preserving the
+breed depended on the accident of some of the cows producing a bull
+calf.
+
+In 1844 I wrote to Mr. Cole, the late park-keeper at Chillingham,
+requesting information on the following queries, to which he returned
+the answers annexed; and although they are not so explicit as might be
+wished, they embody facts both interesting and important.
+
+
+_List of the Queries with their Answers._
+
+1. How many pairs of ribs are there in the skeleton of the Chillingham
+Ox? _Thirteen pairs._
+
+2. How many vertebræ are there (from the skull to the end of the tail)?
+_Thirty in the back-bone, twenty in the tail._
+
+3. Will the wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle? _I have had two
+calves from a wild bull and common cow._
+
+4. What is the precise time the wild cow goes with young? _The same as
+the domestic cow._
+
+5. At what age does the curly hair appear which constitutes the mane of
+the wild bull? _They have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and
+head; more so in winter, when the hair is long._
+
+6. In what month does the rutting take place among the wild cattle? _At
+all times,--no particular time._
+
+    J. COLE.
+
+Here we have precise information on the following points:--namely, the
+number of ribs; the period of gestation; their having no mane; their not
+being in heat at any particular period; in all which points, they
+perfectly agree with the ordinary domestic cattle; and it is important
+to observe, that in the last point, namely, that of not being in heat at
+any particular time, they differ from every known _wild_ species of
+cattle, among which the rutting season invariably occurs at a particular
+period of the year.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[D] Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and
+Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at
+the following places:--Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton,
+Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire;
+Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire.
+
+At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears,
+which are _brown_.
+
+From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild
+Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century,
+William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the
+forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in
+its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down
+to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like
+those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, with _black muzzles and
+ears_; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not
+easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.
+
+
+
+
+THE KYLOE, OR HIGHLAND OX.
+
+_Bos Taurus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Chillingham Cattle are _white_, and the Highland Cattle or Kyloes
+are generally _black_; but with this exception the same description
+might almost serve for both breeds.
+
+In their natural and unimproved state, the Highland cattle are
+frequently well formed; their fine eyes, acute face, and lively
+countenances, give them an air of fierceness, which is heightened by
+their white, tapering, black-tipped, and sharp horns.
+
+The Kyloe Oxen are very small (another respect in which they resemble
+the Chillingham Oxen). They likewise partake much of the nature of wild
+animals, which might be expected from the almost unlimited extent of
+their pasture, and their being but little subject to artificial
+treatment.
+
+Upon a close comparison of these two breeds, there appears not to be so
+much difference between the Highland cattle and the cattle of
+Chillingham as there is between any two breeds or varieties of British
+cattle. Indeed so great is the similarity, that the Kyloe appears to be
+only a black variety of the Chillingham Ox, and the Chillingham Ox only
+a white variety of the Kyloe.
+
+Dr. Anderson speaks of having seen a kind of Highland cattle which had a
+mane on the top of the head, of considerable length, and a tuft between
+the horns that nearly covered the eyes, giving them a fierce and savage
+aspect. He likewise mentions another kind which have hair of a pale lead
+colour, very beautiful in its appearance, and in its quality as glossy
+and soft as silk.
+
+The Kyloe Oxen are natives of the Western Highlands and Isles, and are
+commonly called the Argyleshire breed, or the breed of the Isle of Skie,
+one of the islands attached to the county of Argyle. They are generally
+of a dark brown colour, or black, though sometimes brindled.
+
+The Cows of the Isle of Skie (as is recorded by Martin, in his
+'Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,') are exposed to the
+rigour of the coldest seasons, and become mere skeletons in the spring,
+many of them not being able to rise from the ground without help; but
+they recover as the season becomes more favorable, and the grass grows
+up; then they acquire new beef, which is both sweet and tender; the fat
+and lean is not so much separated in them as in other cows, but as it
+were larded, which renders it very agreeable to the taste. A cow in this
+isle may be twelve years old, when at the same time its beef is not
+above four, five, or six months old.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE NUMBER OF VERTEBRÆ IN THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOS.
+
+                     | Cerv. | Dors. | Lumb. | Sacr. | Caud. | Total.
+American Bison       |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  12+  |
+European Bison,      |       |       |       |       |       |
+  or Aurochs         |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  19   |  50
+Yak                  |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  14   |  45
+Gayal (Domestic)     |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  16   |  47
+Gayal (Asseel).      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Gyall                |       |       |       |       |       |
+Jungli Gau           |       |       |       |       |       |
+Italian Buffalo.     |       |       |       |       |       |
+Indian Buffalo.      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Skeleton of Buffalo  |       |       |       |       |       |
+  in Surg. Coll.     |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (locality unknown) |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  16   |  47
+Gaur                 |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  19   |  50
+Domestic Ox          |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  21   |  52
+Condore Buffalo      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Manilla Buffalo      |   7   |  13   |   6   |       |       |
+Pegasse              |       |       |       |       |       |
+Arnee                |       |       |       |       |       |
+Cape Buffalo         |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  19   |  49
+Zamouse (_Bos_       |       |       |       |       |       |
+  _Brachyceros_)     |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  20   |  50
+Banteng of Java      |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (_Bos Bantinger_)  |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  18   |  48
+Zebu, or Brahmin Ox  |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  18   |  48
+Galla Ox.            |       |       |       |       |       |
+Backeley             |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (_Caffraria_).     |       |       |       |       |       |
+Musk Ox              |       |       |       |       |       |
+
+The osteological details in the above Table (except those of the Yak,
+which are given on the authority of Pallas) are from the Author's own
+observations.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PERIODS OF GESTATION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS
+BOS.
+
+                     |       Periods
+                     |
+American Bison.      |  270 days.--Zool. Proc., 1849.
+European Bison.      |  Between 9 and 10 months.
+                     |
+Gayal (Domestic)     |  Over 10 months
+                     |
+Gyall                |   11 months
+                     |
+Indian Buffalo       |   10 months 10 days.
+                     |
+Gaur                 |   12 months
+Domestic Ox.         |  270 days
+                     |
+Manilla Buffalo.     |  340 days
+                     |
+Arnee                |   12 months
+Cape Buffalo         |   12 months
+                     |
+Zebu, or Brahmin Cow |  300 days
+                     |
+Musk Ox              |    9 months
+
+To supply the deficiencies in the foregoing Tables, the results of
+original observations are respectfully solicited. Address the Author or
+Publisher.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON THE AMERICAN BISON.
+
+
+It was Cuvier, I believe, who first made the statement, that the
+American Bison is furnished with _fifteen_ pairs of ribs. In this
+particular he has been implicitly followed by every subsequent writer on
+the subject. Not being able to refer to a skeleton, and, moreover, never
+suspecting any inaccuracy in the statement, I followed the received
+account. But since this work has gone to press, I have had the
+opportunity of examining two skeletons, by which I find that--
+
+_The American Bison has only_ FOURTEEN _pairs of ribs._
+
+I have, therefore, in the "Table of the Number of Vertebræ," (see p.
+152,) set this species down as possessing only that number.
+
+Of the two skeletons referred to (both of which are now in the British
+Museum), one is from a female Bison, some years a living resident in the
+Zoological Gardens; and the other is from a male, late in the possession
+of the Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, in Lancashire.
+
+A corroborative circumstance (amounting, indeed, to a complete proof of
+the accuracy of these observations,) is presented by the fact, that, in
+both the cases _the number of lumbar vertebræ is precisely_ FIVE; thus
+making the true vertebræ to consist of nineteen, which Professor Owen[E]
+has shown to be the invariable number possessed by all ruminants.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[E] See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's
+'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+THE FREE MARTIN.
+
+Cows usually bring forth but one calf at a birth; occasionally, however,
+they produce twins. John Hunter, in his 'Observations on the Animal
+Economy,' says: "It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally
+understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a
+bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit
+for propagation; but the bull-calf grows up into a very proper bull.
+Such a cow-calf is called, in this country, a FREE MARTIN, and is
+commonly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. It has
+all the external marks of a cow-calf, namely, the teats, and the
+external female parts, called by farmers the bearing. It does not show
+the least inclination for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the
+least notice of it. In form it very much resembles the Ox, or spayed
+heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the cow,
+having the horns very similar to the horns of an Ox. The bellow of the
+Free Martin is similar to that of an Ox, having more resemblance to that
+of the cow than that of the bull."
+
+Free Martins are very much disposed to grow fat with good food. The
+flesh, like that of the Ox or spayed heifer, is generally much finer in
+the fibre than either the bull or cow; is even supposed to exceed that
+of the Ox and heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price
+at market. However this superiority of the flavour does not appear to be
+universal, for Mr. Hunter was informed of a case which occurred in
+Berkshire, in which the flesh of a Free Martin turned out nearly as bad
+as bull beef. This circumstance probably arose from the animal having
+more the properties of a bull than a cow.
+
+Mr. Hunter, having had many opportunities of dissecting Free Martins,
+has satisfactorily shown that their incapacity to breed, and all their
+other peculiarities, result from their having the generative organs of
+both sexes combined, in a more or less imperfect state of development,
+in some cases the organs of the male preponderating, in others those of
+the female.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above, which is copied from an engraving in Hunter's work on the
+'Animal Economy,' is a representation of a Free Martin, five years old;
+it shows the external form of that animal, which is neither like the
+bull nor cow, but resembling the Ox or spayed heifer.
+
+Although, as Hunter observes, "it is almost universally understood, that
+when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the
+other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation,"
+it is by no means universally the fact, as instances of such twins
+breeding were known even in Hunter's time, and have been witnessed more
+recently. The following is recorded in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. History,'
+and occurred a few years previous to 1826: Jos. Holroyd, of Withers,
+near Leeds, had a cow which calved twins, a bull-calf and a cow-calf. As
+popular opinion was against the cow-calf breeding, it being considered a
+Free Martin, Mr. Holroyd was determined to make an experiment of them,
+and reared them together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer
+brought forth a bull-calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven
+years afterwards.
+
+"If," says Hunter, "there are such deviations as of twins being perfect
+male and female, why should there not be, on the other hand, an
+hermaphrodite, produced singly, as in other animals? I had the
+examination of one which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have
+been a single calf; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from
+having found a number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the
+circumstance of their birth being ascertained."
+
+If Hunter had carried this reasoning a little further, he might have
+asked,--Why should there not be a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite,
+produced in the case of twins, when they are both apparently males, or
+both apparently females? Had he done this, he would not, probably, have
+made the following observation: "I need hardly observe, that if a cow
+has twins, and they are both bull-calves, they are in every respect
+perfect bulls; or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows."
+What is this but saying that a bull-calf is a bull-calf, and a cow-calf
+is a cow-calf? For a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, is not, in any case,
+either a bull or a cow.
+
+There does not appear to be anything known of the peculiar circumstances
+under which, what is termed a Free Martin is produced.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox.]
+
+The most general observation that can be made on the subject appears to
+be, that cows sometimes produce calves, which, by reason of their
+imperfectly developed generative system, are incapable of procreating.
+
+
+THE SHORT-NOSED OX.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.]
+
+The common Ox, originally taken over to America by the early Spanish
+settlers, now runs wild in immense herds on the Pampas, where it is
+hunted and slain for its hide. Some idea may be formed of the immensity
+of these herds, from the circumstance that nearly a million of hides are
+annually exported from Buenos Ayres and Monte Video to Europe.
+
+Some of the herds in these wild regions have undergone a most singular
+modification of the cranium, consisting in a shortening of the nasal
+bones, together with the superior and inferior maxillaries. There is a
+skull of this variety in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, of which
+the above is a sketch.
+
+
+ON THE UTILITY OF THE OX TRIBE TO MANKIND.
+
+How eminently serviceable to man these animals are, is shown in the
+following table, in which are set forth the most important uses to which
+their various parts are applied:
+
+SKIN.--The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons
+constructed their boats with osiers, and covered them with the hides of
+bulls; and these boats were sufficiently strong to serve for short
+coasting voyages. Similar vessels are still in use on the Irish lakes,
+and in Wales on the rivers Dee and Severn. In Ireland they are called
+_curach_, in England _coracles_, from the British _cwrwgl_, a word
+signifying a boat of that structure.
+
+Boots, shoes, harness, &c. for horses, and various kinds of travelling
+trunks are made from hides when tanned. The skin of the calf is
+extensively used in the binding of books, and the thinnest of the calf
+skins are manufactured into vellum. The skin of the Cape Buffalo is made
+into shields and targets, and is so hard that a musket ball will
+scarcely penetrate it.
+
+HAIR.--The short hair is used to stuff saddles and other articles; also
+by bricklayers in the mixing up of certain kinds of mortar. It is
+likewise frequently used in the manuring of land. The _long_ hair from
+the tail is used for stuffing chairs and cushions. The hair of the Bison
+is spun into gloves, stockings, and garters, which are very strong, and
+look as well as those made of the finest sheep's wool; very beautiful
+cloth has likewise been manufactured from it. The Esquimaux convert the
+skin covering the tail into caps, which are so contrived that the long
+hair falling over their faces, defends them from the bites of the
+mosquitoes.
+
+HORNS.--The horns of cattle consist of an outside horny case, and an
+inside conical-shaped substance, somewhat between hardened hair and
+bone. The horny outside furnishes the material for the manufacture of a
+variety of useful articles. The first process consists in cutting the
+horn transversely into three portions.
+
+1. The _lowest_ of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing
+several operations by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs.
+
+2. The _middle_ of the horn, after being flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. [The merit of
+the invention of these horn plates, and of their application to
+lanterns, is ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used
+lanterns of this description to preserve his candle time-measurers from
+the wind.]
+
+3. The _tips_ of the horns are generally used to make knife-handles; the
+largest and best are used for crutch-stick heads, umbrella handles, and
+ink-horns, and the smallest and commonest serve for the tops and bottoms
+of ink-horns.
+
+Spoons, small boxes, powder flasks, spectacle frames, and drinking horns
+are likewise made of the outer horny case.
+
+The interior or core of the horn is boiled down in water, when a large
+quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is sold to the makers of
+yellow soap.--The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is
+purchased by the cloth-dressers for stiffening.--The bony substance
+which remains behind, is ground down, and sold to the farmers for
+manure.
+
+Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn
+are applied, the chippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, at about one shilling a bushel. In the first year
+after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively little
+effect; but during the next four or five their efficiency is
+considerable. The shavings, which form the refuse of the lantern-maker,
+are of a much thinner texture. Some of them are cut into various
+figures, and painted and used as toys; for they curl up when placed in
+the palm of a warm hand. But the greater part of these shavings are sold
+also for manure, which from their extremely thin and divided form,
+produce their full effect upon the first crop.
+
+FEET.--An oil is extracted from the feet of oxen--hence called
+Neat's-foot-oil--of great use in preparing and softening leather.
+
+SKIN, _horns_, _hoofs_, and _cartilages_ are used to make glue.
+
+BLOOD is used in the formation of mastic; also in the refining of sugar,
+oil, &c.; and is an excellent manure for fruit trees.
+
+_Blood_, _horns_, and _hoofs_ in the formation of Prussian blue.
+
+_Gall_ is used to cleanse woollen garments, and to obliterate greasy and
+other stains.
+
+SUET, FAT, TALLOW are chiefly manufactured into candles; they are also
+used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs.
+
+INTESTINES, when dried, are used as envelopes for German and Bologna
+sausages; in some countries to carry butter to market. By gold-beaters,
+in the process of making gold-leaf. Gold-beater's skin, as it is called,
+forms the most innocent sticking plaster for small cuts on the hands or
+fingers.
+
+The STOMACHS vulgarly called _inwards_, after being washed and boiled,
+are sold as an article of food under the name of _tripe_.
+
+The EXCREMENTITIOUS MATTERS are used to manure the land.
+
+The BONES are used as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of a
+variety of small articles of a common kind; also for manuring land.
+"When calcined they are used as an absorbent to carry off the baser
+metals in refining silver. From the tibia and carpus is procured an oil
+much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness,
+and all trappings belonging to carriages."
+
+FLESH, both fresh and salted, is generally esteemed as an article of
+food. _Pemmican_ is made of the flesh of the American Bison: this is
+dried in the sun by the Indians, spread on a skin, and pounded with
+stones. When the Indians have got it into this state, they sell it to
+the different forts, where all the hair is carefully sifted out of it,
+and melted fat kneaded into it. If it be well made, and kept dry, it
+will not spoil for a year or two.
+
+MILK, a nutritious beverage, _per se_, is used in the composition of
+innumerable articles of diet; from milk is obtained cream, butter, and
+cheese.
+
+
+SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ALPINE COWHERDS,
+
+WITH A NOTICE OF THE CELEBRATED SWISS AIR
+
+_The Ranz des Vaches._
+
+In the Alps, fine cattle are the pride of their keeper, who, not being
+satisfied with their natural beauty, also gratifies his vanity by
+adorning his best cows with large bells, suspended from broad thongs.
+Every _Senn_, or great cow-keeper, has a harmonious set of bells, of at
+least two or three, chiming in accordance with the famous _Ranz des
+Vaches_. The finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and
+those next in appearance wear the two smaller ones.
+
+It is only on particular occasions that these ornaments are worn,
+namely, in spring, when they are driven to the Alps, or removed from one
+pasture to another; or in their autumnal descents, when they travel to
+the different farmers for the winter. On such days the Senn, even in the
+depth of winter, appears dressed in a fine white shirt, with the sleeves
+rolled above the elbows; neatly embroidered red braces suspend his
+yellow linen trowsers, which reach down to the shoes; he wears a small
+leather cap on his head, and a new and skilfully carved wooden milk-bowl
+hangs across his left shoulder. Thus arrayed, the Senn proceeds, singing
+the _Ranz des Vaches_, followed by three or four fine goats; next comes
+the finest cow, adorned with the great bell; then the other two with the
+smaller bells; and these are succeeded by the rest of the cattle,
+walking one after another, and having in their rear the bull, with a
+one-legged milking-stool on his horns; the procession is closed by a
+_traineau_, or sledge, bearing the dairy implements.
+
+When dispersed on the Alps, the cattle are collected together by the
+voice of the Senn, who is then said to allure them. How well these cows
+distinguish the voice of their keeper, appears from the circumstance of
+their hastening to him, although at a great distance, whenever he
+commences singing the _Ranz des Vaches_.
+
+This celebrated air is played on the bagpipes, as well as sung by the
+young Swiss cowherds while watching their cattle on the mountains. The
+astonishing effects of this simple melody on the Swiss soldier, when
+absent from his native land, are thus described by Rousseau:
+
+"Cet air, se chéri des Suisses qu'il fut défendu sous peine de mort de
+le jouer dans leurs troupes, parce qu'il faisait fondre en larmes,
+déserter, ou mourir, ceux qui l'entendaient, tant il excitait en eux
+l'ardent desir de revoir leur pays. On chercherait en vain dans cet air
+les accens énergetiques capables de produire de si étonnans effets. Ces
+effets, qui n'ont aucun lieu sur les étrangers, ne viennent qui de
+l'habitude, des souvenirs de mille circonstances qui, retracées par cet
+air à ceux que l'entendent, et leur rappellant leur pays, leurs anciens
+plaisirs, leur jeunesse, et toutes leur façons de vivre, excitent en eux
+une douleur amère d'avoir perdu tout cela. La musique alors n'agit point
+précisément comme musique, mais comme signe memoratif. Cet air, quoique
+toujours le même, ne produit plus aujourd'hui les mêmes effets qu'il
+produisait ci-devant sur les Suisses, parce qu'ayant perdu le gôut de
+leur première simplicité, ils ne la regrettent plus quand on la leur
+rappelle. Tant il est vrai que ce n'est pas dans leur action physique
+qu'il faut chercher les plus grand effets des sons sur le coeur
+humain."
+
+For the delectation of the musical reader, the notes of this celebrated
+air are here introduced, with the words, and an English imitation:
+
+AIR SUISSE
+
+Appellé le RANZ DES VACHES.
+
+[Illustration: Musical notation]
+
+The words are as follows:--
+
+    Quand reverai-je en un jour,
+    Tous les objets de mon amour,
+    Nos clairs ruisseaux,
+    Nos hameaux,
+    Nos côteaux,
+    Nos montagnes,
+    Et l'ornament de nos montagnes,
+    La si gentille Isabeau?
+    Dans l'ombre d'un ormeau,
+    Quand danserai-je au son du Chalameau?
+    Quand reverai-je en un jour,
+    Tous les objets de mon amour,
+    Mon père,
+    Ma mère,
+    Mon frère,
+    Ma soeur,
+    Mes agneaux,
+    Mes troupeaux,
+    Ma bergère?
+
+
+IMITATED.
+
+    When shall I return to the Land of the Mountains--
+       The lakes and the Rhone that is lost in the earth--
+    Our sweet little hamlets, our villages, fountains,
+       The flour-clad rocks of the place of my birth?
+    O when shall I see my old garden of flowers,
+       Dear Emma, the sweetest of blooms in the glade,
+    And the rich chestnut grove, where we pass'd the long hours
+       With tabor and pipe, while we danced in the shade?
+    When shall I revisit the land of the mountains,
+       Where all the fond objects of memory meet:
+    The cows that would follow my voice to the fountains,
+       The lambs that I called to the shady retreat:
+    My father, my mother, my sister, and brother;
+       My all that was dear in this valley of tears;
+    My palfrey grown old, but there's ne'er such another;
+       My dear dog, still faithful, tho' stricken in years:
+    The vesper bell tolling, the loud thunder rolling,
+       The bees that humm'd round the tall vine-mantled tree:
+    The smooth water's margin whereon we were strolling
+       When evening painted its mirror for me?
+    And shall I return to this scenery never?
+       These objects of infantine glory and love,--
+    O tell me, my dear Guardian Angel, that ever
+       Floats nigh me,--safe guide to the regions above.
+
+
+SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF HABITAT
+
+Buffalo--_Bos Bubalus_           Asia, North Africa, and South Europe.
+Manilla Buffalo                  Island of Manilla.
+Condore Buffalo                  Island of Pulo Condore.
+Cape Buffalo                     South Africa.
+Pegasse                          Congo, Angola, Central Africa.
+Arnee                            India and China.
+Gaur                             India.
+American Bison                   North America.
+Aurochs                          Lithuania.
+
+Yak                              Tartary and Hindustan.
+
+Musk Ox                          North America.
+Zamouse, or Bush Cow             Gambia, Sierra Leone.
+Banteng                          Island of Java.
+Gyall                            India.
+
+Gayal                            India.
+Sanga, or Galla Ox               Abyssinia.
+Zebu--Brahmin Ox                 Southern Asia, Eastern Africa.
+Domestic Ox                      Generally diffused.
+
+
+AND MODE OF LIFE.
+
+Mode of Life.
+
+Partial to water and mud, swampy localities.
+
+Semi-aquatic in its habits,--sometimes called the Water Buffalo.
+
+Fond of wallowing in mire, and swims well.
+
+Lives much in the water, and feeds on aquatic plants.
+Ranges in mountain forests, and feeds on leaves and buds of trees.
+Migratory in its habits--fond of bathing in marshy swamps.
+Lives chiefly on the woody banks of rivers--feeds on bark of trees,
+  lichens, and herbaceous plants.
+Feeds on the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and
+  bleak plains.
+Lives chiefly on rocky mountains.
+
+
+
+Delights in the deepest jungles--feeds on leaves and shoots of
+brushwood.
+Lives entirely on woody-mountains--feeds on shoots and shrubs.
+Half domesticated.
+Domesticated, and artificially fed.
+So completely domesticated, as to be subject to an endless variety of
+diseases, and generally requires medical attendance.
+
+
+THE INDEFINITE DEFINITIONS OF COL. HAMILTON SMITH.
+
+On commencing this Monograph of the _Genus Bos_, I entertained the
+confident expectation, that in the voluminous work of Cuvier's 'Animal
+Kingdom,' translated and enlarged by Griffith and others, I should find
+all that related to generic and specific distinction so clearly
+exhibited, and so systematically arranged, that I should have no
+hesitation in adopting the classification there set forth, and no
+difficulty in determining the place of any new species or variety. With
+this expectation I diligently studied that portion of Col. H. Smith's
+volume on the Ruminantia, which treat of the _Genus Bos_, and I here
+subjoin (verbatim) the generic and subgeneric characters there given of
+that Genus, by which it will be seen how far they fall short of the
+clearness and precision which are indispensable to a scientific work.
+
+
+GENERIC CHARACTERS.
+
+"_Genus BOS._--Skull very strong, dense about the frontals, which are
+convex, nearly flat, or concave; horns invariably occupying the crest,
+projecting at first laterally; osseous nucleus throughout porous, even
+cellular; muzzle _invariably broad_, naked, moist, _black_; ears, _in
+general_, _middle sized_; body _long_; legs _solid_; stature _large_."
+
+Generic characters should be such as will apply to every species in the
+genus; they should likewise be such as will distinguish the genus
+described from every other genus. From such observations as I have been
+enabled to make, the five last-mentioned characters do not appear to
+accord with either of these conditions.
+
+1st. The muzzle is stated to be _black_; but in the Yak, and in domestic
+cattle (as may be observed by any one), the muzzle is very frequently
+_white_; and granting that it was invariably black, other genera of the
+ruminantia have the muzzle black: and therefore it cannot be said to be
+a distinguishing mark of the _Genus Bos_.
+
+2d. The ears are stated to be _in general middle-sized_. To pass over
+the extreme vagueness of the terms "_in general_" and "_middle-sized_,"
+I may state that having measured the ears of several species, I find
+them to be of all lengths, varying from 5 inches to nearly 18 inches.
+Such a term as "_middle-sized_" may be applied "_in general_" to the
+ears of a vast variety of animals; and therefore it cannot be applied
+_in particular_ to the _Genus Bos_.
+
+3d. The body is said to be _long_. They are, indeed, of all lengths,
+from 4 ft. 6 in. to nearly 11 ft. Can the term long be equally
+applicable to animals of such different lengths?
+
+4th. The legs are said to be _solid_. In some species the legs are very
+slender, as the Zebu, Manilla Buffalo, and Domestic Ox.
+
+5th. The stature is said to be _large_. From actual measurement I find
+the stature to vary from 2 ft. 8 in. to upwards of 6 ft.; the smaller
+species weighing not more than 100 lbs., the larger weighing as much as
+2000 lbs. Can the term large be equally applicable to animals of such
+different sizes?
+
+
+SUB-GENERIC CHARACTERS.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ I.--_Bubalus._--Animals low in proportion to their bulk;
+limbs very solid; head large, forehead narrow, very strong, convex;
+chaffron straight; muzzle square, horns lying flat, or bending laterally
+with a certain direction to the rear; eyes large; ears mostly
+funnel-shaped; no hunch; a small dewlap; _female udder with four mammæ_;
+_tail long_; slender."
+
+This sub-genus comprises Cape Buffalo, Pegasse, Arnee, Domestic Buffalo.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ II.--BISON.--Forehead slightly arched, much broader than
+high; horns placed before the salient line of the frontal crest; the
+plane of the occiput forming an obtuse angle with the forehead and
+semicircular in shape; fourteen or fifteen pairs of ribs; the shoulders
+rather elevated; the _tail shorter_; the legs more slender; the tongue
+blue; the hair soft and woolly."
+
+This sub-genus comprises Aurochs, Gaur, American Bison, Yak, Gayal.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ III.--TAURUS.--Forehead square from the orbits to the
+occipital crest, somewhat concave, not convex, or arched as in the
+former; the horns rising from the sides of the salient edge or crest of
+the frontals; the plane of the occiput forming an acute angle with the
+frontal, and of quadrangular form; the curve of the horns outwards,
+upwards, and forwards; no mane; a deep dewlap; _thirteen pairs of ribs_;
+_tail long_; _udder four teats in a square_."
+
+This sub-genus comprises the Urus and the Domestic Ox.
+
+Subgeneric characters should be such as will clearly distinguish the
+animals of one sub-genus from those of another. But here we have set
+down, in the sub-genus Bubalus, tail _long_, slender; in the sub-genus
+Taurus, tail _long_; and although the epithet slender is not added in
+the latter case, yet in truth it ought to be, as the tail of Taurus is
+quite as slender as that of Bubalus.
+
+The udder of Bubalus is said to have four mammæ; they are not stated to
+be in a square, but, on examination, I find they are so; the udder of
+Taurus has likewise four teats in a square.
+
+Thirteen pairs of ribs are set down as a distinguishing character of the
+sub-genus Taurus; but the Cape Buffalo, Domestic Buffalo, and the
+Manilla Buffalo (in the sub-genus Bubalus), and the Gaur (in the
+sub-genus Bison), all possess thirteen pairs of ribs.
+
+In the sub-genus Bison the tail is said to be _shorter_ than the tail of
+Bubalus; but on subjecting them to the infallible test of feet and
+inches, I find the tails of the Aurochs, Gaur, Yak, and Gayal, to be
+decidedly _longer_ than those of the Cape or the Manilla Buffalo.
+
+The legs of Bisons are stated to be more slender than those of
+Buffaloes,--the reverse of this is the fact in the instances which I
+have had an opportunity of observing.
+
+
+SPECIFIC DETAILS.
+
+The details of a system of scientific classification should be precise,
+methodical, and consistent; but the method observed by Col. Smith, in
+describing the lengths of animals, can scarcely be called either precise
+or consistent; for example, he states:--
+
+1st. That the Cape Buffalo is nine feet from _nose to ROOT of tail_.
+
+2d. That the Gaur is twelve feet long _to the END of tail_.
+
+3d. That the Aurochs is ten feet three inches _from nose to tail_.
+
+4th. That the Domestic Buffalo is eight feet six inches long, _without
+mentioning either nose or tail_.
+
+In none of these cases can we be even proximately certain of the length
+of the animal.
+
+In the first instance we may err to the amount of the length of the
+head; as it is not stated whether the measure was taken when the head
+was extended in a line with the back, or in a position at right angles
+with the back, or in any intermediate position.
+
+The following outline will illustrate this:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is obvious that the length of a line from the nose to the tail will
+vary according to the different positions of the head of the animal.
+
+In the second instance (taking it for granted that the measure was taken
+from the nose), the same difficulty exists with respect to the head, and
+another difficulty presents itself in our being left to guess the length
+of the tail, which might be eighteen inches, or it might be four feet.
+
+In the third instance, the same difficulty exists with respect to the
+head, and the difficulty is further complicated by our being left to
+guess whether the ROOT or the END of the tail is meant.
+
+In the fourth we are completely "_at sea_."
+
+The true value of these characteristic distinctions, definitions, or
+descriptions, are left to the appreciation of the judicious reader.
+Colonel Smith may doubtless be, what he has been styled, "an
+indefatigable naturalist," and "in general" an exact one; but in this
+special instance of the _Genus Bos_, his warmest admirers must allow
+that his accuracy and precision have not kept pace with his industry.
+
+[Illustration: Hungarian Ox, _Bos Taurus_, from a specimen in the
+British Museum.]
+
+
+MR. SWAINSON'S TRANSCENDENTAL ATTEMPT AT CLASSIFICATION.
+
+The following very laboured attempt to arrange the various species of
+_Genus Bos_ into groups, according to the Quinary or Circular System of
+M'Leay, is from the pen of Mr. Swainson--the precise and fastidious
+Swainson--who, from the number and boldness of his hypothetical views in
+every department of Zoology, may be truly regarded as the beau-ideal of
+a speculative naturalist--one of those, in short, so well described by
+Swift, "whose chief art in division hath been to grow fond of some
+proper mystical number, which their imaginations have rendered sacred to
+a degree, that they force common reason to find room for it in every
+part of nature; _reducing_, _including_, and _adjusting_, every _genus_
+and _species_ within that compass, by coupling some against their wills,
+and banishing others at any rate."
+
+After describing the various members of the Bovine Family according to
+the Procrustean method of stretching and chopping, Mr. Swainson
+continues in his peculiarly dogmatic style "The types of form of the
+_Genus Bos_, above enumerated, _we shall now demonstrate_ to be a
+natural group. We have seen that the first represented by the _Bos
+Scoticus_, or Scotch Wild Ox, is an untameable savage race, which
+preserves, even in the domestication of a park, all that fierceness
+which the ancient writers attributed to the Wild Bulls of Britain and of
+the European Continent. Let those who imagine that the influence of
+civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment, will alter the
+natural instincts of animals, look to this as a palpable refutation of
+their doctrine. Where is that boasted power of man over nature? Where
+the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering protection? The _Bos
+Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was centuries ago, simply for this
+reason, that it is in accordance with an unalterable law of nature; a
+law by which one type in every circular group is to represent the worst
+passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or horror. In the _Urus_ we
+consequently have the type of the wild and untameable _Feræ_ among
+quadrupeds, the eagles among birds, and the innumerable analogies which
+all the subordinate groups of these two great divisions present.
+Following this is the typical Ox--a god among the ancients, and that
+animal above all others, which, from its vital importance to man, we
+should naturally expect such a nation as the ancient Egyptians would
+exalt above all others. It is, in short, the typical perfection of the
+whole order of Ruminants, and consequently represents the _Quadrumana_
+among quadrupeds, and the _Incessores_ among birds. The third type is no
+less beautiful; but it cannot be illustrated without going into details
+which it is not our present intention to make public: suffice it,
+however, to say, that in the prominent hump upon the shoulders we have a
+perfect representation of the Camel, one of the most striking types of
+the order, while it reminds us at the same time of the Buffalo, the
+genus _Acronatus_ among the large Antelopes, and numerous other
+representations of the same form. The fourth type is our _Bos Pusio_:
+here we find the horns, when present, remarkably small, but in many
+cases absent; and the size is diminutive to an extreme. These also are
+distinguishing marks of the groups it is to represent: the
+_Tenuirostres_ among birds, and the _Glires_, or mice, among quadrupeds,
+are the smallest of their respective classes; and both are typically
+distinguished by wanting all appendages to the head, either in the form
+of crests or horns. The fifth type is, perhaps, the most extraordinary
+of all; it should represent not only the order _Rasores_ among birds,
+but also the _Camelopardalis_ among ruminating quadrupeds. Hence we find
+that, in accordance with the first of these analogies, it is a peaceful
+domesticated race, and that it has horns of an unusually large size,
+even in its own group; while, at the same time, those horns have that
+peculiar structure which can only be traced in the Camelopardalis; they
+are covered with skin, which passes so imperceptibly to the horny state,
+that, as Captain Clapperton observes, "there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences and the other ends." The five leading types of
+quadrupeds and birds being now represented, and in precisely the same
+order, _we demonstrate_ the groups to be natural by the following
+table:--
+
+GENUS _BOS_--_the Natural Types._
+
+1. _Bos Scoticus._        Fierce, untameable.              FERÆ.             RAPTORES.
+
+2. ---- _Taurus._         Pre-eminently typical.           PRIMATES.         INCESSORES.
+
+                          {Appendages on the head}
+3. ---- _Dermaceros._     {greatly developed     }         UNGULATA.         RASORES.
+
+                          {Stature remarkably    }
+4. ----  _Pusio._         {small.                }         GLIRES.           GRALLATORES.
+
+                          {Fore-part of the shoulders}
+5. ----  _Thersites._     {elevated              }         CETACEA.          NATATORES.
+
+In regard to the last type, the analogies can only be traced through
+the animals or types of other groups; but should the habits of
+_Thersites_ lead it to frequent the water (like the Buffaloes) more than
+any other species of true oxen--a supposition highly probable--the
+analogy to the _Cetacea_ and the _Natatores_ would be direct. When we
+find in all the other four types such a surprising representation of the
+same peculiarities, we are justified in believing that want of
+information alone prevents this analogy from being so complete as the
+others. These analogies, in point of fact, may be traced through the
+whole of the principal groups in this order, the most important, and the
+most numerous of ungulated animals." Our luminous classifier then
+triumphantly winds up:--"_Having now demonstrated_, in one of the very
+lowest groups of quadrupeds, the validity of those principles of natural
+classification we have so often illustrated," &c.
+
+Let us not be confounded with high-sounding terms; let us rather
+endeavour to ascertain the meaning of them, if indeed they possess a
+meaning. Here we have, under the head of "_Genus_ Bos--the Natural
+Types"--(see p. 178), certain words arranged in regular columns, which,
+at a first glance, appear as though they were intended to bear some
+relation to each other. But let us ask the most ordinary observer, or
+the most profound observer, or the observer of any grade or shade
+between these two extremes, what resemblance--what relation--what
+analogy--can be discovered between an ordinary bull (_Taurus_) and a
+man, a monkey, or a bat (_Primates_); or between Taurus and the
+_Incessores_ (Perching Birds)? Or between Buffaloes, whose horns are
+partially covered with skin (_Dermaceros_), and cocks and hens
+(_Rasores_)? Can any one say wherein consists the similarity between a
+dwarf Zebu and a Mouse, or a Flamingo? Yet this is the material of
+which the columns are composed.
+
+But one of the most unhappy of Mr. Swainson's speculations is that
+wherein he represents the _Bos Scoticus_, or wild ox, as the type of "an
+_untameable savage_ race, which preserves, even in the domestication of
+a park, all that fierceness which the ancient writers attributed to the
+wild bulls of Britain and the European continent. Let those who imagine
+that the influence of civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment,
+will alter the natural instinct of animals, look to this as a palpable
+refutation of their doctrine. [!] Where is that boasted power of man
+over nature? Where the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering
+protection? [!!] The _Bos Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was
+centuries ago, simply for this reason, that it is in accordance with an
+unalterable law of nature; a law by which one type in every group is to
+represent the worst passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or
+horror." [!!!]
+
+Who would for a moment imagine that all this grandiloquence is bestowed
+upon an animal, which is so far from being fierce and untameable, that
+young ones, taken and reared with ordinary cattle, become, even in the
+first generation, as tame as domestic animals? [See account of
+Chillingham White Cattle, p. 140.]
+
+For a more complete satisfaction of his thought, the reader is referred
+to Mr. Swainson's volume "On the Natural History and Classification of
+Quadrupeds," p. 274, where he has given us an incoherent abstract of
+Colonel Smith's article on the _Bovinæ_, without, however, making the
+least attempt to verify the statements there recorded. The descriptions
+and characteristics are avowedly Colonel Smith's; but, in justice to
+the latter gentleman, it must be added, that the disquisitions on the
+circular succession of forms, and the analogical relations, are entirely
+Mr. Swainson's.
+
+
+ON SPECIES AND VARIETY.
+
+What constitutes a species? And how far do the limits of varieties
+extend? Cuvier, who is, perhaps, the best authority we can have upon
+this subject, in defining a species, says:--_A species comprehends all
+the individuals which descend from each other or from a common
+parentage, and those which resemble them as much as they do each other._
+Thus, the different races which they have generated from them are
+considered as varieties but of one species. Our observations, therefore,
+respecting the differences between the ancestors and the descendants,
+are the only rules by which we can judge on this subject; all other
+considerations being merely hypothetical, and destitute of proof. Taking
+the word _variety_ in this limited sense, we observe that the
+differences which constitute this variety depend upon determinate
+circumstances, and that their extent increases in proportion to the
+intensity of the circumstances which occasion them.
+
+Upon these principles it is obvious, that the most superficial
+characters are the most variable. Thus colour depends much upon light;
+thickness of hair upon heat; size upon abundance of food, &c. In wild
+animals, however, these varieties are greatly limited by the natural
+habits of the animal, which does not willingly migrate from the places
+where it finds, in sufficient quantity, what is necessary for the
+support of its species, and does not even extend its haunts to any great
+distances, unless it also finds all these circumstances conjoined. Thus,
+although the Wolf and the Fox inhabit all the climates from the torrid
+to the frigid zone, we hardly find any other differences among them,
+through the whole of that vast space, than a little more or less beauty
+in their furs. The more savage animals, especially the carnivorous,
+being confined within narrower limits, vary still less; and the only
+difference between the Hyæna of Persia and that of Morocco, consists in
+a thicker or a thinner mane.
+
+Wild animals which subsist upon herbage, feel the influence of climate a
+little more extensively, because there is added to it the influence of
+food, both in regard to its abundance and its quality. Thus the
+Elephants of one forest are larger than those of another; their tusks
+also grow somewhat longer in places where their food may happen to be
+more favorable for the production of the substance of ivory. The same
+may take place in regard to the horns of Stags and Rein-deer. Besides,
+the species of herbivorous animals, in their wild state, seem more
+restrained from migrating and dispersing than the carnivorous species,
+being influenced both by climate, and by the kind of nourishment which
+they need.
+
+We never see, in a wild state, intermediate productions between the Hare
+and the Rabbit, between the Stag and the Doe, or between the Martin and
+the Weasel. Human artifice contrives to produce all these intermixtures
+of which the various species are susceptible, but which they would never
+produce if left to themselves.
+
+The degrees of these variations are proportional to the intensity of the
+causes that produce them, namely, the slavery or subjection under which
+these animals are to man. They do not proceed far in half-domesticated
+species.
+
+In the domesticated herbivorous quadrupeds, which man transports into
+all kinds of climates, and subjects to various kinds of management, both
+in regard to labour and nourishment, he procures certainly more
+considerable variations, but still they are all merely superficial:
+greater or less size; longer or shorter horns, or even the want of these
+entirely; a hump of fat, larger or smaller, on the shoulder; these form
+the chief differences among particular races of the _Bos Taurus_, or
+domestic Black Cattle; and these differences continue long in such
+breeds as have been transported to great distances from the countries in
+which they were originally produced, when proper care is taken to
+prevent crossing.
+
+Nature appears also to have guarded against the alterations of species
+which might proceed from mixture of breeds, by influencing the various
+species of animals with mutual aversion. Hence all the cunning and all
+the force that man is able to exert is necessary to accomplish such
+unions, even between species that have the nearest resemblance. And when
+the mule-breeds that are thus produced by these forced conjunctions
+happen to be fruitful, which is seldom the case, this fecundity never
+continues beyond a few generations, and would not probably proceed so
+far, without a continuance of the same causes which excited it at
+first.
+
+This being the case, it is quite clear that the fact of two animals
+producing an intermediate race is no proof whatever of their specific
+identity; for it is well known, and has been already alluded to, that
+several animals. Birds as well as Mammalia, produce offspring, and are
+nevertheless distinct, both as it regards anatomical structure and
+external form.
+
+Neither does it constitute the species identical if either or both the
+hybrids be even capable of fruitful intercourse with the original or
+parent species. Hamilton Smith goes so far as to say, that "if it even
+were proved that a prolific intermediate race exist, produced by the
+intermixture of both, it would not fully determine that both form only
+one original species: what forms a species, and what a variety, is as
+yet far from being well understood."
+
+It is, however, pretty generally agreed, that animals are of the same
+species, that is to say, have been derived from one common stock, when
+their offspring have the power, _inter se_, of indefinitely continuing
+their kind; and conversely, that animals of distinct species, or
+descendants of stocks originally different, cannot produce a mixed race
+which shall possess the capability of perpetuating itself.
+
+To conclude, it must be obvious, that permanent anatomical differences
+are the only true criteria of distinctions of species.
+
+
+THE BANTENG OF JAVA.
+
+_Bos Bantinger, or Bantiger. Bos Sondaicus?_
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above figure was drawn from a stuffed specimen in the British
+Museum. In colour, shape, and texture of horns, and apparent want of
+dewlap, it bears some resemblance to the Gaur; but in the skeleton of
+the Gaur the sacrum consists of _five_ vertebræ, and the tail of
+_nineteen_; while in the skeleton of the Banteng, the sacrum consists of
+but _four_ vertebræ, and the tail of _eighteen_.
+
+
+BRITISH DOMESTIC CATTLE.
+
+It does not come within the scope of the present work to give the
+varieties of Domestic Cattle; for these the reader is referred to the
+many excellent works already published on the subject. It will be
+sufficient in this place to notice a few interesting facts--statistical,
+anecdotal, &c.--in relation to their domestic history.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF COLOUR IN BREEDING.
+
+The following remarkable fact, respecting the colour of the offspring
+being influenced by that of the external objects surrounding the Cow at
+the time of copulation, is stated by John Boswell, of Balmuto and
+Kingcaussie, in an essay upon the breeding of Live Stock, communicated
+to the Highland Society in 1825. He says:--"One of the most intelligent
+breeders I have ever met with in Scotland, Mr. Mustard, an extensive
+farmer on Sir James Carnegie's Estate in Angus, told me a singular fact,
+with regard to what I have now stated. One of his cows happened to come
+into season while pasturing on a field which was bounded by that of one
+of his neighbours, out of which field an Ox jumped, and went with the
+Cow, until she was brought home to the Bull. The Ox was white with black
+spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession,
+nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the following
+spring was a black and white calf, _with horns_." Another fact, which
+shows the great care required in keeping pure this breed--(the Angus
+doddies)--is related of the Keillor Stock, where, two different seasons,
+a dairy cow of the Ayrshire breed, red and white, was allowed to pasture
+with the black doddies. In the first experiment, from pure black Bulls
+and Cows, there appeared _three_ red and white calves; and on the second
+trial, _two_ of the calves were of mixed colours. Since that time care
+has been taken to have almost every animal on the farm, down to the Pigs
+and Poultry of a black colour.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF THE MALE IN BREEDING.
+
+An ordinary Cow, and a Bull without horns, will produce a calf
+resembling the male in appearance and character, without horns and
+without that particular prominence of the transverse apophysis of the
+frontal bone. The milk of the female from this cross, also, proves the
+influence of the male: it has the peculiar qualities of the hornless
+breed--less abundant, containing less whey, but more cream and curd.
+
+
+GENERATIVE PRECOCITY.
+
+A Mr. Gordon relates the following singular instance of fecundity and
+early maturity in the Aberdeen Cattle. "On the 25th of Sept., 1805, a
+calf of five months old, of the small Aberdeenshire breed, happening to
+be put into an enclosure among other Cattle, admitted a male that was
+only one year old. In the month of June following, at the age of
+fourteen months, she brought forth a very fine calf, and in the Summer
+of 1807, another equally good. The first calf, after working in the
+Winter, Spring, and Summer of 1809, was killed in January, 1810, and
+weighed 6 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 16 _lb._ The second was killed December 16,
+1810, aged three years six months, and weighed exactly 7 _cwt._; and on
+Dec. 30, 1807, the mother, after having brought up these calves, was
+killed at the age of two years and eight months, and weighed 4 _cwt._ 1
+_qr._ the four quarters, sinking the offal."
+
+
+MILK.
+
+Cows are usually milked three times a day over the greatest part of
+Scotland, from the time of calving till the milk begins to dry up during
+the Winter season, when the Cows are for the most part in calf; nor is
+it found that they suffer by that practice in any degree: and it is the
+general opinion of all who adopt it, that nearly one third more milk is
+thus obtained than if they were milked only twice.
+
+A Cow, mentioned by Dr. Anderson in his 'Recreations,' (vol. v, p. 309,)
+was milked three times a day for ten years running, during the space of
+nine months, at least, every year; and was never seen, during all that
+period, but in very excellent order, although she had no other feeding
+than was given to the rest of the Cows, some of which were very low
+every winter, when they gave no milk at all.
+
+A farmer of the name of Watkinson had a Cow that, for seventeen years,
+gave him from ten to twenty quarts of milk every day; was in moderate
+condition when taken up, six months in fattening, and being then twenty
+years old, was sold for more than £18. Mr. John Holt, of Walton, in
+Lancashire, had a healthy Cow-calf presented to him, whose dam was in
+her thirty-second year, and could not be said to have been properly out
+of milk for the preceding fifteen years.
+
+Yorkshire Cows, which are those chiefly used in the London Dairies, give
+a very great quantity of milk. It is by no means uncommon for them, in
+the beginning of the Summer, to yield thirty quarts a day; there are
+rare instances of giving thirty-six quarts; but the average measure may
+be estimated at twenty-two or twenty-four quarts.
+
+[Illustration: Alderney Cow, after Howitt.]
+
+
+BUTTER.
+
+The Alderney Cow, considering its voracious appetite, yields very little
+milk; that milk, however, is of an extraordinary excellent quality, and
+gives more butter than can be obtained from the milk of any other cow.
+John Lawrence states that an Alderney Cow that had strayed on the
+premises of a friend of his, and remained there three weeks, made 19
+lbs. of butter each week; and the fact was held so extraordinary, as to
+be thought worthy of a memorandum in the parish books. The milk of the
+Alderney Cow fits her for the situation in which she is usually placed,
+and where the excellence of the article is regarded, and not the
+expense.
+
+Lord Hampden, of Glynde, had a cow which in the height of the season
+yielded ten pounds of butter and twelve pounds of cheese every week, and
+yet her quantity of milk rarely exceeded five gallons per day. The next
+year the same cow gave nine pounds and a half of butter per week for
+several weeks, and then for the rest of the summer between eight and
+nine pounds per week; and until the hard frost set in, seven pounds; and
+four pounds per week during the frost. Yet as a proof of the quality of
+the milk, she at no time gave more than five gallons in the day. To this
+may be added that, "four or five years before, the same person had a
+fine black Sussex Cow from Lord Gage, which also gave, in the height of
+the season, five gallons per day, but no more than five pounds of butter
+were ever made from it." This is accounted for in a singular way; for
+there is a common opinion in the east of Sussex, that "the milk of a
+black cow never gives so much butter as that of a red one."
+
+
+MR. YOUATT'S PHILOSOPHY OF RABIES, OR MADNESS.
+
+In treating of Rabies, Youatt says:--"When a rabid or mad dog is
+wandering about, labouring under an irrepressible disposition to bite,
+he seeks out first of all his own species; but if his road lies by a
+herd of cattle, he will attack the nearest to him; and if he meet with
+much resistance, he will set upon the whole herd, and bite as many as he
+can.... If the disease is to appear at all, it will be about the
+expiration of the _fifth week_, although there will be no absolute
+security in less than the double number of months," After making these
+remarks, our author reasons himself into the sapient conclusion, that
+the poison in all rabid animals resides in the saliva, and does not
+affect any other secretion. "The knowledge that the virus is confined to
+the saliva," he opines, "will settle a matter that has been the cause of
+considerable uneasiness. A cow has been observed to be ailing for a day
+or two, but she has been milked as usual; her milk has been mingled with
+the rest, and has been used for domestic purposes, as heretofore. She is
+at length discovered to be rabid. Is the family safe? Can the milk of a
+rabid cow be drunk with impunity? Yes, perfectly so, for the poison is
+confined to the saliva. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been
+eaten in days of ignorance, dressed in all manners of ways, but usually
+fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive against madness. Some
+miscreants have sent the flesh of rabid cattle to the market, and _it
+has been eaten without harm_; and so, although not very pleasant to
+think about, _the milk of the rabid cow may be drunk without the
+slightest danger_."
+
+Is it, indeed, possible for any of the secretions of an animal to be in
+a healthy state, and fit for human food, after it has had the virus of a
+rabid dog circulating in its system for at least _five weeks_?
+Furthermore, is it consistent in Mr. Youatt to call those _miscreants_
+who send the flesh of rabid cattle to market, when he acknowledges, in
+the same breathy that it can be eaten without harm?
+
+According to Mr. Youatt's philosophy, a cow in a rabid state is actually
+as good as a cow in a healthy state; for its milk may be drunk with
+impunity--the family is _perfectly safe_ who uses it for domestic
+purposes; and, moreover, _the flesh of rabid cattle may be eaten without
+harm_. What more can be predicated of cattle in the purest state of
+health?
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+The number of cattle in Great Britain was estimated by Youatt (1838) at
+upwards of eight millions. 160,000 head of cattle are annually sold in
+Smithfield alone, without including calves, or the _dead market_, i.e.,
+the carcases, sent up from various parts of the country. 1,200,000
+sheep, 36,000 pigs, and 18,000 calves, are also sent to Smithfield in
+the course of a year.
+
+A tenth part of the sheep and lambs die annually of disease (more than
+4,000,000 perished by the rot alone in the winter of 1829-30), and at
+least a fifteenth part of the neat cattle are destroyed by inflammatory
+fever and milk fever, red water, hoose, and diarrhoea.
+
+If a tithe of the sheep and lambs, and a fifteenth of the neat cattle
+_die of disease_, what proportion are _slaughtered and sent to market in
+the earlier stages of disease_; and, in fact, in all the stages
+antecedent to those which are the immediate cause of death?
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
+
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Delineations of the Ox Tribe
+       The Natural History of Bulls, Bisons, and Buffaloes.
+              Exhibiting all the Known Species and the More Remarkable
+              Varieties of the Genus Bos.
+
+Author: George Vasey
+
+Illustrator: George Vasey
+
+Release Date: February 3, 2009 [EBook #27975]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DELINEATIONS OF THE OX TRIBE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<h1>DELINEATIONS</h1>
+
+<h4>OF</h4>
+
+<h1>THE OX TRIBE.</h1>
+
+<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 461px;">
+<img src="images/illus-004.jpg" width="461" height="600" alt="THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, v. p. 120." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, <i>v.</i> p. 120.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>DELINEATIONS</h2>
+
+<h3>OF</h3>
+
+<h1>THE OX TRIBE;</h1>
+
+<h4>OR,</h4>
+
+<h3>THE NATURAL HISTORY OF</h3>
+
+<h2>BULLS, BISONS, AND BUFFALOES.</h2>
+
+<h4>EXHIBITING</h4>
+
+<h3>ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES</h3>
+
+<h3>AND THE MORE REMARKABLE VARIETIES</h3>
+
+<h4>OF</h4>
+
+<h2>THE GENUS BOS.</h2>
+
+<h2>BY GEORGE VASEY.</h2>
+
+<h4>ILLUSTRATED BY 72 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, BY THE AUTHOR.</h4>
+
+<p class="center">
+LONDON:<br />
+PUBLISHED BY G. BIGGS, 421, STRAND.<br />
+1851.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<p class="center">
+TO<br />
+<br />
+WILLIAM YARRELL, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,<br />
+<br />
+WHOSE SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON ZOOLOGY<br />
+<br />
+PLACE HIM IN THE FIRST RANK OF NATURALISTS;<br />
+<br />
+AND, MOREOVER,<br />
+<br />
+WHOSE UNOSTENTATIOUS KINDNESS IN CONSULTING THE FEELINGS<br />
+<br />
+AND ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS<br />
+<br />
+IS RARELY EQUALLED,<br />
+<br />
+This Volume is inscribed,<br />
+<br />
+BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND AND ADMIRER,<br />
+<br />
+THE AUTHOR.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The primary object of the present work, is to give as correct and
+comprehensive a view of the animals composing the Ox Tribe, as the
+present state of our knowledge will admit, accompanied by authentic
+figures of all the known species and the more remarkable varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Although this genus (comprising all those Ruminants called Buffaloes,
+Bisons, and Oxen generally,) is as distinct and well characterised as
+any other genus in the animal kingdom, yet the facts which are at
+present known respecting the various species which compose it, are not
+sufficiently numerous to enable the naturalist to divide them into
+sub-genera. This is abundantly proved by the unsuccessful result of
+those attempts which have already been made to arrange them into minor
+groups. Nor can we wonder at this want of success, when we consider that
+even many of the species usually regarded as distinct are by no means
+clearly defined.</p>
+
+<p>The second object, therefore, of this treatise, is (by bringing into
+juxta-position all the most important facts concerning the various
+individual specimens which have been described, and by adding several
+other facts of importance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> which have not hitherto been noticed,) to
+enable the naturalist to define, more correctly than has yet been done,
+the peculiarities of each species.</p>
+
+<p>A third object is to direct the attention of travellers more
+particularly to this subject; in order that, by their exertions, our
+information upon this class of animals may be rendered more complete.</p>
+
+<p>A new and important feature in the present Monograph, is the
+introduction of a Table of the Number of Vertebr&aelig;, carefully constructed
+from an examination of the actual skeletons, by which will be seen at a
+glance the principal osteological differences of species which have
+hitherto been confounded with each other. A Table of the Periods of
+Gestation is likewise added, which presents some equally interesting
+results.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the descriptions have been verified by a reference to the
+living animals, seven specimens of which are at present (1847) in the
+Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. The several Museums in
+the Metropolis have likewise been consulted with advantage.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to Judge <span class="smcap">Furnam</span>, of the United States, for some original
+information respecting the American Bison; and also to the late Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Cole</span>, who was forty years park-keeper at Chillingham, for answers to
+several questions which I proposed to him on the subject of the
+Chillingham Cattle.</p>
+
+<p>I beg to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. <span class="smcap">Catlin</span> for kindly allowing me,
+not only to make extracts, but also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> to copy some of the outlines from
+his 'Letters and Notes on the North American Indians,' a work which I do
+not hesitate to pronounce one of the most curious and interesting which
+the present century has produced,&mdash;whether we regard the graphic merits
+of its literary or pictorial department.</p>
+
+<p>To Professor <span class="smcap">Owen</span> and the Officers of the Royal College of Surgeons, to
+the Officers of the Zoological Society, and to the Officers of the
+Zoological Department of the British Museum, my sincere thanks are due
+for the kindness and promptness with which every information has been
+given, and every facility afforded to my inquiries and investigations.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the engraved figures, I have striven to produce correct
+delineations of form and texture, rather than to make pretty pictures by
+sacrificing truth and nature for the sake of ideal beauty and artistic
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot conclude this Preface without expressing my thanks to Messrs.
+<span class="smcap">Adlard</span> for the first-rate style in which this volume has been printed;
+particularly for the successful manner in which the impressions of the
+engravings have been produced, superior, in general, to India-proof
+impressions.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>King Street, Camden Town;</i><br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>May, 1851.</i><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ADDENDUM.</h2>
+
+<h3>PENNANT&mdash;BUFFON&mdash;GOLDSMITH&mdash;BEWICK&mdash;BINGLEY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In addition to the critical remarks on the writings of others, on this
+subject, which the reader will find in the following pages, I have
+further to observe that, although Pennant and Buffon have held a very
+high character, for many years, as scientific naturalists, the portion
+of their works which treats of the <i>Genus Bos</i>, appears to have been the
+result of the most careless and superficial observation. With the
+exception of the facts and observations furnished by such men as
+Daubenton and Pallas, Buffon's works are little more than flimsy
+speculations. As to Pennant's history of the Ox Tribe, it is calculated
+rather to bewilder than to inform; it is, in fact, an incoherent mass of
+dubious statements, huddled together in a most inextricable confusion:
+as a piece of Natural History it is absolutely worse than nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith, Bewick, and Bingley, three of our most popular writers on
+Natural History, appear to have done little more than compile from
+Pennant and Buffon, and consequently are but little deserving of credit.
