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+Project Gutenberg's The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI), by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI)
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Kenelm Winslow
+
+Release Date: January 31, 2009 [EBook #27947]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOME MEDICAL LIBRARY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Chris Logan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                           The Home Medical
+                               Library
+
+                                  By
+
+                     KENELM WINSLOW, B.A.S., M.D.
+
+   _Formerly Assistant Professor Comparative Therapeutics, Harvard
+           University; Late Surgeon to the Newton Hospital;
+          Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society, etc._
+
+                 With the Coöperation of Many Medical
+              Advising Editors and Special Contributors
+
+                            IN SIX VOLUMES
+
+        _First Aid :: Family Medicines :: Nose, Throat, Lungs,
+           Eye, and Ear :: Stomach and Bowels :: Tumors and
+             Skin Diseases :: Rheumatism :: Germ Diseases
+            Nervous Diseases :: Insanity :: Sexual Hygiene
+            Woman and Child :: Heart, Blood, and Digestion
+                 Personal Hygiene :: Indoor Exercise
+             Diet and Conduct for Long Life :: Practical
+                    Kitchen Science :: Nervousness
+                and Outdoor Life :: Nurse and Patient
+                    Camping Comfort :: Sanitation
+                       of the Household :: Pure
+                      Water Supply :: Pure Food
+                          Stable and Kennel_
+
+                               NEW YORK
+
+                    The Review of Reviews Company
+
+                                 1907
+
+
+
+
+Medical Advising Editors
+
+
+Managing Editor
+
+ALBERT WARREN FERRIS, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Former Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Chairman,
+Section on Neurology and Psychiatry, New York Academy of Medicine;
+Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Medical Editor, New International Encyclopedia._
+
+
+Nervous Diseases
+
+CHARLES E. ATWOOD, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Physician, Utica
+State Hospital and Bloomingdale Hospital for Insane Patients; Former
+Clinical Assistant to Sir William Gowers, National Hospital, London._
+
+
+Pregnancy
+
+RUSSELL BELLAMY, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cornell University Medical
+College Dispensary; Captain and Assistant Surgeon (in charge),
+Squadron A, New York Cavalry; Assistant in Surgery, New York
+Polyclinic._
+
+
+Germ Diseases
+
+HERMANN MICHAEL BIGGS, M.D.
+
+_General Medical Officer and Director of Bacteriological Laboratories,
+New York City Department of Health; Professor of Clinical Medicine in
+University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician
+to Bellevue, St. Vincent's, Willard Parker, and Riverside Hospitals._
+
+
+The Eye and Ear
+
+J. HERBERT CLAIBORNE, M.D.
+
+_Clinical Instructor in Ophthalmology, Cornell University Medical
+College; Former Adjunct Professor of Ophthalmology, New York
+Polyclinic; Former Instructor in Ophthalmology in Columbia University;
+Surgeon, New Amsterdam Eye and Ear Hospital._
+
+
+Sanitation
+
+THOMAS DARLINGTON, M.D.
+
+_Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board,
+New York Foundling Hospital; Consulting Physician, French Hospital;
+Attending Physician, St. John's Riverside Hospital, Yonkers; Surgeon
+to New Croton Aqueduct and other Public Works, to Copper Queen
+Consolidated Mining Company of Arizona, and Arizona and Southeastern
+Railroad Hospital; Author of Medical and Climatological Works._
+
+
+Menstruation
+
+AUSTIN FLINT, JR., M.D.
+
+_Professor of Obstetrics and Clinical Gynecology, New York University
+and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician, Bellevue
+Hospital; Consulting Obstetrician, New York Maternity Hospital;
+Attending Physician, Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled, Manhattan
+Maternity and Emergency Hospitals._
+
+
+Heart and Blood
+
+JOHN BESSNER HUBER, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Visiting Physician to St. Joseph's Home for Consumptives;
+Author of "Consumption: Its Relation to Man and His Civilization; Its
+Prevention and Cure."_
+
+
+Skin Diseases
+
+JAMES C. JOHNSTON, A.B., M.D.
+
+_Instructor in Pathology and Chief of Clinic, Department of
+Dermatology, Cornell University Medical College._
+
+
+Diseases of Children
+
+CHARLES GILMORE KERLEY, M.D.
+
+_Professor of Pediatrics, New York Polyclinic Medical School and
+Hospital; Attending Physician, New York Infant Asylum, Children's
+Department of Sydenham Hospital, and Babies' Hospital, N. Y.;
+Consulting Physician, Home for Crippled Children._
+
+
+Bites and Stings
+
+GEORGE GIBIER RAMBAUD, M.D.
+
+_President, New York Pasteur Institute._
+
+
+Headache
+
+ALONZO D. ROCKWELL, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Former Professor Electro-Therapeutics and Neurology at New York
+Post-Graduate Medical School; Neurologist and Electro-Therapeutist to
+the Flushing Hospital; Former Electro-Therapeutist to the Woman's
+Hospital in the State of New York; Author of Works on Medical and
+Surgical Uses of Electricity, Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia), etc._
+
+
+Poisons
+
+E. ELLSWORTH SMITH, M.D.
+
+_Pathologist, St. John's Hospital, Yonkers; Somerset Hospital,
+Somerville, N. J.; Trinity Hospital, St. Bartholomew's Clinic, and the
+New York West Side German Dispensary._
+
+
+Catarrh
+
+SAMUEL WOOD THURBER, M.D.
+
+_Chief of Clinic and Instructor in Laryngology, Columbia University;
+Laryngologist to the Orphan's Home and Hospital._
+
+
+Care of Infants
+
+HERBERT B. WILCOX, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Diseases of Children, Columbia University._
+
+
+
+
+Special Contributors
+
+
+Food Adulteration
+
+S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.
+
+_Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health._
+
+
+Pure Water Supply
+
+WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.
+
+_Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Member of American Public
+Health Association; Member, American Society Mechanical Engineers;
+Corresponding Member of American Institute of Architects, etc.; Author
+of "House Drainage," etc._
+
+
+Care of Food
+
+JANET MCKENZIE HILL
+
+_Editor, Boston Cooking School Magazine._
+
+
+Nerves and Outdoor Life
+
+S. WEIR MITCHELL, M.D., LL.D.
+
+_LL.D. (Harvard, Edinburgh, Princeton); Former President, Philadelphia
+College of Physicians; Member, National Academy of Sciences,
+Association of American Physicians, etc.; Author of essays: "Injuries
+to Nerves," "Doctor and Patient," "Fat and Blood," etc.; of scientific
+works: "Researches Upon the Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc.; of
+novels: "Hugh Wynne," "Characteristics," "Constance Trescott," "The
+Adventures of François," etc._
+
+
+Sanitation
+
+GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.
+
+_Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York
+City; Inspector, New York Sanitary Aid Society of the 10th Ward, 1885;
+Manager, Model Tenement-houses of the New York Tenement-house Building
+Co., 1888; Inspector, New York State Tenement-house Commission, 1895;
+Author of "Tenement-house Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation," etc._
+
+
+Indoor Exercise
+
+DUDLEY ALLEN SARGENT, M.D.
+
+_Director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University; Former President,
+American Physical Culture Society; Director, Normal School of Physical
+Training, Cambridge, Mass.; President, American Association for
+Promotion of Physical Education; Author of "Universal Test for
+Strength," "Health, Strength and Power," etc._
+
+
+Long Life
+
+SIR HENRY THOMPSON, Bart., F.R.C.S., M.B. (Lond.)
+
+_Surgeon Extraordinary to His Majesty the King of the Belgians;
+Consulting Surgeon to University College Hospital, London; Emeritus
+Professor of Clinical Surgery to University College, London, etc._
+
+
+Camp Comfort
+
+STEWART EDWARD WHITE
+
+_Author of "The Forest," "The Mountains," "The Silent Places," "The
+Blazed Trail," etc._
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: WALTER REED.
+
+In the year 1900, Major Walter Reed, a surgeon in the United States
+Army, demonstrated, by experiments conducted in Cuba, that a mosquito
+of a single species, Stegomyia fasciata, which has sucked the blood of
+a yellow-fever patient may transmit the disease by biting another
+person, but not until about twelve days have elapsed. He also proved,
+as described in Volume I, Part II, that the malady is not contagious.
+"With the exception of the discovery of anæsthesia," said Professor
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, "Dr. Reed's researches are the
+most valuable contributions to science ever made in this country."
+General Leonard Wood declared the discovery to be the "greatest
+medical work of modern times," which, in the words of President
+Roosevelt, "renders mankind his debtor." Major Reed died November 23,
+1902.]
+
+
+
+
+The Home Medical
+Library
+
+
+VOLUME V :: SANITATION
+
+Edited by
+
+THOMAS DARLINGTON, M.D.
+
+_Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board,
+New York Foundling Hospital, etc.; Author of Medical and
+Climatological Works_
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY AND PURIFICATION
+
+By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.
+
+_Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Author of "House Drainage,"
+"Sanitary Engineering," "Household Wastes," etc._
+
+
+PURE FOOD FOR THE
+HOUSEKEEPER
+
+By S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.
+
+_Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health_
+
+
+THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS
+
+By GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.
+
+_Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York
+City; Author of "Tenement-House Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation,"
+etc._
+
+
+NEW YORK
+
+The Review of Reviews Company
+
+1907
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1907, by
+
+THE REVIEW OF REVIEWS COMPANY
+
+
+THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+_Contents_
+
+
+    PART I
+
+    CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+    I.    COUNTRY SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY                           19
+
+            Relation of Water to Health--Collection of Rain
+            Water--Cisterns--Springs--Various Kinds of
+            Wells--Laws Regulating Supply.
+
+    II.   APPLIANCES FOR DISTRIBUTING WATER                         39
+
+            Pumping Machines--The Hydraulic Ram--Use of
+            Windmills--Engines--Steam and Electric
+            Pumps--Reservoirs and Tanks--Appliances for Country
+            Houses.
+
+    III.  PURIFYING WATER BY COPPER SULPHATE                        52
+
+            Clear Water Often Dangerous--Pollution Due to
+            Plants--Copper Sulphate Method--Directions for the
+            Copper Cure.
+
+    IV.   RIDDING STAGNANT WATER OF MOSQUITOES                      70
+
+            Malaria Due to Mosquitoes--Cause of Yellow
+            Fever--Effect of a Mosquito Bite--Destruction of
+            Larvæ--Best Preventive Measures--Use of Kerosene.
+
+
+    PART II
+
+    I.    HOW TO DETECT FOOD ADULTERATION                           87
+
+            Definition of Adulteration--Food Laws--Permissible
+            Adulterants--How to Select Pure Food--Chemical
+            Tests.
+
+    II.   MUSHROOM POISONING                                       112
+
+            Symptoms and Treatment--Coffee and Atropine the Best
+            Antidotes--How to Tell the Edible Kind--"Horse,"
+            "Fairy-ring," and Other Varieties--Poisonous
+            Species.
+
+
+    PART III
+
+    I.    SOIL AND SITES                                           131
+
+            Constituents of the Soil--Influence on
+            Health--Improving Defective Soil--Street Paving and
+            Tree Planting--Proper Construction of
+            Houses--Subsoil Drainage.
+
+    II.   VENTILATION                                              146
+
+            What is Meant by Ventilation--Quantity of Air
+            Required--Natural Agents of Ventilation--Special
+            Appliances.
+
+    III.  WARMING                                                  160
+
+            Various Methods--Materials of
+            Combustion--Chimneys--Fireplaces and
+            Grates--Stoves--Hot-air Warming--Hot-water
+            Systems--Principles of Steam Heating.
+
+    IV.   DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE                                       170
+
+            Refuse and Garbage--Discharge into
+            Waters--Cremation--Precipitation--Intermittent
+            Filtration--Immediate Disposal, etc.
+
+    V.    SEWERS                                                   182
+
+            Definition--Materials Used in Construction--Levels
+            of Trenches--Joints of Pipes--The Fall and Flow of
+            the Contents--Connections--Tide Valves--Sewer Gas.
+
+    VI.   PLUMBING                                                 189
+
+            Purposes and Requisites--Materials Used--Joints and
+            Connections--Construction of Traps--Siphonage and
+            Back Pressure--The Vent-pipe System.
+
+    VII.  PLUMBING PIPES                                           206
+
+            Construction of House Drains--Fall, Position, and
+            Connection--Main Traps--Extension of Vertical
+            Pipes--Fresh-air Inlets--Soil and Waste
+            Pipes--Branch Pipes, etc.
+
+    VIII. PLUMBING FIXTURES                                        216
+
+            Sinks--Washbasins--Washtubs--Bathtubs--Refrigerators,
+            etc.--Safes and Wastes--Pan, Valve, and Hopper
+            Closets--Flush Tanks--Yard Closets--Drains.
+
+    IX.   DEFECTS IN PLUMBING                                      231
+
+            Poor Work--Improper Conditions--How to Test Traps,
+            Joints, and Connections--Detect Sewer
+            Gas--Water-pressure, Smoke, and Scent Tests--Special
+            Appliances.
+
+    X.    INFECTION AND DISINFECTION                               238
+
+            Physical and Chemical Disinfectants--Use of Sulphur
+            Dioxide--Formaldehyde--Hydrocyanic
+            Acid--Chlorine--Carbolic Acid--Bichloride of
+            Mercury--Formalin--Potassium Permanganate, etc.
+
+    XI.   COST OF CONVEYED HEATING SYSTEMS                         254
+
+            Cost of Hot-air Systems--Cast-iron Hot-water
+            Heater--Advantages and Disadvantages--Cost for a
+            Ten-room House--Steam Heating--Cost of Equipment.
+
+
+
+
+_The Editor's Preface_
+
+
+The character and scope of this volume render it a most useful book
+for the home maker. The question of sanitation is one that closely
+affects the life of each individual, and many of its aspects are
+treated here in a lucid and comprehensive manner. Designed for wide
+distribution, these articles have been written to meet the needs of
+the dweller in the more densely populated communities, as well as
+those living in the less thickly settled portion of the country.
+
+In large cities the water supply is a problem that is cared for by
+regularly constituted sanitary authorities. Pure water is a vital
+necessity, but the inhabitant of a city has no need to personally
+concern himself with the source of supply. In the country, however,
+the home builder must often decide the matter for himself, and it is
+the aim of this book to give him the needed directions for avoiding
+many errors and pitfalls that abound in this direction.
+
+House construction, with its intricate problems, is also a more
+serious matter for the country dweller than for his city brother.
+
+In the matter of food supply, the inhabitant of a country district is
+more fortunate. Fresh vegetables and dairy products are much more
+easily obtained, and their freshness and purity more dependable.
+
+The article on water supply by Mr. Gerhard is authoritative, written,
+as it is, by a most eminent sanitarian. The publishers are to be
+congratulated upon the following valuable contribution to the same
+subject as regards the use of copper sulphate and the concise
+presentation of plans for mosquito extermination, while the extended
+work of Dr. Price and Dr. Baker's "Food Adulteration" are much to be
+commended. The two latter have been connected with the Department of
+Health of New York City, and have the advantage of experience in an
+organization which gives to the citizens of New York the protection to
+health that the wise use of science, knowledge, and money afford.
+
+I trust that the notes I have added in the light of recent practice of
+the New York City Department of Health may make this material of the
+utmost practical value to the householder of to-day.
+
+Through this Department of Health, New York City spent, during 1905,
+over $1,500,000, and for 1906 it has appropriated over $1,800,000.
+This vast sum of money is used for the sole purpose of safeguarding
+its citizens from disease. Sanitation in its varied branches is
+pursued as an almost exact science, and the efforts of trained minds
+are constantly employed in combating disease and promoting sanitation.
+
+The cities care for their own, but the greater number of the
+inhabitants of this country must rely upon their individual efforts.
+Therefore, any dissemination of knowledge regarding sanitation is most
+worthy. This book has a useful mission. It is pregnant with helpful
+suggestions, and I most heartily commend its purpose and its contents.
+
+                                   THOMAS DARLINGTON,
+                                   _President of the Board of Health_.
+
+    NEW YORK CITY.
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+WATER SUPPLY AND
+PURIFICATION
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=Country Sources of Water Supply=
+
+
+The writer was recently engaged to plan and install a water-supply
+system for a country house which had been erected and completed
+without any provision whatever having been made for supplying the
+buildings and grounds with water. The house had all the usual
+appointments for comfort and ample modern conveniences, but these
+could be used only with water borrowed from a neighbor. In all parts
+of the country there are numerous farm buildings which are without a
+proper water-supply installation. These facts are mentioned to
+emphasize the importance of a good water supply for the country home,
+and to point out that water is unquestionably the most indispensable
+requirement for such structures.
+
+
+_Adequate Water Supply Important_
+
+But the advantages of a water supply are not limited to the dwelling
+house, for it is equally useful on the farm, for irrigation, and in
+the garden, on the golf grounds and tennis courts, in the barns and
+stables; it affords, besides, the best means for the much-desired
+fire protection. And, most important of all, an unstinted and adequate
+use of water promotes cleanliness and thereby furthers the cause of
+sanitation, in the country not less than in the city home.
+
+The water supply for country houses has been so often discussed
+recently that the writer cannot hope to bring up any new points. This
+article should, therefore, be understood to offer simple suggestions
+as to how and where water can be obtained, what water is pure and fit
+for use, what water must be considered with suspicion, what water is
+dangerous to health, and how a source of supply, meeting the
+requirements of health, can be made available for convenient use.
+
+Right here I wish to utter a warning against the frequent tendency of
+owners of country houses to play the rôle of amateur engineers. As a
+rule this leads to failure and disappointment. Much money uselessly
+spent can be saved if owners will, from the beginning, place the
+matter in experienced hands, or at least seek the advice of competent
+engineers, and adopt their suggestions and recommendations as a guide.
+
+
+_Points to be Borne in Mind_
+
+Many are the points to be borne in mind in the search for water.
+Science teaches us that all water comes from the clouds, the
+atmospheric precipitation being in the form of either rain, or dew, or
+snow. After reaching the earth's surface, the water takes three
+different courses, and these are mentioned here because they serve to
+explain the different sources of supply and their varied character.
+
+A part of the water runs off on the surface, forming brooks, streams,
+and lakes, and if it falls on roofs of houses or on prepared catchment
+areas, it can be collected in cisterns or tanks as rain water. Another
+part of the water soaks away into pervious strata of the subsoil, and
+constitutes underground water, which becomes available for supply
+either in springs or in wells. A third part is either absorbed by
+plants or else evaporated.
+
+In our search for a source of supply, we should always bear in mind
+the essential requirements of the problem. Briefly stated, these are:
+the wholesomeness of the water, the adequateness and steadiness of the
+supply, its availability under a sufficient pressure, insuring a good
+flow, and the legal restrictions with which many water-supply problems
+are surrounded.
+
+The first essential requirement is that of _wholesomeness_. The
+quality of a water supply is dependent upon physical properties and
+upon chemical and bacteriological characteristics. Water, to be
+suitable for drinking, must be neither too hard nor too soft; it
+should not contain too many suspended impurities, nor too much foreign
+matter in solution. Pure water is colorless and without odor. But it
+must be understood that the quality cannot be decided merely by the
+color, appearance, taste, and odor. The chemical and bacteriological
+examinations, if taken together, form a much safer guide, and with
+these analyses should go hand in hand a detailed survey of the water
+source and its surroundings.
+
+
+_Relation of Water to Health_
+
+Any pronounced taste in the water renders it suspicious; an offensive
+smell points to organic contamination; turbidity indicates presence of
+suspended impurities, which may be either mineral or organic. But even
+bright and sparkling waters having a very good taste are sometimes
+found to be highly polluted. Hence, it should be remembered that
+neither bright appearance nor lack of bad taste warrants the belief
+that water is free from dangerous contamination.
+
+It is a well-established fact now that there is a relation between the
+character of the water supply and the health of a community; and what
+is true of cities, villages, and towns, is, of course, equally true of
+the individual country house.
+
+
+_How Water Becomes Contaminated_
+
+There are numerous ways in which water may become polluted, either at
+the source or during storage or finally during distribution. Rain
+water, falling pure from the clouds, encounters dust, soot, decaying
+leaves and other vegetable matters, and ordure of birds on the roofs;
+its quality is also affected by the roofing material, or else it is
+contaminated in the cisterns by leakage from drains or cesspools.
+Upland waters contain generally vegetable matter, while surface water
+from cultivated lands becomes polluted by animal manure. River water
+becomes befouled by the discharge into it of the sewers from
+settlements and towns located on its banks. Subsoil water is liable to
+infiltration of solid and liquid wastes emanating from the human
+system, from leaky drains, sewers, or cesspools, stables, or
+farmyards; and even deep well water may become contaminated by reason
+of defects in the construction of the well.
+
+During storage, water becomes contaminated in open reservoirs by
+atmospheric impurities; a growth of vegetable organisms or algæ often
+causes trouble, bad taste, or odor; water in open house tanks and in
+cisterns is also liable to pollution. During distribution, water may
+become changed in quality, owing to the action of the water on the
+material of the pipes.
+
+From what source shall good water be obtained? This is the problem
+which confronts many of those who decide to build in the country.
+
+The usual sources, in their relative order of purity, are: deep
+springs and land or surface springs, located either above or below the
+house, but not too near to settlements; deep subterranean water, made
+available by boring or drilling a well; upland or mountain brooks
+from uninhabited regions; underground water in places not populated,
+reached by a dug or driven well; lake water; rain water; surface water
+from cultivated fields; pond and river water; and finally, least
+desirable of all, shallow well water in villages or towns. These
+various sources of supply will be considered farther on.
+
+
+_An Ample Volume Necessary_
+
+The second essential requirement is _ample quantity_. The supply must
+be one which furnishes an ample volume _at all seasons_ and for all
+purposes.
+
+What is a reasonable daily domestic consumption? The answer to this
+question necessarily depends upon the character of the building and
+the habits and occupation of its inmates. It is a universal experience
+that as soon as water is introduced it is used more lavishly, but also
+more recklessly and regardless of waste. For personal use, from twenty
+to twenty-five gallons per person should prove to be ample per day:
+this comprises water for drinking and cooking, for washing clothes,
+house and kitchen utensils, personal ablutions, and bathing; but,
+taking into account other requirements on the farm or of country
+houses, we require at least sixty gallons per capita per diem. To
+provide water for the horses, cows, sheep, for carriage washing, for
+the garden, for irrigation of the lawn, for fountains, etc., and keep
+a suitable reserve in case of fire, the supply should be not less
+than 150 gallons per person per day.
+
+
+_A Good Pressure Required_
+
+The third essential requirement is a _good water pressure_. Where a
+suitable source of water is found, it pays to make it conveniently
+available, so as to avoid carrying water by hand, which is troublesome
+and not conducive to cleanliness. A sufficient pressure is attained by
+either storing water at, or lifting it to, a suitable elevation above
+the point of consumption. In this respect many farm and country houses
+are found to be but very imperfectly supplied. Often the tank is
+placed only slightly higher than the second story of the house. As a
+result, the water flows sluggishly at the bathroom faucets, and, in
+case of fire, no effective fire stream can be thrown. Where a
+reservoir is suitably located above the house, the pressure is
+sometimes lost by laying pipes too small in diameter to furnish an
+ample stream. Elevated tanks should always be placed so high as to
+afford a good working pressure in the entire system of pipes. Where a
+tower of the required height is objectionable, either on account of
+the cost or on account of appearance, pressure tanks may be installed
+which have many advantages.
+
+In selecting a source of water supply, the following points should be
+borne in mind for guidance: first, the wholesomeness of the water;
+next, the cost required to collect, store, and distribute the water;
+finally, where a gravity supply is unavailable, the probable operating
+expenses of the water system, cost of pumping, etc.
+
+
+_Collection of Rain Water_
+
+The collection of rain water near extensive manufacturing
+establishments is not advisable, except where arrangements are
+provided for either filtering or distilling the water. In the country,
+rain water is pure and good, if the precaution is observed to allow
+the first wash from roofs to run to waste. The rain may be either
+caught on the roofs, which must always have a clean surface and clean
+gutters, or else on artificially prepared catchment areas. As an
+example, I quote: "All about the Bermuda Islands one sees great white
+scars on the hill slopes. These are dished spaces, where the soil has
+been scraped off and the coral rock exposed and glazed with hard
+whitewash. Some of these are a quarter acre in size. They catch and
+carry the rainfall to reservoirs, for the wells are few and poor, and
+there are no natural springs and no brooks." (Mark Twain, "Some
+Rambling Notes of an Idle Excursion.")
+
+After the close of the Boer War the English sent about 7,000 Boer
+prisoners of war to Bermuda, where they were encamped on some of the
+smaller islands of the group, and the entire water supply for the
+encampment was obtained by building artificial catchment areas as
+described in the above quotation.
+
+Sometimes, instead of building underground cisterns, rain water is
+caught and stored in barrels above ground; if so, these should always
+be well covered, not only to avoid pollution, but to prevent the
+barrels from becoming mosquito breeders. Cisterns should always be
+built with care and made water-tight and impervious. The walls should
+be lined with cemented brickwork. In soil consisting of hard pan,
+cisterns in some parts of the country are built without brick walls,
+the walls of the excavation being simply cemented. I do not approve of
+such cheap construction, particularly where the cistern is located
+near a privy or cesspool. Pollution of cistern water is often due to
+the cracking of the cement lining. Overflows of cisterns should never
+be connected with a drain, sewer, or cesspool. Run the overflow into
+some surface ditch and provide the mouth with a fine wire screen, to
+exclude small animals. It is not recommended to build cisterns in
+cellars of houses.
+
+
+_Quality of Water Obtained from Lakes_
+
+Lakes yield, as a rule, a supply of clear, bright, and soft water.
+This is particularly the case with mountain lakes, because they are at
+a distance from sources of contamination. The character of the water
+depends upon whether the lake is fed by brooks, that is, by the rain
+falling upon the watershed, or also by springs. In one case the water
+is surface water exclusively; in the other, it is surface and
+underground water mixed. The purity also depends upon the depth of
+the lake and upon the character of its bottom.
+
+Deep lakes furnish a better supply and clearer water than shallow
+ones. The solid matter brought into the lake by the brooks or rivers
+which feed it does not remain long in suspension, but soon settles at
+the bottom, and in this way some lakes acquire the wonderfully clear
+water and the beautiful bluish-green color for which they are far
+famed.
+
+
+_Strong Winds Dangerous on Lakes_
+
+Strong winds or currents at times stir up the mud from the bottom;
+hence, in locating the intake, the direction of the prevailing winds
+should be considered, if practicable. The suction pipe should always
+be placed in deep water, at a depth of at least fifteen to twenty
+feet, for here the water is purer and always cooler.
+
+Settlements on the shores of a lake imply danger of sewage
+contamination, but the larger the lake, the less is the danger of a
+marked or serious pollution, if the houses are scattered and few.
+
+Pools and stagnant ponds are not to be recommended as a source of
+supply. In artificially made lakes there is sometimes danger of
+vegetable pollution, and trouble with growth of algæ. The bottom of
+such lakes should always be cleared from all dead vegetation.
+
+Surface water may be obtained from brooks flowing through uninhabited
+upland or from mountain streams. Such water is very pure and limpid,
+particularly where the stream in its downward course tumbles over
+rocks or forms waterfalls. But, even then, the watershed of the stream
+should be guarded to prevent subsequent contamination. Larger creeks
+or rivers are not desirable as a source of supply, for settlements of
+human habitations, hamlets, villages, and even towns are apt to be
+located on the banks of the river, which is quite generally
+used--wrong as it is--as an outlet for the liquid wastes of the
+community, thus becoming in time grossly polluted. Down-stream
+neighbors are sure to suffer from a pollution of the stream, which the
+law should prevent.
+
+
+_The Water of Springs_
+
+The water of springs is subterranean, or ground water, which for
+geological reasons has found a natural outlet on the surface. We
+distinguish two kinds of springs, namely, land or surface springs, and
+deep springs. The former furnish water which originally fell as rain
+upon a permeable stratum of sand or gravel, underlaid by an impervious
+one of either clay or rock. Such water soaks away underground until it
+meets some obstacle causing it to crop out on the surface. Such spring
+water is not under pressure and therefore cannot again rise. Water
+from deep springs is rain water fallen on the surface of a porous
+stratum on a high level, and which passes under an impermeable
+stratum, and thus, being under pressure, rises again where an opening
+is encountered in the impervious stratum; these latter springs are
+really artesian in character.
+
+Deep-spring water is less apt to be polluted than water from surface
+or land springs, for it has a chance in its flow through the veins of
+the earth to become filtered. Land springs always require careful
+watching, particularly in inhabited regions, to prevent surface
+contamination.
+
+
+_Not all Spring Water Pure_
+
+It is a popular fallacy that all spring water is absolutely pure and
+healthful. The above explanation will be helpful in pointing out how,
+in some cases, spring water may be nothing but contaminated ground
+water. Land springs in uncultivated and uninhabited regions,
+particularly in the mountains, yield a good and pure supply. But it is
+always advisable, when tapping a spring for water supply, to study its
+probable source, and carefully to inspect its immediate surroundings.
+The spring should be protected by constructing a small basin, or
+reservoir, and by building a house over this. The basin will also
+serve to store the night flow of the spring. Before deciding upon a
+supply from a spring, its yield should be ascertained by one of the
+well-known gauging methods. Springs are usually lowest in the months
+of October and November, though there is some difference in this
+respect between land springs and deep springs. The minimum yield of
+the spring determines whether it forms a supply to be relied upon at
+all times of the year.
+
+If the spring is located higher than the grounds and buildings to be
+supplied, a simple gravity supply line may be carried from it, with
+pipes of good size, thus avoiding undue friction in the line, and
+stoppages. If lower than the house, the water from the spring must be
+raised by some pumping method.
+
+All water found underground owes its origin to the rainfall. If
+concealed water is returned to the surface by _natural processes_ it
+is called spring water, but if recovered by _artificial means_ it is
+called well water.
+
+
+_Different Kinds of Wells_
+
+There are numerous kinds of wells, distinguished from one another by
+their mode of construction, by their depth from the surface, by the
+fact of their piercing an impervious stratum or merely tapping the
+first underground sheet of water, and by the height to which the water
+in them rises or flows. Thus we have shallow and deep wells,
+horizontal wells or infiltration galleries, open or dug wells, tube
+wells, non-flowing and flowing wells, bored, drilled, and driven
+wells, tile-lined and brick-lined wells, and combination
+dug-and-tubular wells.
+
+When it is desired to provide a water supply by means of wells some
+knowledge of the geology of the region, of the character of the strata
+and of their direction and dip, will be very useful. In the case of
+deep wells, it is really essential. By making inquiries as to similar
+well operations in the neighborhood, one may gain some useful
+information, and thus, to some extent, avoid guesswork. When one must
+drill or bore through rock for a very deep well, which necessarily is
+expensive, much money, often uselessly spent, may be saved by
+consulting the reports of the State geologist, or the publications of
+the United States Geological Survey, or by engaging the services of an
+expert hydrogeologist.
+
+
+"_Water Finders_"
+
+It used to be a common practice to send for so-called "water finders,"
+who being usually shrewd observers would locate by the aid of a hazel
+twig the exact spot where water could be found. In searching for water
+one sometimes runs across these men even to-day. The superstitious
+faith in the power of the forked twig or branch from the hazelnut bush
+to indicate by its twisting or turning the presence of underground
+water was at one time widespread, but only the very slightest
+foundation of fact exists for the belief in such supernatural powers.
+
+In Europe, attention has again, during the past years, been called to
+this "method" of finding water, and it has even received the
+indorsement of a very high German authority in hydraulic engineering,
+a man well up in years, with a very wide practical experience, and the
+author of the most up-to-date hand-book on "Water Supply," but men of
+science have not failed to contradict his statements.
+
+
+_Definition of "Ground-water Level"_
+
+Water percolating through the soil passes downward by gravity until it
+reaches an impervious stratum. The surface of this underground sheet
+of water is technically called "water table" or ground-water level.
+The water is not at rest, but has a slow and well-defined motion, the
+rate of which depends upon the porosity of the soil and also upon the
+inclination or gradient of the water table. A shallow well may be
+either excavated or driven into this subsoil sheet of water. In
+populous districts, in villages, towns, but also near habitations, the
+soil from which water is obtained must, of necessity, be impregnated
+with organic waste matter. If, in such a surface well, the level of
+the water is lowered by pumping, the zone of pollution is extended
+laterally in all directions. Ordinary shallow well water should always
+be considered "suspicious water." There are two distinct ways in which
+surface wells are contaminated: one is by leakage from cesspools,
+sewers, privies, etc.; the other, just as important and no less
+dangerous, by direct contamination from the surface. The latter
+danger is particularly great in wells which are open at the surface,
+and from which water is drawn in buckets or pails. A pump well is
+always the safer of the two. Frogs, mice, and other small animals are
+apt to fall into the water; dust and dirt settle into it; the wooden
+curb and the rotten cover also contribute to the pollution; even the
+draw-buckets add to it by reason of being often handled with unclean
+hands.
+
+Always avoid, in the country, drinking water from farmers' wells
+located near cesspools or privies. Such shallow wells are particularly
+dangerous after a long-protracted drought. It is impossible to define
+by measurement the distance from a cesspool or manure pit at which a
+well can be located with safety, for this depends entirely upon local
+circumstances. Contamination of shallow wells may, in exceptional
+cases, be avoided by a proper location of the well with reference to
+the existing sources of impurity. A well should always be placed
+_above_ the source of pollution, using the word "above" with reference
+to the direction in which the ground water flows.
+
+
+_Precautions Regarding Wells_
+
+Other precautions to be observed with reference to surface wells are
+the following:
+
+Never dig a well near places where soil contamination has taken or is
+taking place. Line the sides of the well with either brick, stone, or
+tile pipe, cemented in a water-tight manner to a depth of at least
+twenty feet from the surface, so that no water can enter except from
+the bottom, or at the sides near the bottom.
+
+Raise the surface at the top of the well above the grade; arrange it
+so as to slope away on all sides from the well; cover it with a
+flagstone, and cement the same to prevent foreign matters from
+dropping into the well; make sure that no surface water can pass
+directly into the well; make some provision to carry away waste water
+and drippings from the well.
+
+Shallow wells made by driving iron tubes with well points into the
+subsoil water are preferable to dug wells. Use a draw-pump in
+preference to draw buckets.
+
+When a well is sunk through an impervious stratum to tap the larger
+supply of water in the deeper strata, we obtain a "deep well." Water
+so secured is usually of great purity, for the impurities have been
+filtered and strained out by the passage of the water through the
+soil. Moreover, the nature of the construction of deep wells is such
+that they are more efficiently protected against contamination, the
+sides being made impervious by an iron-pipe casing. In some rare
+cases, even deep wells show pollution due to careless jointing of the
+lining, or water follows the outside of the well casing until it
+reaches the deeper water sheet. Deep wells usually yield more water
+than shallow driven wells, and the supply increases perceptibly when
+the water level in the well is lowered by pumping. While surface
+wells draw upon the rainfall percolating in their immediate vicinity,
+deep wells are supplied by the rainfall from more remote districts.
+Deep wells are either non-flowing or flowing wells. When the
+hydrostatic pressure under which the water stands is sufficient to
+make it flow freely out on the surface or at the mouth of the well, we
+have a flowing, or true artesian well.
+
+
+_Character of Water From Deep Wells_
+
+Water from deep wells is of a cool and even temperature. It is usually
+very pure, but in some cases made hard by mineral salts in the water.
+Sulphur is also at times present, and some wells on the southern
+Atlantic coast yield water impregnated with sulphur gases, which,
+however, readily pass off, leaving the water in good condition for all
+uses. In many cases the water has a taste of iron. No general rule can
+be quoted as to the exact amount of water which any given well will
+yield, for this depends upon a number of factors. Increasing the
+diameter of very deep wells does not seem to have any marked effect in
+increasing the supply. Thus, a two-foot well gives only from fifteen
+to thirty per cent more water than a three-inch-pipe well. This rule
+does not seem to apply to shallow wells of large diameter, for here we
+find that the yield is about in proportion to the diameter of the
+well.
+
+It is interesting to note the fact that wells located near the
+seashore, within the influence of the tide, vary in the hourly flow.
+According to Dr. Honda, of the University of Tokio, there is "a
+remarkable concordance between the daily variations in the level of
+the tides and the water level in wells." The water in wells one mile
+from the seashore was found to stand highest at high tide. The daily
+variation amounted to sixteen centimeters, or a little over six
+inches. A similar variation was observed by the writer in some flowing
+wells located on the north shore of Long Island. Dr. Honda found also
+that the water level in wells varied with the state of the barometer,
+the water level being lowered with a rise in the barometer.
+
+Where a large supply is wanted a series of wells may be driven, and,
+as the expense involved is considerable, it is always advisable to
+begin by sinking a smaller test well to find out whether water may be
+had.
+
+Ground water may also be recovered from water-bearing strata by
+arranging horizontal collecting galleries with loose-jointed sides
+through which the water percolates. Such infiltration galleries have
+been used in some instances for the supply of towns and of
+manufacturing establishments, but they are not common for the supply
+of country houses.
+
+
+_Laws Regulating Appropriation of Water_
+
+Persons contemplating the establishment of a system of water supply in
+the country should bear in mind that the taking of water for supply
+purposes is, in nearly all States, hemmed in by legal restrictions.
+The law makes a distinction between subterranean waters, surface
+waters flowing in a well-defined channel and within definite banks,
+and surface waters merely spread over the ground or accumulated in
+natural depressions, pools, or in swamps. There are separate and
+distinct laws governing each kind of water. It is advisable, where a
+water-supply problem presents itself, to look up these laws, or to
+consult a lawyer well versed in the law of water courses.
+
+If it is the intention to take water from a lake, the property owner
+should make sure that he owns the right to take such water, and that
+the deed of his property does not read "to high-water mark only." The
+owner of a property not abutting on a lake has no legal right to
+abstract some of the water from the lake by building an infiltration
+gallery, or a vertical well of large diameter intended for the same
+purpose. On the other hand, an owner may take subterranean water by
+driving or digging a well on his own property, and it does not matter,
+from the law's point of view, whether by so doing he intercepts partly
+or wholly the flow of water in a neighboring well. But, if it can be
+shown that the subterranean water flows in a well-defined channel, he
+is not permitted to do this. The water from a stream cannot be
+appropriated or diverted for supply or irrigation purposes by a single
+property holder without the consent of the other riparian owners, and
+without compensation to them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Appliances for Distributing Water=
+
+
+We have so far discussed only the various sources of potable water. We
+must now turn our attention to the mechanical means for making it
+available for use, which comprise appliances for lifting, storing,
+conveying, distributing, and purifying the water.
+
+The location of the source of supply with reference to the buildings
+and grounds decides generally the question whether a gravity supply is
+feasible or whether water must be pumped. The former is desirable
+because its operating expenses are almost nothing, but it is not
+always cheapest in first cost. Rather than have a very long line of
+conduit, it may be cheaper to pump water, particularly if wind or
+water power, costing nothing, can be used.
+
+
+_Machines for Pumping_
+
+When it becomes necessary to pump water, there are numerous machines
+from which to choose; only the more important ones will be considered.
+We may use pumps operated by manual labor, those run by animal power,
+pumping machinery using the power of the wind or that of falling or
+running water; then there are hot-air, steam, and electric pumps,
+besides several forms of internal-combustion engines, such as gas,
+gasoline, and oil engines. Each has advantages in certain locations
+and under certain conditions.
+
+Of appliances utilizing the forces of Nature, perhaps the simplest
+efficient machine is the hydraulic ram. While other machines for
+lifting water are composed of two parts, namely, a motor and a pump,
+the ram combines both in one apparatus. It is a self-acting pump of
+the impulse type, in which force is suddenly applied and discontinued,
+these periodical applications resulting in the lifting of water.
+Single-acting rams pump the water which operates them; double-acting
+rams utilize an impure supply to lift a pure supply from a different
+source.
+
+The advantages of the ram are: it works continuously, day and night,
+summer and winter, with but very little attendance; no lubrication is
+required, repairs are few, the first cost of installation is small.
+Frost protection, however, is essential. The disadvantages are that a
+ram can be used only where a large volume of water is available. The
+correct setting up is important, also the proper proportioning in size
+and length of drive and discharge pipes. The continual jarring tends
+to strain the pipes, joints, and valves; hence, heavy piping and
+fittings are necessary. A ram of the improved type raises water from
+twenty-five to thirty feet for every foot of fall in the drive pipe,
+and its efficiency is from seventy to eighty per cent.
+
+Running water is a most convenient and cheap power, which is often
+utilized in water wheels and turbines. These supply power to run a
+pump; the water to be raised may come from any source, and the pump
+may be placed at some distance from the water wheel. Where sufficient
+fall is available--at least three feet--the overshot wheel is used. In
+California and some other Western States an impulse water wheel is
+much used, which is especially adapted to high heads.
+
+
+_Windmills Used for Driving Pumps_
+
+The power of the wind applied to a windmill is much used for driving
+pumps. It is a long step forward from the ancient and picturesque
+Dutch form of windmill, consisting of only four arms with cloth sails,
+to the modern improved forms of wheels constructed in wood and in
+iron, with a large number of impulse blades, and provided with devices
+regulating the speed, turning the wheel out of the wind during a gale,
+and stopping it automatically when the storage tank is filled. The
+useful power developed by windmills when pumping water in a moderate
+wind, say of sixteen miles an hour velocity, is not very high, ranging
+from one twenty-fifth horse-power for an eight and one-half foot wheel
+to one and one-half horse-power for a twenty-five foot wheel. The
+claims of some makers of windmills as to the power developed should be
+accepted with caution.
+
+The chief advantage is that, like a ram, the windmill may work night
+and day, with but slight attention to lubrication, so long as the wind
+blows. But there are also drawbacks; it requires very large storage
+tanks to provide for periods of calm; the wheel must be placed
+sufficiently exposed to receive the full wind force, either on a tower
+or on a high hill, and usually this is not the best place to find
+water. Besides, a windmill tower, at least the modern one, is not an
+ornamental feature in the landscape. It is expensive when built
+sufficiently strong to withstand severe winter gales. During the hot
+months of the year, when the farmer, the gardener, and the coachman
+require most water, the wind is apt to fail entirely for days in
+succession.
+
+
+_The Use of Engines_
+
+If water is not available, and wind is considered too unreliable,
+pumping must be accomplished by using an engine which, no matter of
+what form or type, derives its energy from the combustion of fuel, be
+the same coal, wood, charcoal, petroleum or kerosene, gas, gasoline,
+or naphtha. The use of such pumping engines implies a constant expense
+for fuel, operation, maintenance, and repairs. In some modern forms of
+engines this expense is small, notably so in the oil engine, and also
+in the gasoline engine; hence these types have become favorites.
+
+
+_Advantages of Pumping Engines_
+
+An advantage common to all pumping engines is that they can be run at
+any time, not like the windmill, which does not operate in a light
+breeze, nor like the ram, which fails when the brook runs low.
+Domestic pumping engines are built as simple as possible, so that the
+gardener, a farm hand, or the domestic help may run them. Skill is not
+required to operate them, and they are constructed so as to be safe,
+provided ordinary intelligence is applied.
+
+In using a fuel engine it is desirable, because of the attendance
+required, to take a machine of such capacity and size that the water
+supply required for two or three days may be pumped to the storage
+tank in a few hours.
+
+
+_Expansive Force of Heated Air Utilized_
+
+A favorite and extensively used type of domestic pump is the hot-air
+engine, in which the expansive force of heated air is used to do
+useful work. Among the types are simple and safe machines which do not
+easily get out of order. They are started by hand by giving the fly
+wheel one or more revolutions. If properly taken care of they are
+durable and do not require expensive repairs.
+
+
+_Gas and Gasoline Engines_
+
+In gas engines power is derived from the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air. Where a gas supply is available, such engines are very
+convenient, for, once started, they will run for hours without
+attention. They are economical in the consumption of gas, and give
+trouble only where the quality of gas varies.
+
+Owing to the unavailability of gas on the farm and in country houses,
+two other forms of pumping engines have been devised which are
+becoming exceedingly popular. One is the gasoline, the other is the
+oil engine. Both resemble the gas engine, but differ from it in using
+a liquid fuel which is volatilized by a sprayer. Gasoline engines are
+now brought to a high state of perfection.
+
+
+_Kerosene or Crude Oil as Fuel_
+
+In recent years, internal-combustion engines which use heavy kerosene
+or crude oil as fuel have been introduced. These have two palpable
+advantages: first, they are safer than gasoline engines; second, they
+cost less to run, for crude oil and even refined kerosene are much
+cheaper than gasoline. Oil engines resemble the gas and gasoline
+engines, but they have larger cylinders, because the mean effective
+pressure evolved from the explosion is much less than that of the
+gasoline engines.
+
+Oil engines for pumping water are particularly suitable in regions
+where coal and wood cannot be obtained except at exorbitant cost.
+Usually, the engine is so built as to be adapted for other farm work.
+It shares this advantage with the gasoline engine. Oil engines are
+simple, reliable, almost automatic, compact, and reasonable in first
+cost and in cost of repairs. There are many forms of such engines in
+the market. To be successful from a commercial point of view, an oil
+engine should be so designed and built that any unskilled attendant
+can run, adjust, and clean it. The cost of operating them, at eight
+cents per gallon for kerosene, is only one cent per hour per
+horse-power; or one-half of this when ordinary crude oil is used. The
+only attention required when running is periodical lubrication and
+occasional replenishing of the oil reservoir. The noise of the
+exhaust, common to all engines using an explosive force, can be
+largely done away with by using a muffler or a silencer. The smell of
+oil from the exhaust likewise forms an objection, but can be overcome
+by the use of an exhaust washer.
+
+
+_Steam and Electric Pumps_
+
+The well-known forms of steam-pumping engines need not be considered
+in detail, because high-pressure steam is not often available in
+country houses. Where electric current is brought to the building, or
+generated for lighting purposes, water may be pumped by an electric
+pump. Electric motors are easy and convenient to run, very clean, but
+so far not very economical. Electric pumps may be arranged so as to
+start and stop entirely automatically. Water may be pumped, where
+electricity forms the power, either by triplex plunger pumps or by
+rotary, screw, or centrifugal pumps.
+
+
+_Pumps Worked by Hand_
+
+Space forbids giving a description of the many simpler devices used
+for lifting water. In small farmhouses lift and force pumps worked by
+hand are now introduced, and the old-fashioned, moss-covered
+draw-bucket, which is neither convenient nor sanitary, is becoming a
+relic of past times.
+
+
+_Reservoirs and Storage Tanks_
+
+The water pumped is stored either in small masonry or earth
+reservoirs, or else in storage tanks of either wood, iron, or steel,
+placed on a wood or steel tower. Wooden tanks are cheap but unsightly,
+require frequent renewal of the paint, and give trouble by leaking,
+freezing, and corrosion of hoops. In recent years elevated tanks are
+supplanted by pressure tanks. Several such systems, differing but
+little from one another, are becoming quite well known. In these water
+is stored under suitable pressure in air-tight tanks, filled partly
+with water and partly with air.
+
+
+_A Simple Pressure System_
+
+One system consists of a circular, wrought-steel, closed tank, made
+air- and water-tight, a force pump for pumping water into the tank,
+and pipe connections. The tank is placed either horizontally or
+vertically in the basement or cellar, or else placed outdoors in the
+ground at a depth below freezing. Water is pumped into the bottom of
+the tank, whereby its air acquires sufficient pressure to force water
+to the upper floors.
+
+This simple system has some marked advantages over the outside or the
+attic tank. In these, water gets warm in summer and freezes in winter.
+Vermin and dust get into the tank, and the water stagnates. In the
+pressure tank, water is kept aërated, cool, and clean.
+
+Another pressure tank has an automatic valve, controlled by a float
+and connected with suction of pump. It prevents the tank from becoming
+water-logged by maintaining the correct amount of air inside.
+
+
+_An Ideal System for a Country House_
+
+Still another system using pressure tanks is more complete than either
+of the others, comprising engine, pump, air compressor, a water tank,
+and also an air tank. It is best described by a recent example
+constructed from plans and under the direction of the writer. The
+buildings supplied with water comprise the mansion, the stable, the
+cottage, and a dairy, and the pumping station is placed near the
+shore of the lake from which the supply is taken. See Figs. 1 and 2.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+DIAGRAM OF COMPRESSED AIR TANK SYSTEM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+PRESSURE-TANK PUMPING STATION.
+
+Interior view of pumping station of compressed air-tank system (see
+plan on opposite page) showing 3,000 gallon water tank, air tank of
+150 pounds pressure and 10 horse-power gasoline engine.]
+
+The pump house is about 20 feet by 27 feet, and contains a
+water-storage tank 6 feet in diameter and 13-1/2 feet long, of a
+capacity of 3,000 gallons; an air tank of same dimensions as the water
+tank, holding air under 150 pounds pressure; a 10 horse-power gasoline
+engine, direct-connected, by means of friction clutch, with an air
+compressor and also with a triplex pump of 75 gallons capacity per
+minute.
+
+The water in the tank is kept under 75 pounds pressure, and at the
+hydrant near the house, located about 100 feet above the pumping
+station, there is an available pressure of 33 pounds. The last drop of
+water flows from the water tank under the full pressure of 75 pounds
+at the pumping station. The suction pipe into the lake is 4 inches and
+is provided with well strainers to prevent clogging.
+
+The cost of pumping water by this system is quite reasonable. The
+gasoline engine requires per horse-power per hour about 1-1/4 gallons
+of gasoline, and at sixteen cents per gallon this makes the cost for
+1,000 gallons pumped about five cents. To this expense should,
+however, be added the cost of lubricating oil, repairs, amount for
+depreciation, and the small cost for labor in running the engine.
+
+Water pipes forming a distribution system should always be chosen
+generous in diameter, in order to avoid undue loss of pressure by
+friction. Where fire hydrants are provided, the size of the water main
+should not be below four inches. All branches should be controlled by
+shut-offs, for which the full-way gate valves are used in preference
+to globe valves. Pipe-line material is usually galvanized,
+screw-jointed wrought iron for sizes up to four inches.
+
+In conclusion, a word about water purification. Where the quality of
+the water supply is not above suspicion it may be improved by
+filtration. A filter should never be installed without the advice of a
+qualified expert, for there are numerous worthless devices and few
+really efficient ones. Where a filter is not available, the water used
+for drinking should be boiled or sterilized if there is the slightest
+doubt as to its wholesomeness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+=Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate=
+
+
+From the standpoint of the health of the community, the most vital
+problem is to get pure water. Almost equally important, when comfort
+and peace of mind is considered, is the procuring of sweet water. The
+wise owner of a country home looks to the water supply upon which his
+family is dependent. The careful farmer is particular about the water
+his stock, as well as his family, must drink. But careless persons
+constitute the large majority. Most people in the city and in the
+country pay no attention to their drinking water so long as it "tastes
+all right."
+
+
+_Clear Water Often Dangerous_
+
+Some years ago the inhabitants of Ithaca, N. Y., furnished a pitiful
+example of this foolhardy spirit. For a year previous to the breaking
+out of the typhoid epidemic, the public was warned, through the local
+and the metropolitan press, of the dangerous condition of Ithaca's
+water supply. Professors of Cornell College joined in these warnings.
+But the people gave no heed, probably because the water was _clear_
+and its taste sweet and agreeable. As was the case in this instance,
+bacteria are tolerated indefinitely, and it is only an alarming
+increase in the death rate that makes people careful. Then they begin
+to boil the water--when it is too late for some of them.
+
+
+_Bad-Tasting Water not Always Poisonous_
+
+But let the taste become bad and the odor repulsive, and a scare is
+easily started. "There must be dead things in the water, or it
+wouldn't taste so horrible," is the common verdict. Some newspaper
+seizes upon the trouble and makes of it a sensation. The ubiquitous
+reporter writes of one of "the animals" that it "looks like a wagon
+wheel and tastes like a fish." With such a remarkable organism
+contaminating one's drink no wonder there is fear of some dread
+disease. The water is believed to be full of "germs"; whereas the
+pollution is entirely due to the presence of algæ--never poisonous to
+mankind, in some cases acting as purifying agents, but at certain
+seasons of the year imparting a taste and odor to the water that
+cannot be tolerated.
+
+Algæ--what are they? They are aquatic plants. Algæ are not to be
+confounded with the water vegetation common to the eye and passing by
+the term weeds. Such plants include eelgrass, pickerel weed, water
+plantain, and "duckmeat"--all of which have roots and produce flowers.
+This vegetation does not lend a bad odor or taste to the water. In
+itself it is harmless, although it sometimes affords a refuge for
+organisms of a virulent type.
+
+But when the aquatic vegetation of the flowering variety is eliminated
+from consideration, there still remains a group of water plants called
+algæ. They comprise one-fifth of the known flowerless plants. They are
+the ancestors of the entire vegetable kingdom. Those whose habitat is
+the sea number the largest plants known in nature. Certain forms found
+in the Pacific are supposed to be 800 feet in length; others are
+reported to be 1,500 feet long. The marine variety are familiar as the
+brown kelps and the wracks, which are very common along our Northern
+coast.
+
+
+_Plants Which Pollute Drinking Water_
+
+The fresh-water algæ are usually grass green in color. This green
+variety is often seen as a spongy coating to the surface of stagnant
+pools, which goes by the name of "frog spawn" or "pond scum." One of
+this description, _Spirogyra_, has done thousands of dollars' worth of
+damage by smothering the life out of young water-cress plants in
+artificial beds constructed for winter propagation. When the cress is
+cut the plants are necessarily left in a weakened condition, and the
+algæ form a thick mat over the surface of the water, thus preventing
+the growth of the cress plants and oftentimes killing them. The
+absolute necessity of exterminating these algæ led to the perfection
+of the copper-purification process.
+
+It is, however, a variety of algæ not easily detected that
+contaminates the water. So long as they are in a live, healthy
+condition they benefit drinking water by purifying it. Indeed, some
+scientists have attributed the so-called self-purification of a stream
+entirely to the activities of these plants. Of such, one form,
+_Chlamydomonas_, is bright grass green in appearance. But the largest
+group--the plants which have the worst reputation as polluters of
+drinking water--are popularly known as the "blue-green algæ"
+(_Schizophyceæ_). The common name tells the color of these plants,
+although there are exceptions in this respect, some of them showing
+shades of yellow, brown, olive, chocolate, and purplish red. This
+variety of algæ flourishes in the summer months, since a relatively
+high temperature and shallow stagnant water favor its germination. If
+the pond begins to dry up, the death of the organisms takes place, and
+the result is a most disagreeable, persistent odor which renders the
+water unfit for drinking purposes. This result is chemically due to
+the breaking down of highly organized compounds of sulphur and
+phosphorus in the presence of the large amount of nitrogen contained
+in these plants. Decomposition is not necessary for some of the blue
+greens to give off a bad odor, however. A number of them, on account
+of their oil-content, produce an odor when in a healthy condition that
+is sometimes likened to raw green corn or to nasturtiums, but usually
+it cannot be so pleasantly described.
+
+The Department of Agriculture has been able to solve the problem of
+exterminating algæ from water supplies.[1] The department has done
+more; for it has succeeded in perfecting a method by which a reservoir
+contaminated with typhoid or other pathogenic bacteria can be
+purified. The work was begun with an inquiry into the extent of the
+trouble from algal pollution. Letters were addressed to some five
+hundred engineers and superintendents of water companies scattered all
+over the United States. The replies, which came from almost every
+State in the Union, were burdened with one complaint--"Algæ are our
+worst pest"; and with one prayer--"Come over into Macedonia, and help
+us."