+These strictures apply exclusively to such portions of their works as
+relate to the Ox Tribe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">Page</span><br />
+<br />
+Introduction                                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span><br />
+<br />
+American Bison                                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Aurochs                                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Yak                                               <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gyall                                             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gayal                                             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Domestic Gayal                                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Jungly Gau                                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Buffalo                                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Italian Buffalo                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Manilla Buffalo                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Condore Buffalo                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cape Buffalo                                      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pegasse                                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Gaur                                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Arnee                                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Zamouse                                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Musk Ox                                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Galla Ox                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Zebu, or Brahmin Bull                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Backeley Ox                                      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></span><br />
+<br />
+African Bull                                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chillingham Cattle                               <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Kyloe, or Highland Ox                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Table of the Number of Vertebr&aelig;                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Table of the Periods of Gestation                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_153'>153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Note on the Skeleton of the American Bison       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+APPENDIX.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="tocnum">Page</span><br />
+<br />
+Free Martin                                      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Short-nosed Ox                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
+<br />
+On the utility of the Ox Tribe to Mankind        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Account of Alpine Cowherds<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;Notice of Ranz des Vaches <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></span></span><br />
+<br />
+Table of Habitat                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></span><br />
+<br />
+---- Mode of Life                                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_169'>169</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Indefinite Definitions of Col. H. Smith          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mr. Swainson's Transcendental Attempt at Classification  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_176'>176</a></span><br />
+<br />
+On Species and Variety                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Banteng (<i>Bos Bantiger</i>)                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
+<br />
+British Domestic Cattle                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_186'>186</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Influence of Colour in Breeding                   <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_186">ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Influence of Male in Breeding                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Generative Precocity                              <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_187">ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Milk                                             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Butter                                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mr. Youatt's Philosophy of Rabies                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_190'>190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Statistics                                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_192'>192</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.</h2>
+
+<h4>(<i>The Engravings not otherwise acknowledged are from original
+Drawings.</i>)</h4>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class="tocnum">Page</span><br />
+<br />
+1. Frontispiece.&mdash;The Sangu, or Abyssinian Ox       <span class="tocnum"><a href="#front">i</a></span><br />
+<br />
+2. Stomach of Manilla Buffalo                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span><br />
+<br />
+3. Gastro-duct (&OElig;sophagean Canal), after Flourens          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></span><br />
+<br />
+4. Stomach of a young Calf                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></span><br />
+<br />
+5. Stomach of a full-grown Cow                               <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></span><br />
+<br />
+6. Skull of Domestic Ox                                      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></span><br />
+<br />
+7. Skeleton of Domestic Ox                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></span><br />
+<br />
+8. American Bison                                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></span><br />
+<br />
+9. Young Female Bison                                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></span><br />
+<br />
+10. Wounded Bison                                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_24'>24</a></span><br />
+<br />
+11. Indian shooting a Bison                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span><br />
+<br />
+12. Bison surrounded by Wolves                               <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br />
+<br />
+13. Bison Calf, after Cuvier                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></span><br />
+<br />
+14. Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></span><br />
+<br />
+15. Head of young Male Bison                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br />
+<br />
+16. Aurochs, or European Bison                               <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></span><br />
+<br />
+17. Yak, from Asiatic Transactions                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+18. Yak, from Oriental Annual                                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></span><br />
+<br />
+19. Gyall (<i>Bos Frontalis</i>)                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></span><br />
+<br />
+20. Head of Gyall                                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br />
+<br />
+21. Gayal, from Asiatic Transactions                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></span><br />
+<br />
+22. Head of Asseel Gayal                                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
+<br />
+23. Domestic Gayal                                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
+<br />
+24. Skull of Domestic Gayal                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></span><br />
+<br />
+25. Occipital View of the same Skull                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_69'>ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span>26. Head of Domestic Gayal    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_69'>ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+27. Jungly Gau, after Cuvier                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></span><br />
+<br />
+28. Syrian Ox, anon.                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br />
+<br />
+29. Italian Buffalo&mdash;Brandt and Ratzeburg                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></span><br />
+<br />
+30. Herefordshire Cow, after Howitt                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span><br />
+<br />
+31. Manilla Buffalo                                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></span><br />
+<br />
+32. Outlines of Buffaloes Backs                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></span><br />
+<br />
+33. Head of Manilla Buffalo                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br />
+<br />
+34. Pulo Condore Buffalo                                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></span><br />
+<br />
+35. Short-horned Bull, after Howitt                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></span><br />
+<br />
+36. Cape Buffalo                                             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></span><br />
+<br />
+37. Young Cape Buffalo, after Col. Smith                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br />
+<br />
+38. Head of Cape Buffalo                                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></span><br />
+<br />
+39. Pegasse, from a Drawing in the Berlin Library            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></span><br />
+<br />
+40. Horns of Cape Buffalo                                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></span><br />
+<br />
+41. Gaur, from Specimen in British Museum                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></span><br />
+<br />
+42. Horns of Gaur, Edin. Phil. Trans.                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></span><br />
+<br />
+43. Head of Gaur                                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></span><br />
+<br />
+44. Arnee, from Shaw's Zoology                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_105'>105</a></span><br />
+<br />
+45. Horns of Young Arnee, from 'The Bee'                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<br />
+46. Horns of Arnee, from Mus. Coll. Surg.                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_108'>108</a></span><br />
+<br />
+47. Horns of Arnee, from British Museum                      <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_108'>ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+48. Arnee from Indian Painting                              <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span><br />
+<br />
+49. Zamouse, or Bush Cow                                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<br />
+50. Head of Zamouse                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br />
+<br />
+51. Musk Ox                                                 <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></span><br />
+<br />
+52. Foot of Musk Ox, Griff., Cuv.                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></span><br />
+<br />
+53. Head of Musk Ox                                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br />
+<br />
+54. Horns of Galla Ox, Mus. Coll. Surg.                     <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></span><br />
+<br />
+55. Horns of Hungarian Ox, Brit. Mus.                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span><br />
+<br />
+56. Brahmin Bull, Harvey, Zool. Gar.                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></span><br />
+<br />
+57. Zebu (var. &#946;), after Cuvier                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></span><br />
+<br />
+58. Zebus (var. &#947;) and Car, anon.                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br />
+<br />
+59. Zebu (var. &#948;), anon.                           <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span><br />
+<br />
+60. African Bull, Harvey                                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br />
+<br />
+61. Eyes of African Bull, Harvey                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
+<br />
+62. Lateral Hoofs of African Bull, Harvey                    <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_139'>ib.</a></span><br />
+<br />
+63. Dewlap of African Bull, Harvey                          <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></span><br />
+<br />
+64. Chillingham Bull                                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>65. Heads of Chillingham Cattle                             <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></span><br />
+<br />
+66. Kyloe, or Highland Ox, Howitt                                <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span><br />
+<br />
+67. Free Martin, Hunter's Animal Economy                         <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_156'>156</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skull of Domestic Ox, (repetition of fig. 6)   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></span></span><br />
+<br />
+68. Skull of Short-nosed Ox of the Pampas                        <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></span><br />
+<br />
+69. Outlines of Manilla Buffalo                                  <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span><br />
+<br />
+70. Hungarian Ox, from British Museum                            <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></span><br />
+<br />
+71. Banteng, from a Specimen in Brit. Mus.                       <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></span><br />
+<br />
+72. Alderney Cow, after Howitt                                   <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_189'>189</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Ruminantia is the term used by naturalists to designate those
+mammiferous quadrupeds which chew the cud; or, in other words, which
+swallow their food, in the first instance, with a very slight
+mastication, and afterwards regurgitate it, in order that it may undergo
+a second and more complete mastication: this second operation is called
+ruminating, or chewing the cud. The order of animals which possess this
+peculiarity, is divided into nine groups or genera, namely:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Camels.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Llamas.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Musks.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Deer.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Giraffes.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Antelopes.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Goats.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Sheep.</span><br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Oxen.</span><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The last named forms the subject of the following pages, and is called,
+in zoological language, the <i>Genus Bos</i>, in popular language, the <span class="smcap">Ox
+Tribe</span>.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting occupations which the wide field of Zoology
+offers to the naturalist, is the investigation of those remarkable
+adaptations of organs to functions, and of these again to the
+necessities and well-being of the entire animal. Nor does it in the
+least diminish our interest in the investigation of individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+adaptations, or our admiration on becoming acquainted with them, that we
+know, <i>&agrave; priori</i>, this universal truth, that all the constituents of
+every organised body, be that organisation what it may, are invariably
+adapted, in the most perfect manner, to each other, and to the whole.</p>
+
+<p>It is by a knowledge of this exact harmony in the animal economy, that
+the comparative anatomist can determine, with almost unerring precision,
+the genus, or even species of an animal, by an examination of any
+important part of its organisation, as the teeth, stomach, bones, or
+extremities. In some cases, a single bone, or even the fragment of a
+bone, is sufficient to convey an idea of the entire animal to which it
+belonged.</p>
+
+<p>In illustration of this:&mdash;if the viscera of an animal are so organised
+as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, we find that the
+jaws are so contracted as to fit them for devouring prey; the claws for
+seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its
+flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing
+and overtaking it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a
+distance. Moreover, the brain of the animal is also endowed with
+instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to
+catch its necessary prey.</p>
+
+<p>Again, we are well aware that all <i>hoofed</i> animals must necessarily be
+herbivorous, or vegetable feeders, because they are possessed of no
+means of seizing prey. It is also evident, having no other use for their
+fore-legs than to support their bodies, that they have no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> occasion for
+a shoulder so vigorously organised as that of carnivorous animals; owing
+to which they have no clavicles, and their shoulder-blades are
+proportionally narrow. Having also no occasion to turn their forearms,
+their radius is joined by ossification to the ulna, or is at least
+articulated by gynglymus with the humerus. Their food being entirely
+herbaceous, requires teeth with flat surfaces, on purpose to bruise the
+seeds and plants on which they feed. For this purpose, also, these
+surfaces require to be unequal, and are, consequently, composed of
+alternate perpendicular layers of enamel and softer bone. Teeth of this
+structure necessarily require horizontal motions to enable them to
+triturate, or grind down the herbaceous food; and accordingly the
+condyles of the jaw could not be formed into such confined joints as in
+the carnivorous animals, but must have a flattened form, correspondent
+to sockets in the temporal bones. The depressions, also, of the temporal
+bones, having smaller muscles to contain, are narrower and not so deep;
+and so on, throughout the whole organisation.</p>
+
+<p>The digestive system of the ruminantia is more complicated in structure
+than that of any other class of animals; and, owing to this complexity,
+and the consequent difficulty of investigating it, its nature and
+functions have been less perfectly understood.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach of the Manilla Buffalo, which will serve as an example of
+all the other species, is divided into four cavities or ventricles,
+which are usually (but improperly) considered as four distinct
+stomachs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following figure represents the form, relative size, and position of
+these four cavities when detached from the animal, and fully inflated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-020.jpg" width="450" height="368" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>a.</i> First cavity, called the paunch.<br />
+
+<i>b.</i> Second ditto, the honeycomb bag.<br />
+
+<i>c.</i> Third ditto, the many-plies.<br />
+
+<i>d.</i> Fourth ditto, the reed, or rennet.<br />
+
+<i>e.</i> A portion of the &oelig;sophagus, showing its connection with the
+stomach.<br />
+
+<i>f.</i> The pylorus, or opening into the intestines.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The interior of those cavities present some remarkable differences in
+point of structure, which, in the present work, can only be alluded to
+in a very general manner. For a particular account of the internal
+anatomy of these complicated organs, the reader is referred to the
+interesting work on 'Cattle,' by W. Youatt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The paunch is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent
+and hard papill&aelig;. The inner surface of the second cavity is very
+artificially divided into angular cells, giving it somewhat the
+appearance of honeycomb, whence its name "honeycomb-bag." The lining
+membrane of the third cavity forms numerous deep folds, lying upon each
+other like the leaves of a book, and beset with small hard tubercles.
+These folds vary in breadth in a regular alternate order, a narrow fold
+being placed between each of the broader ones. The fourth cavity is
+lined with a velvety mucous membrane disposed in longitudinal folds. It
+is this part of the stomach that furnishes the gastric juice, and,
+consequently, it is in this cavity that the proper digestion of the food
+takes place; it is here, also, that the milk taken by the calf is
+coagulated. The reed or fourth cavity of the calf's stomach retains its
+power of coagulating milk even after it has been taken from the animal.
+We have a familiar instance of its operation in the formation of curds
+and whey.</p>
+
+<p>The first and second cavities (<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>) are placed parallel (or on a
+level) with each other; and the &oelig;sophagus (<i>e</i>) opens, almost
+equally, into them both. On each side of the termination of the
+&oelig;sophagus there is a muscular ridge projecting, so that the two
+together form a sort of groove or channel, which opens almost equally
+into the second and third cavities (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>[As there has not been, as far as I am aware, any appropriate name given
+to this very remarkable part of the stomach of ruminants, I here take
+the liberty of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> suggesting the term <i>Gastro-duct</i>, by which epithet this
+muscular channel will be designated in the following pages.]</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<img src="images/illus-022.jpg" width="277" height="450" alt="View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens." title="" />
+<span class="caption">View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens.<br />
+
+<i>a.</i> A portion of the &oelig;sophagus cut open, showing the internal folds
+of the mucous membrane.<br />
+
+<i>b.</i> The opening of the &oelig;sophagus into the paunch.<br />
+
+<i>c, c.</i> The gastro-duct.<br />
+
+<i>d, d.</i> Muscular fibres passing completely round the edge of the
+gastro-duct, and forming a sort of sphincter.<br />
+
+<i>e.</i> The opening from the gastro-duct into the third cavity.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All these parts, namely, the &oelig;sophagus, the gastro-duct, and the
+first three cavities, not only communicate with each other, but they
+communicate by one common point, and that point is the gastro-duct. At
+the extremity of the third cavity, opposite to that at which the
+gastro-duct enters it, is an aperture which communicates immediately
+with the fourth cavity (<i>d</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Such is a very brief description of the complicated stomach of the Ox
+Tribe. In what manner the food passes through this curious arrangement
+of cavities is a problem which has engaged the attention of naturalists
+from a very early period. A host of great men might be cited who have
+failed to solve it. The French physiologist, M. Flourens, by his recent
+experiments, has done more than any or all of his predecessors to give
+clearness and precision to this intricate subject.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an abstract of the most important of his experiments:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A sheep having been fed on fresh trefoil, was killed and opened
+immediately,&mdash;that is, before the process of rumination had commenced.
+He (M. Flourens) found the greatest part of this herb (easily recognised
+by its leaves, which were still almost entire,) in the paunch; but he
+also found a certain portion (<i>une partie notable</i>) of those leaves (in
+the same unmasticated state) in the honeycomb. In the other two
+cavities, (the many-plies and the reed,) there was absolutely none.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>M. Flourens repeated this experiment a great many times, with herbs of
+various kinds, and the result was constantly the same: from which it
+appears, that herbaceous food, on its first deglutition, enters into the
+honeycomb, as well as into the paunch; the proportion, however, being
+considerably greater into the paunch than into the honeycomb. It appears
+equally certain that, in the first swallowing, this kind of food <i>only</i>
+enters into the first two cavities, and never passes into the many-plies
+or the reed.</p>
+
+<p>Having ascertained this fact with respect to <i>herbs</i>, he instituted a
+similar series of experiments, in which the animals were fed upon
+various kinds of <i>grain</i>,&mdash;rye, barley, wheat, oats, &amp;c. The animals
+were killed and examined, as in the former experiments, immediately
+after being fed. He found the greater part of the grain unmasticated
+(<i>tout entier</i>) in the paunch; but, as in the case of the herbs, he also
+found a certain portion, in the same unmasticated state, in the
+honeycomb. Neither the many-plies nor the reed contained a single grain.
+He repeated these experiments many times, and always with the same
+result.</p>
+
+<p>He then tried the effect of carrots cut into pieces, from half an inch
+to an inch in length; and in order that the animals might not chew them,
+he passed them into the pharynx by means of a tube. In one of these
+sheep he found all the morsels in the paunch; but, in the other two,
+some of the morsels were in the honeycomb, and some in the paunch. In
+all the three cases,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> there was none either in the many-plies or in the
+reed.</p>
+
+<p>He then proceeded to ascertain the effect of substances previously
+comminuted. He caused a certain quantity of carrots to be reduced to a
+kind of mash, with which he fed two sheep, and opened them immediately
+afterwards. He found the greatest part of this mash in the paunch and in
+the honeycomb; but he likewise found a certain portion in the many-plies
+and in the reed.</p>
+
+<p>His next experiments were made upon plain fluids. It is the opinion of
+the generality of authors on this subject that fluids pass immediately
+and <i>entirely</i>, along the gastro-duct, into the third and fourth
+cavities. But, according to the experiments of M. Flourens, this is not
+the case. He found, by making artificial openings (<i>anus artificiel</i>) in
+the stomachs of various sheep, that, as the animals drank, the fluid
+came directly out at the opening, in whatever cavity it might have been
+made.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear, then, that fluids pass, in part, into the first and second
+cavities, and, in part, into the third and fourth; and they pass as
+directly into the former as into the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the result of some experiments which M. Flourens made
+respecting the formation of the pellets.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, after the animal has swallowed a certain quantity of
+food the first time, successive pellets are formed of this food, which
+remount singly to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> mouth; secondly, there is a particular apparatus,
+which forms these pellets; and, thirdly, this apparatus consists of the
+two closed apertures (<i>ouvertures ferm&eacute;es</i>) of the many-plies, and of
+the &oelig;sophagus. Thus, the first two cavities, in contracting, push the
+aliments which they contain between the edges of the gastro-duct; and
+the gastro-duct, contracting in its turn, draws together the two
+openings of the many-plies and &oelig;sophagus; and these two openings,
+<i>closed</i> at this moment of their action, seize a portion of the food,
+detach it, and form it into a pellet.</p>
+
+<p>The chief utility of rumination, as applicable to all the
+animals in which it takes place, and the final purpose of this
+wonderfully-complicated function in the animal economy, are still
+imperfectly known; what has been already suggested on these points is
+quite unsatisfactory. Perrault and others supposed that it contributed
+to the security of those animals, which are at once voracious and timid,
+by showing the necessity of their remaining long employed in chewing in
+an open pasture; but the Indian buffalo ruminates, although it does not
+fly even from the lion; and the wild goat dwells in Alpine countries,
+which are inaccessible to beasts of prey.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be our ignorance of the cause or the object of rumination,
+it is certain that the nature of the food has a considerable influence
+in increasing or diminishing the necessity for the performance of that
+function. Thus, dry food requires to be entirely subjected to a second
+mastication, before it can pass into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> the many-plies and reed; whilst a
+great portion of that which is moist and succulent passes readily into
+those cavities, on its first descent into the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been shown by the illustration, (p. 4,) that the paunch
+is the largest of the four cavities; but this is not the case with the
+stomach of the young calf, which, while it continues to suck, does not
+ruminate; in this case the <i>reed</i>, which is the true digestive cavity,
+is actually larger than the other three taken together.</p>
+
+<p>When the calf begins to feed upon solid food, then it begins to
+ruminate; and as the quantity of solid food is increased, so does the
+size of the paunch increase, until it attains its full dimensions. In
+this latter case, the <i>paunch</i> has become considerably larger than the
+other three cavities taken together.</p>
+
+<p>A curious modification of an organ to adjust itself to the altered
+condition of the animal is beautifully shown in the instance now under
+consideration, the nature of which will be easily understood by a
+reference to the following diagrams, giving the exact relative
+proportions of the different cavities of the stomach to each other in
+the young calf and in the full-grown cow.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>[I am informed by Professor Symonds, of the Royal Veterinary
+College, that the two following sketches should be placed in
+the page so as to be viewed with the &oelig;sophagus to the right,
+and the pylorus to the left, instead of being, as they now are,
+at the top and the bottom; but as the present object is only to
+show the relative sizes of the different cavities, the error is
+not of much consequence.]</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The letters refer to the same parts in each figure: <i>a</i>, the paunch;
+<i>b</i>, the honeycomb bag; <i>c</i>, the many-plies; <i>d</i>, the reed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;">
+<img src="images/illus-028.jpg" width="447" height="450" alt="Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 556px;">
+<img src="images/illus-029.jpg" width="556" height="450" alt="Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>[These engravings, illustrative of the comparative sizes of the
+different stomachal cavities, are copied from original drawings taken
+from preparations of the stomachs which I made expressly for this
+purpose.]</p>
+
+<p>In all herbivorous animals, and especially those of the ruminating kind,
+the alimentary canal is of an enormous length; measuring in a full grown
+ox, as much as sixty yards. The paunch, in such an animal, will hold
+from fifteen to eighteen gallons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Blumenbach observes, that the process of rumination supposes a power of
+voluntary motion in the &oelig;sophagus; and, indeed, the influence of the
+will throughout the whole process is incontestible. It is not confined
+to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to
+circumstances, even when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly
+stated of some men, who have had the power of ruminating, that it was
+quite voluntary with them. Blumenbach knew four men who ruminated their
+food, and they assured him they had a real enjoyment in doing it: two of
+them had the power of doing or abstaining from it at their pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>A case of human rumination occurred some years ago at Bristol, the
+particulars of which are minutely recorded in the 'Philosophical
+Transactions.' It seemed, in this instance, to have been hereditary, as
+the father of the individual was subject to the same habit. The young
+man usually began to chew his food over again, within a quarter of an
+hour after eating. His ruminating after a full meal generally lasted
+about an hour and a half; nor could he sleep until this task was
+completed. The victuals, upon its return, tasted even more pleasantly
+than at first; and seemed as if it had been beaten up in a mortar. If he
+ate a variety of things, that which he ate first, came up again first;
+and if this return was interrupted for any length of time, it produced
+sickness and disorder; nor was he ever well till it returned. These
+singular cases are caused, no doubt, by some abnormal structure of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+interior of the stomach. No account has yet been given of the dissection
+of an individual so constituted.</p>
+
+<p>When cattle are at rest, or not employed in grazing or chewing the cud,
+they are observed frequently to lick themselves. By this means they
+raise up the hair of their coats, and often swallow it in considerable
+quantities. The hair thus swallowed gradually accumulates in the
+stomach, where it is formed into smooth round balls, which, in time,
+become invested with a hardish brown crust, composed, apparently, of
+inspissated mucilage, that, by continual friction from the coats of the
+stomach, becomes hard and glossy. It is generally in the paunch that
+these hair-balls are found. They vary in weight from a few ounces to six
+or seven pounds. Mr. Walton, author of an 'Account of the Peruvian
+Sheep,' makes mention of one that he had in his possession which weighed
+eight pounds and a quarter. This hair-ball had been taken from a cow
+that fed on the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was of a flat circular shape,
+and measured two feet eleven inches and a half in circumference; two
+feet eight inches round the flat part; nine inches diameter also in the
+flat part; eleven inches diameter in the cross part; and, on immersing
+it in water, it displaced upwards of eight quarts, which made its bulk
+correspond to 462 cubic inches. The digestive functions are sometimes
+seriously impaired by these concretions; a loss of appetite ensues, and
+general debility.</p>
+
+<p>In the Museum of Daniel Crosthwaite, there is a very extraordinary ball
+of hair, taken from a fatted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> calf only seven weeks old. The ball of
+hair, when taken out of the animal's stomach, and full of moisture,
+weighed eleven ounces. The calf was fatted by Daniel Thwaite, of Dale
+Head Hall, within six miles of Keswick; and slaughtered by John Fisher,
+butcher, Keswick. The calf was a particularly healthy animal.</p>
+
+<p>Before closing this brief sketch of the digestive apparatus of the ox,
+it may not be uninteresting to quote some of the quaint speculations of
+Nathaniel Grew on this subject, from his 'Comparative Anatomy of
+Stomachs and Guts.'</p>
+
+<p>He says: "The <i>voluntary</i> motion of the stomach is that only which
+accompanies rumination. That it is truly voluntary, is clear, from the
+command that ruminating animals have of that action. For this purpose it
+is, that the muscules of their venters are so thick and strong; and have
+several duplicatures, as the bases of those muscules, whereupon the
+stress of their motion lies. By means whereof they are able with ease to
+rowl and tumble any part of the meat from one cell of the same venter to
+another; or from one venter to another; or from thence into the gullet,
+whensoever they are minded to do it; so that the ejectment of the meat,
+in rumination, is a voluntary eructation.</p>
+
+<p>"The pointed knots, like little papill&aelig;, in the stomachs of ruminating
+beasts, are also of great use, namely, for the tasting of the meat. The
+inner membrane of the first three venters is fibrous (like the gustatory
+papill&aelig; of the tongue) and not glandulous; the fourth only being
+glandulous, as in a man. Of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the fibres of this membrane, and the
+nervous, are composed those pointed knots, which are, both in substance
+and shape, altogether like to those upon the tongue. Whence I doubt not,
+but that the said three ventricles, as they have a power of voluntary
+motion, so, likewise, that they are the seat of taste, and as truly the
+organs of that sense, as is the tongue itself."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-033.jpg" width="450" height="324" alt="Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal
+College of Surgeons." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal
+College of Surgeons.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mouth of animals of the Ox Tribe contains, when full, thirty-two
+teeth. Six molars in each jaw, above, below, and on either side; and
+eight incisors in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are no
+incisors; but instead thereof a fibrous and elastic pad, or cushion,
+which covers the convex extremity of the anterior maxillary bone, and
+which is well worthy of observation.</p>
+
+<p>The final cause of this pad (which stands in the place of upper incisor
+teeth) and the part it plays in the procuring of food, is thus described
+by Youatt. "The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the
+long and moveable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting
+teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and
+then by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage
+is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut.</p>
+
+<p>"The intention of this singular method of gathering the food, it is
+somewhat difficult satisfactorily to explain. It is peculiar to
+ruminants, who have one large stomach, in which the food is kept as a
+kind of reservoir until it is ready for the action of the other
+stomachs. While it is kept there it is in a state of maceration; it is
+exposed to the united influence of moisture and warmth, and the
+consequence of this is, that a species of decomposition sometimes
+commences, and a vast deal of gas is extricated.</p>
+
+<p>"That this should not take place in the natural process of retention and
+maceration, nature possibly established this mechanism for the first
+gathering of the food. It is impossible that half of that which is thus
+procured can be fairly cut through; part will be torn, and no little
+portion will be torn up by the roots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> If cattle are observed while they
+are grazing, it will be seen that many a root mingles with the blades of
+grass; and these roots have sometimes no inconsiderable quantity of
+earth about them. The beast, however, seems not to regard this; he eats
+on, dirt and all, until his paunch is filled.</p>
+
+<p>"It was designed that this earth should be gathered and swallowed; it
+was the meaning of this mechanism. A portion of absorbent earth is found
+in every soil, sufficient not only to prevent the evil that would result
+from occasional decomposition, by neutralizing the acid principle as
+rapidly as it is evolved; but, perhaps, by its presence, preventing that
+decomposition from taking place. Hence the eagerness with which
+stall-fed cattle, who have not the opportunity of plucking up the roots
+of grass, evince for mould. It is seldom that a cow will pass a
+newly-raised mole hill without nuzzling into it, and devouring a
+considerable portion of it. This is particularly the case where there is
+any degree of indigestion."</p>
+
+<p>The general disposition of animals of this class, when unmolested, is
+inoffensive and retiring; but when excited and irritated, they are
+fierce and courageous, and extremely dangerous to encounter. It is a
+remarkable circumstance in their history, that they are generally
+provoked to attack at the sight of red, or any very bright and glaring
+colour.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<img src="images/illus-036.jpg" width="700" height="456" alt="Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of
+Surgeons." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of
+Surgeons.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE OX TRIBE</h2>
+
+<h4>OR</h4>
+
+<h3><i>Genus</i> BOS,</h3>
+
+<p>Is distinguished from other Genera of Ruminantia by possessing hollow
+persistent horns, growing on a bony core; the tail long, terminated by a
+tuft of hair; and four inguinal mamm&aelig;.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE AMERICAN BISON.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Americanus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-037.jpg" width="600" height="398" alt="THE BISON. " title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE BISON. </span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The head of this animal is enormously large; larger, in fact, in
+proportion to the size of its body, than that of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> any other species of
+the Ox Tribe. This huge head is supported by very powerful muscles,
+attached to the projecting spinous processes of the dorsal vertebr&aelig;; and
+these muscles, together with a quantity of fat, constitute the hump on
+the shoulders. The horns are short, tapering, round, and very distant
+from each other, as are also the eyes, which are small and dark. The
+head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, to the knee-joints, are covered
+with long woolly hair, which likewise forms a beard under the mouth. The
+rest of the body is clothed only by short, close hair, which becomes
+rather woolly in the depth of winter. The colour is of a deep brown,
+nearly black on the head, and lighter about the neck and shoulders. The
+legs are firm and muscular; the tail is short, with a tuft at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The female is, in every respect, much smaller than the male; her horns
+are more slender, and the hair on her neck and shoulders is not so thick
+or long, nor the colour so dark. She brings forth in the spring, and
+rarely more than one. The calves continue to be suckled nearly twelve
+months, and follow the cows for a much longer period. It is said that
+the cows are not unfrequently followed by the calves of two, or even
+three, breeding seasons.</p>
+
+<p>These animals, both male and female, are timid and shy, notwithstanding
+their fierce appearance; unless they are wounded, or during the breeding
+season, when it is dangerous to approach. Their mode of attack is to
+throw down, by pushing, as they run with their head; then to crush, by
+trampling their enemy under their fore-feet, which, surmounted as they
+are, by their tremendous head and shoulder, form most effectual weapons
+of destruction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-039.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="Young female Bison, after Cuvier." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Young female Bison, after Cuvier.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following account, by Dr. Richardson, affords an instance of the
+danger to be apprehended from these powerful animals, when wounded, and
+not disabled: "Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's
+clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening,
+having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look
+for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull, which
+was galloping over an eminence; and as he was hastening forward to see
+if this shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He
+had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on the
+forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a
+remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued
+until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered
+powerless; he then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became
+senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> his companions, lying
+bathed in his blood, being gored in several places, and the Bison was
+couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack, had he shown
+any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of
+the injuries, but he died a few months afterwards. Many instances might
+be mentioned of the tenaciousness with which this animal pursues its
+revenge; and I have been told of a hunter being detained for many hours
+in a tree, by an old bull, which had taken its post below, to watch
+him."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-040.jpg" width="600" height="320" alt="Wounded Bison, after Catlin." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Wounded Bison, after Catlin.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The capture of the Bison is effected in various ways, chiefly with the
+rifle, and on foot. Their sense of smelling, however, is so acute, that
+they are extremely difficult of approach, scenting their enemy from
+afar, and retiring with the greatest precipitation. Care, therefore,
+must be taken to go against the wind, in which case they may be
+approached very near, being almost blinded by the long hair hanging over
+their foreheads. The hunters generally aim at the shoulder, which, if
+effectually hit,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> causes them to drop at once; otherwise they are
+infuriated, and become dangerous antagonists, as was proved in the
+result of Mr. M'Donald's adventure.</p>
+
+<p>When flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost
+to halt, or attempt to obstruct the progress of the main body, as the
+throng in the rear, still rushing onwards, the leaders must advance,
+although destruction await the movement. The Indians take advantage of
+this circumstance to destroy great quantities of this favorite game; and
+certainly no method could be resorted to more effectually destructive,
+nor could a more terrible devastation be produced, than that of forcing
+a numerous herd of these large animals to leap from the brink of a
+dreadful precipice upon a rocky and broken surface, a hundred feet
+below.</p>
+
+<p>When the Indians determine to destroy Bisons in this way, one of their
+swiftest-footed and most active young men is selected, who is disguised
+in a Bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns adjusted on his own
+head, so as to make the deception very complete; and thus accoutred, he
+stations himself between the Bison herd and some of the precipices,
+which often extend for several miles along the rivers. The Indians
+surround the herd as nearly as possible, when, at a given signal, they
+show themselves, and rush forward with loud yells. The animals being
+alarmed, and seeing no way open but in the direction of the disguised
+Indian, run towards him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the
+precipice, where he suddenly secures himself in some previously
+ascertained crevice. The foremost of the herd arrives at the
+brink,&mdash;there is no possibility of retreat, no chance of escape; the
+foremost may, for an instant, shrink with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> terror, but the crowd behind,
+who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush forward with
+increasing impetuosity, and the aggregate force hurls them successively
+into the gulf, where certain death awaits them.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes they are taken by the following method:&mdash;A great number of men
+divide and form a vast square; each band then sets fire to the dry grass
+of the savannah, where the herds are feeding; seeing the fire advance on
+all sides, they retire in great consternation to the centre of the
+square; the men then close and kill them without the least hazard.</p>
+
+<p>Great numbers are also taken in pounds, constructed with an embankment
+of such an elevation as to prevent the return of the Bisons when once
+they are driven into it. A general slaughter then takes place with
+rifles or arrows.</p>
+
+<p>The following vivid sketch is from the narrative of John Tanner, who,
+when about seven or eight years of age, was stolen from his parents by
+the Indians, and remained with them during a period of thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>"By the end of the second day after we left Pembinah we had not a
+mouthful to eat, and were beginning to be very hungry. When we laid down
+in our camp (near Craneberry River) at night, and put our ears close to
+the ground, we could hear the tramp of the buffaloes, but when we sat up
+we could hear nothing; and on the following morning nothing could be
+seen of them; though we could command a very extensive view of the
+prairie. As we knew they must not be far off in the direction of the
+sounds we had heard, eight men, of whom I was one, were selected and
+dispatched to kill some, and bring the meat to a point where it was
+agreed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> party should stop next night. The noise we could still hear
+next morning, by applying our ears to the ground; and it seemed about as
+far distant, and in the same direction, as before. We started early, and
+rode some hours before we could begin to see them; and when we first
+discovered the margin of the herd, it must have been at least ten miles
+distant. It was like a black line drawn along the edge of the sky, or a
+low shore seen across a lake. The distance of the herd from the place
+where we first heard them could not have been less than twenty miles.
+But it was now the rutting season, and various parts of the herd were
+all the time kept in rapid motion by the severe fights of the bulls. To
+the noise produced by the knocking together of the two divisions of the
+hoof, when they raised their feet from the ground, and of their
+incessant tramping, was added the loud and furious roar of the bulls,
+engaged, as they all were, in their terrific and appalling conflicts. We
+were conscious that our approach to the herd would not occasion the
+alarm now, that it would at any other time, and we rode directly towards
+them. As we came near we killed a wounded bull, which scarcely made an
+effort to escape from us. He had wounds in his flanks, into which I
+could put my whole hand. As we knew that the flesh of the bulls was not
+now good to eat, we did not wish to kill them, though we might easily
+have shot any number. Dismounting, we put our horses in the care of some
+of our number, who were willing to stay back for that purpose, and then
+crept into the herd to try to kill some cows. I had separated from the
+others, and advancing, got entangled among the bulls. Before I found an
+opportunity to shoot a cow, the bulls began<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> to fight very near me. In
+their fury they were totally unconscious of my presence, and came
+rushing towards me with such violence, that in some alarm for my safety,
+I took refuge in one of those holes which are so frequent where those
+animals abound, and which they themselves dig to wallow in. Here I found
+they were pressing directly upon me, and I was compelled to fire to
+disperse them, in which I did not succeed until I had killed four of
+them. By this firing the cows were so frightened, that I perceived I
+should not be able to kill any in this quarter; so regaining my horse, I
+rode to a distant part of the herd, where the Indians had succeeded in
+killing a fat cow. But from this cow, as is usual in similar cases, the
+herd had all moved off, except one bull, who, when I came up, still kept
+the Indians at bay. 'You are warriors,' said I, as I rode up, 'going far
+from your own country, to seek an enemy, but you cannot take his wife
+from that old bull, who has nothing in his hands.' So saying, I passed
+them directly towards the bull, then standing something more than two
+hundred yards distant. He no sooner saw me approach, than he came
+plunging towards me with such impetuosity, that, knowing the danger to
+my horse and myself, I turned and fled. The Indians laughed heartily at
+my repulse, but they did not give over their attempts to get at the cow.
+By dividing the attention of the bull, and creeping up to him on
+different sides, they at length shot him down. While we were cutting up
+the cow, the herd were at no great distance; and an old cow, which the
+Indians supposed to be the mother of the one we had killed, taking the
+scent of the blood, came running with great violence towards us. The
+Indians were alarmed and fled, many of them not having their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> guns in
+their hands; but I had carefully reloaded mine, and had it ready for
+use. Throwing myself down close to the body of the cow, and behind it, I
+waited till the other came up within a few yards of the carcase, when I
+fired upon her; she turned, gave one or two jumps, and fell dead. We had
+now the meat of two fat cows, which was as much as we wanted;
+accordingly we repaired, without delay, to the appointed place, where we
+found our party, whose hunger was already somewhat allayed by a deer one
+of them had killed."</p>
+
+<p>In hunting the Bison, the spear and the arrow are still much in use
+among the Indians. The following sketch (after Catlin) represents an
+Indian in the act of shooting a Bison with the arrow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus-045.jpg" width="500" height="227" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the 'Letters and Notes on the North-American Indians,' by Catlin,
+there are a great many interesting details of the Bison (or Buffalo, as
+it is there called).</p>
+
+<p>"Six days of severe travelling have brought us from the Camanchee
+village to the north bank of the Canadian, where we are snugly encamped
+on a beautiful plain, and in the midst of countless numbers of
+buffaloes; and halting a few days to recruit our horses and men, and dry
+meat to last us the remainder of our journey.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"The plains around this, for many miles, seem actually speckled, in
+distance and in every direction, with herds of grazing buffaloes; and
+for several days, the officers and men have been indulged in a general
+license to gratify their sporting propensities; and a scene of bustle
+and cruel slaughter it has been, to be sure! From morning till night,
+the camp has been daily almost deserted. The men have dispersed in
+little squads, in all directions, and are dealing death to these poor
+creatures to a most cruel and wanton extent, merely for the pleasure of
+destroying, generally without stopping to cut out the meat. During
+yesterday and to day, several hundreds have undoubtedly been killed, and
+not so much as the flesh of half a dozen used. Such immense swarms of
+them are spread over this tract of country, and so divided and terrified
+have they become, finding their enemies in all directions where they
+run, that the poor beasts seem completely bewildered, running here and
+there, and, as often as otherwise, come singly advancing to the
+horsemen, as if to join them for their company, and are easily shot
+down. In the turmoil and confusion, when their assailants have been
+pushing them forward, they have galloped through our encampment, jumping
+over our fires, upsetting pots and kettles, driving horses from their
+fastenings, and throwing the whole encampment into the greatest
+consternation and alarm."</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of the attacks made upon them by the Wolves, he says, "When the
+herd is together the Wolves never attack them, as they instantly gather
+for combined resistance, which they effectually make. But when the herds
+are travelling, it often happens that an aged or wounded one lingers at
+a little distance behind, and when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> fairly out of sight of the herd, is
+set upon by the voracious hunters, which often gather to the number of
+fifty or more, and are sure at last to torture him to death, and use him
+up at a meal. The Buffalo, however, is a huge and furious animal, and
+when his retreat is cut off, makes desperate and deadly resistance,
+contending to the last moment for the right of life, and oftentimes
+deals death by wholesale to his canine assailants.</p>
+
+<p>"During my travels in these regions, I have several times come across
+such a gang of these animals surrounding an old or wounded bull, where
+it would seem, from appearances, that they had been for several days in
+attendance, and at intervals desperately engaged in the effort to take
+his life. But a short time since, as one of my hunting companions and
+myself were returning to our encampment, with our horses loaded with
+meat, we discovered at a distance a huge bull, encircled with a gang of
+white wolves. We rode up as near as we could without driving them away;
+and being within pistol-shot, we had a remarkably good view, where I sat
+for a few moments and made a sketch in my note-book. After which we rode
+up, and gave the signal for them to disperse, which they instantly did,
+withdrawing themselves to the distance of fifty or sixty rods, when we
+found, to our great surprise, that the animal had made desperate
+resistance, until his eyes were entirely eaten out of his head; the
+gristle of his nose was mostly gone; his tongue was half eaten off, and
+the skin and flesh of his legs torn almost literally into strings. In
+this tattered and torn condition the poor old veteran stood bracing up
+in the midst of his devourers, who had ceased hostilities for a few
+minutes, to enjoy a sort of parley,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> recovering strength to resume the
+attack in a few moments again. In this group, some were reclining to
+gain breath, whilst others were sneaking about, and licking their chaps
+in anxiety for a renewal of the attack; and others, less lucky, had been
+crushed to death by the feet or the horns of the bull. I rode nearer to
+the pitiable object, as he stood bleeding and trembling before me, and
+said to him,&mdash;"Now is your time, old fellow, and you had better be off."
+Though blind, and nearly destroyed, he straightened up, and, trembling
+with excitement, dashed off at full speed upon the prairie, in a
+straight line. We turned our horses, and resumed our march; and when we
+had advanced a mile or more, we looked back, and again saw the ill-fated
+animal surrounded by his tormentors, to whose insatiable voracity he
+unquestionably soon fell a victim."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus-048.jpg" width="500" height="225" alt="Bison surrounded by Wolves, after Catlin." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Bison surrounded by Wolves, after Catlin.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has frequently been noticed, that whenever a female Bison, having a
+calf, is slain, the young one remains by its fallen dam, with signs of
+strong natural affection,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> and instinctively follows the inanimate
+carcase of its parent to the residence of the hunter. In this way many
+calves are secured.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Catlin's account these young animals are induced to
+follow any one who merely breathes in their nostrils. "I have often,"
+says he, "in concurrence with a known custom of the country, held my
+hands over the eyes of the calf, and breathed a few strong breaths into
+its nostrils; after which I have, with my hunting companions, rode
+several miles into our encampment, with the little prisoner busily
+following the heels of my horse the whole way, as closely as its
+instinct would attach it to the company of its dam.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-049.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="Bison Calf, about three weeks old." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Bison Calf, about three weeks old.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"This is one of the most extraordinary things that I have met with in
+the habits of this wild country; and although I had often heard of it,
+and felt unable exactly to believe it, I am now willing to bear
+testimony to the fact, from the numerous instances which I have
+witnessed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> since I came into the country. During the time that I resided
+at this post (Teton River) in the spring of the year, on my way up the
+river, I assisted in bringing in, in the above manner, several of these
+little prisoners, which sometimes followed for five or six miles close
+to our horse's heels, and even into the Fur Company's Fort, and into the
+stable where our horses were led. In this way, before I left for the
+head waters of the Missouri, I think we had collected about a dozen,
+which Mr. Laidlaw was successfully raising with the aid of a good milch
+cow, and which were to be committed to the care of Mr. Chouteau, to be
+transported, by the return of the steamer, to his extensive plantation
+in the vicinity of St. Louis."</p>
+
+<p>The uses which are made of the various parts of the Bison are numerous.
+The hide, which is thick and rather porous, is converted by the Indians
+into mocassins for the winter; they also make their shields of it. When
+dressed with the hair on, it is made into clothing by the natives, and
+most excellent blankets by the European settlers; so valuable, indeed,
+is it esteemed, that three or four pounds sterling a piece are not
+unfrequently given for good ones in Canada, where they are used as
+travelling cloaks. The fleece, which sometimes weighs eight pounds, is
+spun and wove into cloth. Stockings, gloves, garters, &amp;c., are likewise
+knit with it, appearing and lasting as well as those made of the best
+sheep's wool. In England it has been made into remarkably fine cloth.</p>
+
+<p>"There are," says Catlin, "by a fair calculation, more than 300,000
+Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by
+these animals supplied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> with, all the luxuries of life which they
+desire, as they know of none others. The great variety of uses to which
+they convert the body and other parts of that animal, are almost
+incredible to the person who has not actually dwelt amongst these
+people, and closely studied their modes and customs. Every part of their
+flesh is converted into food, in one shape or other, and on it they
+entirely subsist. The skins of the animals are worn by the Indians
+instead of blankets; their skins, when tanned, are used as coverings for
+their lodges and for their beds; undressed, they are used for
+constructing canoes, for saddles, for bridles, l'arr&ecirc;ts, lasos, and
+thongs. The horns are shaped into ladles and spoons; the brains are used
+for dressing the skins; their bones are used for saddle-trees, for
+war-clubs, and scrapers for graining the robes; and others are broken up
+for the marrow fat which is contained in them. The sinews are used for
+strings and backs to their bows, for thread to string their beads and
+sew their dresses. The feet of the animals are boiled, with their hoofs,
+for the glue they contain, for fastening their arrow points, and many
+other uses. The hair from the head and shoulders, which is long, is
+twisted and braided into halters, and the tail is used for a fly-brush."</p>
+
+<p>Again (vol. ii, p. 138), he says, "I have introduced the skin canoes of
+the Mandans (of the Upper Missouri), which are made almost round like a
+tub, by straining a buffalo's skin over a frame of wicker-work, made of
+willow or other boughs. The woman, in paddling these awkward tubs,
+stands in the bow, and makes the stroke with the paddle, by reaching it
+forward in the water, and drawing it to her, by which means she pulls
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> canoe along with considerable speed. These very curious and
+rudely-constructed canoes are made in the form of the Welsh coracle;
+and, if I mistake not, propelled in the same manner, which is a very
+curious circumstance; inasmuch as they are found in the heart of the
+great wilderness of America, where all the surrounding tribes construct
+their canoes in decidedly different forms, and of different materials."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus-052.jpg" width="500" height="144" alt="Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is generally agreed by travellers, that the flesh of the Bison is
+little inferior to the beef of our domestic oxen. The tongue is
+considered a delicacy, and the hump is much esteemed. A kind of
+potted-beef, called <i>pemmican</i>, is made of the flesh of the Bison, in
+the following manner:&mdash;The flesh is spread on a skin, dried in the sun,
+and pounded with stones; then all the hair is carefully sifted out of
+it, and melted fat kneeded into it. This, when properly made and kept
+dry, will keep good for twelve months. The tallow of the Bison forms an
+important article of commerce; one fat bull yielding sometimes as much
+as 150 pounds weight.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Turner, a gentleman long resident in America, is of opinion, that
+the Bison is superior even to our domestic cattle for the purposes of
+husbandry, and has expressed a wish to see this animal domesticated on
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> English farms. He informs us, that a farmer on the great Kenhawa
+broke a young Bison to the plough; and having yoked it with a steer,
+taken from his tame cattle, it performed its work to admiration. But
+there is another property in which the Bison far surpasses the Ox, and
+this is his strength. "Judging from the extraordinary size of his bones,
+and the depth and formation of the chest, (continues this gentleman,) I
+should not think it unreasonable to assign nearly a double portion of
+strength to this powerful inhabitant of the forest. Reclaim him, and you
+gain a capital quadruped, both for the draught and for the plough; his
+activity peculiarly fits him for the latter, in preference to the ox."</p>
+
+<p>As there are no Game Laws in America, (except in a very few confined
+instances on the Atlantic border,) the consequence is that the Bison is
+fast disappearing before the approach of the white settlers. At the
+commencement of the eighteenth century these wild cattle were found in
+large numbers all throughout the valley of the Ohio, of the Mississippi,
+in Western New York, in Virginia, &amp;c. In the beginning of the present
+century they were still existing in the extreme western or southwestern
+part of the State of New York. As late as 1812 they were natives of
+Ohio, and numerous in that State. And now they are not to be seen in
+their native state in any part of the United States, east of the
+Mississippi River; nor are they now to be found in any considerable
+numbers west of that great river, until you have travelled some eighty
+or a hundred miles into the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>There were no Bisons west of the Rocky Mountains, when Lewis and Clarke
+travelled there in 1805. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> their return from the Columbia, or Oregon
+River, in July of that year, the first Bison they saw was on the day
+after they commenced their descent of the Rocky Mountains towards the
+east. On the second day after that, they saw immense herds of them on
+the banks of the Medicine River. One collection of these animals which
+they subsequently saw, on the borders of the Missouri River, they
+estimated as being at least 20,000 in number.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823 it was discovered that the Bisons had crossed the Rocky
+Mountains, and some were to be seen in the vallies to the west of that
+range.</p>
+
+<p>East of that range of mountains, these animals migrate from the uplands
+or mountains to the plains, and from north to south, about the beginning
+of November; and return from the south to the north, and from the plains
+to the uplands, soon after the disappearance of the snow in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>The herds of Bisons wander over the country in search of food, usually
+led by a bull remarkable for strength and fierceness. While feeding,
+they are often scattered over a great extent of country; but when they
+move, they form a dense and almost impenetrable column, which, when once
+in motion, is scarcely to be impeded. Their line of march is seldom
+interrupted, even by considerable rivers, across which they swim,
+without fear or hesitation, nearly in the order in which they traverse
+the plains. The Bisons which frequent the woody parts of the country
+form smaller herds than those which roam over the plains, but are said
+to be individually of a greater size.</p>
+
+<p>The rutting takes place the latter part of July and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> the beginning of
+August, after which the cows separate from the bulls in distinct herds.
+They bring forth their young in April: from which it appears that the
+term of gestation is about nine months.</p>
+
+<p>The pair of American Bisons in the Zoological Gardens produced a calf in
+1849; from the observations made in that instance, the period of
+gestation was calculated at 270 days.</p>
+
+<p>The most important anatomical difference between the American and the
+European is, that the American has fifteen pairs of ribs, whereas the
+European has but fourteen.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the dimensions of a large specimen:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the nose to the insertion of the tail</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at the shoulder</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;at the croup</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of the head</td><td align='left'>2</td><td align='left'>1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Their weights vary from 1200 to 2000 pounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-055.jpg" width="450" height="391" alt="Head of young male Bison." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of young male Bison.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE AUROCHS, OR EUROPEAN BISON.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Bison.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-056.jpg" width="600" height="395" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In this, as in the American species, the head is very broad, and the
+forehead arched; but the horns are longer, more curved, and end in a
+finer point than those of the American Bison. The eyes are large and
+dark; the hair on the forehead is long and wavy; under the chin and on
+the breast it forms a sort of beard. In winter, the whole of the neck,
+hump, and shoulders are covered with a long woolly hair of a dusky brown
+colour, intermingled with a short soft fur of a fawn colour. The long
+hair is gradually cast in the summer, to be again renewed as the
+inclemency of winter comes on. The legs, back, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> posterior portions
+are covered with short, dark brown hair. The tail is of a moderate
+length, is covered with hair, and terminates in a large tuft.</p>
+
+<p>The females are not so large as the males, neither are they
+characterised by that abundance of hair on the anterior parts, which is
+so conspicuous in the bulls.</p>
+
+<p>These animals have never been domesticated, although calves have
+sometimes been caught, and confined in an enclosed pasture. An instance
+of this kind is recorded by Mr. Gilibert, who, while in Poland, had the
+opportunity of observing the character of four young ones thus reared in
+captivity. They were suckled by a she-goat, obstinately refusing to
+touch a common cow. This antipathy to the domestic cow, which they
+manifested so early, maintained its strength as they advanced in years;
+their anger was sure to be excited at the appearance of any domestic
+cattle, which, whenever introduced to them, they vigorously expelled
+from their pasture. They were, however, sufficiently tame to acknowledge
+the voice of their keeper.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical range of this animal is now comparatively very limited,
+being confined to the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
+some of the Caucasian mountain forests; yet there can be no doubt that,
+at an early period, they roamed at large over a great part of both
+Europe and Asia.</p>
+
+<p>Although they have never been, strictly speaking, domesticated, yet
+herds of them are kept in certain localities in the forest of
+Bialowieza, under the special protection of the Emperor of Russia, and
+under the immediate superintendence of twelve herdsmen, each herdsman
+keeping the number allotted to his charge in a particular department of
+the forest, near some river<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> or stream. The estimated number of the
+twelve herds is about 800.</p>
+
+<p>They feed on grass and brushwood; also on the leaves and bark of young
+trees, particularly the willow, poplar, ash, and birch. In autumn they
+likewise browse on heath, and the lichens which cover the bark of trees.
+In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, fodder is provided for
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Their cry is quite peculiar, resembling a groan, or a grunt, more than
+the lowing of an ox.</p>
+
+<p>They do not attain their full stature until after the sixth year, and
+live till between thirty and forty.</p>
+
+<p>"The strength of the Zubr," says Dr. Weissenborn, "is enormous; and
+trees of five or six inches diameter cannot withstand the thrusts of old
+bulls. It is neither afraid of wolf nor bear, and assails its enemies
+both with its horns and hoofs. An old Zubr is a match for four wolves;
+packs of the latter animal, however, sometimes hunt down even old bulls
+when alone; but a herd of Zubrs has nothing to fear from any rapacious
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>"Notwithstanding the great bulk of its body, the Zubr can run very
+swiftly. In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its head, which it
+carries very low. The animal has, however, but little bottom, and seldom
+runs farther than one or two English miles. It swims well, and is very
+fond of bathing.</p>
+
+<p>"The zubr is generally exceedingly shy, and avoids the approach of man.
+They can only be approached from the leeward, as their smell is
+extremely acute. But when accidentally and suddenly fallen in with, they
+will passionately assail the intruder. In such fits of passion the
+animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> sides with its
+tail, and the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their sockets,
+and roll furiously. Such is their innate wildness, that none of them
+have been completely tamed. When taken young they become, it is true,
+accustomed to their keepers, but the approach of other persons renders
+them furious; and even their keepers must be careful always to wear the
+same sort of dress when going near them. Their great antipathy to the
+Bos Taurus, which they either avoid or kill, would render their
+domestication, if it were practicable, but little desirable. The
+experiments made with a view of obtaining a mixed breed from the Zubr
+and Bos Taurus have all failed, and are now strictly prohibited."</p>
+
+<p>The rutting season is in August, and continues for about a fortnight;
+the calves are produced in May; thus, the period of gestation is between
+nine and ten months. The calves continue to suckle nearly twelve months,
+and the cows seldom calve oftener than once in three years.</p>
+
+<p>The European Bison differs internally from the common ox in having
+fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas the common ox has but thirteen. The
+external differences between the two animals are too obvious to require
+pointing out.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845, the Emperor of Russia presented to the British Museum a very
+fine stuffed specimen of this animal, from which the figure at the head
+of this chapter was taken.</p>
+
+<p>The following are its dimensions:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length from the nose to the insertion of the tail</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at the withers</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;at the rump</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of head</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;of tail</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>M. Dimitri de Dolmatoff, Master of the Imperial Forests in the
+Government of Grodno, in his note of the capture of the Aurochs,
+(written in 1847,) alludes to the statement (made by every writer who
+has treated of these animals), that the calves, although taken young,
+invariably refuse to be suckled by the Domestic Cow. This he contradicts
+in the most explicit manner, on the testimony of his own experience,
+having had several instances come under his observation, in which the
+young calves of the Aurochs were suckled and reared by cows of the
+common domestic species.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, in his account of the "Sylva Hercynia"&mdash;the Black Forest&mdash;thus
+mentions the Urus, amongst other animals, there found:</p>
+
+<p>"A third kind [of animals] are those called Uri. They are but little
+less than Elephants in size, and are of the species, colour, and form of
+a bull. Their strength is very great, and also their speed. They spare
+neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
+the sight of men, nor be tamed, even when taken young. The people who
+take them in pit-falls, assiduously destroy them; and young men harden
+themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this kind of
+chase; and those who have killed a great number&mdash;the horns being
+publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact&mdash;obtain great honour. The
+horns, in amplitude, shape, and species, differ much from the horns of
+our oxen. They are much sought after; and after having been edged with
+silver at their mouths, they are used for drinking vessels at great
+feasts." (<i>De Bello Gallico</i>, lib. vi.)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE YAK, OR SOORA-GOY.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Grunniens.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-061.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The following interesting and circumstantial account of this curious
+species of Ox, is from the pen of Lieut. Samuel Turner. (<i>Asiatic
+Researches</i>, vol. iv.)</p>
+
+<p>"The Yak of Tartary, called Soora-Goy in Hindostan, and which I term the
+Bushy-tailed Bull of Tibet, is about the height of an English Bull,
+which he resembles in the figure of the body, head, and legs. I could
+distinguish between them no essential difference, except only that the
+Yak is covered all over with a thick coat of long hair. The head is
+rather short, crowned with two smooth round horns, that, tapering from
+the setting on, terminate in sharp points, arch inwardly, and near the
+extremities are a little turned back. The ears are small; the forehead
+appears prominent, being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are
+full and large; the nose smooth and convex;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> the nostrils small. The
+neck is short, describing a curvature nearly equal both above and below;
+the withers high and arched; the rump low. Over the shoulders rises a
+bunch, which at first sight would seem to be the same kind of exuberance
+peculiar to the cattle of Hindostan; but in reality it consists in the
+superior length of the hair only, which, as well as that along the ridge
+of the back to the setting on of the tail, grows long and erect, but not
+harsh. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing
+glossy hair, descending to the hock; and is so extremely well furnished,
+that not a joint of it is perceptible; but it has much the appearance of
+a large bunch of hair artificially set on. The shoulders, rump, and
+upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of thick soft wool, but
+the inferior parts with straight pendent hair that descends below the
+knee; and I have seen it so long in some cattle, which were in high
+health and condition, as to trail along the ground. From the chest,
+between the fore-legs, issues a large pointed tuft of hair, growing
+somewhat larger than the rest. The legs are very short. In every other
+respect, hoofs, &amp;c., he resembles the ordinary Bull. There is a great
+variety of colours among them, but black and white are the most
+prevalent. It is not uncommon to see the long hair upon the ridge of the
+back, the tail, the tuft upon the chest, and the legs below the knee
+white, when all the rest of the animal is jet black.</p>
+
+<p>"These cattle, though not large boned, from the profuse quantity of hair
+with which they are provided, appear of great bulk. They have a down
+heavy look, but are fierce, and discover much impatience at the near
+approach of strangers. They do not low loud (like the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> cattle of
+England) any more than those of Hindostan; but make a low grunting
+noise, scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression
+of uneasiness. These cattle are pastured in the coldest part of Tibet,
+upon short herbage, peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains.
+That chain of lofty mountains situated between lat. 27&deg; and 28&deg;, which
+divides Tibet from Bootan, and whose summits are most commonly covered
+with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity the Southern glens
+afford them food and shelter during the severity of the winter; in
+milder seasons the Northern aspect is more congenial to their nature,
+and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable property to the
+tribes of illiterate Tartars, who live in tents, and tend them from
+place to place, affording their herdsmen a mode of conveyance, a good
+covering, and subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture, but
+are extremely useful as beasts of burden; for they are strong,
+sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manufactured
+of their hair, and I have seen, though amongst the humblest ranks of
+herdsmen, caps and jackets worn of their skins. Their tails are esteemed
+throughout the East, as far as luxury or parade have any influence on
+the manners of the people; and on the continent of India are found,
+under the denomination of Chowries, in the hands of the meanest grooms,
+as well as, occasionally, in those of the first ministers of state. Yet
+the best requital with which the care of their keepers is at length
+rewarded for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity
+of rich milk they give, yielding most excellent butter, which they have
+a custom of depositing in skins or bladders, and excluding the air; it
+keeps in this cold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> climate all the year, so that after some time
+tending their flocks, when a sufficient stock is accumulated, it remains
+only to load their cattle, and drive them to a proper market with their
+own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most
+material article of commerce."</p>
+
+<p>The soft fur upon the hump and shoulders is manufactured by the natives
+of Tibet into a fine but strong cloth; and, if submitted to the test of
+European skill, might no doubt be made to produce a very superior
+fabric.</p>
+
+<p>The herdsmen commonly convert the hides into a loose outer garment that
+covers the whole of their bodies, hanging down to the knees; and it
+proves a sufficient protection against the lowest temperature of the
+cold and desolate region which they inhabit. It furnishes at once a
+cloak by day and a bed by night.</p>
+
+<p>The Yak is not generally fierce, but, if intruded upon by strangers, it
+sometimes manifests very formidable symptoms of impatience, stamping its
+feet, whisking its tail aloft, and tossing its head. When excited, it is
+not easily appeased, and is exceedingly tenacious of injury, always
+showing great fierceness whenever any one approaches who has chanced to
+provoke it.</p>
+
+<p>The cow is called <i>Dhe</i>, of which the wandering Tartars possess great
+numbers, having no means of subsistence but those supplied by their
+flocks and herds.</p>
+
+<p>A fine male specimen of this Ox was brought to England by Warren
+Hastings, and several attempts were made to procure a cross between it
+and the common English Cow, but without success. He invariably refused
+to associate with ordinary cattle, and exhibited a decided antipathy to
+them. His portrait was painted, and is now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> in the Museum of the College
+of Surgeons, London. The following figure (taken from the 'Oriental
+Annual') is so much like the portrait of Warren Hastings's Yak, that it
+might almost be taken for a copy of it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-065.jpg" width="600" height="381" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>There is the skin of a Yak in the Zoological Museum, which coincides
+pretty nearly with the foregoing description. There is also a stuffed
+specimen of a female in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Like the European Bison, the skeleton of the Yak has fourteen pairs of
+ribs. Period of gestation not recorded.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE GYALL, (<i>Bos Frontalis</i> of Lambert;)</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GAYAL, (<i>Bos Gav&aelig;us</i> of Colebrooke;)</h3>
+
+<h3>THE JUNGLY GAU, (<i>Bos Sylhetanus</i> of F. Cuvier.)</h3>
+
+
+<p>Of the animals named in the foregoing list, we have had several very
+interesting accounts; but none of these have been sufficiently precise
+to enable us to determine the specific character of the animals
+described.</p>
+
+<p>Are they, as some affirm, merely different names for the same animal; or
+do they designate animals which are really and truly distinct?</p>
+
+<p>Nothing short of an appeal to structure can satisfactorily settle this
+or any other disputed point of a similar nature; but, unfortunately for
+zoology, the opportunities for such appeals are rare, and, when they do
+occur, are seldom taken advantage of. Let us hope that this hint will
+not be lost on some of our intelligent countrymen in the East; and that
+before long we may be favoured with the result of their researches.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, and in order to facilitate as much as possible the
+endeavours of those who may have opportunities for such inquiries, the
+following epitome is given of the various papers which have already
+appeared on the subject, but which, in their present scattered form, are
+of very little general utility.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE GYALL.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The earliest descriptive notice we have of the Gyall was that given in a
+paper read before the Linnean Society, in 1802, by Mr. Lambert, on the
+occasion of a bull of this species arriving in London from India.</p>
+
+<h3>"<i>Bos Frontalis.</i></h3>
+
+<p>"General colour a blueish-black; the frontal fascia gray; the horns
+short, thick, and distant at their bases, the tail nearly naked,
+slender, and with a tuft at the end. The Gyall has no mane; its coat is
+soft; the edge of the under lip is white, and is fringed with bristling
+hair. The horns are pale, with their bases included in the frontal
+fascia."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-067.jpg" width="600" height="388" alt="The Gyall, reduced&mdash;from the Linnean Transactions." title="" />
+<span class="caption">The Gyall, reduced&mdash;from the Linnean Transactions.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The animal of which this description is given, appeared to be between
+two and three years old, very tame, and inoffensive.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> A drawing was
+taken of it, which was engraved and published in the Linnean
+Transactions.</p>
+
+<p>The following are its dimensions:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From tip of nose to end of tail</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; tip of hoof of fore foot to top of the rising of back</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>1-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Girth of largest part of abdomen</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From the tip of the hoof of the hind leg to the highest part of the rump</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>0-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; the tip of forehead to end of nose</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Girth of head over the angle of the jaws</td><td align='left'>2</td><td align='left'>11-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Between tips of horns</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>8-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of horn, externally</td><td align='left'>0</td><td align='left'>8-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Girth of horn at largest part</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In reply to some inquiries respecting this animal which he made of a
+gentleman, (Mr. Harris,) resident in India, Mr. Lambert received the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>"<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;I have before me your note, with the drawing, which
+undoubtedly appears to me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned to
+have in my possession. Some parts of the drawing seem to be rather too
+much enlarged, as in the base of the horns, and the rising between the
+fore shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>"The animal I described to you, and which I have kept and reared these
+last seven years, and know by the name of the Gyall, is a native of the
+hills to the north east and east of the Company's province of
+Chittagong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills which separates it
+from the country of Arracan.</p>
+
+<p>"The male Gyall is like our Bull in shape and appearance, but I conceive
+not quite so tall; it is of a blackish-brown colour; the horns short,
+but thick and strong towards the base, round which, and across the
+frons, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> hair is bushy, and of a dirty white colour; the chest and
+forehead are broad and thick. He is naturally very bold, and will defend
+himself against any of the beasts of prey.</p>
+
+<p>"The female differs a little in appearance; her horns are not quite so
+large, and her make is somewhat more slender. She is very quiet, and is
+used for all the purposes of the dairy; as also, (I have been informed
+by the natives,) for tilling the ground, and is more tractable than the
+Buffalo. The milk which these cows give has a peculiar richness in it,
+arising, I should conceive, from their always feeding on the young
+shoots and branches of trees in preference to grass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-069.jpg" width="450" height="297" alt="(Head of Gyall, from Linnean Transactions.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">(Head of Gyall, from Linnean Transactions.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"I constantly made it a practice to allow them to range abroad, amongst
+the hills and jungles at Chittagong, during the day, to browse; a keeper
+attending to prevent their straying so far as to endanger losing them.
+They do not thrive so well in any part of Bengal as in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+afore-mentioned province, and in the adjoining one, Pipperah, where, I
+believe, the animal is also to be found. I have heard of a female Gyall
+breeding with a common Bull. I wish it were in my power to give you more
+particulars, but I am describing entirely from memory."</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1804, Mr. Lambert again addressed the Linnean Society on
+the same subject. He says, "Since I presented to the Society the last
+account of the Bos Frontalis, or Gyall of India, Mr. Fleming, a
+gentleman who has just returned from that country, has very obligingly
+communicated to me the following further particulars. This account was
+transmitted to Mr. Fleming by Mr. Macrae, resident at Chittagong, in a
+letter, dated March 22, 1802, and was accompanied with a drawing, by
+which it appears that the animal from which my figure was taken was full
+grown." (See the figure, p. 51.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Mr. Macrae's Account</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The Gyall is a species of cow peculiar to the mountains, which form the
+eastern boundary of the province of Chittagong, where it is found
+running wild in the woods; and it is also reared as a domestic animal by
+the Kookies, or Lunclas, the inhabitants of those hills. It delights to
+live in the deepest jungles, feeding on the tender leaves and shoots of
+the brushwood; and is never met with on the plains below, except when
+brought there. Such of them as have been kept by the gentlemen at
+Chittagong, have always preferred browsing among the thickets on the
+adjacent hills to feeding on the grass of the plains.</p>
+
+<p>It is of a dull heavy appearance, yet of a form that indicates both
+strength and activity; and approaches nearly to that of the wild
+Buffalo. Its head is set on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> like the Buffalo's, and it carries it much
+in the same manner, with the nose projecting forward; but in the shape
+of the head it differs materially from both the Buffalo and the Cow, the
+head of the Gyall being much shorter from the crown to the nose, but
+much broader between the horns than that of either. The withers and
+shoulders of the Gyall rise higher in proportion than those of Buffalo
+or Cow, and its tail is small and short, seldom falling lower than the
+bend in the ham. Its colour is in general brown, varying from a light to
+a deep shade; it has at times a white forehead, and <i>white legs</i>, with a
+white belly and brush. The hair of the belly is invariably of a lighter
+colour than that of the back and flanks. The Gyall calf is of a dull red
+colour, which gradually changes to a brown as it advances in age.</p>
+
+<p>The female Gyall receives the bull at three years of age; her term of
+gestation is eleven months, when she brings forth, and does not again
+admit the male until the second year thereafter, thus producing a calf
+once in three years only. So long an interval between each birth must
+tend to make the species rare. In the length of time she goes with
+young, as well as in that between each conception, the Gyall differs
+from the Buffalo and Cow. The Gyall does not give much milk, but what
+she yields is nearly as rich as the cream of other milk. The calf sucks
+its dam for eight or nine months, when it is capable of supporting
+itself. The Kookies tie up the calf until he is sufficiently strong to
+do so.</p>
+
+<p>The Gyalls live to the age of from fifteen to twenty. They lose their
+sight as they grow old, and are subject to a disease of the hoof, which
+often proves fatal at an early age. When the Kookies consider the
+disease beyond the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> hope of cure, he kills the animal and eats the
+flesh, which constitutes his first article of luxury.</p>
+
+<p>The Kookies have a very simple method of catching the wild Gyalls, which
+is as follows:&mdash;On discovering a herd of wild Gyalls in the jungles,
+they prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man's head, composed of
+a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their tame
+Gyalls towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet, and
+assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the
+females of the other, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>. The Kookies now scatter their
+balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely
+to pass, and watch its motions. The Gyalls, on meeting these balls as
+they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin
+to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the salt,
+and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place until
+all the balls are consumed. The Kookies having observed the Gyalls to
+have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to
+answer the intended purpose; and as the Gyalls lick them up, they throw
+down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that
+the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally
+goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during
+which time the tame and the wild Gyalls are always together, licking the
+decoy balls; and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being
+so, makes his appearance, at such a distance as not to alarm the wild
+ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the
+sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his
+tame Gyalls on the back and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> neck, without frightening away the wild
+ones. He next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the
+same time giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the
+short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the
+tame ones, to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of
+force; and so attached do the Gyalls become to the parrah, that when the
+Kookies migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary
+to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gyalls
+should return to them from the new grounds.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark that the new and full moon are the periods at
+which the Kookies in general commence their operations of catching the
+wild Gyalls, from having observed that at these changes the two sexes
+are most inclined to associate. The same observation has been made with
+respect to Elephants.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE GAYAL.</h2>
+
+
+<p>About four years after the publication of Mr. Macrae's account of the
+Gyall (namely in 1808,) there appeared, in the Eighth volume of 'Asiatic
+Researches,' a description of a species of Ox, named Gayal, communicated
+by H. T. Colebrooke.</p>
+
+<p>He commences by observing, that "the Gayal was mentioned in an early
+volume of the 'Researches of the Asiatic Society,' (vol. ii, p. 188,
+1790,) by its Indian name, which was explained by the phrase "Cattle of
+the mountains." It had been obscurely noticed (if indeed the same
+species of Ox be meant) by Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon
+(p. 21), and it has been imperfectly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> described by Captain Turner, in
+his journey through Bootan, ('Embassy to Tibet,' p. 160).</p>
+
+<p>"Herds of this species of cattle have been long kept by many gentlemen
+in the eastern districts of Bengal, and also in other parts of this
+province; but no detailed account of the animal and of its habits has
+been yet published in India. To remedy this deficiency, Dr. Roxburgh
+undertook, at my solicitation, to describe the Gayal, from those seen by
+him in a herd belonging to the Governor-General. Dr. Buchanan has also
+obligingly communicated his observations on the same cattle; with
+information obtained from several gentlemen at Tipura, Sylhet, and
+Chatgaon, relative to the habits of the animal. The original drawing
+from which the plate has been taken was drawn by a native artist."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-074.jpg" width="600" height="341" alt="Reduced copy of the Plate just referred to." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Reduced copy of the Plate just referred to.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This representation does not appear to have been taken from a specimen
+of the animals here described:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> it bears a much stronger resemblance to
+our figure of the Gaur, which was taken from the stuffed specimen in the
+British Museum (see p. 97), than it does to the Gyall (<i>Bos frontalis</i>
+of Lambert, see p. 51), or to the Gayal, which died in the Zoological
+Gardens in 1846, from which our figure was taken, which is given on p.
+68.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Roxburgh, who undertook, at the solicitation of Mr. Colebrooke, to
+describe the Gayal, appears to have done so by the very simple method of
+copying Mr. Macrae's description of the Gyall, which appeared in the
+'Linnean Transactions,' in 1804, to which he has added, that the dewlap
+is deep and pendant; and this, according to every other account, is not
+the fact.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the account given by Dr. Buchanan, I have thought it
+best to quote it in full; because (although it repeats several of the
+characteristics already given,) it appears to flow from the pen of one
+who really observed what he describes.</p>
+
+<p>He says: "The Gayal generally carries its head with the mouth projecting
+forward, like that of a Buffalo. The head, at the upper part, is very
+broad and flat, and is contracted suddenly towards the nose, which is
+naked, like that of the common cow. From the upper angle of the forehead
+proceed two thick, short, horizontal processes of bone, which are
+covered with hair; on these are placed the horns, which are smooth,
+shorter than the head, and lie nearly in the plane of the forehead. They
+diverge outward, and turn upward with a gentle curve. At the bases they
+are very thick, and are slightly compressed, the flat side being toward
+the front and the tail. The edge next the ear is rather the thinnest, so
+that a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> transverse section would be somewhat ovate. Toward their tips
+the horns are rounded, and end in a sharp point. The eyes resemble those
+of the common Ox; the ears are much longer, broader, and blunter than
+those of that animal.</p>
+
+<p>"The neck is very slender near the head, at some distance from which a
+dewlap commences, but this is not so deep, nor so much undulated as in
+the Zebu or Indian Ox. The dewlap is covered with strong longish hairs,
+so as to form a kind of mane on the lower part of the neck; but this is
+not very conspicuous, especially when the animal is young.</p>
+
+<p>"In place of the hump (which is situated between the shoulders of the
+Zebu) the Gayal has a sharp ridge, which commences on the hinder part of
+the neck, slopes gradually up till it comes over the shoulder-joint,
+then runs horizontally almost a third part of the length of the back,
+where it terminates with a very sudden slope. The height of this ridge
+makes the neck appear much depressed, and also adds greatly to the
+clumsiness of the chest, which, although narrow, is very deep. The
+sternum is covered by a continuation of the dewlap. The rump, or os
+sacrum, has a more considerable declivity than that of the European Ox,
+but less than that of the Zebu.</p>
+
+<p>"The tail is covered with short hair, except near the end, where it has
+a tuft like that of the common Ox; but in the Gayal the tail descends no
+lower than the extremity of the tibia.</p>
+
+<p>"The legs, especially the fore ones, are thick and clumsy. The false
+hoofs are much larger than those of the Zebu. The hinder parts are
+weaker in proportion than the fore; and, owing to the contraction of the
+belly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> the hinder legs, although in fact the shortest, appear to be the
+longest.</p>
+
+<p>"The whole body is covered with a thick coat of short hair, which is
+lengthened out into a mane on the dewlap, and into a pencil-like tuft on
+the end of the tail. From the summit of the head there diverges, with a
+whirl, a bunch of rather long coarse hair, which lies flat, is usually
+lighter-coloured than that which is adjacent, and extends towards the
+horns and over the forehead. The general colour of the animal is brown,
+in various shades, which very often approaches to black, but sometimes
+is rather light. Some parts, especially about the legs and belly, are
+usually white; but in different individuals these are very differently
+disposed."</p>
+
+<p>The following is the measurement of a full-grown cow:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From nose to summit of head</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Between roots of horns</td><td align='left'>0</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From horns to shoulder</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From shoulder to insertion of tail</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at shoulder</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at loins</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Depth of chest</td><td align='left'>2</td><td align='left'>9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference of chest</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference at loins</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of horns</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of ears</td><td align='left'>0</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>"The different species of the Ox kind may be readily distinguished from
+the Gayal by the following marks; the European and Indian oxen by the
+length of their tails, which reach to the false hoofs; the American Ox,
+by the gibbosity on its back; the <i>Bovis moschatus</i>, Caffer, and
+<i>pumilus</i>, by having their horns approximated at their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> bases; the <i>Bos
+grunniens</i> by it's whole tail being covered with long silky hairs; the
+<i>Bos bubalus</i>,(at least the Indian buffalo,) by having the whole length
+of its horns compressed, and by their being longer than the head, and
+wrinkled&mdash;also by its thin coat of hair, by its want of a dewlap, and
+above all by its manners; the <i>Bos barbatus</i>, by the long beard on its
+chin.</p>
+
+<p>"The cry of the Gayal has no resemblance to the grunt of the Indian Ox,
+but a good deal resembles that of the Buffalo. It is a kind of lowing,
+but shriller, and not near so loud as that of the European Ox. To this,
+however, the Gayal approaches much nearer than it does to the Buffalo."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Macrae, who furnished the account in 1804, is again consulted; and
+from his second account, the following additional particulars have been
+gleaned. [Now, however, as the reader will observe, the name is Gayal,
+and not Gyall; although, according to Mr. Macrae's own derivation of the
+word, it would appear to be more correctly Gyall.]</p>
+
+<p>"The Gayal is found wild in the range of mountains that form the eastern
+boundary of the provinces of Aracan, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and
+Sylhet.</p>
+
+<p>"The Cucis, or Lunclas, a race of people inhabiting the hills
+immediately to the eastward of Chatgaon, have herds of the Gayal in a
+domesticated state. By them he is called Shial, from which, most
+probably, his name of Gayal [Gyall] is derived; as he is never seen on
+the plains, except when he is brought there. It appears, however, that
+he is an animal very little known beyond the limits of his native
+mountains, except by the inhabitants of the provinces above mentioned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"His disposition is gentle: even when wild in his native hills, he is
+not considered to be a dangerous animal; never standing the approach of
+man, much less bearing his attack.</p>
+
+<p>"To avoid the noon-day heat, he retires to the deepest shade of the
+forest; preferring the dry acclivity of the hill to repose on, rather
+than the low swampy ground below; and never, like the Buffalo, wallowing
+in mud.</p>
+
+<p>"Gayals have been domesticated among the Cucis from time immemorial; and
+without any variation in their appearance from the wild stock. No
+difference whatever is observed in the colour of the wild and tame
+breeds; brown of different shades being the general colour of both.</p>
+
+<p>"The wild Gayal is about the size of the wild Buffalo of India. The tame
+Gayals among the Cucis, being bred in nearly the same habits of freedom,
+and on the same food, without ever undergoing any labour, grow to the
+same size with the wild ones.</p>
+
+<p>"The Cucis makes no use whatever of the milk, but rear the Gayals
+entirely for the sake of their flesh and skins; they make their shields
+of the hides of these animals. The flesh of the Gayal is in the highest
+estimation among the Cucis; so much so, that no solemn festival is ever
+celebrated without slaughtering one or more Gayals, according to the
+importance of the occasion.</p>
+
+<p>"The domesticated Gayals are allowed by the Cucis to roam at large
+during the day, through the forest, in the neighbourhood of the village;
+but as evening approaches, they all return home of their own accord; the
+young Gayal being early taught this habit, by being regularly fed every
+night with salt, of which he is very fond; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> from the occasional
+continuance of this practice, as he grows up, the attachment of the
+Gayal to his native village becomes so strong, that when the Cucis
+migrate from it, they are obliged to set fire to the huts which they are
+about to leave, lest their Gayals should return thither from their new
+place of residence, before they become equally attached to it, as to the
+former, through the same means.</p>
+
+<p>"The wild Gayal sometimes steals out from the forest in the night, and
+feeds in the rice fields bordering on the hills. The Cucis give no grain
+to their cattle. With us (at Chatgaon) the tame Gayals feed on Cal&aacute;&iuml;
+<i>(phaseolus max</i>); but as our hills abound with shrubs, it has not been
+remarked what particular kind of grass they prefer.</p>
+
+<p>"The Hindus in this province will not kill the Gabay (or Gayal) which
+they hold in equal veneration with the cow. But the As'l Gayal, or
+Selo&iuml;, they hunt and kill, as they do the wild Buffalo. The animal here
+alluded to is another species of Gayal found wild in the hills of
+Chatgaon. He has never been domesticated, and is in appearance and
+disposition very different from the common Gayal which has just been
+described. The natives call him the As'l Gayal, in contra-distinction to
+the Gabay. The Cucis distinguish him by the name of Selo&iuml;; and the Mugs
+and Burmas by that of P'hanj, and they consider him, next to the tiger,
+the most dangerous and fiercest animal of their forests."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Elliot, in writing from Tipura, says,&mdash;"I have some Gayals at
+Munnamutty, and from their mode of feeding I presume that they keep on
+the skirts of the vallies, to enable them to feed on the sides of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+mountain, where they can browse; they will not touch grass, if they can
+find shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>"While kept at Camerlah, which is situated in a level country, they used
+to resort to the banks, and eat on the sides; frequently betaking
+themselves to the water, to avoid the heat of the sun. However, they
+became sickly and emaciated, and their eyes suffered much; but, on being
+sent to the hills, they soon recovered, and are now (1808) in a healthy
+condition. They seem fond of the shade, and are observed in the hot
+weather to take the turn of the hills, so as to be always sheltered from
+the sun. They do not wallow in mud, like Buffaloes, but delight in
+water, and stand in it during the greatest heat of the day, with the
+front of their heads above the surface.</p>
+
+<p>"Each Cow yields from two and a half to about four s&eacute;rs [from five to
+eight pounds] of milk, which is rich, sweet, and almost as thick as
+cream; it is of a high flavour, and makes excellent butter."</p>
+
+<p>We learn from Mr. Dick that the Gayal is called Gaujangali in the
+Persian language, Gavaya in Sanscrit, and Mat'hana by the mountaineers;
+but others name the animal Gobay-goru.</p>
+
+<p>The tame Gayals, however long they may have been domesticated, do not at
+all differ from the wild ones, unless in temper, for the wild ones are
+fierce and untractable. The colour of both is the same, namely, that of
+the Antelope, but some are white and others black, none are spotted or
+piebald. They graze and range like other cattle, and eat rice, mustard,
+chiches, and any cultivated produce, as also chaff and chopped straw.</p>
+
+<p>According to this gentleman the Gayal lives to the age of twenty or
+twenty-five years, and reaches its full growth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> at five years. The
+female is generally higher than the male. She receives the bull in her
+fifth year, and bears after ten months.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the case of Mr. Bird's Gayal breeding with the common
+Zebu, I may observe that this proves nothing beyond the bare fact
+stated; no inference whatever of an identity of species can be drawn
+from a thousand such cases. It is pretty well known that animals of
+perfectly distinct species will, when artificially brought together,
+produce hybrids, as in the familiar examples of the Horse and the Ass,
+the Canary and the Goldfinch; but a hybrid is neither a species nor
+(zoologically speaking) a variety.</p>
+
+<p>In a paper on the Gour, by General Hardwicke, ('Zoological Journal,'
+Vol. III,) he introduces the following observations on the Gayal: "Of
+the Gayal (<i>Bos Gav&aelig;as</i> of Colebrooke) there appears to be more than one
+species. The provinces of Chatgong and Sylhet produce the wild, or, as
+the Natives term it, the Asseel Gayal, and the domesticated one. The
+former is considered an untameable animal, extremely fierce, and not to
+be taken alive. It rarely quits the mountain tract of the south-east
+frontier, and never mixes with the Gobbay, or village Gayal of the
+plains. I succeeded in obtaining the skin, with the head, of the Asseel
+Gayal, which is deposited in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company,
+in Leadenhall Street." [A drawing was taken of this head, of which the
+engraving on the opposite page is a copy.]</p>
+
+<p>"I may notice another species of Gayal, of which a male and female were
+in the Governor General's park, at Barrackpore. This species differs in
+some particulars<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> from the domesticated Gayal, and also from the Asseel,
+or true Gayal; first, in size, being a larger animal than the domestic
+one; secondly, in the largeness of the dewlap, which is deeper and more
+undulated than in either the wild or tame species; and, thirdly, in the
+size and form of the horns."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, according to the opinion of General Hardwicke, there are three
+distinct species of the Gayal; but in this matter nothing can be decided
+without further evidence, which we hope will soon appear in the shape of
+complete skeletons, and accurate drawings and descriptions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-083.jpg" width="450" height="378" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE TAME OR DOMESTIC GAYAL.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-084.jpg" width="600" height="304" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The representation of the Gayal here given was taken from a living
+specimen in the Zoological Gardens, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The scanty information I was able to glean concerning it, consists in
+its having been procured at Chitagong, and shipped, as a commercial
+speculation, from Calcutta for London, in January 1844, when about two
+years and a half old. It remained in the Zoological Gardens till the
+summer of 1846, when it died from inflammation of the bowels, brought on
+chiefly by eating too much green food.</p>
+
+<p>I had the above particulars from Mr. Bartlett, naturalist, &amp;c., who had
+been commissioned to dispose of it. He preserved the skeleton, which he
+kindly allowed me to examine, and from which I made the sketches of the
+skull and horns, which appear on the following page.</p>
+
+<p>The skeleton has fourteen pairs of ribs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-085a.jpg" width="600" height="314" alt="Skull of Domestic Gayal, viewed in front, with Section of
+Horn." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skull of Domestic Gayal, viewed in front, with Section of
+Horn.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance from tip to tip (<i>a</i> to <i>a</i>)</td><td align='left'>39</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of horn (<i>a</i> to <i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference of horn at base</td><td align='left'>17</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance of bases (<i>b</i> to <i>b</i>)</td><td align='left'>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of skull (<i>c</i> to <i>c</i>)</td><td align='left'>19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fig. <i>d</i>, section of the horn, at the base.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 571px;">
+<img src="images/illus-085b.jpg" width="571" height="131" alt="Occipital view of the same Skull." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Occipital view of the same Skull.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<img src="images/illus-085c.jpg" width="375" height="191" alt="Head of Domestic Gayal." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of Domestic Gayal.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In concluding these details of the Gayal and Gyall, let it be remarked
+that, when we hear one animal called Gayal and another Gyall, we are
+not, <i>on that account merely</i>, to set them down as of the same species.
+It is hardly necessary to say, that similarity or even identity of name,
+is not the slightest criterion of identity of species. The name Elephant
+is popularly applied to that animal, whether brought from Africa or
+Asia; they are, nevertheless, anatomically distinct. The same
+observation may be made respecting the Lions of those countries, and
+various other animals.</p>
+
+<p>It may further be observed, that the value of external characters in
+determining a species is very different when applied to ascertain the
+distinctions of domestic races, to what it is when applied to ascertain
+the distinctions of animals living in a natural state. In domestication,
+varieties ramify to an indefinite extent, and under such circumstances
+external characters are comparatively valueless. But wild animals retain
+their external characters with undeviating exactness; exceptional cases
+may indeed occur, but so very rarely, that they are not worth taking
+into the account; consequently, external forms, and in some cases even
+colours, become of importance in ascertaining specific distinction.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE JUNGLY GAU.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Sylhetanus.</i> (Cuv.)</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-087.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Further information is requisite to decide the specific character of
+this animal. According to the opinion of Col. Smith, (see 'Synopsis of
+the Species of Mammalia' in Griffith's Translation of Cuvier's Animal
+Kingdom,) it is a mere variety of the Gayal (<i>Bos Gav&aelig;us</i>); and Mr. J.
+E. Gray, in his 'List of the Specimens of Mammalia in the Collection of
+the British Museum,' classes it as a domestic variety of the same
+animal, but Mr. Fred. Cuvier regards it as an entirely new species.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the Jungly Gau (which is the only one that has
+been published), is a translation from the splendid folio work of
+Messrs. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier.</p>
+
+<p>This species of Ox, which is entirely new, appears to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> be the most
+nearly allied to our domestic cattle. Those ruminants which are classed
+under the generic name of Ox, may be very naturally divided into two
+distinct groups. The first includes the Buffaloes, animals in some
+measure aquatic, living in low, swampy localities, or near rivers, in
+which they remain half immersed a great part of the day; having
+broad-based horns, partly spreading over their foreheads, flat on their
+internal side, and round on their external; tongue soft, &amp;c. The second
+is that of the Ox, properly so called. These are distinguished from the
+first by their dwelling on more elevated lands, or in the vicinity of
+forests; having smooth round horns, without enlargement at their base;
+tongue covered with horny papill&aelig;, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It is to this second family, consisting of the American Bison, the
+Aurox, the Yak, and the domestic Ox, with its varieties, that the Jungly
+Gau undoubtedly belongs. It however differs from the first two in being
+entirely destitute of the thick shaggy mane; and, instead of the long
+silky hair of the third, it is clothed with close, short hair, equal in
+uniformity of texture to the sleekest of our domestic cattle. To judge
+from its general appearance, we might be even tempted to take it for a
+mere variety of the domestic species, so close is the resemblance. But
+the information furnished by M. Alfred Duvaucel, in the only description
+which has been given, leaves no doubt as to its being a new species.</p>
+
+<p>The following is M. Duvaucel's account:&mdash;"The horns of the Jungly Gau
+rise from the sides of the occiput, first outward, then forward, with a
+slight inclination backward of the upper extremity, forming a double
+lunation, and separated by a space which gradually diminishes as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+animal grows older; standing equally apart in every individual of the
+same age and sex; are round, except at their base, which is slightly
+compressed; and they become smoother as the animal advances in age.</p>
+
+<p>"The hump, which is characteristic of the generality of Indian oxen, is
+reduced in this to a slight prominence, extending to the middle of the
+back, and is covered with a grayish, woolly hair, rather longer than
+that on the other parts of the body, which spreads likewise over the
+occiput and the front. The rest of the hair is black except the legs,
+which are white from the knees downwards. The tail terminates in a large
+tuft of hair; and, in bulls of two or three years old, the under part of
+the neck is slightly furnished with long, black, silky hair.</p>
+
+<p>"The female is smaller than the male, with horns of a still less
+proportionate size. The front of the head, instead of being convex, as
+in the male, appears to be slightly depressed, in consequence of the
+superior elevation of the muzzle. The colour of the female is not so
+deep a black; the gray on the top of the neck and the shoulders extends
+to the sides, and the inferior part of the muzzle is white.</p>
+
+<p>"I have long entertained the opinion," continues M. Duvaucel, "that
+these oxen were essentially the same as the domestic&mdash;that they were
+both varieties of the same species; but this opinion was formed on the
+inspection only of such specimens as I had seen in the menagerie at
+Barracpour. Since that time, I have pursued them myself near the
+mountains of Sylhet; and I have likewise learned from various sources
+that they are as numerous and as generally diffused as the common
+Buffalo; but they appear to be wilder than the Buffalo, and not so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+bold, never approaching where man has established his dominion.
+Nevertheless, when caught, they are easily subdued, and become quite
+domesticated in a few months. The milk of this species is said to be
+more abundant and nourishing than that of any other."</p>
+
+<p>From all that is at present known respecting this animal, it is regarded
+by M. F. Cuvier as a new species added to the genus <i>Bos</i>; and, from the
+circumstance of its having been first seen in a wild state near the
+mountains of Sylhet, he has given it the specific name of <i>Sylhetanus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The animal represented in the following vignette is the Syrian Ox, which
+is considered as a variety of <i>Bos Taurus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-090.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE BUFFALO.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The animal generally known under the name of the <i>Common</i> Buffalo is
+evidently a different species from the <i>Cape</i> Buffalo. Much confusion,
+however, prevails in the accounts, both of travellers and naturalists,
+on the subject of these two animals. Descriptions of the one are mingled
+with descriptions of the other, and anecdotes are related of the one
+which, there is good reason for believing, ought to be referred to the
+other. It is highly probable that future and more accurate observations
+will show that more than one species has been confounded under the
+general epithets of "the common Buffalo," "the domestic Buffalo," "the
+tame Buffalo," or, more indeterminate still, "<i>the</i> Buffalo."</p>
+
+<p>The accounts furnished by travellers of the various animals in Asia and
+Africa, described by them as Buffaloes, are altogether vague and
+unsatisfactory, and frequently erroneous; not from any desire on the
+part of the authors to deceive, but merely because their observations
+have been made in the most careless and indifferent manner; and, in many
+instances, their information is obtained from the verbal communications
+of ignorant natives.</p>
+
+<p>In those descriptions which are confined to the Buffalo, as it at
+present exists in Italy and the south of Europe, tolerable reliance may
+be placed, as their character and habits are there well known, being of
+every day observation; yet, even in this case, little or nothing is
+known<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> of the anatomy of the animal, and its period of gestation has
+never been precisely stated. The following information on this latter
+point is given in Griffith's 'Cuvier,' (vol. iv, p. 383,) "Gestation <i>is
+said</i> to last twelve months, but <i>it appears</i> not to exceed ten."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE ITALIAN BUFFALO.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Bubalus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-092.jpg" width="600" height="364" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This animal is more bulky than the domestic Ox, and its limbs are
+stouter. The head is larger, in proportion to the size of the body, than
+that of the domestic Ox, and is generally carried with the muzzle
+projecting; the forehead is rather convex, and higher than broad; the
+horns are large, slightly compressed, and recline towards the neck, with
+the points turned up; dewlap of a moderate size.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Throughout the whole range of the Italian peninsula Buffaloes are used
+as beasts of burden, and their immense strength renders their services
+invaluable in the marshy and swampy districts, where the services of
+horses, or ordinary oxen, would be totally unavailing. The roads through
+which they are obliged to pass are frequently covered to a depth of two
+or three feet, through which they work their way with wonderful
+perseverance.</p>
+
+<p>On the great plain of Apulia the Buffalo is the ordinary beast of
+draught; and at the annual fair held at Foggia, at the end of May,
+immense droves of almost wild Buffaloes are brought to the town for
+sale. Fearful accidents occasionally happen; enraged animals breaking
+from the dense mass, in spite of all the exertions of their drovers, and
+rushing upon some object of their vengeance, whom they strike down, and
+trample to death. It is dangerous to overwork or irritate the Buffalo,
+and instances have been known in which, when released by the brutal
+driver from the cart, they have instantly turned upon the man and killed
+him on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>The following part of their history is remarkable: They appear to be
+most numerous, and to thrive best in those districts which are most
+infected with malaria. In the Pontine marshes they find a favorite
+retreat, and in the pestilential Maremma scarcely any other animals are
+to be seen. In the northern portions of Italy, where malaria is much
+less frequent than in the south. Buffaloes are to be found in the
+greatest numbers precisely in those localities where malaria is the most
+prevalent.</p>
+
+<p>They are particularly fond of the long rank herbage, which springs up in
+moist and undrained lands. In their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> habits they are almost amphibious,
+lying for hours half submerged in water and mud.</p>
+
+<p>When travellers make use of the name "common Buffalo," they are usually
+understood to mean an animal identical with the Italian species; if this
+really be the case, its geographical range must be very extensive. It is
+said to inhabit the extensive regions of Hindostan, China, Cochin-China,
+Malabar, Coromandel, Persia, and the Crimea; also Abyssinia, Egypt, and
+the south of Europe; to which may be added, most of the large islands in
+the Indian Sea.</p>
+
+<p>As an article of food, the flesh of this animal is inferior to the beef
+of the domestic Ox, but the milk of the female is particularly rich and
+abundant; the semi-fluid butter, called <i>ghee</i> in India, is made from
+it. According to the testimony of Colonel Sykes, the long-horned variety
+is reared in vast numbers in the Mawals, or hilly tracts lying along the
+Ghauts:&mdash;"In those tracts much rice is planted, and the male Buffalo,
+from his superior hardihood, is much better suited to resist the effects
+of the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the rice than the
+bullock. The female is also infinitely more valuable than the cow, from
+the very much greater quantity of milk she yields." The hide is also
+much valued for its strength and durability.</p>
+
+<p>In India they are used as beasts of burden; but the nature of the goods
+they carry must be such as will not suffer from being wet, as they have
+an invincible propensity to lie down in water. The native princes use
+them to fight with tigers in their public shows; and from their fierce
+and active nature, when excited, they frequently prove more than a match
+for their formidable assailants. With the native herdsman, however, they
+are generally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> docile: these men ride on their favorites, and spend the
+night with them in the midst of jungles and forests, without fear of
+wild beasts. When driven along, the herds keep close together, so that
+the driver, if necessary, walks from the back of one to the other,
+perfectly at his ease. In the south of Europe they are managed by means
+of a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India it is a
+mere rope.</p>
+
+<p>Their fierceness and courage are well exemplified in the following
+anecdote, related by Mr. D. Johnson in his interesting 'Sketches of
+Indian Field Sports:' "Two Biparies, or carriers of grain and
+merchandise on the backs of bullocks, were driving a loaded string of
+these animals from Palamow to Chittrah: when they were come within a few
+miles of the latter place, a tiger seized on the man in the rear, which
+was seen by a Guallah (herdsman), as he was watching his Buffaloes
+grazing. He boldly ran up to the man's assistance, and cut the tiger
+severely with his sword; upon which he dropped the Biparie, and seized
+the herdsman. The Buffaloes observing it, attacked the tiger, and
+rescued the herdsman; they tossed him about from one to the other, and,
+to the best of my recollection, killed him. Both the wounded men were
+brought to me; the Biparie recovered, and the herdsman died."</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of the Buffalo at Malabar, Dillon says, "It is an ugly animal,
+almost destitute of hair, goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens.
+Herds may be seen, as of common cows; and they afford milk, which serves
+to make butter and cheese. Their flesh is good, though less delicate,
+than that of the ox: the animal swims perfectly well, and traverses the
+broadest rivers. Besides the tame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> ones, there are wild Buffaloes, which
+are extremely dangerous, tearing men to pieces, or crushing them with a
+single blow of the head; they are less to be dreaded in woods than
+elsewhere, because their horns often catch in the branches, and give
+time for the persons pursued to escape by flight. The skins of these
+animals serve for an infinity of purposes, and even cruses are made of
+them for holding water or liquors. The animals on the coast of Malabar
+are all wild, and strangers are not prevented from hunting them for
+their flesh."</p>
+
+<p>Whether the animals alluded to, in all these cases, constitute only one
+species, or consist of several, the accounts which have been given of
+them (from their vagueness and want of precision) afford no means of
+deciding.</p>
+
+<p>The following tail-piece is a representation of the Herefordshire Cow,
+<i>Bos Taurus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-096.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+<h2>The Manilla Buffalo.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Bubalis?</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-097.jpg" width="600" height="304" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The animal which is represented in the above engraving, was living in
+the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, in 1846, at which time the sketch
+was taken.</p>
+
+<p>In size the Manilla Buffalo is about equal to the Kyloe Ox. The horns
+are of a similar shape, and take nearly the same direction, as those of
+the Italian Buffalo. They differ, however, from the horns of the Italian
+Buffalo in three particulars: first, in not being above half so thick or
+bulky; second, in having a much larger curve; and third, in being
+considerably more compressed, which compression exists throughout their
+entire length: the colour of the upper surface of the horn is lightish,
+on the lower side nearly black. The head is narrow, and the muzzle fine;
+the ears are long and nearly naked; the eyes large and bright, with a
+peculiarly timid and suspicious expression. The limbs are slender, and
+indeed the whole frame is slight, and seems to betoken greater speed
+than strength.</p>
+
+<p>We have a notable example of the uncertainty of framing generic
+characters, before the peculiar attributes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> of each species are known,
+in Griffiths' work, already referred to (vol. iv, p. 382). "Buffaloes
+<i>in general</i>" are there said to possess <i>strong and solid</i> limbs,
+<i>large</i> head, <i>broad</i> muzzle, <i>long</i> and slender tail, back <i>rather</i>
+straight. Here we have an animal (a Buffalo by universal consent) whose
+limbs are <i>slender</i>, head <i>small</i>, muzzle <i>fine</i>; whose tail is <i>not</i>
+long, and whose back is any thing but straight. The Cape Buffalo, also,
+(see p. 86,) has <i>rather</i> a small head, its tail is absolutely <i>short</i>,
+and its back has very considerable curvature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-098.jpg" width="450" height="445" alt="" title="" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The preceding outline of the backs of four Buffaloes will show how
+inappropriate the character of a <i>straight back</i> is, when applied to
+"Buffaloes <i>in general</i>." The lowest outline (5), inserted by way of
+contrast, represents the back of the Domestic Ox, to which the character
+of straight might very properly be applied. (1) Italian Buffalo. (2)
+Manilla Buffalo. (3) Pulo Condore Buffalo. (4) Cape Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p>Generic characters should be such (and such <i>only</i>) as will apply to
+every species included in the genus.</p>
+
+<p>The period of gestation of the Manilla Buffalo is between forty-eight
+and forty-nine weeks. In two actual cases of a female now living in the
+Zoological Gardens, the periods were, in the one case, 340 days, in the
+other, 341 days; being 70 days longer than the ordinary term of the
+domestic Cow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-099.jpg" width="450" height="358" alt="Head of Manilla Buffalo&mdash;female." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of Manilla Buffalo&mdash;female.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PULO CONDORE BUFFALO.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Bubalus?</i></h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-100.jpg" width="600" height="459" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Not much is known of the Buffalo which is found in the island of Pulo
+Condore. It is related by those navigators who completed the voyage to
+the Pacific Ocean, begun by Captain Cook, that when at Pulo Condore,
+they procured eight Buffaloes, which were to be conducted to the ships
+by means of ropes put through their nostrils and round their horns; but
+when they were brought within sight of the sailors, they became so
+furious that some of them tore out the cartilage of their nostrils, and
+set themselves at liberty. All attempts to get them on board would have
+proved fruitless, had it not been for some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> children, whom the animals
+would suffer to approach them, and by whose puerile management their
+rage was quickly appeased; and when the animals were brought to the
+beach, it was by their assistance, in twisting ropes around their legs,
+that the men were enabled to throw them down, and by that means get them
+into the boats. And what appears to have been no less singular than this
+circumstance was, that they had not been a day on board before they
+became perfectly gentle.</p>
+
+<p>Whether this be a distinct species, or merely a variety, we have not, at
+present, the least means of ascertaining.</p>
+
+<p>Osteology unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Period of gestation unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The tail-piece below represents a short-horned Bull of the Domestic
+species, <i>Bos Taurus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-101.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE CAPE BUFFALO.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Caffer.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-102.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This species of ox is only to be found in Africa, and is chiefly
+confined to the wooded districts lying north of the Cape of Good Hope.
+What Lavater endeavours to prove of the human being, namely, that the
+face is the index of the mind or disposition, may be applied, with at
+least equal truth, to the Cape Buffalo. His broad, projecting muzzle,
+lowering eyebrows, shaggy pendulous ears, surmounted by a pair of huge
+horns, give a look of bold determination to this animal, which forms a
+tolerably correct index of his character; his firm-set limbs and bulky
+body convey a no less adequate idea of his enormous strength.</p>
+
+<p>These animals are gregarious, living in small herds in the brushwoods or
+open forests, of Caffraria, occasionally uniting in large droves. Old
+bulls are often met with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> alone; but though they are fiercer than the
+young ones, they are less dangerous, because less active, and less
+inclined to exertion.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of observation, that the males of every species of the
+Genus Bos are remarkably bold and courageous, as are likewise the
+females when they have calves. It is not, therefore, surprising that the
+hunting of this animal should be attended with danger, and frequently
+with fatal consequences. The European colonists generally pursue the
+sport on horseback; but the Caffers and other natives, who are more
+active, and accustomed to the intricacies of the forest, prefer
+following the game on foot.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Thunberg, whilst investigating the interior of Caffraria, in
+1772, in company with a sergeant and a European gardener, who had
+resided in the colony some time, and who acted as guide on the occasion,
+met with the following perilous adventure:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"We had not advanced far into the wood," says the traveller, "before we
+had the misfortune of meeting with a large old male Buffalo, which was
+lying down quite alone, in a spot that was free from bushes for the
+space of a few square yards. He no sooner discovered Auge, the gardener,
+who went first, than, roaring horribly, he rushed upon him. The gardener
+turning his horse short round, behind a large tree, by that means got in
+some measure out of the Buffalo's sight, which now rushed straight
+forward towards the sergeant, who followed next, and gored his horse in
+the belly in such a terrible manner, that it fell on its back that
+instant, with its feet turned up in the air, and all its entrails
+hanging out, in which state it lived almost half an hour. The gardener
+and the sergeant,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> in the meantime, had climbed up into trees, where
+they thought themselves secure. The Buffalo, after this first
+achievement, still appeared to take his course in the same direction,
+and, therefore, could not have failed in his way to pay his compliments
+to me, who all the while was coming towards him, and, in the narrow pass
+formed by the boughs and branches of the trees, and on account of the
+rustling noise these made against my saddle and baggage, had neither
+seen nor heard anything of what had passed; as in my way I frequently
+stopped to take up plants, and put them into my handkerchief, I
+generally kept behind my companions.</p>
+
+<p>"The sergeant had brought two horses with him for the journey. One of
+them had already been despatched, and the other now stood just in the
+way of the Buffalo, who was going out of the wood. As soon as the
+Buffalo saw this second horse, he became more outrageous than before,
+and he attacked it with such fury, that he not only drove his horns into
+the horse's breast, and out again through the very saddle, but also
+threw it to the ground with such violence, that it died that very
+instant, and most of its bones were broken. Just at the moment that he
+was occupied with this latter horse, I came up to the opening, where the
+wood was so thick that I had neither room to turn my horse, nor to get
+on one side; I was, therefore, obliged to abandon him to his fate, and
+take refuge in a tolerably high tree, up which I climbed.</p>
+
+<p>"The Buffalo, having finished this his second exploit, suddenly turned
+round, and shaped his course the same way which we had intended to take.</p>
+
+<p>"From the height of my situation in the tree, I could plainly perceive
+one of the horses quite dead; the other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> sprawling with his feet, and
+endeavouring to rise, which it had not strength to do; the other two
+horses shivering with fear, and unable to make their escape; but I could
+neither see nor hear anything of my fellow-travellers, which induced me
+to fear that they had fallen victims to the first transports of the
+Buffalo's fury. I, therefore, made all possible haste to search for
+them, to see if I could, in any way, assist them; but not discovering
+any trace of them in the whole field of battle, I began to call out
+after them, when I discovered these magnanimous heroes sitting fast,
+like two cats, on the trees, with their guns on their backs, loaded with
+fine shot, and unable to utter a single word.</p>
+
+<p>"I encouraged them as well as I could, and advised them to come down,
+and get away as fast as possible from such a dangerous place, where we
+ran the risk of being once more attacked. The sergeant at length burst
+out into tears, deploring the loss of his two spirited steeds; but the
+gardener was so strongly affected, that he could scarcely speak for some
+days after."</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of a small settlement in the interior, he says: "Buffaloes were
+shot here by a Hottentot, who had been trained to the business by the
+farmer, and in this manner found the whole family in meat, without
+having recourse to the herd. The balls were counted out to him every
+time he went a shooting, and he was obliged to furnish the same number
+of dead Buffaloes as he received of balls. Thus the many Hottentots that
+lived here were supported without expense, and without the decrease of
+the tame cattle which constitute the whole of the farmer's wealth. The
+greatest part of the flesh of the Buffalo falls to the share of the
+Hottentots, but the hide to that of the master."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-106.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="Young Cape Buffalo." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Young Cape Buffalo.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Caffres, who at that time (1772) did not possess fire-arms, were,
+nevertheless, dextrous in the use of their javelins. When a Caffre has
+discovered a spot where several Buffaloes are assembled, he blows a
+pipe, made of the thigh-bone of a sheep, which is heard at a great
+distance. In consequence of this, several of his comrades run up to the
+spot, and surrounding the Buffaloes, at the same time approaching them
+by degrees, throw their javelins at them. In this case, out of ten or
+twelve Buffaloes, it is very rare for one to escape. It sometimes
+happens, however, that while the Buffaloes are running off, some one of
+the hunters, who stands in the way of them, is tossed and killed, which,
+by the people of this nation, is not much regarded. When the chase is
+over, each one takes his share of the game.</p>
+
+<p>Since the introduction of fire-arms by the Europeans, the natives, as
+well as the colonists, bring down the Buffalo by means of the gun.
+Nevertheless, great circumspection is required in following the sport,
+as the animal is sometimes capable of revenging himself even after being
+severely wounded. On one occasion a party of huntsmen discovered a small
+herd of Buffaloes grazing on a piece of marshy ground. As it was
+impossible to get near enough without crossing a marsh, which did not
+afford a safe footing for their horses, they left them in charge of the
+Hottentots, and proceeded on foot, thinking, that if the Buffaloes
+should turn upon them, it would be easy to retreat by crossing the
+quagmire, which, though firm enough to support a man, would not bear the
+weight of a Buffalo. They advanced accordingly, and, under shelter of
+the bushes, approached with such advantage, that the first volley
+brought down three of the fattest of the herd,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> and so severely wounded
+the great bull leader, that he dropped on his knees, bellowing most
+furiously. Supposing him mortally wounded, the foremost of the huntsmen
+issued from the covert, and began reloading his musket as he advanced,
+to give him a finishing shot; but no sooner did the enraged animal see
+his enemy in front of him than he sprang up, and ran furiously upon him.
+The man, throwing down his gun, fled towards the quagmire; but the beast
+was so close upon him, that, despairing to escape in that direction, he
+suddenly turned round a clump of copsewood, and began to ascend a tree.
+The raging animal, however, was too quick for him, and bounding forward
+with a tremendous roar, he caught the unfortunate man with his terrible
+horns, just as he had nearly escaped his reach, and tossed him into the
+air with such force, that the body fell dreadfully mangled into the
+cleft of a tree. The Buffalo ran round the tree once or twice,
+apparently looking for the man, until weakened with loss of blood, he
+again sank on his knees. The rest of the party, recovering from their
+confusion, then came up and despatched him, though too late to save
+their comrade, whose body was hanging in the tree quite dead.</p>
+
+<p>The length of a full-grown Buffalo is about eight feet from horns to
+root of tail, and the height five feet and a half. The horns are massive
+and heavy, measuring from six to nine feet, following the curve from tip
+to tip. They are broad at the base, and very nearly meet on the centre
+of the forehead. Hamilton Smith says, they are "in contact at the base;"
+but this is not the case in the several specimens which I have examined,
+namely, three in the College of Surgeons, four in the British Museum,
+and two in the Zoological Gardens.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the living specimen in the Zoological Gardens, from which the figure
+at the head of this article was taken, there is a good deal of hair of a
+dark brown colour on the neck and shoulders, and some small tufts on the
+fore-legs, but the rest of the body is almost naked. The tail is short,
+with a tuft at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The individual here referred to is by no means a large specimen, being
+only four feet ten inches high at the shoulders; probably he is young,
+and not yet full-grown. He is so active, as to be able to clear a
+four-feet fence, and he frequently leaps over the half-door (about three
+feet high,) which separates his little enclosure from his dormitory. His
+intelligence is much superior to that of ordinary cattle: the entrance
+to his apartment is furnished with four doors, two on each door-post;
+and when closed, they of course meet in the middle of the entrance. When
+he is outside, (as the doors all open inwardly,) a mere push with his
+horns sends them open. But when he is inside, it requires four distinct
+operations to shut them, and these he performs with the greatest
+adroitness, going from one to the other, until all are closed. He opens
+them also from within with equal skill, by applying the tip of one of
+his horns to each separately, and retiring a step or two to allow them
+room to open.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Cape Buffalo is reckoned excellent eating, especially
+that of the young calf, which is equal to the veal of the domestic calf.
+The horns are made into various articles, having a fine close grain, and
+taking a beautiful polish. But the hide is the most valuable part of
+this animal, being so thick and tough, that shields, proof against a
+musket-shot, are formed of it; and it affords the strongest and best
+thongs for harness and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> whips. The skin of the living Buffalo is so
+dense that it is impenetrable, in many parts, to an ordinary
+musket-ball; the balls used by the huntsmen are, therefore, mixed with
+tin, and even these are often flattened by the resistance. In examining
+the skeleton of this Buffalo, the ribs are found to be remarkably strong
+and wide&mdash;measuring from three inches to three inches and seven-tenths
+in width, and overlapping each other like the scales of a fish: the
+difficulty of wounding this animal may be partly owing to this
+arrangement of the ribs.</p>
+
+<p>Since the increase of the settlements about the Cape of Good Hope, the
+Buffalo has become rather a rare animal in the colony; but, on the
+plains of Caffraria, they are so common that herds of a hundred and
+fifty, or two hundred, may be frequently seen grazing together towards
+the evening, but during the day they lie retired among the woods and
+thickets. They range along the eastern side of Africa, to an unknown
+distance in the interior.</p>
+
+<p>Sparrman says that the period of gestation is twelve months.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-110.jpg" width="450" height="285" alt="Head of Cape Buffalo." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of Cape Buffalo.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE PEGASSE.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Pegasus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-111.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The above figure is copied from an engraving in the fourth volume of
+Griffiths' 'Cuvier,' of which the following account is given: "In the
+collection of drawings, formerly the property of Prince John Maurice of
+Nassau, now in the Berlin library, there is the figure of a ruminant
+with the name Pacasse written under it. Judging from the general
+appearance of the painting, it represents a young animal, although the
+horns are already about as long as the head. They are of a darkish
+colour, with something like ridges passing transversely, commencing at
+the sides of the frontal ridge, turned down and outwards, with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+points slightly upwards; the head is short, thick, abrupt at the nose;
+the forehead wide; the eyes large and full, dark, with a crimson
+canthus; the neck maned with a dense and rough mane; the tail descending
+below the hough, entirely covered with dark, long hair, appearing
+woolly; the carcass short, and the legs high and clumsy; but the most
+remarkable character appears to consist in pendulous ears, nearly as
+long as the head. The mane and tail are dark; the head, neck, body, and
+limbs dark brown, excepting the pastern joints, which are white; this
+figure cannot be referred to a known species, and is sufficiently
+curious to merit an engraving."</p>
+
+<p>Swainson says that this animal only occurs in the interior of Western
+Africa; but he does not mention on what authority.</p>
+
+<p>As the exploration of the interior of Africa is becoming an object of
+increasing importance and interest, we may expect, before long, to be
+furnished with some authentic details of the Pegasse, if such an animal
+really exist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-112.jpg" width="600" height="163" alt="Occipital View of Horns of Bos Caffer, from a Specimen
+in the Zoological Society&#39;s Museum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Occipital View of Horns of Bos Caffer, from a Specimen
+in the Zoological Society&#39;s Museum.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE GAUR, OR GOUR.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Gaurus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-113.jpg" width="600" height="343" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The above representation of this animal was sketched from a stuffed
+specimen in the British Museum, the dimensions of which are given on p.
+102.</p>
+
+<p>The following interesting particulars are taken from Mr. T. S. Traill's
+paper on the Gour, in the 'Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' October,
+1824.</p>
+
+<p>"The Gaur is considered by the Indians as of a species totally distinct
+from either the Arna or the common Buffalo. The only animal with which
+it appears to have affinity is the Gayal, or Bos Gav&aelig;us, described by
+Mr. Colebrook, in the 'Asiatic Researches,' vol. viii. That animal is
+said to exist, both wild and domestic, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> the hilly countries of Upper
+India, and to have a high dorsal ridge, somewhat similar to what we
+shall immediately find in the Gaur; but the very different form of its
+head, <i>the presence of a distinct dewlap</i>, and the general habit of the
+Gayal, appear sufficient to distinguish it from the Gaur.</p>
+
+<p>The Gaur occurs in several mountainous parts of central India, but is
+chiefly found in Myn Pat, or Mine Paut, (Pat or Paut, in Hindostanee,
+signifies table-land,) a high, insulated mountain, with a tabular
+summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South Bahar.</p>
+
+<p>This table-land is about 36 miles in length, by 24 or 25 in medial
+breadth, and rises above the neighbouring plains probably 2000 feet. The
+sides of the mountain slope with considerable steepness, and are
+furrowed by streams that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks of
+which are the favorite haunts of Gaurs. On being disturbed, they retreat
+into the thick jungles (of saul-trees), which cover the sides of the
+whole range. The south-east side of the mountain presents an extensive
+mural precipice from 20 to 40 feet high. The rugged slopes at its foot
+are covered by impenetrable green jungle, and abound with dens formed of
+fallen blocks of rock, the suitable retreats of Tigers, Bears, and
+Hy&aelig;nas. The western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is parched, and
+the forests seem withered by excess of heat. The summit of the mountain
+presents a mixture of open lawns and woods. There were once twenty-five
+villages on Myn Pat, but they have long been deserted, on account of the
+number and ferocity of the beasts of prey. On this mountain, however,
+the Gaur maintains his seat. The Indians assert that even the Tiger has
+no chance in combat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> with the full-grown Gaur, though he may
+occasionally succeed in carrying off an unprotected calf. The wild
+Buffalo abounds in the plains below the mountains; but he so much dreads
+the Gaur, according to the natives, that he rarely attempts to invade
+his haunts. The forests which shield the Gaur abound, however, in
+Hog-deer, Saumurs, and Porcupines.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the Gaur is its most striking peculiarity. The following
+measurement of one not fully grown will show the enormous bulk of the
+animal:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height from the hoof to the withers</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>11-3/4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length from nose to end of tail</td><td align='left'>11</td><td align='left'>11-3/4</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The form of the Gaur is not so lengthened as that of the Arna. Its back
+is strongly arched, so as to form a pretty uniform curve from the nose
+to the origin of the tail, when the animal stands still. This appearance
+is partly owing to the curved form of the nose and forehead, and still
+more to a remarkable ridge, of no great thickness, which rises six or
+seven inches above the general line of the back, from the last of the
+cervical to beyond the middle of the dorsal vertebr&aelig;, from which it
+gradually is lost in the outline of the back. This peculiarity proceeds
+from an unusual elongation of the spinous processes of the dorsal
+column. It is very conspicuous in the Gaurs of all ages, although loaded
+with fat; and has no resemblance to the hunch which is found on some of
+the domestic cattle of India. It bears some resemblance, certainly, to
+the ridge <i>described</i> as existing in the Gayal; but the Gaur is said to
+be distinguished from that animal by the remarkable peculiarity of a
+<i>total want of a dewlap.</i> Neither the male nor female Gaur, at any age,
+has the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> slightest trace of this appendage, which is found on every
+other known animal of this genus.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the Gaur is a very deep brownish black, almost approaching
+to blueish black, except a tuft of curling dirty white hair between the
+horns, and rings of the same colour just above the hoof. The hair over
+the skin is extremely short and sleek, and has somewhat of the <i>oily</i>
+appearance of a fresh seal-skin.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the head differs little from that of the domestic Bull,
+excepting that the outline of the face is more curved&mdash;the os-frontis
+more solid and projecting. The horns are short, thick at the base,
+considerably curved towards the tip, slightly compressed on one side,
+and in the natural state are rough. They are, however, capable of a good
+polish, when they are of a horn gray colour, with black solid tips. A
+pair in my possession measure one foot eleven inches along their convex
+sides; one foot from the centre of the base to the tip, in a straight
+line; and one foot in their widest circumference; but as they are cut
+and polished, a portion of their length and thickness has been lost.
+They are of a very dense substance, as their weight indicates, for even
+in their dressed state the pair weigh 5 lbs. 11 oz. avoirdupois.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-116.jpg" width="450" height="181" alt="" title="" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The limbs of the Gaur have more of the form of the deer than any other
+of the bovine genus. This is particularly observable in the acuteness of
+the angle formed by the tibia and tarsus, and in the slenderness of the
+lower part of the legs. They give the idea, however, of great strength
+combined with fleetness; and the animal is observed to <i>canter</i> with
+great velocity. The form of the hoof, too, is longer, neater, and
+stronger than in the ox, and the whole foot appears to have greater
+flexibility.</p>
+
+<p>When wounded the Gaur utters a short bellow, which may be best imitated
+by the syllable&mdash;ugh-ugh.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the Gaur will not live in a state of captivity; even
+when taken very young, the calf soon droops and dies. The bull-calf of
+the first year is called, by the natives, Purorah; the female, Pareeah;
+and when full-grown the cow is called Gourin.</p>
+
+<p>Gaurs associate in herds consisting usually of from ten to twenty
+animals. So numerous are they on Myn Pat, that, in one day hunting, the
+party computed that not less than eighty had passed through the station
+occupied by the sportsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The Gaurs browse on the leaves and tender shoots of trees and shrubs,
+and also graze on the banks of the streams. During the cold season they
+remain concealed in the <i>saul</i> forests, but in hot weather come out to
+feed in the green vallies and lawns, which occur on the mountain of Myn
+Pat. They show no disposition to wallow in mire or swamps, like the
+Buffalo; a habit, indeed, which the sleekness of their skins renders not
+at all probable.</p>
+
+<p>The period of gestation is said to be twelve months, and they bring
+forth usually in August."</p>
+
+<p>To the preceding observations of Dr. Traill, I have to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> add the
+important fact (which of itself will be sufficient to constitute a
+specific difference between the Gaur and the Gayal), namely, that in the
+skeleton of the Gaur there are only thirteen pairs of ribs, whilst the
+skeleton of the Gayal possesses fourteen pairs. This fact I have
+ascertained from an examination of both the skeletons; that of the Gaur
+in the museum of the Zoological Society, and that of the Gayal, in the
+possession of Mr. Bartlett, Russell Street, Covent Garden. (See p. 68.)</p>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the Gaur just referred to, strikingly confirms Dr.
+Traill's account of the elevated dorsal ridge of this animal; several of
+the dorsal vertebr&aelig; measuring, with their spinous processes, upwards of
+seventeen inches each, the longest being twenty inches and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The Gaur, from which this skeleton was taken, was killed at Nicecond,
+November 8, 1843. There is another fine specimen of the skull and horns
+of the Gaur, in the Museum of the Zoological Society, taken from an
+animal killed by Lieut. Nelson, on the Neilsburry Hills, Salem district.
+This animal measured nineteen hands and half an inch at the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>Dimensions of the Figure in the British Museum:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'> In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length from nose to insertion of tail, measuring over the forehead and along the back</td><td align='left'>11</td><td align='left'>0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at the highest part of the dorsal ridge</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Height at the croup</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of the tail</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In Mr. D. Johnson's Sketches, the Gaur is described as a kind of wild
+bullock, of prodigious size, residing in the Ramghur district, not well
+known to Europeans. Mr. Johnson says: "I have never obtained a sight of
+them,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> but have often seen the print of their feet, the impression of
+one of them covering as large a space as a common china plate. According
+to the account I received from a number of persons they are much larger
+than the largest of our oxen; light brown colour, with short horns, and
+inhabit the thickest covers. They keep together in herds, and a herd of
+them is always near the Luggo-hill; they are also in the heavy jungles
+between Ramghur and Nagpoor. I saw the skin of one that had been killed
+by Rajah Futty Narrain; its exact size I do not recollect, but I well
+remember that it astonished me, having never seen the skin of any animal
+so large. Some gentlemen at Chittrah have tried all in their power to
+procure a calf without success. The Shecarries and villagers are so much
+afraid of these animals, that they cannot be prevailed on to go near
+them, or to endeavour to catch any of their young. It is a prevailing
+opinion in the country, that if they are in the least molested, they
+will attack the persons disturbing them, and never quit them until they
+are destroyed; and should they get into a tree, they will remain near it
+for many days."</p>
+
+<p>The word Gau, or Ghoo, as it is sometimes spelled by European writers,
+appears to be used both as a generic and specific term, in Persia and
+Hindostan; and as it has the same meaning, and nearly the same sound, as
+the German word <i>Kuh</i>, and the English <i>Cow</i>, it is highly probable that
+its origin is the same. As the word <i>ur</i>, in Hindostan, appears to have
+the meaning of <i>wild</i>, or <i>savage,</i> the name Gaur, or Gau-ur, literally
+signifies the <i>wild cow.</i> Should the prefix <i>aur</i>, in the German word
+<i>Aurochs</i>, be merely a form, or different mode of spelling the prefix
+<i>ur,</i> then the name <i>Aurochs</i> would be precisely synonymous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> with the
+Hindostanee <i>Gau-ur</i>. That <i>aur</i> is, in this instance, merely a
+different spelling of the prefix <i>ur</i>, would appear to be corroborated
+by the circumstance that the term <i>Urus</i> is the latinized form of the
+German <i>Aurochs</i>.&mdash;<i>From a MS. Note by Mr. W. A. Chatto.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-120.jpg" width="450" height="327" alt="Head of Gaur, from the stuffed Specimen in the British
+Museum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of Gaur, from the stuffed Specimen in the British
+Museum.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE ARNEE, OR ARNA.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-121.jpg" width="600" height="487" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It does not appear, that the Arnee had been noticed by Europeans until
+the year 1792, when the following detailed account appeared in a weekly
+Miscellany, called '<i>The Bee</i>,' conducted by Dr. J. Anderson.</p>
+
+<p>This animal is hitherto unknown among the naturalists of Europe. It is a
+native of the higher parts of Hindostan, being scarcely ever found lower
+down than the Plains of Plassy, above which they are found in
+considerable numbers, and are well known by the natives.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The figure, which is given at the end of this article, is copied from a
+curious Indian painting, in the possession of Gilbert Innes, of Stow. It
+forms one of a numerous group of figures, represented at a grand Eastern
+festival. There are two more of them in the same painting. In this and
+both the others, the horns bend inwards in a circular form; and it would
+seem, too, that if a transverse section of the horn was made at any
+place, that also would be circular. But this is a defect in the
+painting, for although all the horns of the Arnee tribe bend in a
+circular form, yet if the horn be cut transversely, the section is not
+circular, but rather of a triangular shape. The horns of the Arnee rise
+in a curve upwards, nearly in the same plane with the forehead, neither
+bending forward nor backward. That part of the horn which fronts you
+when the animal looks you in the face, is nearly flat, having a ridge
+projecting a little forward all along, nearer the outer curvature of the
+horn; from that ridge outward it goes backward, not at right angles, but
+bending a little outward; and near the back part there is another obtuse
+rounded ridge, where it turns inward, so as to join another obtuse,
+rounded angle, at the inner curvature of the horn. Along the whole
+length, especially toward the base of the horn, there are irregular
+transverse dimples, or hollows and rugosities, more nearly resembling
+those of a ram, than that of a common ox's horn, but no appearance of
+rings, denoting the age of the animal, as in the horns of our cattle.</p>
+
+<p>This description of the horns is taken from a pair of real horns of the
+animal, now in the possession of Mr. James Haig, merchant in Leith, that
+were sent home to him this year (1792) by his brother, Mr. W. Haig, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+the 'Hawkesbury' East-Indiaman, and of which the following cut
+represents a front view. The little figure marked <i>a</i>, represents a
+section of the horn near its base.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-123.jpg" width="450" height="373" alt="(1).&mdash;Horns of young Arnee&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a
+Foot." title="" />
+<span class="caption">(1).&mdash;Horns of young Arnee&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a
+Foot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this young specimen (1) the length of the skull is exactly two feet,
+and the distance between the tops of the horns thirty-five inches. In
+the following sketch (2) from the Museum of the College of Surgeons, the
+length of the skull is likewise two feet, and the distance between the
+tips of the horns three feet four inches and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The young animal just referred to, was found in a situation near which
+no other animal of this sort had ever before been discovered: it was
+killed by the crew of the 'Hawkesbury,' in the river Ganges, about fifty
+miles below Calcutta, at the place where the ships usually lie.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh was eaten by the ship's company, by whom it was considered
+very good meat. Although conjectured to be only two years old, it
+weighed, when cut up, 360 lbs. the quarter, which is 1440 lbs. the
+carcase, exclusive of head, legs, hide, and entrails.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-124a.jpg" width="450" height="322" alt="(2).&mdash;Horns of Arnee.&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot." title="" />
+<span class="caption">(2).&mdash;Horns of Arnee.&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-124b.jpg" width="450" height="283" alt="(3).&mdash;Horns of Arnee.&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot." title="" />
+<span class="caption">(3).&mdash;Horns of Arnee.&mdash;Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This last sketch (3) is from a pair of horns in the British Museum, of
+which the following are the dimensions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The horn <i>a</i>, from tip to base, along the outer curve</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The horn <i>b</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ditto&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ditto</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference at the base of horn <i>a</i></td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ditto&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ditto of horn <i>b</i></td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>6<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>The Arnee is by far the largest animal of the Ox tribe yet known. In its
+native country <i>it is said</i> to measure usually twelve, sometimes
+fourteen, feet from the ground to the highest part of the back! The one
+in the vignette, p. 111, comparing it with the man on its back, would
+not seem to be quite so tall.</p>
+
+<p>From the appearance of the three Arnees in the painting before
+mentioned, it would seem that they are quite docile, and easily tamed;
+for they are all standing quietly, with a person on their back, who
+guides them by means of a rein, formed of a cord fastened to the gristle
+of the nose, in the Eastern manner. The colour of the animal, in all the
+three figures, is a pure black, except between the horns, where there is
+a small tuft of longish hair of a bright red colour.</p>
+
+<p>From the accounts of more recent travellers, there seem to be two or
+three varieties of this animal, which exist, both in a wild and domestic
+state, in China as well as India.</p>
+
+<p>According to Major Smith, the gigantic or Taur-elephant Arnee, appears
+to be rare; found only single, or in small families, in the upper
+eastern provinces and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> forests at the foot of the Himalaya. A party of
+officers of the British Cavalry, stationed in the north of Bengal, went
+on a three months' hunting expedition to the eastward, and destroyed in
+that time forty-two Tigers, and numerous wild Buffaloes, but only one
+Arnee. When the head of this specimen rested perpendicularly on the
+ground, it required the out-stretched arms of a man to hold the points
+of the horns. These are described as angular, with the broadest side to
+the rear; the two others anterior and inferior; they are of a brownish
+colour, and wrinkled; standing outwards, and not bent back; straight for
+near two thirds of their length, then curving inwards, with the tips
+rather back. The face is nearly straight, and the breadth of the
+forehead is carried down with little diminution to the foremost grinder.</p>
+
+<p>There is a spirited figure of a long-horned Buffalo in Captain
+Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports,' which Major Smith considers to be
+a representation of the great Arnee; and of which Captain Williamson
+relates the following anecdote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The late Dr. Baillie, who was a very keen and capable sportsman, used,
+in my idea, to run many very foolish risks among Buffaloes. I often
+remonstrated with him on his temerity, but he was so infatuated, that it
+was all to no purpose. One morning, as we were riding on the same
+elephant to the hunting-ground, to save our horses as much as possible,
+we saw a very large Buffalo lying on the grass, which was rather short
+and thin; as usual, the doctor would have a touch at him, and, heedless
+of my expostulation, dismounted with his gun. The Buffalo, seeing him
+approach, rose and shook his head as a prelude to immediate hostilities.
+My friend fired, and hit him on the side.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> The enraged brute came
+thundering at the doctor, who lost no time in running round to the
+opposite side of the elephant; the <i>mohout</i>, at the same time, pushed
+forward, to meet and screen him from the Buffalo, which absolutely put
+his horns under the elephant's belly, and endeavoured to raise him from
+the ground. We had no other gun, and might, perhaps, have felt some more
+severe effects from the doctor's frolic, had not the Buffalo, from loss
+of blood, dropped at our side. The Buffalo was upwards of six feet high
+at the shoulder, and measured nearly a yard in breadth at the chest. His
+horns were above five feet and a half in length."</p>
+
+<p>In systems of classification, even of very recent date, the Arnee is
+considered merely as a variety of the Buffalo. It appears to me,
+however, that our information on the subject is not yet sufficiently
+precise to determine this point.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-127.jpg" width="600" height="416" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> In Shaw's 'Zoology,' it is mentioned that a Mr. Dillon saw
+some horns in India which were ten feet long.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE ZAMOUSE, OR BUSH COW.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Brachyceros.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-128.jpg" width="450" height="408" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>[The following extract, from the 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii, p.
+284, is from the pen of Mr. J. E. Gray.]</p>
+
+<p>"Captain Clapperton and Colonel Denham, when they returned from their
+expedition in Northern and Central Africa, brought with them two heads
+of a species of Ox, covered with their skins. These heads are the
+specimens which are mentioned in Messrs. Children and Vigors' accounts
+of the animals collected in the expedition, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> belonging to the
+Buffalo, <i>Bos Bubalus</i>, and they are stated to be called <i>Zamouse</i> by
+the natives; but, as no particular locality is given for the head, this
+name is probably the one applied to the common Buffalo, which is found
+in most parts of North Africa.</p>
+
+<p>"Having some years ago compared these heads with the skull of the common
+Buffalo, <i>Bos Bubalus</i>, and satisfied myself, from the difference in the
+form and position of the horns, that they were a distinct species, in
+the 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' for 1837 (new series, vol. i, p. 589), I
+indicated them as a new species, under the name of <i>Bos Brachyceros</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"In the course of this summer (1838), Mr. Cross, of the Surrey
+Zoological Gardens, received from Sierra Leone, under the name of the
+<i>Bush Cow</i>, a specimen which serves more fully to establish the species.