+
+
+_A Cheap and Available Remedy for Algæ_
+
+Convinced of the need of earnest work, extensive laboratory
+experiments were inaugurated. The problem presented was this: the
+remedy must not only be readily available, but it must be cheap, that
+advantage may be taken of it by the poorest communities, as well as by
+those owning large reservoirs. Above all, the remedy must be
+absolutely harmless to man; the poison used to exterminate algæ must
+not in any way affect the water drinkers. A large number of
+substances were used in the experiments before the final decision
+rested with copper sulphate. This salt is very poisonous to algæ. On
+the other hand, copper in solution just strong enough to destroy algal
+growth could not possibly injure man; in fact, the temporary presence
+of such a small amount of copper in drinking water could not be
+detected.
+
+
+_A Practical Demonstration_
+
+The results in the laboratory being successful, the next step was to
+make a practical demonstration of the value of the method. This was
+first done in the fall of 1901. At Ben, Va., water cress is grown in
+large quantities during the winter, when it is a valuable market crop.
+Dams are constructed across a stream in such a manner as to enable the
+maintenance of a water level not too high for the growth of plants;
+when a freeze is threatened the plants can be flooded. In the cress
+beds selected for the experiments the water is obtained from a thermal
+spring whose temperature throughout the year is about 70° F. This
+temperature is particularly favorable to the growth of "frog spawn."
+After the cress was cut for market, the algæ frequently developed so
+rapidly as to smother the life out of the weakened plants. When this
+occurred, the practice was to rake out both water cress and algæ and
+reset the entire bed. This was not only expensive; half the time it
+failed to exterminate the pest. It was, therefore, most desirable to
+devise a method of ridding the bed of algal growth without injuring
+the cress.
+
+
+_The Copper-sulphate Method Tested_
+
+Here the copper-sulphate method was put to a practical test. At the
+outset a strong solution was sprayed on the algæ which coated the
+surface of the pond. This only killed the algal growth with which the
+particles of copper came in contact and left the main body of algæ
+unaffected. Then trial was made of dissolving the copper directly in
+the water, and the result was most satisfactory. The solution used was
+that of 1 part of copper to 50,000,000 parts of water.
+
+Growers need have no trouble in the future. They need have no fear of
+employing the method, as the copper solution required for killing the
+algæ could not possibly injure water cress, provided ordinary care is
+used in the work. As to the frequency of treatment required, one or
+two applications a year will generally be found sufficient, as this
+letter, received from the manager of the Virginia company, goes to
+show:
+
+"The 'moss' has given me no trouble at all this winter; in fact, I
+have for six months had to resort to the copper sulphate only once....
+All the conditions were favorable last fall and early winter for a
+riot of 'moss,' but it did not appear at all until just a few days
+ago, and then yielded to treatment much more readily than it did when
+I first began to use the copper." This letter was written over three
+years after Dr. Moore made his experiment in these cress beds.
+
+Satisfied with the results attained in exterminating algal growth in
+water-cress beds, attention was next given to reservoirs. Some fifty
+water supplies were treated during the summer of 1904, and in every
+case success attended the copper cure. In one respect the results were
+surprising. It was found that in practice the copper-sulphate method
+worked better than in theoretic experimentation; results in large
+reservoirs were more pronounced than in the laboratory. In fact, it
+developed that the solution necessary to kill algæ in the laboratory
+must contain from five to twenty times as much copper as that
+contained in a solution which will exterminate algal growth in its
+natural habitat. This is not easily explained, if it can be explained
+at all. The test reason advanced is that only the most resistant
+organisms stand transplanting to an artificial environment. But, after
+all, the important point is that the new method works better in
+practice than was expected.
+
+
+_A Prescription for the Copper Cure_
+
+Thus the department is able to announce that the process is no longer
+in the experimental stage, and also to say what conditions must be
+known in determining the proper quantity of copper sulphate for
+destroying algæ, together with a prescription for the copper cure.
+Here it is, for the benefit of careful persons who will use the method
+with proper intelligence: "The importance of knowing the temperature
+of the contaminated water is second only to the necessity of knowing
+the organism present. With increase of temperature the toxicity of a
+given dilution increases, and _vice versa_. Assuming that 59° F. is
+the average temperature of reservoirs during the seasons when
+treatment is demanded, the quantity of copper should be increased or
+decreased approximately 2.5 per cent for each degree below or above
+59° F.
+
+"Similar scales should be arranged for the organic content and the
+temporary hardness of the water. With the limited data at hand it is
+impracticable to determine these figures, but an increase of 2 per
+cent in the quantity of copper for each part per 100,000 of organic
+matter and an increase of 0.5 to 5 per cent in the proportion of
+copper for each part per 100,000 of temporary hardness will possibly
+be found correct. The proper variation in the increase due to hardness
+will depend upon the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide; if very
+small, 5 per cent increase is desirable; if large, 0.5 per cent is
+sufficient."
+
+The information in this prescription is to be used in connection with
+a table[2] published by the Department of Agriculture. This table
+gives the number of parts of water to one part of copper sulphate
+necessary to kill the various forms of algæ which are listed. The
+formulæ vary from 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water,
+necessary to destroy the most resistant and very rare forms (three of
+these are listed), to 1 part of copper in 25,000,000 parts of water,
+which is a sufficiently strong solution to exterminate _Spirogyra_,
+the cress-bed pest. By far the majority of forms do not require a
+solution stronger than that of 1 part of copper to 1,000,000 parts of
+water.
+
+
+_What the Agricultural Department is Doing_
+
+It is true that the department is not now holding out, directly, a
+helping hand to the owner of a country place, or to the farmer, in
+this campaign of purifying drinking water. In the first place, the
+greatest good of the greatest number demands that large reservoirs,
+which supply a great number of people with drinking water, ought to be
+considered first. Such supplies, moreover, are most frequently
+contaminated. Where fifty reservoirs were treated last summer, ten
+times that number will be "cured" this summer. It will be readily
+seen, therefore, that in conducting such a large number of
+experiments--considering preliminary reports, prescribing for
+treatment, and keeping proper account of results--the department, with
+a limited force and limited facilities, has its hands more than full.
+
+More important still, there is an absolute need of the services of
+some expert on the ground. While an algologist is a functionary not
+generally employed by water companies--in fact, a man trained in the
+physiology of algæ is difficult to find--nevertheless, it is highly
+important, as the department views it, to have the coöperation of an
+expert versed to some extent in the biological examination of drinking
+water. In other words, the copper cure is not a "patent medicine,"
+with printed directions which any person could follow. Intelligence
+and care are absolutely essential in the use of this treatment.
+Furthermore, each case must be treated as a distinct and separate
+case, as a physician would treat a patient.
+
+
+_Actual Purification Simple_
+
+Suppose, however, an owner of a country place, which is dependent upon
+a fresh-water pond for its water supply, finds that his drinking water
+is contaminated, that the taste and odor are such as to render the
+water unfit for use. There is no reason why he should not treat the
+supply, provided he is properly careful. When the nature of the
+polluting organism is definitely determined and the average
+temperature of the water observed, then the necessary formula can be
+decided upon. First, of course, the pond must be plotted, the depth
+found, and the capacity computed. The department will willingly
+furnish data for this purpose, together with blanks upon which to
+submit details as to contaminating organisms and water temperature,
+to any applicant. Once the proper solution is determined upon, the
+actual work of purification is most simple. In the following
+directions the department outlines the most practicable method of
+introducing the copper sulphate into a water supply:
+
+
+_Directions for the Copper Cure_
+
+"Place the required number of pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse
+bag--gunny sack or some equally loose mesh--and, attaching this to the
+stern of a row-boat near the surface of the water, row slowly back and
+forth over the reservoir, on each trip keeping the boat within ten to
+twenty feet of the previous path. In this manner about a hundred
+pounds of copper sulphate can be distributed in one hour. By
+increasing the number of boats, and, in the case of deep reservoirs,
+hanging two or three bags to each boat, the treatment of even a large
+reservoir may be accomplished in from four to six hours. It is
+necessary, of course, to reduce as much as possible the time required
+for applying the copper, so that for immense supplies, with a capacity
+of several billion gallons, it would probably be desirable to use a
+launch, carrying long projecting spars to which could be attached bags
+containing several hundred pounds of copper sulphate.
+
+"The substitution of wire netting for the gunny-sack bag allows a more
+rapid solution of the sulphate, and the time required for the
+introduction of the salt may thus be considerably reduced. It is best
+to select as warm a day for treatment as circumstances will permit."
+
+
+_Cost of the Treatment_
+
+Not difficult, one would say. No--when the proper solution is
+determined; to reach that determination is the difficulty. That the
+method can be tried "at home" is proved by the results obtained by the
+owner of a country home in the vicinity of New York. Tired of
+consulting engineers, who looked at his water supply, informed him
+that they could do nothing, and then charged him a big fee (to one he
+paid $250), this owner resorted to the copper-sulphate treatment. The
+cure cost the man just $2--but let his letter to the department tell
+the story:
+
+"My place in the country is located at Water Mill, in the township of
+Southampton, in Long Island. I purchased it in April, 1902, and was
+largely influenced in selecting this piece of land by the beauty of a
+pond which bounds it on the east. This little body of water covers
+about two acres, is fed by numerous springs, and discharges into Mecox
+Bay, the southern boundary of the land. When I bought the place the
+pond was filled with clear water. About the middle of the following
+June algæ began to show, and in August the surface was almost entirely
+covered by the growth. The odor was offensive, and myriads of small
+insects hovered over the masses of algæ much of the time. I consulted
+two engineers interested in the storage of water, and they told me
+that nothing could be done. The condition was so objectionable that I
+planned to plant a thick hedge of willows along the bank to shut off
+the view of the pond from the house.... I examined the pond on June
+15th and found large masses of algæ covering an area several hundred
+feet in length and from twenty to forty feet in width. No
+microscopical examination was made of the growth, but I was informed
+that it seemed to be largely composed of filaments of _Spirogyra_ and
+other _Confervæ_. On June 18th the treatment was begun.... In one week
+the growth had sunk and the pond was clear water. I examined the pond
+September 15th and found it still clear.
+
+"The use of the sulphate of copper converted an offensive
+insect-breeding pond into a body of beautifully clear water. The pond
+was full of fish, but the copper did not seem to harm them."
+
+
+_Effect of Copper Sulphate on Fish_
+
+Native trout were not injured when the large reservoir at Cambridge,
+N. Y., was purified by the copper treatment. A slightly different
+result, in this respect, was reported from Elmira, N. Y., however.
+Part of the report is as follows:
+
+"The effect of the copper-sulphate treatment on the different animal
+life was as follows: numerous 'pollywogs' killed, but no frogs;
+numerous small (less than two inches long) black bass and two large
+ones (eight inches long) killed; about ten large 'bullheads' were
+killed, but no small ones; numerous small (less than two inches long)
+'sunfish' were killed, but no large ones.
+
+"The wind brought the dead fish to the corners of the reservoir, and
+it was very little trouble to remove them. No dead fish were seen
+twenty-four hours after completion of the treatment."
+
+The injury done by copper sulphate to fish is a more serious matter
+than was at first supposed. Brook trout are, apparently, the least
+resistant to the salt. A Massachusetts trout pond stocked with
+eight-inch trout lost forty per cent as a result of the introduction
+of a strong solution of copper sulphate. The Bureau of Fisheries is
+working in conjunction with the Division of Plant Physiology in this
+matter, and it is hoped to secure reliable information. In the
+meantime, owners of ponds stocked with game fish would do well to take
+great care before resorting to the copper cure for algæ--that is, if
+they hesitate to lose a part of the fish.
+
+
+_Water May be Drunk During Treatment_
+
+When a pond or reservoir is treated with the proper amount of copper
+sulphate to remove algæ--except in the case of the few very resistant
+forms requiring a stronger solution than 1 part of copper to
+1,000,000 parts of water--there is no need of discontinuing the use
+of the water supply during treatment; the water may be drunk with
+impunity. But when water known to be polluted with pathogenic bacteria
+is sterilized by means of copper sulphate in strong solution, it is
+just as well to discontinue the use of the water for drinking purposes
+for not more than twenty-four hours. Even then, this is an overcareful
+precaution rather than a necessity.
+
+Experiments conducted with great care and thoroughness demonstrate
+that at room temperature, which is near the temperature of a reservoir
+in summer, a solution of 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water
+will destroy typhoid bacteria in from three to five hours. Similar
+experiments have proved that a copper solution of like strength is
+fatal to cholera germs in three hours, provided the temperature is
+above 20° F. As was the case with algæ, bacteria were found to be much
+more sensitive to copper when polluting water than when grown in
+artificial media.
+
+
+_The Use of Copper Tanks_
+
+The toxic effect of metallic copper upon typhoid bacteria in water
+gives some hints as to prevention of the disease by the use of copper
+tanks. This should not altogether take the place of the boiling of the
+water; it is useful in keeping it free from contamination, although
+water allowed to stand in copper receptacles for a period of from
+twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room temperature would be
+effectively sterilized, no matter what its contamination and no matter
+how much matter it held in suspension. But in order to insure such
+results the copper must be kept thoroughly clean. This polishing is
+not, as was popularly supposed, to protect the consumer from "copper
+poisoning," but to prevent the metal from becoming so coated with
+foreign substances that there is no contact of the copper with the
+water, hence no antiseptic quality.
+
+Dr. Henry Kreamer, of Philadelphia, proved that within four hours
+typhoid germs were completely destroyed by the introduction into the
+polluted water of copper foil.
+
+"Granting the efficiency of the boiling of water for domestic
+purposes, I believe that the copper-treated water is more natural and
+more healthful.... The intestinal bacteria, like colon and typhoid,
+are completely destroyed by placing clean copper foil in the water
+containing them.
+
+"Pending the introduction of the copper treatment of water on a large
+scale, the householder may avail himself of a method for the
+purification of drinking water by the use of strips of copper foil
+about three and one-half inches square to each quart of water, this
+being allowed to stand overnight, or from six to eight hours at the
+ordinary temperature, and then the water drawn off or the copper foil
+removed."
+
+Although a splendid antiseptic, copper in weak solution is not
+harmful, no more so than the old copper utensils used by our
+forefathers were harmful. Undoubtedly they were of benefit, and the
+use of them prevented the growth of typhoid and other bacteria. People
+of to-day might well go back to copper receptacles for drinking
+water.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] For published reports of the work, see Bulletins 64 and 76, Bureau
+of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture; reports prepared
+by Dr. George T. Moore and his assistant, Mr. Karl F. Kellerman.
+
+[2] See Bulletin No. 76, supra.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+=Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes=
+
+
+Because of the serious and often fatal injury it inflicts on man, the
+most dangerous animal known is the mosquito. Compared with the evil
+done by the insect pest, the cobra's death toll is small. This
+venomous serpent is found only in hot countries, particularly in
+India, while mosquitoes know no favorite land or clime--unless it be
+Jersey. Arctic explorers complain of them. In Alaska, it is recorded
+by a scientist that "mosquitoes existed in countless millions, driving
+us to the verge of suicide or insanity." A traveler on the north shore
+of Lake Superior, when the snow was several feet deep, and the ice on
+the lake five feet in thickness, relates that "mosquitoes appeared in
+swarms, literally blackening the banks of snow in sheltered places."
+
+
+_Mosquitoes Responsible for Yellow Fever_
+
+In the temperate zone this evil-breeding insect was, until recent
+years, considered more in the light of an exasperating pest. It is now
+known, however, that malaria is due entirely to the bites of
+mosquitoes. But it is in the tropical countries that their deadliest
+work is done. There, it has been proved beyond question, the
+mosquitoes are responsible for the carriage of yellow fever. If, in a
+yellow-fever ridden region, one were to live entirely in an inclosure,
+carefully protected with proper screens--as certain entomologists
+did--there practically would be no danger from the dread disease, even
+if all other precautions were neglected.
+
+
+_Effect of a Mosquito Bite_
+
+The crime committed by the mosquito against its innocent victim, man,
+is more in the nature of manslaughter than of murder, according to the
+authorities. There is no _premeditated malice_. "A mosquito bites
+primarily to obtain food," says a leading entomologist; "there is
+neither malice nor venom in the intent, whatever there may be in the
+act." There isn't great comfort in the intelligence conveyed by the
+scientist, nor in his further observation:
+
+"Theoretically, there would seem to be no reason why there should be
+any pain from the introduction of the minute lancets of the insects,
+and the small amount of bloodletting is usually a benefit rather than
+otherwise. Unfortunately, however, in its normal condition the human
+blood is too much inclined to clot to be taken unchanged into the
+mosquito stomach; hence, when the insect bites, a minute droplet of
+poison is introduced, whose function it is to thin out the fluid and
+make it more suitable for mosquito digestion. It is this poison that
+sets up the inflammation and produces the irritation or swelling....
+The pain is caused entirely by the action of the poison in breaking up
+the blood, and, as the first act of a biting mosquito is to introduce
+the poison into the wound, the pain and inflammation will be the same,
+whether the insect gets its meal or not. In fact, it has been said
+that if a mosquito be allowed to suck its fill and then fly, the bite
+will not itch, and there is just a basis of justification for this."
+
+To make a scientific inquiry into the habits of the mosquito, and to
+do it patiently, one should be far from the maddening swarms, or at
+least effectively screened in. Then it would be possible to believe
+the statement of the Government's entomologist that not "one mosquito
+in a million" ever gets the opportunity to taste the blood of a
+warm-blooded animal. As proof of this there are, in this country,
+great tracts of marshy land never frequented by warm-blooded animals,
+and in which mosquitoes are breeding in countless numbers. The point
+is emphasized by the prevalence of mosquitoes in the arctic circle and
+other uninhabited regions.
+
+If this gory insect does not live by blood alone, how is it nourished?
+Female mosquitoes are by nature vegetarians; they are plant feeders.
+Why they should draw blood at all is a question which remains
+unsolved by entomologists--as well as by the suffering victims. The
+females have been observed sucking the nectar from flowers; obtaining
+nutriment from boiled potatoes, even from watermelon rinds, from which
+they extract the juice. As regards the blood habit, the male mosquito
+is a "teetotaler." Just how this male insect lives, scientists have
+not determined. He may not take nourishment at all. At any rate, the
+mouth parts of the male are so different from those of the female that
+it is probable his food is obtained differently. The male is often
+seen sipping at drops of water, and a taste for molasses is ascribed
+to the male mosquito by one authority.
+
+
+_Presence of Mosquitoes Depends Upon Winds_
+
+A common remark heard along the Jersey shore, also on Long Island, is
+this: "When we have a sea breeze we are not troubled with mosquitoes,
+but when there comes a land breeze they are a pest." While this
+observation is true, the reasons therefore entertained by the
+unscientific mind are erroneous. The matter of the absence or
+abundance of mosquitoes in varying winds is closely related to the
+inquiry which entomologists have made: how far will mosquitoes fly?
+Says one investigator:
+
+"The migration of mosquitoes has been the source of much
+misapprehension on the part of the public. The idea prevalent at our
+seaside resorts that a land breeze brings swarms of mosquitoes from
+far inland is based on the supposition that these insects are capable
+of long-sustained flight, and a certain amount of battling against the
+wind. This is an error. Mosquitoes are frail of wing; a light puff of
+breath will illustrate this by hurling the helpless creature away, and
+it will not venture on the wing again for some time after finding a
+safe harbor. The prevalence of mosquitoes during a land breeze is
+easily explained. It is usually only during the lulls in the wind that
+Culex can fly. Generally on our coast a sea breeze means a stiff
+breeze, and during these mosquitoes will be found hovering on the
+leeward side of houses, sand dunes, and thick foliage.... While the
+strong breezes last, they will stick closely to these friendly
+shelters, though a cluster of houses may be but a few rods off, filled
+with unsuspecting mortals who imagine their tormentors are far inland
+over the salt meadows. But if the wind dies down, as it usually does
+when veering, out come swarms upon swarms of females intent upon
+satisfying their depraved taste for blood. This explains why they
+appear on the field of action almost immediately after the cessation
+of the strong breeze; on the supposition that they were blown inland,
+this sudden reappearance would be unaccountable."
+
+A sultry, rainy period of midsummer is commonly referred to as "good
+mosquito weather." The accepted idea is that mosquitoes are much more
+abundant at such times. This is true, and the explanation is simple.
+Mosquito larvæ, or wrigglers, as they are termed, require water for
+their development. A heavy shower leaves standing water, which, when
+the air is full of moisture, evaporates slowly. Then, too, the heat
+favors the growth of the microörganisms on which the larvæ feed;
+wrigglers found in the water forty-eight hours after their formation
+will have plenty of food, and adult mosquitoes will appear six to
+eight days after the eggs are laid. Clear weather, with quick
+evaporation, interferes with the development of the wrigglers, so that
+a season with plenty of rain, but with sunshiny, drying weather
+intervening, is not "good mosquito weather."
+
+
+_Destroy the Larvæ_
+
+Inasmuch as a generation of mosquitoes appear to torment man within
+ten days, at the longest, after the eggs are laid; as a batch laid by
+a female mosquito contains from two hundred to four hundred eggs; as
+from each egg may issue a larva or wriggler which in six days will be
+an adult mosquito on the wing--it is to the destruction of the larvæ
+that attention should be directed. The larva is a slender organism,
+white or gray in color, comprising eight segments. The last of these
+parts is in the form of a tube, through which the wriggler breathes.
+Although its habitat is the water, it must come to the surface to
+breathe, therefore its natural position is head down and tail, or
+respiratory tube, up. Now, if oil is spread on the surface of a pool
+inhabited by mosquito larvæ, the wrigglers are denied access to the
+air which they must have. Therefore, they drown, just as any other
+air-breathing animal would drown under similar circumstances.
+
+
+_Best Preventive Measures_
+
+As to the best methods to employ in ridding a country place, or any
+other region, of mosquitoes, the directions furnished by Dr. L. O.
+Howard, the Government entomologist, who has been a careful student of
+the problem since 1867, are of great value:
+
+"Altogether,[3] the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are
+those which result in the destruction of the larvæ or the abolition of
+their breeding places. In not every locality are these measures
+feasible, but in many places there is absolutely no necessity for the
+mosquito annoyance. The three main preventive measures are the
+draining of breeding places, the introduction of small fish into
+fishless breeding places, and the treatment of such pools with
+kerosene. These are three alternatives, any one of which will be
+efficacious and any one of which may be used where there are reasons
+against the trial of the others."
+
+
+_Quantity of Kerosene to be Used_
+
+"The quantity of kerosene to be practically used, as shown by the
+writer's experiments, is approximately one ounce to fifteen square
+feet of water surface, and ordinarily the application need not be
+renewed for one month.... The writer is now advising the use of the
+grade known as lubricating oil, as the result of the extensive
+experiments made on Staten Island. It is much more persistent than the
+ordinary illuminating oils.... On ponds of any size the quickest and
+most perfect method of forming a film of kerosene will be to spray the
+oil over the surface of the water.... It is not, however, the great
+sea marshes along the coast, where mosquitoes breed in countless
+numbers, which we can expect to treat by this method, but the inland
+places, where the mosquito supply is derived from comparatively small
+swamps and circumscribed pools. In most localities people endure the
+torment or direct their remedies against the adult insect only,
+without the slightest attempt to investigate the source of the supply,
+when the very first step should be the undertaking of such an
+investigation.
+
+"The remedy which depends upon draining breeding places needs no
+extended discussion. Naturally the draining off of the water of pools
+will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there, and the possibility of
+such draining and the means by which it may be done will vary with
+each individual case. The writer is informed that an elaborate bit of
+work which has been done at Virginia Beach bears on this method.
+Behind the hotels at this place, the hotels themselves fronting upon
+the beach, was a large fresh-water lake, which, with its adjoining
+swamps, was a source of mosquito supply, and it was further feared
+that it made the neighborhood malarious. Two canals were cut from the
+lake to the ocean, and by means of machinery the water of the lake was
+changed from a body of fresh to a body of salt water. Water that is
+somewhat brackish will support mosquitoes, but water that is purely
+salt will destroy them."
+
+
+_Employing Fish to Destroy Larvæ_
+
+"The introduction of fish into fishless breeding places is another
+matter. It may be undesirable to treat certain breeding places with
+kerosene, as, for instance, water which is intended for drinking,
+although this has been done without harm in tanks where, as is
+customary, the drinking supply is drawn from the bottom of the tank.
+The value of most small fishes for the purpose of destroying mosquito
+larvæ was well indicated by an experience described to us by Mr. C. H.
+Russell, of Bridgeport, Conn. In this case a very high tide broke away
+a dike and flooded the salt meadows of Stratford, a small town a few
+miles from Bridgeport. The receding tide left two small lakes, nearly
+side by side and of the same size. In one lake the tide left a dozen
+or more small fishes, while the other was fishless. An examination by
+Mr. Russell in the summer of 1891 showed that while the fishless lake
+contained tens of thousands of mosquito larvæ, that containing the
+fish had no larvæ. The use of carp for this purpose has been
+demonstrated, but most small fish will answer as well. The writer
+knows of none that will be better than either of the common little
+sticklebacks (_Gasterosteus aculeatus_ or _Pygosteus pungitius_)."
+
+Is mosquito fighting a success? This question is an all-important one,
+not only to the summer resident, but also to cities and towns
+contiguous to salt-water marshes, or to swampy lands, well suited for
+mosquito breeding. The answer is this: Mosquito control is possible;
+actual extermination impossible with an insect that develops so
+rapidly. The "Jersey mosquito," the unscientific name popularly given
+to an insect of huge size and ravenous appetite, has become famous. As
+a matter of fact, the species of mosquitoes found in New Jersey are no
+more rare or varied than those found on Staten Island or on Long
+Island. But until very recently the region lying between Jersey City
+and Newark has been particularly favorable to the development of
+mosquito larvæ. It has been announced in the press that mosquitoes
+have been driven out of the Newark meadows. This is an exaggeration,
+of course, but the work accomplished there is remarkable, and other
+infected regions may take heart from the marked success which has
+attended the efforts of Dr. John B. Smith, Entomologist of the New
+Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station.
+
+
+_Remarkable Work Accomplished_
+
+The salt marsh lying within the limits of the city of Newark covers an
+area of about 3,500 acres. It extends from a point on the Passaic
+River to the mouth of Bound Creek, where it empties into Newark Bay.
+Its length is about eight miles and it has an extreme width of three
+miles. The Newark marsh problem was a very complex one. The meadows
+are cut into many sections by the several traversing railroads and by
+creeks; this materially influences the drainage. The Peddie Street
+sewer crosses the marsh in a straight line of about three miles from
+the city to the bay. This sewer is twenty feet wide, and its banks are
+from three to four feet above the marsh land.
+
+An experiment with machine ditching was made in 1903. The worst parts
+of the marsh were selected, and about 40,000 feet of ditches were cut.
+These ditches were six inches wide, two feet deep, and the drainage
+was perfect from the outset. The section of meadow thus drained became
+so dry in consequence that the grass growing there can now be cut by a
+machine in summer, whereas formerly the hay could be mown only in
+winter. The work was so successful that the Newark Common Council
+appropriated $5,000 to complete the mosquito drainage of the marsh.
+Of the results obtained up to this spring, Dr. Smith says:
+
+"This Newark marsh problem was an unusual one, and one that would not
+be likely to recur in the same way at any other point along the coast.
+Nevertheless, of the entire 3,500 acres of marsh, not 100 acres remain
+on which there is any breeding whatever, and that is dangerous only in
+a few places and under certain abnormal conditions. Including old
+ditches cleaned out, about 360,000 running feet of ditches have been
+dug on the Newark marshes, partly by machine and partly by hand, and
+if the work is not entirely successful, that is due to the defects
+which were not included in the drainage scheme. It is a safe
+prediction, I think, that Newark will have no early brood of
+mosquitoes in 1905, comparable with the invasions of 1903 and 1904."
+
+This prophecy has proved true.
+
+
+_The Campaign on Long Island_
+
+The wealthy summer residents along the north shore of Long Island,
+keenly alive to the necessity of driving mosquitoes from the region
+where they spend so much of their time, have attacked the problem in a
+scientific, as well as an energetic way. The North Shore Improvement
+Association intrusted the work to Henry Clay Weeks, a sanitary
+engineer, with whom was associated, as entomologist, Prof. Charles B.
+Davenport, Professor of Entomology at the University of Chicago and
+head of the Cold Spring Biological Laboratory; also F. E. Lutz, an
+instructor in biology at the University of Chicago. Prof. N. S.
+Shaler, of Harvard University, the most eminent authority in the
+country on marine marshes, was retained to make a special examination
+of the salt marshes with a view to recommending the best means of
+eliminating what were the most prolific breeding grounds of
+mosquitoes. A detailed examination of the entire territory was made.
+Practically every breeding place of mosquitoes, including the smaller
+pools and streams, and even the various artificial receptacles of
+water, were located and reported on. Mr. Weeks, with his assistant,
+then examined each body of water in which mosquito larvæ had been
+found, with a view to devising the best means of preventing the
+further breeding of mosquitoes in these plague spots. Finally, a
+report was prepared, together with a map on which was located every
+natural breeding place.
+
+
+_Investigations in Connecticut_
+
+Important investigations have been made in Connecticut by the
+Agricultural Experiment Station, under the direction of W. E. Britton
+and Henry L. Viereck, and the results have been most encouraging. Dr.
+Howard, in his directions for fighting mosquitoes, acknowledges his
+indebtedness to the very successful experiments carried on at Staten
+Island. Maryland is aroused to the point of action. Dr. Howard A.
+Kelley, of Johns Hopkins University, is to coöperate with Thomas B.
+Symons, the State entomologist, in carrying the war to the shores of
+Chesapeake Bay. "Home talent," moreover, can accomplish much. To fight
+intelligently, let it not be forgotten that the battle should be
+directed against the larvæ. These wrigglers are bred for aquatic life;
+therefore, it is to all standing water that attention should be
+directed. Mosquito larvæ will not breed in large ponds, or in open,
+permanent pools, except at the edges, because the water is ruffled by
+the wind. Any pool can be rendered free from wrigglers by cleaning up
+the edges and stocking with fish. Every fountain or artificial water
+basin ought to be so stocked, if it is only with goldfish. The house
+owner should not overlook any pond, however small, or a puddle of
+water, a ditch, or any depression which retains water. A half-filled
+pail, a watering trough, even a tin receptacle will likely be
+populated with mosquito larvæ. Water barrels are favorite haunts for
+wrigglers.
+
+
+_A Simple Household Remedy_
+
+There are those, however, who will obstinately conduct their campaign
+against the adult mosquito. If energetic, such persons will search the
+house with a kerosene cup attached to a stick; when this is held
+under resting mosquitoes the insects fall into the cup and are
+destroyed. Those possessed of less energy daub their faces and hands
+with camphor, or with the oil of pennyroyal, and bid defiance to the
+pests. With others it is, Slap! slap!--with irritation mental as well
+as physical; for the latter, entomologists recommend household
+ammonia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] See Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of
+Entomology.
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+PURE FOOD FOR THE
+HOUSEKEEPER
+
+BY
+
+S. JOSEPHINE BAKER
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=How to Detect Food Adulteration=
+
+
+Adulteration when applied to foodstuffs is a broad, general term, and
+covers all classes of misrepresentation, substitution, deterioration,
+or addition of foreign substances; adulteration may be either
+intentional or accidental, but the housekeeper should be prepared to
+recognize it and so protect herself and her household.
+
+Food is considered adulterated when it can be classified under any of
+the following headings:
+
+
+=DEFINITIONS OF ADULTERATION.=--(1) If any substance has been mixed or
+packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its
+quality or strength.
+
+(2) If any inferior substance has been substituted for it, wholly or
+in part.
+
+(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted
+from it.
+
+(4) If it consists wholly or in part of diseased or decomposed or
+putrid or rotten animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an
+animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the
+product of a diseased animal or one who has died otherwise than by
+slaughter.
+
+(5) If it be colored or coated or polished or powdered, whereby damage
+is concealed or it is made to appear better than it really is.
+
+(6) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient
+which may render such article injurious to health; or if it contains
+any antiseptic or preservative not evident or not known to the
+purchaser or consumer.
+
+
+=FOOD LAWS.=--There is now in effect in the United States a rigid law
+against the offering for sale of any article intended for human
+consumption which is adulterated in any way, without the fact and
+nature of such adulteration being plainly stated on a label attached
+to the package containing the article. This law, however, applies only
+to articles of this nature which originate, or are produced, in one
+State and offered for sale in another. The purchaser is, therefore, in
+a great degree protected, but many foodstuffs or manufactured articles
+may have their origin within the State wherein they are sold, and in
+this case the only safeguards are those afforded by the laws of the
+State, city, or town immediately concerned. If these restraining laws
+do not exist or if they are not enforced the housekeeper must rely
+upon her own efforts to protect her family from adulterated food.
+
+
+=PERMISSIBLE ADULTERANTS.=--In this class are included articles having
+a food value such as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, or smoke used as
+preservatives of meats; or starch when added to the salts composing
+baking powder, where a certain amount is permissible for the purpose
+of absorbing moisture.
+
+
+=GENERAL DIRECTIONS.=--The ability to select fresh, wholesome meats,
+poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables, to determine readily the purity
+of dairy products, and to detect adulteration or misrepresentation in
+all classes of foodstuffs must, in most instances, be acquired. Common
+sense and good reasoning powers are needed here as in every problem of
+life. While some adulterants can be detected only by trained chemists
+and by means of tests too difficult and involved for general use, the
+average housekeeper may amply protect herself from gross imposition by
+simply cultivating her powers of observation and by making use of a
+few simple tests well within her grasp and easily applied.
+
+=First--Sight, Taste, and Smell.=--All are of prime importance in
+determining the freshness and wholesomeness of foods, especially
+meats, poultry, fish, vegetables, and fruits. Avoid all highly colored
+bottled or canned fruits or vegetables; pure preserved fruits, jams,
+jellies, or relishes may have a good bright color, but never have the
+brilliant reds and greens so often shown in the artificially colored
+products.[4] The same is true of canned peas, beans, or Brussels
+sprouts; here the natural product is a dull, rather dingy green, and
+all bright green samples must be suspected. Foreign articles of this
+class are the worst offenders.
+
+All food products should have a clean wholesome odor, characteristic
+of their particular class. The odor of decomposition can be readily
+detected; stale and musty odors are soon recognized.
+
+It should be rarely necessary to use the sense of taste, but any food
+with a taste foreign to the known taste of a similar product of known
+purity should be discarded or at least suspected.
+
+=Second--Price.=--Remember that the best and purest food, however high
+priced, is cheapest in the end. Its value in purity, cleanliness, food
+value, and strength gives a greater proportionate return than foods
+priced lower than one might legitimately expect from their supposed
+character. To cite a few instances: pure Java and Mocha coffee cannot
+be retailed at twenty cents per pound; therefore, when the housekeeper
+pays that price she must expect to get chicory mixed with the coffee;
+if it contains no other adulterant, she may consider herself
+fortunate. Cheap vanilla is not made from the vanilla bean. These
+beans sell at wholesale for from ten to fifteen dollars a pound, and
+the cheap extracts are made from the Tonka bean or from a chemical
+product known as vanillin. These substances are not harmful, but they
+are not vanilla. Pure virgin olive oil is made from the flesh of
+olives after the stones and skin have been removed; cheaper grades are
+made from the stones themselves and have little food value, while the
+virgin oil is one of the most nutritious and wholesome of foods.
+
+Such instances might be cited almost without end. Good, pure food
+demands a good price, and economy defeats its own purpose when it is
+practiced at the expense of one of the most vital necessities of
+health and life.
+
+=Third--Reliable Dealers.=--Select your tradesmen with the same care
+you bestow in the choice of a physician. A grocer or butcher who has
+once sold stale, adulterated, or impure wares has forfeited his right
+to be trusted. A man who is honestly trying to build up a good trade
+must have the confidence of his customers and it is to his interest to
+sell only worthy goods; this confidence he can gain only by proving
+his trustworthiness. When you are convinced of your dealer's honesty
+give him your trade and do not be lured away by flashy advertisements
+and the promise of "something for nothing."
+
+
+=PREPARATION FOR CHEMICAL TESTS.=--Although the housekeeper will
+rarely need the use of any chemical tests for the purpose of
+determining the purity of food, the following directions must be kept
+in mind if such an expedient is deemed necessary. It will be wise,
+however, in the majority of cases when the presence of chemical
+preservatives and adulterants is suspected, to send the article to a
+chemist for analysis.
+
+1. All refuse matter, such as shells, bones, bran, and skin, must be
+removed from the edible portion of the food to be tested.
+
+2. If the sample is solid or semi-solid, divide it as finely as
+possible. All vegetables and meats may be minced in the common
+household chopping machine. Tea, coffee, whole spices, and the like
+may be ground or crushed in a mortar or in a spice mill.
+
+3. Milk must be thoroughly stirred or shaken so that the cream is well
+mixed with the body of the milk.
+
+
+=FLESH FOODS--Meat.=--Fresh, wholesome meat is neither pink nor
+purple; these colors indicate either that the animal was not
+slaughtered or that it was diseased. Good meat is firm and elastic and
+when dented with the finger does not retain the impression; it has the
+same consistency and color throughout; the flesh is marbled, due to
+the presence of fat distributed among the muscular fibers; it will
+hardly moisten the finger when touched; it has no disagreeable odor
+and has a slightly acid reaction so that red litmus paper applied to
+it should not turn blue.
+
+Wet, sodden, or flabby meat with jellylike fat, a strong putrid odor,
+and alkaline reaction should be avoided. These signs indicate
+advanced decomposition, and such meat is unfit for food.
+
+=Beef.=--This meat should have a fine grain, be firm in texture, with
+rosy-red flesh and yellowish-white fat.
+
+=Lamb and Mutton= should have a clear, hard, white fat with the lean
+part juicy, firm, and of rather light-red color. The flesh should be
+firm and close of grain.
+
+=Veal.=--The meat should not be eaten unless the animal was at least
+six weeks old before slaughtering. The sale of this immature veal, or
+"bob veal" as it is sometimes called, is prohibited by law in many
+States. It is unwholesome and may be recognized by its soft, rather
+mushy consistency and bluish tinge. Good veal has a firm white fat
+with the lean of a pale-red color.
+
+=Pork.=--This meat when fresh has a fat that is solid and pure white;
+if yellow and soft it should be rejected; the lean is pink and the
+skin like white translucent parchment.
+
+=Poultry.=--Good poultry is firm to the touch, pink or yellowish in
+color, is fairly plump, and has a strong skin showing an unbroken
+surface. It has a fresh odor.
+
+Stale poultry is flabby and shows a bluish color; it becomes green
+over the crop and abdomen, and the skin is already broken or easily
+pulled apart in handling. The odor of such a bird is disagreeable and
+may even be putrid.
+
+=Fish.=--With the exception of the salted or preserved varieties fish
+should always be perfectly fresh when eaten. Probably no other
+article of food is more dangerous to health than fish when it shows
+even the slightest traces of decomposition. The ability to recognize
+the earliest signs of staleness is of the utmost importance. Fish
+deteriorate rapidly and should always be carefully inspected before
+purchasing.
+
+Fresh fish are firm to the touch, the scales moist and bright, the
+gills red, and the eyes clear and slightly prominent. When held flat
+in the hand the fish should remain rigid and the head and tail droop
+slightly, if at all.
+
+Stale fish are soft and flabby, the skin is dull and the eyes sunken
+and often covered with a film. The tendency of the head and tail to
+droop is marked and the fish has a characteristic disagreeable odor.
+This odor of decomposition is best detected in the gills.
+
+=Lobsters and Crabs.=--These shellfish should always be alive when
+purchased. This condition is easily demonstrated by their movements,
+and the rule should never be disregarded.
+
+=Oysters and Clams.=--Oysters should not be eaten during the months of
+May, June, July, and August; these are their breeding months and they
+are unwholesome during that period. That oysters sometimes contain the
+germs of typhoid fever is an assured fact; these germs are acquired
+not from the natural habitat of the oyster in salt water but from the
+fresh-water, so-called "fattening beds," where the oysters are placed
+for a season to remove the brackish and salty taste of the sea and to
+render them more plump. These beds are frequently subject to
+pollution, and the housekeeper should only purchase oysters from
+reliable dealers where the purity of the source of the supply is
+unquestioned.
+
+Clams are in season and may be eaten throughout the year.
+
+All shellfish when fresh have an agreeable fresh odor. The shells
+should be firmly closed or should close when immersed in water and
+touched with the finger. If they have been removed from their shells
+when purchased, the flesh of the fish itself should be firm, clean in
+appearance and not covered with slime or scum; the odor should be
+fresh. The odor of dead or decomposed oysters and clams is pungent and
+disagreeable.
+
+
+=MEAT PRODUCTS--Canned or Potted Meats.=--The label on cans containing
+meat products should state clearly the exact nature of the contents.
+Deception as to the character of the meat is easy to practice and
+difficult to detect by any but a trained analyst. The presence of
+preservatives can also only be detected by chemical analysis. As these
+products are practically all put on the market by the large packing
+houses and designed for interstate commerce, they are subject to
+government inspection, and, therefore, if they bear the government
+stamp may be considered pure. The point that the housekeeper may
+consider is the length of time the meat has remained in the can. Put
+up under proper precautions these canned goods retain their
+wholesomeness for an almost indefinite period. The heads of the cans
+should always present a concave surface; if they are convex, it is a
+sign of decomposition of the contents. When the can is opened the meat
+should have a clean appearance, free from mold or greenish hue, and
+the odor should be fresh and not tainted.
+
+=Sausages.=--If possible, sausages should be homemade, then one may be
+assured of their purity and freedom from adulteration.
+
+Owing to the rapid color changes and early decomposition of fresh
+meat, artificial colors are often used to conceal the former, and
+preservatives like boric acid or saltpeter to retard the latter.
+
+The artificial colors, such as carmine and aniline red, may be
+detected by observation or by warming the finely divided material on a
+water bath with a five per cent solution of sodium salicylate. This
+fluid will extract the color, if present.
+
+=Lard.=--Good lard is white and granular and has a firm consistency.
+It has an agreeable characteristic odor and taste. The choicest leaf
+lard is made from the fat about the kidneys of the hog; the cheaper
+grades are made from the fat of the whole animal.
+
+
+=FRESH VEGETABLES AND FRUITS--Vegetables.=--All green vegetables to be
+eaten uncooked should be carefully washed and examined for insects,
+dirt, and foreign matter generally. The ova or eggs of the tapeworm
+may be ingested with improperly cleaned vegetables. Running water and
+a clean brush (kept for this purpose) should be used.
+
+Green vegetables should have a fresh, unwilted appearance; any sign of
+staleness or decay should cause their rejection. Overripe or underripe
+vegetables are harmful.
+
+Lettuce, celery, and all leaved or stemmed vegetables should be
+examined to see if the outer leaves have been removed; this may be
+determined by the distance of the leaves from the stem head. The
+general signs of disease in vegetables are softening, change of color,
+and mold.
+
+The following characteristics indicate fresh and wholesome vegetables:
+
+=Asparagus.=--Firm and white in the stalk with a green, compact tip.
+
+=Beans and Peas= should have green, not yellow, pods, brittle, and
+easily snapped open. The vegetable itself should be tender, full and
+fleshy, not wrinkled or shrunken.
+
+=Cabbage=, crisp and firm, with a well-rounded and compact head.
+
+=Carrots=, light red or yellow, with a regular, conical shape, sweet
+and crisp.
+
+=Cauliflower=, white, compact head; any tinge of yellow or green
+generally indicates an inferior quality.
+
+=Celery=, nearly white in color; large, crisp, and solid stalks, nutty
+in flavor.
+
+=Cucumbers=, firm, crisp, with a smooth skin and white flesh.
+
+=Lettuce=, the head close and compact; the leaves clean, crisp, and
+sweet. When it is too young or running to seed the taste is bitter.
+Pale patches on the leaves are caused by mildew and are a sign of
+decay.
+
+=Parsnips=, buff in color, with unforked roots, sweet and crisp.
+
+=Potatoes=, underripe, green potatoes are unfit for food; they contain
+a poisonous substance which renders them actually harmful. Good
+potatoes should have a smooth skin and few eyes; the flesh pale and of
+a uniform color and of a firm consistency. A rough skin, with little
+depressions, indicates a disease called "scab"; dark-brown patches on
+the skin are due to a disease called "smut." Potatoes with such
+diseases are of inferior quality. If green on one side, due to
+exposure to the sun when growing, the potatoes are unwholesome.
+
+=Fruits.=--Underripe or green fruit should never be eaten. This
+condition may be easily detected by the color and consistency of the
+fruit. Diseased or decayed fruit is known by its change of color,
+softening, and external mold. Spots on fruit are often caused by a
+fungus which lowers its quality and renders it less wholesome.
+
+
+=CEREALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS--Cereals.=--Particularly when bought in
+original packages cereals are generally pure and unadulterated. When
+bought in bulk there may be found dust, dirt, worms, insects, and
+excessive moisture. These may all be determined by careful inspection.
+The presence of an undue amount of moisture adds greatly to the weight
+of cereals and is therefore a fraud. Cereals should be dry to the
+touch and the individual kernels or particles separate and distinct.
+
+=Flour.=--By this general term is meant the ordinary wheat flour. It
+should not be too moist, should have a fine white appearance, remain
+lumpy, or hold its form, on pressure, not show any particles which
+cannot be crushed, and when a handful is thrown against the wall, part
+of it should adhere. The odor and taste should be fresh and clean and
+not musty or moldy.
+
+The common adulterants are corn and rice meal. If a sample of the
+flour be thrown on the surface of a glassful of water, the corn and
+rice, being heavier, will sink; grit and sand may be detected in the
+same way. If the flour has been adulterated with mineral substances it
+may be shown by burning a portion down to an ash; the ash of pure
+flour should not exceed two per cent of the total amount; if mineral
+substances are present the amount of ash will be greatly increased.
+
+Alum is sometimes added to flour in order to give it a whiter
+appearance and to produce whiter and lighter bread; it is most
+unwholesome. It can be detected by the so-called "logwood" test, which
+is prepared and used as follows:
+
+Make two solutions. The first: a five per cent solution of logwood
+chips in alcohol. The second: a fifteen per cent solution of ammonium
+carbonate in water. Make a paste of one teaspoonful of the flour and
+an equal amount of water; mix with it one-quarter of a teaspoonful of
+the logwood solution; follow this immediately with one-quarter of a
+teaspoonful of the ammonium carbonate solution. If alum is present,
+the paste will show a lavender or blue color; if absent, the mass will
+become pink, fading to a dirty brown. If the result is doubtful, set
+the paste aside for several hours, when the colors will show more
+plainly.
+
+=Bread.=--Bread should be well baked and not too light or too heavy;
+the crust should be light brown and adherent to the substance of the
+bread. The center should be of even consistency, spongy, and firm; it
+should not pit or be soggy or doughy. The pores or holes should be of
+practically the same size throughout.
+
+Exceedingly white, light, or porous bread shows the presence of alum.
+It may be detected by means of the solutions already mentioned in the
+"logwood" test. Mix one teaspoonful of each solution and add three
+ounces (six tablespoonfuls) of water; pour this over a lump of bread,
+free from crust and about an inch square. After the bread has become
+thoroughly soaked, pour off the excess of liquid and dry the bread in
+the dish; if alum is present, the mass will show a violet or blue
+tint, more marked on drying; if absent, a brownish color will appear.
+
+=Baking Powders.=--Baking powders are of three classes, all having
+sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) as their alkaline salt. The first
+style is the commonly used and wholesome mixture of cream of tartar
+and baking soda; the second has calcium phosphate for the acid salt,
+and the third contains alum. All have a certain proportion of starch
+to absorb moisture. Of these the alum powders are the most harmful and
+should be avoided. Practically all of the well-known brands of baking
+powder are of the first-mentioned class and wholesome, and are rarely
+adulterated.
+
+
+=DAIRY PRODUCTS--Milk.=--Pure milk should have a specific gravity of
+from 1.027 to 1.033. Its normal reaction is neutral or slightly acid;
+it should never be strongly acid. If it is strongly alkaline, i. e.,
+turning red litmus paper blue, it is pretty certain that something in
+the way of a preservative has been added to it. When left standing for
+a few hours the cream should show as a slightly yellowish top layer,
+one-tenth or more of the whole amount; the milk below the cream should
+be lighter in color and with the slightest bluish tinge. If the color
+is of a yellowish tinge throughout, the addition of coloring matter
+must be suspected. "Annatto," a vegetable pigment, is used to give a
+"rich" tint to milk. To detect it, add one teaspoonful of baking soda
+to one quart of milk and immerse in it a strip of unglazed paper; in a
+few hours examine the paper; if annatto is present, it will have
+become an orange color.[5]
+
+If the whole milk has a blue and thin appearance, or if the cream is
+scant in quantity, it has probably been diluted with water. The
+popular idea that chalk is sometimes added to poor milk to make it
+appear of better quality is erroneous; chalk would always show as a
+precipitate, as it does not dissolve, and the presence of such a
+sediment would be a too obvious adulteration to be practiced.
+
+Milk should always be kept at a temperature below 50° F.; above that
+temperature the bacteria in it multiply with great rapidity and render
+it unfit for use.
+
+Milk may be preserved for several days if "pasteurized" or
+"sterilized." Pasteurization consists of heating milk to a temperature
+of about 167° F., and maintaining it at that degree for twenty
+minutes. Sterilization means keeping the milk at a temperature of 212°
+F. for two hours and a half. Immediately after either process the milk
+should be cooled, then placed in absolutely clean, covered bottles and
+kept on ice. These methods are not only harmless but actually
+beneficial in that they destroy any disease germs that might be
+present.
+
+Chemical preservatives are occasionally found in milk. They may be
+suspected if the milk is alkaline in reaction and has a disguised
+taste. The ones most commonly used are boric and salicylic acids and
+formaldehyde; the two former can only be detected by chemical tests
+too delicate and intricate to be used by the housewife. Formaldehyde
+may be tested for by using a solution of one drop of a ten per cent
+solution of ferric chloride to one ounce of hydrochloric acid.[6] Fill
+a small porcelain dish one-third full of this solution; add an equal
+volume of milk and heat slowly over a flame nearly to the boiling
+point, giving the dish a rotary motion to break up the curd. If
+formaldehyde is present, the mass will show a violet color, varying in
+depth with the amount present; if it is absent, the mass turns brown.
+
+=Butter.=--Good butter has a fresh, sweet odor and an agreeable taste.
+It should be of the same color and consistency throughout, easily cut
+and adherent and not crumbly when molded into shapes. Pure butter is
+very light in color; nearly all that is sold is colored, in order to
+meet the popular demand for "yellow" butter; annatto and other
+vegetable and mineral substances are sometimes employed for this
+purpose. These coloring matters are generally harmless but may be
+detected by dissolving a portion of the butter in alcohol; the natural
+color will dissolve, while foreign coloring will not. Butter should
+consist of eighty-five per cent fat, with the remainder water,
+casein, and salt. The most common methods of adulteration consist in
+an excess of water and the addition of oleomargarine. If an excess of
+water has been added it may be shown by melting the butter; the water
+and fat will separate in two distinct layers. Oleomargarine has a
+distinctive meaty smell, like that of cooked meat, and lacks the
+characteristic odor of pure butter. If pure butter is melted in a
+spoon, it will not sputter; if oleomargarine is present, it will.
+
+The preservatives sometimes used, namely, boric and salicylic acids
+and formaldehyde, can only be detected by chemical tests.
+
+=Eggs.=--Two methods may be used to detect stale eggs. First: make a
+solution of one part of table salt to ten parts of water and immerse
+the suspected egg; if it sinks, it is perfectly fresh; if it remains
+in the water below the surface, it is at least three days old, and if
+it floats, it is five or more days old.
+
+Second: hold the egg between a bright light and the eye. If it is
+fresh, it will show a rosy tint throughout, without dark spots, as the
+air chamber is small; if not fresh, it will look cloudy, with many
+dark spots present.
+
+
+=TEA AND COFFEE.=--These substances are extensively adulterated, but
+the adulterants are almost without exception harmless.
+
+=Tea.=--The commonest forms of adulteration of tea are as follows:
+(_a_) Exhausted tea leaves which have already been used are dried and
+added. Their presence may be detected by the weakness of the infusion,
+made from a given quantity of the suspected tea, compared with a
+similar infusion made from tea known to be pure. (_b_) Leaves from
+other plants are sometimes dried and added; these are easily shown if
+an infusion is made and when the leaves are thoroughly wet unrolling
+and comparing them. (_c_) Green teas may be "faced" or colored with
+Prussian blue, indigo, French chalk, or sulphate of lime; black teas
+may be similarly treated with plumbago or "Dutch pink." If teas so
+treated are shaken up in cold water the coloring matter will wash off.
+(_d_) Sand and iron filings are occasionally added for weight;
+observation, and the fact that they sink when tea is thrown in water,
+will show their presence. Iron filings may be readily found by using a
+magnet. (_e_) The presence of starch may be shown by washing the tea
+in cold water, straining it, and testing the solution in the following
+manner: dissolve one-half teaspoonful of potassium iodide in three
+ounces of water and add as much iodine as the solution will dissolve;
+a few drops of this solution added to the suspected sample will give a
+blue color if starch is present.
+
+=Coffee.=--Coffee should always be purchased in the bean, as ground
+coffee is much more frequently adulterated and the foreign substances
+are more difficult to detect.
+
+The adulterants commonly used are: chicory, peas, beans, peanuts, and
+pellets of roasted wheat flour, rye, corn, or barley.
+
+Fat globules are always present in pure coffee; their presence may be
+shown by the fact that imitation coffee sinks in water, while pure
+coffee floats.
+
+Chicory is the most frequently used adulterant; it is added for flavor
+and to produce a darker infusion, thus giving the impression of
+greater strength. It is perfectly harmless and as a drink is actually
+preferred by some people. Its detection is comparatively easy. Chicory
+grains are dark, gummy, soft, and bitter; coffee grains are hard and
+brittle; a small amount put in the mouth will demonstrate the
+difference. Chicory will often adhere to the wheels of a coffee
+grinder, clogging them on account of its gummy consistency.
+
+When a sample of adulterated coffee is thrown in water the pure coffee
+floats and leaves the water unstained; chicory sinks almost instantly,
+coloring the water, while peas and beans sink more slowly but also
+color the water.
+
+Peas and beans are also detected by the polished appearance of the
+broken or crushed grains in marked contrast to the dull surface of
+crushed coffee.
+
+The presence of peas, beans, rye, wheat, bread crumbs, and allied
+substances may be shown by the fact that they all contain starch.
+
+Make a ten per cent infusion of the suspected coffee; filter it, and
+decolorize the solution by boiling it with a piece of animal charcoal.
+Test the decolorized solution by slowly adding a few drops of the
+"potassium-iodide-iodine solution," directions for preparing which
+were given under heading of "Tea." A resulting blue color will
+indicate the presence of starch.
+
+
+=COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.=--The adulterants of these substances are
+generally harmless, as they usually consist of flavoring extracts,
+sugar, starch, flour, and animal fats. No tests other than flavor,
+consistency, and smoothness need be considered. Good cocoa and
+chocolate should be slightly bitter, with a pleasant characteristic
+odor and taste; they should have a smooth, even consistency and be
+free from grit or harsh particles.
+
+
+=CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.=--In general, acid
+substances, such as tomatoes and fruits, should not be canned in tin,
+as the action of the acid tends to dissolve the tin. It is better,
+therefore, to purchase these articles in glass.
+
+After opening the can the odor and appearance of the contents should
+be noted. The odor should be clean and fresh, and the slightest trace
+of any sour, musty, or disagreeable smell should cause the rejection
+of the food. The appearance should be clean, with no mold; the
+consistency and color of the fruit or vegetables should be uniform
+throughout. If the color is brighter than that of a similar article
+when canned at home, the presence of artificial coloring matter must
+be suspected. The brilliant green of some brands of peas, beans, or
+Brussels sprouts is produced by the addition of the salts of copper.