+It differs from the Buffalo and all other oxen in several important
+characters, especially in the large size and particular bearding of the
+ears, and in being totally deficient in any dewlap. It also differs from
+the Buffalo in its forehead, being flatter and quite destitute of the
+convex form which is so striking in all the varieties of that animal.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Cross's cow is, like the head in the Museum, of a nearly uniform
+pale chesnut colour. The hair is rather scattered, and nearly
+perpendicular to the surface of the body. The legs, about the knees and
+hocks, are rather darker. The ears are very large, with two rows of very
+long hairs on the inner side, and a tuft of long hairs at the tips. The
+body is short and barrel-shaped, and the tail reaches to the hocks,
+rather thin and tapering, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The
+chest is rounded and rather dependent, but without the least appearance
+of a dewlap; and the horns nearly resemble those of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> Museum
+specimen, but are less developed, from the sex and evidently greater
+youth of the animal. The Rev. Mr. Morgan informs me that the animal is
+not rare in the bush near Sierra Leone.</p>
+
+<p>"I have added a slight sketch of Mr. Cross's animal, which I hope will
+enable any person to distinguish this very distinct and interesting
+addition to the species of this useful genus."</p>
+
+<p>The engraving at the head of this article is a reduced copy of Mr.
+Gray's figure just alluded to. The following representation of the head
+is from a specimen in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-129.jpg" width="450" height="310" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE MUSK OX.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Moschatus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-130.jpg" width="450" height="331" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The Musk-ox, in its external appearance, more nearly resembles the Yak
+of Thibet than any other member of the Bos genus; and they both inhabit
+mountainous districts near regions of perpetual snow.</p>
+
+<p>The horns of the Musk Bull are remarkably broad at their bases, which
+are closely united; they bend down on each side of the head, with an
+outward curve turning upwards towards their ends, which taper to a sharp
+point. They are two feet long measured along the curvature, and two feet
+in girth at the base; the weight of a pair of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> horns is sometimes
+sixty pounds. The broad base of the horn is hollow on the inside, and of
+a form approaching to a square; when this is separated from the head and
+the other part of the horn, it forms a convenient dish, which is very
+generally used by the native Esquimaux for many domestic purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The horns of the cow are nine inches distant from each other at the
+base, and are placed exactly on the sides of the head; they are thirteen
+inches long, and eight or nine inches round at the base.</p>
+
+<p>The head and the body generally is covered with very long silky hairs of
+a dark colour; some of which are seventeen inches long; on the middle of
+the back (which is broad and flat), the hair is lighter and not so long.
+Beneath the long hairs, in all parts, there is a thick coat of cinereous
+wool of exquisite fineness. M. Jeramie brought some to France, of which
+stockings were made more beautiful than silk.</p>
+
+<p>The tail is only three inches long, and completely covered with very
+long hairs, so as to be undistinguishable to the sight. Of this tail,
+the Esquimaux of the northwest side of Hudson's Bay, make a cap of a
+most horrible appearance, for the hairs fall all round their heads, and
+cover their faces; yet it is of singular service in keeping off the
+musquitoes, which would otherwise be intolerable.</p>
+
+<p>The ears are only three inches long, quite erect, and sharp pointed, but
+dilate much in the middle; they are thickly lined with hair of a dusky
+colour, marked with a stripe of white.</p>
+
+<p>The frog in the hoof is soft, partially covered with hair, and
+transversely ribbed. The following sketch represents<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> the under surface
+of the foot of the Musk-ox, the external hoof being rounded, the
+internal pointed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-133.jpg" width="450" height="242" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The foot-marks of the Musk-ox and those of the rein-deer are so much
+alike, that it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish
+them. The mark of the Musk-ox's hoof, however, is a little narrower.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Musk-ox is the same with that of the rein-deer&mdash;lichens
+and grass; and sometimes twigs and shoots of willow, birch, and pine.</p>
+
+<p>At present this animal is not found in a lower latitude than 66&deg;; but
+formerly they came much further to the south; and their flesh used to be
+brought by the natives to Fort Churchill in latitude 58&deg;. It would
+appear that they are retiring northward, probably owing to the alarm
+created by the attacks made upon them by fire-arms. It is worthy of
+remark, that the American Bison has also retreated considerably to the
+north. According to Dr. Richardson, the Musk-ox inhabits the North
+Georgian Islands in the summer months. They arrive in Melville Island in
+the middle of May, crossing the ice from the southward, and quit it on
+their return towards the end of September.</p>
+
+<p>The Musk-oxen, like the Bison, herd together in bands, and generally
+frequent barren grounds during the summer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> months, keeping near the
+rivers; but retire to the woods in winter. They seem to be less watchful
+than most other wild animals; and when feeding are not difficult of
+approach, provided the hunters go against the wind. When two or three
+men get so near a herd as to fire at them from different points, these
+animals, instead of separating or running away, huddle closer together,
+and in this case they are easily shot down; but if the wound is not
+mortal, they become enraged, and dart in the most furious manner at the
+hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade them; for, notwithstanding
+the shortness of their legs, they can run with great rapidity, and climb
+hills and rocks, with great ease. They can defend themselves by their
+powerful horns against wolves and bears, which, as the Indians say, they
+not unfrequently kill.&mdash;(Capt. Franklin's 'Journey to the Polar Sea.')</p>
+
+<p>They are hunted in their winter retreats by the Esquimaux only, the
+Indian tribes never visiting the barren grounds at that season.</p>
+
+<p>When the Musk-ox is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and it is then
+preferred by the Copper Indians to the rein-deer. The flesh of bulls is
+high-flavoured; but both bulls and cows smell strongly of musk, their
+flesh at the same time being very dark and tough. The contents of the
+paunch, and other intestinal parts, are relished as much by the Indian
+as the similar parts of the rein-deer.&mdash;(Appendix to Capt. Parry's
+'Second Voyage.')</p>
+
+<p>The weight of the bulls killed during Capt. Parry's Second Voyage was,
+on an average about 700 lbs., yielding about 400 lbs. of meat. Their
+height, at the withers, was about ten hands and a half.</p>
+
+<p>They were observed by Capt. Franklin's party to rut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> in the end of
+August and beginning of September; and Hearne says, that they bring
+forth one calf in the latter end of May, or beginning of June; thus the
+period of gestation is about nine months.</p>
+
+<p>The figure at the beginning of this article, as well as the following
+cut of the head, are from the beautiful specimen of the Musk Ox, in the
+British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-135.jpg" width="450" height="338" alt="Head of Musk Ox." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Head of Musk Ox.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE SANGA, OR GALLA OX.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>(See Frontispiece). Bos &mdash;&mdash;?</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>This singular animal is only found in Abyssinia, and is famous on
+account of its horns, which are of an almost incredible size.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce the traveller, in speaking of these horns, says, "The animal
+furnishing these monstrous horns is a cow or bull which would be
+considered of a middling size in England. This extraordinary size of its
+horns proceeds from a disease that the cattle have in these countries,
+of which they die, and is probably derived from their pasture and
+climate. When the animal shows symptoms of this disorder, he is set
+apart in the very best and quietest grazing place, and never driven or
+molested from that moment. His value lies then in his horns, for his
+body becomes emaciated and lank, in proportion as the horns grow large;
+at the last period of his life, the weight of his head is so great that
+he is unable to lift it up, or at least for any space of time. The
+joints of his neck become callous at last, so that it is not any longer
+in his power to lift his head. In this situation he dies, with scarcely
+flesh to cover his bones, and it is then his horns are of the greatest
+value. I have seen horns that would contain as much as a common sized
+water-pail, such as they make use of in the houses in England."<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+<p>So far Mr. Bruce. Mr. Salt, who visited Abyssinia some years afterwards,
+gives a somewhat different account. He says: "Here [<i>i. e.</i> at Gibba],
+for the first time, I was gratified by the sight of the Galla Oxen, or
+Sanga, celebrated throughout Abyssinia for the remarkable size of its
+horns. Three of these animals were grazing among the other cattle in
+perfect health, which circumstance, together with the testimony of the
+natives, 'that the size of the horns is in no instance occasioned by
+disease,' completely refutes the fanciful theory given by Mr. Bruce
+respecting this creature. It appears by the papers annexed to the last
+edition of Mr. Bruce's work, that he never met with the Sanga; but that
+he made many attempts to procure specimens of the horns, through Yanni,
+a Greek, residing at Adowa. This old man very correctly speaks of them,
+in his letters, as being only brought by the Cafilas from Antalo; and I
+have now ascertained that they are sent to this country as valuable
+presents, by the chiefs of the Galla, whose tribes are spread to the
+southward of Enderta. So far, then, as to the description of the horns,
+and the purposes to which they are applied by the Abyssinians, Mr.
+Bruce's statements may be considered as correct; but with respect to
+'the disease which occasions their size, probably derived from their
+pasture and climate,' 'the care taken of them to encourage this
+disease,' 'the emaciation of the animal,' and 'the extending of the
+disorder to the spine of the neck, which at last becomes callous, so
+that it is not any longer in the power of the animal to lift its head,'
+they all prove to be mere ingenious conjectures, thrown out by the
+author solely for the exercise of his own ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>"I should not venture to speak so positively upon this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> matter, had I
+not indisputably ascertained the facts; for the Ras having subsequently
+made me a present of three of these animals alive, I found them not only
+in excellent health, but so exceedingly wild, that I was obliged to have
+them shot. The horns of one of these are now deposited in the Museum of
+the Surgeons' College, and a still larger pair are placed in the
+collection of Lord Valentia, at Arley Hall. The length of the largest
+horn of this description was nearly four feet, and its circumference at
+the base twenty-one inches.</p>
+
+<p>"It might have been expected that the animal, carrying horns of so
+extraordinary a magnitude, would have proved larger than others
+belonging to the same genus; but in every instance which came under my
+observation, this was by no means the case. The etching on the following
+page, which was copied from an original sketch (taken from the life),
+may serve to convince the reader of this fact; and it will convey a
+better idea of the animal than any description in writing I can pretend
+to give. I shall only further observe, that its colour appeared to vary
+as much as in the other species of its genus, and that the peculiarity
+of the size of the horns was not confined to the male, the female being
+very amply provided with this ornamental appendage to her forehead."</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the bold and confident tone of Mr. Salt's
+counter-statement, it must be confessed, that the figure which he
+himself gives from the life (and of which the frontispiece to this
+volume is an exact copy), seems rather to coincide with Mr. Bruce's
+account, being, to all appearance, both "lank and emaciated."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Engraving of the horns presented by Mr. Salt to the
+Museum of the College of Surgeons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-139.jpg" width="450" height="310" alt="Horns of Galla Ox." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Horns of Galla Ox.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Ft.</td><td align='left'>In.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Length of each round the outer curve</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>10-1/2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance between the tips</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Circumference at the base</td><td align='left'>1</td><td align='left'>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance between the bases at the forehead</td><td align='left'>0</td><td align='left'>3-1/2</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The Sanga is usually considered as a mere variety of <i>Bos Taurus</i>. This
+may possibly be the fact; but we have no proof whatever that it is so:
+no information on this point has been presented beyond mere conjecture.
+This being the case, and in the absence of direct anatomical evidence,
+we may be pardoned in considering it, at least, as doubtful; especially
+as there are so many points of external dissimilarity. The principal
+differences are: 1st, in the shoulder, upon which there is a hump; 2d,
+in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> back, which descends (as in the Buffaloes and Zebus), abruptly
+towards the tail; 3d, in the greater length of the legs; and 4th, in the
+forehead, which is only three inches and a half between the bases of the
+horns, whilst in the Common Ox it is nine inches.</p>
+
+<p>The horns represented in the following sketch, are those of the
+Hungarian Ox (a variety of <i>Bos Taurus</i>), and are almost as remarkable
+for their length and expansion as those of the Abyssinian Sanga. The
+length of each horn is three feet four inches and a half, and the
+distance between the tips is five feet one inch. The sketch is from a
+specimen in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-140.jpg" width="450" height="287" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Jerom Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, mentions that some
+of the horns of the Buffaloes of that country will hold ten quarts.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDIAN DOMESTIC CATTLE.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos &mdash;&mdash;?</i></h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE ZEBU, OR BRAHMIN OX.&mdash;(<i>Var. &#945;.</i>)</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-141.jpg" width="600" height="406" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The opinions expressed in the following extract from Mr. Bennett's
+description of the Indian Ox (Gardens and Menag. of the Zool. Soc.), may
+be taken as a correct exposition of the views of naturalists generally
+on the subject:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"There can be little doubt that the Zebu, or Indian Ox, is merely a
+variety of the Common Ox, although it is difficult to ascertain the
+causes by which the distinctive characters of the two races have been in
+the process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> time gradually produced. But whatever the causes may
+have been, their effects rapidly disappear by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations. This
+intermixture and its results would alone furnish a sufficient proof of
+identity of origin; which, consequently, scarcely requires the
+confirmation to be derived from the perfect agreement of their internal
+structure, and of all the more essential particulars of their external
+confirmation. These, however, are not wanting; not only is their
+anatomical structure the same, but the form of their heads, which
+affords the only certain means of distinguishing the actual species of
+this genus from each other, presents no difference whatever. In both the
+forehead is flat, or more properly slightly depressed; nearly square in
+its outline, its height being equal to its breadth; and bounded above by
+a prominent line, forming an angular protuberance, passing directly
+across the skull between the bases of the horns. The only circumstances
+in fact in which the two animals differ, consists in the fatty hump on
+the shoulders of the Zebu, and in the somewhat more slender and delicate
+make of its legs."</p>
+
+<p>In a scientific work, it is not sufficient for the author merely to make
+an assertion; it is not even sufficient for him to say that he has made
+an experiment or observation, and merely give the result; he should, in
+every case where it is practicable, describe the nature of his
+experiment,&mdash;the <i>when</i>, the <i>where</i>, the <i>how</i>;&mdash;and the means and
+opportunity he had of making his observations, that the curious or
+sceptical inquirer may be enabled to perform the experiment, or make the
+observation for himself.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bennett tells us, that the differences observable in the Indian Ox
+and the Common Ox "<i>rapidly</i> disappear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations;" but he
+does not refer to a single instance of this, authentic or otherwise; nor
+are we aware that any such instance ever occurred.</p>
+
+<p>Again, he states that "their anatomical structure is the same;" but he
+does not inform us when, or where, or how, the comparison was made which
+enabled him to arrive at that conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Wishing to satisfy myself, as far as possible, on this point, I have
+examined the skeleton both of the British Domestic Ox and the Zebu; and
+the following is the result of that examination:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td colspan="7">NUMBER OF VERTEBR&AElig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Cerv.</td><td align='left'>Dors.</td><td align='left'>Lumb.</td><td align='left'>Sac.</td><td align='left'>Caud.</td><td align='left'>Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In the Zebu</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>13</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>4</td><td align='left'>18</td><td align='left'>=</td><td align='left'>48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>In the Common Ox</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>13</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>21</td><td align='left'>=</td><td align='left'>52</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The skeletons may still be seen in the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, the period of gestation of the Brahmin Cow (according to
+the MS. records of the Zoological Society), is 300 days, while that of
+the Common Cow is only 270 days.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the differences here pointed out are sufficient to constitute
+specific distinction, is left for the umpires to decide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-144.jpg" width="600" height="404" alt="THE ZEBU.&mdash;(Var. &#946;.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE ZEBU.&mdash;(Var. &#946;.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These Indian Cattle are extremely gentle, and admirably adapted to
+harness. Some of the eastern princes attach them to their artillery; but
+generally they employ the finest to draw their light carriages, which in
+form are very similar to those of the ancients. In mountainous
+countries, they have them shod. Their pace is a kind of amble, and they
+are able to sustain a journey of about twenty leagues a day. Guided by a
+cord which passes through the nasal cartilage, they obey the hand with
+as much precision as a horse.</p>
+
+<p>In the same provinces are seen a race of dwarf Bisons, which are
+scarcely as tall as our calves of two months old, generally described
+under the name of <i>Zebu</i>. They are lively, well proportioned, and
+trained to be mounted by children, or to draw a light car. In both cases
+their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> pace is a sort of amble, the same as that of the larger species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/illus-145.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Zebus (Var. &#947;) and Car." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Zebus (Var. &#947;) and Car.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The curious Hindoo customs in relation to this animal have been recorded
+by almost every traveller.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the horse, the sheep, nor the goat, have any peculiar sanctity
+annexed to them by the Braminical superstition; it is otherwise with the
+cow, which in India is everywhere regarded with veneration, and is an
+object of peculiar worship. Representations of objects are made upon the
+walls with cow-dung, and these enter deeply into their routine of daily
+observances. The same materials are also dried, and used as fuel for
+dressing their victuals; for this purpose the women collect it, and bake
+it into cakes, which are placed in a position where they soon become dry
+and fit for use. The sacred character of the cow probably gives this
+fuel a preference to every other in the imagination of a Hindoo, for it
+is used in Calcutta, where wood is in abundance.</p>
+
+<p>On certain occasions it is customary for the Hindoos to consecrate a
+bull as an offering to their deities; particular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> ceremonies are then
+performed, and a mark is impressed upon the animal, expressive of his
+future condition to all the inhabitants. No consideration will induce
+the pious Bengalee to hurt or even control one of these consecrated
+animals. You may see them every day roaming at large through the streets
+of Calcutta, and tasting rice, grain, or flour in the Bazar, according
+to their pleasure. The utmost a native will do, when he observes the
+animal doing too much honour to his goods, is to urge him, by the
+gentlest hints, to taste of the vegetables or grain of his neighbour's
+stall. (<i>Tennant's 'Indian Recreations.'</i>)</p>
+
+<p>One of the doctrines of the Brahmins is to believe that kine have in
+them somewhat of sacred and divine; that happy is the man who can be
+sprinkled over with the ashes of a cow, burnt by the hand of a Brahmin;
+but thrice happy is he who, in dying, lays hold of a cow's tail and
+expires with it between his hands; for thus assisted, the soul departs
+out of the body purified, and sometimes returns into the body of a cow.
+That such a favour, notwithstanding, is not conferred but on heroic
+souls, who contemn life, and die generously, either by casting
+themselves headlong from a precipice, or leaping into a kindled pile, or
+throwing themselves under the holy chariot wheels, to be crushed to
+death by the Pagods, when they are carried in triumph about the
+town.&mdash;(<i>Life of St. Francis Xavier, translated by Dryden, 1688.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<h4>AFRICAN AND OTHER VARIETIES.</h4>
+
+<p>In Shaw's Zoology, the following species or varieties are noticed:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>LOOSE-HORNED OX.</h4>
+
+<p>This is said to be found in Abyssinia and in Madagascar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> and is
+distinguished by pendulous ears, and horns <i>attached only to the skin,
+so as to hang down on each side</i>!</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BOURY.</h4>
+
+<p>Of the size of a camel, and of a snowy whiteness, with a protuberance on
+the back, is a native of Madagascar and some other islands.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TINIAN OX.</h4>
+
+<p>Of a white colour, with black ears. Inhabits the island of Tinian.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick mentions that in Persia there are many oxen entirely white, with
+small blunt horns and humps on their backs. They are very strong, and
+carry heavy burdens. When about to be loaded, they drop down on their
+knees like the Camel, and rise again when their burdens are properly
+fastened.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE BORNOU OX,</h4>
+
+<p>which Col. Smith considers a distinct species, is likewise white, of a
+very large size, with hunched back, and very large horns, which are
+couched outwards and downwards, like those of the African Buffalo, with
+the tip forming a small half-spiral revolution. The corneous external
+coat is very soft, distinctly fibrous, and at the base not much thicker
+than a human nail; the osseous core full of vascular grooves, and inside
+very cellular, the pair scarcely weighing four pounds. The skin passes
+insensibly to the horny state, so that there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences or the other ends. The dimension of a horn
+are:&mdash;length measured on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> curve, three feet seven inches;
+circumference at base, two feet; circumference midway, one foot six
+inches; circumference two thirds up the horn, one foot; length in a
+straight line, from base to tip, one foot five inches and a half. The
+species has a small neck, and is the common domestic breed of Bornou,
+where the Buffalo is said to have small horns.</p>
+
+<p>Leguat, in his 'Voyages in 1720,' states that the oxen are of three
+sorts at the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and very active;
+some have a hump on the back, others have the horns long and pendent,
+while others have them turned up and well shaped, as in English cattle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-148.jpg" width="600" height="398" alt="Zebu.&mdash;(Var. &#948;.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Zebu.&mdash;(Var. &#948;.)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE DOMESTIC OXEN OF THE HOTTENTOTS, CALLED BACKELEYS, BACKELEYERS, OR
+BAKELY-OSSE.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos &mdash;&mdash;?</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>The following particulars relating to these Oxen are taken from the
+highly interesting work '<i>The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope</i>,'
+by Peter Kolben, who visited that colony in 1705, and remained there
+during a period of eight years.</p>
+
+<p>"The Hottentots have a sort of oxen they call Backeleyers, or fighting
+oxen; they use them in their wars, as some nations do elephants; of the
+taming and farming of which last creatures upon the like discipline the
+Hottentots as yet know nothing. They are of great use to them, too, in
+the government of their herds at pasture; for, upon a signal from their
+commanders, they will fetch in stragglers, and bring the herds within
+compass. They will likewise run very furiously at strangers, and
+therefore are of good defence against the Buschies, or robbers who steal
+cattle. They are the stateliest oxen of the herd: every Kraal has
+half-a-dozen of these oxen at the least. When one of them dies, or grows
+so old, that, being unfit for business, his owner kills him, a young one
+is chosen out of the herd to succeed him, by an ancient Hottentot, who
+is judged best able to discern his capacity for instruction. This young
+ox is associated with an old Backeleyer, and taught, by blows and other
+means, to follow him. At night they tie them together by the horns; and
+for some part of the day they fasten them together in the same manner,
+till at length, by this and I know not what other means, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> young ox
+is fully instructed, and becomes a watchful guardian of the herds, and
+an able auxiliary in war.</p>
+
+<p>"The Backeleyers (so called from the Hottentot word Backeley for war)
+know every inhabitant of the Kraal they belong to, men, women, and
+children, and pay them all just the same respect that is paid by a dog
+to every person who dwells in his master's house. Any of the inhabitants
+may, therefore, at any time present themselves very safely on any side
+of the herds; the Backeleyers will in nowise offend them. But if a
+stranger, especially a European, shall approach the herds, without the
+company of a Hottentot of the Kraal they belong to, he must look sharp
+to himself; for these Backeleyers, which generally feed at the skirts of
+the herds, quickly discover him, and make at him upon a full gallop. And
+if he is not within hearing of any of the Hottentots who keep the herds,
+or has not a fire-arm, or a light pair of heels, or there is not a tree
+at hand which he can immediately climb, he is certainly demolished. The
+Backeleyers mind not sticks or the throwing of stones at them. This is
+one great reason why the Europeans always travel the Hottentot countries
+with fire-arms. But the first thing a European does, upon the appearance
+of such an enemy, is to shout and call to the Hottentots that look to
+the herds. The Hottentot that hears him hastens to his assistance,
+making all the way a very shrill whistling through his fingers. The
+Backeleyers no sooner hear the whistling of their keepers, which they
+very well know, than they stop, turn about, and return leisurely to the
+herds.</p>
+
+<p>"But if a European, in such a case, does not (upon his shouting and
+calling to the keepers), hear the whistle, before the Backeleyers come
+up with him, he discharges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> his fire-arm,&mdash;frightened with the report of
+which, the Backeleyers run away.</p>
+
+<p>"I have been often run at by the Backeleyers myself. As soon as I saw
+them sallying out upon me, I shouted and called to the keepers. But I
+could not often make them hear before the Backeleyers came up with me,
+when I have been obliged to discharge my fire-arm (for I always carried
+one about with me), upon which they always turned about and left me.</p>
+
+<p>"In the wars of the Hottentots with one another, these Backeleyers make
+very terrible impressions. They gore, and kick, and trample to death,
+with incredible fury. Each army has a drove of them, which they take
+their opportunity to turn upon the enemy. And if an army, against which
+the Backeleyers are sent, is not alert and upon all its guard, these
+creatures quickly force their way through it, tearing, shattering, and
+confounding all the troops that oppose them, and paving for their
+masters an easy way to victory. The courage of these creatures is
+amazing; and the discipline upon which they are formed does not a little
+honour to the Hottentot genius and dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>"The Hottentots have likewise great numbers of oxen for carriage. These,
+too, are very strong and stately creatures, chosen out of the herds, at
+about the age of two years, by old men, well skilled in cattle. When
+they have destined an ox to carry burdens, they take and throw him on
+his back on the ground; and fastening his head and feet with strong
+ropes to stakes firmly fixed in the ground, they make a hole with a
+sharp knife through his upper lip, between his nostrils. Into this hole
+they put a stick, about half an inch thick, and a foot and a half long,
+with a hook at top to prevent its falling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> through. By this hooked stick
+they break him to obedience and good behaviour; for if he refuses to be
+governed, or to carry the burdens they lay upon him, they fix his nose
+by this hooked stick to the ground, and there hold it till he comes to a
+better temper.</p>
+
+<p>"It is an exquisite torture to an Ox to be fastened to the ground by the
+nose in this manner. He is not, therefore, long exercised this way,
+before he gets a notion of his duty, and becomes tractable. After which,
+the very sight alone of the stick, when he is wanton or refractory, will
+humble and reduce him to the will of his driver. The terror of this
+stick, likewise makes the carriage oxen so attentive to the words of
+command the Hottentots use to them, that they quickly conceive and, ever
+while they live, afterwards retain the intention of them. I have a
+thousand times been surprised at the ready obedience the carriage oxen
+have paid to a Hottentot's bare words. They are as quick at
+apprehending, and as exact in performing the orders of their driver, as
+is any taught dog in Europe at conceiving and accomplishing the orders
+of his master. The stick&mdash;the terrible stick&mdash;makes them all attention
+and diligence."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+<h2>AFRICAN BULL.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following notice, which will explain itself, appeared in Loudon's
+'Magazine of Natural History,' for July, 1828.</p>
+
+<p>"Some Account of a particular Variety of Bull (<i>Bos Taurus</i>), now
+exhibiting in London. By Mrs. Harvey.</p>
+
+<p>"Sir,&mdash;Agreeably to your request, Mr. Harvey has taken a portrait of
+this animal; and as he has made the drawing on the wood himself, the
+engraving will be a very perfect resemblance.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> I have, on my part,
+drawn up the following particulars, from what my husband told me, and I
+shall be happy if they prove of any interest to you or your readers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-153.jpg" width="600" height="335" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>"This animal belongs to a French woman, who says he was brought from
+Africa to Bordeaux when a calf; and, after having been shown in
+different parts of the Continent, was taken to London, and exhibited at
+the Grand Bazaar in King's Street, Portman Square, last autumn. He is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+at present five years old, four feet high at the shoulder and seven feet
+in length, from the horns to the insertion of the tail. The length of
+his face is one foot eight inches, and the girth round the collar seven
+feet six inches. His hair is short and silky, and the colour a cream or
+yellowish white, except two black tufts which appear on each foot. On
+the back of the neck there is a hump or swelling, which seems confined
+to this variety. The general aspect of the animal is mild and docile;
+but, when irritated, his expression is very remarkable, exhibiting
+itself principally in the eye. This, in its ordinary state, is very
+peculiar, (fig. 1, <i>a</i>,) rising more than one-half above the orbit, and
+bearing a resemblance to a cup and ball, thus enabling the animal to see
+on all sides with equal ease. The iris is naturally of a pale blue
+colour; but, when the animal is irritated, it varies from a very pale
+blue or lilac to a deep crimson. Its form is also very remarkable, being
+a small oval, or rather a parallelogram, with the ends cut off, and
+lying transversely across the ball, (fig. 1, <i>b</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-154a.jpg" width="450" height="189" alt="Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-154b.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The black tufts, mentioned above, are the lateral hoofs (fig. 2), which
+the animal sheds annually, and which grow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> to the length of five or six
+inches. They are not shed together, or at stated periods; for those of
+the fore-feet, (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,) in this example, are at present of different
+ages, and, consequently, of different lengths; the difference between
+them being exactly that represented in the sketch.</p>
+
+<p>"On the hump or collar, the hair grows much longer than on the other
+parts of the body, forming a sort of curled mane, resembling, I should
+imagine, that of the Bison. It is perfectly white, growing to the length
+of one foot six inches, and adding greatly to the height of the rising
+part behind the horns. At present the hair is only beginning to grow;
+but it will be in full beauty at the approach of the winter months, and
+will fall off gradually again in the early part of the succeeding spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-155.jpg" width="450" height="150" alt="Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The keeper pointed out to Mr. Harvey, as a remarkable peculiarity, that
+the dewlap (fig. 3), in passing between the fore-legs (<i>a</i>), and under
+the body (<i>b</i>), seemed to divide itself into three parts, which they
+called the three stomachs, (1, 2, 3,) from their being very much acted
+on in the progress of digestion."</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I remain. Sir, &amp;c.<br /></span>
+<span class="i4"><span class="smcap">M. Harvey.</span><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes,
+hoofs, and dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's
+originals.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHILLINGHAM WHITE CATTLE.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Taurus.&mdash;Restricted Variety.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-156.jpg" width="600" height="444" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Considerable interest has always been connected with the history of
+those herds of white cattle which have been kept secluded, apparently
+from time immemorial, in the parks of some of our aristocracy.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> It has
+been, and still is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> a matter of lordly pride to their noble owners,
+that these cattle are held to be of a distinct and untameable race.</p>
+
+<p>Feeling a full share of the interest attached to them, and anxious to
+gain the most accurate and circumstantial information, I was induced to
+pay a visit, during the summer of 1845, to the beautifully wooded and
+undulating Park of Chillingham, in which a herd of these cattle is
+preserved; and, although I have not been able to gather material for a
+perfect history of these animals, I think it will not be difficult to
+show that matters respecting them have been set forth as facts which are
+fictions; and that from some points of their history which have been
+correctly detailed, inferences have been drawn, which are by no means
+warranted by the facts.</p>
+
+<p>In endeavouring to point out these errors and false reasonings, it will
+be necessary to make quotations from the old history of the white
+cattle, in Culley's 'Observations on Live Stock,' which has been so
+often repeated in works on natural history, and is, moreover, so
+thoroughly accredited, that it may now appear something like presumption
+to call it in question. To what extent it is called in question on the
+present occasion, and the reasons for so doing, will be seen in the
+running commentary which accompanies these quotations.</p>
+
+<p>Culley says: "The Wild Breed, from being untameable,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> can only be kept
+within walls or good fences; consequently very few of them are now to be
+met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for
+ornament, and as a curiosity: those I have seen are at Chillingham
+Castle, in Northumberland, a seat belonging to the Earl of Tankerville."</p>
+
+<p>The statement of their being untameable is a mere assertion, founded
+upon no evidence whatever. But so far is it from being the fact, that,
+notwithstanding every means are used to preserve their wildness, such as
+allowing them to range in an extensive park&mdash;seldom intruding upon
+them&mdash;hunting and shooting them now and then&mdash;notwithstanding these
+means are taken to preserve their wildness, they are even now so far
+domesticated as voluntarily to present themselves every winter, at a
+place prepared for them, for the purpose of being fed. From which it may
+reasonably be concluded, that were they restricted in their pasture,
+gradually familiarised with the presence of human beings, and in every
+other respect treated as ordinary cattle, they would, in the course of
+two or three generations, be equally tame and tractable.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst writing the foregoing I was not aware that any attempt had been
+made to domesticate these so-called untameable oxen; but on reading an
+account of these cattle by Mr. Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+(bearing date about 1837,) I find the following paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>"By taking the calves at a very early age, and treating them gently, the
+present keeper succeeded in domesticating an ox and a cow. <i>They became
+as tame as domestic animals</i>, and the ox fed as rapidly as a
+short-horned steer. He lived eighteen years, and when at his best was
+computed at 8 cwt. 14 lbs. The cow only lived five or six years. She<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+gave little milk, but the quality was rich. She was crossed by a country
+bull, but her progeny very closely resembled herself, being entirely
+white, excepting the ears, which were brown, and the legs, which were
+mottled." These facts speak for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Culley, in giving their distinguishing characteristics, says: "Their
+colour is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the whole of the
+inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside, from the tips
+downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent
+upwards; some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a
+half, or two inches long."</p>
+
+<p>That their colour is invariably white is simply owing to the care that
+is taken to destroy all the calves that are born of a different
+description. It is pretty well known to the farmers about Chillingham
+(although pains are taken to conceal the fact,) that the wild cows in
+the park not unfrequently drop calves variously spotted. With respect to
+the redness of the ears, this is by no means an invariable character,
+many young ones having been produced without that distinctive mark; and
+Bewick records, that about twenty years before he wrote, there existed a
+few in the herd with <i>black</i> ears, but they were destroyed. So far from
+the character here given of the horns being confined to those white
+cattle, it is precisely the description of the horns of the Kyloe oxen,
+or black cattle. The investiture of some of the bulls with a mane is
+equally gratuitous; Cole, who was park-keeper for more than forty years,
+and of course had ample means of observation, distinctly informed me
+that they had no mane, but only some curly hair, about the neck, which
+is likewise an attribute of the Kyloe Oxen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Culley goes on to say: "From the nature of their pasture, and the
+frequent agitation they are put into by the curiosity of strangers, it
+is scarce to be expected that they should get very fat; yet the six
+years old oxen are generally very good beef, from whence it may be
+fairly supposed, that in proper situations they would feed well."</p>
+
+<p>It would naturally be inferred from this, that the park in which they
+are kept is visited by strangers every day, who are allowed to drive
+them about, and disturb them in their feeding and ruminating, as boys
+hunt geese or donkeys on a common. This, however, is so far from being
+the case, that it frequently happens that the park is not visited for
+many weeks in succession, and certainly on an average it is not visited
+once a week. What is here meant by "the nature of their pasture," and
+"in proper situations they would feed well," it is difficult to say. The
+fact is, their pasture is both good and extensive, and they feed as well
+as animals always do who are left to themselves with plenty of food.</p>
+
+<p>Their behaviour to strangers is thus described: "At the first appearance
+of any person, they set off at full speed, and gallop a considerable
+distance, when they make a wheel round, and come boldly up again,
+tossing their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden, they make a full
+stop, at a distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the
+object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being made, they
+turn round again, and gallop off with equal speed; but forming a shorter
+circle, and, returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect, they
+approach much nearer, when they make another stand, and again gallop
+off. This they do several times, shortening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> their distance, and
+approaching nearer, till they come within a few yards, when most people
+think it prudent to leave them."</p>
+
+<p>In the instance in which I had an opportunity of witnessing their method
+of receiving visitors, the fashion was somewhat different. The
+park-keeper who accompanied me described, as we rode through the park in
+quest of them, what would be their mode of procedure on our approach.
+This he did from observations so repeatedly made, as to warrant him in
+saying that it was their invariable mode. It was perfectly simple, and I
+found it precisely as he had described it. When we came in sight of
+them, they were tranquilly ruminating under a clump of shady trees, some
+of the herd standing, others lying. On their first observing us, those
+that were lying rose up, and they all then began to move <i>slowly</i> away,
+not exactly to a greater distance from us, but in the direction of a
+thickly wooded part of the park, which was as distant on our left as the
+herd was on our right. To reach this wooded part they had to pass over
+some elevated ground. They continued to walk at a gradually accelerating
+pace, till they gained the most elevated part, when they broke out into
+a trot, then into a canter, which at last gave way to a full gallop, a
+sort of "devil-take-the-hindmost" race, by which they speedily buried
+themselves in the thickest recesses of the wood. What they may have done
+in Mr. Culley's time, we must take upon that gentleman's word; but at
+present, and for so long as the present park-keeper can recollect, they
+have never been in the habit of describing those curious concentric
+circles of which Mr. Culley makes mention in the last quotation.</p>
+
+<p>The late mode of killing them is described as "perhaps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> the only modern
+remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that
+a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood came mounted and armed with guns, &amp;c., sometimes to the
+amount of a hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon
+walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the
+rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and
+shot. At some of these huntings twenty or thirty shots have been fired
+before he was subdued. On these occasions the bleeding victim grew
+desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of
+savage joy that were echoing from every side. But from the number of
+accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised
+of late years, the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a
+rifled gun at one shot."</p>
+
+<p>This vivid portraiture of a scene, which the writer is pleased to
+consider <i>grand</i>, does not appear to have much relation to the history
+of the <i>Genus Bos</i>: it however, exhibits the brutal and ferocious habits
+of two varieties of <i>Genus Homo</i>, namely <i>Nob</i>ility and <i>Mob</i>ility&mdash;two
+varieties which, although distinguished by some external marks of
+difference, possess in common many questionable characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Culley proceeds:&mdash;"When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a
+week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them
+two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap
+their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide
+themselves; <i>this is a proof of their native wildness</i>, and is
+corroborated by the following circumstance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> that happened to Mr. Bailey,
+of Chillingham, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean and
+very weak. On stroking its head it got up, pawed two or three times like
+an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and bolted at
+his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed,
+stepped back, and bolted as before; but knowing its intention, and
+stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could
+not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough: the
+whole herd were alarmed, and, coming to its rescue, obliged him to
+retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without
+attacking them with impetuous ferocity."</p>
+
+<p>It seems almost unnecessary to remind the reader that all animals are
+naturally wild; and that even those animals that have been the longest
+under the dominion of man, are born with a strong tendency to the wild
+state, to which they would immediately resort, if left to themselves: it
+appears, therefore, rather gratuitous to tell us that the <span class="smcap">natural</span>
+<i>actions of young animals</i> (whose parents have been allowed to run
+wild), <i>are proofs of their native mildness</i>!</p>
+
+<p>The concluding paragraph requires no observation:&mdash;"When a calf is
+intended to be castrated, the park-keeper marks the place where it is
+hid, and, when the herd are at a distance, takes an assistant with him
+on horseback; they tie a handkerchief round the calf s mouth, to prevent
+its bellowing, and then perform the operation in the usual way. When any
+one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or
+sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following engraving exhibits the effects of castration on the
+curvature and length of the horns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-164.jpg" width="450" height="320" alt="1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the
+emasculated animal." title="" />
+<span class="caption">1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the
+emasculated animal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We learn, on the authority of the present Lord Tankerville, that during
+the early part of the life-time of his father, the bulls in the herd had
+been reduced to three; two of them fought and killed each other, and the
+third was discovered to be impotent; so that the means of preserving the
+breed depended on the accident of some of the cows producing a bull
+calf.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844 I wrote to Mr. Cole, the late park-keeper at Chillingham,
+requesting information on the following queries, to which he returned
+the answers annexed; and although they are not so explicit as might be
+wished, they embody facts both interesting and important.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>List of the Queries with their Answers.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. How many pairs of ribs are there in the skeleton of the Chillingham
+Ox? <i>Thirteen pairs.</i></p>
+
+<p>2. How many vertebr&aelig; are there (from the skull to the end of the tail)?
+<i>Thirty in the back-bone, twenty in the tail.</i></p>
+
+<p>3. Will the wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle? <i>I have had two
+calves from a wild bull and common cow.</i></p>
+
+<p>4. What is the precise time the wild cow goes with young? <i>The same as
+the domestic cow.</i></p>
+
+<p>5. At what age does the curly hair appear which constitutes the mane of
+the wild bull? <i>They have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and
+head; more so in winter, when the hair is long.</i></p>
+
+<p>6. In what month does the rutting take place among the wild cattle? <i>At
+all times,&mdash;no particular time.</i></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">J. Cole.</span><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Here we have precise information on the following points:&mdash;namely, the
+number of ribs; the period of gestation; their having no mane; their not
+being in heat at any particular period; in all which points, they
+perfectly agree with the ordinary domestic cattle; and it is important
+to observe, that in the last point, namely, that of not being in heat at
+any particular time, they differ from every known <i>wild</i> species of
+cattle, among which the rutting season invariably occurs at a particular
+period of the year.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in
+England and Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still
+preserved at the following places:&mdash;Chillingham Park, Northumberland;
+Wollaton, Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall,
+Cheshire; Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton,
+Lanarkshire.
+</p><p>
+At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears,
+which are <i>brown</i>.
+</p><p>
+From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild
+Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century,
+William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the
+forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in
+its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down
+to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like
+those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, with <i>black muzzles and
+ears</i>; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not
+easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE KYLOE, OR HIGHLAND OX.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Bos Taurus.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-166.jpg" width="600" height="339" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chillingham Cattle are <i>white</i>, and the Highland Cattle or Kyloes
+are generally <i>black</i>; but with this exception the same description
+might almost serve for both breeds.</p>
+
+<p>In their natural and unimproved state, the Highland cattle are
+frequently well formed; their fine eyes, acute face, and lively
+countenances, give them an air of fierceness, which is heightened by
+their white, tapering, black-tipped, and sharp horns.</p>
+
+<p>The Kyloe Oxen are very small (another respect in which they resemble
+the Chillingham Oxen). They likewise partake much of the nature of wild
+animals, which might be expected from the almost unlimited extent of
+their pasture, and their being but little subject to artificial
+treatment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Upon a close comparison of these two breeds, there appears not to be so
+much difference between the Highland cattle and the cattle of
+Chillingham as there is between any two breeds or varieties of British
+cattle. Indeed so great is the similarity, that the Kyloe appears to be
+only a black variety of the Chillingham Ox, and the Chillingham Ox only
+a white variety of the Kyloe.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Anderson speaks of having seen a kind of Highland cattle which had a
+mane on the top of the head, of considerable length, and a tuft between
+the horns that nearly covered the eyes, giving them a fierce and savage
+aspect. He likewise mentions another kind which have hair of a pale lead
+colour, very beautiful in its appearance, and in its quality as glossy
+and soft as silk.</p>
+
+<p>The Kyloe Oxen are natives of the Western Highlands and Isles, and are
+commonly called the Argyleshire breed, or the breed of the Isle of Skie,
+one of the islands attached to the county of Argyle. They are generally
+of a dark brown colour, or black, though sometimes brindled.</p>
+
+<p>The Cows of the Isle of Skie (as is recorded by Martin, in his
+'Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,') are exposed to the
+rigour of the coldest seasons, and become mere skeletons in the spring,
+many of them not being able to rise from the ground without help; but
+they recover as the season becomes more favorable, and the grass grows
+up; then they acquire new beef, which is both sweet and tender; the fat
+and lean is not so much separated in them as in other cows, but as it
+were larded, which renders it very agreeable to the taste. A cow in this
+isle may be twelve years old, when at the same time its beef is not
+above four, five, or six months old.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF THE NUMBER OF VERTEBR&AElig; IN THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> Cerv.</td><td align='left'> Dors.</td><td align='left'> Lumb.</td><td align='left'> Sacr.</td><td align='left'> Caud.</td><td align='left'> Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>American Bison</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 12+</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>European Bison, or Aurochs</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Yak</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gayal (Domestic)</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 16</td><td align='left'> 47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gayal (Asseel).</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gyall</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Jungli Gau</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Italian Buffalo.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indian Buffalo.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Skeleton of Buffalo in Surg. Coll. (locality unknown)</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 16</td><td align='left'> 47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gaur</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domestic Ox</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 21</td><td align='left'> 52</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Condore Buffalo</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manilla Buffalo</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pegasse</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arnee</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cape Buffalo</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Zamouse (<i>Bos Brachyceros</i>)</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 20</td><td align='left'> 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Banteng of Java (<i>Bos Bantinger</i>)</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Zebu, or Brahmin Ox</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Galla Ox.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Backeley (<i>Caffraria</i>).</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Musk Ox</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The osteological details in the above Table (except those of the Yak,
+which are given on the authority of Pallas) are from the Author's own
+observations.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+<h2>TABLE OF THE PERIODS OF GESTATION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS
+BOS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> Periods</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>American Bison.</td><td align='left'> 270 days.&mdash;Zool. Proc., 1849.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>European Bison.</td><td align='left'> Between 9 and 10 months.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gayal (Domestic)</td><td align='left'> Over 10 months</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gyall</td><td align='left'> 11 months</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indian Buffalo</td><td align='left'> 10 months 10 days.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gaur</td><td align='left'> 12 months</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domestic Ox.</td><td align='left'> 270 days</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manilla Buffalo.</td><td align='left'> 340 days</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arnee</td><td align='left'> 12 months</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cape Buffalo</td><td align='left'> 12 months</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Zebu, or Brahmin Cow</td><td align='left'> 300 days</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Musk Ox</td><td align='left'> 9 months</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>To supply the deficiencies in the foregoing Tables, the results of
+original observations are respectfully solicited. Address the Author or
+Publisher.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+<h2>NOTE ON THE AMERICAN BISON.</h2>
+
+
+<p>It was Cuvier, I believe, who first made the statement, that the
+American Bison is furnished with <i>fifteen</i> pairs of ribs. In this
+particular he has been implicitly followed by every subsequent writer on
+the subject. Not being able to refer to a skeleton, and, moreover, never
+suspecting any inaccuracy in the statement, I followed the received
+account. But since this work has gone to press, I have had the
+opportunity of examining two skeletons, by which I find that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The American Bison has only</i> <span class="smcap">fourteen</span> <i>pairs of ribs.</i></p>
+
+<p>I have, therefore, in the "Table of the Number of Vertebr&aelig;," (see p.
+152,) set this species down as possessing only that number.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two skeletons referred to (both of which are now in the British
+Museum), one is from a female Bison, some years a living resident in the
+Zoological Gardens; and the other is from a male, late in the possession
+of the Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, in Lancashire.</p>
+
+<p>A corroborative circumstance (amounting, indeed, to a complete proof of
+the accuracy of these observations,) is presented by the fact, that, in
+both the cases <i>the number of lumbar vertebr&aelig; is precisely</i> <span class="smcap">five</span>; thus
+making the true vertebr&aelig; to consist of nineteen, which Professor Owen<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a>
+has shown to be the invariable number possessed by all ruminants.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society,
+Professor Owen's 'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+
+<h3>THE FREE MARTIN.</h3>
+
+<p>Cows usually bring forth but one calf at a birth; occasionally, however,
+they produce twins. John Hunter, in his 'Observations on the Animal
+Economy,' says: "It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally
+understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a
+bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit
+for propagation; but the bull-calf grows up into a very proper bull.
+Such a cow-calf is called, in this country, a <span class="smcap">Free Martin</span>, and is
+commonly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. It has
+all the external marks of a cow-calf, namely, the teats, and the
+external female parts, called by farmers the bearing. It does not show
+the least inclination for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the
+least notice of it. In form it very much resembles the Ox, or spayed
+heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the cow,
+having the horns very similar to the horns of an Ox. The bellow of the
+Free Martin is similar to that of an Ox, having more resemblance to that
+of the cow than that of the bull."</p>
+
+<p>Free Martins are very much disposed to grow fat with good food. The
+flesh, like that of the Ox or spayed heifer, is generally much finer in
+the fibre than either the bull or cow; is even supposed to exceed that
+of the Ox and heifer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price
+at market. However this superiority of the flavour does not appear to be
+universal, for Mr. Hunter was informed of a case which occurred in
+Berkshire, in which the flesh of a Free Martin turned out nearly as bad
+as bull beef. This circumstance probably arose from the animal having
+more the properties of a bull than a cow.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hunter, having had many opportunities of dissecting Free Martins,
+has satisfactorily shown that their incapacity to breed, and all their
+other peculiarities, result from their having the generative organs of
+both sexes combined, in a more or less imperfect state of development,
+in some cases the organs of the male preponderating, in others those of
+the female.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-172.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The above, which is copied from an engraving in Hunter's work on the
+'Animal Economy,' is a representation of a Free Martin, five years old;
+it shows the external<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> form of that animal, which is neither like the
+bull nor cow, but resembling the Ox or spayed heifer.</p>
+
+<p>Although, as Hunter observes, "it is almost universally understood, that
+when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the
+other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation,"
+it is by no means universally the fact, as instances of such twins
+breeding were known even in Hunter's time, and have been witnessed more
+recently. The following is recorded in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. History,'
+and occurred a few years previous to 1826: Jos. Holroyd, of Withers,
+near Leeds, had a cow which calved twins, a bull-calf and a cow-calf. As
+popular opinion was against the cow-calf breeding, it being considered a
+Free Martin, Mr. Holroyd was determined to make an experiment of them,
+and reared them together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer
+brought forth a bull-calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven
+years afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>"If," says Hunter, "there are such deviations as of twins being perfect
+male and female, why should there not be, on the other hand, an
+hermaphrodite, produced singly, as in other animals? I had the
+examination of one which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have
+been a single calf; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from
+having found a number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the
+circumstance of their birth being ascertained."</p>
+
+<p>If Hunter had carried this reasoning a little further, he might have
+asked,&mdash;Why should there not be a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite,
+produced in the case of twins, when they are both apparently males, or
+both apparently females? Had he done this, he would not, probably,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> have
+made the following observation: "I need hardly observe, that if a cow
+has twins, and they are both bull-calves, they are in every respect
+perfect bulls; or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows."
+What is this but saying that a bull-calf is a bull-calf, and a cow-calf
+is a cow-calf? For a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, is not, in any case,
+either a bull or a cow.</p>
+
+<p>There does not appear to be anything known of the peculiar circumstances
+under which, what is termed a Free Martin is produced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-174.jpg" width="450" height="311" alt="Skull of Domestic Ox." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skull of Domestic Ox.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most general observation that can be made on the subject appears to
+be, that cows sometimes produce calves, which, by reason of their
+imperfectly developed generative system, are incapable of procreating.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SHORT-NOSED OX.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/illus-175.jpg" width="450" height="344" alt="Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common Ox, originally taken over to America by the early Spanish
+settlers, now runs wild in immense herds on the Pampas, where it is
+hunted and slain for its hide. Some idea may be formed of the immensity
+of these herds, from the circumstance that nearly a million of hides are
+annually exported from Buenos Ayres and Monte Video to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the herds in these wild regions have undergone a most singular
+modification of the cranium, consisting in a shortening of the nasal
+bones, together with the superior and inferior maxillaries. There is a
+skull of this variety in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, of which
+the above is a sketch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>ON THE UTILITY OF THE OX TRIBE TO MANKIND.</h3>
+
+<p>How eminently serviceable to man these animals are, is shown in the
+following table, in which are set forth the most important uses to which
+their various parts are applied:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skin.</span>&mdash;The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons
+constructed their boats with osiers, and covered them with the hides of
+bulls; and these boats were sufficiently strong to serve for short
+coasting voyages. Similar vessels are still in use on the Irish lakes,
+and in Wales on the rivers Dee and Severn. In Ireland they are called
+<i>curach</i>, in England <i>coracles</i>, from the British <i>cwrwgl</i>, a word
+signifying a boat of that structure.</p>
+
+<p>Boots, shoes, harness, &amp;c. for horses, and various kinds of travelling
+trunks are made from hides when tanned. The skin of the calf is
+extensively used in the binding of books, and the thinnest of the calf
+skins are manufactured into vellum. The skin of the Cape Buffalo is made
+into shields and targets, and is so hard that a musket ball will
+scarcely penetrate it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hair.</span>&mdash;The short hair is used to stuff saddles and other articles; also
+by bricklayers in the mixing up of certain kinds of mortar. It is
+likewise frequently used in the manuring of land. The <i>long</i> hair from
+the tail is used for stuffing chairs and cushions. The hair of the Bison
+is spun into gloves, stockings, and garters, which are very strong, and
+look as well as those made of the finest sheep's wool; very beautiful
+cloth has likewise been manufactured from it. The Esquimaux convert the
+skin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> covering the tail into caps, which are so contrived that the long
+hair falling over their faces, defends them from the bites of the
+mosquitoes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Horns.</span>&mdash;The horns of cattle consist of an outside horny case, and an
+inside conical-shaped substance, somewhat between hardened hair and
+bone. The horny outside furnishes the material for the manufacture of a
+variety of useful articles. The first process consists in cutting the
+horn transversely into three portions.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>lowest</i> of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing
+several operations by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>middle</i> of the horn, after being flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. [The merit of
+the invention of these horn plates, and of their application to
+lanterns, is ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used
+lanterns of this description to preserve his candle time-measurers from
+the wind.]</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>tips</i> of the horns are generally used to make knife-handles; the
+largest and best are used for crutch-stick heads, umbrella handles, and
+ink-horns, and the smallest and commonest serve for the tops and bottoms
+of ink-horns.</p>
+
+<p>Spoons, small boxes, powder flasks, spectacle frames, and drinking horns
+are likewise made of the outer horny case.</p>
+
+<p>The interior or core of the horn is boiled down in water, when a large
+quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is sold to the makers of
+yellow soap.&mdash;The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is
+purchased by the cloth-dressers for stiffening.&mdash;The bony substance
+which remains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> behind, is ground down, and sold to the farmers for
+manure.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn
+are applied, the chippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, at about one shilling a bushel. In the first year
+after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively little
+effect; but during the next four or five their efficiency is
+considerable. The shavings, which form the refuse of the lantern-maker,
+are of a much thinner texture. Some of them are cut into various
+figures, and painted and used as toys; for they curl up when placed in
+the palm of a warm hand. But the greater part of these shavings are sold
+also for manure, which from their extremely thin and divided form,
+produce their full effect upon the first crop.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Feet.</span>&mdash;An oil is extracted from the feet of oxen&mdash;hence called
+Neat's-foot-oil&mdash;of great use in preparing and softening leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skin</span>, <i>horns</i>, <i>hoofs</i>, and <i>cartilages</i> are used to make glue.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blood</span> is used in the formation of mastic; also in the refining of sugar,
+oil, &amp;c.; and is an excellent manure for fruit trees.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blood</i>, <i>horns</i>, and <i>hoofs</i> in the formation of Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gall</i> is used to cleanse woollen garments, and to obliterate greasy and
+other stains.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suet</span>, <span class="smcap">Fat</span>, <span class="smcap">Tallow</span> are chiefly manufactured into candles; they are also
+used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Intestines</span>, when dried, are used as envelopes for German and Bologna
+sausages; in some countries to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> carry butter to market. By gold-beaters,
+in the process of making gold-leaf. Gold-beater's skin, as it is called,
+forms the most innocent sticking plaster for small cuts on the hands or
+fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Stomachs</span> vulgarly called <i>inwards</i>, after being washed and boiled,
+are sold as an article of food under the name of <i>tripe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Excrementitious matters</span> are used to manure the land.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Bones</span> are used as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of a
+variety of small articles of a common kind; also for manuring land.
+"When calcined they are used as an absorbent to carry off the baser
+metals in refining silver. From the tibia and carpus is procured an oil
+much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness,
+and all trappings belonging to carriages."</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flesh</span>, both fresh and salted, is generally esteemed as an article of
+food. <i>Pemmican</i> is made of the flesh of the American Bison: this is
+dried in the sun by the Indians, spread on a skin, and pounded with
+stones. When the Indians have got it into this state, they sell it to
+the different forts, where all the hair is carefully sifted out of it,
+and melted fat kneaded into it. If it be well made, and kept dry, it
+will not spoil for a year or two.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Milk</span>, a nutritious beverage, <i>per se</i>, is used in the composition of
+innumerable articles of diet; from milk is obtained cream, butter, and
+cheese.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ALPINE COWHERDS,</h3>
+
+<h4>WITH A NOTICE OF THE CELEBRATED SWISS AIR</h4>
+
+<h3><i>The Ranz des Vaches.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the Alps, fine cattle are the pride of their keeper, who, not being
+satisfied with their natural beauty, also gratifies his vanity by
+adorning his best cows with large bells, suspended from broad thongs.
+Every <i>Senn</i>, or great cow-keeper, has a harmonious set of bells, of at
+least two or three, chiming in accordance with the famous <i>Ranz des
+Vaches</i>. The finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and
+those next in appearance wear the two smaller ones.</p>
+
+<p>It is only on particular occasions that these ornaments are worn,
+namely, in spring, when they are driven to the Alps, or removed from one
+pasture to another; or in their autumnal descents, when they travel to
+the different farmers for the winter. On such days the Senn, even in the
+depth of winter, appears dressed in a fine white shirt, with the sleeves
+rolled above the elbows; neatly embroidered red braces suspend his
+yellow linen trowsers, which reach down to the shoes; he wears a small
+leather cap on his head, and a new and skilfully carved wooden milk-bowl
+hangs across his left shoulder. Thus arrayed, the Senn proceeds, singing
+the <i>Ranz des Vaches</i>, followed by three or four fine goats; next comes
+the finest cow, adorned with the great bell; then the other two with the
+smaller bells; and these are succeeded by the rest of the cattle,
+walking one after another, and having in their rear the bull, with a
+one-legged milking-stool on his horns; the procession is closed by a
+<i>traineau</i>, or sledge, bearing the dairy implements.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When dispersed on the Alps, the cattle are collected together by the
+voice of the Senn, who is then said to allure them. How well these cows
+distinguish the voice of their keeper, appears from the circumstance of
+their hastening to him, although at a great distance, whenever he
+commences singing the <i>Ranz des Vaches</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This celebrated air is played on the bagpipes, as well as sung by the
+young Swiss cowherds while watching their cattle on the mountains. The
+astonishing effects of this simple melody on the Swiss soldier, when
+absent from his native land, are thus described by Rousseau:</p>
+
+<p>"Cet air, se ch&eacute;ri des Suisses qu'il fut d&eacute;fendu sous peine de mort de
+le jouer dans leurs troupes, parce qu'il faisait fondre en larmes,
+d&eacute;serter, ou mourir, ceux qui l'entendaient, tant il excitait en eux
+l'ardent desir de revoir leur pays. On chercherait en vain dans cet air
+les accens &eacute;nergetiques capables de produire de si &eacute;tonnans effets. Ces
+effets, qui n'ont aucun lieu sur les &eacute;trangers, ne viennent qui de
+l'habitude, des souvenirs de mille circonstances qui, retrac&eacute;es par cet
+air &agrave; ceux que l'entendent, et leur rappellant leur pays, leurs anciens
+plaisirs, leur jeunesse, et toutes leur fa&ccedil;ons de vivre, excitent en eux
+une douleur am&egrave;re d'avoir perdu tout cela. La musique alors n'agit point
+pr&eacute;cis&eacute;ment comme musique, mais comme signe memoratif. Cet air, quoique
+toujours le m&ecirc;me, ne produit plus aujourd'hui les m&ecirc;mes effets qu'il
+produisait ci-devant sur les Suisses, parce qu'ayant perdu le g&ocirc;ut de
+leur premi&egrave;re simplicit&eacute;, ils ne la regrettent plus quand on la leur
+rappelle. Tant il est vrai que ce n'est pas dans leur action physique
+qu'il faut chercher les plus grand effets des sons sur le c&oelig;ur
+humain."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For the delectation of the musical reader, the notes of this celebrated
+air are here introduced, with the words, and an English imitation:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-182.jpg" width="600" height="715" alt="" title="" />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The words are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Quand reverai-je en un jour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tous les objets de mon amour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nos clairs ruisseaux,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nos hameaux,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nos c&ocirc;teaux,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nos montagnes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Et l'ornament de nos montagnes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">La si gentille Isabeau?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dans l'ombre d'un ormeau,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quand danserai-je au son du Chalameau?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quand reverai-je en un jour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tous les objets de mon amour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mon p&egrave;re,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ma m&egrave;re,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mon fr&egrave;re,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ma soeur,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mes agneaux,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mes troupeaux,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ma berg&egrave;re?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h4>IMITATED.</h4>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">When shall I return to the Land of the Mountains&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">The lakes and the Rhone that is lost in the earth&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Our sweet little hamlets, our villages, fountains,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">The flour-clad rocks of the place of my birth?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O when shall I see my old garden of flowers,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Dear Emma, the sweetest of blooms in the glade,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the rich chestnut grove, where we pass'd the long hours<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">With tabor and pipe, while we danced in the shade?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When shall I revisit the land of the mountains,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Where all the fond objects of memory meet:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The cows that would follow my voice to the fountains,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">The lambs that I called to the shady retreat:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My father, my mother, my sister, and brother;<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">My all that was dear in this valley of tears;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My palfrey grown old, but there's ne'er such another;<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">My dear dog, still faithful, tho' stricken in years:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The vesper bell tolling, the loud thunder rolling,<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">The bees that humm'd round the tall vine-mantled tree:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The smooth water's margin whereon we were strolling<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">When evening painted its mirror for me?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And shall I return to this scenery never?<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">These objects of infantine glory and love,&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O tell me, my dear Guardian Angel, that ever<br /></span>
+<span class="i3">Floats nigh me,&mdash;safe guide to the regions above.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></div></div>
+
+
+<h3>SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF HABITAT</h3>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Buffalo&mdash;<i>Bos Bubalus</i></td><td align='left'>Asia, North Africa, and South Europe.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Manilla Buffalo</td><td align='left'>Island of Manilla.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Condore Buffalo</td><td align='left'>Island of Pulo Condore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cape Buffalo</td><td align='left'>South Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pegasse</td><td align='left'>Congo, Angola, Central Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arnee</td><td align='left'>India and China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gaur</td><td align='left'>India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>American Bison</td><td align='left'>North America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Aurochs</td><td align='left'>Lithuania.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Yak</td><td align='left'>Tartary and Hindustan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Musk Ox</td><td align='left'>North America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Zamouse, or Bush Cow</td><td align='left'>Gambia, Sierra Leone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Banteng</td><td align='left'>Island of Java.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gyall</td><td align='left'>India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gayal</td><td align='left'>India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sanga, or Galla Ox</td><td align='left'>Abyssinia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Zebu&mdash;Brahmin Ox</td><td align='left'>Southern Asia, Eastern Africa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domestic Ox</td><td align='left'>Generally diffused.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>AND MODE OF LIFE.</h3>
+
+
+<h4>Mode of Life.</h4>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Partial to water and mud, swampy localities.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Semi-aquatic in its habits,&mdash;sometimes called the Water Buffalo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fond of wallowing in mire, and swims well.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lives much in the water, and feeds on aquatic plants.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ranges in mountain forests, and feeds on leaves and buds of trees.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Migratory in its habits&mdash;fond of bathing in marshy swamps.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lives chiefly on the woody banks of rivers&mdash;feeds on bark of trees, lichens, and herbaceous plants.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Feeds on the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lives chiefly on rocky mountains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Delights in the deepest jungles&mdash;feeds on leaves and shoots of brushwood.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lives entirely on woody-mountains&mdash;feeds on shoots and shrubs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Half domesticated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Domesticated, and artificially fed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>So completely domesticated, as to be subject to an endless variety of diseases, and generally requires medical attendance.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE INDEFINITE DEFINITIONS OF COL. HAMILTON SMITH.</h3>
+
+<p>On commencing this Monograph of the <i>Genus Bos</i>, I entertained the
+confident expectation, that in the voluminous work of Cuvier's 'Animal
+Kingdom,' translated and enlarged by Griffith and others, I should find
+all that related to generic and specific distinction so clearly
+exhibited, and so systematically arranged, that I should have no
+hesitation in adopting the classification there set forth, and no
+difficulty in determining the place of any new species or variety. With
+this expectation I diligently studied that portion of Col. H. Smith's
+volume on the Ruminantia, which treat of the <i>Genus Bos</i>, and I here
+subjoin (verbatim) the generic and subgeneric characters there given of
+that Genus, by which it will be seen how far they fall short of the
+clearness and precision which are indispensable to a scientific work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENERIC CHARACTERS.</h3>
+
+<p>"<i>Genus BOS.</i>&mdash;Skull very strong, dense about the frontals, which are
+convex, nearly flat, or concave; horns invariably occupying the crest,
+projecting at first laterally; osseous nucleus throughout porous, even
+cellular; muzzle <i>invariably broad</i>, naked, moist, <i>black</i>; ears, <i>in
+general</i>, <i>middle sized</i>; body <i>long</i>; legs <i>solid</i>; stature <i>large</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Generic characters should be such as will apply to every species in the
+genus; they should likewise be such as will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> distinguish the genus
+described from every other genus. From such observations as I have been
+enabled to make, the five last-mentioned characters do not appear to
+accord with either of these conditions.</p>
+
+<p>1st. The muzzle is stated to be <i>black</i>; but in the Yak, and in domestic
+cattle (as may be observed by any one), the muzzle is very frequently
+<i>white</i>; and granting that it was invariably black, other genera of the
+ruminantia have the muzzle black: and therefore it cannot be said to be
+a distinguishing mark of the <i>Genus Bos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2d. The ears are stated to be <i>in general middle-sized</i>. To pass over
+the extreme vagueness of the terms "<i>in general</i>" and "<i>middle-sized</i>,"
+I may state that having measured the ears of several species, I find
+them to be of all lengths, varying from 5 inches to nearly 18 inches.