+This may be proved by leaving the blade of a penknife in the contents
+of the can for a short time; if copper is present it will be deposited
+on, and discolor, the blade.
+
+Brightly colored fruits should excite suspicion; this same dictum
+applies to all brightly colored jams and jellies, as the colors are
+usually produced by the addition of carmine or aniline red.
+
+The presence of preservatives, salicylic and boric acids, the
+benzoates, etc., can only be proved by delicate chemical tests.
+
+
+=SUGAR.=--Pure granulated or powdered sugar is white and clean. The
+presence of glucose should be suspected in sugar sold below the market
+price; it is perfectly harmless, but has a sweetening power of only
+about two-thirds that of sugar and is added on account of its
+cheapness and to increase the bulk.
+
+If sand, dirt, or flour are present they may be detected by
+observation, or by washing the suspected sample in water; flour will
+not dissolve, sand will sink, and dirt will discolor the water.
+
+
+=SPICES.=--Spices should be bought whole and ground in a spice mill as
+needed; if this is done, there need be little fear of their impurity,
+for whole spices are difficult to simulate or adulterate. Ground
+spices may be adulterated with bark, flour, starches, or arrowroot;
+these adulterants are harmless, but are fraudulent, as they increase
+the bulk and decrease the strength. Their actual presences can only be
+demonstrated by a microscopical or chemical examination.
+
+=Peppers.=--Black pepper is made from the whole berry; white pepper is
+made from the same berry with the outer husk removed. The adulterants
+are usually inert and harmless substances, such as flour, mustard, or
+linseed oil; their presence is obviated by the use of the whole
+peppercorns, ground as needed.
+
+=Red Pepper.=--This may be adulterated with red lead; when pure it
+will be entirely suspended in water; if a sediment falls it is
+probably red lead.
+
+=Mustard.=--Practically all of the adulterants of mustard can only be
+detected by intricate chemical tests. The presence of turmeric may be
+detected by the appearance of an orange-red color when ammonia is
+added to a solution of the sample.
+
+=Tomato Catsup.=--Artificial dyestuffs are common, giving a brilliant
+crimson or magenta color. Such catsup does not resemble the natural
+dull red or brown color of the homemade article.
+
+Preservatives, such as boric, salicylic, or benzoic acids and their
+salts, are sometimes added. While their presence cannot be condoned,
+yet they are usually present in small amounts and therefore
+practically harmless.
+
+=Pickles.=--These should be of a dull-green color. The bright emerald
+green sometimes observed is due to the presence of the salts of
+copper; this may be proved by dipping the blade of a penknife in the
+liquor, as described under the heading of "Canned Goods."
+
+Alum is sometimes used as a preservative and in order to make the
+pickles crisp. Its presence may be demonstrated by means of the
+"logwood" test mentioned under the heading of "Flour."
+
+
+=VINEGAR.=--Cider vinegar is of a brownish-yellow color and possesses
+a strong odor of apples.
+
+Wine vinegar is light yellow if made from white wine, and red if made
+from red wine.
+
+Malt vinegar is brown and has an odor suggestive of sour beer.
+
+Glucose vinegar has the taste and odor of fermented sugar.
+
+Molasses vinegar has the distinctive odor and taste of molasses.
+
+
+=OLIVE OIL.=--Pure olive oil has a pleasant, bland taste and a
+distinctive and agreeable odor, unmistakable in character for that of
+any other oil. The finest virgin oil is pale green in color, the
+cheaper grades are light yellow.
+
+The adulterants consist of cotton-seed, corn, mustard, and peanut
+oils.
+
+When pure olive oil is shaken in a glass or porcelain dish with an
+equal quantity of concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid[7] it turns
+from a pale to a dark green color in a few minutes; if under this
+treatment a reddish to an orange or brown color is produced the
+presence of a foreign vegetable oil is to be suspected.
+
+
+=FLAVORING EXTRACTS--Vanilla.=--This may be wholly or in part the
+extract of the Tonka bean or may be made from a chemical substance
+known as vanillin. The best practical working tests as to its purity
+are the price, taste, and odor. The distinctive odor and taste of
+vanilla are characteristic and cannot be mistaken.[8]
+
+=Lemon.=--This extract is often made from tartaric or citric acid.
+They may be tested for as follows: to a portion of the extract in a
+test tube add an equal volume of water to precipitate the oil; filter,
+and add one or two drops of the filtrate to a test tube full of cold,
+clear limewater; if tartaric acid is present a precipitate will fall
+to the bottom of the tube. Filter off this precipitate (if present)
+and heat the contents of the tube; if citric acid is present it will
+precipitate in the hot limewater.
+
+
+    FOOTNOTE.--Dr. Baker wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the
+    following authorities and the volumes mentioned for many helpful
+    suggestions. Pearman and Moore, "Aids to the Analysis of Foods and
+    Drugs"; Albert E. Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis"; Francis
+    Vacher, "Food Inspector's Hand Book."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The presence of aniline dyes may be detected by mixing a portion
+of the suspected sample with enough water to make a thin paste. Wet a
+piece of white wool cloth or yarn thoroughly with water and place it
+with the paste in an agate saucepan. Boil for ten minutes, stirring
+frequently. If a dye has been used the wool will be brightly colored;
+a brownish or pinkish color indicates the natural coloring matter of
+the fruit or vegetable.--EDITOR.
+
+[5] A little vinegar added to heated cream or milk produces in the
+curd a distinct orange color if an aniline dye has been used to make
+the cream look "rich." The curd will be brown if annatto or caromel
+has been used. If pure, the curd will be white.--EDITOR.
+
+[6] This acid must be used with great care; no portion of it should
+ever come in contact with the skin or clothing.
+
+[7] These acids must be used with great care. They should never be
+allowed to come in contact with the skin or clothing.
+
+[8] Add a little sugar-of-lead solution to the suspected extract; true
+vanilla extract will give a yellowish-brown precipitate and a pale,
+straw-colored liquid. If the extract is artificial, the addition of
+the lead solution will have little or no effect.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Mushroom Poisoning=
+
+_Symptoms--Treatment--How to Tell Mushrooms--The Common Kind--Other
+Varieties--The Edible Puffball--Poisonous Mushrooms Frequently
+Mistaken._
+
+
+=MUSHROOM POISONING.=--Vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, pains in legs;
+possibly confusion, as if drunk, stupidity, followed by excitement,
+and perhaps convulsions. Lips and face may be blue. Pulse may be weak.
+
+_First Aid Rule 1.--Rid the stomach and bowels of remaining poison.
+Give emetic of mustard, tablespoonful in three glasses of warm water,
+unless vomiting is already excessive. When vomiting ceases, give
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or compound cathartic pill._ GIVE NO
+SALTS. _Also empty bowels with injection of tablespoonful of glycerin
+in pint of warm soapsuds and water._
+
+_Rule 2.--Antidote the poison. Give a cup of strong coffee and fifteen
+drops of tincture of belladonna to adult. Repeat both once, after two
+hours have passed._
+
+_Rule 3.--Rest and stimulate. Put patient to bed. Give whisky, a
+tablespoonful in twice as much water. Give tincture of digitalis, ten
+drops every two hours, till two or three doses are taken by adult._
+
+=Symptoms.=--Vomiting and diarrhea come on in a few hours to half a
+day, with cramps in the stomach and legs. The face and lips may grow
+blue. There is great prostration. In the case of poisoning by the _fly
+amanita_, stupor may appear early, the patient acting as if drunk, and
+difficult breathing may be a noticeable symptom. Afterwards the
+patient becomes excited and convulsions develop. The pulse becomes
+weak and slow. The patient may die in a few hours, or may linger for
+three or four days. If treatment be thorough, recovery may result.
+
+=Treatment.=--Unless vomiting has already been excessive, the patient
+should receive a tablespoonful of mustard mixed with a glassful of
+tepid water. After the vomiting ceases he should receive a
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or any cathartic except salts. If the
+cathartic is vomited, he should receive an injection into the rectum
+of a tablespoonful of glycerin mixed with a pint of soapsuds and
+water. Coffee and atropine (or belladonna) are the best antidotes.
+
+If a physician be secured, he will probably give a hypodermic
+injection of atropine. If a physician is not procurable, the patient
+should receive a cup of strong coffee, and a dose of ten or fifteen
+drops of tincture of belladonna in a tablespoonful of water, if an
+adult. This dose should be repeated once after the lapse of two hours.
+The patient should be kept in bed, a bedpan being used when the bowels
+move.
+
+When the pulse begins to grow weak, two tablespoonfuls of whisky and
+ten drops of the tincture of digitalis should be given to an adult in
+quarter of a glass of hot water. The digitalis should be repeated
+every two hours till three or four doses have been taken. The patient
+must be kept warm with hot-water bottles and blankets.
+
+
+=HOW TO KNOW MUSHROOMS.=--One-sixth of one of the poisonous mushrooms
+has caused death. It is, therefore, impossible to exert too much care
+in selecting them for food. A novice would much better learn all the
+characteristics of edible and poisonous mushrooms in the field from an
+expert before attempting to gather them himself, and should not trust
+to book descriptions, except in the case of the few edible species
+described hereafter. It is not safe for a novice to gather the
+immature or button mushrooms, because it is much more difficult to
+determine their characteristics than those of the full grown. As
+reference books, the reader is advised to procure Bulletin No. 15 of
+the United States Department of Agriculture, entitled "Some Edible and
+Poisonous Fungi," by Dr. W. G. Farlow, which will be sent without
+charge on request by the Agricultural Department at Washington;
+"Studies of American Fungi," by Atkinson, and Miss Marshall's
+"Mushroom Book," all of which are fully illustrated, and will prove
+helpful to those interested in edible fungi.
+
+There are no single tests by which one can distinguish edible from
+poisonous fungi, such as taste, odor, the blackening of a silver
+spoon, etc., although contrary statements have been made. Even when
+the proper mushrooms have been eaten, ill effects, death itself, may
+follow if the mushrooms have been kept too long, have been
+insufficiently cooked, have been eaten in too large a quantity
+(especially by children), or if the consumer is the possessor of an
+unhappy idiosyncrasy toward mushrooms.
+
+No botanic distinction exists between toadstools and mushrooms;
+mushrooms may be regarded as edible toadstools. They are all,
+botanically speaking, edible or poisonous fungi. A description follows
+of the five kinds of fungi most commonly eaten, and the poisonous
+species which may be mistaken for them.
+
+
+=EDIBLE MUSHROOMS.=--=1. The Common Mushroom= (_Agaricus
+Campestris_).--The fungi called agarici are those which have gills,
+that is, little plates which look like knife blades on the under
+surface of the top of the mushroom, radiating outward from the stem
+like the spokes of a wheel. This is the species most frequently grown
+artificially, and sold in the markets. The top or cap of this mushroom
+is white, or of varying shades of brown, and measures from one and a
+half to three or even four inches in diameter. It is found in the
+latter part of August, in September, and in October, growing in
+clusters on pastures, fields, and lawns.
+
+The gills are pink or salmon colored in the newly expanded specimen;
+but as it grows older, or after it is picked, the gills turn dark
+purple, chestnut brown, or black. This is the important point to
+remember, since the poisonous species mistaken for it all have white
+gills. The gills end with abrupt upward curves at the center of the
+cap without being attached to the stem. In the young mushroom, when
+the cap is folded down about the stem, the gills are not noticeable,
+as they are covered by a veil or filmy membrane, a part of which
+remains attached to the stem (when the top expands), as a ring or
+collar about the stem a little more than halfway up from the ground.
+The stem is solid and not hollow, and there is no bulbous enlargement
+at the base of the stem, surrounded by scales or a collar, as occurs
+in the _fly amanita_ and other poisonous species. Neither the
+_campestris_ nor any other mushroom should be eaten when over a day
+old, since decomposition quickly sets in.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.
+
+THE FIELD MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Agaricus Campestris._)
+
+An edible variety; very common.]
+
+=2. Horse Mushroom= (_Agaricus Arvensis_).--This species may be
+considered with the foregoing, but it differs in being considerably
+larger (measuring four to ten inches across) and in having a more
+shiny cap, of a white or brown hue. The ring about the stem is
+noticeably wider and thicker, and is composed of two distinct layers.
+The gills are white at first, turning dark brown comparatively late,
+and the stem is a little hollow as it matures. In some localities it
+is more common than the _campestris_ in fields and pastures, while in
+other places it is found only in rich gardens, about hot beds, or in
+cold frames. It is not distinguished from the _campestris_ by market
+people, but is often sold with the latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.
+
+THE HORSE MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Agaricus Arvensis._)
+
+This variety is edible.]
+
+=3. Shaggy Mane, Ink Cap, or Horsetail Fungus= (_Coprinus
+Comatus_).--This mushroom possesses the most marked characteristics of
+any of the edible species; it would seem impossible to mistake its
+identity from written descriptions and illustrations. It is considered
+by many superior in flavor to the _campestris_.
+
+The top or cap does not expand in this mushroom, until it begins to
+turn black, but remains folded down about the stem like a closed
+umbrella. Mature specimens are usually three to five, occasionally
+from eight to ten, inches high. The stem is hollow. The inside of the
+cap or gills and the stem are snow white. The outer surface of the
+cap, which is white in young plants, becomes of a faint, yellow-brown
+or tawny color in mature specimens, and also darker at the top.
+Delicate scales often rolled up at their lower ends are seen on the
+exterior of the cap, more readily in mature mushrooms, hence the name
+"shaggy mane." There is a ring around the stem at the lower margin of
+the cap, and it is so loosely attached to either the cap or stem that
+it sometimes drops down to the base of the latter.
+
+The most salient feature of shaggy mane is the change which occurs
+when it is about a day old; it turns black and dissolves away into an
+inky fluid, whence the other common name "ink cap." The mushroom
+should not be eaten when in this condition. The ink cap is usually
+found growing in autumn, rarely in summer, in richer earth than the
+common mushroom. One finds it in heaps of street scrapings, by
+roadsides, in rich lawns, in soils filled with decomposing wood and in
+low, shaded, moist grounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.
+
+THE HORSE-TAIL FUNGUS.
+
+(_Coprinus Comatus._)
+
+Edible; cut shows entire plant and section.]
+
+=4. Fairy-ring Mushroom= (_Marasmius Oreades_).--This species usually
+grows on lawns, in clusters which form an imperfect circle or
+crescent. The ring increases in size each year as new fungi grow on
+the outside, while old ones toward the center of the circle perish.
+This mushroom is small and slender, and rarely exceeds two inches in
+breadth. The cap and the tough and tubular stem are buff, and the
+gills, few in number and bulging out in the middle, are of a lighter
+shade of the same color. There is no ring about the stem. Several
+crops of the fairy-ring mushroom are produced all through the season,
+but the most prolific growth appears after the late fall rains. There
+are other fungi forming rings, some of which are poisonous, and they
+may not be easily distinguished from the edible species; hence great
+care is essential in gathering them. The under surface of the cap is
+brown or blackish in the mature plants of poisonous species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.
+
+THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Marasmius Oreades._)
+
+An edible variety.]
+
+=5. Edible Puffball= (_Lycoperdon Cyathiforme_).--Edible puffballs
+grow in open pastures, and on lawns and grassplots, often forming
+rings. They are spherical in form, generally from one and a half to
+two inches, occasionally six inches, in diameter, broad and somewhat
+flattened at the top, and tapering at the base, white or brown
+outside. They often present an irregularly checkered appearance, owing
+to the fact that the white interior shows between the dark raised
+parts. The interior is at first pure white and of solid consistency,
+but later becomes softer and yellowish, and then contains an
+amber-colored juice. After the puffball has matured, the contents
+change into a brown, dustlike mass, and the top falls off; and it is
+then inedible. All varieties of puffball with a pure white interior
+are harmless, if eaten before becoming crumbly and powdery. There is
+only one species thought to be poisonous, and that has a yellow-brown
+exterior, while the interior is purple-black, marbled with white.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.
+
+THE EDIBLE PUFFBALL.
+
+(_Lycoperdon Cyathiforme._)
+
+Upper illustration shows entire plant; lower, a section.]
+
+
+=POISONOUS MUSHROOMS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN.=
+
+_To escape eating poisonous mushrooms do not gather the buttons, and
+be suspicious of those growing in woods and shady spots that show any
+bright hue, or have a scaly or dotted cap, or white gills.[9] By so
+doing the following species will be avoided._
+
+=Fly Amanita= (_Amanita Muscaria_).--Infusions of this mushroom made
+by boiling in water are used to kill flies. This species grows in
+woods and shady places, by roadsides, and along the borders of fields,
+and is much commoner than the _campestris_ in some localities. It
+prefers a poor, gravelly soil, and is found in summer.
+
+The stem is hollow and its gills are white. The cap is variously
+colored, white, orange, yellow, or even brilliant red, and dotted over
+with corklike particles or warty scales which are easily rubbed off.
+There is a large, drooping collar about the upper part of the hollow,
+white stem, and the latter is scaly below with a bulbous enlargement
+at its base.
+
+The young mushrooms, or buttons, do not exhibit the dotted cap, and
+the bulbous scaly base may be left in the ground when the mushroom is
+picked. The _fly amanita_ is usually larger than the common mushroom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.
+
+A POISONOUS FUNGUS.
+
+(_Amanita Muscaria._)
+
+The Fly Agaric.]
+
+=Death Cup or Deadly Agaric= (_Amanita Phalloides_).--This species is
+more fatal in its effects than the preceding. Its salient feature is a
+bulbous base surmounted and surrounded by a collar or cup out of which
+the stem grows. This is often buried beneath the ground, however, so
+that it may escape notice. The gills and stem are white like the
+preceding, but the cap is usually not dotted but glossy, white,
+greenish, or yellow. There is also a broad, noticeable ring about the
+stem, as in the _fly amanita_. This mushroom frequents moist, shady
+spots, also along the borders of fields. It occurs singly, and rarely
+in fields or pastures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.
+
+THE DEADLY AGARIC.
+
+(_Amanita Phalloides._)
+
+This variety is very poisonous.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] The shaggy mane has white gills, but its other features are
+characteristic.
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS
+
+BY
+
+GEORGE M. PRICE
+
+
+
+
+_Acknowledgment_
+
+
+We beg to tender grateful acknowledgment to author and publisher for
+the use of Dr. George M. Price's valuable articles on sanitation. The
+following extracts are taken from Dr. Price's "Handbook on
+Sanitation," published by John Wiley & Son, and are covered by
+copyright.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=Soil and Sites=
+
+
+=Definition.=--By the term "soil" we mean the superficial layer of the
+earth, a result of the geological disintegration of the primitive rock
+by the action of the elements upon it and of the decay of vegetable
+and animal life.
+
+=Composition.=--Soil consists of solids, water, and air.
+
+=Solids.=--The solid constituents of the soil are inorganic and
+organic in character.
+
+The inorganic constituents are the various minerals and elements found
+alone, or in combination, in the earth, such as silica, aluminum,
+calcium, iron, carbon, sodium, chlorine, potassium, etc.
+
+The characteristics of the soil depend upon its constituents, and upon
+the predominance of one or the other of its composing elements. The
+nature of the soil also depends upon its physical properties. When the
+disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles, the soil is
+called a _gravel soil_. A _sandy soil_ is one in which the particles
+are very small. _Sandstone_ is consolidated sand. _Clay_ is soil
+consisting principally of aluminum silicate; in _chalk_, soft calcium
+carbonate predominates.
+
+The organic constituents of the soil are the result of vegetable and
+animal growth and decomposition in the soil.
+
+=Ground Water.=--Ground water is that continuous body or sheet of
+water formed by the complete filling and saturation of the soil to a
+certain level by rain water; it is that stratum of subterranean lakes
+and rivers, filled up with alluvium, which we reach at a higher or
+lower level when we dig wells.
+
+The level of the ground water depends upon the underlying strata, and
+also upon the movements of the subterranean water bed. The relative
+position of the impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance
+from the surface soil. In marshy land the ground water is at the
+surface; in other places it can be reached only by deep borings. The
+source of the ground water is the rainfall, part of which drains into
+the porous soil until it reaches an impermeable stratum, where it
+collects.
+
+The movements of the ground water are in two directions--horizontal
+and vertical. The horizontal or lateral movement is toward the seas
+and adjacent water courses, and is determined by hydrostatic laws and
+topographical relations. The vertical motion of the ground water is to
+and from the surface, and is due to the amount of rainfall, the
+pressure of tides, and water courses into which the ground water
+drains. The vertical variations of the ground water determine the
+distance of its surface level from the soil surface, and are divided
+into a persistently low-water level, about fifteen feet from the
+surface; a persistently high-water level, about five feet from the
+surface, and a fluctuating level, sometimes high, sometimes low.
+
+=Ground Air.=--Except in the hardest granite rocks and in soil
+completely filled with water the interstices of the soil are filled
+with a continuation of atmospheric air, the amount depending on the
+degree of porosity of the soil. The nature of the ground air differs
+from that of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its location.
+The principal constituents of the air--nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic
+acid--are also found in the ground air, but in the latter the relative
+quantities of O and CO2 are different.
+
+    AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN 100 VOLUMES
+
+    Nitrogen                          79.00 per cent.
+    Oxygen                            20.96    "
+    Carbonic acid                      0.04    "
+
+    AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GROUND AIR
+
+    Nitrogen                          79.00 per cent.
+    Oxygen                            10.35    "
+    Carbonic acid                      9.74    "
+
+Of course, these quantities are not constant, but vary in different
+soils, and at different depths, times, etc. The greater quantity of
+CO2 in ground air is due to the process of oxidation and decomposition
+taking place in the soil. Ground air also contains a large quantity
+of bacterial and other organic matter found in the soil.
+
+Ground air is in constant motion, its movements depending upon a great
+many factors, some among these being the winds and movements of the
+atmospheric air, the temperature of the soil, the surface temperature,
+the pressure from the ground water from below, and surface and rain
+water from above, etc.
+
+=Ground Moisture.=--The interstices of the soil above the ground-water
+level are filled with air _only_, when the soil is absolutely dry; but
+as such a soil is very rare, all soils being more or less damp, soil
+usually contains a mixture of air and water, or what is called _ground
+moisture_.
+
+Ground moisture is derived partly from the evaporation of the ground
+water and its capillary absorption by the surface soil, and partly by
+the retention of water from rains upon the surface. The power of the
+soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to the physical
+and chemical, as well as the thermal, properties of the soil.
+
+Loose sand may hold about 2 gallons of water per cubic foot; granite
+takes up about 4 per cent of moisture; chalk about 15 per cent; clay
+about 20 per cent; sandy loam 33 to 35 per cent; humus[10] about 40
+per cent.
+
+=Ground Temperature.=--The temperature of the soil is due to the
+direct rays of the sun, the physicochemical changes in its interior,
+and to the internal heat of the earth.
+
+The ground temperature varies according to the annual and diurnal
+changes of the external temperature; also according to the character
+of the soil, its color, composition, depth, degree of organic
+oxidation, ground-water level, and degree of dampness. In hot weather
+the surface soil is cooler, and the subsurface soil still more so,
+than the surrounding air; in cold weather the opposite is the case.
+The contact of the cool soil with the warm surface air on summer
+evenings is what produces the condensation of air moisture which we
+call dew.
+
+=Bacteria.=--Quite a large number of bacteria are found in the soil,
+especially near the surface, where chemical and organic changes are
+most active. From 200,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria have been found in 1
+c.c. of earth. The ground bacteria are divided into two
+groups--saprophytic and pathogenic. The saprophytic bacteria are the
+bacteria of decay, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is to their
+benevolent action that vegetable and animal _débris_ is decomposed,
+oxidized, and reduced to its elements. To these bacteria the soil owes
+its self-purifying capacity and the faculty of disintegrating animal
+and vegetable _débris_.
+
+The pathogenic bacteria are either those formed during the process of
+organic decay, and which, introduced into the human system, are
+capable of producing various diseases, or those which become lodged in
+the soil through the contamination of the latter by ground water and
+air, and which find in the soil a favorable lodging ground, until
+forced out of the soil by the movements of the ground water and air.
+
+=Contamination of the Soil.=--The natural capacity of the soil to
+decompose and reduce organic matter is sometimes taxed to its utmost
+by the introduction into the soil of extraneous matters in quantities
+which the soil is unable to oxidize in a given period. This is called
+contamination or pollution of soil, and is due: (1) to surface
+pollution by refuse, garbage, animal and human excreta; (2) to
+interment of dead bodies of beasts and men; (3) to the introduction of
+foreign deleterious gases, etc.[11]
+
+_Pollution by Surface Refuse and Sewage._--This occurs where a large
+number of people congregate, as in cities, towns, etc., and very
+seriously contaminates the ground by the surcharge of the surface soil
+with sewage matter, saturating the ground with it, polluting the
+ground water from which the drinking water is derived, and increasing
+the putrefactive changes taking place in the soil. Here the pathogenic
+bacteria abound, and, by multiplying, exert a very marked influence
+upon the health by the possible spread of infectious diseases. Sewage
+pollution of the soils and of the source of water supply is a matter
+of grave importance, and is one of the chief factors of high
+mortality in cities and towns.
+
+_Interment of Bodies._--The second cause of soil contamination is also
+of great importance. Owing to the intense physicochemical and organic
+changes taking place within the soil, all dead animal matter interred
+therein is easily disposed of in a certain time, being reduced to the
+primary constituents, viz., ammonia, nitrous acid, carbonic acid,
+sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen, etc. But whenever the number of
+interred bodies is too great, and the products of decomposition are
+allowed to accumulate to a very great degree, until the capacity of
+the soil to absorb and oxidize them is overtaxed, the soil, and the
+air and water therein, are polluted by the noxious poisons produced by
+the processes of decomposition.
+
+_Introduction of Various Foreign Materials and Gases._--In cities and
+towns various pipes are laid in the ground for conducting certain
+substances, as illuminating gas, fuel, coal gas, etc.; the pipes at
+times are defective, allowing leakage therefrom, and permitting the
+saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which are frequently drawn
+up by the various currents of ground air into the open air and
+adjacent dwellings.
+
+=Influence of the Soil on Health.=--The intimate relations existing
+between the soil upon which we live and our health, and the marked
+influence of the soil on the life and well-being of man, have been
+recognized from time immemorial.
+
+The influence of the soil upon health is due to: (1) the physical and
+chemical character of the soil; (2) the ground-water level and degree
+of dampness; (3) the organic impurities and contamination of the soil.
+
+The physical and chemical nature of the soil, irrespective of its
+water, moisture, and air, has been regarded by some authorities as
+having an effect on the health, growth, and constitution of man. The
+peculiar disease called cretinism, as well as goitre, has been
+attributed to a predominance of certain chemicals in the soil.
+
+The ground-water level is of great importance to the well-being of
+man. Professor Pettenkofer claimed that a persistently low water level
+(about fifteen feet from the surface) is healthy, the mortality being
+the lowest in such places; a persistently high ground-water level
+(about five feet from the surface) is unhealthy; and a fluctuating
+level, varying from high to low, is the most unhealthy, and is
+dangerous to life and health. Many authorities have sought to
+demonstrate the intimate relations between a high water level in the
+soil and various diseases.
+
+A damp soil, viz., a soil wherein the ground moisture is very great
+and persistent, has been found inimical to the health of the
+inhabitants, predisposing them to various diseases by the direct
+effects of the dampness itself, and by the greater proneness of damp
+ground to become contaminated with various pathogenic bacteria and
+organisms which may be drawn into the dwellings by the movements of
+the ground air. As a rule, there is very little to hinder the ground
+air from penetrating the dwellings of man, air being drawn in through
+cellars by changes in temperature, and by the artificial heating of
+houses.
+
+The organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil are especially
+abundant in large cities, and are a cause of the evil influence of
+soil upon health. The impurities are allowed to drain into the ground,
+to pollute the ground water and the source of water supply, and to
+poison the ground air, loading it with bacteria and products of
+putrefaction, thus contaminating the air and water so necessary to
+life.
+
+=Diseases Due to Soil.=--A great many diseases have been thought to be
+due to the influence of the soil. An ætiological relation had been
+sought between soil and the following diseases: malaria, paroxysmal
+fevers, tuberculosis, neuralgias, cholera, yellow fever, bubonic
+plague, typhoid, dysentery, goitre and cretinism, tetanus, anthrax,
+malignant Oedema, septicæmia, etc.
+
+=Sites.=--From what we have already learned about the soil, it is
+evident that it is a matter of great importance as to where the site
+for a human habitation is selected, for upon the proper selection of
+the site depend the health, well-being, and longevity of the
+inhabitants. The requisite characteristics of a healthy site for
+dwellings are: a dry, porous, permeable soil; a low and nonfluctuating
+ground-water level, and a soil retaining very little dampness, free
+from organic impurities, and the ground water of which is well drained
+into distant water courses, while its ground air is uncontaminated by
+pathogenic bacteria. Exposure to sunlight, and free circulation of
+air, are also requisite.
+
+According to Parkes, the soils in the order of their fitness for
+building purposes are as follows: (1) primitive rock; (2) gravel, with
+pervious soil; (3) sandstone; (4) limestone; (5) sandstone, with
+impervious subsoil; (6) clays and marls; (7) marshy land, and (8) made
+soils.
+
+It is very seldom, however, that a soil can be secured having all the
+requisites of a healthy site. In smaller places, as well as in cities,
+commercial and other reasons frequently compel the acquisition of and
+building upon a site not fit for the purpose; it then becomes a
+sanitary problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil suitable
+for habitation.
+
+=Prevention of the Bad Effects of the Soil on Health.=--The methods
+taught by sanitary science to improve a defective soil and to prepare
+a healthy site are the following:
+
+    (1) Street paving and tree planting.
+    (2) Proper construction of houses.
+    (3) Subsoil drainage.
+
+_Street Paving_ serves a double sanitary purpose. It prevents street
+refuse and sewage from penetrating the ground and contaminating the
+surface soil, and it acts as a barrier to the free ascension of
+deleterious ground air.[12]
+
+_Tree Planting_ serves as a factor in absorbing the ground moisture
+and in oxidizing organic impurities.
+
+_The Proper Construction of the House_ has for its purpose the
+prevention of the entrance of ground moisture and air inside the house
+by building the foundations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely
+cut off communication between the ground and the dwelling. This is
+accomplished by putting under the foundation a solid bed of concrete,
+and under the foundation walls damp-proof courses.
+
+The following are the methods recommended by the New York City
+Tenement House Department for the water-proofing and damp-proofing of
+foundation walls and cellars:
+
+_Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Foundation Walls._--"There shall
+be built in with the foundation walls, at a level of six (6) inches
+below the finished floor level, a course of damp-proofing consisting
+of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (not less than fifteen
+(15) pounds weight per one hundred (100) square feet), and one (1) ply
+of burlap, laid in alternate layers, having the burlap placed between
+the felt, and all laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, and projecting six (6) inches inside and six (6) inches
+outside of the walls.
+
+"There shall be constructed on the outside surface of the walls a
+water-proofing lapping on to the damp-proof course in the foundation
+walls and extending up to the soil level. This water-proofing shall
+consist of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (of weight
+specified above), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. This
+water-proofing to be well stuck to the damp course in the foundation
+walls. The layers of felt must break joints."
+
+_Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Cellar Floors._--"There shall be
+laid, above a suitable bed of rough concrete, a course of
+water-proofing consisting of not less than three (3) ply of tarred
+felt (not less than fifteen (15) pounds weight per one hundred (100)
+square feet), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid asphalt,
+finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. The felt is
+to be laid so that each layer laps two-thirds of its width over the
+layer immediately below, the contact surface being thoroughly coated
+with the hot pitch over its entire area before placing the upper
+layer. The water-proofing course must be properly lapped on and
+secured to the damp course in the foundation walls."
+
+Other methods of damp-proofing foundations and cellars consist in the
+use of slate or sheet lead instead of tar and tarred paper. An
+additional means of preventing water and dampness from coming into
+houses has been proposed in the so-called "dry areas," which are open
+spaces four to eight feet wide between the house proper and the
+surrounding ground, the open spaces running as deep as the foundation,
+if possible. The dry areas are certainly a good preventive against
+dampness coming from the sides of the house.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+CONCRETE FOUNDATION AND DAMP-PROOF COURSE.]
+
+_Subsoil Drainage._--By subsoil drainage is meant the reducing of the
+level of the ground water by draining all subsoil water into certain
+water courses, either artificial or natural. Subsoil drainage is not a
+modern discovery, as it was used in many ancient lands, and was
+extensively employed in ancient Rome, the valleys and suburbs of which
+would have been uninhabitable but for the draining of the marshes by
+the so-called "_cloacæ_" or drains, which lowered the ground-water
+level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to build upon.
+The drains for the conduction of subsoil water are placed at a
+certain depth, with a fall toward the exit. The materials for the
+drain are either stone and gravel trenches, or, better, porous
+earthenware pipes or ordinary drain tile. The drains must not be
+impermeable or closed, and sewers are not to be used for drainage
+purposes. Sometimes open, V-shaped pipes are laid under the regular
+sewers, if these are at the proper depth.
+
+By subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level of ground water
+wherever it is near or at the surface, as in swamps, marsh, and other
+lands, and prepare lands previously uninhabitable for healthy sites.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Humus is vegetable mold; swamp muck; peat; etc.--EDITOR.
+
+[11] A leak in a gas main, allowing the gas to penetrate the soil,
+will destroy trees, shrubbery, or any other vegetation with which it
+comes in contact.--EDITOR.
+
+[12] Town and village paving plans will benefit by knowledge of the
+recent satisfactory experience of New York City authorities in paving
+with wood blocks soaked in a preparation of creosote and resin. As
+compared with the other two general classes of paving, granite blocks,
+and asphalt, these wood blocks are now considered superior.
+
+The granite blocks are now nearly discarded in New York because of
+their permeability, expense, and noise, being now used for heavy
+traffic only.
+
+Asphalt is noiseless and impermeable (thereby serving the "double
+sanitary purpose" mentioned by Dr. Price).
+
+But the wood possesses these qualities, and has in addition the
+advantage of inexpensiveness, since it is more durable, not cracking
+at winter cold and melting under summer heat like the asphalt; and
+there is but slight cost for repairs, which are easily made by taking
+out the separate blocks.
+
+These "creo-resinate" wood blocks, recently used on lower Broadway,
+Park Place, and the congested side streets, are giving admirable
+results.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Ventilation=
+
+
+=Definition.=--The air within an uninhabited room does not differ from
+that without. If the room is occupied by one or more individuals,
+however, then the air in the room soon deteriorates, until the
+impurities therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health.
+This is due to the fact that with each breath a certain quantity of
+CO2, organic impurities, and aqueous vapor is exhaled; and these
+products of respiration soon surcharge the air until it is rendered
+impure and unfit for breathing. In order to render the air pure in
+such a room, and make life possible, it is necessary to change the air
+by withdrawing the impure, and substituting pure air from the outside.
+This is _ventilation_.
+
+_Ventilation_, therefore, is the maintenance of the air in a confined
+space in a condition conducive to health; in other words, "ventilation
+is the replacing of the impure air in a confined space by pure air
+from the outside."
+
+=Quantity of Air Required.=--What do we regard as impure air? What is
+the index of impurity? How much air is required to render pure an air
+in a given space, in a given time, for a given number of people? How
+often can the change be safely made, and how? These are the problems
+of ventilation.
+
+An increase in the quantity of CO2 [carbon dioxide gas], and a
+proportionate increase of organic impurities, are the results of
+respiratory vitiation of the air; and it has been agreed to regard the
+relative quantity of CO2 as the standard of impurity, its increase
+serving as an index of the condition of the air. The normal quantity
+of CO2 in the air is 0.04 per cent, or 4 volumes in 10,000; and it has
+been determined that whenever the CO2 reaches 0.06 per cent, or 6
+parts per 10,000, the maximum of air vitiation is reached--a point
+beyond which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to health.
+
+We therefore know that an increase of 2 volumes of CO2 in 10,000 of
+air constitutes the maximum of admissible impurity; the difference
+between 0.04 per cent and 0.06 per cent. Now, a healthy average adult
+at rest exhales in one hour 0.6 cubic foot of CO2. Having determined
+these two factors--the amount of CO2 exhaled in one hour and the
+maximum of admissible impurity--we can find by dividing 0.6 by 0.0002
+(or 0.02 per cent) the number of cubic feet of air needed for one
+hour,==3,000.
+
+Therefore, a room with a space of 3,000 cubic feet, occupied by one
+average adult at rest, will not reach its maximum of impurity (that
+is, the air in such a room will not be in need of a change) before one
+hour has elapsed.
+
+The relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ for adults at
+work and at rest, for children, women, etc.; it will also differ
+according to the illuminant employed, whether oil, candle, gas,
+etc.--an ordinary 3-foot gas-burner requiring 1,800 cubic feet of air
+in one hour.
+
+It is not necessary, however, to have 3,000 cubic feet of space for
+each individual in a room, for the air in the latter can safely be
+changed at least three times within one hour, thus reducing the air
+space needed to about 1,000 cubic feet. This change of air or
+ventilation of a room can be accomplished by mechanical means oftener
+than three times in an hour, but a natural change of more than three
+times in an hour will ordinarily create too strong a current of air,
+and may cause draughts and chills dangerous to health.
+
+In determining the cubic space needed, the height of the room as well
+as the floor space must be taken into consideration. As a rule the
+height of a room ought to be in proportion to the floor space, and in
+ordinary rooms should not exceed fourteen feet, as a height beyond
+that is of very little advantage.[13]
+
+=Forces of Ventilation.=--We now come to the question of the various
+modes by which change in the air of a room is possible. Ventilation is
+natural or artificial according to whether artificial or mechanical
+devices are or are not used. Natural ventilation is only possible
+because our buildings and houses, their material and construction, are
+such that numerous apertures and crevices are left for air to come in;
+for it is evident that if a room were hermetically air-tight, no
+natural ventilation would be possible.
+
+The properties of air which render both natural and artificial
+ventilation possible are diffusion, motion, and gravity. These three
+forces are the natural agents of ventilation.
+
+There is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in the air; this
+diffusion takes place even through stone and through brick walls. The
+more porous the material of which the building is constructed, the
+more readily does diffusion take place. Dampness, plastering,
+painting, and papering of walls diminish diffusion, however.
+
+The second force in ventilation is the motion of air or winds. This is
+the most powerful agent of ventilation, for even a slight,
+imperceptible wind, traveling about two miles an hour, is capable,
+when the windows and doors of a room are open, of changing the air of
+a room 528 times in one hour. Air passes also through brick and stone
+walls. The objections to winds as a sole mode of ventilation are their
+inconstancy and irregularity. When the wind is very slight its
+ventilating influence is very small; on the other hand, when the wind
+is strong it cannot be utilized as a means of ventilation on account
+of the air currents being too strong and capable of exerting
+deleterious effects on health.
+
+The third, the most constant and reliable, and, in fact, principal
+agent of ventilation is the specific gravity of the air, and the
+variations in the gravity and consequent pressure which are results of
+the variations in temperature, humidity, etc. Whenever air is warmer
+in one place than in another, the warmer air being lighter and the
+colder air outside being heavier, the latter exerts pressure upon the
+air in the room, causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be
+displaced by the heavier air from the outside, thus changing the air
+in the room. This mode of ventilation is always constant and at work,
+as the very presence of living beings in the room warms the air
+therein, thus causing a difference from the outside air and effecting
+change of air from the outside to the inside of the room.
+
+=Methods of Ventilation.=--The application of these principles of
+ventilation is said to be accomplished in a natural or an artificial
+way, according as mechanical means to utilize the forces and
+properties of air are used or not. But in reality natural ventilation
+can hardly be said to exist, since dwellings are so constructed as to
+guard against exposure and changes of temperature, and are usually
+equipped with numerous appliances for promoting change of air.
+Windows, doors, fireplaces, chimneys, shafts, courts, etc., are all
+artificial methods of securing ventilation, although we usually regard
+them as means of natural ventilation.
+
+=Natural Ventilation.=--The means employed for applying the properties
+of diffusion are the materials of construction. A porous material
+being favorable for diffusion, some such material is placed in several
+places within the wall, thus favoring change of air. Imperfect
+carpenter work is also a help, as the cracks and openings left are
+favorable for the escape and entrance of air.
+
+Wind, or the motion of air, is utilized either directly, through
+windows, doors, and other openings; or indirectly, by producing a
+partial vacuum in passing over chimneys and shafts, causing suction of
+the air in them, and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the
+rooms.
+
+The opening of windows and doors is possible only in warm weather; and
+as ventilation becomes a problem only in temperate and cold weather,
+the opening of windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without
+causing colds, etc. Various methods have therefore been proposed for
+using windows for the purposes of ventilation without producing
+forcible currents of air.
+
+The part of the window best fitted for the introduction of air is the
+space between the two sashes, where they meet. The ingress of air is
+made possible whenever the lower sash is raised or the upper one is
+lowered. In order to prevent cold air from without entering through
+the openings thus made, it has been proposed by Hinkes Bird to fit a
+block of wood in the lower opening; or else, as in Dr. Keen's
+arrangement, a piece of paper or cloth is used to cover the space left
+by the lifting or lowering of either or both sashes. Louvers or
+inclined panes or parts of these may also be used. Parts or entire
+window panes are sometimes wholly removed and replaced by tubes or
+perforated pieces of zinc, so that air may come in through the
+apertures. Again, apertures for inlets and outlets may be made
+directly in the walls of the rooms. These openings are filled in with
+porous bricks or with specially made bricks (like Ellison's conical
+bricks), or boxes provided with several openings. A very useful
+apparatus of this kind is the so-called Sheringham valve, which
+consists of an iron box fitted into the wall, the front of the box
+facing the room having an iron valve hinged along its lower edge, and
+so constructed that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a
+current of air pass upward. Another very good apparatus of this kind
+is the Tobin ventilator, consisting of horizontal tubes let through
+the walls, the outer ends open to the air, but the inner ends
+projecting into the room, where they are joined by vertical tubes
+carried up five feet or more from the floor, thus allowing the outside
+air to enter upwardly into the room. This plan is also adapted for
+filtering and cleaning the incoming air by placing cloth or other
+material across the lumen of the horizontal tubes to intercept dust,
+etc. McKinnell's ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation,
+especially of underground rooms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.
+
+HINKES BIRD WINDOW. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.
+
+ELLISON'S AIR INLETS. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+
+SHERINGHAM VALVE. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.
+
+THE TOBIN VENTILATOR. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.
+
+McKINNELL'S VENTILATOR. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+To assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts and chimneys,
+various cowls have been devised. These cowls are arranged so as to
+help aspirate the air from the tubes and chimneys, and prevent a down
+draught.
+
+The same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize winds may also
+be used for the ventilation effected by the motion of air due to
+difference in the specific gravity of outside and inside air. Any
+artificial warming of the air in the room, whether by illuminants or
+by the various methods of heating rooms, will aid in ventilating it,
+the chimneys acting as powerful means of removal for the warmer air.
+Various methods have also been proposed for utilizing the chimney,
+even when no stoves, etc., are connected with it, by placing a
+gaslight within the chimney to cause an up draught and consequent
+aspiration of the air of the room through it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.
+
+VENTILATING THROUGH CHIMNEY. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+The question of the number, relative size, and position of the inlets
+and outlets is a very important one, but we can here give only an
+epitome of the requirements. The inlet and outlet openings should be
+about twenty-four inches square per head. Inlet openings should be
+short, easily cleaned, sufficient in number to insure a proper
+distribution of air; should be protected from heat, provided with
+valves so as to regulate the inflow of air, and, if possible, should
+be placed so as to allow the air passing through them to be warmed
+before entering the room.[14] Outlet openings should be placed near
+the ceiling, should be straight and smooth, and, if possible, should
+be heated so as to make the air therein warmer, thus preventing a down
+draught, as is frequently the case when the outlets become inlets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.
+
+COWL VENTILATOR. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+=Artificial Ventilation.=--Artificial ventilation is accomplished
+either by aspirating the air from the building, known as the vacuum or
+extraction method, or by forcing into the building air from without;
+this is known as the plenum or propulsion method.
+
+The extraction of the air in a building is done by means of heat, by
+warming the air in chimneys or special tubes, or by mechanical means
+with screws or fans run by steam or electricity; these screws or fans
+revolve and aspirate the air of the rooms, and thus cause pure air to
+enter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.
+
+AN AIR PROPELLER.]
+
+The propelling method of ventilation is carried out by mechanical
+means only, air being forced in from the outside by fans, screws,
+bellows, etc.
+
+Artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large volume of air
+is needed, and for large spaces, such as theaters, churches, lecture
+rooms, etc. For the ordinary building the expense for mechanical
+contrivances is too high.
+
+On the whole, ventilation without complex and cumbersome mechanisms is
+to be preferred.[15]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and pneumonia, fresh
+air is curative. Any person, sick or well, cannot have too much fresh
+air. The windows of sleeping rooms should always be kept open at
+night.--EDITOR.
+
+[14] These outlets may be placed close to a chimney or heating pipes.
+Warm air rises and thus will be forced out, allowing cool fresh air to
+enter at the inlets.--EDITOR.
+
+[15] The ordinary dwelling house needs no artificial methods of
+ventilation. The opening and closing of windows will supply all
+necessary regulation in this regard. The temperature of living rooms
+should be kept, in general, at 70° F. Almost all rooms for the sick
+are unfortunately overheated. Cool, fresh air is one of the most
+potent means of curing disease. Overheated rooms are a menace to
+health.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+=Warming=
+
+
+=Ventilation and Heating.=--The subject of the heating of our rooms
+and houses is very closely allied to that of ventilation, not only
+because both are a special necessity at the same time of the year, but
+also because we cannot heat a room without at the same time having to
+ventilate it by providing an egress for the products of combustion and
+introducing fresh air to replace the vitiated.
+
+=Need of Heating.=--In a large part of the country, and during the
+greater period of the year, some mode of artificial heating of rooms
+is absolutely necessary for our comfort and health. The temperature of
+the body is 98° to 99° F., and there is a constant radiation of heat
+due to the cooling of the body surface. If the external temperature is
+very much below that of the body, and if the low temperature is
+prolonged, the radiation of heat from the body is too rapid, and
+colds, pneumonia, etc., result. The temperature essential for the
+individual varies according to age, constitution, health, environment,
+occupation, etc. A child, a sick person, or one at rest requires a
+relatively higher temperature than a healthy adult at work. The mean
+temperature of a room most conducive to the health of the average
+person is from 65° to 75° F.
+
+=The Three Methods of Heating.=--The heating of a room can be
+accomplished either _directly_ by the rays of the sun or processes of
+combustion. We thus receive _radiant_ heat, exemplified by that of
+open fires and grates.
+
+Or, the heating of places can be accomplished by the heat of
+combustion being conducted through certain materials, like brick
+walls, tile, stone, and also iron; this is _conductive_ heat, as
+afforded by stoves, etc.
+
+Or, the heat is _conveyed_ by means of air, water, or steam from one
+place to another, as in the hot-water, hot-air, and steam systems of
+heating; this we call _convected_ heat.
+
+There is no strict line of demarcation differentiating the three
+methods of heating, as it is possible that a radiant heat may at the
+same time be conductive as well as convective--as is the case in the
+Galton fireplace, etc.
+
+=Materials of Combustion.=--The materials of combustion are air, wood,
+coal, oil, and gas. Air is indispensable, for, without oxygen, there
+can be no combustion. Wood is used in many places, but is too bulky
+and expensive. Oil is rarely used as a material of combustion, its
+principal use being for illumination. Coal is the best and cheapest
+material for combustion. The chief objection against its use is the
+production of smoke, soot, and of various gases, as CO, CO2, etc. Gas
+is a very good, in fact, the best material for heating, especially if,
+when used, it is connected with chimneys; otherwise, it is
+objectionable, as it burns up too much air, vitiates the atmosphere,
+and the products of combustion are deleterious; it is also quite
+expensive. The ideal means of heating is electricity.
+
+=Chimneys.=--All materials used for combustion yield products more or
+less injurious to health. Every system of artificially heating houses
+must therefore have not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in
+the burning up of the materials, but also an outlet for the vitiated,
+warmed air, partly charged with the products of combustion. These
+outlets are provided by chimneys. Chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts
+built of brick and lined with earthen pipes or other material inside.
+These tubes begin at the lowest fireplace or connection, and are
+carried up several feet above the roof. The thickness of a chimney is
+from four to nine inches; the shape square, rectangular, or,
+preferably, circular. The diameter of the chimney depends upon the
+size of the house, the number of fire connections, etc. It should be
+neither too small nor too large. Square chimneys should be twelve to
+sixteen inches square; circular ones from six to eight inches in
+diameter for each fire connection. The chimney consists of a _shaft_,
+or vertical tube, and _cowls_ placed over chimneys on the roof to
+prevent down draughts and the falling in of foreign bodies. That part
+of the chimney opening into the fireplace is called the _throat_.
+
+=Smoky Chimneys.=--A very frequent cause of complaint in a great many
+houses is the so-called "smoky chimney"; this is the case when smoke
+and coal gas escape from the chimney and enter the living rooms. The
+principal causes of this nuisance are:
+
+(1) A too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts. A shaft which is
+too narrow does not let all the smoke escape; one which is too wide
+lets the smoke go up only in a part of its diameter, and when the
+smoke meets a countercurrent of cold air it is liable to be forced
+back into the rooms.
+
+(2) The throat of the chimney may be too wide, and will hold cold air,
+preventing the warming of the air in the chimneys and the consequent
+up draught.
+
+(3) The cowls may be too low or too tight, preventing the escape of
+the smoke.
+
+(4) The brickwork of the chimney may be loose, badly constructed, or
+broken into by nails, etc., thus allowing smoke to escape therefrom.
+
+(5) The supply of air may be deficient, as when all doors and windows
+are tightly closed.
+
+(6) The chimney may be obstructed by soot or some foreign material.
+
+(7) The wind above the house may be so strong that its pressure will
+cause the smoke from the chimney to be forced back.
+
+(8) If two chimneys rise together from the same house, and one is
+shorter than the other, the draught of the longer chimney may cause an
+inversion of the current of air in the lower chimney.
+
+(9) Wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its incomplete combustion.
+
+(10) A chimney without a fire may suck down the smoke from a
+neighboring chimney; or, if two fireplaces in different rooms are
+connected with the same chimney, the smoke from one room may be drawn
+into the other.
+
+=Methods of Heating.= =Open Fireplaces and Grates.=--Open fireplaces
+and fires in grates connected with chimneys, and using coal, wood, or
+gas, are very comfortable; nevertheless there are weighty objections
+to them. Firstly, but a very small part of the heat of the material
+burning is utilized, only about twelve per cent being radiated into
+the room, the rest going up the chimney. Secondly, the heat of grates
+and fireplaces is only local, being near the fires and warming only
+that part of the person exposed to it, leaving the other parts of the
+room and person cold. Thirdly, the burning of open fires necessitates
+a great supply of air, and causes powerful draughts.
+
+The open fireplace can, however, be greatly improved by surrounding
+its back and sides by an air space, in which air can be warmed and
+conveyed into the upper part of the room; and if a special air inlet
+is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be warmed, we
+get a very valuable means of heating. These principles are embodied in
+the Franklin and Galton grates. A great many other grates have been
+suggested, and put on the market, but the principal objection to them
+is their complexity and expense, making their use a luxury not
+attainable by the masses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.
+
+A GALTON GRATE. (TRACY.)]
+
+=Stoves.=--Stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel is burned, and
+the heat produced is radiated toward the persons, etc., near them, and
+also conducted, through the iron or other materials of which the
+stoves are made, to surrounding objects. In stoves seventy-five per
+cent of the fuel burned is utilized. They are made of brick, tile, and
+cast or wrought iron.
+
+Brick stoves, and stoves made of tile, are extensively used in some
+European countries, as Russia, Germany, Sweden, etc.; they are made of
+slow-conducting material, and give a very equable, efficient, and
+cheap heat, although their ventilating power is very small.
+
+Iron is used very extensively because it is a very good conductor of
+heat, and can be made into very convenient forms. Iron stoves,
+however, often become superheated, dry up, and sometimes burn the air
+around them, and produce certain deleterious gases during combustion.
+When the fire is confined in a clay fire box, and the stove is not
+overheated, a good supply of fresh air being provided and a vessel of
+water placed on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air, iron
+stoves are quite efficient.
+
+=Hot-air Warming.=--In small houses the warming of the various rooms
+and halls can be accomplished by placing the stove or furnace in the
+cellar, heating a large quantity of air and conveying it through
+proper tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed. The points to be
+observed in a proper and efficient hot-air heating system are the
+following:
+
+(1) The furnace must be of a proper size in proportion to the area of
+space to be warmed. (2) The joints and parts of the furnace must be
+gas-tight. (3) The furnace should be placed on the cold side of the
+house, and provision made to prevent cellar air from being drawn up
+into the cold-air box of the furnace. (4) The air for the supply of
+the furnace must be gotten from outside, and the source must be pure,
+above the ground level, and free from contamination of any kind.[16]
+(5) The cold-air box and ducts must be clean, protected against the
+entrance of vermin, etc., and easily cleaned. (6) The air should not
+be overheated. (7) The hot-air flues or tubes must be short, direct,
+circular, and covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting
+material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.
+
+A HOT-AIR FURNACE.
+
+The cold air from outside comes to the COLD-AIR INTAKE through the
+cold-air duct, enters the furnace from beneath, and is heated by
+passing around the FIRE POT and the annular combustion chamber above.
+It then goes through pipes to the various registers throughout the
+house. The coal is burnt in the fire pot, the gases are consumed in
+the combustion chamber above, while the heat eventually passes into
+the SMOKE FLUE. The WATER PAN supplies moisture to the air.]
+
+=Hot-water System.=--The principles of hot-water heating are very
+simple. Given a circuit of pipes filled with water, on heating the
+lower part of the circuit the water, becoming warmer, will rise,
+circulate, and heat the pipes in which it is contained, thus warming
+the air in contact with the pipes. The lower part of the circuit of
+pipe begins in the furnace or heater, and the other parts of the
+circuit are conducted through the various rooms and halls throughout
+the house to the uppermost story. The pipes need not be straight all
+through; hence, to secure a larger area for heating, they are
+convoluted within the furnace, and also in the rooms, where the
+convoluted pipes are called _radiators_. The water may be warmed by
+the low- or high-pressure system; in the latter, pipes of small
+diameter may be employed; while in the former, pipes of a large
+diameter will be required. The character, etc., of the boilers,
+furnace, pipes, etc., cannot be gone into here.
+
+=Steam-heating System.=--The principle of steam heating does not
+differ from that of the hot-water system. Here the pressure is greater
+and steam is employed instead of water. The steam gives a greater
+degree of heat, but the pipes must be stronger and able to withstand
+the pressure. There are also combinations of steam and hot-water
+heating. For large houses either steam or hot-water heating is the
+best means of warming, and, if properly constructed and cared for,
+quite healthy.[17]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] Great care should be taken that the air box is not placed in
+contaminated soil or where it may become filled with stagnant or
+polluted water.--EDITOR.
+
+[17] See Chapter XI for practical notes on cost of installation of
+these three conveyed systems--hot-air, hot-water, and steam.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+=Disposal of Sewage=
+
+
+=Waste Products.=--There is a large amount of waste products in human
+and social economy. The products of combustion, such as ashes,
+cinders, etc.; the products of street sweepings and waste from houses,
+as dust, rubbish, paper, etc.; the waste from various trades; the
+waste from kitchens, e. g., scraps of food, etc.; the waste water from
+the cleansing processes of individuals, domestic animals, clothing,
+etc.; and, finally, the excreta--urine and fæces--of man and animals;
+all these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed of, more
+especially in cities, and wherever a large number of people
+congregate. All waste products are classified into three distinct
+groups: (1) refuse, (2) garbage, and (3) sewage.