+Such a term as "<i>middle-sized</i>" may be applied "<i>in general</i>" to the
+ears of a vast variety of animals; and therefore it cannot be applied
+<i>in particular</i> to the <i>Genus Bos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3d. The body is said to be <i>long</i>. They are, indeed, of all lengths,
+from 4 ft. 6 in. to nearly 11 ft. Can the term long be equally
+applicable to animals of such different lengths?</p>
+
+<p>4th. The legs are said to be <i>solid</i>. In some species the legs are very
+slender, as the Zebu, Manilla Buffalo, and Domestic Ox.</p>
+
+<p>5th. The stature is said to be <i>large</i>. From actual measurement I find
+the stature to vary from 2 ft. 8 in. to upwards of 6 ft.; the smaller
+species weighing not more than 100 lbs., the larger weighing as much as
+2000 lbs. Can the term large be equally applicable to animals of such
+different sizes?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>SUB-GENERIC CHARACTERS.</h3>
+
+<p>"<i>Sub-genus</i> I.&mdash;<i>Bubalus.</i>&mdash;Animals low in proportion to their bulk;
+limbs very solid; head large, forehead narrow, very strong, convex;
+chaffron straight; muzzle square, horns lying flat, or bending laterally
+with a certain direction to the rear; eyes large; ears mostly
+funnel-shaped; no hunch; a small dewlap; <i>female udder with four mamm&aelig;</i>;
+<i>tail long</i>; slender."</p>
+
+<p>This sub-genus comprises Cape Buffalo, Pegasse, Arnee, Domestic Buffalo.</p>
+
+
+<p>"<i>Sub-genus</i> II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bison.</span>&mdash;Forehead slightly arched, much broader than
+high; horns placed before the salient line of the frontal crest; the
+plane of the occiput forming an obtuse angle with the forehead and
+semicircular in shape; fourteen or fifteen pairs of ribs; the shoulders
+rather elevated; the <i>tail shorter</i>; the legs more slender; the tongue
+blue; the hair soft and woolly."</p>
+
+<p>This sub-genus comprises Aurochs, Gaur, American Bison, Yak, Gayal.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Sub-genus</i> III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Taurus.</span>&mdash;Forehead square from the orbits to the
+occipital crest, somewhat concave, not convex, or arched as in the
+former; the horns rising from the sides of the salient edge or crest of
+the frontals; the plane of the occiput forming an acute angle with the
+frontal, and of quadrangular form; the curve of the horns outwards,
+upwards, and forwards; no mane; a deep dewlap; <i>thirteen pairs of ribs</i>;
+<i>tail long</i>; <i>udder four teats in a square</i>."</p>
+
+<p>This sub-genus comprises the Urus and the Domestic Ox.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Subgeneric characters should be such as will clearly distinguish the
+animals of one sub-genus from those of another. But here we have set
+down, in the sub-genus Bubalus, tail <i>long</i>, slender; in the sub-genus
+Taurus, tail <i>long</i>; and although the epithet slender is not added in
+the latter case, yet in truth it ought to be, as the tail of Taurus is
+quite as slender as that of Bubalus.</p>
+
+<p>The udder of Bubalus is said to have four mamm&aelig;; they are not stated to
+be in a square, but, on examination, I find they are so; the udder of
+Taurus has likewise four teats in a square.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen pairs of ribs are set down as a distinguishing character of the
+sub-genus Taurus; but the Cape Buffalo, Domestic Buffalo, and the
+Manilla Buffalo (in the sub-genus Bubalus), and the Gaur (in the
+sub-genus Bison), all possess thirteen pairs of ribs.</p>
+
+<p>In the sub-genus Bison the tail is said to be <i>shorter</i> than the tail of
+Bubalus; but on subjecting them to the infallible test of feet and
+inches, I find the tails of the Aurochs, Gaur, Yak, and Gayal, to be
+decidedly <i>longer</i> than those of the Cape or the Manilla Buffalo.</p>
+
+<p>The legs of Bisons are stated to be more slender than those of
+Buffaloes,&mdash;the reverse of this is the fact in the instances which I
+have had an opportunity of observing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SPECIFIC DETAILS.</h3>
+
+<p>The details of a system of scientific classification should be precise,
+methodical, and consistent; but the method observed by Col. Smith, in
+describing the lengths of animals, can scarcely be called either precise
+or consistent; for example, he states:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1st. That the Cape Buffalo is nine feet from <i>nose to <span class="smcap">root</span> of tail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2d. That the Gaur is twelve feet long <i>to the <span class="smcap">end</span> of tail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3d. That the Aurochs is ten feet three inches <i>from nose to tail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4th. That the Domestic Buffalo is eight feet six inches long, <i>without
+mentioning either nose or tail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In none of these cases can we be even proximately certain of the length
+of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>In the first instance we may err to the amount of the length of the
+head; as it is not stated whether the measure was taken when the head
+was extended in a line with the back, or in a position at right angles
+with the back, or in any intermediate position.</p>
+
+<p>The following outline will illustrate this:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-190.jpg" width="600" height="182" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the length of a line from the nose to the tail will
+vary according to the different positions of the head of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>In the second instance (taking it for granted that the measure was taken
+from the nose), the same difficulty exists with respect to the head, and
+another difficulty presents itself in our being left to guess the length
+of the tail, which might be eighteen inches, or it might be four feet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the third instance, the same difficulty exists with respect to the
+head, and the difficulty is further complicated by our being left to
+guess whether the <span class="smcap">root</span> or the <span class="smcap">end</span> of the tail is meant.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourth we are completely "<i>at sea</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The true value of these characteristic distinctions, definitions, or
+descriptions, are left to the appreciation of the judicious reader.
+Colonel Smith may doubtless be, what he has been styled, "an
+indefatigable naturalist," and "in general" an exact one; but in this
+special instance of the <i>Genus Bos</i>, his warmest admirers must allow
+that his accuracy and precision have not kept pace with his industry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-191.jpg" width="600" height="415" alt="Hungarian Ox, Bos Taurus, from a specimen in the
+British Museum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Hungarian Ox, Bos Taurus, from a specimen in the
+British Museum.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>MR. SWAINSON'S TRANSCENDENTAL ATTEMPT AT CLASSIFICATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The following very laboured attempt to arrange the various species of
+<i>Genus Bos</i> into groups, according to the Quinary or Circular System of
+M'Leay, is from the pen of Mr. Swainson&mdash;the precise and fastidious
+Swainson&mdash;who, from the number and boldness of his hypothetical views in
+every department of Zoology, may be truly regarded as the beau-ideal of
+a speculative naturalist&mdash;one of those, in short, so well described by
+Swift, "whose chief art in division hath been to grow fond of some
+proper mystical number, which their imaginations have rendered sacred to
+a degree, that they force common reason to find room for it in every
+part of nature; <i>reducing</i>, <i>including</i>, and <i>adjusting</i>, every <i>genus</i>
+and <i>species</i> within that compass, by coupling some against their wills,
+and banishing others at any rate."</p>
+
+<p>After describing the various members of the Bovine Family according to
+the Procrustean method of stretching and chopping, Mr. Swainson
+continues in his peculiarly dogmatic style "The types of form of the
+<i>Genus Bos</i>, above enumerated, <i>we shall now demonstrate</i> to be a
+natural group. We have seen that the first represented by the <i>Bos
+Scoticus</i>, or Scotch Wild Ox, is an untameable savage race, which
+preserves, even in the domestication of a park, all that fierceness
+which the ancient writers attributed to the Wild Bulls of Britain and of
+the European Continent. Let those who imagine that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> influence of
+civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment, will alter the
+natural instincts of animals, look to this as a palpable refutation of
+their doctrine. Where is that boasted power of man over nature? Where
+the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering protection? The <i>Bos
+Scoticus</i> is as untameable now as it was centuries ago, simply for this
+reason, that it is in accordance with an unalterable law of nature; a
+law by which one type in every circular group is to represent the worst
+passions of mankind&mdash;fierceness, or cruelty, or horror. In the <i>Urus</i> we
+consequently have the type of the wild and untameable <i>Fer&aelig;</i> among
+quadrupeds, the eagles among birds, and the innumerable analogies which
+all the subordinate groups of these two great divisions present.
+Following this is the typical Ox&mdash;a god among the ancients, and that
+animal above all others, which, from its vital importance to man, we
+should naturally expect such a nation as the ancient Egyptians would
+exalt above all others. It is, in short, the typical perfection of the
+whole order of Ruminants, and consequently represents the <i>Quadrumana</i>
+among quadrupeds, and the <i>Incessores</i> among birds. The third type is no
+less beautiful; but it cannot be illustrated without going into details
+which it is not our present intention to make public: suffice it,
+however, to say, that in the prominent hump upon the shoulders we have a
+perfect representation of the Camel, one of the most striking types of
+the order, while it reminds us at the same time of the Buffalo, the
+genus <i>Acronatus</i> among the large Antelopes, and numerous other
+representations of the same form. The fourth type is our <i>Bos Pusio</i>:
+here we find the horns, when present, remarkably small, but in many
+cases absent; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> the size is diminutive to an extreme. These also are
+distinguishing marks of the groups it is to represent: the
+<i>Tenuirostres</i> among birds, and the <i>Glires</i>, or mice, among quadrupeds,
+are the smallest of their respective classes; and both are typically
+distinguished by wanting all appendages to the head, either in the form
+of crests or horns. The fifth type is, perhaps, the most extraordinary
+of all; it should represent not only the order <i>Rasores</i> among birds,
+but also the <i>Camelopardalis</i> among ruminating quadrupeds. Hence we find
+that, in accordance with the first of these analogies, it is a peaceful
+domesticated race, and that it has horns of an unusually large size,
+even in its own group; while, at the same time, those horns have that
+peculiar structure which can only be traced in the Camelopardalis; they
+are covered with skin, which passes so imperceptibly to the horny state,
+that, as Captain Clapperton observes, "there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences and the other ends." The five leading types of
+quadrupeds and birds being now represented, and in precisely the same
+order, <i>we demonstrate</i> the groups to be natural by the following
+table:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="4">Genus <i>BOS</i>&mdash;<i>the Natural Types.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Bos Scoticus.</i></td><td align='left'>Fierce, untameable.</td><td align='left'>Fer&aelig;.</td><td align='left'>Raptores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. &mdash;&mdash; <i>Taurus.</i></td><td align='left'>Pre-eminently typical.</td><td align='left'>Primates.</td><td align='left'>Incessores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. &mdash;&mdash; <i>Dermaceros.</i></td><td align='left'>Appendages on the head greatly developed</td><td align='left'>Ungulata.</td><td align='left'>Rasores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. &mdash;&mdash; <i>Pusio.</i></td><td align='left'>Stature remarkably small.</td><td align='left'>Glires.</td><td align='left'>Grallatores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. &mdash;&mdash; <i>Thersites.</i></td><td align='left'>Fore-part of the shoulders elevated</td><td align='left'>Cetacea.</td><td align='left'>Natatores.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In regard to the last type, the analogies can only be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> traced through
+the animals or types of other groups; but should the habits of
+<i>Thersites</i> lead it to frequent the water (like the Buffaloes) more than
+any other species of true oxen&mdash;a supposition highly probable&mdash;the
+analogy to the <i>Cetacea</i> and the <i>Natatores</i> would be direct. When we
+find in all the other four types such a surprising representation of the
+same peculiarities, we are justified in believing that want of
+information alone prevents this analogy from being so complete as the
+others. These analogies, in point of fact, may be traced through the
+whole of the principal groups in this order, the most important, and the
+most numerous of ungulated animals." Our luminous classifier then
+triumphantly winds up:&mdash;"<i>Having now demonstrated</i>, in one of the very
+lowest groups of quadrupeds, the validity of those principles of natural
+classification we have so often illustrated," &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Let us not be confounded with high-sounding terms; let us rather
+endeavour to ascertain the meaning of them, if indeed they possess a
+meaning. Here we have, under the head of "<i>Genus</i> Bos&mdash;the Natural
+Types"&mdash;(see p. 178), certain words arranged in regular columns, which,
+at a first glance, appear as though they were intended to bear some
+relation to each other. But let us ask the most ordinary observer, or
+the most profound observer, or the observer of any grade or shade
+between these two extremes, what resemblance&mdash;what relation&mdash;what
+analogy&mdash;can be discovered between an ordinary bull (<i>Taurus</i>) and a
+man, a monkey, or a bat (<i>Primates</i>); or between Taurus and the
+<i>Incessores</i> (Perching Birds)? Or between Buffaloes, whose horns are
+partially covered with skin (<i>Dermaceros</i>), and cocks and hens
+(<i>Rasores</i>)? Can any one say wherein consists the similarity between a
+dwarf<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> Zebu and a Mouse, or a Flamingo? Yet this is the material of
+which the columns are composed.</p>
+
+<p>But one of the most unhappy of Mr. Swainson's speculations is that
+wherein he represents the <i>Bos Scoticus</i>, or wild ox, as the type of "an
+<i>untameable savage</i> race, which preserves, even in the domestication of
+a park, all that fierceness which the ancient writers attributed to the
+wild bulls of Britain and the European continent. Let those who imagine
+that the influence of civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment,
+will alter the natural instinct of animals, look to this as a palpable
+refutation of their doctrine. [!] Where is that boasted power of man
+over nature? Where the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering
+protection? [!!] The <i>Bos Scoticus</i> is as untameable now as it was
+centuries ago, simply for this reason, that it is in accordance with an
+unalterable law of nature; a law by which one type in every group is to
+represent the worst passions of mankind&mdash;fierceness, or cruelty, or
+horror." [!!!]</p>
+
+<p>Who would for a moment imagine that all this grandiloquence is bestowed
+upon an animal, which is so far from being fierce and untameable, that
+young ones, taken and reared with ordinary cattle, become, even in the
+first generation, as tame as domestic animals? [See account of
+Chillingham White Cattle, p. 140.]</p>
+
+<p>For a more complete satisfaction of his thought, the reader is referred
+to Mr. Swainson's volume "On the Natural History and Classification of
+Quadrupeds," p. 274, where he has given us an incoherent abstract of
+Colonel Smith's article on the <i>Bovin&aelig;</i>, without, however, making the
+least attempt to verify the statements there recorded. The descriptions
+and characteristics are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> avowedly Colonel Smith's; but, in justice to
+the latter gentleman, it must be added, that the disquisitions on the
+circular succession of forms, and the analogical relations, are entirely
+Mr. Swainson's.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ON SPECIES AND VARIETY.</h3>
+
+<p>What constitutes a species? And how far do the limits of varieties
+extend? Cuvier, who is, perhaps, the best authority we can have upon
+this subject, in defining a species, says:&mdash;<i>A species comprehends all
+the individuals which descend from each other or from a common
+parentage, and those which resemble them as much as they do each other.</i>
+Thus, the different races which they have generated from them are
+considered as varieties but of one species. Our observations, therefore,
+respecting the differences between the ancestors and the descendants,
+are the only rules by which we can judge on this subject; all other
+considerations being merely hypothetical, and destitute of proof. Taking
+the word <i>variety</i> in this limited sense, we observe that the
+differences which constitute this variety depend upon determinate
+circumstances, and that their extent increases in proportion to the
+intensity of the circumstances which occasion them.</p>
+
+<p>Upon these principles it is obvious, that the most superficial
+characters are the most variable. Thus colour depends much upon light;
+thickness of hair upon heat;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> size upon abundance of food, &amp;c. In wild
+animals, however, these varieties are greatly limited by the natural
+habits of the animal, which does not willingly migrate from the places
+where it finds, in sufficient quantity, what is necessary for the
+support of its species, and does not even extend its haunts to any great
+distances, unless it also finds all these circumstances conjoined. Thus,
+although the Wolf and the Fox inhabit all the climates from the torrid
+to the frigid zone, we hardly find any other differences among them,
+through the whole of that vast space, than a little more or less beauty
+in their furs. The more savage animals, especially the carnivorous,
+being confined within narrower limits, vary still less; and the only
+difference between the Hy&aelig;na of Persia and that of Morocco, consists in
+a thicker or a thinner mane.</p>
+
+<p>Wild animals which subsist upon herbage, feel the influence of climate a
+little more extensively, because there is added to it the influence of
+food, both in regard to its abundance and its quality. Thus the
+Elephants of one forest are larger than those of another; their tusks
+also grow somewhat longer in places where their food may happen to be
+more favorable for the production of the substance of ivory. The same
+may take place in regard to the horns of Stags and Rein-deer. Besides,
+the species of herbivorous animals, in their wild state, seem more
+restrained from migrating and dispersing than the carnivorous species,
+being influenced both by climate, and by the kind of nourishment which
+they need.</p>
+
+<p>We never see, in a wild state, intermediate productions between the Hare
+and the Rabbit, between the Stag and the Doe, or between the Martin and
+the Weasel. Human artifice contrives to produce all these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> intermixtures
+of which the various species are susceptible, but which they would never
+produce if left to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The degrees of these variations are proportional to the intensity of the
+causes that produce them, namely, the slavery or subjection under which
+these animals are to man. They do not proceed far in half-domesticated
+species.</p>
+
+<p>In the domesticated herbivorous quadrupeds, which man transports into
+all kinds of climates, and subjects to various kinds of management, both
+in regard to labour and nourishment, he procures certainly more
+considerable variations, but still they are all merely superficial:
+greater or less size; longer or shorter horns, or even the want of these
+entirely; a hump of fat, larger or smaller, on the shoulder; these form
+the chief differences among particular races of the <i>Bos Taurus</i>, or
+domestic Black Cattle; and these differences continue long in such
+breeds as have been transported to great distances from the countries in
+which they were originally produced, when proper care is taken to
+prevent crossing.</p>
+
+<p>Nature appears also to have guarded against the alterations of species
+which might proceed from mixture of breeds, by influencing the various
+species of animals with mutual aversion. Hence all the cunning and all
+the force that man is able to exert is necessary to accomplish such
+unions, even between species that have the nearest resemblance. And when
+the mule-breeds that are thus produced by these forced conjunctions
+happen to be fruitful, which is seldom the case, this fecundity never
+continues beyond a few generations, and would not probably proceed so
+far, without a continuance of the same causes which excited it at
+first.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This being the case, it is quite clear that the fact of two animals
+producing an intermediate race is no proof whatever of their specific
+identity; for it is well known, and has been already alluded to, that
+several animals. Birds as well as Mammalia, produce offspring, and are
+nevertheless distinct, both as it regards anatomical structure and
+external form.</p>
+
+<p>Neither does it constitute the species identical if either or both the
+hybrids be even capable of fruitful intercourse with the original or
+parent species. Hamilton Smith goes so far as to say, that "if it even
+were proved that a prolific intermediate race exist, produced by the
+intermixture of both, it would not fully determine that both form only
+one original species: what forms a species, and what a variety, is as
+yet far from being well understood."</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, pretty generally agreed, that animals are of the same
+species, that is to say, have been derived from one common stock, when
+their offspring have the power, <i>inter se</i>, of indefinitely continuing
+their kind; and conversely, that animals of distinct species, or
+descendants of stocks originally different, cannot produce a mixed race
+which shall possess the capability of perpetuating itself.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude, it must be obvious, that permanent anatomical differences
+are the only true criteria of distinctions of species.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE BANTENG OF JAVA.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Bos Bantinger, or Bantiger. Bos Sondaicus?</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-201.jpg" width="600" height="360" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The above figure was drawn from a stuffed specimen in the British
+Museum. In colour, shape, and texture of horns, and apparent want of
+dewlap, it bears some resemblance to the Gaur; but in the skeleton of
+the Gaur the sacrum consists of <i>five</i> vertebr&aelig;, and the tail of
+<i>nineteen</i>; while in the skeleton of the Banteng, the sacrum consists of
+but <i>four</i> vertebr&aelig;, and the tail of <i>eighteen</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>BRITISH DOMESTIC CATTLE.</h3>
+
+<p>It does not come within the scope of the present work to give the
+varieties of Domestic Cattle; for these the reader is referred to the
+many excellent works already published on the subject. It will be
+sufficient in this place to notice a few interesting facts&mdash;statistical,
+anecdotal, &amp;c.&mdash;in relation to their domestic history.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INFLUENCE OF COLOUR IN BREEDING.</h3>
+
+<p>The following remarkable fact, respecting the colour of the offspring
+being influenced by that of the external objects surrounding the Cow at
+the time of copulation, is stated by John Boswell, of Balmuto and
+Kingcaussie, in an essay upon the breeding of Live Stock, communicated
+to the Highland Society in 1825. He says:&mdash;"One of the most intelligent
+breeders I have ever met with in Scotland, Mr. Mustard, an extensive
+farmer on Sir James Carnegie's Estate in Angus, told me a singular fact,
+with regard to what I have now stated. One of his cows happened to come
+into season while pasturing on a field which was bounded by that of one
+of his neighbours, out of which field an Ox jumped, and went with the
+Cow, until she was brought home to the Bull. The Ox was white with black
+spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession,
+nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the following
+spring was a black and white calf,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> <i>with horns</i>." Another fact, which
+shows the great care required in keeping pure this breed&mdash;(the Angus
+doddies)&mdash;is related of the Keillor Stock, where, two different seasons,
+a dairy cow of the Ayrshire breed, red and white, was allowed to pasture
+with the black doddies. In the first experiment, from pure black Bulls
+and Cows, there appeared <i>three</i> red and white calves; and on the second
+trial, <i>two</i> of the calves were of mixed colours. Since that time care
+has been taken to have almost every animal on the farm, down to the Pigs
+and Poultry of a black colour.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INFLUENCE OF THE MALE IN BREEDING.</h3>
+
+<p>An ordinary Cow, and a Bull without horns, will produce a calf
+resembling the male in appearance and character, without horns and
+without that particular prominence of the transverse apophysis of the
+frontal bone. The milk of the female from this cross, also, proves the
+influence of the male: it has the peculiar qualities of the hornless
+breed&mdash;less abundant, containing less whey, but more cream and curd.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENERATIVE PRECOCITY.</h3>
+
+<p>A Mr. Gordon relates the following singular instance of fecundity and
+early maturity in the Aberdeen Cattle. "On the 25th of Sept., 1805, a
+calf of five months old, of the small Aberdeenshire breed, happening to
+be put into an enclosure among other Cattle, admitted a male that was
+only one year old. In the month of June following, at the age of
+fourteen months, she brought forth a very fine calf, and in the Summer
+of 1807, another equally good. The first calf, after working in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> the
+Winter, Spring, and Summer of 1809, was killed in January, 1810, and
+weighed 6 <i>cwt.</i> 3 <i>qrs.</i> 16 <i>lb.</i> The second was killed December 16,
+1810, aged three years six months, and weighed exactly 7 <i>cwt.</i>; and on
+Dec. 30, 1807, the mother, after having brought up these calves, was
+killed at the age of two years and eight months, and weighed 4 <i>cwt.</i> 1
+<i>qr.</i> the four quarters, sinking the offal."</p>
+
+
+<h3>MILK.</h3>
+
+<p>Cows are usually milked three times a day over the greatest part of
+Scotland, from the time of calving till the milk begins to dry up during
+the Winter season, when the Cows are for the most part in calf; nor is
+it found that they suffer by that practice in any degree: and it is the
+general opinion of all who adopt it, that nearly one third more milk is
+thus obtained than if they were milked only twice.</p>
+
+<p>A Cow, mentioned by Dr. Anderson in his 'Recreations,' (vol. v, p. 309,)
+was milked three times a day for ten years running, during the space of
+nine months, at least, every year; and was never seen, during all that
+period, but in very excellent order, although she had no other feeding
+than was given to the rest of the Cows, some of which were very low
+every winter, when they gave no milk at all.</p>
+
+<p>A farmer of the name of Watkinson had a Cow that, for seventeen years,
+gave him from ten to twenty quarts of milk every day; was in moderate
+condition when taken up, six months in fattening, and being then twenty
+years old, was sold for more than &pound;18. Mr. John Holt, of Walton, in
+Lancashire, had a healthy Cow-calf presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> to him, whose dam was in
+her thirty-second year, and could not be said to have been properly out
+of milk for the preceding fifteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Yorkshire Cows, which are those chiefly used in the London Dairies, give
+a very great quantity of milk. It is by no means uncommon for them, in
+the beginning of the Summer, to yield thirty quarts a day; there are
+rare instances of giving thirty-six quarts; but the average measure may
+be estimated at twenty-two or twenty-four quarts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-205.jpg" width="600" height="382" alt="Alderney Cow, after Howitt." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Alderney Cow, after Howitt.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>BUTTER.</h3>
+
+<p>The Alderney Cow, considering its voracious appetite, yields very little
+milk; that milk, however, is of an extraordinary excellent quality, and
+gives more butter than can be obtained from the milk of any other cow.
+John Lawrence states that an Alderney Cow that had strayed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> on the
+premises of a friend of his, and remained there three weeks, made 19
+lbs. of butter each week; and the fact was held so extraordinary, as to
+be thought worthy of a memorandum in the parish books. The milk of the
+Alderney Cow fits her for the situation in which she is usually placed,
+and where the excellence of the article is regarded, and not the
+expense.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Hampden, of Glynde, had a cow which in the height of the season
+yielded ten pounds of butter and twelve pounds of cheese every week, and
+yet her quantity of milk rarely exceeded five gallons per day. The next
+year the same cow gave nine pounds and a half of butter per week for
+several weeks, and then for the rest of the summer between eight and
+nine pounds per week; and until the hard frost set in, seven pounds; and
+four pounds per week during the frost. Yet as a proof of the quality of
+the milk, she at no time gave more than five gallons in the day. To this
+may be added that, "four or five years before, the same person had a
+fine black Sussex Cow from Lord Gage, which also gave, in the height of
+the season, five gallons per day, but no more than five pounds of butter
+were ever made from it." This is accounted for in a singular way; for
+there is a common opinion in the east of Sussex, that "the milk of a
+black cow never gives so much butter as that of a red one."</p>
+
+
+<h3>MR. YOUATT'S PHILOSOPHY OF RABIES, OR MADNESS.</h3>
+
+<p>In treating of Rabies, Youatt says:&mdash;"When a rabid or mad dog is
+wandering about, labouring under an irrepressible disposition to bite,
+he seeks out first of all his own species; but if his road lies by a
+herd of cattle, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> will attack the nearest to him; and if he meet with
+much resistance, he will set upon the whole herd, and bite as many as he
+can.... If the disease is to appear at all, it will be about the
+expiration of the <i>fifth week</i>, although there will be no absolute
+security in less than the double number of months," After making these
+remarks, our author reasons himself into the sapient conclusion, that
+the poison in all rabid animals resides in the saliva, and does not
+affect any other secretion. "The knowledge that the virus is confined to
+the saliva," he opines, "will settle a matter that has been the cause of
+considerable uneasiness. A cow has been observed to be ailing for a day
+or two, but she has been milked as usual; her milk has been mingled with
+the rest, and has been used for domestic purposes, as heretofore. She is
+at length discovered to be rabid. Is the family safe? Can the milk of a
+rabid cow be drunk with impunity? Yes, perfectly so, for the poison is
+confined to the saliva. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been
+eaten in days of ignorance, dressed in all manners of ways, but usually
+fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive against madness. Some
+miscreants have sent the flesh of rabid cattle to the market, and <i>it
+has been eaten without harm</i>; and so, although not very pleasant to
+think about, <i>the milk of the rabid cow may be drunk without the
+slightest danger</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Is it, indeed, possible for any of the secretions of an animal to be in
+a healthy state, and fit for human food, after it has had the virus of a
+rabid dog circulating in its system for at least <i>five weeks</i>?
+Furthermore, is it consistent in Mr. Youatt to call those <i>miscreants</i>
+who send the flesh of rabid cattle to market, when he acknowledges,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> in
+the same breathy that it can be eaten without harm?</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Youatt's philosophy, a cow in a rabid state is actually
+as good as a cow in a healthy state; for its milk may be drunk with
+impunity&mdash;the family is <i>perfectly safe</i> who uses it for domestic
+purposes; and, moreover, <i>the flesh of rabid cattle may be eaten without
+harm</i>. What more can be predicated of cattle in the purest state of
+health?</p>
+
+
+<h3>STATISTICS.</h3>
+
+<p>The number of cattle in Great Britain was estimated by Youatt (1838) at
+upwards of eight millions. 160,000 head of cattle are annually sold in
+Smithfield alone, without including calves, or the <i>dead market</i>, i.e.,
+the carcases, sent up from various parts of the country. 1,200,000
+sheep, 36,000 pigs, and 18,000 calves, are also sent to Smithfield in
+the course of a year.</p>
+
+<p>A tenth part of the sheep and lambs die annually of disease (more than
+4,000,000 perished by the rot alone in the winter of 1829-30), and at
+least a fifteenth part of the neat cattle are destroyed by inflammatory
+fever and milk fever, red water, hoose, and diarrh&oelig;a.</p>
+
+<p>If a tithe of the sheep and lambs, and a fifteenth of the neat cattle
+<i>die of disease</i>, what proportion are <i>slaughtered and sent to market in
+the earlier stages of disease</i>; and, in fact, in all the stages
+antecedent to those which are the immediate cause of death?</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE END.</h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,5696 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Delineations of the Ox Tribe
+       The Natural History of Bulls, Bisons, and Buffaloes.
+       Exhibiting all the Known Species and the More Remarkable
+       Varieties of the Genus Bos.
+
+Author: George Vasey
+
+Illustrator: George Vasey
+
+Release Date: February 3, 2009 [EBook #27975]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DELINEATIONS OF THE OX TRIBE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net.
+(This file was produced from images produced by Core
+Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell
+University.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DELINEATIONS
+
+OF
+
+THE OX TRIBE.
+
+[Illustration: THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, _v._ p. 120.]
+
+
+
+
+DELINEATIONS
+
+OF
+
+THE OX TRIBE;
+
+OR,
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
+
+BULLS, BISONS, AND BUFFALOES.
+
+EXHIBITING
+
+ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES
+
+AND THE MORE REMARKABLE VARIETIES
+
+OF
+
+THE GENUS BOS.
+
+BY GEORGE VASEY.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY 72 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, BY THE AUTHOR.
+
+LONDON:
+PUBLISHED BY G. BIGGS, 421, STRAND.
+1851.
+
+
+C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+TO
+
+WILLIAM YARRELL, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,
+
+WHOSE SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON ZOOLOGY
+
+PLACE HIM IN THE FIRST RANK OF NATURALISTS;
+
+AND, MOREOVER,
+
+WHOSE UNOSTENTATIOUS KINDNESS IN CONSULTING THE FEELINGS
+
+AND ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS
+
+IS RARELY EQUALLED,
+
+This Volume is inscribed,
+
+BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND AND ADMIRER,
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The primary object of the present work, is to give as correct and
+comprehensive a view of the animals composing the Ox Tribe, as the
+present state of our knowledge will admit, accompanied by authentic
+figures of all the known species and the more remarkable varieties.
+
+Although this genus (comprising all those Ruminants called Buffaloes,
+Bisons, and Oxen generally,) is as distinct and well characterised as
+any other genus in the animal kingdom, yet the facts which are at
+present known respecting the various species which compose it, are not
+sufficiently numerous to enable the naturalist to divide them into
+sub-genera. This is abundantly proved by the unsuccessful result of
+those attempts which have already been made to arrange them into minor
+groups. Nor can we wonder at this want of success, when we consider that
+even many of the species usually regarded as distinct are by no means
+clearly defined.
+
+The second object, therefore, of this treatise, is (by bringing into
+juxta-position all the most important facts concerning the various
+individual specimens which have been described, and by adding several
+other facts of importance which have not hitherto been noticed,) to
+enable the naturalist to define, more correctly than has yet been done,
+the peculiarities of each species.
+
+A third object is to direct the attention of travellers more
+particularly to this subject; in order that, by their exertions, our
+information upon this class of animals may be rendered more complete.
+
+A new and important feature in the present Monograph, is the
+introduction of a Table of the Number of Vertebrae, carefully constructed
+from an examination of the actual skeletons, by which will be seen at a
+glance the principal osteological differences of species which have
+hitherto been confounded with each other. A Table of the Periods of
+Gestation is likewise added, which presents some equally interesting
+results.
+
+Several of the descriptions have been verified by a reference to the
+living animals, seven specimens of which are at present (1847) in the
+Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. The several Museums in
+the Metropolis have likewise been consulted with advantage.
+
+I am indebted to Judge FURNAM, of the United States, for some original
+information respecting the American Bison; and also to the late Mr.
+COLE, who was forty years park-keeper at Chillingham, for answers to
+several questions which I proposed to him on the subject of the
+Chillingham Cattle.
+
+I beg to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. CATLIN for kindly allowing me,
+not only to make extracts, but also to copy some of the outlines from
+his 'Letters and Notes on the North American Indians,' a work which I do
+not hesitate to pronounce one of the most curious and interesting which
+the present century has produced,--whether we regard the graphic merits
+of its literary or pictorial department.
+
+To Professor OWEN and the Officers of the Royal College of Surgeons, to
+the Officers of the Zoological Society, and to the Officers of the
+Zoological Department of the British Museum, my sincere thanks are due
+for the kindness and promptness with which every information has been
+given, and every facility afforded to my inquiries and investigations.
+
+With respect to the engraved figures, I have striven to produce correct
+delineations of form and texture, rather than to make pretty pictures by
+sacrificing truth and nature for the sake of ideal beauty and artistic
+effect.
+
+I cannot conclude this Preface without expressing my thanks to Messrs.
+ADLARD for the first-rate style in which this volume has been printed;
+particularly for the successful manner in which the impressions of the
+engravings have been produced, superior, in general, to India-proof
+impressions.
+
+    _King Street, Camden Town;_
+    _May, 1851._
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDUM.
+
+PENNANT--BUFFON--GOLDSMITH--BEWICK--BINGLEY.
+
+
+In addition to the critical remarks on the writings of others, on this
+subject, which the reader will find in the following pages, I have
+further to observe that, although Pennant and Buffon have held a very
+high character, for many years, as scientific naturalists, the portion
+of their works which treats of the _Genus Bos_, appears to have been the
+result of the most careless and superficial observation. With the
+exception of the facts and observations furnished by such men as
+Daubenton and Pallas, Buffon's works are little more than flimsy
+speculations. As to Pennant's history of the Ox Tribe, it is calculated
+rather to bewilder than to inform; it is, in fact, an incoherent mass of
+dubious statements, huddled together in a most inextricable confusion:
+as a piece of Natural History it is absolutely worse than nothing.
+
+Goldsmith, Bewick, and Bingley, three of our most popular writers on
+Natural History, appear to have done little more than compile from
+Pennant and Buffon, and consequently are but little deserving of credit.
+These strictures apply exclusively to such portions of their works as
+relate to the Ox Tribe.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                 Page
+
+Introduction                                        1
+
+American Bison                                     21
+
+Aurochs                                            40
+
+Yak                                                45
+
+Gyall                                              51
+
+Gayal                                              57
+
+Domestic Gayal                                     68
+
+Jungly Gau                                         71
+
+Buffalo                                            75
+
+Italian Buffalo                                    76
+
+Manilla Buffalo                                    81
+
+Condore Buffalo                                    84
+
+Cape Buffalo                                       86
+
+Pegasse                                            95
+
+Gaur                                               97
+
+Arnee                                             105
+
+Zamouse                                           112
+
+Musk Ox                                           115
+
+Galla Ox                                          120
+
+Zebu, or Brahmin Bull                             125
+
+Backeley Ox                                       133
+
+African Bull                                      137
+
+Chillingham Cattle                                140
+
+Kyloe, or Highland Ox                             150
+
+Table of the Number of Vertebrae                   152
+
+Table of the Periods of Gestation                 153
+
+Note on the Skeleton of the American Bison        154
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+                                                 Page
+
+Free Martin                                       155
+
+Short-nosed Ox                                    159
+
+On the utility of the Ox Tribe to Mankind         160
+
+Account of Alpine Cowherds
+  --Notice of Ranz des Vaches                     164
+
+Table of Habitat                                  168
+
+---- Mode of Life                                 169
+
+Indefinite Definitions of Col. H. Smith           170
+
+Mr. Swainson's Transcendental Attempt at
+  Classification                                  176
+
+On Species and Variety                            181
+
+Banteng (_Bos Bantiger_)                          185
+
+British Domestic Cattle                           186
+
+Influence of Colour in Breeding                   ib.
+
+Influence of Male in Breeding                     187
+
+Generative Precocity                              ib.
+
+Milk                                              188
+
+Butter                                            189
+
+Mr. Youatt's Philosophy of Rabies                 190
+
+Statistics                                        192
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
+
+(_The Engravings not otherwise acknowledged are from original
+Drawings._)
+
+
+                                                            Page
+
+1. Frontispiece.--The Sangu, or Abyssinian Ox                  i
+
+2. Stomach of Manilla Buffalo                                  4
+
+3. Gastro-duct (Oesophagean Canal), after Flourens             6
+
+4. Stomach of a young Calf                                    12
+
+5. Stomach of a full-grown Cow                                13
+
+6. Skull of Domestic Ox                                       17
+
+7. Skeleton of Domestic Ox                                    20
+
+8. American Bison                                             21
+
+9. Young Female Bison                                         23
+
+10. Wounded Bison                                             24
+
+11. Indian shooting a Bison                                   29
+
+12. Bison surrounded by Wolves                                32
+
+13. Bison Calf, after Cuvier                                  33
+
+14. Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians                         36
+
+15. Head of young Male Bison                                  39
+
+16. Aurochs, or European Bison                                40
+
+17. Yak, from Asiatic Transactions                            45
+
+18. Yak, from Oriental Annual                                 49
+
+19. Gyall (_Bos Frontalis_)                                   51
+
+20. Head of Gyall                                             53
+
+21. Gayal, from Asiatic Transactions                          58
+
+22. Head of Asseel Gayal                                      67
+
+23. Domestic Gayal                                            68
+
+24. Skull of Domestic Gayal                                   69
+
+25. Occipital View of the same Skull                          ib.
+
+26. Head of Domestic Gayal                                    ib.
+
+27. Jungly Gau, after Cuvier                                  71
+
+28. Syrian Ox, anon.                                          74
+
+29. Italian Buffalo--Brandt and Ratzeburg                     76
+
+30. Herefordshire Cow, after Howitt                           80
+
+31. Manilla Buffalo                                           81
+
+32. Outlines of Buffaloes Backs                               82
+
+33. Head of Manilla Buffalo                                   83
+
+34. Pulo Condore Buffalo                                      84
+
+35. Short-horned Bull, after Howitt                           85
+
+36. Cape Buffalo                                              86
+
+37. Young Cape Buffalo, after Col. Smith                      90
+
+38. Head of Cape Buffalo                                      94
+
+39. Pegasse, from a Drawing in the Berlin Library             95
+
+40. Horns of Cape Buffalo                                     96
+
+41. Gaur, from Specimen in British Museum                     97
+
+42. Horns of Gaur, Edin. Phil. Trans.                        103
+
+43. Head of Gaur                                             104
+
+44. Arnee, from Shaw's Zoology                               105
+
+45. Horns of Young Arnee, from 'The Bee'                     107
+
+46. Horns of Arnee, from Mus. Coll. Surg.                    108
+
+47. Horns of Arnee, from British Museum                      ib.
+
+48. Arnee from Indian Painting                               111
+
+49. Zamouse, or Bush Cow                                     112
+
+50. Head of Zamouse                                          114
+
+51. Musk Ox                                                  115
+
+52. Foot of Musk Ox, Griff., Cuv.                            117
+
+53. Head of Musk Ox                                          119
+
+54. Horns of Galla Ox, Mus. Coll. Surg.                      123
+
+55. Horns of Hungarian Ox, Brit. Mus.                        124
+
+56. Brahmin Bull, Harvey, Zool. Gar.                         125
+
+57. Zebu (var. beta), after Cuvier                           128
+
+58. Zebus (var. gamma) and Car, anon.                        129
+
+59. Zebu (var. delta), anon.                                 132
+
+60. African Bull, Harvey                                     137
+
+61. Eyes of African Bull, Harvey                             139
+
+62. Lateral Hoofs of African Bull, Harvey                    ib.
+
+63. Dewlap of African Bull, Harvey                           139
+
+64. Chillingham Bull                                         140
+
+65. Heads of Chillingham Cattle                              148
+
+66. Kyloe, or Highland Ox, Howitt                            150
+
+67. Free Martin, Hunter's Animal Economy                     156
+
+    Skull of Domestic Ox, (repetition of fig. 6)             158
+
+68. Skull of Short-nosed Ox of the Pampas                    159
+
+69. Outlines of Manilla Buffalo                              174
+
+70. Hungarian Ox, from British Museum                        175
+
+71. Banteng, from a Specimen in Brit. Mus.                   185
+
+72. Alderney Cow, after Howitt                               189
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Ruminantia is the term used by naturalists to designate those
+mammiferous quadrupeds which chew the cud; or, in other words, which
+swallow their food, in the first instance, with a very slight
+mastication, and afterwards regurgitate it, in order that it may undergo
+a second and more complete mastication: this second operation is called
+ruminating, or chewing the cud. The order of animals which possess this
+peculiarity, is divided into nine groups or genera, namely:--
+
+    CAMELS.
+    LLAMAS.
+    MUSKS.
+    DEER.
+    GIRAFFES.
+    ANTELOPES.
+    GOATS.
+    SHEEP.
+    OXEN.
+
+The last named forms the subject of the following pages, and is called,
+in zoological language, the _Genus Bos_, in popular language, the OX
+TRIBE.
+
+One of the most interesting occupations which the wide field of Zoology
+offers to the naturalist, is the investigation of those remarkable
+adaptations of organs to functions, and of these again to the
+necessities and well-being of the entire animal. Nor does it in the
+least diminish our interest in the investigation of individual
+adaptations, or our admiration on becoming acquainted with them, that we
+know, _a priori_, this universal truth, that all the constituents of
+every organised body, be that organisation what it may, are invariably
+adapted, in the most perfect manner, to each other, and to the whole.
+
+It is by a knowledge of this exact harmony in the animal economy, that
+the comparative anatomist can determine, with almost unerring precision,
+the genus, or even species of an animal, by an examination of any
+important part of its organisation, as the teeth, stomach, bones, or
+extremities. In some cases, a single bone, or even the fragment of a
+bone, is sufficient to convey an idea of the entire animal to which it
+belonged.
+
+In illustration of this:--if the viscera of an animal are so organised
+as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, we find that the
+jaws are so contracted as to fit them for devouring prey; the claws for
+seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its
+flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing
+and overtaking it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a
+distance. Moreover, the brain of the animal is also endowed with
+instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to
+catch its necessary prey.
+
+Again, we are well aware that all _hoofed_ animals must necessarily be
+herbivorous, or vegetable feeders, because they are possessed of no
+means of seizing prey. It is also evident, having no other use for their
+fore-legs than to support their bodies, that they have no occasion for
+a shoulder so vigorously organised as that of carnivorous animals; owing
+to which they have no clavicles, and their shoulder-blades are
+proportionally narrow. Having also no occasion to turn their forearms,
+their radius is joined by ossification to the ulna, or is at least
+articulated by gynglymus with the humerus. Their food being entirely
+herbaceous, requires teeth with flat surfaces, on purpose to bruise the
+seeds and plants on which they feed. For this purpose, also, these
+surfaces require to be unequal, and are, consequently, composed of
+alternate perpendicular layers of enamel and softer bone. Teeth of this
+structure necessarily require horizontal motions to enable them to
+triturate, or grind down the herbaceous food; and accordingly the
+condyles of the jaw could not be formed into such confined joints as in
+the carnivorous animals, but must have a flattened form, correspondent
+to sockets in the temporal bones. The depressions, also, of the temporal
+bones, having smaller muscles to contain, are narrower and not so deep;
+and so on, throughout the whole organisation.
+
+The digestive system of the ruminantia is more complicated in structure
+than that of any other class of animals; and, owing to this complexity,
+and the consequent difficulty of investigating it, its nature and
+functions have been less perfectly understood.
+
+The stomach of the Manilla Buffalo, which will serve as an example of
+all the other species, is divided into four cavities or ventricles,
+which are usually (but improperly) considered as four distinct
+stomachs.
+
+The following figure represents the form, relative size, and position of
+these four cavities when detached from the animal, and fully inflated.
+
+[Illustration: _a._ First cavity, called the paunch.
+
+_b._ Second ditto, the honeycomb bag.
+
+_c._ Third ditto, the many-plies.
+
+_d._ Fourth ditto, the reed, or rennet.
+
+_e._ A portion of the oesophagus, showing its connection with the
+stomach.
+
+_f._ The pylorus, or opening into the intestines.]
+
+The interior of those cavities present some remarkable differences in
+point of structure, which, in the present work, can only be alluded to
+in a very general manner. For a particular account of the internal
+anatomy of these complicated organs, the reader is referred to the
+interesting work on 'Cattle,' by W. Youatt.
+
+The paunch is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent
+and hard papillae. The inner surface of the second cavity is very
+artificially divided into angular cells, giving it somewhat the
+appearance of honeycomb, whence its name "honeycomb-bag." The lining
+membrane of the third cavity forms numerous deep folds, lying upon each
+other like the leaves of a book, and beset with small hard tubercles.
+These folds vary in breadth in a regular alternate order, a narrow fold
+being placed between each of the broader ones. The fourth cavity is
+lined with a velvety mucous membrane disposed in longitudinal folds. It
+is this part of the stomach that furnishes the gastric juice, and,
+consequently, it is in this cavity that the proper digestion of the food
+takes place; it is here, also, that the milk taken by the calf is
+coagulated. The reed or fourth cavity of the calf's stomach retains its
+power of coagulating milk even after it has been taken from the animal.
+We have a familiar instance of its operation in the formation of curds
+and whey.
+
+The first and second cavities (_a_ and _b_) are placed parallel (or on a
+level) with each other; and the oesophagus (_e_) opens, almost
+equally, into them both. On each side of the termination of the
+oesophagus there is a muscular ridge projecting, so that the two
+together form a sort of groove or channel, which opens almost equally
+into the second and third cavities (_b_ and _c_).
+
+[As there has not been, as far as I am aware, any appropriate name given
+to this very remarkable part of the stomach of ruminants, I here take
+the liberty of suggesting the term _Gastro-duct_, by which epithet this
+muscular channel will be designated in the following pages.]
+
+[Illustration: View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens.
+
+_a._ A portion of the oesophagus cut open, showing the internal folds
+of the mucous membrane.
+
+_b._ The opening of the oesophagus into the paunch.
+
+_c, c._ The gastro-duct.
+
+_d, d._ Muscular fibres passing completely round the edge of the
+gastro-duct, and forming a sort of sphincter.
+
+_e._ The opening from the gastro-duct into the third cavity.]
+
+All these parts, namely, the oesophagus, the gastro-duct, and the
+first three cavities, not only communicate with each other, but they
+communicate by one common point, and that point is the gastro-duct. At
+the extremity of the third cavity, opposite to that at which the
+gastro-duct enters it, is an aperture which communicates immediately
+with the fourth cavity (_d_).
+
+Such is a very brief description of the complicated stomach of the Ox
+Tribe. In what manner the food passes through this curious arrangement
+of cavities is a problem which has engaged the attention of naturalists
+from a very early period. A host of great men might be cited who have
+failed to solve it. The French physiologist, M. Flourens, by his recent
+experiments, has done more than any or all of his predecessors to give
+clearness and precision to this intricate subject.
+
+The following is an abstract of the most important of his experiments:--
+
+A sheep having been fed on fresh trefoil, was killed and opened
+immediately,--that is, before the process of rumination had commenced.
+He (M. Flourens) found the greatest part of this herb (easily recognised
+by its leaves, which were still almost entire,) in the paunch; but he
+also found a certain portion (_une partie notable_) of those leaves (in
+the same unmasticated state) in the honeycomb. In the other two
+cavities, (the many-plies and the reed,) there was absolutely none.
+
+M. Flourens repeated this experiment a great many times, with herbs of
+various kinds, and the result was constantly the same: from which it
+appears, that herbaceous food, on its first deglutition, enters into the
+honeycomb, as well as into the paunch; the proportion, however, being
+considerably greater into the paunch than into the honeycomb. It appears
+equally certain that, in the first swallowing, this kind of food _only_
+enters into the first two cavities, and never passes into the many-plies
+or the reed.
+
+Having ascertained this fact with respect to _herbs_, he instituted a
+similar series of experiments, in which the animals were fed upon
+various kinds of _grain_,--rye, barley, wheat, oats, &c. The animals
+were killed and examined, as in the former experiments, immediately
+after being fed. He found the greater part of the grain unmasticated
+(_tout entier_) in the paunch; but, as in the case of the herbs, he also
+found a certain portion, in the same unmasticated state, in the
+honeycomb. Neither the many-plies nor the reed contained a single grain.
+He repeated these experiments many times, and always with the same
+result.
+
+He then tried the effect of carrots cut into pieces, from half an inch
+to an inch in length; and in order that the animals might not chew them,
+he passed them into the pharynx by means of a tube. In one of these
+sheep he found all the morsels in the paunch; but, in the other two,
+some of the morsels were in the honeycomb, and some in the paunch. In
+all the three cases, there was none either in the many-plies or in the
+reed.
+
+He then proceeded to ascertain the effect of substances previously
+comminuted. He caused a certain quantity of carrots to be reduced to a
+kind of mash, with which he fed two sheep, and opened them immediately
+afterwards. He found the greatest part of this mash in the paunch and in
+the honeycomb; but he likewise found a certain portion in the many-plies
+and in the reed.
+
+His next experiments were made upon plain fluids. It is the opinion of
+the generality of authors on this subject that fluids pass immediately
+and _entirely_, along the gastro-duct, into the third and fourth
+cavities. But, according to the experiments of M. Flourens, this is not
+the case. He found, by making artificial openings (_anus artificiel_) in
+the stomachs of various sheep, that, as the animals drank, the fluid
+came directly out at the opening, in whatever cavity it might have been
+made.
+
+It is clear, then, that fluids pass, in part, into the first and second
+cavities, and, in part, into the third and fourth; and they pass as
+directly into the former as into the latter.
+
+The following is the result of some experiments which M. Flourens made
+respecting the formation of the pellets.
+
+In the first place, after the animal has swallowed a certain quantity of
+food the first time, successive pellets are formed of this food, which
+remount singly to the mouth; secondly, there is a particular apparatus,
+which forms these pellets; and, thirdly, this apparatus consists of the
+two closed apertures (_ouvertures fermees_) of the many-plies, and of
+the oesophagus. Thus, the first two cavities, in contracting, push the
+aliments which they contain between the edges of the gastro-duct; and
+the gastro-duct, contracting in its turn, draws together the two
+openings of the many-plies and oesophagus; and these two openings,
+_closed_ at this moment of their action, seize a portion of the food,
+detach it, and form it into a pellet.
+
+The chief utility of rumination, as applicable to all the
+animals in which it takes place, and the final purpose of this
+wonderfully-complicated function in the animal economy, are still
+imperfectly known; what has been already suggested on these points is
+quite unsatisfactory. Perrault and others supposed that it contributed
+to the security of those animals, which are at once voracious and timid,
+by showing the necessity of their remaining long employed in chewing in
+an open pasture; but the Indian buffalo ruminates, although it does not
+fly even from the lion; and the wild goat dwells in Alpine countries,
+which are inaccessible to beasts of prey.
+
+Whatever may be our ignorance of the cause or the object of rumination,
+it is certain that the nature of the food has a considerable influence
+in increasing or diminishing the necessity for the performance of that
+function. Thus, dry food requires to be entirely subjected to a second
+mastication, before it can pass into the many-plies and reed; whilst a
+great portion of that which is moist and succulent passes readily into
+those cavities, on its first descent into the stomach.
+
+It has already been shown by the illustration, (p. 4,) that the paunch
+is the largest of the four cavities; but this is not the case with the
+stomach of the young calf, which, while it continues to suck, does not
+ruminate; in this case the _reed_, which is the true digestive cavity,
+is actually larger than the other three taken together.
+
+When the calf begins to feed upon solid food, then it begins to
+ruminate; and as the quantity of solid food is increased, so does the
+size of the paunch increase, until it attains its full dimensions. In
+this latter case, the _paunch_ has become considerably larger than the
+other three cavities taken together.
+
+A curious modification of an organ to adjust itself to the altered
+condition of the animal is beautifully shown in the instance now under
+consideration, the nature of which will be easily understood by a
+reference to the following diagrams, giving the exact relative
+proportions of the different cavities of the stomach to each other in
+the young calf and in the full-grown cow.
+
+     [I am informed by Professor Symonds, of the Royal Veterinary
+     College, that the two following sketches should be placed in
+     the page so as to be viewed with the oesophagus to the right,
+     and the pylorus to the left, instead of being, as they now are,
+     at the top and the bottom; but as the present object is only to
+     show the relative sizes of the different cavities, the error is
+     not of much consequence.]
+
+The letters refer to the same parts in each figure: _a_, the paunch;
+_b_, the honeycomb bag; _c_, the many-plies; _d_, the reed.
+
+[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old.]
+
+[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow.]
+
+[These engravings, illustrative of the comparative sizes of the
+different stomachal cavities, are copied from original drawings taken
+from preparations of the stomachs which I made expressly for this
+purpose.]
+
+In all herbivorous animals, and especially those of the ruminating kind,
+the alimentary canal is of an enormous length; measuring in a full grown
+ox, as much as sixty yards. The paunch, in such an animal, will hold
+from fifteen to eighteen gallons.
+
+Blumenbach observes, that the process of rumination supposes a power of
+voluntary motion in the oesophagus; and, indeed, the influence of the
+will throughout the whole process is incontestible. It is not confined
+to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to
+circumstances, even when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly
+stated of some men, who have had the power of ruminating, that it was
+quite voluntary with them. Blumenbach knew four men who ruminated their
+food, and they assured him they had a real enjoyment in doing it: two of
+them had the power of doing or abstaining from it at their pleasure.
+
+A case of human rumination occurred some years ago at Bristol, the
+particulars of which are minutely recorded in the 'Philosophical
+Transactions.' It seemed, in this instance, to have been hereditary, as
+the father of the individual was subject to the same habit. The young
+man usually began to chew his food over again, within a quarter of an
+hour after eating. His ruminating after a full meal generally lasted
+about an hour and a half; nor could he sleep until this task was
+completed. The victuals, upon its return, tasted even more pleasantly
+than at first; and seemed as if it had been beaten up in a mortar. If he
+ate a variety of things, that which he ate first, came up again first;
+and if this return was interrupted for any length of time, it produced
+sickness and disorder; nor was he ever well till it returned. These
+singular cases are caused, no doubt, by some abnormal structure of the
+interior of the stomach. No account has yet been given of the dissection
+of an individual so constituted.
+
+When cattle are at rest, or not employed in grazing or chewing the cud,
+they are observed frequently to lick themselves. By this means they
+raise up the hair of their coats, and often swallow it in considerable
+quantities. The hair thus swallowed gradually accumulates in the
+stomach, where it is formed into smooth round balls, which, in time,
+become invested with a hardish brown crust, composed, apparently, of
+inspissated mucilage, that, by continual friction from the coats of the
+stomach, becomes hard and glossy. It is generally in the paunch that
+these hair-balls are found. They vary in weight from a few ounces to six
+or seven pounds. Mr. Walton, author of an 'Account of the Peruvian
+Sheep,' makes mention of one that he had in his possession which weighed
+eight pounds and a quarter. This hair-ball had been taken from a cow
+that fed on the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was of a flat circular shape,
+and measured two feet eleven inches and a half in circumference; two
+feet eight inches round the flat part; nine inches diameter also in the
+flat part; eleven inches diameter in the cross part; and, on immersing
+it in water, it displaced upwards of eight quarts, which made its bulk
+correspond to 462 cubic inches. The digestive functions are sometimes
+seriously impaired by these concretions; a loss of appetite ensues, and
+general debility.
+
+In the Museum of Daniel Crosthwaite, there is a very extraordinary ball
+of hair, taken from a fatted calf only seven weeks old. The ball of
+hair, when taken out of the animal's stomach, and full of moisture,
+weighed eleven ounces. The calf was fatted by Daniel Thwaite, of Dale
+Head Hall, within six miles of Keswick; and slaughtered by John Fisher,
+butcher, Keswick. The calf was a particularly healthy animal.
+
+Before closing this brief sketch of the digestive apparatus of the ox,
+it may not be uninteresting to quote some of the quaint speculations of
+Nathaniel Grew on this subject, from his 'Comparative Anatomy of
+Stomachs and Guts.'
+
+He says: "The _voluntary_ motion of the stomach is that only which
+accompanies rumination. That it is truly voluntary, is clear, from the
+command that ruminating animals have of that action. For this purpose it
+is, that the muscules of their venters are so thick and strong; and have
+several duplicatures, as the bases of those muscules, whereupon the
+stress of their motion lies. By means whereof they are able with ease to
+rowl and tumble any part of the meat from one cell of the same venter to
+another; or from one venter to another; or from thence into the gullet,
+whensoever they are minded to do it; so that the ejectment of the meat,
+in rumination, is a voluntary eructation.
+
+"The pointed knots, like little papillae, in the stomachs of ruminating
+beasts, are also of great use, namely, for the tasting of the meat. The
+inner membrane of the first three venters is fibrous (like the gustatory
+papillae of the tongue) and not glandulous; the fourth only being
+glandulous, as in a man. Of the fibres of this membrane, and the
+nervous, are composed those pointed knots, which are, both in substance
+and shape, altogether like to those upon the tongue. Whence I doubt not,
+but that the said three ventricles, as they have a power of voluntary
+motion, so, likewise, that they are the seat of taste, and as truly the
+organs of that sense, as is the tongue itself."
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal
+College of Surgeons.]
+
+The mouth of animals of the Ox Tribe contains, when full, thirty-two
+teeth. Six molars in each jaw, above, below, and on either side; and
+eight incisors in the lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are no
+incisors; but instead thereof a fibrous and elastic pad, or cushion,
+which covers the convex extremity of the anterior maxillary bone, and
+which is well worthy of observation.
+
+The final cause of this pad (which stands in the place of upper incisor
+teeth) and the part it plays in the procuring of food, is thus described
+by Youatt. "The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the
+long and moveable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting
+teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and
+then by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage
+is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut.
+
+"The intention of this singular method of gathering the food, it is
+somewhat difficult satisfactorily to explain. It is peculiar to
+ruminants, who have one large stomach, in which the food is kept as a
+kind of reservoir until it is ready for the action of the other
+stomachs. While it is kept there it is in a state of maceration; it is
+exposed to the united influence of moisture and warmth, and the
+consequence of this is, that a species of decomposition sometimes
+commences, and a vast deal of gas is extricated.
+
+"That this should not take place in the natural process of retention and
+maceration, nature possibly established this mechanism for the first
+gathering of the food. It is impossible that half of that which is thus
+procured can be fairly cut through; part will be torn, and no little
+portion will be torn up by the roots. If cattle are observed while they
+are grazing, it will be seen that many a root mingles with the blades of
+grass; and these roots have sometimes no inconsiderable quantity of
+earth about them. The beast, however, seems not to regard this; he eats
+on, dirt and all, until his paunch is filled.
+
+"It was designed that this earth should be gathered and swallowed; it
+was the meaning of this mechanism. A portion of absorbent earth is found
+in every soil, sufficient not only to prevent the evil that would result
+from occasional decomposition, by neutralizing the acid principle as
+rapidly as it is evolved; but, perhaps, by its presence, preventing that
+decomposition from taking place. Hence the eagerness with which
+stall-fed cattle, who have not the opportunity of plucking up the roots
+of grass, evince for mould. It is seldom that a cow will pass a
+newly-raised mole hill without nuzzling into it, and devouring a
+considerable portion of it. This is particularly the case where there is
+any degree of indigestion."
+
+The general disposition of animals of this class, when unmolested, is
+inoffensive and retiring; but when excited and irritated, they are
+fierce and courageous, and extremely dangerous to encounter. It is a
+remarkable circumstance in their history, that they are generally
+provoked to attack at the sight of red, or any very bright and glaring
+colour.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    _a._ Cervical vertebrae.
+    _b._ Dorsal vertebrae.
+    _c._ Lumbar vertebrae.
+    _d._ Sacrum.
+    _e._ Caudal vertebrae, or coccygeal bones.
+    _f._ Ribs.
+    _g._ Costal cartilages.
+    _h._ Scapula.
+    _i._ Humerus,
+    _k._ Radius.
+    _l._ Ulna
+    _m._ Carpus, or knee.
+    _n._ Large metacarpal, or cannon.
+    _pp._ Sesamoid bones.
+    _qq._ Phalanges.
+    _r._ Pelvis.
+    _s._ Femur.
+    _t._ Patella.
+    _u._ Tibia.
+    _v._ Rudimentum fibulae.
+    _w._ Hock and tarsals.
+    _x._ Large metatarsal.
+    _y._ Small metatarsal.
+
+    1. Inferior maxilla (lower jaw).
+    2. Superior maxilla (upper jaw).
+    3. Anterior maxilla
+    4. Nasal bone.
+    5. Frontal.
+    6. Parietal.
+    7. Occipital.
+
+Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of
+Surgeons.]
+
+
+
+
+THE OX TRIBE
+
+OR
+
+_Genus_ BOS,
+
+Is distinguished from other Genera of Ruminantia by possessing hollow
+persistent horns, growing on a bony core; the tail long, terminated by a
+tuft of hair; and four inguinal mammae.
+
+
+
+
+THE AMERICAN BISON.
+
+_Bos Americanus._
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BISON. ]
+
+The head of this animal is enormously large; larger, in fact, in
+proportion to the size of its body, than that of any other species of
+the Ox Tribe. This huge head is supported by very powerful muscles,
+attached to the projecting spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae; and
+these muscles, together with a quantity of fat, constitute the hump on
+the shoulders. The horns are short, tapering, round, and very distant
+from each other, as are also the eyes, which are small and dark. The
+head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, to the knee-joints, are covered
+with long woolly hair, which likewise forms a beard under the mouth. The
+rest of the body is clothed only by short, close hair, which becomes
+rather woolly in the depth of winter. The colour is of a deep brown,
+nearly black on the head, and lighter about the neck and shoulders. The
+legs are firm and muscular; the tail is short, with a tuft at the end.