+
+The amount of _refuse_ and _garbage_ in cities is quite considerable;
+in Manhattan, alone, the dry refuse amounts to 1,000,000 tons a year,
+and that of garbage to 175,000 tons per year. A large percentage of
+the dry refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial standpoint,
+and could be utilized, with proper facilities for collection and
+separation. The disposal of refuse and garbage has not as yet been
+satisfactorily dealt with. The modes of waste disposal in the United
+States are: (1) dumping into the sea; (2) filling in made land, or
+plowing into lands; (3) cremation and (4) reduction by various
+processes, and the products utilized.
+
+=Sewage.=--By sewage we mean the waste and effete human matter and
+excreta--the urine and fæces of human beings and the urine of domestic
+animals (the fæces of horses, etc., has great commercial value, and is
+usually collected separately and disposed of for fertilizing
+purposes).
+
+The amount of excreta per person has been estimated (Frankland) as 3
+ounces of solid and 40 ounces of fluid per day, or about 30 tons of
+solid and 100,000 gallons of fluid for each 1,000 persons per year.
+
+In sparsely populated districts the removal and ultimate disposal of
+sewage presents no difficulties; it is returned to the soil, which, as
+we know, is capable of purifying, disintegrating, and assimilating
+quite a large amount of organic matter. But when the number of
+inhabitants to the square mile increases, and the population becomes
+as dense as it is in some towns and cities, the disposal of the human
+waste products becomes a question of vast importance, and the proper,
+as well as the immediate and final, disposal of sewage becomes a
+serious sanitary problem.
+
+It is evident that sewage must be removed in a thorough manner,
+otherwise it would endanger the lives and health of the people.
+
+The dangers of sewage to health are:
+
+(1) From its offensive odors, which, while not always directly
+dangerous to health, often produce headaches, nausea, etc.
+
+(2) The organic matter contained in sewage decomposes and eliminates
+gases and other products of decomposition.
+
+(3) Sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic bacteria (typhoid,
+dysentery, cholera, etc.).
+
+(4) Contamination of the soil, ground water, and air by percolation of
+sewage.
+
+The problem of sewage disposal is twofold: (1) immediate, viz., the
+need of not allowing sewage to remain too long on the premises, and
+its immediate removal beyond the limits of the city; and (2) the final
+disposition of the sewage, after its removal from the cities, etc.
+
+=Modes of Ultimate Disposal of Sewage.=--The chief constituents of
+sewage are organic matter, mineral salts, nitrogenous substances,
+potash, and phosphoric acid. Fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has an
+acid reaction, but within twelve to twenty hours it becomes alkaline,
+because of the free ammonia formed in it. Sewage rapidly decomposes,
+evolving organic and fetid matters, ammonium sulphide, sulphureted and
+carbureted hydrogen, etc., besides teeming with animal and bacterial
+life. A great many of the substances contained in sewage are valuable
+as fertilizers of soil.
+
+The systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows:
+
+    (1) Discharge into seas, lakes, and rivers.
+    (2) Cremation.
+    (3) Physical and chemical precipitation.
+    (4) Intermittent filtration.
+    (5) Land irrigation.
+    (6) "Bacterial" methods.
+
+_Discharge into Waters._--The easiest way to dispose of sewage is to
+let it flow into the sea or other running water course. The objections
+to sewage discharging into the rivers and lakes near cities, and
+especially such lakes and rivers as supply water to the
+municipalities, are obvious. But as water can purify a great amount of
+sewage, this method is still in vogue in certain places, although it
+is to be hoped that it will in the near future be superseded by more
+proper methods. The objection against discharging into seas is the
+operation of the tides, which cause a backflow and overflow of sewage
+from the pipes. This backflow is remedied by the following methods:
+(1) providing tidal flap valves, permitting the outflow of sewage, but
+preventing the inflow of sea water; (2) discharging the sewage
+intermittently, only during low tide; and (3) providing a constant
+outflow by means of steam-power pressure.
+
+_Cremation._--Another method of getting rid of the sewage without
+attempting to utilize it is by cremation. The liquid portion of the
+sewage is allowed to drain and discharge into water courses, and the
+more or less solid residues are collected and cremated in suitable
+crematories.
+
+_Precipitation._--This method consists in separating the solid matters
+from the sewage by precipitation by physical or chemical processes,
+the liquid being allowed to drain into rivers and other waters, and
+the precipitated solids utilized for certain purposes. The
+precipitation is done either by straining the sewage, collecting it
+into tanks, and letting it subside, when the liquid is drawn off and
+the solids remain at the bottom of the tanks, a rather unsatisfactory
+method; or, by chemical processes, precipitating the sewage by
+chemical means, and utilizing the products of such precipitation. The
+chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished are many and
+various; among them are lime, alum, iron perchloride, phosphates, etc.
+
+_Intermittent Filtration._--Sewage may be purified mechanically and
+chemically by method of intermittent filtration by passing it through
+filter beds of gravel, sand, coke, cinders, or any such materials.
+Intermittent filtration has passed beyond the experimental stage and
+has been adopted already by a number of cities where such a method of
+sewage disposal seems to answer all purposes.
+
+_Land Irrigation._--In this method the organic and other useful
+portions of sewage are utilized for irrigating land, to improve garden
+and other vegetable growths by feeding the plants with the organic
+products of animal excretion. Flat land, with a gentle slope, is best
+suited for irrigation. The quantity of sewage disposed of will depend
+on the character of the soil, its porosity, the time of the year,
+temperature, intermittency of irrigation, etc. As a rule, one acre of
+land is sufficient to dispose of the sewage of 100 to 150 people.
+
+_Bacterial Methods._--The other biological methods, or the so-called
+"bacterial" sewage treatment, are but modifications of the filtration
+and irrigation methods of sewage disposal. Properly speaking the
+bacterial purification of sewage is the scientific application of the
+knowledge gained by the study of bacterial life and its action upon
+sewage.
+
+In intermittent filtration the sewage is passed through filter beds of
+sands, etc., upon which filter beds the whole burden of the
+purification of the sewage rests. In the bacterial methods the work of
+purification is divided between the septic tanks where the sewage is
+first let into and where it undergoes the action of the anaërobic
+bacteria, and from these septic tanks the sewage is run to the contact
+beds of coke and cinders to further undergo the action of the aërobic
+bacteria, after the action of which the nitrified sewage is in a
+proper form to be utilized for fertilization of land, etc. The septic
+tanks are but a modification of the common cesspool, and are
+constructed of masonry, brick, and concrete.
+
+There are a number of special applications of the bacterial methods of
+sewage treatment, into which we cannot go here.
+
+=Sewage Disposal in the United States.=--According to its location,
+position, etc., each city in the United States has its own method of
+final disposition of sewage. Either one or the other, or a combination
+of two of the above methods, is used.
+
+The following cities discharge their sewage into the sea: Portland,
+Salem, Lynn, Gloucester, Boston, Providence, New York, Baltimore,
+Charleston, and Savannah.
+
+The following cities discharge their sewage into rivers and lakes:
+Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Albany, Minneapolis, St. Paul,
+Washington, Buffalo, Detroit, Richmond, Chicago, Milwaukee, and
+Cleveland.
+
+"Worcester uses chemical precipitation. In Atlanta a part of the soil
+is cremated, but the rest is deposited in pits 8 × 10 feet, and 5 feet
+deep. It is then thoroughly mixed with dry ashes from the crematory,
+and afterwards covered with either grain or grass. In Salt Lake City
+and in Woonsocket it is disposed of in the same way. In Indianapolis
+it is composted with marl and sawdust, and after some months used as a
+fertilizer. A portion of the sewage is cremated in Atlanta, Camden,
+Dayton, Evansville, Findlay, Ohio; Jacksonville, McKeesport, Pa.;
+Muncie, and New Brighton. In Atlanta, in 1898, there were cremated
+2,362 loads of sewage. In Dayton, during 30 days, there were cremated
+1,900 barrels of 300 pounds each." (_Chapin, Mun. San. in U. S._)
+
+=The Immediate Disposal of Sewage.=--The final disposition of sewage
+is only one part of the problem of sewage disposal; the other part is
+how to remove it from the house into the street, and from the street
+into the places from which it is finally disposed.
+
+The immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by two methods--the
+so-called _dry_, and the _water-carriage_ methods. By the _dry method_
+we mean the removal of sewage without the aid of water, simply
+collecting the dry and liquid portions of excreta, storing it for some
+time, and then removing it for final disposal. By the _water-carriage
+method_ is understood the system by which sewage, solid and liquid, is
+flushed out by means of water, through pipes or conduits called
+sewers, from the houses through the streets to the final destination.
+
+=The Dry Methods.=--The dry or conservacy method of sewage disposal is
+a primitive method used by all ancient peoples, in China at the
+present time, and in all villages and sparsely populated districts; it
+has for its basic principle the return to mother earth of all excreta,
+to be used and worked over in its natural laboratory. The excreta are
+simply left in the ground to undergo in the soil the various organic
+changes, the difference in methods being only as regards the vessels
+of collection and storage.
+
+The methods are:
+
+    (1) Cesspool and privy vault.
+    (2) Pail system.
+    (3) Pneumatic system.
+
+_The Privy Vault_ is the general mode of sewage disposal in villages,
+some towns, and even in some large cities, wherever sewers are not
+provided. In its primitive and unfortunately common form, the privy
+vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some distance
+from the house; the hole is but a few feet deep, with a plank or rough
+seat over it, and an improvised shed over all. The privy is filled
+with the excreta; the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which
+becomes saturated, and contaminates the nearest wells and water
+courses. The solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is
+filled or the stench becomes unbearable, when the hole is either
+covered up and forgotten, or the excreta are removed and the hole used
+over again. This is the common privy as we so often find it near the
+cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and even in towns. A
+better and improved form of privy is that built in the ground, and
+made water-tight by being constructed of bricks set in cement, the
+privy being placed at a distance from the house, the shed over it
+ventilated, and the contents of the privy removed regularly and at
+stated intervals, before they become a nuisance. At its best, however,
+the privy vault is an abomination, as it can scarcely be so well
+constructed as not to contaminate the surrounding soil, or so often
+cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of poisonous gases.
+
+_The Pail System_ is an economic, simple, and, on the whole, very
+efficient method of removing fresh excreta. The excreta are passed
+directly into stone or metal water- and gas-tight pails, which, after
+filling, are hermetically covered and removed to the places for final
+disposal. This system is in use in Rochedale, Manchester, Glasgow, and
+other places in England.
+
+The pails may also be filled with dried earth, ashes, etc., which are
+mixed with the excreta and convert it into a substance fit for
+fertilization.
+
+_The Pneumatic System_ is a rather complicated mechanical method
+invented by Captain Lieurneur, and is used extensively in some places.
+In this system the excreta are passed to certain pipes and
+receptacles, and from there aspirated by means of air exhausts.
+
+=The Water-carriage System.=--We now come to the modern mode of using
+water to carry and flush all sewage material. This method is being
+adopted throughout the civilized world. For it is claimed a reduction
+of the mortality rate issues wherever it is introduced. The
+water-carriage system presupposes the construction and existence of
+pipes from the house to and through the street to the place of final
+disposition. The pipes running from the house to the streets are
+called house sewers; and when in the streets, are called street
+sewers.
+
+=The Separate and Combined Systems.=--Whenever the water-carriage
+system is used, it is either intended to carry only sewage proper,
+viz., solid and liquid excreta flushed by water, or fain water and
+other waste water from the household in addition. The water-carriage
+system is accordingly divided into two systems: _the combined_, by
+which all sewage and all waste and rain water are carried through the
+sewers, and the _separate_ system, in which two groups of pipes are
+used--the sewers proper to carry sewage only, and the other pipes to
+dispose of rain water and other uncontaminated waste water. Each
+system has its advocates, its advantages and disadvantages. The
+advantages claimed for the separate system are as follows:
+
+(1) Sewers may be of small diameter, not more than six inches.
+
+(2) Constant, efficient flow and flushing of sewage.
+
+(3) The sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter.
+
+(4) The sewers never overflow, as is frequently the case in the
+combined system.
+
+(5) The sewers being small, no decomposition takes place therein.
+
+(6) Sewers of small diameter need no special means of ventilation, or
+main traps on house drains, and can be ventilated through the house
+pipes.
+
+On the other hand, the disadvantages of the separate system are:
+
+(1) The need of two systems of sewers, for sewage and for rain water,
+and the expense attached thereto.
+
+(2) The sewers used for sewage proper require some system for
+periodically flushing them, which, in the combined system, is done by
+the occasional rains.
+
+(3) Small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten at as larger
+ones.
+
+The separate system has been used in Memphis and in Keene, N. H., for
+a number of years with complete satisfaction. Most cities, however,
+use the combined system.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+=Sewers=
+
+
+=Definitions.=--A sewer is a conduit or pipe intended for the passage
+of sewage, waste, and rain water.
+
+A _House Sewer_ is the branch sewer extending from a point two feet
+outside of the outer wall of the building to its connection with the
+street sewer, etc.
+
+=Materials.=--The materials from which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware "vitrified pipes."
+
+Iron is used only for pipes of small diameter; and as most of the
+sewers are of greater diameter than six inches, they are made of other
+material than iron.
+
+Cement and brick sewers are frequently used, and, when properly
+constructed, are efficient, although the inner surface of such pipes
+is rough, which causes adherence of sewage matter.
+
+The most common material of which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware, "vitrified pipes."
+
+"Vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind of clay, and are
+salt-glazed inside. Good vitrified pipe must be circular and true in
+section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight, and free from
+cracks or other defects; they must be hard, tough, not porous, and
+have a highly smooth surface. The thicknesses of vitrified pipes are
+as follows:
+
+     4 inches diameter               1/2  inch thick
+     6   "        "                  1/16  "     "
+     8   "        "                  3/4   "     "
+    12   "        "                  1     "     "
+
+The pipes are made in two- and three-foot lengths, with spigot, and
+socket ends." (Gerhardt.)
+
+Sewer pipes are laid in trenches at least three feet deep, to insure
+against the action of frosts.
+
+=Construction.=--The level of the trenches in which sewers are laid
+should be accurate, and a hard bed must be secured, or prepared, for
+the pipes to lie on. If the ground is sandy and soft, a solid bed of
+concrete should be laid, and the places where the joints are should be
+hollowed out, and the latter embedded in cement.
+
+=Joints.=--The joints of the various lengths must be gas-tight, and
+are made as follows: into the hub (the enlargement on one end of the
+pipe) the spigot end of the next length is inserted, and in the space
+left between the two a small piece, or gasket, of oakum is rammed in;
+the remaining space is filled in with a mixture of the best Portland
+cement and clean, sharp sand. The office of the oakum is to prevent
+the cement from getting on the inside of the pipe. The joint is then
+wiped around with additional cement.
+
+=Fall.=--In order that there should be a steady and certain flow of
+the contents of the sewer, the size and fall of the latter must be
+suitable; that is, the pipes must be laid with a steady, gradual
+inclination or fall toward the exit. This fall must be even, without
+sudden changes, and not too great or too small.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+
+A BRICK SEWER.]
+
+The following has been determined to be about the right fall for the
+sizes stated:
+
+     4-inch pipe                  1 foot in  40  feet
+     6   "   "                    1  "    "  60   "
+     9   "   "                    1  "    "  90   "
+    12   "   "                    1  "    " 120   "
+
+=Flow.=--The velocity of the flow in sewers depends on the volume of
+their contents, the size of the pipes, and the fall. The velocity
+should not be less than 120 feet in a minute, or the sewer will not be
+self-cleansing.
+
+=Size.=--In order for the sewer to be self-cleansing, its size must be
+proportional to the work to be accomplished, so that it may be fully
+and thoroughly flushed and not permit stagnation and consequent
+decomposition of its contents. If the sewer be too small, it will not
+be adequate for its purpose, and will overflow, back up, etc.; if too
+large, the velocity of the flow will be too low, and stagnation will
+result. In the separate system, where there is a separate provision
+for rain water, the size of the sewer ought not to exceed six inches
+in diameter. In the combined system, however, when arrangements must
+be made for the disposal of large volumes of storm water, the size of
+the sewer must be larger, thus making it less self-cleansing.
+
+=Connections.=--The connections of the branch sewers and the house
+sewers with the main sewer must be carefully made, so that there shall
+be no impediment to the flow of the contents, either of the branches
+or of the main pipe. The connections must be made gas-tight; not at
+right angles or by T branches, but by bends, curves, and Y branches,
+in the direction of the current of the main pipe, and not opposite
+other branch pipes; and the junction of the branch pipes and the main
+pipe must not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer, but
+just within the water line.
+
+=Tide Valves.=--Where sewers discharge their contents into the sea,
+the tide may exert pressure upon the contents of the sewer and cause
+"backing up," blocking up the sewer, bursting open trap covers, and
+overflowing into streets and houses. To prevent this, there are
+constructed at the mouth of the street sewers, at the outlets to the
+sea, proper valves or tide flaps, so constructed as to permit the
+contents of the sewers to flow out, yet prevent sea water from backing
+up by immediately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside.
+
+=House Sewers.=--Where the ground is "made," or filled in, the house
+sewer must be made of cast iron, with the joints properly calked with
+lead. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock,
+the house sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical
+earthenware pipe, laid in a smooth bottom, free from projections of
+rock, and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the
+pipe. Each section must be wetted before applying the cement, and the
+space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be
+completely and uniformly filled with the best hydraulic cement. Care
+must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the pipe to form
+an obstruction. No tempered-up cement should be used. A straight edge
+must be used inside the pipe, and the different sections must be laid
+in perfect line on the bottom and sides.
+
+Connections of the house sewer (when of iron) with the house main pipe
+must be made by lead-calked joints; the connection of the iron house
+pipe with the earthenware house sewer must be made with cement, and
+should be gas-tight.
+
+=Sewer Air and Gas.=--Sewer gas is not a gas at all. What is commonly
+understood by the term is the air of sewers, the ordinary atmospheric
+air, but charged and contaminated with the various products of organic
+decomposition taking place in sewers. Sewer air is a mixture of gases,
+the principal gases being carbonic acid; marsh gas; compounds of
+hydrogen and carbon; carbonate and sulphides of ammonium; ammonia;
+sulphureted hydrogen; carbonic oxide, volatile fetid matter; organic
+putrefactive matter, and may also contain some bacteria, saprophytic
+or pathogenic.
+
+Any and all the above constituents may be contained in sewer air in
+larger or smaller doses, in minute or toxic doses.
+
+It is evident that an habitual breathing of air in which even minute
+doses of toxic substances and gases are floating will in time impair
+the health of human beings, and that large doses of those substances
+may be directly toxic and dangerous to health. It is certainly an
+error to ascribe to sewer air death-dealing properties, but it would
+be a more serious mistake to undervalue the evil influence of bad
+sewer air upon health.
+
+=Ventilation.=--To guard against the bad effects of sewer air, it is
+necessary to dilute, change, and ventilate the air in sewers. This is
+accomplished by the various openings left in the sewers, the so-called
+lamp and manholes which ventilate by diluting the sewer air with the
+street air. In some places, chemical methods of disinfecting the
+contents of sewers have been undertaken with a view to killing the
+disease germs and deodorizing the sewage. In the separate system of
+sewage disposal, where sewer pipes are small and usually
+self-cleansing, the late Colonel Waring proposed to ventilate the
+sewers through the house pipes, omitting the usual disconnection of
+the house sewer from the house pipes. But in the combined system such
+a procedure would be dangerous, as the sewer air would be apt to enter
+the house.
+
+Rain storms are the usual means by which a thorough flushing of the
+street sewers is effected. There are, however, many devices proposed
+for flushing sewers; e. g., by special flushing tanks, which either
+automatically or otherwise discharge a large volume of water, thereby
+flushing the contents of the street sewers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+=Plumbing=
+
+
+=Purpose and Requisites for House Plumbing.=--A system of house
+plumbing presupposes the existence of a street sewer, and a
+water-supply distribution within the house. While the former is not
+absolutely essential, as a house may have a system of plumbing without
+there being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage system
+of disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various
+waste and excrementitious matter of the house. The house-water
+distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the
+various pipes in the house plumbing.
+
+The purposes of house plumbing are: (1) to get rid of all excreta and
+waste water; (2) to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer
+from entering the house through the pipes; and (3) to dilute the air
+in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous.
+
+To accomplish these results, house plumbing demands the following
+requisites:
+
+(1) _Receptacles_ for collecting the waste and excreta. These
+receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, must be adequate for the purpose,
+small, noncorrosive, self-cleansing, well flushed, accessible, and so
+constructed as to easily dispose of their contents.
+
+(2) _Separate Vertical Pipes_ for sewage proper, for waste water, and
+for rain water; upright, direct, straight, noncorrosive, water- and
+gas-tight, well flushed, and ventilated.
+
+(3) Short, direct, clean, well-flushed, gas-tight branch pipes to
+connect receptacles with vertical pipes.
+
+(4) _Disconnection_ of the house sewer from the house pipes by the
+main trap on house drain, and disconnection of house from the house
+pipes by traps on all fixtures.
+
+(5) _Ventilation_ of the whole system by the fresh-air inlet, vent
+pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes.
+
+=Definitions.=--The _House Drain_ is the horizontal main pipe
+receiving all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes, and
+conducting them outside of the foundation walls, where it joins the
+house sewer.
+
+The _Soil Pipe_ is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter
+from the water-closets in the house.
+
+The _Main Waste Pipe_ is the pipe receiving waste water from any
+fixtures except the water-closets.
+
+_Branch Soil and Waste Pipes_ are the short pipes between the fixtures
+in the house and the main soil and waste pipes.
+
+_Traps_ are bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a certain volume
+of water, called the water seal; this water seal serves as a barrier
+to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house.
+
+_Vent Pipes_ are the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are
+connected by short-branch vent pipes, and serve to ventilate the air
+in the pipes, and prevent siphonage.
+
+The _Rain Leader_ is the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the
+roof of the house.
+
+=Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes.=--The materials from which the
+different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to
+the use of each pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials
+are used: cement, vitrified pipe, lead; cast, wrought, and galvanized
+iron; brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc.
+
+_Cement and Vitrified Pipes_ are used for the manufacture of street
+and house sewers. In some places vitrified pipe is used for house
+drains, but in most cities this is strongly objected to; and in New
+York City no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The
+objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for
+the purpose, break easily, and cannot be made gas-tight.
+
+_Lead Pipe_ is used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of
+water pipes. The advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily
+bent and shaped, hence their use for traps and connections. The
+disadvantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which
+is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, etc.
+
+_Brass, Nickel, Steel_, and other such materials are used in the
+manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not commonly employed.
+
+_Sheet Metal_ and _Galvanized Iron_ are used for rain leaders,
+refrigerator pipes, etc.
+
+_Wrought Iron_ is used in the so-called Durham system of plumbing.
+Wrought iron is very strong; the sections of pipe are twenty feet
+long, the connections are made by screw joints, and a system of house
+plumbing made of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong,
+and perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron for plumbing
+pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too
+expensive.
+
+_Cast Iron_ is the material universally used for all vertical and
+horizontal pipes in the house. There are two kinds of cast-iron pipes
+manufactured for plumbing uses, the "standard and the extra heavy."
+
+The following are the relative weights of each:
+
+    Standard.                                Extra Heavy.
+
+    2-inch pipe,  4 lbs. per foot             5-1/2 lbs.
+    3  "  "       6  "    "    "              9-1/2  "
+    4  "  "       9  "    "    "             13      "
+    5  "  "      12  "    "    "             17      "
+    6  "  "      15  "    "    "             20      "
+    7  "  "      20  "    "    "             27      "
+    8  "  "      25  "    "    "             33-1/2  "
+
+The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by plumbers, is
+generally prohibited by most municipalities, as it is not strong
+enough for the purpose, and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint
+with these pipes without breaking them.
+
+Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each, with an
+enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the "hub" or "socket," into
+which the other, or "spigot," end is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must
+be straight, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand holes,
+cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness.
+
+The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows:
+
+    2-inch pipe,  5/16 inches thick
+    3   "   "      "      "     "
+    4   "   "     3/8     "     "
+    5   "   "     7/16    "     "
+    6   "   "     1/2     "     "
+
+Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar, or by
+some other process. Tar coating is, however, not allowed in New York,
+because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes.
+
+=Joints and Connections.=--To facilitate connections of cast-iron
+pipes, short and convenient forms and fittings are cast. Some of these
+connections are named according to their shape, such as L, T, Y, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.
+
+DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.]
+
+_Iron Pipe_ is joined to _Iron Pipe_ by lead-calked joints. These
+joints are made as follows: the spigot end of one pipe is inserted
+into the enlarged end, or the "hub," of the next pipe. The space
+between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The
+remaining space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, is
+well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose. To
+make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked joint, experience and skill are
+necessary. The ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be
+from 1 to 2 inches deep, and from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch thick; 12
+ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the
+diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of
+so-called rust joints. Instead of lead, the space between the socket
+and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of
+cast-iron borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal
+ammoniac.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+All connections between _Lead Pipes_ and between _Lead_ and _Brass_ or
+_Copper_ pipes must be made by means of "wiped" solder joints. A wiped
+joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the
+solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an oval lump, and
+wiped around with a cloth, giving the joint a bulbous form.
+
+All connections between _Lead Pipes_ and _Iron Pipes_ are made by
+means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be soldered to iron, so a brass
+fitting or ferrule is used; it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped
+joint, and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint.
+
+_Putty_, _Cement_, and _Slip_ joints should not be tolerated on any
+pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+=Traps.=--We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed
+as to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier
+between the sewer and the fixture. There are many and various kinds of
+traps, some depending on water alone as their "seal," others employing
+mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also mercury, etc., to
+assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the
+pipe system.
+
+The value of a trap depends: (1) on the depth of its water seal; (2)
+on the strengths and permanency of the seal; (3) on the diameter and
+uniformity of the trap; (4) on its simplicity; (5) on its
+accessibility; and (6) on its self-cleansing character.
+
+The depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet
+traps, and about two inches for sink and other traps.
+
+Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are
+attached.
+
+The simpler the trap, the better it is.
+
+Traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings, caps, etc., to
+facilitate cleaning.
+
+The shapes of traps vary, and the number of the various kinds of traps
+manufactured is very great.
+
+Traps are named according to their use: gully, grease, sediment,
+intercepting, etc.; according to their shape: D, P, S, V, bell,
+bottle, pot, globe, etc.; and according to the name of their
+inventor: Buchan, Cottam, Dodd, Antill, Renk, Hellyer, Croydon, and
+others too numerous to mention.
+
+The S trap is the best for sink waste pipes; the running trap is the
+best on house drains.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.
+
+FORMS OF TRAPS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.
+
+FORMS OF TRAPS.]
+
+=Loss of Seal by Traps.=--The seals of traps are not always secure,
+and the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows:
+
+(1) _Evaporation._--If a fixture in a house is not used for a long
+time, the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will
+evaporate; the seal will thus be lost, and ingress of sewer air will
+result. To guard against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently
+flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the house is
+unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps are to be filled with
+oil or glycerin, either of which will serve as an efficient seal.
+
+(2) _Momentum._--A sudden flow of water from the fixture may, by the
+force of its momentum, empty all water in the trap and thus leave it
+unsealed. To prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must be
+of a proper size, not less than the waste pipe of the fixture, the
+seal must be deep, and the trap in a perfectly straight position, as a
+slight inclination will favor its emptying. Care should also be taken
+while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal.
+
+(3) _Capillary Attraction._--If a piece of paper, cotton, thread,
+hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a part of the paper, etc.,
+projects into the lumen of the pipe, a part of the water will be
+withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it. To
+guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps should
+be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and corners, and of not too
+large a size, and should also be well flushed, so that nothing but
+water remains in the trap.