+
+The female is, in every respect, much smaller than the male; her horns
+are more slender, and the hair on her neck and shoulders is not so thick
+or long, nor the colour so dark. She brings forth in the spring, and
+rarely more than one. The calves continue to be suckled nearly twelve
+months, and follow the cows for a much longer period. It is said that
+the cows are not unfrequently followed by the calves of two, or even
+three, breeding seasons.
+
+These animals, both male and female, are timid and shy, notwithstanding
+their fierce appearance; unless they are wounded, or during the breeding
+season, when it is dangerous to approach. Their mode of attack is to
+throw down, by pushing, as they run with their head; then to crush, by
+trampling their enemy under their fore-feet, which, surmounted as they
+are, by their tremendous head and shoulder, form most effectual weapons
+of destruction.
+
+[Illustration: Young female Bison, after Cuvier.]
+
+The following account, by Dr. Richardson, affords an instance of the
+danger to be apprehended from these powerful animals, when wounded, and
+not disabled: "Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's
+clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening,
+having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look
+for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull, which
+was galloping over an eminence; and as he was hastening forward to see
+if this shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He
+had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on the
+forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a
+remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued
+until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered
+powerless; he then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became
+senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by his companions, lying
+bathed in his blood, being gored in several places, and the Bison was
+couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack, had he shown
+any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of
+the injuries, but he died a few months afterwards. Many instances might
+be mentioned of the tenaciousness with which this animal pursues its
+revenge; and I have been told of a hunter being detained for many hours
+in a tree, by an old bull, which had taken its post below, to watch
+him."
+
+[Illustration: Wounded Bison, after Catlin.]
+
+The capture of the Bison is effected in various ways, chiefly with the
+rifle, and on foot. Their sense of smelling, however, is so acute, that
+they are extremely difficult of approach, scenting their enemy from
+afar, and retiring with the greatest precipitation. Care, therefore,
+must be taken to go against the wind, in which case they may be
+approached very near, being almost blinded by the long hair hanging over
+their foreheads. The hunters generally aim at the shoulder, which, if
+effectually hit, causes them to drop at once; otherwise they are
+infuriated, and become dangerous antagonists, as was proved in the
+result of Mr. M'Donald's adventure.
+
+When flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost
+to halt, or attempt to obstruct the progress of the main body, as the
+throng in the rear, still rushing onwards, the leaders must advance,
+although destruction await the movement. The Indians take advantage of
+this circumstance to destroy great quantities of this favorite game; and
+certainly no method could be resorted to more effectually destructive,
+nor could a more terrible devastation be produced, than that of forcing
+a numerous herd of these large animals to leap from the brink of a
+dreadful precipice upon a rocky and broken surface, a hundred feet
+below.
+
+When the Indians determine to destroy Bisons in this way, one of their
+swiftest-footed and most active young men is selected, who is disguised
+in a Bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns adjusted on his own
+head, so as to make the deception very complete; and thus accoutred, he
+stations himself between the Bison herd and some of the precipices,
+which often extend for several miles along the rivers. The Indians
+surround the herd as nearly as possible, when, at a given signal, they
+show themselves, and rush forward with loud yells. The animals being
+alarmed, and seeing no way open but in the direction of the disguised
+Indian, run towards him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the
+precipice, where he suddenly secures himself in some previously
+ascertained crevice. The foremost of the herd arrives at the
+brink,--there is no possibility of retreat, no chance of escape; the
+foremost may, for an instant, shrink with terror, but the crowd behind,
+who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush forward with
+increasing impetuosity, and the aggregate force hurls them successively
+into the gulf, where certain death awaits them.
+
+Sometimes they are taken by the following method:--A great number of men
+divide and form a vast square; each band then sets fire to the dry grass
+of the savannah, where the herds are feeding; seeing the fire advance on
+all sides, they retire in great consternation to the centre of the
+square; the men then close and kill them without the least hazard.
+
+Great numbers are also taken in pounds, constructed with an embankment
+of such an elevation as to prevent the return of the Bisons when once
+they are driven into it. A general slaughter then takes place with
+rifles or arrows.
+
+The following vivid sketch is from the narrative of John Tanner, who,
+when about seven or eight years of age, was stolen from his parents by
+the Indians, and remained with them during a period of thirty years.
+
+"By the end of the second day after we left Pembinah we had not a
+mouthful to eat, and were beginning to be very hungry. When we laid down
+in our camp (near Craneberry River) at night, and put our ears close to
+the ground, we could hear the tramp of the buffaloes, but when we sat up
+we could hear nothing; and on the following morning nothing could be
+seen of them; though we could command a very extensive view of the
+prairie. As we knew they must not be far off in the direction of the
+sounds we had heard, eight men, of whom I was one, were selected and
+dispatched to kill some, and bring the meat to a point where it was
+agreed the party should stop next night. The noise we could still hear
+next morning, by applying our ears to the ground; and it seemed about as
+far distant, and in the same direction, as before. We started early, and
+rode some hours before we could begin to see them; and when we first
+discovered the margin of the herd, it must have been at least ten miles
+distant. It was like a black line drawn along the edge of the sky, or a
+low shore seen across a lake. The distance of the herd from the place
+where we first heard them could not have been less than twenty miles.
+But it was now the rutting season, and various parts of the herd were
+all the time kept in rapid motion by the severe fights of the bulls. To
+the noise produced by the knocking together of the two divisions of the
+hoof, when they raised their feet from the ground, and of their
+incessant tramping, was added the loud and furious roar of the bulls,
+engaged, as they all were, in their terrific and appalling conflicts. We
+were conscious that our approach to the herd would not occasion the
+alarm now, that it would at any other time, and we rode directly towards
+them. As we came near we killed a wounded bull, which scarcely made an
+effort to escape from us. He had wounds in his flanks, into which I
+could put my whole hand. As we knew that the flesh of the bulls was not
+now good to eat, we did not wish to kill them, though we might easily
+have shot any number. Dismounting, we put our horses in the care of some
+of our number, who were willing to stay back for that purpose, and then
+crept into the herd to try to kill some cows. I had separated from the
+others, and advancing, got entangled among the bulls. Before I found an
+opportunity to shoot a cow, the bulls began to fight very near me. In
+their fury they were totally unconscious of my presence, and came
+rushing towards me with such violence, that in some alarm for my safety,
+I took refuge in one of those holes which are so frequent where those
+animals abound, and which they themselves dig to wallow in. Here I found
+they were pressing directly upon me, and I was compelled to fire to
+disperse them, in which I did not succeed until I had killed four of
+them. By this firing the cows were so frightened, that I perceived I
+should not be able to kill any in this quarter; so regaining my horse, I
+rode to a distant part of the herd, where the Indians had succeeded in
+killing a fat cow. But from this cow, as is usual in similar cases, the
+herd had all moved off, except one bull, who, when I came up, still kept
+the Indians at bay. 'You are warriors,' said I, as I rode up, 'going far
+from your own country, to seek an enemy, but you cannot take his wife
+from that old bull, who has nothing in his hands.' So saying, I passed
+them directly towards the bull, then standing something more than two
+hundred yards distant. He no sooner saw me approach, than he came
+plunging towards me with such impetuosity, that, knowing the danger to
+my horse and myself, I turned and fled. The Indians laughed heartily at
+my repulse, but they did not give over their attempts to get at the cow.
+By dividing the attention of the bull, and creeping up to him on
+different sides, they at length shot him down. While we were cutting up
+the cow, the herd were at no great distance; and an old cow, which the
+Indians supposed to be the mother of the one we had killed, taking the
+scent of the blood, came running with great violence towards us. The
+Indians were alarmed and fled, many of them not having their guns in
+their hands; but I had carefully reloaded mine, and had it ready for
+use. Throwing myself down close to the body of the cow, and behind it, I
+waited till the other came up within a few yards of the carcase, when I
+fired upon her; she turned, gave one or two jumps, and fell dead. We had
+now the meat of two fat cows, which was as much as we wanted;
+accordingly we repaired, without delay, to the appointed place, where we
+found our party, whose hunger was already somewhat allayed by a deer one
+of them had killed."
+
+In hunting the Bison, the spear and the arrow are still much in use
+among the Indians. The following sketch (after Catlin) represents an
+Indian in the act of shooting a Bison with the arrow:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the 'Letters and Notes on the North-American Indians,' by Catlin,
+there are a great many interesting details of the Bison (or Buffalo, as
+it is there called).
+
+"Six days of severe travelling have brought us from the Camanchee
+village to the north bank of the Canadian, where we are snugly encamped
+on a beautiful plain, and in the midst of countless numbers of
+buffaloes; and halting a few days to recruit our horses and men, and dry
+meat to last us the remainder of our journey.
+
+"The plains around this, for many miles, seem actually speckled, in
+distance and in every direction, with herds of grazing buffaloes; and
+for several days, the officers and men have been indulged in a general
+license to gratify their sporting propensities; and a scene of bustle
+and cruel slaughter it has been, to be sure! From morning till night,
+the camp has been daily almost deserted. The men have dispersed in
+little squads, in all directions, and are dealing death to these poor
+creatures to a most cruel and wanton extent, merely for the pleasure of
+destroying, generally without stopping to cut out the meat. During
+yesterday and to day, several hundreds have undoubtedly been killed, and
+not so much as the flesh of half a dozen used. Such immense swarms of
+them are spread over this tract of country, and so divided and terrified
+have they become, finding their enemies in all directions where they
+run, that the poor beasts seem completely bewildered, running here and
+there, and, as often as otherwise, come singly advancing to the
+horsemen, as if to join them for their company, and are easily shot
+down. In the turmoil and confusion, when their assailants have been
+pushing them forward, they have galloped through our encampment, jumping
+over our fires, upsetting pots and kettles, driving horses from their
+fastenings, and throwing the whole encampment into the greatest
+consternation and alarm."
+
+Speaking of the attacks made upon them by the Wolves, he says, "When the
+herd is together the Wolves never attack them, as they instantly gather
+for combined resistance, which they effectually make. But when the herds
+are travelling, it often happens that an aged or wounded one lingers at
+a little distance behind, and when fairly out of sight of the herd, is
+set upon by the voracious hunters, which often gather to the number of
+fifty or more, and are sure at last to torture him to death, and use him
+up at a meal. The Buffalo, however, is a huge and furious animal, and
+when his retreat is cut off, makes desperate and deadly resistance,
+contending to the last moment for the right of life, and oftentimes
+deals death by wholesale to his canine assailants.
+
+"During my travels in these regions, I have several times come across
+such a gang of these animals surrounding an old or wounded bull, where
+it would seem, from appearances, that they had been for several days in
+attendance, and at intervals desperately engaged in the effort to take
+his life. But a short time since, as one of my hunting companions and
+myself were returning to our encampment, with our horses loaded with
+meat, we discovered at a distance a huge bull, encircled with a gang of
+white wolves. We rode up as near as we could without driving them away;
+and being within pistol-shot, we had a remarkably good view, where I sat
+for a few moments and made a sketch in my note-book. After which we rode
+up, and gave the signal for them to disperse, which they instantly did,
+withdrawing themselves to the distance of fifty or sixty rods, when we
+found, to our great surprise, that the animal had made desperate
+resistance, until his eyes were entirely eaten out of his head; the
+gristle of his nose was mostly gone; his tongue was half eaten off, and
+the skin and flesh of his legs torn almost literally into strings. In
+this tattered and torn condition the poor old veteran stood bracing up
+in the midst of his devourers, who had ceased hostilities for a few
+minutes, to enjoy a sort of parley, recovering strength to resume the
+attack in a few moments again. In this group, some were reclining to
+gain breath, whilst others were sneaking about, and licking their chaps
+in anxiety for a renewal of the attack; and others, less lucky, had been
+crushed to death by the feet or the horns of the bull. I rode nearer to
+the pitiable object, as he stood bleeding and trembling before me, and
+said to him,--"Now is your time, old fellow, and you had better be off."
+Though blind, and nearly destroyed, he straightened up, and, trembling
+with excitement, dashed off at full speed upon the prairie, in a
+straight line. We turned our horses, and resumed our march; and when we
+had advanced a mile or more, we looked back, and again saw the ill-fated
+animal surrounded by his tormentors, to whose insatiable voracity he
+unquestionably soon fell a victim."
+
+[Illustration: Bison surrounded by Wolves, after Catlin.]
+
+It has frequently been noticed, that whenever a female Bison, having a
+calf, is slain, the young one remains by its fallen dam, with signs of
+strong natural affection, and instinctively follows the inanimate
+carcase of its parent to the residence of the hunter. In this way many
+calves are secured.
+
+According to Mr. Catlin's account these young animals are induced to
+follow any one who merely breathes in their nostrils. "I have often,"
+says he, "in concurrence with a known custom of the country, held my
+hands over the eyes of the calf, and breathed a few strong breaths into
+its nostrils; after which I have, with my hunting companions, rode
+several miles into our encampment, with the little prisoner busily
+following the heels of my horse the whole way, as closely as its
+instinct would attach it to the company of its dam.
+
+[Illustration: Bison Calf, about three weeks old.]
+
+"This is one of the most extraordinary things that I have met with in
+the habits of this wild country; and although I had often heard of it,
+and felt unable exactly to believe it, I am now willing to bear
+testimony to the fact, from the numerous instances which I have
+witnessed since I came into the country. During the time that I resided
+at this post (Teton River) in the spring of the year, on my way up the
+river, I assisted in bringing in, in the above manner, several of these
+little prisoners, which sometimes followed for five or six miles close
+to our horse's heels, and even into the Fur Company's Fort, and into the
+stable where our horses were led. In this way, before I left for the
+head waters of the Missouri, I think we had collected about a dozen,
+which Mr. Laidlaw was successfully raising with the aid of a good milch
+cow, and which were to be committed to the care of Mr. Chouteau, to be
+transported, by the return of the steamer, to his extensive plantation
+in the vicinity of St. Louis."
+
+The uses which are made of the various parts of the Bison are numerous.
+The hide, which is thick and rather porous, is converted by the Indians
+into mocassins for the winter; they also make their shields of it. When
+dressed with the hair on, it is made into clothing by the natives, and
+most excellent blankets by the European settlers; so valuable, indeed,
+is it esteemed, that three or four pounds sterling a piece are not
+unfrequently given for good ones in Canada, where they are used as
+travelling cloaks. The fleece, which sometimes weighs eight pounds, is
+spun and wove into cloth. Stockings, gloves, garters, &c., are likewise
+knit with it, appearing and lasting as well as those made of the best
+sheep's wool. In England it has been made into remarkably fine cloth.
+
+"There are," says Catlin, "by a fair calculation, more than 300,000
+Indians who are now subsisting on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by
+these animals supplied with, all the luxuries of life which they
+desire, as they know of none others. The great variety of uses to which
+they convert the body and other parts of that animal, are almost
+incredible to the person who has not actually dwelt amongst these
+people, and closely studied their modes and customs. Every part of their
+flesh is converted into food, in one shape or other, and on it they
+entirely subsist. The skins of the animals are worn by the Indians
+instead of blankets; their skins, when tanned, are used as coverings for
+their lodges and for their beds; undressed, they are used for
+constructing canoes, for saddles, for bridles, l'arrets, lasos, and
+thongs. The horns are shaped into ladles and spoons; the brains are used
+for dressing the skins; their bones are used for saddle-trees, for
+war-clubs, and scrapers for graining the robes; and others are broken up
+for the marrow fat which is contained in them. The sinews are used for
+strings and backs to their bows, for thread to string their beads and
+sew their dresses. The feet of the animals are boiled, with their hoofs,
+for the glue they contain, for fastening their arrow points, and many
+other uses. The hair from the head and shoulders, which is long, is
+twisted and braided into halters, and the tail is used for a fly-brush."
+
+Again (vol. ii, p. 138), he says, "I have introduced the skin canoes of
+the Mandans (of the Upper Missouri), which are made almost round like a
+tub, by straining a buffalo's skin over a frame of wicker-work, made of
+willow or other boughs. The woman, in paddling these awkward tubs,
+stands in the bow, and makes the stroke with the paddle, by reaching it
+forward in the water, and drawing it to her, by which means she pulls
+the canoe along with considerable speed. These very curious and
+rudely-constructed canoes are made in the form of the Welsh coracle;
+and, if I mistake not, propelled in the same manner, which is a very
+curious circumstance; inasmuch as they are found in the heart of the
+great wilderness of America, where all the surrounding tribes construct
+their canoes in decidedly different forms, and of different materials."
+
+[Illustration: Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians.]
+
+It is generally agreed by travellers, that the flesh of the Bison is
+little inferior to the beef of our domestic oxen. The tongue is
+considered a delicacy, and the hump is much esteemed. A kind of
+potted-beef, called _pemmican_, is made of the flesh of the Bison, in
+the following manner:--The flesh is spread on a skin, dried in the sun,
+and pounded with stones; then all the hair is carefully sifted out of
+it, and melted fat kneeded into it. This, when properly made and kept
+dry, will keep good for twelve months. The tallow of the Bison forms an
+important article of commerce; one fat bull yielding sometimes as much
+as 150 pounds weight.
+
+Mr. Turner, a gentleman long resident in America, is of opinion, that
+the Bison is superior even to our domestic cattle for the purposes of
+husbandry, and has expressed a wish to see this animal domesticated on
+the English farms. He informs us, that a farmer on the great Kenhawa
+broke a young Bison to the plough; and having yoked it with a steer,
+taken from his tame cattle, it performed its work to admiration. But
+there is another property in which the Bison far surpasses the Ox, and
+this is his strength. "Judging from the extraordinary size of his bones,
+and the depth and formation of the chest, (continues this gentleman,) I
+should not think it unreasonable to assign nearly a double portion of
+strength to this powerful inhabitant of the forest. Reclaim him, and you
+gain a capital quadruped, both for the draught and for the plough; his
+activity peculiarly fits him for the latter, in preference to the ox."
+
+As there are no Game Laws in America, (except in a very few confined
+instances on the Atlantic border,) the consequence is that the Bison is
+fast disappearing before the approach of the white settlers. At the
+commencement of the eighteenth century these wild cattle were found in
+large numbers all throughout the valley of the Ohio, of the Mississippi,
+in Western New York, in Virginia, &c. In the beginning of the present
+century they were still existing in the extreme western or southwestern
+part of the State of New York. As late as 1812 they were natives of
+Ohio, and numerous in that State. And now they are not to be seen in
+their native state in any part of the United States, east of the
+Mississippi River; nor are they now to be found in any considerable
+numbers west of that great river, until you have travelled some eighty
+or a hundred miles into the interior of the country.
+
+There were no Bisons west of the Rocky Mountains, when Lewis and Clarke
+travelled there in 1805. On their return from the Columbia, or Oregon
+River, in July of that year, the first Bison they saw was on the day
+after they commenced their descent of the Rocky Mountains towards the
+east. On the second day after that, they saw immense herds of them on
+the banks of the Medicine River. One collection of these animals which
+they subsequently saw, on the borders of the Missouri River, they
+estimated as being at least 20,000 in number.
+
+In 1823 it was discovered that the Bisons had crossed the Rocky
+Mountains, and some were to be seen in the vallies to the west of that
+range.
+
+East of that range of mountains, these animals migrate from the uplands
+or mountains to the plains, and from north to south, about the beginning
+of November; and return from the south to the north, and from the plains
+to the uplands, soon after the disappearance of the snow in the spring.
+
+The herds of Bisons wander over the country in search of food, usually
+led by a bull remarkable for strength and fierceness. While feeding,
+they are often scattered over a great extent of country; but when they
+move, they form a dense and almost impenetrable column, which, when once
+in motion, is scarcely to be impeded. Their line of march is seldom
+interrupted, even by considerable rivers, across which they swim,
+without fear or hesitation, nearly in the order in which they traverse
+the plains. The Bisons which frequent the woody parts of the country
+form smaller herds than those which roam over the plains, but are said
+to be individually of a greater size.
+
+The rutting takes place the latter part of July and the beginning of
+August, after which the cows separate from the bulls in distinct herds.
+They bring forth their young in April: from which it appears that the
+term of gestation is about nine months.
+
+The pair of American Bisons in the Zoological Gardens produced a calf in
+1849; from the observations made in that instance, the period of
+gestation was calculated at 270 days.
+
+The most important anatomical difference between the American and the
+European is, that the American has fifteen pairs of ribs, whereas the
+European has but fourteen.
+
+The following are the dimensions of a large specimen:--
+
+                                                    Ft. In.
+From the nose to the insertion of the tail           8   6
+Height at the shoulder                               6   0
+  "         at the croup                             5   0
+Length of the head                                   2   1
+
+Their weights vary from 1200 to 2000 pounds.
+
+[Illustration: Head of young male Bison.]
+
+
+
+
+THE AUROCHS, OR EUROPEAN BISON.
+
+_Bos Bison._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In this, as in the American species, the head is very broad, and the
+forehead arched; but the horns are longer, more curved, and end in a
+finer point than those of the American Bison. The eyes are large and
+dark; the hair on the forehead is long and wavy; under the chin and on
+the breast it forms a sort of beard. In winter, the whole of the neck,
+hump, and shoulders are covered with a long woolly hair of a dusky brown
+colour, intermingled with a short soft fur of a fawn colour. The long
+hair is gradually cast in the summer, to be again renewed as the
+inclemency of winter comes on. The legs, back, and posterior portions
+are covered with short, dark brown hair. The tail is of a moderate
+length, is covered with hair, and terminates in a large tuft.
+
+The females are not so large as the males, neither are they
+characterised by that abundance of hair on the anterior parts, which is
+so conspicuous in the bulls.
+
+These animals have never been domesticated, although calves have
+sometimes been caught, and confined in an enclosed pasture. An instance
+of this kind is recorded by Mr. Gilibert, who, while in Poland, had the
+opportunity of observing the character of four young ones thus reared in
+captivity. They were suckled by a she-goat, obstinately refusing to
+touch a common cow. This antipathy to the domestic cow, which they
+manifested so early, maintained its strength as they advanced in years;
+their anger was sure to be excited at the appearance of any domestic
+cattle, which, whenever introduced to them, they vigorously expelled
+from their pasture. They were, however, sufficiently tame to acknowledge
+the voice of their keeper.
+
+The geographical range of this animal is now comparatively very limited,
+being confined to the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
+some of the Caucasian mountain forests; yet there can be no doubt that,
+at an early period, they roamed at large over a great part of both
+Europe and Asia.
+
+Although they have never been, strictly speaking, domesticated, yet
+herds of them are kept in certain localities in the forest of
+Bialowieza, under the special protection of the Emperor of Russia, and
+under the immediate superintendence of twelve herdsmen, each herdsman
+keeping the number allotted to his charge in a particular department of
+the forest, near some river or stream. The estimated number of the
+twelve herds is about 800.
+
+They feed on grass and brushwood; also on the leaves and bark of young
+trees, particularly the willow, poplar, ash, and birch. In autumn they
+likewise browse on heath, and the lichens which cover the bark of trees.
+In winter, when the ground is covered with snow, fodder is provided for
+them.
+
+Their cry is quite peculiar, resembling a groan, or a grunt, more than
+the lowing of an ox.
+
+They do not attain their full stature until after the sixth year, and
+live till between thirty and forty.
+
+"The strength of the Zubr," says Dr. Weissenborn, "is enormous; and
+trees of five or six inches diameter cannot withstand the thrusts of old
+bulls. It is neither afraid of wolf nor bear, and assails its enemies
+both with its horns and hoofs. An old Zubr is a match for four wolves;
+packs of the latter animal, however, sometimes hunt down even old bulls
+when alone; but a herd of Zubrs has nothing to fear from any rapacious
+animal.
+
+"Notwithstanding the great bulk of its body, the Zubr can run very
+swiftly. In galloping, its hoofs are raised above its head, which it
+carries very low. The animal has, however, but little bottom, and seldom
+runs farther than one or two English miles. It swims well, and is very
+fond of bathing.
+
+"The zubr is generally exceedingly shy, and avoids the approach of man.
+They can only be approached from the leeward, as their smell is
+extremely acute. But when accidentally and suddenly fallen in with, they
+will passionately assail the intruder. In such fits of passion the
+animal thrusts out its tongue repeatedly, lashes its sides with its
+tail, and the reddened and sparkling eyes project from their sockets,
+and roll furiously. Such is their innate wildness, that none of them
+have been completely tamed. When taken young they become, it is true,
+accustomed to their keepers, but the approach of other persons renders
+them furious; and even their keepers must be careful always to wear the
+same sort of dress when going near them. Their great antipathy to the
+Bos Taurus, which they either avoid or kill, would render their
+domestication, if it were practicable, but little desirable. The
+experiments made with a view of obtaining a mixed breed from the Zubr
+and Bos Taurus have all failed, and are now strictly prohibited."
+
+The rutting season is in August, and continues for about a fortnight;
+the calves are produced in May; thus, the period of gestation is between
+nine and ten months. The calves continue to suckle nearly twelve months,
+and the cows seldom calve oftener than once in three years.
+
+The European Bison differs internally from the common ox in having
+fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas the common ox has but thirteen. The
+external differences between the two animals are too obvious to require
+pointing out.
+
+In 1845, the Emperor of Russia presented to the British Museum a very
+fine stuffed specimen of this animal, from which the figure at the head
+of this chapter was taken.
+
+The following are its dimensions:--
+
+                                                           Ft.  In.
+Length from the nose to the insertion of the tail          9    10
+Height at the withers                                      5     6
+  "       at the rump                                      4    11
+Length of head                                             1     8
+  "        of tail                                         3     0
+
+M. Dimitri de Dolmatoff, Master of the Imperial Forests in the
+Government of Grodno, in his note of the capture of the Aurochs,
+(written in 1847,) alludes to the statement (made by every writer who
+has treated of these animals), that the calves, although taken young,
+invariably refuse to be suckled by the Domestic Cow. This he contradicts
+in the most explicit manner, on the testimony of his own experience,
+having had several instances come under his observation, in which the
+young calves of the Aurochs were suckled and reared by cows of the
+common domestic species.
+
+Caesar, in his account of the "Sylva Hercynia"--the Black Forest--thus
+mentions the Urus, amongst other animals, there found:
+
+"A third kind [of animals] are those called Uri. They are but little
+less than Elephants in size, and are of the species, colour, and form of
+a bull. Their strength is very great, and also their speed. They spare
+neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
+the sight of men, nor be tamed, even when taken young. The people who
+take them in pit-falls, assiduously destroy them; and young men harden
+themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this kind of
+chase; and those who have killed a great number--the horns being
+publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact--obtain great honour. The
+horns, in amplitude, shape, and species, differ much from the horns of
+our oxen. They are much sought after; and after having been edged with
+silver at their mouths, they are used for drinking vessels at great
+feasts." (_De Bello Gallico_, lib. vi.)
+
+
+
+
+THE YAK, OR SOORA-GOY.
+
+_Bos Grunniens._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The following interesting and circumstantial account of this curious
+species of Ox, is from the pen of Lieut. Samuel Turner. (_Asiatic
+Researches_, vol. iv.)
+
+"The Yak of Tartary, called Soora-Goy in Hindostan, and which I term the
+Bushy-tailed Bull of Tibet, is about the height of an English Bull,
+which he resembles in the figure of the body, head, and legs. I could
+distinguish between them no essential difference, except only that the
+Yak is covered all over with a thick coat of long hair. The head is
+rather short, crowned with two smooth round horns, that, tapering from
+the setting on, terminate in sharp points, arch inwardly, and near the
+extremities are a little turned back. The ears are small; the forehead
+appears prominent, being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are
+full and large; the nose smooth and convex; the nostrils small. The
+neck is short, describing a curvature nearly equal both above and below;
+the withers high and arched; the rump low. Over the shoulders rises a
+bunch, which at first sight would seem to be the same kind of exuberance
+peculiar to the cattle of Hindostan; but in reality it consists in the
+superior length of the hair only, which, as well as that along the ridge
+of the back to the setting on of the tail, grows long and erect, but not
+harsh. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing
+glossy hair, descending to the hock; and is so extremely well furnished,
+that not a joint of it is perceptible; but it has much the appearance of
+a large bunch of hair artificially set on. The shoulders, rump, and
+upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of thick soft wool, but
+the inferior parts with straight pendent hair that descends below the
+knee; and I have seen it so long in some cattle, which were in high
+health and condition, as to trail along the ground. From the chest,
+between the fore-legs, issues a large pointed tuft of hair, growing
+somewhat larger than the rest. The legs are very short. In every other
+respect, hoofs, &c., he resembles the ordinary Bull. There is a great
+variety of colours among them, but black and white are the most
+prevalent. It is not uncommon to see the long hair upon the ridge of the
+back, the tail, the tuft upon the chest, and the legs below the knee
+white, when all the rest of the animal is jet black.
+
+"These cattle, though not large boned, from the profuse quantity of hair
+with which they are provided, appear of great bulk. They have a down
+heavy look, but are fierce, and discover much impatience at the near
+approach of strangers. They do not low loud (like the cattle of
+England) any more than those of Hindostan; but make a low grunting
+noise, scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression
+of uneasiness. These cattle are pastured in the coldest part of Tibet,
+upon short herbage, peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains.
+That chain of lofty mountains situated between lat. 27 deg. and 28 deg., which
+divides Tibet from Bootan, and whose summits are most commonly covered
+with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity the Southern glens
+afford them food and shelter during the severity of the winter; in
+milder seasons the Northern aspect is more congenial to their nature,
+and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable property to the
+tribes of illiterate Tartars, who live in tents, and tend them from
+place to place, affording their herdsmen a mode of conveyance, a good
+covering, and subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture, but
+are extremely useful as beasts of burden; for they are strong,
+sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manufactured
+of their hair, and I have seen, though amongst the humblest ranks of
+herdsmen, caps and jackets worn of their skins. Their tails are esteemed
+throughout the East, as far as luxury or parade have any influence on
+the manners of the people; and on the continent of India are found,
+under the denomination of Chowries, in the hands of the meanest grooms,
+as well as, occasionally, in those of the first ministers of state. Yet
+the best requital with which the care of their keepers is at length
+rewarded for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity
+of rich milk they give, yielding most excellent butter, which they have
+a custom of depositing in skins or bladders, and excluding the air; it
+keeps in this cold climate all the year, so that after some time
+tending their flocks, when a sufficient stock is accumulated, it remains
+only to load their cattle, and drive them to a proper market with their
+own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most
+material article of commerce."
+
+The soft fur upon the hump and shoulders is manufactured by the natives
+of Tibet into a fine but strong cloth; and, if submitted to the test of
+European skill, might no doubt be made to produce a very superior
+fabric.
+
+The herdsmen commonly convert the hides into a loose outer garment that
+covers the whole of their bodies, hanging down to the knees; and it
+proves a sufficient protection against the lowest temperature of the
+cold and desolate region which they inhabit. It furnishes at once a
+cloak by day and a bed by night.
+
+The Yak is not generally fierce, but, if intruded upon by strangers, it
+sometimes manifests very formidable symptoms of impatience, stamping its
+feet, whisking its tail aloft, and tossing its head. When excited, it is
+not easily appeased, and is exceedingly tenacious of injury, always
+showing great fierceness whenever any one approaches who has chanced to
+provoke it.
+
+The cow is called _Dhe_, of which the wandering Tartars possess great
+numbers, having no means of subsistence but those supplied by their
+flocks and herds.
+
+A fine male specimen of this Ox was brought to England by Warren
+Hastings, and several attempts were made to procure a cross between it
+and the common English Cow, but without success. He invariably refused
+to associate with ordinary cattle, and exhibited a decided antipathy to
+them. His portrait was painted, and is now in the Museum of the College
+of Surgeons, London. The following figure (taken from the 'Oriental
+Annual') is so much like the portrait of Warren Hastings's Yak, that it
+might almost be taken for a copy of it.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+There is the skin of a Yak in the Zoological Museum, which coincides
+pretty nearly with the foregoing description. There is also a stuffed
+specimen of a female in the British Museum.
+
+Like the European Bison, the skeleton of the Yak has fourteen pairs of
+ribs. Period of gestation not recorded.
+
+
+
+
+THE GYALL, (_Bos Frontalis_ of Lambert;)
+
+THE GAYAL, (_Bos Gavaeus_ of Colebrooke;)
+
+THE JUNGLY GAU, (_Bos Sylhetanus_ of F. Cuvier.)
+
+
+Of the animals named in the foregoing list, we have had several very
+interesting accounts; but none of these have been sufficiently precise
+to enable us to determine the specific character of the animals
+described.
+
+Are they, as some affirm, merely different names for the same animal; or
+do they designate animals which are really and truly distinct?
+
+Nothing short of an appeal to structure can satisfactorily settle this
+or any other disputed point of a similar nature; but, unfortunately for
+zoology, the opportunities for such appeals are rare, and, when they do
+occur, are seldom taken advantage of. Let us hope that this hint will
+not be lost on some of our intelligent countrymen in the East; and that
+before long we may be favoured with the result of their researches.
+
+In the meantime, and in order to facilitate as much as possible the
+endeavours of those who may have opportunities for such inquiries, the
+following epitome is given of the various papers which have already
+appeared on the subject, but which, in their present scattered form, are
+of very little general utility.
+
+
+
+
+THE GYALL.
+
+
+The earliest descriptive notice we have of the Gyall was that given in a
+paper read before the Linnean Society, in 1802, by Mr. Lambert, on the
+occasion of a bull of this species arriving in London from India.
+
+"_Bos Frontalis._
+
+"General colour a blueish-black; the frontal fascia gray; the horns
+short, thick, and distant at their bases, the tail nearly naked,
+slender, and with a tuft at the end. The Gyall has no mane; its coat is
+soft; the edge of the under lip is white, and is fringed with bristling
+hair. The horns are pale, with their bases included in the frontal
+fascia."
+
+[Illustration: The Gyall, reduced--from the Linnean Transactions.]
+
+The animal of which this description is given, appeared to be between
+two and three years old, very tame, and inoffensive. A drawing was
+taken of it, which was engraved and published in the Linnean
+Transactions.
+
+The following are its dimensions:
+
+                                                                Ft.   In.
+From tip of nose to end of tail                                 9     2
+ "   tip of hoof of fore foot to top of the rising of
+           back                                                 4     1-1/2
+Girth of largest part of abdomen                                5     7
+From the tip of the hoof of the hind leg to the
+           highest part of the rump                             4     0-1/2
+  "      the tip of forehead to end of nose                     1     9
+Girth of head over the angle of the jaws                        2    11-1/2
+Between tips of horns                                           1     8-1/2
+Length of horn, externally                                      0     8-1/2
+Girth of horn at largest part                                   1     1
+
+In reply to some inquiries respecting this animal which he made of a
+gentleman, (Mr. Harris,) resident in India, Mr. Lambert received the
+following:
+
+"DEAR SIR,--I have before me your note, with the drawing, which
+undoubtedly appears to me to be the figure of the animal I mentioned to
+have in my possession. Some parts of the drawing seem to be rather too
+much enlarged, as in the base of the horns, and the rising between the
+fore shoulders.
+
+"The animal I described to you, and which I have kept and reared these
+last seven years, and know by the name of the Gyall, is a native of the
+hills to the north east and east of the Company's province of
+Chittagong, in Bengal, inhabiting that range of hills which separates it
+from the country of Arracan.
+
+"The male Gyall is like our Bull in shape and appearance, but I conceive
+not quite so tall; it is of a blackish-brown colour; the horns short,
+but thick and strong towards the base, round which, and across the
+frons, the hair is bushy, and of a dirty white colour; the chest and
+forehead are broad and thick. He is naturally very bold, and will defend
+himself against any of the beasts of prey.
+
+"The female differs a little in appearance; her horns are not quite so
+large, and her make is somewhat more slender. She is very quiet, and is
+used for all the purposes of the dairy; as also, (I have been informed
+by the natives,) for tilling the ground, and is more tractable than the
+Buffalo. The milk which these cows give has a peculiar richness in it,
+arising, I should conceive, from their always feeding on the young
+shoots and branches of trees in preference to grass.
+
+[Illustration: (Head of Gyall, from Linnean Transactions.)]
+
+"I constantly made it a practice to allow them to range abroad, amongst
+the hills and jungles at Chittagong, during the day, to browse; a keeper
+attending to prevent their straying so far as to endanger losing them.
+They do not thrive so well in any part of Bengal as in the
+afore-mentioned province, and in the adjoining one, Pipperah, where, I
+believe, the animal is also to be found. I have heard of a female Gyall
+breeding with a common Bull. I wish it were in my power to give you more
+particulars, but I am describing entirely from memory."
+
+In February, 1804, Mr. Lambert again addressed the Linnean Society on
+the same subject. He says, "Since I presented to the Society the last
+account of the Bos Frontalis, or Gyall of India, Mr. Fleming, a
+gentleman who has just returned from that country, has very obligingly
+communicated to me the following further particulars. This account was
+transmitted to Mr. Fleming by Mr. Macrae, resident at Chittagong, in a
+letter, dated March 22, 1802, and was accompanied with a drawing, by
+which it appears that the animal from which my figure was taken was full
+grown." (See the figure, p. 51.)
+
+
+MR. MACRAE'S ACCOUNT.
+
+The Gyall is a species of cow peculiar to the mountains, which form the
+eastern boundary of the province of Chittagong, where it is found
+running wild in the woods; and it is also reared as a domestic animal by
+the Kookies, or Lunclas, the inhabitants of those hills. It delights to
+live in the deepest jungles, feeding on the tender leaves and shoots of
+the brushwood; and is never met with on the plains below, except when
+brought there. Such of them as have been kept by the gentlemen at
+Chittagong, have always preferred browsing among the thickets on the
+adjacent hills to feeding on the grass of the plains.
+
+It is of a dull heavy appearance, yet of a form that indicates both
+strength and activity; and approaches nearly to that of the wild
+Buffalo. Its head is set on like the Buffalo's, and it carries it much
+in the same manner, with the nose projecting forward; but in the shape
+of the head it differs materially from both the Buffalo and the Cow, the
+head of the Gyall being much shorter from the crown to the nose, but
+much broader between the horns than that of either. The withers and
+shoulders of the Gyall rise higher in proportion than those of Buffalo
+or Cow, and its tail is small and short, seldom falling lower than the
+bend in the ham. Its colour is in general brown, varying from a light to
+a deep shade; it has at times a white forehead, and _white legs_, with a
+white belly and brush. The hair of the belly is invariably of a lighter
+colour than that of the back and flanks. The Gyall calf is of a dull red
+colour, which gradually changes to a brown as it advances in age.
+
+The female Gyall receives the bull at three years of age; her term of
+gestation is eleven months, when she brings forth, and does not again
+admit the male until the second year thereafter, thus producing a calf
+once in three years only. So long an interval between each birth must
+tend to make the species rare. In the length of time she goes with
+young, as well as in that between each conception, the Gyall differs
+from the Buffalo and Cow. The Gyall does not give much milk, but what
+she yields is nearly as rich as the cream of other milk. The calf sucks
+its dam for eight or nine months, when it is capable of supporting
+itself. The Kookies tie up the calf until he is sufficiently strong to
+do so.
+
+The Gyalls live to the age of from fifteen to twenty. They lose their
+sight as they grow old, and are subject to a disease of the hoof, which
+often proves fatal at an early age. When the Kookies consider the
+disease beyond the hope of cure, he kills the animal and eats the
+flesh, which constitutes his first article of luxury.
+
+The Kookies have a very simple method of catching the wild Gyalls, which
+is as follows:--On discovering a herd of wild Gyalls in the jungles,
+they prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man's head, composed of
+a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their tame
+Gyalls towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet, and
+assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the
+females of the other, and _vice versa_. The Kookies now scatter their
+balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely
+to pass, and watch its motions. The Gyalls, on meeting these balls as
+they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin
+to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the salt,
+and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place until
+all the balls are consumed. The Kookies having observed the Gyalls to
+have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to
+answer the intended purpose; and as the Gyalls lick them up, they throw
+down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that
+the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally
+goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during
+which time the tame and the wild Gyalls are always together, licking the
+decoy balls; and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being
+so, makes his appearance, at such a distance as not to alarm the wild
+ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the
+sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his
+tame Gyalls on the back and neck, without frightening away the wild
+ones. He next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the
+same time giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the
+short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the
+tame ones, to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of
+force; and so attached do the Gyalls become to the parrah, that when the
+Kookies migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary
+to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gyalls
+should return to them from the new grounds.
+
+It is worthy of remark that the new and full moon are the periods at
+which the Kookies in general commence their operations of catching the
+wild Gyalls, from having observed that at these changes the two sexes
+are most inclined to associate. The same observation has been made with
+respect to Elephants.
+
+
+
+
+THE GAYAL.
+
+
+About four years after the publication of Mr. Macrae's account of the
+Gyall (namely in 1808,) there appeared, in the Eighth volume of 'Asiatic
+Researches,' a description of a species of Ox, named Gayal, communicated
+by H. T. Colebrooke.
+
+He commences by observing, that "the Gayal was mentioned in an early
+volume of the 'Researches of the Asiatic Society,' (vol. ii, p. 188,
+1790,) by its Indian name, which was explained by the phrase "Cattle of
+the mountains." It had been obscurely noticed (if indeed the same
+species of Ox be meant) by Knox, in his historical relation of Ceylon
+(p. 21), and it has been imperfectly described by Captain Turner, in
+his journey through Bootan, ('Embassy to Tibet,' p. 160).
+
+"Herds of this species of cattle have been long kept by many gentlemen
+in the eastern districts of Bengal, and also in other parts of this
+province; but no detailed account of the animal and of its habits has
+been yet published in India. To remedy this deficiency, Dr. Roxburgh
+undertook, at my solicitation, to describe the Gayal, from those seen by
+him in a herd belonging to the Governor-General. Dr. Buchanan has also
+obligingly communicated his observations on the same cattle; with
+information obtained from several gentlemen at Tipura, Sylhet, and
+Chatgaon, relative to the habits of the animal. The original drawing
+from which the plate has been taken was drawn by a native artist."
+
+[Illustration: Reduced copy of the Plate just referred to.]
+
+This representation does not appear to have been taken from a specimen
+of the animals here described: it bears a much stronger resemblance to
+our figure of the Gaur, which was taken from the stuffed specimen in the
+British Museum (see p. 97), than it does to the Gyall (_Bos frontalis_
+of Lambert, see p. 51), or to the Gayal, which died in the Zoological
+Gardens in 1846, from which our figure was taken, which is given on p.
+68.
+
+Dr. Roxburgh, who undertook, at the solicitation of Mr. Colebrooke, to
+describe the Gayal, appears to have done so by the very simple method of
+copying Mr. Macrae's description of the Gyall, which appeared in the
+'Linnean Transactions,' in 1804, to which he has added, that the dewlap
+is deep and pendant; and this, according to every other account, is not
+the fact.
+
+With respect to the account given by Dr. Buchanan, I have thought it
+best to quote it in full; because (although it repeats several of the
+characteristics already given,) it appears to flow from the pen of one
+who really observed what he describes.
+
+He says: "The Gayal generally carries its head with the mouth projecting
+forward, like that of a Buffalo. The head, at the upper part, is very
+broad and flat, and is contracted suddenly towards the nose, which is
+naked, like that of the common cow. From the upper angle of the forehead
+proceed two thick, short, horizontal processes of bone, which are
+covered with hair; on these are placed the horns, which are smooth,
+shorter than the head, and lie nearly in the plane of the forehead. They
+diverge outward, and turn upward with a gentle curve. At the bases they
+are very thick, and are slightly compressed, the flat side being toward
+the front and the tail. The edge next the ear is rather the thinnest, so
+that a transverse section would be somewhat ovate. Toward their tips
+the horns are rounded, and end in a sharp point. The eyes resemble those
+of the common Ox; the ears are much longer, broader, and blunter than
+those of that animal.
+
+"The neck is very slender near the head, at some distance from which a
+dewlap commences, but this is not so deep, nor so much undulated as in
+the Zebu or Indian Ox. The dewlap is covered with strong longish hairs,
+so as to form a kind of mane on the lower part of the neck; but this is
+not very conspicuous, especially when the animal is young.
+
+"In place of the hump (which is situated between the shoulders of the
+Zebu) the Gayal has a sharp ridge, which commences on the hinder part of
+the neck, slopes gradually up till it comes over the shoulder-joint,
+then runs horizontally almost a third part of the length of the back,
+where it terminates with a very sudden slope. The height of this ridge
+makes the neck appear much depressed, and also adds greatly to the
+clumsiness of the chest, which, although narrow, is very deep. The
+sternum is covered by a continuation of the dewlap. The rump, or os
+sacrum, has a more considerable declivity than that of the European Ox,
+but less than that of the Zebu.
+
+"The tail is covered with short hair, except near the end, where it has
+a tuft like that of the common Ox; but in the Gayal the tail descends no
+lower than the extremity of the tibia.
+
+"The legs, especially the fore ones, are thick and clumsy. The false
+hoofs are much larger than those of the Zebu. The hinder parts are
+weaker in proportion than the fore; and, owing to the contraction of the
+belly, the hinder legs, although in fact the shortest, appear to be the
+longest.
+
+"The whole body is covered with a thick coat of short hair, which is
+lengthened out into a mane on the dewlap, and into a pencil-like tuft on
+the end of the tail. From the summit of the head there diverges, with a
+whirl, a bunch of rather long coarse hair, which lies flat, is usually
+lighter-coloured than that which is adjacent, and extends towards the
+horns and over the forehead. The general colour of the animal is brown,
+in various shades, which very often approaches to black, but sometimes
+is rather light. Some parts, especially about the legs and belly, are
+usually white; but in different individuals these are very differently
+disposed."
+
+The following is the measurement of a full-grown cow:--
+
+                                      Ft.    In.
+From nose to summit of head            1     6
+Between roots of horns                 0    10
+From horns to shoulder                 3     3
+From shoulder to insertion of tail     4     3
+Height at shoulder                     4     9
+Height at loins                        4     4
+Depth of chest                         2     9
+Circumference of chest                 6     7
+Circumference at loins                 5    10
+Length of horns                        1     2
+Length of ears                         0    10
+
+"The different species of the Ox kind may be readily distinguished from
+the Gayal by the following marks; the European and Indian oxen by the
+length of their tails, which reach to the false hoofs; the American Ox,
+by the gibbosity on its back; the _Bovis moschatus_, Caffer, and
+_pumilus_, by having their horns approximated at their bases; the _Bos
+grunniens_ by it's whole tail being covered with long silky hairs; the
+_Bos bubalus_,(at least the Indian buffalo,) by having the whole length
+of its horns compressed, and by their being longer than the head, and
+wrinkled--also by its thin coat of hair, by its want of a dewlap, and
+above all by its manners; the _Bos barbatus_, by the long beard on its
+chin.
+
+"The cry of the Gayal has no resemblance to the grunt of the Indian Ox,
+but a good deal resembles that of the Buffalo. It is a kind of lowing,
+but shriller, and not near so loud as that of the European Ox. To this,
+however, the Gayal approaches much nearer than it does to the Buffalo."
+
+Mr. Macrae, who furnished the account in 1804, is again consulted; and
+from his second account, the following additional particulars have been
+gleaned. [Now, however, as the reader will observe, the name is Gayal,
+and not Gyall; although, according to Mr. Macrae's own derivation of the
+word, it would appear to be more correctly Gyall.]
+
+"The Gayal is found wild in the range of mountains that form the eastern
+boundary of the provinces of Aracan, Chittagong (Chatgaon), Tipura, and
+Sylhet.
+
+"The Cucis, or Lunclas, a race of people inhabiting the hills
+immediately to the eastward of Chatgaon, have herds of the Gayal in a
+domesticated state. By them he is called Shial, from which, most
+probably, his name of Gayal [Gyall] is derived; as he is never seen on
+the plains, except when he is brought there. It appears, however, that
+he is an animal very little known beyond the limits of his native
+mountains, except by the inhabitants of the provinces above mentioned.
+
+"His disposition is gentle: even when wild in his native hills, he is
+not considered to be a dangerous animal; never standing the approach of
+man, much less bearing his attack.
+
+"To avoid the noon-day heat, he retires to the deepest shade of the
+forest; preferring the dry acclivity of the hill to repose on, rather
+than the low swampy ground below; and never, like the Buffalo, wallowing
+in mud.
+
+"Gayals have been domesticated among the Cucis from time immemorial; and
+without any variation in their appearance from the wild stock. No
+difference whatever is observed in the colour of the wild and tame
+breeds; brown of different shades being the general colour of both.
+
+"The wild Gayal is about the size of the wild Buffalo of India. The tame
+Gayals among the Cucis, being bred in nearly the same habits of freedom,
+and on the same food, without ever undergoing any labour, grow to the
+same size with the wild ones.
+
+"The Cucis makes no use whatever of the milk, but rear the Gayals
+entirely for the sake of their flesh and skins; they make their shields
+of the hides of these animals. The flesh of the Gayal is in the highest
+estimation among the Cucis; so much so, that no solemn festival is ever
+celebrated without slaughtering one or more Gayals, according to the
+importance of the occasion.
+
+"The domesticated Gayals are allowed by the Cucis to roam at large
+during the day, through the forest, in the neighbourhood of the village;
+but as evening approaches, they all return home of their own accord; the
+young Gayal being early taught this habit, by being regularly fed every
+night with salt, of which he is very fond; and from the occasional
+continuance of this practice, as he grows up, the attachment of the
+Gayal to his native village becomes so strong, that when the Cucis
+migrate from it, they are obliged to set fire to the huts which they are
+about to leave, lest their Gayals should return thither from their new
+place of residence, before they become equally attached to it, as to the
+former, through the same means.
+
+"The wild Gayal sometimes steals out from the forest in the night, and
+feeds in the rice fields bordering on the hills. The Cucis give no grain
+to their cattle. With us (at Chatgaon) the tame Gayals feed on Calai
+_(phaseolus max_); but as our hills abound with shrubs, it has not been
+remarked what particular kind of grass they prefer.
+
+"The Hindus in this province will not kill the Gabay (or Gayal) which
+they hold in equal veneration with the cow. But the As'l Gayal, or
+Seloi, they hunt and kill, as they do the wild Buffalo. The animal here
+alluded to is another species of Gayal found wild in the hills of
+Chatgaon. He has never been domesticated, and is in appearance and
+disposition very different from the common Gayal which has just been
+described. The natives call him the As'l Gayal, in contra-distinction to
+the Gabay. The Cucis distinguish him by the name of Seloi; and the Mugs
+and Burmas by that of P'hanj, and they consider him, next to the tiger,
+the most dangerous and fiercest animal of their forests."
+
+Mr. Elliot, in writing from Tipura, says,--"I have some Gayals at
+Munnamutty, and from their mode of feeding I presume that they keep on
+the skirts of the vallies, to enable them to feed on the sides of the
+mountain, where they can browse; they will not touch grass, if they can
+find shrubs.
+
+"While kept at Camerlah, which is situated in a level country, they used
+to resort to the banks, and eat on the sides; frequently betaking
+themselves to the water, to avoid the heat of the sun. However, they
+became sickly and emaciated, and their eyes suffered much; but, on being
+sent to the hills, they soon recovered, and are now (1808) in a healthy
+condition. They seem fond of the shade, and are observed in the hot
+weather to take the turn of the hills, so as to be always sheltered from
+the sun. They do not wallow in mud, like Buffaloes, but delight in
+water, and stand in it during the greatest heat of the day, with the
+front of their heads above the surface.
+
+"Each Cow yields from two and a half to about four sers [from five to
+eight pounds] of milk, which is rich, sweet, and almost as thick as
+cream; it is of a high flavour, and makes excellent butter."
+
+We learn from Mr. Dick that the Gayal is called Gaujangali in the
+Persian language, Gavaya in Sanscrit, and Mat'hana by the mountaineers;
+but others name the animal Gobay-goru.
+
+The tame Gayals, however long they may have been domesticated, do not at
+all differ from the wild ones, unless in temper, for the wild ones are
+fierce and untractable. The colour of both is the same, namely, that of
+the Antelope, but some are white and others black, none are spotted or
+piebald. They graze and range like other cattle, and eat rice, mustard,
+chiches, and any cultivated produce, as also chaff and chopped straw.
+
+According to this gentleman the Gayal lives to the age of twenty or
+twenty-five years, and reaches its full growth at five years. The
+female is generally higher than the male. She receives the bull in her
+fifth year, and bears after ten months.
+
+In reference to the case of Mr. Bird's Gayal breeding with the common
+Zebu, I may observe that this proves nothing beyond the bare fact
+stated; no inference whatever of an identity of species can be drawn
+from a thousand such cases. It is pretty well known that animals of
+perfectly distinct species will, when artificially brought together,
+produce hybrids, as in the familiar examples of the Horse and the Ass,
+the Canary and the Goldfinch; but a hybrid is neither a species nor
+(zoologically speaking) a variety.
+
+In a paper on the Gour, by General Hardwicke, ('Zoological Journal,'
+Vol. III,) he introduces the following observations on the Gayal: "Of
+the Gayal (_Bos Gavaeas_ of Colebrooke) there appears to be more than one
+species. The provinces of Chatgong and Sylhet produce the wild, or, as
+the Natives term it, the Asseel Gayal, and the domesticated one. The
+former is considered an untameable animal, extremely fierce, and not to
+be taken alive. It rarely quits the mountain tract of the south-east
+frontier, and never mixes with the Gobbay, or village Gayal of the
+plains. I succeeded in obtaining the skin, with the head, of the Asseel
+Gayal, which is deposited in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company,
+in Leadenhall Street." [A drawing was taken of this head, of which the
+engraving on the opposite page is a copy.]
+
+"I may notice another species of Gayal, of which a male and female were
+in the Governor General's park, at Barrackpore. This species differs in
+some particulars from the domesticated Gayal, and also from the Asseel,
+or true Gayal; first, in size, being a larger animal than the domestic
+one; secondly, in the largeness of the dewlap, which is deeper and more
+undulated than in either the wild or tame species; and, thirdly, in the
+size and form of the horns."
+
+Thus, according to the opinion of General Hardwicke, there are three
+distinct species of the Gayal; but in this matter nothing can be decided
+without further evidence, which we hope will soon appear in the shape of
+complete skeletons, and accurate drawings and descriptions.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE TAME OR DOMESTIC GAYAL.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The representation of the Gayal here given was taken from a living
+specimen in the Zoological Gardens, 1846.
+
+The scanty information I was able to glean concerning it, consists in
+its having been procured at Chitagong, and shipped, as a commercial
+speculation, from Calcutta for London, in January 1844, when about two
+years and a half old. It remained in the Zoological Gardens till the
+summer of 1846, when it died from inflammation of the bowels, brought on
+chiefly by eating too much green food.
+
+I had the above particulars from Mr. Bartlett, naturalist, &c., who had
+been commissioned to dispose of it. He preserved the skeleton, which he
+kindly allowed me to examine, and from which I made the sketches of the
+skull and horns, which appear on the following page.
+
+The skeleton has fourteen pairs of ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Gayal, viewed in front, with Section of
+Horn.]
+
+                                                  Inches.
+
+Distance from tip to tip (_a_ to _a_)               39
+Length of horn (_a_ to _b_)                         16
+Circumference of horn at base                       17
+Distance of bases (_b_ to _b_)                      11
+Length of skull (_c_ to _c_)                        19
+
+Fig. _d_, section of the horn, at the base.
+
+[Illustration: Occipital view of the same Skull.]
+
+[Illustration: Head of Domestic Gayal.]
+
+In concluding these details of the Gayal and Gyall, let it be remarked
+that, when we hear one animal called Gayal and another Gyall, we are
+not, _on that account merely_, to set them down as of the same species.
+It is hardly necessary to say, that similarity or even identity of name,
+is not the slightest criterion of identity of species. The name Elephant
+is popularly applied to that animal, whether brought from Africa or
+Asia; they are, nevertheless, anatomically distinct. The same
+observation may be made respecting the Lions of those countries, and
+various other animals.
+
+It may further be observed, that the value of external characters in
+determining a species is very different when applied to ascertain the
+distinctions of domestic races, to what it is when applied to ascertain
+the distinctions of animals living in a natural state. In domestication,
+varieties ramify to an indefinite extent, and under such circumstances
+external characters are comparatively valueless. But wild animals retain
+their external characters with undeviating exactness; exceptional cases
+may indeed occur, but so very rarely, that they are not worth taking
+into the account; consequently, external forms, and in some cases even
+colours, become of importance in ascertaining specific distinction.
+
+
+
+
+THE JUNGLY GAU.
+
+_Bos Sylhetanus._ (Cuv.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Further information is requisite to decide the specific character of
+this animal. According to the opinion of Col. Smith, (see 'Synopsis of
+the Species of Mammalia' in Griffith's Translation of Cuvier's Animal
+Kingdom,) it is a mere variety of the Gayal (_Bos Gavaeus_); and Mr. J.
+E. Gray, in his 'List of the Specimens of Mammalia in the Collection of
+the British Museum,' classes it as a domestic variety of the same
+animal, but Mr. Fred. Cuvier regards it as an entirely new species.
+
+The following account of the Jungly Gau (which is the only one that has
+been published), is a translation from the splendid folio work of
+Messrs. St. Hilaire and F. Cuvier.
+
+This species of Ox, which is entirely new, appears to be the most
+nearly allied to our domestic cattle. Those ruminants which are classed
+under the generic name of Ox, may be very naturally divided into two
+distinct groups. The first includes the Buffaloes, animals in some
+measure aquatic, living in low, swampy localities, or near rivers, in
+which they remain half immersed a great part of the day; having
+broad-based horns, partly spreading over their foreheads, flat on their
+internal side, and round on their external; tongue soft, &c. The second
+is that of the Ox, properly so called. These are distinguished from the
+first by their dwelling on more elevated lands, or in the vicinity of
+forests; having smooth round horns, without enlargement at their base;
+tongue covered with horny papillae, &c.
+
+It is to this second family, consisting of the American Bison, the
+Aurox, the Yak, and the domestic Ox, with its varieties, that the Jungly
+Gau undoubtedly belongs. It however differs from the first two in being
+entirely destitute of the thick shaggy mane; and, instead of the long
+silky hair of the third, it is clothed with close, short hair, equal in
+uniformity of texture to the sleekest of our domestic cattle. To judge
+from its general appearance, we might be even tempted to take it for a
+mere variety of the domestic species, so close is the resemblance. But
+the information furnished by M. Alfred Duvaucel, in the only description
+which has been given, leaves no doubt as to its being a new species.
+
+The following is M. Duvaucel's account:--"The horns of the Jungly Gau
+rise from the sides of the occiput, first outward, then forward, with a
+slight inclination backward of the upper extremity, forming a double
+lunation, and separated by a space which gradually diminishes as the
+animal grows older; standing equally apart in every individual of the
+same age and sex; are round, except at their base, which is slightly
+compressed; and they become smoother as the animal advances in age.
+
+"The hump, which is characteristic of the generality of Indian oxen, is
+reduced in this to a slight prominence, extending to the middle of the
+back, and is covered with a grayish, woolly hair, rather longer than
+that on the other parts of the body, which spreads likewise over the
+occiput and the front. The rest of the hair is black except the legs,
+which are white from the knees downwards. The tail terminates in a large
+tuft of hair; and, in bulls of two or three years old, the under part of
+the neck is slightly furnished with long, black, silky hair.
+
+"The female is smaller than the male, with horns of a still less
+proportionate size. The front of the head, instead of being convex, as
+in the male, appears to be slightly depressed, in consequence of the
+superior elevation of the muzzle. The colour of the female is not so
+deep a black; the gray on the top of the neck and the shoulders extends
+to the sides, and the inferior part of the muzzle is white.
+
+"I have long entertained the opinion," continues M. Duvaucel, "that
+these oxen were essentially the same as the domestic--that they were
+both varieties of the same species; but this opinion was formed on the
+inspection only of such specimens as I had seen in the menagerie at
+Barracpour. Since that time, I have pursued them myself near the
+mountains of Sylhet; and I have likewise learned from various sources
+that they are as numerous and as generally diffused as the common
+Buffalo; but they appear to be wilder than the Buffalo, and not so
+bold, never approaching where man has established his dominion.
+Nevertheless, when caught, they are easily subdued, and become quite
+domesticated in a few months. The milk of this species is said to be
+more abundant and nourishing than that of any other."
+
+From all that is at present known respecting this animal, it is regarded
+by M. F. Cuvier as a new species added to the genus _Bos_; and, from the
+circumstance of its having been first seen in a wild state near the
+mountains of Sylhet, he has given it the specific name of _Sylhetanus_.
+
+The animal represented in the following vignette is the Syrian Ox, which
+is considered as a variety of _Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE BUFFALO.
+
+
+The animal generally known under the name of the _Common_ Buffalo is
+evidently a different species from the _Cape_ Buffalo. Much confusion,
+however, prevails in the accounts, both of travellers and naturalists,
+on the subject of these two animals. Descriptions of the one are mingled
+with descriptions of the other, and anecdotes are related of the one
+which, there is good reason for believing, ought to be referred to the
+other. It is highly probable that future and more accurate observations
+will show that more than one species has been confounded under the
+general epithets of "the common Buffalo," "the domestic Buffalo," "the
+tame Buffalo," or, more indeterminate still, "_the_ Buffalo."
+
+The accounts furnished by travellers of the various animals in Asia and
+Africa, described by them as Buffaloes, are altogether vague and
+unsatisfactory, and frequently erroneous; not from any desire on the
+part of the authors to deceive, but merely because their observations
+have been made in the most careless and indifferent manner; and, in many
+instances, their information is obtained from the verbal communications
+of ignorant natives.
+
+In those descriptions which are confined to the Buffalo, as it at
+present exists in Italy and the south of Europe, tolerable reliance may
+be placed, as their character and habits are there well known, being of
+every day observation; yet, even in this case, little or nothing is
+known of the anatomy of the animal, and its period of gestation has
+never been precisely stated. The following information on this latter
+point is given in Griffith's 'Cuvier,' (vol. iv, p. 383,) "Gestation _is
+said_ to last twelve months, but _it appears_ not to exceed ten."
+
+
+
+
+THE ITALIAN BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Bubalus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This animal is more bulky than the domestic Ox, and its limbs are
+stouter. The head is larger, in proportion to the size of the body, than
+that of the domestic Ox, and is generally carried with the muzzle
+projecting; the forehead is rather convex, and higher than broad; the
+horns are large, slightly compressed, and recline towards the neck, with
+the points turned up; dewlap of a moderate size.
+
+Throughout the whole range of the Italian peninsula Buffaloes are used
+as beasts of burden, and their immense strength renders their services
+invaluable in the marshy and swampy districts, where the services of
+horses, or ordinary oxen, would be totally unavailing. The roads through
+which they are obliged to pass are frequently covered to a depth of two
+or three feet, through which they work their way with wonderful
+perseverance.
+
+On the great plain of Apulia the Buffalo is the ordinary beast of
+draught; and at the annual fair held at Foggia, at the end of May,
+immense droves of almost wild Buffaloes are brought to the town for
+sale. Fearful accidents occasionally happen; enraged animals breaking
+from the dense mass, in spite of all the exertions of their drovers, and
+rushing upon some object of their vengeance, whom they strike down, and
+trample to death. It is dangerous to overwork or irritate the Buffalo,
+and instances have been known in which, when released by the brutal
+driver from the cart, they have instantly turned upon the man and killed
+him on the spot.
+
+The following part of their history is remarkable: They appear to be
+most numerous, and to thrive best in those districts which are most
+infected with malaria. In the Pontine marshes they find a favorite
+retreat, and in the pestilential Maremma scarcely any other animals are
+to be seen. In the northern portions of Italy, where malaria is much
+less frequent than in the south. Buffaloes are to be found in the
+greatest numbers precisely in those localities where malaria is the most
+prevalent.
+
+They are particularly fond of the long rank herbage, which springs up in
+moist and undrained lands. In their habits they are almost amphibious,
+lying for hours half submerged in water and mud.
+
+When travellers make use of the name "common Buffalo," they are usually
+understood to mean an animal identical with the Italian species; if this
+really be the case, its geographical range must be very extensive. It is
+said to inhabit the extensive regions of Hindostan, China, Cochin-China,
+Malabar, Coromandel, Persia, and the Crimea; also Abyssinia, Egypt, and
+the south of Europe; to which may be added, most of the large islands in
+the Indian Sea.
+
+As an article of food, the flesh of this animal is inferior to the beef
+of the domestic Ox, but the milk of the female is particularly rich and
+abundant; the semi-fluid butter, called _ghee_ in India, is made from
+it. According to the testimony of Colonel Sykes, the long-horned variety
+is reared in vast numbers in the Mawals, or hilly tracts lying along the
+Ghauts:--"In those tracts much rice is planted, and the male Buffalo,
+from his superior hardihood, is much better suited to resist the effects
+of the heavy rains, and the splashy cultivation of the rice than the
+bullock. The female is also infinitely more valuable than the cow, from
+the very much greater quantity of milk she yields." The hide is also
+much valued for its strength and durability.
+
+In India they are used as beasts of burden; but the nature of the goods
+they carry must be such as will not suffer from being wet, as they have
+an invincible propensity to lie down in water. The native princes use
+them to fight with tigers in their public shows; and from their fierce
+and active nature, when excited, they frequently prove more than a match
+for their formidable assailants. With the native herdsman, however, they
+are generally docile: these men ride on their favorites, and spend the
+night with them in the midst of jungles and forests, without fear of
+wild beasts. When driven along, the herds keep close together, so that
+the driver, if necessary, walks from the back of one to the other,
+perfectly at his ease. In the south of Europe they are managed by means
+of a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India it is a
+mere rope.
+
+Their fierceness and courage are well exemplified in the following
+anecdote, related by Mr. D. Johnson in his interesting 'Sketches of
+Indian Field Sports:' "Two Biparies, or carriers of grain and
+merchandise on the backs of bullocks, were driving a loaded string of
+these animals from Palamow to Chittrah: when they were come within a few
+miles of the latter place, a tiger seized on the man in the rear, which
+was seen by a Guallah (herdsman), as he was watching his Buffaloes
+grazing. He boldly ran up to the man's assistance, and cut the tiger
+severely with his sword; upon which he dropped the Biparie, and seized
+the herdsman. The Buffaloes observing it, attacked the tiger, and
+rescued the herdsman; they tossed him about from one to the other, and,
+to the best of my recollection, killed him. Both the wounded men were
+brought to me; the Biparie recovered, and the herdsman died."
+
+Speaking of the Buffalo at Malabar, Dillon says, "It is an ugly animal,
+almost destitute of hair, goes slowly, but carries very heavy burdens.
+Herds may be seen, as of common cows; and they afford milk, which serves
+to make butter and cheese. Their flesh is good, though less delicate,
+than that of the ox: the animal swims perfectly well, and traverses the
+broadest rivers. Besides the tame ones, there are wild Buffaloes, which
+are extremely dangerous, tearing men to pieces, or crushing them with a
+single blow of the head; they are less to be dreaded in woods than
+elsewhere, because their horns often catch in the branches, and give
+time for the persons pursued to escape by flight. The skins of these
+animals serve for an infinity of purposes, and even cruses are made of
+them for holding water or liquors. The animals on the coast of Malabar
+are all wild, and strangers are not prevented from hunting them for
+their flesh."
+
+Whether the animals alluded to, in all these cases, constitute only one
+species, or consist of several, the accounts which have been given of
+them (from their vagueness and want of precision) afford no means of
+deciding.
+
+The following tail-piece is a representation of the Herefordshire Cow,
+_Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+The Manilla Buffalo.
+
+_Bos Bubalis?_
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The animal which is represented in the above engraving, was living in
+the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, in 1846, at which time the sketch
+was taken.
+
+In size the Manilla Buffalo is about equal to the Kyloe Ox. The horns
+are of a similar shape, and take nearly the same direction, as those of
+the Italian Buffalo. They differ, however, from the horns of the Italian
+Buffalo in three particulars: first, in not being above half so thick or
+bulky; second, in having a much larger curve; and third, in being
+considerably more compressed, which compression exists throughout their
+entire length: the colour of the upper surface of the horn is lightish,
+on the lower side nearly black. The head is narrow, and the muzzle fine;
+the ears are long and nearly naked; the eyes large and bright, with a
+peculiarly timid and suspicious expression. The limbs are slender, and
+indeed the whole frame is slight, and seems to betoken greater speed
+than strength.
+
+We have a notable example of the uncertainty of framing generic
+characters, before the peculiar attributes of each species are known,
+in Griffiths' work, already referred to (vol. iv, p. 382). "Buffaloes
+_in general_" are there said to possess _strong and solid_ limbs,
+_large_ head, _broad_ muzzle, _long_ and slender tail, back _rather_
+straight. Here we have an animal (a Buffalo by universal consent) whose
+limbs are _slender_, head _small_, muzzle _fine_; whose tail is _not_
+long, and whose back is any thing but straight. The Cape Buffalo, also,
+(see p. 86,) has _rather_ a small head, its tail is absolutely _short_,
+and its back has very considerable curvature.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The preceding outline of the backs of four Buffaloes will show how
+inappropriate the character of a _straight back_ is, when applied to
+"Buffaloes _in general_." The lowest outline (5), inserted by way of
+contrast, represents the back of the Domestic Ox, to which the character
+of straight might very properly be applied. (1) Italian Buffalo. (2)
+Manilla Buffalo. (3) Pulo Condore Buffalo. (4) Cape Buffalo.
+
+Generic characters should be such (and such _only_) as will apply to
+every species included in the genus.
+
+The period of gestation of the Manilla Buffalo is between forty-eight
+and forty-nine weeks. In two actual cases of a female now living in the
+Zoological Gardens, the periods were, in the one case, 340 days, in the
+other, 341 days; being 70 days longer than the ordinary term of the
+domestic Cow.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Manilla Buffalo--female.]
+
+
+
+
+PULO CONDORE BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Bubalus?_
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Not much is known of the Buffalo which is found in the island of Pulo
+Condore. It is related by those navigators who completed the voyage to
+the Pacific Ocean, begun by Captain Cook, that when at Pulo Condore,
+they procured eight Buffaloes, which were to be conducted to the ships
+by means of ropes put through their nostrils and round their horns; but
+when they were brought within sight of the sailors, they became so
+furious that some of them tore out the cartilage of their nostrils, and
+set themselves at liberty. All attempts to get them on board would have
+proved fruitless, had it not been for some children, whom the animals
+would suffer to approach them, and by whose puerile management their
+rage was quickly appeased; and when the animals were brought to the
+beach, it was by their assistance, in twisting ropes around their legs,
+that the men were enabled to throw them down, and by that means get them
+into the boats. And what appears to have been no less singular than this
+circumstance was, that they had not been a day on board before they
+became perfectly gentle.
+
+Whether this be a distinct species, or merely a variety, we have not, at
+present, the least means of ascertaining.
+
+Osteology unknown.
+
+Period of gestation unknown.
+
+The tail-piece below represents a short-horned Bull of the Domestic
+species, _Bos Taurus_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE CAPE BUFFALO.
+
+_Bos Caffer._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This species of ox is only to be found in Africa, and is chiefly
+confined to the wooded districts lying north of the Cape of Good Hope.
+What Lavater endeavours to prove of the human being, namely, that the
+face is the index of the mind or disposition, may be applied, with at
+least equal truth, to the Cape Buffalo. His broad, projecting muzzle,
+lowering eyebrows, shaggy pendulous ears, surmounted by a pair of huge
+horns, give a look of bold determination to this animal, which forms a
+tolerably correct index of his character; his firm-set limbs and bulky
+body convey a no less adequate idea of his enormous strength.
+
+These animals are gregarious, living in small herds in the brushwoods or
+open forests, of Caffraria, occasionally uniting in large droves. Old
+bulls are often met with alone; but though they are fiercer than the
+young ones, they are less dangerous, because less active, and less
+inclined to exertion.
+
+It is worthy of observation, that the males of every species of the
+Genus Bos are remarkably bold and courageous, as are likewise the
+females when they have calves. It is not, therefore, surprising that the
+hunting of this animal should be attended with danger, and frequently
+with fatal consequences. The European colonists generally pursue the
+sport on horseback; but the Caffers and other natives, who are more
+active, and accustomed to the intricacies of the forest, prefer
+following the game on foot.
+
+Professor Thunberg, whilst investigating the interior of Caffraria, in
+1772, in company with a sergeant and a European gardener, who had
+resided in the colony some time, and who acted as guide on the occasion,
+met with the following perilous adventure:--
+
+"We had not advanced far into the wood," says the traveller, "before we
+had the misfortune of meeting with a large old male Buffalo, which was
+lying down quite alone, in a spot that was free from bushes for the
+space of a few square yards. He no sooner discovered Auge, the gardener,
+who went first, than, roaring horribly, he rushed upon him. The gardener
+turning his horse short round, behind a large tree, by that means got in
+some measure out of the Buffalo's sight, which now rushed straight
+forward towards the sergeant, who followed next, and gored his horse in
+the belly in such a terrible manner, that it fell on its back that
+instant, with its feet turned up in the air, and all its entrails
+hanging out, in which state it lived almost half an hour. The gardener
+and the sergeant, in the meantime, had climbed up into trees, where
+they thought themselves secure. The Buffalo, after this first
+achievement, still appeared to take his course in the same direction,
+and, therefore, could not have failed in his way to pay his compliments
+to me, who all the while was coming towards him, and, in the narrow pass
+formed by the boughs and branches of the trees, and on account of the
+rustling noise these made against my saddle and baggage, had neither
+seen nor heard anything of what had passed; as in my way I frequently
+stopped to take up plants, and put them into my handkerchief, I
+generally kept behind my companions.
+
+"The sergeant had brought two horses with him for the journey. One of
+them had already been despatched, and the other now stood just in the
+way of the Buffalo, who was going out of the wood. As soon as the
+Buffalo saw this second horse, he became more outrageous than before,
+and he attacked it with such fury, that he not only drove his horns into
+the horse's breast, and out again through the very saddle, but also
+threw it to the ground with such violence, that it died that very
+instant, and most of its bones were broken. Just at the moment that he
+was occupied with this latter horse, I came up to the opening, where the
+wood was so thick that I had neither room to turn my horse, nor to get
+on one side; I was, therefore, obliged to abandon him to his fate, and
+take refuge in a tolerably high tree, up which I climbed.
+
+"The Buffalo, having finished this his second exploit, suddenly turned
+round, and shaped his course the same way which we had intended to take.
+
+"From the height of my situation in the tree, I could plainly perceive
+one of the horses quite dead; the other sprawling with his feet, and
+endeavouring to rise, which it had not strength to do; the other two
+horses shivering with fear, and unable to make their escape; but I could
+neither see nor hear anything of my fellow-travellers, which induced me
+to fear that they had fallen victims to the first transports of the
+Buffalo's fury. I, therefore, made all possible haste to search for
+them, to see if I could, in any way, assist them; but not discovering
+any trace of them in the whole field of battle, I began to call out
+after them, when I discovered these magnanimous heroes sitting fast,
+like two cats, on the trees, with their guns on their backs, loaded with
+fine shot, and unable to utter a single word.
+
+"I encouraged them as well as I could, and advised them to come down,
+and get away as fast as possible from such a dangerous place, where we
+ran the risk of being once more attacked. The sergeant at length burst
+out into tears, deploring the loss of his two spirited steeds; but the
+gardener was so strongly affected, that he could scarcely speak for some
+days after."
+
+Speaking of a small settlement in the interior, he says: "Buffaloes were
+shot here by a Hottentot, who had been trained to the business by the
+farmer, and in this manner found the whole family in meat, without
+having recourse to the herd. The balls were counted out to him every
+time he went a shooting, and he was obliged to furnish the same number
+of dead Buffaloes as he received of balls. Thus the many Hottentots that
+lived here were supported without expense, and without the decrease of
+the tame cattle which constitute the whole of the farmer's wealth. The
+greatest part of the flesh of the Buffalo falls to the share of the
+Hottentots, but the hide to that of the master."
+
+[Illustration: Young Cape Buffalo.]
+
+The Caffres, who at that time (1772) did not possess fire-arms, were,
+nevertheless, dextrous in the use of their javelins. When a Caffre has
+discovered a spot where several Buffaloes are assembled, he blows a
+pipe, made of the thigh-bone of a sheep, which is heard at a great
+distance. In consequence of this, several of his comrades run up to the
+spot, and surrounding the Buffaloes, at the same time approaching them
+by degrees, throw their javelins at them. In this case, out of ten or
+twelve Buffaloes, it is very rare for one to escape. It sometimes
+happens, however, that while the Buffaloes are running off, some one of
+the hunters, who stands in the way of them, is tossed and killed, which,
+by the people of this nation, is not much regarded. When the chase is
+over, each one takes his share of the game.
+
+Since the introduction of fire-arms by the Europeans, the natives, as
+well as the colonists, bring down the Buffalo by means of the gun.
+Nevertheless, great circumspection is required in following the sport,
+as the animal is sometimes capable of revenging himself even after being
+severely wounded. On one occasion a party of huntsmen discovered a small
+herd of Buffaloes grazing on a piece of marshy ground. As it was
+impossible to get near enough without crossing a marsh, which did not
+afford a safe footing for their horses, they left them in charge of the
+Hottentots, and proceeded on foot, thinking, that if the Buffaloes
+should turn upon them, it would be easy to retreat by crossing the
+quagmire, which, though firm enough to support a man, would not bear the
+weight of a Buffalo. They advanced accordingly, and, under shelter of
+the bushes, approached with such advantage, that the first volley
+brought down three of the fattest of the herd, and so severely wounded
+the great bull leader, that he dropped on his knees, bellowing most
+furiously. Supposing him mortally wounded, the foremost of the huntsmen
+issued from the covert, and began reloading his musket as he advanced,
+to give him a finishing shot; but no sooner did the enraged animal see
+his enemy in front of him than he sprang up, and ran furiously upon him.
+The man, throwing down his gun, fled towards the quagmire; but the beast
+was so close upon him, that, despairing to escape in that direction, he
+suddenly turned round a clump of copsewood, and began to ascend a tree.
+The raging animal, however, was too quick for him, and bounding forward
+with a tremendous roar, he caught the unfortunate man with his terrible
+horns, just as he had nearly escaped his reach, and tossed him into the
+air with such force, that the body fell dreadfully mangled into the
+cleft of a tree. The Buffalo ran round the tree once or twice,
+apparently looking for the man, until weakened with loss of blood, he
+again sank on his knees. The rest of the party, recovering from their
+confusion, then came up and despatched him, though too late to save
+their comrade, whose body was hanging in the tree quite dead.
+
+The length of a full-grown Buffalo is about eight feet from horns to
+root of tail, and the height five feet and a half. The horns are massive
+and heavy, measuring from six to nine feet, following the curve from tip
+to tip. They are broad at the base, and very nearly meet on the centre
+of the forehead. Hamilton Smith says, they are "in contact at the base;"
+but this is not the case in the several specimens which I have examined,
+namely, three in the College of Surgeons, four in the British Museum,
+and two in the Zoological Gardens.
+
+In the living specimen in the Zoological Gardens, from which the figure
+at the head of this article was taken, there is a good deal of hair of a
+dark brown colour on the neck and shoulders, and some small tufts on the
+fore-legs, but the rest of the body is almost naked. The tail is short,
+with a tuft at the end.
+
+The individual here referred to is by no means a large specimen, being
+only four feet ten inches high at the shoulders; probably he is young,
+and not yet full-grown. He is so active, as to be able to clear a
+four-feet fence, and he frequently leaps over the half-door (about three
+feet high,) which separates his little enclosure from his dormitory. His
+intelligence is much superior to that of ordinary cattle: the entrance
+to his apartment is furnished with four doors, two on each door-post;
+and when closed, they of course meet in the middle of the entrance. When
+he is outside, (as the doors all open inwardly,) a mere push with his
+horns sends them open. But when he is inside, it requires four distinct
+operations to shut them, and these he performs with the greatest
+adroitness, going from one to the other, until all are closed. He opens
+them also from within with equal skill, by applying the tip of one of
+his horns to each separately, and retiring a step or two to allow them
+room to open.
+
+The flesh of the Cape Buffalo is reckoned excellent eating, especially
+that of the young calf, which is equal to the veal of the domestic calf.
+The horns are made into various articles, having a fine close grain, and
+taking a beautiful polish. But the hide is the most valuable part of
+this animal, being so thick and tough, that shields, proof against a
+musket-shot, are formed of it; and it affords the strongest and best
+thongs for harness and whips. The skin of the living Buffalo is so
+dense that it is impenetrable, in many parts, to an ordinary
+musket-ball; the balls used by the huntsmen are, therefore, mixed with
+tin, and even these are often flattened by the resistance. In examining
+the skeleton of this Buffalo, the ribs are found to be remarkably strong
+and wide--measuring from three inches to three inches and seven-tenths
+in width, and overlapping each other like the scales of a fish: the
+difficulty of wounding this animal may be partly owing to this
+arrangement of the ribs.
+
+Since the increase of the settlements about the Cape of Good Hope, the
+Buffalo has become rather a rare animal in the colony; but, on the
+plains of Caffraria, they are so common that herds of a hundred and
+fifty, or two hundred, may be frequently seen grazing together towards
+the evening, but during the day they lie retired among the woods and
+thickets. They range along the eastern side of Africa, to an unknown
+distance in the interior.
+
+Sparrman says that the period of gestation is twelve months.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Cape Buffalo.]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEGASSE.
+
+_Bos Pegasus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above figure is copied from an engraving in the fourth volume of
+Griffiths' 'Cuvier,' of which the following account is given: "In the
+collection of drawings, formerly the property of Prince John Maurice of
+Nassau, now in the Berlin library, there is the figure of a ruminant
+with the name Pacasse written under it. Judging from the general
+appearance of the painting, it represents a young animal, although the
+horns are already about as long as the head. They are of a darkish
+colour, with something like ridges passing transversely, commencing at
+the sides of the frontal ridge, turned down and outwards, with the
+points slightly upwards; the head is short, thick, abrupt at the nose;
+the forehead wide; the eyes large and full, dark, with a crimson
+canthus; the neck maned with a dense and rough mane; the tail descending
+below the hough, entirely covered with dark, long hair, appearing
+woolly; the carcass short, and the legs high and clumsy; but the most
+remarkable character appears to consist in pendulous ears, nearly as
+long as the head. The mane and tail are dark; the head, neck, body, and
+limbs dark brown, excepting the pastern joints, which are white; this
+figure cannot be referred to a known species, and is sufficiently
+curious to merit an engraving."
+
+Swainson says that this animal only occurs in the interior of Western
+Africa; but he does not mention on what authority.
+
+As the exploration of the interior of Africa is becoming an object of
+increasing importance and interest, we may expect, before long, to be
+furnished with some authentic details of the Pegasse, if such an animal
+really exist.
+
+[Illustration: Occipital View of Horns of _Bos Caffer_, from a Specimen
+in the Zoological Society's Museum.]
+
+
+
+
+THE GAUR, OR GOUR.
+
+_Bos Gaurus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above representation of this animal was sketched from a stuffed
+specimen in the British Museum, the dimensions of which are given on p.
+102.
+
+The following interesting particulars are taken from Mr. T. S. Traill's
+paper on the Gour, in the 'Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' October,
+1824.
+
+"The Gaur is considered by the Indians as of a species totally distinct
+from either the Arna or the common Buffalo. The only animal with which
+it appears to have affinity is the Gayal, or Bos Gavaeus, described by
+Mr. Colebrook, in the 'Asiatic Researches,' vol. viii. That animal is
+said to exist, both wild and domestic, in the hilly countries of Upper
+India, and to have a high dorsal ridge, somewhat similar to what we
+shall immediately find in the Gaur; but the very different form of its
+head, _the presence of a distinct dewlap_, and the general habit of the
+Gayal, appear sufficient to distinguish it from the Gaur.
+
+The Gaur occurs in several mountainous parts of central India, but is
+chiefly found in Myn Pat, or Mine Paut, (Pat or Paut, in Hindostanee,
+signifies table-land,) a high, insulated mountain, with a tabular
+summit, in the province of Sergojah, in South Bahar.
+
+This table-land is about 36 miles in length, by 24 or 25 in medial
+breadth, and rises above the neighbouring plains probably 2000 feet. The
+sides of the mountain slope with considerable steepness, and are
+furrowed by streams that water narrow valleys, the verdant banks of
+which are the favorite haunts of Gaurs. On being disturbed, they retreat
+into the thick jungles (of saul-trees), which cover the sides of the
+whole range. The south-east side of the mountain presents an extensive
+mural precipice from 20 to 40 feet high. The rugged slopes at its foot
+are covered by impenetrable green jungle, and abound with dens formed of
+fallen blocks of rock, the suitable retreats of Tigers, Bears, and
+Hyaenas. The western slopes are less rugged, but the soil is parched, and
+the forests seem withered by excess of heat. The summit of the mountain
+presents a mixture of open lawns and woods. There were once twenty-five
+villages on Myn Pat, but they have long been deserted, on account of the
+number and ferocity of the beasts of prey. On this mountain, however,
+the Gaur maintains his seat. The Indians assert that even the Tiger has
+no chance in combat with the full-grown Gaur, though he may
+occasionally succeed in carrying off an unprotected calf. The wild
+Buffalo abounds in the plains below the mountains; but he so much dreads
+the Gaur, according to the natives, that he rarely attempts to invade
+his haunts. The forests which shield the Gaur abound, however, in
+Hog-deer, Saumurs, and Porcupines.
+
+The size of the Gaur is its most striking peculiarity. The following
+measurement of one not fully grown will show the enormous bulk of the
+animal:--
+
+                                        Ft.  In.
+Height from the hoof to the withers      5   11-3/4
+Length from nose to end of tail         11   11-3/4
+
+The form of the Gaur is not so lengthened as that of the Arna. Its back
+is strongly arched, so as to form a pretty uniform curve from the nose
+to the origin of the tail, when the animal stands still. This appearance
+is partly owing to the curved form of the nose and forehead, and still
+more to a remarkable ridge, of no great thickness, which rises six or
+seven inches above the general line of the back, from the last of the
+cervical to beyond the middle of the dorsal vertebrae, from which it
+gradually is lost in the outline of the back. This peculiarity proceeds
+from an unusual elongation of the spinous processes of the dorsal
+column. It is very conspicuous in the Gaurs of all ages, although loaded
+with fat; and has no resemblance to the hunch which is found on some of
+the domestic cattle of India. It bears some resemblance, certainly, to
+the ridge _described_ as existing in the Gayal; but the Gaur is said to
+be distinguished from that animal by the remarkable peculiarity of a
+_total want of a dewlap._ Neither the male nor female Gaur, at any age,
+has the slightest trace of this appendage, which is found on every
+other known animal of this genus.
+
+The colour of the Gaur is a very deep brownish black, almost approaching
+to blueish black, except a tuft of curling dirty white hair between the
+horns, and rings of the same colour just above the hoof. The hair over
+the skin is extremely short and sleek, and has somewhat of the _oily_
+appearance of a fresh seal-skin.
+
+The character of the head differs little from that of the domestic Bull,
+excepting that the outline of the face is more curved--the os-frontis
+more solid and projecting. The horns are short, thick at the base,
+considerably curved towards the tip, slightly compressed on one side,
+and in the natural state are rough. They are, however, capable of a good
+polish, when they are of a horn gray colour, with black solid tips. A
+pair in my possession measure one foot eleven inches along their convex
+sides; one foot from the centre of the base to the tip, in a straight
+line; and one foot in their widest circumference; but as they are cut
+and polished, a portion of their length and thickness has been lost.
+They are of a very dense substance, as their weight indicates, for even
+in their dressed state the pair weigh 5 lbs. 11 oz. avoirdupois.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The limbs of the Gaur have more of the form of the deer than any other
+of the bovine genus. This is particularly observable in the acuteness of
+the angle formed by the tibia and tarsus, and in the slenderness of the
+lower part of the legs. They give the idea, however, of great strength
+combined with fleetness; and the animal is observed to _canter_ with
+great velocity. The form of the hoof, too, is longer, neater, and
+stronger than in the ox, and the whole foot appears to have greater
+flexibility.
+
+When wounded the Gaur utters a short bellow, which may be best imitated
+by the syllable--ugh-ugh.
+
+It is said that the Gaur will not live in a state of captivity; even
+when taken very young, the calf soon droops and dies. The bull-calf of
+the first year is called, by the natives, Purorah; the female, Pareeah;
+and when full-grown the cow is called Gourin.
+
+Gaurs associate in herds consisting usually of from ten to twenty
+animals. So numerous are they on Myn Pat, that, in one day hunting, the
+party computed that not less than eighty had passed through the station
+occupied by the sportsmen.
+
+The Gaurs browse on the leaves and tender shoots of trees and shrubs,
+and also graze on the banks of the streams. During the cold season they
+remain concealed in the _saul_ forests, but in hot weather come out to
+feed in the green vallies and lawns, which occur on the mountain of Myn
+Pat. They show no disposition to wallow in mire or swamps, like the
+Buffalo; a habit, indeed, which the sleekness of their skins renders not
+at all probable.
+
+The period of gestation is said to be twelve months, and they bring
+forth usually in August."
+
+To the preceding observations of Dr. Traill, I have to add the
+important fact (which of itself will be sufficient to constitute a
+specific difference between the Gaur and the Gayal), namely, that in the
+skeleton of the Gaur there are only thirteen pairs of ribs, whilst the
+skeleton of the Gayal possesses fourteen pairs. This fact I have
+ascertained from an examination of both the skeletons; that of the Gaur
+in the museum of the Zoological Society, and that of the Gayal, in the
+possession of Mr. Bartlett, Russell Street, Covent Garden. (See p. 68.)
+
+The skeleton of the Gaur just referred to, strikingly confirms Dr.
+Traill's account of the elevated dorsal ridge of this animal; several of
+the dorsal vertebrae measuring, with their spinous processes, upwards of
+seventeen inches each, the longest being twenty inches and a half.
+
+The Gaur, from which this skeleton was taken, was killed at Nicecond,
+November 8, 1843. There is another fine specimen of the skull and horns
+of the Gaur, in the Museum of the Zoological Society, taken from an
+animal killed by Lieut. Nelson, on the Neilsburry Hills, Salem district.
+This animal measured nineteen hands and half an inch at the shoulder.
+
+Dimensions of the Figure in the British Museum:--
+
+                                                              Ft. In.
+Length from nose to insertion of tail, measuring over the
+  forehead and along the back                                  11  0
+Height at the highest part of the dorsal ridge                  5  7-1/2
+Height at the croup                                             5  4
+Length of the tail                                              3  1
+
+In Mr. D. Johnson's Sketches, the Gaur is described as a kind of wild
+bullock, of prodigious size, residing in the Ramghur district, not well
+known to Europeans. Mr. Johnson says: "I have never obtained a sight of
+them, but have often seen the print of their feet, the impression of
+one of them covering as large a space as a common china plate. According
+to the account I received from a number of persons they are much larger
+than the largest of our oxen; light brown colour, with short horns, and
+inhabit the thickest covers. They keep together in herds, and a herd of
+them is always near the Luggo-hill; they are also in the heavy jungles
+between Ramghur and Nagpoor. I saw the skin of one that had been killed
+by Rajah Futty Narrain; its exact size I do not recollect, but I well
+remember that it astonished me, having never seen the skin of any animal
+so large. Some gentlemen at Chittrah have tried all in their power to
+procure a calf without success. The Shecarries and villagers are so much
+afraid of these animals, that they cannot be prevailed on to go near
+them, or to endeavour to catch any of their young. It is a prevailing
+opinion in the country, that if they are in the least molested, they
+will attack the persons disturbing them, and never quit them until they
+are destroyed; and should they get into a tree, they will remain near it
+for many days."
+
+The word Gau, or Ghoo, as it is sometimes spelled by European writers,
+appears to be used both as a generic and specific term, in Persia and
+Hindostan; and as it has the same meaning, and nearly the same sound, as
+the German word _Kuh_, and the English _Cow_, it is highly probable that
+its origin is the same. As the word _ur_, in Hindostan, appears to have
+the meaning of _wild_, or _savage,_ the name Gaur, or Gau-ur, literally
+signifies the _wild cow._ Should the prefix _aur_, in the German word
+_Aurochs_, be merely a form, or different mode of spelling the prefix
+_ur,_ then the name _Aurochs_ would be precisely synonymous with the
+Hindostanee _Gau-ur_. That _aur_ is, in this instance, merely a
+different spelling of the prefix _ur_, would appear to be corroborated
+by the circumstance that the term _Urus_ is the latinized form of the
+German _Aurochs_.--_From a MS. Note by Mr. W. A. Chatto._
+
+[Illustration: Head of Gaur, from the stuffed Specimen in the British
+Museum.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ARNEE, OR ARNA.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It does not appear, that the Arnee had been noticed by Europeans until
+the year 1792, when the following detailed account appeared in a weekly
+Miscellany, called '_The Bee_,' conducted by Dr. J. Anderson.
+
+This animal is hitherto unknown among the naturalists of Europe. It is a
+native of the higher parts of Hindostan, being scarcely ever found lower
+down than the Plains of Plassy, above which they are found in
+considerable numbers, and are well known by the natives.
+
+The figure, which is given at the end of this article, is copied from a
+curious Indian painting, in the possession of Gilbert Innes, of Stow. It
+forms one of a numerous group of figures, represented at a grand Eastern
+festival. There are two more of them in the same painting. In this and
+both the others, the horns bend inwards in a circular form; and it would
+seem, too, that if a transverse section of the horn was made at any
+place, that also would be circular. But this is a defect in the
+painting, for although all the horns of the Arnee tribe bend in a
+circular form, yet if the horn be cut transversely, the section is not
+circular, but rather of a triangular shape. The horns of the Arnee rise
+in a curve upwards, nearly in the same plane with the forehead, neither
+bending forward nor backward. That part of the horn which fronts you
+when the animal looks you in the face, is nearly flat, having a ridge
+projecting a little forward all along, nearer the outer curvature of the
+horn; from that ridge outward it goes backward, not at right angles, but
+bending a little outward; and near the back part there is another obtuse
+rounded ridge, where it turns inward, so as to join another obtuse,
+rounded angle, at the inner curvature of the horn. Along the whole
+length, especially toward the base of the horn, there are irregular
+transverse dimples, or hollows and rugosities, more nearly resembling
+those of a ram, than that of a common ox's horn, but no appearance of
+rings, denoting the age of the animal, as in the horns of our cattle.
+
+This description of the horns is taken from a pair of real horns of the
+animal, now in the possession of Mr. James Haig, merchant in Leith, that
+were sent home to him this year (1792) by his brother, Mr. W. Haig, of
+the 'Hawkesbury' East-Indiaman, and of which the following cut
+represents a front view. The little figure marked _a_, represents a
+section of the horn near its base.
+
+[Illustration: (1).--Horns of young Arnee--Scale of Half an Inch to a
+Foot.]
+
+In this young specimen (1) the length of the skull is exactly two feet,
+and the distance between the tops of the horns thirty-five inches. In
+the following sketch (2) from the Museum of the College of Surgeons, the
+length of the skull is likewise two feet, and the distance between the
+tips of the horns three feet four inches and a half.
+
+The young animal just referred to, was found in a situation near which
+no other animal of this sort had ever before been discovered: it was
+killed by the crew of the 'Hawkesbury,' in the river Ganges, about fifty
+miles below Calcutta, at the place where the ships usually lie.
+
+The flesh was eaten by the ship's company, by whom it was considered
+very good meat. Although conjectured to be only two years old, it
+weighed, when cut up, 360 lbs. the quarter, which is 1440 lbs. the
+carcase, exclusive of head, legs, hide, and entrails.
+
+[Illustration: (2).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: (3).--Horns of Arnee.--Scale of Half an Inch to a Foot.]
+
+This last sketch (3) is from a pair of horns in the British Museum, of
+which the following are the dimensions:--
+
+                                                                 Ft. In.
+
+The horn _a_, from tip to base, along the outer curve         6   6
+The horn _b_               ditto            ditto             6   3
+Circumference at the base of horn _a_                         1   5
+        Ditto       ditto of horn _b_                         1   6[A]
+
+The Arnee is by far the largest animal of the Ox tribe yet known. In its
+native country _it is said_ to measure usually twelve, sometimes
+fourteen, feet from the ground to the highest part of the back! The one
+in the vignette, p. 111, comparing it with the man on its back, would
+not seem to be quite so tall.
+
+From the appearance of the three Arnees in the painting before
+mentioned, it would seem that they are quite docile, and easily tamed;
+for they are all standing quietly, with a person on their back, who
+guides them by means of a rein, formed of a cord fastened to the gristle
+of the nose, in the Eastern manner. The colour of the animal, in all the
+three figures, is a pure black, except between the horns, where there is
+a small tuft of longish hair of a bright red colour.
+
+From the accounts of more recent travellers, there seem to be two or
+three varieties of this animal, which exist, both in a wild and domestic
+state, in China as well as India.
+
+According to Major Smith, the gigantic or Taur-elephant Arnee, appears
+to be rare; found only single, or in small families, in the upper
+eastern provinces and forests at the foot of the Himalaya. A party of
+officers of the British Cavalry, stationed in the north of Bengal, went
+on a three months' hunting expedition to the eastward, and destroyed in
+that time forty-two Tigers, and numerous wild Buffaloes, but only one
+Arnee. When the head of this specimen rested perpendicularly on the
+ground, it required the out-stretched arms of a man to hold the points
+of the horns. These are described as angular, with the broadest side to
+the rear; the two others anterior and inferior; they are of a brownish
+colour, and wrinkled; standing outwards, and not bent back; straight for
+near two thirds of their length, then curving inwards, with the tips
+rather back. The face is nearly straight, and the breadth of the
+forehead is carried down with little diminution to the foremost grinder.
+
+There is a spirited figure of a long-horned Buffalo in Captain
+Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports,' which Major Smith considers to be
+a representation of the great Arnee; and of which Captain Williamson
+relates the following anecdote:--
+
+"The late Dr. Baillie, who was a very keen and capable sportsman, used,
+in my idea, to run many very foolish risks among Buffaloes. I often
+remonstrated with him on his temerity, but he was so infatuated, that it
+was all to no purpose. One morning, as we were riding on the same
+elephant to the hunting-ground, to save our horses as much as possible,
+we saw a very large Buffalo lying on the grass, which was rather short
+and thin; as usual, the doctor would have a touch at him, and, heedless
+of my expostulation, dismounted with his gun. The Buffalo, seeing him
+approach, rose and shook his head as a prelude to immediate hostilities.
+My friend fired, and hit him on the side. The enraged brute came
+thundering at the doctor, who lost no time in running round to the
+opposite side of the elephant; the _mohout_, at the same time, pushed
+forward, to meet and screen him from the Buffalo, which absolutely put
+his horns under the elephant's belly, and endeavoured to raise him from
+the ground. We had no other gun, and might, perhaps, have felt some more
+severe effects from the doctor's frolic, had not the Buffalo, from loss
+of blood, dropped at our side. The Buffalo was upwards of six feet high
+at the shoulder, and measured nearly a yard in breadth at the chest. His
+horns were above five feet and a half in length."
+
+In systems of classification, even of very recent date, the Arnee is
+considered merely as a variety of the Buffalo. It appears to me,
+however, that our information on the subject is not yet sufficiently
+precise to determine this point.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] In Shaw's 'Zoology,' it is mentioned that a Mr. Dillon saw some
+horns in India which were ten feet long.
+
+
+
+
+THE ZAMOUSE, OR BUSH COW.
+
+_Bos Brachyceros._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[The following extract, from the 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii, p.
+284, is from the pen of Mr. J. E. Gray.]
+
+"Captain Clapperton and Colonel Denham, when they returned from their
+expedition in Northern and Central Africa, brought with them two heads
+of a species of Ox, covered with their skins. These heads are the
+specimens which are mentioned in Messrs. Children and Vigors' accounts
+of the animals collected in the expedition, as belonging to the
+Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and they are stated to be called _Zamouse_ by
+the natives; but, as no particular locality is given for the head, this
+name is probably the one applied to the common Buffalo, which is found
+in most parts of North Africa.
+
+"Having some years ago compared these heads with the skull of the common
+Buffalo, _Bos Bubalus_, and satisfied myself, from the difference in the
+form and position of the horns, that they were a distinct species, in
+the 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' for 1837 (new series, vol. i, p. 589), I
+indicated them as a new species, under the name of _Bos Brachyceros_.
+
+"In the course of this summer (1838), Mr. Cross, of the Surrey
+Zoological Gardens, received from Sierra Leone, under the name of the
+_Bush Cow_, a specimen which serves more fully to establish the species.
+It differs from the Buffalo and all other oxen in several important
+characters, especially in the large size and particular bearding of the
+ears, and in being totally deficient in any dewlap. It also differs from
+the Buffalo in its forehead, being flatter and quite destitute of the
+convex form which is so striking in all the varieties of that animal.
+
+"Mr. Cross's cow is, like the head in the Museum, of a nearly uniform
+pale chesnut colour. The hair is rather scattered, and nearly
+perpendicular to the surface of the body. The legs, about the knees and
+hocks, are rather darker. The ears are very large, with two rows of very
+long hairs on the inner side, and a tuft of long hairs at the tips. The
+body is short and barrel-shaped, and the tail reaches to the hocks,
+rather thin and tapering, with a tuft of long hairs at the tip. The
+chest is rounded and rather dependent, but without the least appearance
+of a dewlap; and the horns nearly resemble those of the Museum
+specimen, but are less developed, from the sex and evidently greater
+youth of the animal. The Rev. Mr. Morgan informs me that the animal is
+not rare in the bush near Sierra Leone.
+
+"I have added a slight sketch of Mr. Cross's animal, which I hope will
+enable any person to distinguish this very distinct and interesting
+addition to the species of this useful genus."
+
+The engraving at the head of this article is a reduced copy of Mr.
+Gray's figure just alluded to. The following representation of the head
+is from a specimen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE MUSK OX.
+
+_Bos Moschatus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Musk-ox, in its external appearance, more nearly resembles the Yak
+of Thibet than any other member of the Bos genus; and they both inhabit
+mountainous districts near regions of perpetual snow.
+
+The horns of the Musk Bull are remarkably broad at their bases, which
+are closely united; they bend down on each side of the head, with an
+outward curve turning upwards towards their ends, which taper to a sharp
+point. They are two feet long measured along the curvature, and two feet
+in girth at the base; the weight of a pair of these horns is sometimes
+sixty pounds. The broad base of the horn is hollow on the inside, and of
+a form approaching to a square; when this is separated from the head and
+the other part of the horn, it forms a convenient dish, which is very
+generally used by the native Esquimaux for many domestic purposes.
+
+The horns of the cow are nine inches distant from each other at the
+base, and are placed exactly on the sides of the head; they are thirteen
+inches long, and eight or nine inches round at the base.
+
+The head and the body generally is covered with very long silky hairs of
+a dark colour; some of which are seventeen inches long; on the middle of
+the back (which is broad and flat), the hair is lighter and not so long.
+Beneath the long hairs, in all parts, there is a thick coat of cinereous
+wool of exquisite fineness. M. Jeramie brought some to France, of which
+stockings were made more beautiful than silk.
+
+The tail is only three inches long, and completely covered with very
+long hairs, so as to be undistinguishable to the sight. Of this tail,
+the Esquimaux of the northwest side of Hudson's Bay, make a cap of a
+most horrible appearance, for the hairs fall all round their heads, and
+cover their faces; yet it is of singular service in keeping off the
+musquitoes, which would otherwise be intolerable.
+
+The ears are only three inches long, quite erect, and sharp pointed, but
+dilate much in the middle; they are thickly lined with hair of a dusky
+colour, marked with a stripe of white.
+
+The frog in the hoof is soft, partially covered with hair, and
+transversely ribbed. The following sketch represents the under surface
+of the foot of the Musk-ox, the external hoof being rounded, the
+internal pointed.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The foot-marks of the Musk-ox and those of the rein-deer are so much
+alike, that it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish
+them. The mark of the Musk-ox's hoof, however, is a little narrower.
+
+The food of the Musk-ox is the same with that of the rein-deer--lichens
+and grass; and sometimes twigs and shoots of willow, birch, and pine.
+
+At present this animal is not found in a lower latitude than 66 deg.; but
+formerly they came much further to the south; and their flesh used to be
+brought by the natives to Fort Churchill in latitude 58 deg.. It would
+appear that they are retiring northward, probably owing to the alarm
+created by the attacks made upon them by fire-arms. It is worthy of
+remark, that the American Bison has also retreated considerably to the
+north. According to Dr. Richardson, the Musk-ox inhabits the North
+Georgian Islands in the summer months. They arrive in Melville Island in
+the middle of May, crossing the ice from the southward, and quit it on
+their return towards the end of September.
+
+The Musk-oxen, like the Bison, herd together in bands, and generally
+frequent barren grounds during the summer months, keeping near the
+rivers; but retire to the woods in winter. They seem to be less watchful
+than most other wild animals; and when feeding are not difficult of
+approach, provided the hunters go against the wind. When two or three
+men get so near a herd as to fire at them from different points, these
+animals, instead of separating or running away, huddle closer together,
+and in this case they are easily shot down; but if the wound is not
+mortal, they become enraged, and dart in the most furious manner at the
+hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade them; for, notwithstanding
+the shortness of their legs, they can run with great rapidity, and climb
+hills and rocks, with great ease. They can defend themselves by their
+powerful horns against wolves and bears, which, as the Indians say, they
+not unfrequently kill.--(Capt. Franklin's 'Journey to the Polar Sea.')
+
+They are hunted in their winter retreats by the Esquimaux only, the
+Indian tribes never visiting the barren grounds at that season.
+
+When the Musk-ox is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and it is then
+preferred by the Copper Indians to the rein-deer. The flesh of bulls is
+high-flavoured; but both bulls and cows smell strongly of musk, their
+flesh at the same time being very dark and tough. The contents of the
+paunch, and other intestinal parts, are relished as much by the Indian
+as the similar parts of the rein-deer.--(Appendix to Capt. Parry's
+'Second Voyage.')
+
+The weight of the bulls killed during Capt. Parry's Second Voyage was,
+on an average about 700 lbs., yielding about 400 lbs. of meat. Their
+height, at the withers, was about ten hands and a half.
+
+They were observed by Capt. Franklin's party to rut in the end of
+August and beginning of September; and Hearne says, that they bring
+forth one calf in the latter end of May, or beginning of June; thus the
+period of gestation is about nine months.
+
+The figure at the beginning of this article, as well as the following
+cut of the head, are from the beautiful specimen of the Musk Ox, in the
+British Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Head of Musk Ox.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SANGA, OR GALLA OX.
+
+_(See Frontispiece). Bos ----?_
+
+
+This singular animal is only found in Abyssinia, and is famous on
+account of its horns, which are of an almost incredible size.
+
+Bruce the traveller, in speaking of these horns, says, "The animal
+furnishing these monstrous horns is a cow or bull which would be
+considered of a middling size in England. This extraordinary size of its
+horns proceeds from a disease that the cattle have in these countries,
+of which they die, and is probably derived from their pasture and
+climate. When the animal shows symptoms of this disorder, he is set
+apart in the very best and quietest grazing place, and never driven or
+molested from that moment. His value lies then in his horns, for his
+body becomes emaciated and lank, in proportion as the horns grow large;
+at the last period of his life, the weight of his head is so great that
+he is unable to lift it up, or at least for any space of time. The
+joints of his neck become callous at last, so that it is not any longer
+in his power to lift his head. In this situation he dies, with scarcely
+flesh to cover his bones, and it is then his horns are of the greatest
+value. I have seen horns that would contain as much as a common sized
+water-pail, such as they make use of in the houses in England."[B]
+
+So far Mr. Bruce. Mr. Salt, who visited Abyssinia some years afterwards,
+gives a somewhat different account. He says: "Here [_i. e._ at Gibba],
+for the first time, I was gratified by the sight of the Galla Oxen, or
+Sanga, celebrated throughout Abyssinia for the remarkable size of its
+horns. Three of these animals were grazing among the other cattle in
+perfect health, which circumstance, together with the testimony of the
+natives, 'that the size of the horns is in no instance occasioned by
+disease,' completely refutes the fanciful theory given by Mr. Bruce
+respecting this creature. It appears by the papers annexed to the last
+edition of Mr. Bruce's work, that he never met with the Sanga; but that
+he made many attempts to procure specimens of the horns, through Yanni,
+a Greek, residing at Adowa. This old man very correctly speaks of them,
+in his letters, as being only brought by the Cafilas from Antalo; and I
+have now ascertained that they are sent to this country as valuable
+presents, by the chiefs of the Galla, whose tribes are spread to the
+southward of Enderta. So far, then, as to the description of the horns,
+and the purposes to which they are applied by the Abyssinians, Mr.
+Bruce's statements may be considered as correct; but with respect to
+'the disease which occasions their size, probably derived from their
+pasture and climate,' 'the care taken of them to encourage this
+disease,' 'the emaciation of the animal,' and 'the extending of the
+disorder to the spine of the neck, which at last becomes callous, so
+that it is not any longer in the power of the animal to lift its head,'
+they all prove to be mere ingenious conjectures, thrown out by the
+author solely for the exercise of his own ingenuity.
+
+"I should not venture to speak so positively upon this matter, had I
+not indisputably ascertained the facts; for the Ras having subsequently
+made me a present of three of these animals alive, I found them not only
+in excellent health, but so exceedingly wild, that I was obliged to have
+them shot. The horns of one of these are now deposited in the Museum of
+the Surgeons' College, and a still larger pair are placed in the
+collection of Lord Valentia, at Arley Hall. The length of the largest
+horn of this description was nearly four feet, and its circumference at
+the base twenty-one inches.
+
+"It might have been expected that the animal, carrying horns of so
+extraordinary a magnitude, would have proved larger than others
+belonging to the same genus; but in every instance which came under my
+observation, this was by no means the case. The etching on the following
+page, which was copied from an original sketch (taken from the life),
+may serve to convince the reader of this fact; and it will convey a
+better idea of the animal than any description in writing I can pretend
+to give. I shall only further observe, that its colour appeared to vary
+as much as in the other species of its genus, and that the peculiarity
+of the size of the horns was not confined to the male, the female being
+very amply provided with this ornamental appendage to her forehead."
+
+Notwithstanding the bold and confident tone of Mr. Salt's
+counter-statement, it must be confessed, that the figure which he
+himself gives from the life (and of which the frontispiece to this
+volume is an exact copy), seems rather to coincide with Mr. Bruce's
+account, being, to all appearance, both "lank and emaciated."
+
+Engraving of the horns presented by Mr. Salt to the
+Museum of the College of Surgeons.
+
+[Illustration: Horns of Galla Ox.]
+
+                                                Ft.  In.
+
+Length of each round the outer curve            3   10-1/2
+Distance between the tips                       3    4
+Circumference at the base                       1    3
+Distance between the bases at the forehead      0    3-1/2
+
+The Sanga is usually considered as a mere variety of _Bos Taurus_. This
+may possibly be the fact; but we have no proof whatever that it is so:
+no information on this point has been presented beyond mere conjecture.
+This being the case, and in the absence of direct anatomical evidence,
+we may be pardoned in considering it, at least, as doubtful; especially
+as there are so many points of external dissimilarity. The principal
+differences are: 1st, in the shoulder, upon which there is a hump; 2d,
+in the back, which descends (as in the Buffaloes and Zebus), abruptly
+towards the tail; 3d, in the greater length of the legs; and 4th, in the
+forehead, which is only three inches and a half between the bases of the
+horns, whilst in the Common Ox it is nine inches.
+
+The horns represented in the following sketch, are those of the
+Hungarian Ox (a variety of _Bos Taurus_), and are almost as remarkable
+for their length and expansion as those of the Abyssinian Sanga. The
+length of each horn is three feet four inches and a half, and the
+distance between the tips is five feet one inch. The sketch is from a
+specimen in the British Museum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[B] Jerom Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, mentions that some of the
+horns of the Buffaloes of that country will hold ten quarts.
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN DOMESTIC CATTLE.
+
+_Bos ----?_
+
+
+
+
+THE ZEBU, OR BRAHMIN OX.--(_Var. alpha._)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The opinions expressed in the following extract from Mr. Bennett's
+description of the Indian Ox (Gardens and Menag. of the Zool. Soc.), may
+be taken as a correct exposition of the views of naturalists generally
+on the subject:--
+
+"There can be little doubt that the Zebu, or Indian Ox, is merely a
+variety of the Common Ox, although it is difficult to ascertain the
+causes by which the distinctive characters of the two races have been in
+the process of time gradually produced. But whatever the causes may
+have been, their effects rapidly disappear by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations. This
+intermixture and its results would alone furnish a sufficient proof of
+identity of origin; which, consequently, scarcely requires the
+confirmation to be derived from the perfect agreement of their internal
+structure, and of all the more essential particulars of their external
+confirmation. These, however, are not wanting; not only is their
+anatomical structure the same, but the form of their heads, which
+affords the only certain means of distinguishing the actual species of
+this genus from each other, presents no difference whatever. In both the
+forehead is flat, or more properly slightly depressed; nearly square in
+its outline, its height being equal to its breadth; and bounded above by
+a prominent line, forming an angular protuberance, passing directly
+across the skull between the bases of the horns. The only circumstances
+in fact in which the two animals differ, consists in the fatty hump on
+the shoulders of the Zebu, and in the somewhat more slender and delicate
+make of its legs."
+
+In a scientific work, it is not sufficient for the author merely to make
+an assertion; it is not even sufficient for him to say that he has made
+an experiment or observation, and merely give the result; he should, in
+every case where it is practicable, describe the nature of his
+experiment,--the _when_, the _where_, the _how_;--and the means and
+opportunity he had of making his observations, that the curious or
+sceptical inquirer may be enabled to perform the experiment, or make the
+observation for himself.
+
+Mr. Bennett tells us, that the differences observable in the Indian Ox
+and the Common Ox "_rapidly_ disappear by the intermixture of the
+breeds, and are entirely lost at the end of a few generations;" but he
+does not refer to a single instance of this, authentic or otherwise; nor
+are we aware that any such instance ever occurred.
+
+Again, he states that "their anatomical structure is the same;" but he
+does not inform us when, or where, or how, the comparison was made which
+enabled him to arrive at that conclusion.
+
+Wishing to satisfy myself, as far as possible, on this point, I have
+examined the skeleton both of the British Domestic Ox and the Zebu; and
+the following is the result of that examination:--
+
+                      NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE.
+
+                     Cerv.   Dors.    Lumb.       Sac.   Caud.     Total.
+In the Zebu           7       13        6          4       18    =   48
+In the Common Ox      7       13        6          5       21    =   52
+
+The skeletons may still be seen in the Museum of the College of
+Surgeons.
+
+Furthermore, the period of gestation of the Brahmin Cow (according to
+the MS. records of the Zoological Society), is 300 days, while that of
+the Common Cow is only 270 days.
+
+Whether the differences here pointed out are sufficient to constitute
+specific distinction, is left for the umpires to decide.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZEBU.--(_Var. beta._)]
+
+These Indian Cattle are extremely gentle, and admirably adapted to
+harness. Some of the eastern princes attach them to their artillery; but
+generally they employ the finest to draw their light carriages, which in
+form are very similar to those of the ancients. In mountainous
+countries, they have them shod. Their pace is a kind of amble, and they
+are able to sustain a journey of about twenty leagues a day. Guided by a
+cord which passes through the nasal cartilage, they obey the hand with
+as much precision as a horse.
+
+In the same provinces are seen a race of dwarf Bisons, which are
+scarcely as tall as our calves of two months old, generally described
+under the name of _Zebu_. They are lively, well proportioned, and
+trained to be mounted by children, or to draw a light car. In both cases
+their pace is a sort of amble, the same as that of the larger species.
+
+[Illustration: Zebus (_Var. gamma_) and Car.]
+
+The curious Hindoo customs in relation to this animal have been recorded
+by almost every traveller.
+
+Neither the horse, the sheep, nor the goat, have any peculiar sanctity
+annexed to them by the Braminical superstition; it is otherwise with the
+cow, which in India is everywhere regarded with veneration, and is an
+object of peculiar worship. Representations of objects are made upon the
+walls with cow-dung, and these enter deeply into their routine of daily
+observances. The same materials are also dried, and used as fuel for
+dressing their victuals; for this purpose the women collect it, and bake
+it into cakes, which are placed in a position where they soon become dry
+and fit for use. The sacred character of the cow probably gives this
+fuel a preference to every other in the imagination of a Hindoo, for it
+is used in Calcutta, where wood is in abundance.
+
+On certain occasions it is customary for the Hindoos to consecrate a
+bull as an offering to their deities; particular ceremonies are then
+performed, and a mark is impressed upon the animal, expressive of his
+future condition to all the inhabitants. No consideration will induce
+the pious Bengalee to hurt or even control one of these consecrated
+animals. You may see them every day roaming at large through the streets
+of Calcutta, and tasting rice, grain, or flour in the Bazar, according
+to their pleasure. The utmost a native will do, when he observes the
+animal doing too much honour to his goods, is to urge him, by the
+gentlest hints, to taste of the vegetables or grain of his neighbour's
+stall. (_Tennant's 'Indian Recreations.'_)
+
+One of the doctrines of the Brahmins is to believe that kine have in
+them somewhat of sacred and divine; that happy is the man who can be
+sprinkled over with the ashes of a cow, burnt by the hand of a Brahmin;
+but thrice happy is he who, in dying, lays hold of a cow's tail and
+expires with it between his hands; for thus assisted, the soul departs
+out of the body purified, and sometimes returns into the body of a cow.
+That such a favour, notwithstanding, is not conferred but on heroic
+souls, who contemn life, and die generously, either by casting
+themselves headlong from a precipice, or leaping into a kindled pile, or
+throwing themselves under the holy chariot wheels, to be crushed to
+death by the Pagods, when they are carried in triumph about the
+town.--(_Life of St. Francis Xavier, translated by Dryden, 1688._)
+
+
+AFRICAN AND OTHER VARIETIES.
+
+In Shaw's Zoology, the following species or varieties are noticed:--
+
+
+LOOSE-HORNED OX.
+
+This is said to be found in Abyssinia and in Madagascar, and is
+distinguished by pendulous ears, and horns _attached only to the skin,
+so as to hang down on each side_!
+
+
+THE BOURY.
+
+Of the size of a camel, and of a snowy whiteness, with a protuberance on
+the back, is a native of Madagascar and some other islands.
+
+
+THE TINIAN OX.
+
+Of a white colour, with black ears. Inhabits the island of Tinian.
+
+Bewick mentions that in Persia there are many oxen entirely white, with
+small blunt horns and humps on their backs. They are very strong, and
+carry heavy burdens. When about to be loaded, they drop down on their
+knees like the Camel, and rise again when their burdens are properly
+fastened.
+
+
+THE BORNOU OX,
+
+which Col. Smith considers a distinct species, is likewise white, of a
+very large size, with hunched back, and very large horns, which are
+couched outwards and downwards, like those of the African Buffalo, with
+the tip forming a small half-spiral revolution. The corneous external
+coat is very soft, distinctly fibrous, and at the base not much thicker
+than a human nail; the osseous core full of vascular grooves, and inside
+very cellular, the pair scarcely weighing four pounds. The skin passes
+insensibly to the horny state, so that there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences or the other ends. The dimension of a horn
+are:--length measured on the curve, three feet seven inches;
+circumference at base, two feet; circumference midway, one foot six
+inches; circumference two thirds up the horn, one foot; length in a
+straight line, from base to tip, one foot five inches and a half. The
+species has a small neck, and is the common domestic breed of Bornou,
+where the Buffalo is said to have small horns.
+
+Leguat, in his 'Voyages in 1720,' states that the oxen are of three
+sorts at the Cape of Good Hope, all of a large size, and very active;
+some have a hump on the back, others have the horns long and pendent,
+while others have them turned up and well shaped, as in English cattle.
+
+[Illustration: Zebu.--(_Var. delta._)]
+
+
+
+
+THE DOMESTIC OXEN OF THE HOTTENTOTS, CALLED BACKELEYS, BACKELEYERS, OR
+BAKELY-OSSE.
+
+_Bos ----?_
+
+
+The following particulars relating to these Oxen are taken from the
+highly interesting work '_The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_,'
+by Peter Kolben, who visited that colony in 1705, and remained there
+during a period of eight years.
+
+"The Hottentots have a sort of oxen they call Backeleyers, or fighting
+oxen; they use them in their wars, as some nations do elephants; of the
+taming and farming of which last creatures upon the like discipline the
+Hottentots as yet know nothing. They are of great use to them, too, in
+the government of their herds at pasture; for, upon a signal from their
+commanders, they will fetch in stragglers, and bring the herds within
+compass. They will likewise run very furiously at strangers, and
+therefore are of good defence against the Buschies, or robbers who steal
+cattle. They are the stateliest oxen of the herd: every Kraal has
+half-a-dozen of these oxen at the least. When one of them dies, or grows
+so old, that, being unfit for business, his owner kills him, a young one
+is chosen out of the herd to succeed him, by an ancient Hottentot, who
+is judged best able to discern his capacity for instruction. This young
+ox is associated with an old Backeleyer, and taught, by blows and other
+means, to follow him. At night they tie them together by the horns; and
+for some part of the day they fasten them together in the same manner,
+till at length, by this and I know not what other means, the young ox
+is fully instructed, and becomes a watchful guardian of the herds, and
+an able auxiliary in war.
+
+"The Backeleyers (so called from the Hottentot word Backeley for war)
+know every inhabitant of the Kraal they belong to, men, women, and
+children, and pay them all just the same respect that is paid by a dog
+to every person who dwells in his master's house. Any of the inhabitants
+may, therefore, at any time present themselves very safely on any side
+of the herds; the Backeleyers will in nowise offend them. But if a
+stranger, especially a European, shall approach the herds, without the
+company of a Hottentot of the Kraal they belong to, he must look sharp
+to himself; for these Backeleyers, which generally feed at the skirts of
+the herds, quickly discover him, and make at him upon a full gallop. And
+if he is not within hearing of any of the Hottentots who keep the herds,
+or has not a fire-arm, or a light pair of heels, or there is not a tree
+at hand which he can immediately climb, he is certainly demolished. The
+Backeleyers mind not sticks or the throwing of stones at them. This is
+one great reason why the Europeans always travel the Hottentot countries
+with fire-arms. But the first thing a European does, upon the appearance
+of such an enemy, is to shout and call to the Hottentots that look to
+the herds. The Hottentot that hears him hastens to his assistance,
+making all the way a very shrill whistling through his fingers. The
+Backeleyers no sooner hear the whistling of their keepers, which they
+very well know, than they stop, turn about, and return leisurely to the
+herds.
+
+"But if a European, in such a case, does not (upon his shouting and
+calling to the keepers), hear the whistle, before the Backeleyers come
+up with him, he discharges his fire-arm,--frightened with the report of
+which, the Backeleyers run away.
+
+"I have been often run at by the Backeleyers myself. As soon as I saw
+them sallying out upon me, I shouted and called to the keepers. But I
+could not often make them hear before the Backeleyers came up with me,
+when I have been obliged to discharge my fire-arm (for I always carried
+one about with me), upon which they always turned about and left me.
+
+"In the wars of the Hottentots with one another, these Backeleyers make
+very terrible impressions. They gore, and kick, and trample to death,
+with incredible fury. Each army has a drove of them, which they take
+their opportunity to turn upon the enemy. And if an army, against which
+the Backeleyers are sent, is not alert and upon all its guard, these
+creatures quickly force their way through it, tearing, shattering, and
+confounding all the troops that oppose them, and paving for their
+masters an easy way to victory. The courage of these creatures is
+amazing; and the discipline upon which they are formed does not a little
+honour to the Hottentot genius and dexterity.
+
+"The Hottentots have likewise great numbers of oxen for carriage. These,
+too, are very strong and stately creatures, chosen out of the herds, at
+about the age of two years, by old men, well skilled in cattle. When
+they have destined an ox to carry burdens, they take and throw him on
+his back on the ground; and fastening his head and feet with strong
+ropes to stakes firmly fixed in the ground, they make a hole with a
+sharp knife through his upper lip, between his nostrils. Into this hole
+they put a stick, about half an inch thick, and a foot and a half long,
+with a hook at top to prevent its falling through. By this hooked stick
+they break him to obedience and good behaviour; for if he refuses to be
+governed, or to carry the burdens they lay upon him, they fix his nose
+by this hooked stick to the ground, and there hold it till he comes to a
+better temper.
+
+"It is an exquisite torture to an Ox to be fastened to the ground by the
+nose in this manner. He is not, therefore, long exercised this way,
+before he gets a notion of his duty, and becomes tractable. After which,
+the very sight alone of the stick, when he is wanton or refractory, will
+humble and reduce him to the will of his driver. The terror of this
+stick, likewise makes the carriage oxen so attentive to the words of
+command the Hottentots use to them, that they quickly conceive and, ever
+while they live, afterwards retain the intention of them. I have a
+thousand times been surprised at the ready obedience the carriage oxen
+have paid to a Hottentot's bare words. They are as quick at
+apprehending, and as exact in performing the orders of their driver, as
+is any taught dog in Europe at conceiving and accomplishing the orders
+of his master. The stick--the terrible stick--makes them all attention
+and diligence."
+
+
+
+
+AFRICAN BULL.
+
+
+The following notice, which will explain itself, appeared in Loudon's
+'Magazine of Natural History,' for July, 1828.
+
+"Some Account of a particular Variety of Bull (_Bos Taurus_), now
+exhibiting in London. By Mrs. Harvey.
+
+"Sir,--Agreeably to your request, Mr. Harvey has taken a portrait of
+this animal; and as he has made the drawing on the wood himself, the
+engraving will be a very perfect resemblance.[C] I have, on my part,
+drawn up the following particulars, from what my husband told me, and I
+shall be happy if they prove of any interest to you or your readers:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+"This animal belongs to a French woman, who says he was brought from
+Africa to Bordeaux when a calf; and, after having been shown in
+different parts of the Continent, was taken to London, and exhibited at
+the Grand Bazaar in King's Street, Portman Square, last autumn. He is
+at present five years old, four feet high at the shoulder and seven feet
+in length, from the horns to the insertion of the tail. The length of
+his face is one foot eight inches, and the girth round the collar seven
+feet six inches. His hair is short and silky, and the colour a cream or
+yellowish white, except two black tufts which appear on each foot. On
+the back of the neck there is a hump or swelling, which seems confined
+to this variety. The general aspect of the animal is mild and docile;
+but, when irritated, his expression is very remarkable, exhibiting
+itself principally in the eye. This, in its ordinary state, is very
+peculiar, (fig. 1, _a_,) rising more than one-half above the orbit, and
+bearing a resemblance to a cup and ball, thus enabling the animal to see
+on all sides with equal ease. The iris is naturally of a pale blue
+colour; but, when the animal is irritated, it varies from a very pale
+blue or lilac to a deep crimson. Its form is also very remarkable, being
+a small oval, or rather a parallelogram, with the ends cut off, and
+lying transversely across the ball, (fig. 1, _b_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+"The black tufts, mentioned above, are the lateral hoofs (fig. 2), which
+the animal sheds annually, and which grow to the length of five or six
+inches. They are not shed together, or at stated periods; for those of
+the fore-feet, (_a_, _b_,) in this example, are at present of different
+ages, and, consequently, of different lengths; the difference between
+them being exactly that represented in the sketch.
+
+"On the hump or collar, the hair grows much longer than on the other
+parts of the body, forming a sort of curled mane, resembling, I should
+imagine, that of the Bison. It is perfectly white, growing to the length
+of one foot six inches, and adding greatly to the height of the rising
+part behind the horns. At present the hair is only beginning to grow;
+but it will be in full beauty at the approach of the winter months, and
+will fall off gradually again in the early part of the succeeding spring.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.]
+
+"The keeper pointed out to Mr. Harvey, as a remarkable peculiarity, that
+the dewlap (fig. 3), in passing between the fore-legs (_a_), and under
+the body (_b_), seemed to divide itself into three parts, which they
+called the three stomachs, (1, 2, 3,) from their being very much acted
+on in the progress of digestion."
+
+    I remain. Sir, &c.
+        M. HARVEY.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[C] The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and
+dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals.
+
+
+
+
+CHILLINGHAM WHITE CATTLE.
+
+_Bos Taurus.--Restricted Variety._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Considerable interest has always been connected with the history of
+those herds of white cattle which have been kept secluded, apparently
+from time immemorial, in the parks of some of our aristocracy.[D] It has
+been, and still is, a matter of lordly pride to their noble owners,
+that these cattle are held to be of a distinct and untameable race.
+
+Feeling a full share of the interest attached to them, and anxious to
+gain the most accurate and circumstantial information, I was induced to
+pay a visit, during the summer of 1845, to the beautifully wooded and
+undulating Park of Chillingham, in which a herd of these cattle is
+preserved; and, although I have not been able to gather material for a
+perfect history of these animals, I think it will not be difficult to
+show that matters respecting them have been set forth as facts which are
+fictions; and that from some points of their history which have been
+correctly detailed, inferences have been drawn, which are by no means
+warranted by the facts.
+
+In endeavouring to point out these errors and false reasonings, it will
+be necessary to make quotations from the old history of the white
+cattle, in Culley's 'Observations on Live Stock,' which has been so
+often repeated in works on natural history, and is, moreover, so
+thoroughly accredited, that it may now appear something like presumption
+to call it in question. To what extent it is called in question on the
+present occasion, and the reasons for so doing, will be seen in the
+running commentary which accompanies these quotations.
+
+Culley says: "The Wild Breed, from being untameable, can only be kept
+within walls or good fences; consequently very few of them are now to be
+met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for
+ornament, and as a curiosity: those I have seen are at Chillingham
+Castle, in Northumberland, a seat belonging to the Earl of Tankerville."
+
+The statement of their being untameable is a mere assertion, founded
+upon no evidence whatever. But so far is it from being the fact, that,
+notwithstanding every means are used to preserve their wildness, such as
+allowing them to range in an extensive park--seldom intruding upon
+them--hunting and shooting them now and then--notwithstanding these
+means are taken to preserve their wildness, they are even now so far
+domesticated as voluntarily to present themselves every winter, at a
+place prepared for them, for the purpose of being fed. From which it may
+reasonably be concluded, that were they restricted in their pasture,
+gradually familiarised with the presence of human beings, and in every
+other respect treated as ordinary cattle, they would, in the course of
+two or three generations, be equally tame and tractable.
+
+Whilst writing the foregoing I was not aware that any attempt had been
+made to domesticate these so-called untameable oxen; but on reading an
+account of these cattle by Mr. Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+(bearing date about 1837,) I find the following paragraph.
+
+"By taking the calves at a very early age, and treating them gently, the
+present keeper succeeded in domesticating an ox and a cow. _They became
+as tame as domestic animals_, and the ox fed as rapidly as a
+short-horned steer. He lived eighteen years, and when at his best was
+computed at 8 cwt. 14 lbs. The cow only lived five or six years. She
+gave little milk, but the quality was rich. She was crossed by a country
+bull, but her progeny very closely resembled herself, being entirely
+white, excepting the ears, which were brown, and the legs, which were
+mottled." These facts speak for themselves.
+
+Culley, in giving their distinguishing characteristics, says: "Their
+colour is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the whole of the
+inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside, from the tips
+downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent
+upwards; some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a
+half, or two inches long."
+
+That their colour is invariably white is simply owing to the care that
+is taken to destroy all the calves that are born of a different
+description. It is pretty well known to the farmers about Chillingham
+(although pains are taken to conceal the fact,) that the wild cows in
+the park not unfrequently drop calves variously spotted. With respect to
+the redness of the ears, this is by no means an invariable character,
+many young ones having been produced without that distinctive mark; and
+Bewick records, that about twenty years before he wrote, there existed a
+few in the herd with _black_ ears, but they were destroyed. So far from
+the character here given of the horns being confined to those white
+cattle, it is precisely the description of the horns of the Kyloe oxen,
+or black cattle. The investiture of some of the bulls with a mane is
+equally gratuitous; Cole, who was park-keeper for more than forty years,
+and of course had ample means of observation, distinctly informed me
+that they had no mane, but only some curly hair, about the neck, which
+is likewise an attribute of the Kyloe Oxen.
+
+Culley goes on to say: "From the nature of their pasture, and the
+frequent agitation they are put into by the curiosity of strangers, it
+is scarce to be expected that they should get very fat; yet the six
+years old oxen are generally very good beef, from whence it may be
+fairly supposed, that in proper situations they would feed well."
+
+It would naturally be inferred from this, that the park in which they
+are kept is visited by strangers every day, who are allowed to drive
+them about, and disturb them in their feeding and ruminating, as boys
+hunt geese or donkeys on a common. This, however, is so far from being
+the case, that it frequently happens that the park is not visited for
+many weeks in succession, and certainly on an average it is not visited
+once a week. What is here meant by "the nature of their pasture," and
+"in proper situations they would feed well," it is difficult to say. The
+fact is, their pasture is both good and extensive, and they feed as well
+as animals always do who are left to themselves with plenty of food.
+
+Their behaviour to strangers is thus described: "At the first appearance
+of any person, they set off at full speed, and gallop a considerable
+distance, when they make a wheel round, and come boldly up again,
+tossing their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden, they make a full
+stop, at a distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the
+object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being made, they
+turn round again, and gallop off with equal speed; but forming a shorter
+circle, and, returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect, they
+approach much nearer, when they make another stand, and again gallop
+off. This they do several times, shortening their distance, and
+approaching nearer, till they come within a few yards, when most people
+think it prudent to leave them."
+
+In the instance in which I had an opportunity of witnessing their method
+of receiving visitors, the fashion was somewhat different. The
+park-keeper who accompanied me described, as we rode through the park in
+quest of them, what would be their mode of procedure on our approach.
+This he did from observations so repeatedly made, as to warrant him in
+saying that it was their invariable mode. It was perfectly simple, and I
+found it precisely as he had described it. When we came in sight of
+them, they were tranquilly ruminating under a clump of shady trees, some
+of the herd standing, others lying. On their first observing us, those
+that were lying rose up, and they all then began to move _slowly_ away,
+not exactly to a greater distance from us, but in the direction of a
+thickly wooded part of the park, which was as distant on our left as the
+herd was on our right. To reach this wooded part they had to pass over
+some elevated ground. They continued to walk at a gradually accelerating
+pace, till they gained the most elevated part, when they broke out into
+a trot, then into a canter, which at last gave way to a full gallop, a
+sort of "devil-take-the-hindmost" race, by which they speedily buried
+themselves in the thickest recesses of the wood. What they may have done
+in Mr. Culley's time, we must take upon that gentleman's word; but at
+present, and for so long as the present park-keeper can recollect, they
+have never been in the habit of describing those curious concentric
+circles of which Mr. Culley makes mention in the last quotation.
+
+The late mode of killing them is described as "perhaps the only modern
+remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that
+a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood came mounted and armed with guns, &c., sometimes to the
+amount of a hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon
+walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the
+rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and
+shot. At some of these huntings twenty or thirty shots have been fired
+before he was subdued. On these occasions the bleeding victim grew
+desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of
+savage joy that were echoing from every side. But from the number of
+accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised
+of late years, the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a
+rifled gun at one shot."
+
+This vivid portraiture of a scene, which the writer is pleased to
+consider _grand_, does not appear to have much relation to the history
+of the _Genus Bos_: it however, exhibits the brutal and ferocious habits
+of two varieties of _Genus Homo_, namely _Nob_ility and _Mob_ility--two
+varieties which, although distinguished by some external marks of
+difference, possess in common many questionable characteristics.
+
+Culley proceeds:--"When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a
+week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them
+two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap
+their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide
+themselves; _this is a proof of their native wildness_, and is
+corroborated by the following circumstance that happened to Mr. Bailey,
+of Chillingham, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean and
+very weak. On stroking its head it got up, pawed two or three times like
+an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and bolted at
+his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed,
+stepped back, and bolted as before; but knowing its intention, and
+stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could
+not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough: the
+whole herd were alarmed, and, coming to its rescue, obliged him to
+retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without
+attacking them with impetuous ferocity."
+
+It seems almost unnecessary to remind the reader that all animals are
+naturally wild; and that even those animals that have been the longest
+under the dominion of man, are born with a strong tendency to the wild
+state, to which they would immediately resort, if left to themselves: it
+appears, therefore, rather gratuitous to tell us that the NATURAL
+_actions of young animals_ (whose parents have been allowed to run
+wild), _are proofs of their native mildness_!
+
+The concluding paragraph requires no observation:--"When a calf is
+intended to be castrated, the park-keeper marks the place where it is
+hid, and, when the herd are at a distance, takes an assistant with him
+on horseback; they tie a handkerchief round the calf s mouth, to prevent
+its bellowing, and then perform the operation in the usual way. When any
+one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or
+sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death."
+
+The following engraving exhibits the effects of castration on the
+curvature and length of the horns.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the
+emasculated animal.]
+
+We learn, on the authority of the present Lord Tankerville, that during
+the early part of the life-time of his father, the bulls in the herd had
+been reduced to three; two of them fought and killed each other, and the
+third was discovered to be impotent; so that the means of preserving the
+breed depended on the accident of some of the cows producing a bull
+calf.
+
+In 1844 I wrote to Mr. Cole, the late park-keeper at Chillingham,
+requesting information on the following queries, to which he returned
+the answers annexed; and although they are not so explicit as might be
+wished, they embody facts both interesting and important.
+
+
+_List of the Queries with their Answers._
+
+1. How many pairs of ribs are there in the skeleton of the Chillingham
+Ox? _Thirteen pairs._
+
+2. How many vertebrae are there (from the skull to the end of the tail)?
+_Thirty in the back-bone, twenty in the tail._
+
+3. Will the wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle? _I have had two
+calves from a wild bull and common cow._
+
+4. What is the precise time the wild cow goes with young? _The same as
+the domestic cow._
+
+5. At what age does the curly hair appear which constitutes the mane of
+the wild bull? _They have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and
+head; more so in winter, when the hair is long._
+
+6. In what month does the rutting take place among the wild cattle? _At
+all times,--no particular time._
+
+    J. COLE.
+
+Here we have precise information on the following points:--namely, the
+number of ribs; the period of gestation; their having no mane; their not
+being in heat at any particular period; in all which points, they
+perfectly agree with the ordinary domestic cattle; and it is important
+to observe, that in the last point, namely, that of not being in heat at
+any particular time, they differ from every known _wild_ species of
+cattle, among which the rutting season invariably occurs at a particular
+period of the year.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[D] Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and
+Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at
+the following places:--Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton,
+Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire;
+Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire.
+
+At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears,
+which are _brown_.
+
+From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild
+Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century,
+William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the
+forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in
+its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down
+to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like
+those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, with _black muzzles and
+ears_; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not
+easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.
+
+
+
+
+THE KYLOE, OR HIGHLAND OX.
+
+_Bos Taurus._
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Chillingham Cattle are _white_, and the Highland Cattle or Kyloes
+are generally _black_; but with this exception the same description
+might almost serve for both breeds.
+
+In their natural and unimproved state, the Highland cattle are
+frequently well formed; their fine eyes, acute face, and lively
+countenances, give them an air of fierceness, which is heightened by
+their white, tapering, black-tipped, and sharp horns.
+
+The Kyloe Oxen are very small (another respect in which they resemble
+the Chillingham Oxen). They likewise partake much of the nature of wild
+animals, which might be expected from the almost unlimited extent of
+their pasture, and their being but little subject to artificial
+treatment.
+
+Upon a close comparison of these two breeds, there appears not to be so
+much difference between the Highland cattle and the cattle of
+Chillingham as there is between any two breeds or varieties of British
+cattle. Indeed so great is the similarity, that the Kyloe appears to be
+only a black variety of the Chillingham Ox, and the Chillingham Ox only
+a white variety of the Kyloe.
+
+Dr. Anderson speaks of having seen a kind of Highland cattle which had a
+mane on the top of the head, of considerable length, and a tuft between
+the horns that nearly covered the eyes, giving them a fierce and savage
+aspect. He likewise mentions another kind which have hair of a pale lead
+colour, very beautiful in its appearance, and in its quality as glossy
+and soft as silk.
+
+The Kyloe Oxen are natives of the Western Highlands and Isles, and are
+commonly called the Argyleshire breed, or the breed of the Isle of Skie,
+one of the islands attached to the county of Argyle. They are generally
+of a dark brown colour, or black, though sometimes brindled.
+
+The Cows of the Isle of Skie (as is recorded by Martin, in his
+'Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,') are exposed to the
+rigour of the coldest seasons, and become mere skeletons in the spring,
+many of them not being able to rise from the ground without help; but
+they recover as the season becomes more favorable, and the grass grows
+up; then they acquire new beef, which is both sweet and tender; the fat
+and lean is not so much separated in them as in other cows, but as it
+were larded, which renders it very agreeable to the taste. A cow in this
+isle may be twelve years old, when at the same time its beef is not
+above four, five, or six months old.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE IN THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOS.
+
+                     | Cerv. | Dors. | Lumb. | Sacr. | Caud. | Total.
+American Bison       |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  12+  |
+European Bison,      |       |       |       |       |       |
+  or Aurochs         |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  19   |  50
+Yak                  |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  14   |  45
+Gayal (Domestic)     |   7   |  14   |   5   |   5   |  16   |  47
+Gayal (Asseel).      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Gyall                |       |       |       |       |       |
+Jungli Gau           |       |       |       |       |       |
+Italian Buffalo.     |       |       |       |       |       |
+Indian Buffalo.      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Skeleton of Buffalo  |       |       |       |       |       |
+  in Surg. Coll.     |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (locality unknown) |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  16   |  47
+Gaur                 |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  19   |  50
+Domestic Ox          |   7   |  13   |   6   |   5   |  21   |  52
+Condore Buffalo      |       |       |       |       |       |
+Manilla Buffalo      |   7   |  13   |   6   |       |       |
+Pegasse              |       |       |       |       |       |
+Arnee                |       |       |       |       |       |
+Cape Buffalo         |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  19   |  49
+Zamouse (_Bos_       |       |       |       |       |       |
+  _Brachyceros_)     |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  20   |  50
+Banteng of Java      |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (_Bos Bantinger_)  |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  18   |  48
+Zebu, or Brahmin Ox  |   7   |  13   |   6   |   4   |  18   |  48
+Galla Ox.            |       |       |       |       |       |
+Backeley             |       |       |       |       |       |
+  (_Caffraria_).     |       |       |       |       |       |
+Musk Ox              |       |       |       |       |       |
+
+The osteological details in the above Table (except those of the Yak,
+which are given on the authority of Pallas) are from the Author's own
+observations.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PERIODS OF GESTATION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE GENUS
+BOS.
+
+                     |       Periods
+                     |
+American Bison.      |  270 days.--Zool. Proc., 1849.
+European Bison.      |  Between 9 and 10 months.
+                     |
+Gayal (Domestic)     |  Over 10 months
+                     |
+Gyall                |   11 months
+                     |
+Indian Buffalo       |   10 months 10 days.
+                     |
+Gaur                 |   12 months
+Domestic Ox.         |  270 days
+                     |
+Manilla Buffalo.     |  340 days
+                     |
+Arnee                |   12 months
+Cape Buffalo         |   12 months
+                     |
+Zebu, or Brahmin Cow |  300 days
+                     |
+Musk Ox              |    9 months
+
+To supply the deficiencies in the foregoing Tables, the results of
+original observations are respectfully solicited. Address the Author or
+Publisher.
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON THE AMERICAN BISON.
+
+
+It was Cuvier, I believe, who first made the statement, that the
+American Bison is furnished with _fifteen_ pairs of ribs. In this
+particular he has been implicitly followed by every subsequent writer on
+the subject. Not being able to refer to a skeleton, and, moreover, never
+suspecting any inaccuracy in the statement, I followed the received
+account. But since this work has gone to press, I have had the
+opportunity of examining two skeletons, by which I find that--
+
+_The American Bison has only_ FOURTEEN _pairs of ribs._
+
+I have, therefore, in the "Table of the Number of Vertebrae," (see p.
+152,) set this species down as possessing only that number.
+
+Of the two skeletons referred to (both of which are now in the British
+Museum), one is from a female Bison, some years a living resident in the
+Zoological Gardens; and the other is from a male, late in the possession
+of the Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, in Lancashire.
+
+A corroborative circumstance (amounting, indeed, to a complete proof of
+the accuracy of these observations,) is presented by the fact, that, in
+both the cases _the number of lumbar vertebrae is precisely_ FIVE; thus
+making the true vertebrae to consist of nineteen, which Professor Owen[E]
+has shown to be the invariable number possessed by all ruminants.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[E] See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's
+'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+THE FREE MARTIN.
+
+Cows usually bring forth but one calf at a birth; occasionally, however,
+they produce twins. John Hunter, in his 'Observations on the Animal
+Economy,' says: "It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally
+understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a
+bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit
+for propagation; but the bull-calf grows up into a very proper bull.
+Such a cow-calf is called, in this country, a FREE MARTIN, and is
+commonly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. It has
+all the external marks of a cow-calf, namely, the teats, and the
+external female parts, called by farmers the bearing. It does not show
+the least inclination for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the
+least notice of it. In form it very much resembles the Ox, or spayed
+heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the cow,
+having the horns very similar to the horns of an Ox. The bellow of the
+Free Martin is similar to that of an Ox, having more resemblance to that
+of the cow than that of the bull."
+
+Free Martins are very much disposed to grow fat with good food. The
+flesh, like that of the Ox or spayed heifer, is generally much finer in
+the fibre than either the bull or cow; is even supposed to exceed that
+of the Ox and heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price
+at market. However this superiority of the flavour does not appear to be
+universal, for Mr. Hunter was informed of a case which occurred in
+Berkshire, in which the flesh of a Free Martin turned out nearly as bad
+as bull beef. This circumstance probably arose from the animal having
+more the properties of a bull than a cow.
+
+Mr. Hunter, having had many opportunities of dissecting Free Martins,
+has satisfactorily shown that their incapacity to breed, and all their
+other peculiarities, result from their having the generative organs of
+both sexes combined, in a more or less imperfect state of development,
+in some cases the organs of the male preponderating, in others those of
+the female.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above, which is copied from an engraving in Hunter's work on the
+'Animal Economy,' is a representation of a Free Martin, five years old;
+it shows the external form of that animal, which is neither like the
+bull nor cow, but resembling the Ox or spayed heifer.
+
+Although, as Hunter observes, "it is almost universally understood, that
+when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the
+other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation,"
+it is by no means universally the fact, as instances of such twins
+breeding were known even in Hunter's time, and have been witnessed more
+recently. The following is recorded in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. History,'
+and occurred a few years previous to 1826: Jos. Holroyd, of Withers,
+near Leeds, had a cow which calved twins, a bull-calf and a cow-calf. As
+popular opinion was against the cow-calf breeding, it being considered a
+Free Martin, Mr. Holroyd was determined to make an experiment of them,
+and reared them together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer
+brought forth a bull-calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven
+years afterwards.
+
+"If," says Hunter, "there are such deviations as of twins being perfect
+male and female, why should there not be, on the other hand, an
+hermaphrodite, produced singly, as in other animals? I had the
+examination of one which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have
+been a single calf; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from
+having found a number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the
+circumstance of their birth being ascertained."
+
+If Hunter had carried this reasoning a little further, he might have
+asked,--Why should there not be a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite,
+produced in the case of twins, when they are both apparently males, or
+both apparently females? Had he done this, he would not, probably, have
+made the following observation: "I need hardly observe, that if a cow
+has twins, and they are both bull-calves, they are in every respect
+perfect bulls; or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows."
+What is this but saying that a bull-calf is a bull-calf, and a cow-calf
+is a cow-calf? For a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, is not, in any case,
+either a bull or a cow.
+
+There does not appear to be anything known of the peculiar circumstances
+under which, what is termed a Free Martin is produced.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox.]
+
+The most general observation that can be made on the subject appears to
+be, that cows sometimes produce calves, which, by reason of their
+imperfectly developed generative system, are incapable of procreating.
+
+
+THE SHORT-NOSED OX.
+
+[Illustration: Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.]
+
+The common Ox, originally taken over to America by the early Spanish
+settlers, now runs wild in immense herds on the Pampas, where it is
+hunted and slain for its hide. Some idea may be formed of the immensity
+of these herds, from the circumstance that nearly a million of hides are
+annually exported from Buenos Ayres and Monte Video to Europe.
+
+Some of the herds in these wild regions have undergone a most singular
+modification of the cranium, consisting in a shortening of the nasal
+bones, together with the superior and inferior maxillaries. There is a
+skull of this variety in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, of which
+the above is a sketch.
+
+
+ON THE UTILITY OF THE OX TRIBE TO MANKIND.
+
+How eminently serviceable to man these animals are, is shown in the
+following table, in which are set forth the most important uses to which
+their various parts are applied:
+
+SKIN.--The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons
+constructed their boats with osiers, and covered them with the hides of
+bulls; and these boats were sufficiently strong to serve for short
+coasting voyages. Similar vessels are still in use on the Irish lakes,
+and in Wales on the rivers Dee and Severn. In Ireland they are called
+_curach_, in England _coracles_, from the British _cwrwgl_, a word
+signifying a boat of that structure.
+
+Boots, shoes, harness, &c. for horses, and various kinds of travelling
+trunks are made from hides when tanned. The skin of the calf is
+extensively used in the binding of books, and the thinnest of the calf
+skins are manufactured into vellum. The skin of the Cape Buffalo is made
+into shields and targets, and is so hard that a musket ball will
+scarcely penetrate it.
+
+HAIR.--The short hair is used to stuff saddles and other articles; also
+by bricklayers in the mixing up of certain kinds of mortar. It is
+likewise frequently used in the manuring of land. The _long_ hair from
+the tail is used for stuffing chairs and cushions. The hair of the Bison
+is spun into gloves, stockings, and garters, which are very strong, and
+look as well as those made of the finest sheep's wool; very beautiful
+cloth has likewise been manufactured from it. The Esquimaux convert the
+skin covering the tail into caps, which are so contrived that the long
+hair falling over their faces, defends them from the bites of the
+mosquitoes.
+
+HORNS.--The horns of cattle consist of an outside horny case, and an
+inside conical-shaped substance, somewhat between hardened hair and
+bone. The horny outside furnishes the material for the manufacture of a
+variety of useful articles. The first process consists in cutting the
+horn transversely into three portions.
+
+1. The _lowest_ of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing
+several operations by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs.
+
+2. The _middle_ of the horn, after being flattened by heat, and its
+transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a
+substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. [The merit of
+the invention of these horn plates, and of their application to
+lanterns, is ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used
+lanterns of this description to preserve his candle time-measurers from
+the wind.]
+
+3. The _tips_ of the horns are generally used to make knife-handles; the
+largest and best are used for crutch-stick heads, umbrella handles, and
+ink-horns, and the smallest and commonest serve for the tops and bottoms
+of ink-horns.
+
+Spoons, small boxes, powder flasks, spectacle frames, and drinking horns
+are likewise made of the outer horny case.
+
+The interior or core of the horn is boiled down in water, when a large
+quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is sold to the makers of
+yellow soap.--The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is
+purchased by the cloth-dressers for stiffening.--The bony substance
+which remains behind, is ground down, and sold to the farmers for
+manure.
+
+Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn
+are applied, the chippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the
+farmer for manure, at about one shilling a bushel. In the first year
+after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively little
+effect; but during the next four or five their efficiency is
+considerable. The shavings, which form the refuse of the lantern-maker,
+are of a much thinner texture. Some of them are cut into various
+figures, and painted and used as toys; for they curl up when placed in
+the palm of a warm hand. But the greater part of these shavings are sold
+also for manure, which from their extremely thin and divided form,
+produce their full effect upon the first crop.
+
+FEET.--An oil is extracted from the feet of oxen--hence called
+Neat's-foot-oil--of great use in preparing and softening leather.
+
+SKIN, _horns_, _hoofs_, and _cartilages_ are used to make glue.
+
+BLOOD is used in the formation of mastic; also in the refining of sugar,
+oil, &c.; and is an excellent manure for fruit trees.
+
+_Blood_, _horns_, and _hoofs_ in the formation of Prussian blue.
+
+_Gall_ is used to cleanse woollen garments, and to obliterate greasy and
+other stains.
+
+SUET, FAT, TALLOW are chiefly manufactured into candles; they are also
+used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs.
+
+INTESTINES, when dried, are used as envelopes for German and Bologna
+sausages; in some countries to carry butter to market. By gold-beaters,
+in the process of making gold-leaf. Gold-beater's skin, as it is called,
+forms the most innocent sticking plaster for small cuts on the hands or
+fingers.
+
+The STOMACHS vulgarly called _inwards_, after being washed and boiled,
+are sold as an article of food under the name of _tripe_.
+
+The EXCREMENTITIOUS MATTERS are used to manure the land.
+
+The BONES are used as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of a
+variety of small articles of a common kind; also for manuring land.
+"When calcined they are used as an absorbent to carry off the baser
+metals in refining silver. From the tibia and carpus is procured an oil
+much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness,
+and all trappings belonging to carriages."
+
+FLESH, both fresh and salted, is generally esteemed as an article of
+food. _Pemmican_ is made of the flesh of the American Bison: this is
+dried in the sun by the Indians, spread on a skin, and pounded with
+stones. When the Indians have got it into this state, they sell it to
+the different forts, where all the hair is carefully sifted out of it,
+and melted fat kneaded into it. If it be well made, and kept dry, it
+will not spoil for a year or two.
+
+MILK, a nutritious beverage, _per se_, is used in the composition of
+innumerable articles of diet; from milk is obtained cream, butter, and
+cheese.
+
+
+SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ALPINE COWHERDS,
+
+WITH A NOTICE OF THE CELEBRATED SWISS AIR
+
+_The Ranz des Vaches._
+
+In the Alps, fine cattle are the pride of their keeper, who, not being
+satisfied with their natural beauty, also gratifies his vanity by
+adorning his best cows with large bells, suspended from broad thongs.
+Every _Senn_, or great cow-keeper, has a harmonious set of bells, of at
+least two or three, chiming in accordance with the famous _Ranz des
+Vaches_. The finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and
+those next in appearance wear the two smaller ones.
+
+It is only on particular occasions that these ornaments are worn,
+namely, in spring, when they are driven to the Alps, or removed from one
+pasture to another; or in their autumnal descents, when they travel to
+the different farmers for the winter. On such days the Senn, even in the
+depth of winter, appears dressed in a fine white shirt, with the sleeves
+rolled above the elbows; neatly embroidered red braces suspend his
+yellow linen trowsers, which reach down to the shoes; he wears a small
+leather cap on his head, and a new and skilfully carved wooden milk-bowl
+hangs across his left shoulder. Thus arrayed, the Senn proceeds, singing
+the _Ranz des Vaches_, followed by three or four fine goats; next comes
+the finest cow, adorned with the great bell; then the other two with the
+smaller bells; and these are succeeded by the rest of the cattle,
+walking one after another, and having in their rear the bull, with a
+one-legged milking-stool on his horns; the procession is closed by a
+_traineau_, or sledge, bearing the dairy implements.
+
+When dispersed on the Alps, the cattle are collected together by the
+voice of the Senn, who is then said to allure them. How well these cows
+distinguish the voice of their keeper, appears from the circumstance of
+their hastening to him, although at a great distance, whenever he
+commences singing the _Ranz des Vaches_.
+
+This celebrated air is played on the bagpipes, as well as sung by the
+young Swiss cowherds while watching their cattle on the mountains. The
+astonishing effects of this simple melody on the Swiss soldier, when
+absent from his native land, are thus described by Rousseau:
+
+"Cet air, se cheri des Suisses qu'il fut defendu sous peine de mort de
+le jouer dans leurs troupes, parce qu'il faisait fondre en larmes,
+deserter, ou mourir, ceux qui l'entendaient, tant il excitait en eux
+l'ardent desir de revoir leur pays. On chercherait en vain dans cet air
+les accens energetiques capables de produire de si etonnans effets. Ces
+effets, qui n'ont aucun lieu sur les etrangers, ne viennent qui de
+l'habitude, des souvenirs de mille circonstances qui, retracees par cet
+air a ceux que l'entendent, et leur rappellant leur pays, leurs anciens
+plaisirs, leur jeunesse, et toutes leur facons de vivre, excitent en eux
+une douleur amere d'avoir perdu tout cela. La musique alors n'agit point
+precisement comme musique, mais comme signe memoratif. Cet air, quoique
+toujours le meme, ne produit plus aujourd'hui les memes effets qu'il
+produisait ci-devant sur les Suisses, parce qu'ayant perdu le gout de
+leur premiere simplicite, ils ne la regrettent plus quand on la leur
+rappelle. Tant il est vrai que ce n'est pas dans leur action physique
+qu'il faut chercher les plus grand effets des sons sur le coeur
+humain."
+
+For the delectation of the musical reader, the notes of this celebrated
+air are here introduced, with the words, and an English imitation:
+
+AIR SUISSE
+
+Appelle le RANZ DES VACHES.
+
+[Illustration: Musical notation]
+
+The words are as follows:--
+
+    Quand reverai-je en un jour,
+    Tous les objets de mon amour,
+    Nos clairs ruisseaux,
+    Nos hameaux,
+    Nos coteaux,
+    Nos montagnes,
+    Et l'ornament de nos montagnes,
+    La si gentille Isabeau?
+    Dans l'ombre d'un ormeau,
+    Quand danserai-je au son du Chalameau?
+    Quand reverai-je en un jour,
+    Tous les objets de mon amour,
+    Mon pere,
+    Ma mere,
+    Mon frere,
+    Ma soeur,
+    Mes agneaux,
+    Mes troupeaux,
+    Ma bergere?
+
+
+IMITATED.
+
+    When shall I return to the Land of the Mountains--
+       The lakes and the Rhone that is lost in the earth--
+    Our sweet little hamlets, our villages, fountains,
+       The flour-clad rocks of the place of my birth?
+    O when shall I see my old garden of flowers,
+       Dear Emma, the sweetest of blooms in the glade,
+    And the rich chestnut grove, where we pass'd the long hours
+       With tabor and pipe, while we danced in the shade?
+    When shall I revisit the land of the mountains,
+       Where all the fond objects of memory meet:
+    The cows that would follow my voice to the fountains,
+       The lambs that I called to the shady retreat:
+    My father, my mother, my sister, and brother;
+       My all that was dear in this valley of tears;
+    My palfrey grown old, but there's ne'er such another;
+       My dear dog, still faithful, tho' stricken in years:
+    The vesper bell tolling, the loud thunder rolling,
+       The bees that humm'd round the tall vine-mantled tree:
+    The smooth water's margin whereon we were strolling
+       When evening painted its mirror for me?
+    And shall I return to this scenery never?
+       These objects of infantine glory and love,--
+    O tell me, my dear Guardian Angel, that ever
+       Floats nigh me,--safe guide to the regions above.
+
+
+SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF HABITAT
+
+Buffalo--_Bos Bubalus_           Asia, North Africa, and South Europe.
+Manilla Buffalo                  Island of Manilla.
+Condore Buffalo                  Island of Pulo Condore.
+Cape Buffalo                     South Africa.
+Pegasse                          Congo, Angola, Central Africa.
+Arnee                            India and China.
+Gaur                             India.
+American Bison                   North America.
+Aurochs                          Lithuania.
+
+Yak                              Tartary and Hindustan.
+
+Musk Ox                          North America.
+Zamouse, or Bush Cow             Gambia, Sierra Leone.
+Banteng                          Island of Java.
+Gyall                            India.
+
+Gayal                            India.
+Sanga, or Galla Ox               Abyssinia.
+Zebu--Brahmin Ox                 Southern Asia, Eastern Africa.
+Domestic Ox                      Generally diffused.
+
+
+AND MODE OF LIFE.
+
+Mode of Life.
+
+Partial to water and mud, swampy localities.
+
+Semi-aquatic in its habits,--sometimes called the Water Buffalo.
+
+Fond of wallowing in mire, and swims well.
+
+Lives much in the water, and feeds on aquatic plants.
+Ranges in mountain forests, and feeds on leaves and buds of trees.
+Migratory in its habits--fond of bathing in marshy swamps.
+Lives chiefly on the woody banks of rivers--feeds on bark of trees,
+  lichens, and herbaceous plants.
+Feeds on the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and
+  bleak plains.
+Lives chiefly on rocky mountains.
+
+
+
+Delights in the deepest jungles--feeds on leaves and shoots of
+brushwood.
+Lives entirely on woody-mountains--feeds on shoots and shrubs.
+Half domesticated.
+Domesticated, and artificially fed.
+So completely domesticated, as to be subject to an endless variety of
+diseases, and generally requires medical attendance.
+
+
+THE INDEFINITE DEFINITIONS OF COL. HAMILTON SMITH.
+
+On commencing this Monograph of the _Genus Bos_, I entertained the
+confident expectation, that in the voluminous work of Cuvier's 'Animal
+Kingdom,' translated and enlarged by Griffith and others, I should find
+all that related to generic and specific distinction so clearly
+exhibited, and so systematically arranged, that I should have no
+hesitation in adopting the classification there set forth, and no
+difficulty in determining the place of any new species or variety. With
+this expectation I diligently studied that portion of Col. H. Smith's
+volume on the Ruminantia, which treat of the _Genus Bos_, and I here
+subjoin (verbatim) the generic and subgeneric characters there given of
+that Genus, by which it will be seen how far they fall short of the
+clearness and precision which are indispensable to a scientific work.
+
+
+GENERIC CHARACTERS.
+
+"_Genus BOS._--Skull very strong, dense about the frontals, which are
+convex, nearly flat, or concave; horns invariably occupying the crest,
+projecting at first laterally; osseous nucleus throughout porous, even
+cellular; muzzle _invariably broad_, naked, moist, _black_; ears, _in
+general_, _middle sized_; body _long_; legs _solid_; stature _large_."
+
+Generic characters should be such as will apply to every species in the
+genus; they should likewise be such as will distinguish the genus
+described from every other genus. From such observations as I have been
+enabled to make, the five last-mentioned characters do not appear to
+accord with either of these conditions.
+
+1st. The muzzle is stated to be _black_; but in the Yak, and in domestic
+cattle (as may be observed by any one), the muzzle is very frequently
+_white_; and granting that it was invariably black, other genera of the
+ruminantia have the muzzle black: and therefore it cannot be said to be
+a distinguishing mark of the _Genus Bos_.
+
+2d. The ears are stated to be _in general middle-sized_. To pass over
+the extreme vagueness of the terms "_in general_" and "_middle-sized_,"
+I may state that having measured the ears of several species, I find
+them to be of all lengths, varying from 5 inches to nearly 18 inches.
+Such a term as "_middle-sized_" may be applied "_in general_" to the
+ears of a vast variety of animals; and therefore it cannot be applied
+_in particular_ to the _Genus Bos_.
+
+3d. The body is said to be _long_. They are, indeed, of all lengths,
+from 4 ft. 6 in. to nearly 11 ft. Can the term long be equally
+applicable to animals of such different lengths?
+
+4th. The legs are said to be _solid_. In some species the legs are very
+slender, as the Zebu, Manilla Buffalo, and Domestic Ox.
+
+5th. The stature is said to be _large_. From actual measurement I find
+the stature to vary from 2 ft. 8 in. to upwards of 6 ft.; the smaller
+species weighing not more than 100 lbs., the larger weighing as much as
+2000 lbs. Can the term large be equally applicable to animals of such
+different sizes?
+
+
+SUB-GENERIC CHARACTERS.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ I.--_Bubalus._--Animals low in proportion to their bulk;
+limbs very solid; head large, forehead narrow, very strong, convex;
+chaffron straight; muzzle square, horns lying flat, or bending laterally
+with a certain direction to the rear; eyes large; ears mostly
+funnel-shaped; no hunch; a small dewlap; _female udder with four mammae_;
+_tail long_; slender."
+
+This sub-genus comprises Cape Buffalo, Pegasse, Arnee, Domestic Buffalo.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ II.--BISON.--Forehead slightly arched, much broader than
+high; horns placed before the salient line of the frontal crest; the
+plane of the occiput forming an obtuse angle with the forehead and
+semicircular in shape; fourteen or fifteen pairs of ribs; the shoulders
+rather elevated; the _tail shorter_; the legs more slender; the tongue
+blue; the hair soft and woolly."
+
+This sub-genus comprises Aurochs, Gaur, American Bison, Yak, Gayal.
+
+"_Sub-genus_ III.--TAURUS.--Forehead square from the orbits to the
+occipital crest, somewhat concave, not convex, or arched as in the
+former; the horns rising from the sides of the salient edge or crest of
+the frontals; the plane of the occiput forming an acute angle with the
+frontal, and of quadrangular form; the curve of the horns outwards,
+upwards, and forwards; no mane; a deep dewlap; _thirteen pairs of ribs_;
+_tail long_; _udder four teats in a square_."
+
+This sub-genus comprises the Urus and the Domestic Ox.
+
+Subgeneric characters should be such as will clearly distinguish the
+animals of one sub-genus from those of another. But here we have set
+down, in the sub-genus Bubalus, tail _long_, slender; in the sub-genus
+Taurus, tail _long_; and although the epithet slender is not added in
+the latter case, yet in truth it ought to be, as the tail of Taurus is
+quite as slender as that of Bubalus.
+
+The udder of Bubalus is said to have four mammae; they are not stated to
+be in a square, but, on examination, I find they are so; the udder of
+Taurus has likewise four teats in a square.
+
+Thirteen pairs of ribs are set down as a distinguishing character of the
+sub-genus Taurus; but the Cape Buffalo, Domestic Buffalo, and the
+Manilla Buffalo (in the sub-genus Bubalus), and the Gaur (in the
+sub-genus Bison), all possess thirteen pairs of ribs.
+
+In the sub-genus Bison the tail is said to be _shorter_ than the tail of
+Bubalus; but on subjecting them to the infallible test of feet and
+inches, I find the tails of the Aurochs, Gaur, Yak, and Gayal, to be
+decidedly _longer_ than those of the Cape or the Manilla Buffalo.
+
+The legs of Bisons are stated to be more slender than those of
+Buffaloes,--the reverse of this is the fact in the instances which I
+have had an opportunity of observing.
+
+
+SPECIFIC DETAILS.
+
+The details of a system of scientific classification should be precise,
+methodical, and consistent; but the method observed by Col. Smith, in
+describing the lengths of animals, can scarcely be called either precise
+or consistent; for example, he states:--
+
+1st. That the Cape Buffalo is nine feet from _nose to ROOT of tail_.
+
+2d. That the Gaur is twelve feet long _to the END of tail_.
+
+3d. That the Aurochs is ten feet three inches _from nose to tail_.
+
+4th. That the Domestic Buffalo is eight feet six inches long, _without
+mentioning either nose or tail_.
+
+In none of these cases can we be even proximately certain of the length
+of the animal.
+
+In the first instance we may err to the amount of the length of the
+head; as it is not stated whether the measure was taken when the head
+was extended in a line with the back, or in a position at right angles
+with the back, or in any intermediate position.
+
+The following outline will illustrate this:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is obvious that the length of a line from the nose to the tail will
+vary according to the different positions of the head of the animal.
+
+In the second instance (taking it for granted that the measure was taken
+from the nose), the same difficulty exists with respect to the head, and
+another difficulty presents itself in our being left to guess the length
+of the tail, which might be eighteen inches, or it might be four feet.
+
+In the third instance, the same difficulty exists with respect to the
+head, and the difficulty is further complicated by our being left to
+guess whether the ROOT or the END of the tail is meant.
+
+In the fourth we are completely "_at sea_."
+
+The true value of these characteristic distinctions, definitions, or
+descriptions, are left to the appreciation of the judicious reader.
+Colonel Smith may doubtless be, what he has been styled, "an
+indefatigable naturalist," and "in general" an exact one; but in this
+special instance of the _Genus Bos_, his warmest admirers must allow
+that his accuracy and precision have not kept pace with his industry.
+
+[Illustration: Hungarian Ox, _Bos Taurus_, from a specimen in the
+British Museum.]
+
+
+MR. SWAINSON'S TRANSCENDENTAL ATTEMPT AT CLASSIFICATION.
+
+The following very laboured attempt to arrange the various species of
+_Genus Bos_ into groups, according to the Quinary or Circular System of
+M'Leay, is from the pen of Mr. Swainson--the precise and fastidious
+Swainson--who, from the number and boldness of his hypothetical views in
+every department of Zoology, may be truly regarded as the beau-ideal of
+a speculative naturalist--one of those, in short, so well described by
+Swift, "whose chief art in division hath been to grow fond of some
+proper mystical number, which their imaginations have rendered sacred to
+a degree, that they force common reason to find room for it in every
+part of nature; _reducing_, _including_, and _adjusting_, every _genus_
+and _species_ within that compass, by coupling some against their wills,
+and banishing others at any rate."
+
+After describing the various members of the Bovine Family according to
+the Procrustean method of stretching and chopping, Mr. Swainson
+continues in his peculiarly dogmatic style "The types of form of the
+_Genus Bos_, above enumerated, _we shall now demonstrate_ to be a
+natural group. We have seen that the first represented by the _Bos
+Scoticus_, or Scotch Wild Ox, is an untameable savage race, which
+preserves, even in the domestication of a park, all that fierceness
+which the ancient writers attributed to the Wild Bulls of Britain and of
+the European Continent. Let those who imagine that the influence of
+civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment, will alter the
+natural instincts of animals, look to this as a palpable refutation of
+their doctrine. Where is that boasted power of man over nature? Where
+the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering protection? The _Bos
+Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was centuries ago, simply for this
+reason, that it is in accordance with an unalterable law of nature; a
+law by which one type in every circular group is to represent the worst
+passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or horror. In the _Urus_ we
+consequently have the type of the wild and untameable _Ferae_ among
+quadrupeds, the eagles among birds, and the innumerable analogies which
+all the subordinate groups of these two great divisions present.
+Following this is the typical Ox--a god among the ancients, and that
+animal above all others, which, from its vital importance to man, we
+should naturally expect such a nation as the ancient Egyptians would
+exalt above all others. It is, in short, the typical perfection of the
+whole order of Ruminants, and consequently represents the _Quadrumana_
+among quadrupeds, and the _Incessores_ among birds. The third type is no
+less beautiful; but it cannot be illustrated without going into details
+which it is not our present intention to make public: suffice it,
+however, to say, that in the prominent hump upon the shoulders we have a
+perfect representation of the Camel, one of the most striking types of
+the order, while it reminds us at the same time of the Buffalo, the
+genus _Acronatus_ among the large Antelopes, and numerous other
+representations of the same form. The fourth type is our _Bos Pusio_:
+here we find the horns, when present, remarkably small, but in many
+cases absent; and the size is diminutive to an extreme. These also are
+distinguishing marks of the groups it is to represent: the
+_Tenuirostres_ among birds, and the _Glires_, or mice, among quadrupeds,
+are the smallest of their respective classes; and both are typically
+distinguished by wanting all appendages to the head, either in the form
+of crests or horns. The fifth type is, perhaps, the most extraordinary
+of all; it should represent not only the order _Rasores_ among birds,
+but also the _Camelopardalis_ among ruminating quadrupeds. Hence we find
+that, in accordance with the first of these analogies, it is a peaceful
+domesticated race, and that it has horns of an unusually large size,
+even in its own group; while, at the same time, those horns have that
+peculiar structure which can only be traced in the Camelopardalis; they
+are covered with skin, which passes so imperceptibly to the horny state,
+that, as Captain Clapperton observes, "there is no exact demarcation
+where the one commences and the other ends." The five leading types of
+quadrupeds and birds being now represented, and in precisely the same
+order, _we demonstrate_ the groups to be natural by the following
+table:--
+
+GENUS _BOS_--_the Natural Types._
+
+1. _Bos Scoticus._        Fierce, untameable.              FERAE.             RAPTORES.
+
+2. ---- _Taurus._         Pre-eminently typical.           PRIMATES.         INCESSORES.
+
+                          {Appendages on the head}
+3. ---- _Dermaceros._     {greatly developed     }         UNGULATA.         RASORES.
+
+                          {Stature remarkably    }
+4. ----  _Pusio._         {small.                }         GLIRES.           GRALLATORES.
+
+                          {Fore-part of the shoulders}
+5. ----  _Thersites._     {elevated              }         CETACEA.          NATATORES.
+
+In regard to the last type, the analogies can only be traced through
+the animals or types of other groups; but should the habits of
+_Thersites_ lead it to frequent the water (like the Buffaloes) more than
+any other species of true oxen--a supposition highly probable--the
+analogy to the _Cetacea_ and the _Natatores_ would be direct. When we
+find in all the other four types such a surprising representation of the
+same peculiarities, we are justified in believing that want of
+information alone prevents this analogy from being so complete as the
+others. These analogies, in point of fact, may be traced through the
+whole of the principal groups in this order, the most important, and the
+most numerous of ungulated animals." Our luminous classifier then
+triumphantly winds up:--"_Having now demonstrated_, in one of the very
+lowest groups of quadrupeds, the validity of those principles of natural
+classification we have so often illustrated," &c.
+
+Let us not be confounded with high-sounding terms; let us rather
+endeavour to ascertain the meaning of them, if indeed they possess a
+meaning. Here we have, under the head of "_Genus_ Bos--the Natural
+Types"--(see p. 178), certain words arranged in regular columns, which,
+at a first glance, appear as though they were intended to bear some
+relation to each other. But let us ask the most ordinary observer, or
+the most profound observer, or the observer of any grade or shade
+between these two extremes, what resemblance--what relation--what
+analogy--can be discovered between an ordinary bull (_Taurus_) and a
+man, a monkey, or a bat (_Primates_); or between Taurus and the
+_Incessores_ (Perching Birds)? Or between Buffaloes, whose horns are
+partially covered with skin (_Dermaceros_), and cocks and hens
+(_Rasores_)? Can any one say wherein consists the similarity between a
+dwarf Zebu and a Mouse, or a Flamingo? Yet this is the material of
+which the columns are composed.
+
+But one of the most unhappy of Mr. Swainson's speculations is that
+wherein he represents the _Bos Scoticus_, or wild ox, as the type of "an
+_untameable savage_ race, which preserves, even in the domestication of
+a park, all that fierceness which the ancient writers attributed to the
+wild bulls of Britain and the European continent. Let those who imagine
+that the influence of civilization, of care, and of judicious treatment,
+will alter the natural instinct of animals, look to this as a palpable
+refutation of their doctrine. [!] Where is that boasted power of man
+over nature? Where the fruits of long-continued efforts and fostering
+protection? [!!] The _Bos Scoticus_ is as untameable now as it was
+centuries ago, simply for this reason, that it is in accordance with an
+unalterable law of nature; a law by which one type in every group is to
+represent the worst passions of mankind--fierceness, or cruelty, or
+horror." [!!!]
+
+Who would for a moment imagine that all this grandiloquence is bestowed
+upon an animal, which is so far from being fierce and untameable, that
+young ones, taken and reared with ordinary cattle, become, even in the
+first generation, as tame as domestic animals? [See account of
+Chillingham White Cattle, p. 140.]
+
+For a more complete satisfaction of his thought, the reader is referred
+to Mr. Swainson's volume "On the Natural History and Classification of
+Quadrupeds," p. 274, where he has given us an incoherent abstract of
+Colonel Smith's article on the _Bovinae_, without, however, making the
+least attempt to verify the statements there recorded. The descriptions
+and characteristics are avowedly Colonel Smith's; but, in justice to
+the latter gentleman, it must be added, that the disquisitions on the
+circular succession of forms, and the analogical relations, are entirely
+Mr. Swainson's.
+
+
+ON SPECIES AND VARIETY.
+
+What constitutes a species? And how far do the limits of varieties
+extend? Cuvier, who is, perhaps, the best authority we can have upon
+this subject, in defining a species, says:--_A species comprehends all
+the individuals which descend from each other or from a common
+parentage, and those which resemble them as much as they do each other._
+Thus, the different races which they have generated from them are
+considered as varieties but of one species. Our observations, therefore,
+respecting the differences between the ancestors and the descendants,
+are the only rules by which we can judge on this subject; all other
+considerations being merely hypothetical, and destitute of proof. Taking
+the word _variety_ in this limited sense, we observe that the
+differences which constitute this variety depend upon determinate
+circumstances, and that their extent increases in proportion to the
+intensity of the circumstances which occasion them.
+
+Upon these principles it is obvious, that the most superficial
+characters are the most variable. Thus colour depends much upon light;
+thickness of hair upon heat; size upon abundance of food, &c. In wild
+animals, however, these varieties are greatly limited by the natural
+habits of the animal, which does not willingly migrate from the places
+where it finds, in sufficient quantity, what is necessary for the
+support of its species, and does not even extend its haunts to any great
+distances, unless it also finds all these circumstances conjoined. Thus,
+although the Wolf and the Fox inhabit all the climates from the torrid
+to the frigid zone, we hardly find any other differences among them,
+through the whole of that vast space, than a little more or less beauty
+in their furs. The more savage animals, especially the carnivorous,
+being confined within narrower limits, vary still less; and the only
+difference between the Hyaena of Persia and that of Morocco, consists in
+a thicker or a thinner mane.
+
+Wild animals which subsist upon herbage, feel the influence of climate a
+little more extensively, because there is added to it the influence of
+food, both in regard to its abundance and its quality. Thus the
+Elephants of one forest are larger than those of another; their tusks
+also grow somewhat longer in places where their food may happen to be
+more favorable for the production of the substance of ivory. The same
+may take place in regard to the horns of Stags and Rein-deer. Besides,
+the species of herbivorous animals, in their wild state, seem more
+restrained from migrating and dispersing than the carnivorous species,
+being influenced both by climate, and by the kind of nourishment which
+they need.
+
+We never see, in a wild state, intermediate productions between the Hare
+and the Rabbit, between the Stag and the Doe, or between the Martin and
+the Weasel. Human artifice contrives to produce all these intermixtures
+of which the various species are susceptible, but which they would never
+produce if left to themselves.
+
+The degrees of these variations are proportional to the intensity of the
+causes that produce them, namely, the slavery or subjection under which
+these animals are to man. They do not proceed far in half-domesticated
+species.
+
+In the domesticated herbivorous quadrupeds, which man transports into
+all kinds of climates, and subjects to various kinds of management, both
+in regard to labour and nourishment, he procures certainly more
+considerable variations, but still they are all merely superficial:
+greater or less size; longer or shorter horns, or even the want of these
+entirely; a hump of fat, larger or smaller, on the shoulder; these form
+the chief differences among particular races of the _Bos Taurus_, or
+domestic Black Cattle; and these differences continue long in such
+breeds as have been transported to great distances from the countries in
+which they were originally produced, when proper care is taken to
+prevent crossing.
+
+Nature appears also to have guarded against the alterations of species
+which might proceed from mixture of breeds, by influencing the various
+species of animals with mutual aversion. Hence all the cunning and all
+the force that man is able to exert is necessary to accomplish such
+unions, even between species that have the nearest resemblance. And when
+the mule-breeds that are thus produced by these forced conjunctions
+happen to be fruitful, which is seldom the case, this fecundity never
+continues beyond a few generations, and would not probably proceed so
+far, without a continuance of the same causes which excited it at
+first.
+
+This being the case, it is quite clear that the fact of two animals
+producing an intermediate race is no proof whatever of their specific
+identity; for it is well known, and has been already alluded to, that
+several animals. Birds as well as Mammalia, produce offspring, and are
+nevertheless distinct, both as it regards anatomical structure and
+external form.
+
+Neither does it constitute the species identical if either or both the
+hybrids be even capable of fruitful intercourse with the original or
+parent species. Hamilton Smith goes so far as to say, that "if it even
+were proved that a prolific intermediate race exist, produced by the
+intermixture of both, it would not fully determine that both form only
+one original species: what forms a species, and what a variety, is as
+yet far from being well understood."
+
+It is, however, pretty generally agreed, that animals are of the same
+species, that is to say, have been derived from one common stock, when
+their offspring have the power, _inter se_, of indefinitely continuing
+their kind; and conversely, that animals of distinct species, or
+descendants of stocks originally different, cannot produce a mixed race
+which shall possess the capability of perpetuating itself.
+
+To conclude, it must be obvious, that permanent anatomical differences
+are the only true criteria of distinctions of species.
+
+
+THE BANTENG OF JAVA.
+
+_Bos Bantinger, or Bantiger. Bos Sondaicus?_
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above figure was drawn from a stuffed specimen in the British
+Museum. In colour, shape, and texture of horns, and apparent want of
+dewlap, it bears some resemblance to the Gaur; but in the skeleton of
+the Gaur the sacrum consists of _five_ vertebrae, and the tail of
+_nineteen_; while in the skeleton of the Banteng, the sacrum consists of
+but _four_ vertebrae, and the tail of _eighteen_.
+
+
+BRITISH DOMESTIC CATTLE.
+
+It does not come within the scope of the present work to give the
+varieties of Domestic Cattle; for these the reader is referred to the
+many excellent works already published on the subject. It will be
+sufficient in this place to notice a few interesting facts--statistical,
+anecdotal, &c.--in relation to their domestic history.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF COLOUR IN BREEDING.
+
+The following remarkable fact, respecting the colour of the offspring
+being influenced by that of the external objects surrounding the Cow at
+the time of copulation, is stated by John Boswell, of Balmuto and
+Kingcaussie, in an essay upon the breeding of Live Stock, communicated
+to the Highland Society in 1825. He says:--"One of the most intelligent
+breeders I have ever met with in Scotland, Mr. Mustard, an extensive
+farmer on Sir James Carnegie's Estate in Angus, told me a singular fact,
+with regard to what I have now stated. One of his cows happened to come
+into season while pasturing on a field which was bounded by that of one
+of his neighbours, out of which field an Ox jumped, and went with the
+Cow, until she was brought home to the Bull. The Ox was white with black
+spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession,
+nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the following
+spring was a black and white calf, _with horns_." Another fact, which
+shows the great care required in keeping pure this breed--(the Angus
+doddies)--is related of the Keillor Stock, where, two different seasons,
+a dairy cow of the Ayrshire breed, red and white, was allowed to pasture
+with the black doddies. In the first experiment, from pure black Bulls
+and Cows, there appeared _three_ red and white calves; and on the second
+trial, _two_ of the calves were of mixed colours. Since that time care
+has been taken to have almost every animal on the farm, down to the Pigs
+and Poultry of a black colour.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF THE MALE IN BREEDING.
+
+An ordinary Cow, and a Bull without horns, will produce a calf
+resembling the male in appearance and character, without horns and
+without that particular prominence of the transverse apophysis of the
+frontal bone. The milk of the female from this cross, also, proves the
+influence of the male: it has the peculiar qualities of the hornless
+breed--less abundant, containing less whey, but more cream and curd.
+
+
+GENERATIVE PRECOCITY.
+
+A Mr. Gordon relates the following singular instance of fecundity and
+early maturity in the Aberdeen Cattle. "On the 25th of Sept., 1805, a
+calf of five months old, of the small Aberdeenshire breed, happening to
+be put into an enclosure among other Cattle, admitted a male that was
+only one year old. In the month of June following, at the age of
+fourteen months, she brought forth a very fine calf, and in the Summer
+of 1807, another equally good. The first calf, after working in the
+Winter, Spring, and Summer of 1809, was killed in January, 1810, and
+weighed 6 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ 16 _lb._ The second was killed December 16,
+1810, aged three years six months, and weighed exactly 7 _cwt._; and on
+Dec. 30, 1807, the mother, after having brought up these calves, was
+killed at the age of two years and eight months, and weighed 4 _cwt._ 1
+_qr._ the four quarters, sinking the offal."
+
+
+MILK.
+
+Cows are usually milked three times a day over the greatest part of
+Scotland, from the time of calving till the milk begins to dry up during
+the Winter season, when the Cows are for the most part in calf; nor is
+it found that they suffer by that practice in any degree: and it is the
+general opinion of all who adopt it, that nearly one third more milk is
+thus obtained than if they were milked only twice.
+
+A Cow, mentioned by Dr. Anderson in his 'Recreations,' (vol. v, p. 309,)
+was milked three times a day for ten years running, during the space of
+nine months, at least, every year; and was never seen, during all that
+period, but in very excellent order, although she had no other feeding
+than was given to the rest of the Cows, some of which were very low
+every winter, when they gave no milk at all.
+
+A farmer of the name of Watkinson had a Cow that, for seventeen years,
+gave him from ten to twenty quarts of milk every day; was in moderate
+condition when taken up, six months in fattening, and being then twenty
+years old, was sold for more than L18. Mr. John Holt, of Walton, in
+Lancashire, had a healthy Cow-calf presented to him, whose dam was in
+her thirty-second year, and could not be said to have been properly out
+of milk for the preceding fifteen years.
+
+Yorkshire Cows, which are those chiefly used in the London Dairies, give
+a very great quantity of milk. It is by no means uncommon for them, in
+the beginning of the Summer, to yield thirty quarts a day; there are
+rare instances of giving thirty-six quarts; but the average measure may
+be estimated at twenty-two or twenty-four quarts.
+
+[Illustration: Alderney Cow, after Howitt.]
+
+
+BUTTER.
+
+The Alderney Cow, considering its voracious appetite, yields very little
+milk; that milk, however, is of an extraordinary excellent quality, and
+gives more butter than can be obtained from the milk of any other cow.
+John Lawrence states that an Alderney Cow that had strayed on the
+premises of a friend of his, and remained there three weeks, made 19
+lbs. of butter each week; and the fact was held so extraordinary, as to
+be thought worthy of a memorandum in the parish books. The milk of the
+Alderney Cow fits her for the situation in which she is usually placed,
+and where the excellence of the article is regarded, and not the
+expense.
+
+Lord Hampden, of Glynde, had a cow which in the height of the season
+yielded ten pounds of butter and twelve pounds of cheese every week, and
+yet her quantity of milk rarely exceeded five gallons per day. The next
+year the same cow gave nine pounds and a half of butter per week for
+several weeks, and then for the rest of the summer between eight and
+nine pounds per week; and until the hard frost set in, seven pounds; and
+four pounds per week during the frost. Yet as a proof of the quality of
+the milk, she at no time gave more than five gallons in the day. To this
+may be added that, "four or five years before, the same person had a
+fine black Sussex Cow from Lord Gage, which also gave, in the height of
+the season, five gallons per day, but no more than five pounds of butter
+were ever made from it." This is accounted for in a singular way; for
+there is a common opinion in the east of Sussex, that "the milk of a
+black cow never gives so much butter as that of a red one."
+
+
+MR. YOUATT'S PHILOSOPHY OF RABIES, OR MADNESS.
+
+In treating of Rabies, Youatt says:--"When a rabid or mad dog is
+wandering about, labouring under an irrepressible disposition to bite,
+he seeks out first of all his own species; but if his road lies by a
+herd of cattle, he will attack the nearest to him; and if he meet with
+much resistance, he will set upon the whole herd, and bite as many as he
+can.... If the disease is to appear at all, it will be about the
+expiration of the _fifth week_, although there will be no absolute
+security in less than the double number of months," After making these
+remarks, our author reasons himself into the sapient conclusion, that
+the poison in all rabid animals resides in the saliva, and does not
+affect any other secretion. "The knowledge that the virus is confined to
+the saliva," he opines, "will settle a matter that has been the cause of
+considerable uneasiness. A cow has been observed to be ailing for a day
+or two, but she has been milked as usual; her milk has been mingled with
+the rest, and has been used for domestic purposes, as heretofore. She is
+at length discovered to be rabid. Is the family safe? Can the milk of a
+rabid cow be drunk with impunity? Yes, perfectly so, for the poison is
+confined to the saliva. The livers of hundreds of rabid dogs have been
+eaten in days of ignorance, dressed in all manners of ways, but usually
+fried as nicely as possible, as a preventive against madness. Some
+miscreants have sent the flesh of rabid cattle to the market, and _it
+has been eaten without harm_; and so, although not very pleasant to
+think about, _the milk of the rabid cow may be drunk without the
+slightest danger_."
+
+Is it, indeed, possible for any of the secretions of an animal to be in
+a healthy state, and fit for human food, after it has had the virus of a
+rabid dog circulating in its system for at least _five weeks_?
+Furthermore, is it consistent in Mr. Youatt to call those _miscreants_
+who send the flesh of rabid cattle to market, when he acknowledges, in
+the same breathy that it can be eaten without harm?
+
+According to Mr. Youatt's philosophy, a cow in a rabid state is actually
+as good as a cow in a healthy state; for its milk may be drunk with
+impunity--the family is _perfectly safe_ who uses it for domestic
+purposes; and, moreover, _the flesh of rabid cattle may be eaten without
+harm_. What more can be predicated of cattle in the purest state of
+health?
+
+
+STATISTICS.
+
+The number of cattle in Great Britain was estimated by Youatt (1838) at
+upwards of eight millions. 160,000 head of cattle are annually sold in
+Smithfield alone, without including calves, or the _dead market_, i.e.,
+the carcases, sent up from various parts of the country. 1,200,000
+sheep, 36,000 pigs, and 18,000 calves, are also sent to Smithfield in
+the course of a year.
+
+A tenth part of the sheep and lambs die annually of disease (more than
+4,000,000 perished by the rot alone in the winter of 1829-30), and at
+least a fifteenth part of the neat cattle are destroyed by inflammatory
+fever and milk fever, red water, hoose, and diarrhoea.
+
+If a tithe of the sheep and lambs, and a fifteenth of the neat cattle
+_die of disease_, what proportion are _slaughtered and sent to market in
+the earlier stages of disease_; and, in fact, in all the stages
+antecedent to those which are the immediate cause of death?
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Delineations of the Ox Tribe, by George Vasey
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #27975 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27975)