+
+_Siphonage and Back Pressure._--The water in the trap, or the "seal,"
+is suspended between two columns of air, that from the fixture to the
+seal, and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on
+house drain. The seal in the trap is therefore not very secure, as it
+is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both
+sides, and especially from its distal side. Any heating of the air in
+the pipes with which the trap is connected, any increase of
+temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the
+trap is connected, and any evolution of gases within those pipes will
+naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them,
+with the result that the increased pressure will influence the
+contents of the trap, or the "seal," and may dislodge the seal
+backward, if the pressure is very great, or, at any rate, may force
+the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the
+water therein, thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the
+traps of the fixtures. This condition, which in practice exists
+oftener than it is ordinarily thought, is called "back pressure." By
+"back pressure" is therefore understood the _forcing back_, or, at
+least, the _fouling_, of the water in traps, due to the increased
+pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps; the increase
+in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water
+occasionally circulating within them, or by the evolution of gases due
+to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.
+
+NON-SYPHONING TRAP.
+
+Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.]
+
+A condition somewhat similar, but acting in a reverse way, is
+presented in what is commonly termed "siphonage." Just as well as the
+seal in traps may be forced back by the increased pressure of the air
+within the pipes, the same seal may be _forced out_, pulled out,
+aspirated, or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity
+of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected. Such a sudden
+withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there
+is a rush of large column of water through the pipes, e. g., when a
+water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged; the water
+rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong
+down current of air, with the result that where the down-rushing
+column passes by a trap, the air in the trap and, later, its seal are
+aspirated or siphoned out, thus leaving the trap without a seal. By
+"siphonage" is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by
+the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of
+water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected.
+
+To guard against the loss of seal through siphonage "nonsiphoning"
+traps have been invented, that is, the traps are so constructed that
+the seal therein is very large, and the shape of the traps made so
+that siphonage is difficult. These traps are, however, open to the
+objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of
+the seals by back pressure, and in the second place they are not
+easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets. The
+universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by
+the system of vent pipes, or what plumbers call "back-air" pipes.
+Every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the
+crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house
+the same as the waste and soil pipes, and which contains nothing but
+air, which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the
+"back-pressure" air, or to be drawn upon by the siphoning, and thus
+preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps; for
+it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the
+distal part of the seal, the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by
+any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the
+trap is connected.
+
+The vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the
+plumbing system of the house, already partly ventilated by the
+extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air
+inlet. The principal objection urged against the installation of the
+vent-pipe system is the added expense, which is considerable; and
+plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes
+various mechanical traps, also nonsiphoning traps. The vent pipes are,
+however, worth the additional expense, as they are certainly the best
+means to prevent siphonage and back pressure, and are free from the
+objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy
+nonsiphoning traps.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+=Plumbing Pipes=
+
+
+=The House Drain.=--All waste and soil matter in the house is carried
+from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes, and from these
+into the house drain, the main pipe of the house, which carries all
+waste and soil into the street sewer. The house drain extends from the
+junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to
+outside of the foundations two to five feet, whence it is called
+"house sewer." The house drain is a very important part of the
+house-plumbing system, and great care must be taken to make its
+construction perfect.
+
+_Material._--The material of which house drains are manufactured is
+extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes should never be used, and the use
+of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed.
+
+_Size._--The size of the house drain must be proportional to the work
+to be performed. Too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing, and the
+bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime. Were it not for the
+need of carrying off large volumes of storm water, the house drain
+could be a great deal smaller than it usually is. A three-inch pipe
+is sufficient for a small house, though a four-inch pipe is made
+obligatory in most cities. In New York City no house drains are
+allowed of smaller diameter than six inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.
+
+SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (H.
+BRAMLEY.)]
+
+_Fall._--The fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its
+size. Every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain
+inclination toward the house sewer, so as to increase the velocity of
+flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of
+fall should be as follows:
+
+    For 4-inch pipe                     1 in 40 feet
+     "  5  "    "                       1  " 50   "
+     "  6  "    "                       1  " 60   "
+
+_Position._--The house drain lies in a horizontal position in the
+cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to view. It should be hung
+on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is impracticable, as when
+fixtures in the cellar discharge into it; in this case, it must be
+laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with
+bricks laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and with a
+hydraulic-cement base four inches thick, on which the pipe is to rest.
+The house drain must be laid in straight lines, if possible; all
+changes in direction must be made with curved pipes, the curves to be
+of a large radius.
+
+_Connections._--The house drain must properly connect with the house
+sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or
+area wall of the building. An arched or other proper opening in the
+wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling.
+
+All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead-calked joints, as
+stated before. The junction of the vertical soil, waste, and
+rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints, but by a
+curved elbow fitting of a large radius, or by "Y" branches and 45°
+bends.
+
+When the house drain does not rest on the floor, but is hung on the
+wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connection of the vertical soil and
+waste pipes must have suitable supports, the best support being a
+brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the
+wall.
+
+Near all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes with the house
+drain suitable hand-holes should be provided, these hand-holes to be
+tightly covered by brass screw ferrules, screwed in, and fitted with
+red lead.
+
+"No steam exhaust, boiler blow-off, or drip pipe shall be connected
+with the house drain or sewer. Such pipes must first discharge into a
+proper condensing tank, and from this a proper outlet to the house
+sewer outside of the building must be provided."
+
+_Main Traps._--The disconnection of the house pipes from the street
+sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front
+wall, inside the house, or just outside the foundation wall but
+usually inside of the house. The best trap for this purpose is the
+siphon or running trap. This trap must be constructed with a cleaning
+hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap, or on both sides,
+and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw
+ferrules.
+
+_Extension of Vertical Pipes._--By the main trap the house-plumbing
+system is disconnected from the sewer, and by the traps on each
+fixture from the air in the rooms; still, as the soil, waste, and
+drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which
+contaminate the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate
+these pipes. This ventilation of the soil, waste, and house drain
+pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors, etc., given
+off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes, and it is
+accomplished by two means: (1) by extension of the vertical pipes to
+the fresh air above the roof, and (2) by the fresh-air inlet on the
+house drain.
+
+By these means a current of air is established through the vertical
+and horizontal pipes.
+
+Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet
+above the highest coping of the roof or chimney. The extension must be
+far from the air shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys,
+so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them. The
+extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe, so as to
+avoid friction from the circulation of air. The use of covers, cowls,
+return bends, etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free
+circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign
+substances from falling into pipes.
+
+_Fresh-air Inlet._--The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches
+in diameter; it enters the house drain on the house side of the main
+trap, and extends to the external air at or near the curb, or at any
+convenient place, at least fifteen feet from the nearest window. The
+fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an
+iron grating, and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air
+furnace. When clean, properly cared for, and extended above the
+ground, the fresh-air inlet, in conjunction with the open extended
+vertical pipe, is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the
+house pipes; unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly
+obstructed, and do not serve the purpose for which they are made.
+
+=The Soil and Waste Pipes.=--The soil pipe receives liquid and solid
+sewage from the water-closets and urinals; the waste pipe receives all
+waste water from sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, etc.
+
+The material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is
+cast iron.
+
+The size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches; of main
+soil pipes, from four to five inches. In tenement houses with five
+water-closets or more, not less than five inches.
+
+The joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked. The
+connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines
+must be by Y joints, and by means of brass ferrules, as explained
+above.
+
+The location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall,
+built in, nor outside the house, but preferably in a special
+three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures, extending from the
+cellar to the roof, where the air shaft should be covered by a
+louvered skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly
+inclined, so as to favor ventilation.
+
+The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to view in all their
+lengths, and, when covered with boards, so fitted that the boards may
+be readily removed.
+
+Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter, as
+previously stated. When less than four inches in diameter, they must
+be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the
+roof surface by an "increaser," of not less than nine inches long.
+
+All soil and waste pipes must, whenever necessary, be securely
+fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps.
+
+Vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base, as
+the trap would not serve any purpose, and would prevent a perfect flow
+of the contents.
+
+=Branch Soil and Waste Pipes.=--The fixtures must be near the vertical
+soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes
+should be as short as possible. The trap of the branch soil and waste
+pipes must not be far from the fixture, not more than two feet from
+it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil
+branch will emit bad odors.
+
+The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows:
+
+    Kitchen sinks                              2 inches
+    Bath tubs                         1-1/2 to 2   "
+    Laundry tubs                      1-1/2 to 2   "
+    Water-closets                not less than 4   "
+
+Branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter
+inch to one foot.
+
+The branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed, accessible,
+and provided with screw caps, etc., for inspection and cleaning
+purposes.
+
+Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as
+possible, as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes
+will cause the air between the traps to be closed in, forming a
+so-called "cushion," that will prevent the ready flow of contents.
+
+"All traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their
+water level."
+
+=Vent Pipes and Their Branches.=--The purpose of vent pipes, we have
+seen, is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the
+traps and pipes. The material of which vent pipes are made is cast
+iron.
+
+The size of vent pipes depends on the number of traps with which they
+are connected; it is usually two or three inches. The connection of
+the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap, and the
+connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the
+trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent pipes are not
+perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope, so as to prevent
+condensation of air or vapor therein.
+
+The vent pipes should be extended above the roof, several feet above
+the coping, etc.; and the extension above the roof should not be of
+less than four inches diameter, so as to avoid obstruction by frost.
+No return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes.
+Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, is connected
+with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.
+
+LEADER PIPE.]
+
+=Rain Leaders.=--The rain leader serves to collect the rain water from
+the roof and eaves gutter. It usually discharges its contents into the
+house drain, although some leaders are led to the street gutter, while
+others are connected with school sinks in the yard. The latter
+practice is objectionable, as it may lead the foul air from the school
+sink into the rooms, the windows of which are near the rain leader;
+besides, the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces
+bad odors. When the rain leader is placed within the house, it must be
+made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when outside, as is the
+rule, it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered
+joints. When the rain leader is run near windows, the rules and
+practice are that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a
+deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed several feet
+below the ground, so as to prevent freezing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+=Plumbing Fixtures=
+
+
+The receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste
+and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to
+the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing. Great care must
+be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, etc., of the
+plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of comfort in the house
+instead of becoming a curse to the occupants.
+
+=Sinks.=--The waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of
+sinks. Sinks are usually made of cast iron, painted, enameled, or
+galvanized. They are also made of wrought iron, as well as of
+earthenware and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided with
+a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse
+from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it. If possible the
+back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece; the back and
+sides, when of wood, should be covered by nonabsorbent material, to
+prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water.[18] No
+woodwork should inclose sinks; they should be supported on iron legs
+and be open beneath and around. The trap of a sink is usually two
+inches in diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a
+screw cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch vent pipe should
+be at the crown of the trap.
+
+=Washbasins.=--Washbasins are placed in bathrooms, and, when properly
+constructed and fitted, are a source of comfort. They should not be
+located in bedrooms, and should be open, without any woodwork around
+them. The washbowls are made of porcelain or marble, with a socket at
+the outlet, into which a plug is fitted.
+
+=Wash Tubs.=--For laundry purposes wooden, iron-enameled, stone, and
+porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room. Porcelain is
+the best material, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the
+next best; it is clean, nonabsorbent, and not too expensive. Wood
+should never be used, as it soon becomes saturated, is foul, leaks,
+and is offensive. In old houses, wherever there are wooden tubs, they
+should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material. The wash
+tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a row, and they are
+generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two
+inches in diameter, with one trap for all the tubs.
+
+=Bath Tubs.=--Bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain, and
+should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork. The branch waste
+pipe should be trapped and connected with the main waste or soil
+pipe. The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of
+nonabsorbent material.[19]
+
+=Refrigerators.=--The waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect
+with any of the house pipes, but should be emptied into a basin or
+pail; or, if the refrigerator is large, its waste pipe should be
+conducted to the cellar, where it should discharge into a properly
+trapped, sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink.
+
+=Boilers.=--The so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in
+the kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side
+of the trap.
+
+=Urinals.=--As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated within a house;
+they are permissible only in factories and office buildings. The
+material is enameled iron or porcelain. They must be provided with a
+proper water supply to flush them.
+
+=Overflows.=--To guard against overflow of washbasins, bath tubs,
+etc., overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are
+commonly provided. These pipes are connected with the inlet side of
+the trap of the same fixture. They are, however, liable to become a
+nuisance by being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly
+flushed; whenever possible they should be dispensed with.
+
+=Safes and Wastes.=--A common usage with plumbers in the past has
+been to provide sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, and water-closets, not
+only with overflow pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist
+of sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch
+all drippings and overflow from fixtures; from these safes a drip pipe
+or waste is conducted to the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of
+course, when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste
+pipes, they become a source of danger, even if they are trapped, as
+they are not properly cared for or flushed; and their traps are
+usually not sealed. Even when discharging into a sink in the cellar,
+safes and safe waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumulate
+filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and with the floors
+under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material, they are useless.
+
+=Water-closets.=--The most important plumbing fixtures within the
+house are the water-closets. Upon the proper construction and location
+of the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of
+the house. Water-closets should be placed in separate, well-lighted,
+perfectly ventilated, damp-proof, and clean compartments, and no
+water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement
+house. The type and construction of the water-closets should be
+carefully attended to, as the many existing, old, and obsolete types
+of water-closets are still being installed in houses, or are left
+there to foul the air of rooms and apartments. There are many
+water-closets on the market, some of which will be described; the
+best are those made of one piece, of porcelain or enameled
+earthenware, and so constructed as always to be and remain clean.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.
+
+PAN WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+_The Pan Closet._--The water-closet most commonly used in former times
+was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical
+contrivances. This is the _pan closet_, now universally condemned and
+prohibited from further use. The pan closet consists of four principal
+parts: (1) basin of china, small and round; (2) a copper six-inch pan
+under the basin; (3) a large iron container, into which the basin with
+the pan under it is placed; and (4) a D trap, to which the container
+is joined. The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, when
+pulled, moves the pan; this describes a half circle and drops the
+contents into the container and trap. The objections to pan closets
+are the following:
+
+(1) There being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances, they
+are liable to get out of order.
+
+(2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected, and is
+usually very dirty beneath.
+
+(3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is liable to be
+soiled by adhering excreta.
+
+(4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper parts, and the
+iron becomes corroded and coated with filth.
+
+(5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air enters rooms.
+
+(6) The junctions between the bowl and container, and the container
+and trap, are usually not gas-tight.
+
+(7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and the trap is
+usually not completely emptied.
+
+_Valve and Plunger Closets_ are an improvement upon the pan closets,
+but are not free from several objections enumerated above. As a rule,
+all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable.
+
+_Hopper Closets_ are made of iron or earthenware. Iron hopper closets
+easily corrode; they are usually enameled on the inside. Earthenware
+hoppers are preferable to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or
+short; when long, they expose a very large surface to be fouled,
+require a trap below the floor, and are, as a rule, very difficult to
+clean or to keep clean. Short hopper closets are preferable, as they
+are easily kept clean and are well flushed. When provided with
+flushing rim, and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply
+pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet.
+
+The washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the
+hopper closets. They are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain,
+and are so shaped that they contain a water seal, obviating the
+necessity of a separate trap under the closet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.
+
+LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.
+
+SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.
+
+STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.]
+
+_Flush Tanks._--Water-closets must not be flushed directly from the
+water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of contaminating the
+water supply. Water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks, either
+of iron or of wood, metal lined; these cisterns should be placed not
+less than four feet above the water-closet, and provided with a
+straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter.
+
+The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that by pulling at the
+handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the
+contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the
+water-closet. A separate ball arrangement is made for closing the
+water supply when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a
+capacity of at least three to five gallons of water; the flush pipe
+must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch, and
+the pipe must be straight, without bends, and the arrangement within
+the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.
+
+FLUSHING CISTERN.]
+
+=Yard Closets.=--In many old houses the water-closet accommodations
+are placed in the yard. There are two forms of these yard closets
+commonly used--the school sink and the yard hopper.
+
+The _school sink_ is an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet
+long, and one to two feet wide and one foot deep, set in a trench
+several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit; on
+one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the
+other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe.
+Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, inclosing it; over it
+are placed wooden seats, and surrounding the whole is a wooden shed
+with compartments for every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into
+the trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a day, or as
+often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is pulled up and the excreta
+allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is
+connected. These school sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are
+dangerous to health. The objections to them are the following:
+
+(1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and may decompose
+even in one day; and it is always offensive.
+
+(2) The iron trough is easily corroded.
+
+(3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large surface for
+adherence of excreta.
+
+(4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink
+is emptied, and excreta, which usually adheres to it, decomposes,
+creating offensive odors.
+
+(5) The junction of the iron trough with the brickwork, and the
+brickwork itself, is usually defective, or becomes defective, and
+allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard, or into the wall
+adjacent to the school sink. By the Tenement House Law of New York,
+the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.
+
+SCHOOL SINK AFTER SEVERAL MONTHS' USE.
+
+(J. SULLIVAN.)]
+
+_Yard Hopper Closets._--Where the water-closet accommodations cannot,
+for some reason, be put within the house, yard hopper closets are
+commonly employed. These closets are simply long, iron-enameled
+hoppers, trapped, and connected with a drain pipe discharging into
+the house drain. These closets are flushed from cisterns, but, in such
+case, the cisterns must be protected from freezing; this is
+accomplished in some houses by putting the yard hopper near the house
+and placing the cistern within the house; however, this can hardly be
+done where several hoppers must be employed. In most cases, yard
+hoppers are flushed by automatic rod valves, so constructed as to
+flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon. These
+valves, as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care must
+be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be
+perfectly water-tight. An improved form of yard hopper has been
+suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department,
+and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The
+improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment
+being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside,
+and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or
+mineral wool packing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.
+
+J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.
+
+A MODERN WATER-CLOSET.
+
+(J. L. Mott Iron Works.)]
+
+=Yard and Area Drains.=--The draining of the surface of the yard or
+other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or
+house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be
+condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap
+should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and
+should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in
+winter.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this
+purpose.--EDITOR.
+
+[19] Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or
+carpets.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+=Defects in Plumbing=
+
+
+The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts
+are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the
+position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and
+hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of
+the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as
+well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of
+house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done
+as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many
+defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing.
+At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance
+and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials,
+bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may
+endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.
+
+=Defects in Plumbing.=--The defects usually found in plumbing are so
+many that they cannot all be enumerated here. Among the principal and
+most common defects, however, are the following:
+
+_Materials._--Light-weight iron pipes; these crack easily and cannot
+stand the strain of calking. Sand-holes made during casting; these
+cannot always be detected, especially when the pipes are tar-coated.
+Thin lead pipe; not heavy enough to withstand the bending and drawing
+it is subjected to.
+
+_Location and Position._--Pipes may be located within the walls and
+built in, in which case they are inaccessible, and may be defective
+without anyone being able to discover the defects. Pipes may be laid
+with a wrong or an insufficient fall, thus leaving them unflushed, or
+retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes. Pipes may be
+put underground and have no support underneath, when some parts or
+lengths may sink, get out of joint, and the sewage run into the ground
+instead of through the pipes. The pipes may be so located as to
+require sharp bends and curves, which will retard the flow in them.
+
+_Joints._--Joints in pipes may be defective, leaking, and not
+gas-tight because of imperfect calking, insufficient lead having been
+used; or, no oakum having been used and the lead running into the
+lumen of the pipe; or, not sufficient care and time being taken for
+the work. Joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being used
+instead of brass ferrules; through improperly wiped joints; through
+bad workmanship, bad material, or ignorance of the plumber. Plumbers
+often use T branches instead of Y branches; sharp bends instead of
+bends of forty-five degrees or more; slip joints instead of
+lead-calked ones; also, they often connect a pipe of larger diameter
+with a pipe of small diameter, etc.
+
+_Traps._--The traps may be bad in principle and in construction; they
+may be badly situated or connected, or they may be easily unsealed,
+frequently obstructed, inaccessible, foul, etc.
+
+_Ventilation._--The house drain may have no fresh-air inlet, or the
+fresh-air inlet may be obstructed; the vent pipes may be absent, or
+obstructed; the vertical pipes may not be extended.
+
+_Condition._--Pipes may have holes, may be badly repaired, bent, out
+of shape, or have holes patched up with cement or putty; pipes may be
+corroded, gnawed by rats, or they may be obstructed, etc.
+
+The above are only a few of the many defects that may be found in the
+plumbing of a house. It is, therefore, of paramount importance to have
+the house plumbing regularly, frequently, and thoroughly examined and
+inspected, as well as put to the various tests, so as to discover the
+defects and remedy them.
+
+=Plumbing Tests.=--The following are a few minor points for testing
+plumbing:
+
+(1) To test a trap with a view to finding out whether its seal is lost
+or not, knock on the trap with a piece of metal; if the trap is empty,
+a hollow sound will be given out; if full, the sound will be dull.
+This is not reliable in case the trap is full or half-full with slime,
+etc. Another test for the same purpose is as follows: hold a light
+near the outlet of the fixture; if the light is drawn in, it is a sign
+that the trap is empty.
+
+(2) Defects in leaded joints can be detected if white lead has been
+used, as it will be discolored in case sewer gas escape from the
+joints.
+
+(3) The connection of a waste pipe of a bath tub with the trap of the
+water-closet can sometimes be discovered by suddenly emptying the bath
+tub and watching the contents of the water-closet trap; the latter
+will be agitated if the waste pipe is discharged into the trap or on
+the inlet side of trap of the water-closet.
+
+(4) The presence of sewer gas in a room can be detected by the
+following chemical method: saturate a piece of unglazed paper with a
+solution of acetate of lead in rain or boiled water, in the proportion
+of one to eight; allow the paper to dry, and hang up in the room where
+the escape of sewer gas is suspected; if sewer gas is present, the
+paper will be completely blackened.
+
+The main tests for plumbing are: (1) the _Hydraulic_ or water-pressure
+test; (2) the _Smoke_, or sight test, and (3) the _Scent_, or
+peppermint, etc., test.
+
+The _Water-pressure Test_ is used to test the vertical and horizontal
+pipes in new plumbing before the fixtures have been connected. It is
+applied as follows: the end of the house drain is plugged up with a
+proper air-tight plug, of which there are a number on the market. The
+pipes are then filled with water to a certain level, which is
+carefully noted. The water is allowed to stand in the pipes for half
+an hour, at the expiration of which time, if the joints show no sign
+of leakage, and are not sweating, and if the level of the water in the
+pipes has not fallen, the pipes are water-tight. This is a very
+reliable test, and is made obligatory for testing all new plumbing
+work.
+
+_The Smoke Test_ is also a very good test. It is applied as follows:
+by means of bellows, or some exploding, smoke-producing rocket, smoke
+is forced into the system of pipes, the ends plugged up, and the
+escape of the smoke watched for, as wherever there are defects in the
+pipes the smoke will appear. A number of special appliances for this
+test are manufactured, all of them more or less ingenious.
+
+_The Scent Test_ is made by putting into the pipes a certain quantity
+of some pungent chemical, like peppermint oil, etc., the odor of which
+will escape from the defects in the pipes, if there are any. Oil of
+peppermint is commonly used in this country for the test. The
+following is the way this test is applied: all the openings of the
+pipes on the roof, except one, are closed up tightly with paper, rags,
+etc. Into the one open pipe is poured from two to four ounces of
+peppermint oil, followed by a pail of hot water, and then the pipe
+into which the oil has been put is also plugged up. This is done,
+preferably, by an assistant. The inspector then proceeds to slowly
+follow the course of the various pipes, and will detect the smell of
+the oil wherever it may escape from any defects in the pipes. If the
+test is thoroughly and carefully done, if care is taken that no
+fixture in the house is used and the traps of same not disturbed
+during the test, if the openings of the pipes on the roofs are plugged
+up tightly, if the main house trap is not unsealed (otherwise the oil
+will escape into the sewer), and if the handling of the oil has been
+done by an assistant, so that none adheres to the inspector--if all
+these conditions are carried out, the peppermint test is a most
+valuable test for the detection of any and all defects in plumbing.
+Another precaution to be taken is with regard to the rain leader. If
+the rain leader is not trapped, or if its trap is empty, the
+peppermint oil may escape from the pipes into the rain leader. Care
+must be taken, therefore, that the trap at the base of the rain leader
+be sealed; or, if no trap is existing, to close up the connection of
+the rain leader with the house drain; or, if this be impossible, to
+plug up the opening of the leader near the roof.
+
+Instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe on the roof, it
+may be put through a fixture on the top floor of the house, although
+this is not so satisfactory.
+
+Various appliances have been manufactured to make this test more easy
+and accurate. Of the English appliances, the Banner patent drain
+grenade, and Kemp's drain tester are worthy of mention. The former
+consists "of a thin glass vial charged with pungent and volatile
+chemicals. One of the grenades, when dropped down any suitable pipe,
+such as the soil pipe, breaks, or the grenade may be inserted through
+a trap into the drain, where it is exploded." (Taylor.) Kemp's drain
+tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical with a strong
+odor; the tube is fitted with a glass cover, held in place by a string
+and a paper band. When the tester is thrown into the pipes and hot
+water poured after it, the paper band breaks, the spring opens the
+cover, and the contents of the tube fall into the drain.
+
+Recently Dr. W. G. Hudson, an inspector in the Department of Health of
+New York, has invented a very ingenious "peppermint cartridge" for
+testing plumbing. The invention is, however, not yet manufactured, and
+is not on the market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+=Infection and Disinfection=
+
+
+Disinfection is the destruction of the infective power of infectious
+material; or, in other words, disinfection is the destruction of the
+agents of infection.
+
+An infectious material is one contaminated with germs of infection.
+
+The germs of infection are organic microörganisms, vegetable and
+animal--protozoa and bacteria.
+
+The germs of infection once being lodged within the body cause certain
+reactions producing specific pathological changes and a variety of
+groups of symptoms which we know by the specific names of infectious
+diseases, e. g., typhoid, typhus, etc.
+
+Among the infectious diseases known to be due to specific germs are
+the following: typhoid, typhus, relapsing fevers, cholera, diphtheria,
+croup, tuberculosis, pneumonia, malaria, yellow fever, erysipelas,
+_septicæmia_, anthrax, _tetanus_, gonorrhea, etc.; and among the
+infectious diseases the germs of which have not as yet been discovered
+are the following: scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, syphilis,
+varicella, etc.
+
+The part of the body and the organs in which the germs first find
+their entrance, or which they specifically attack, vary with each
+disease; thus, the mucous membranes, skin, internal organs,
+secretions, and excretions are, severally, either portals of infection
+or the places where the infection shows itself the most.
+
+The agents carrying the germs of infection from one person to the
+other may be the infected persons themselves, or anything which has
+come in contact with their bodies and its secretions and excretions;
+thus, the air, room, furniture, vessels, clothing, food and drink,
+also insects and vermin, may all be carriers of infection.
+
+=Sterilization= is the absolute destruction of _all_ organic life,
+whether infectious or not; it is therefore _more_ than disinfection,
+which destroys the germs of infection alone.
+
+A =Disinfectant= is an agent which destroys germs of infection.
+
+A =Germicide= is the same; an agent destroying germs.
+
+An =Insecticide= is an agent capable of destroying insects; it is not
+necessarily a disinfectant, nor is a disinfectant necessarily an
+insecticide.
+
+An =Antiseptic= is a substance which inhibits and stops the growth of
+the bacteria of putrefaction and decomposition. A disinfectant is
+therefore an antiseptic, but an antiseptic may not be a disinfectant.
+
+A =Deodorant= is a substance which neutralizes or destroys the
+unpleasant odors arising from matter undergoing putrefaction. A
+deodorant is not necessarily a disinfectant, nor is every disinfectant
+a deodorant.
+
+The ideal disinfectant is one which, while capable of destroying the
+germs of disease, does not injure the bodies and material upon which
+the germs may be found; it must also be penetrating, harmless in
+handling, inexpensive, and reliable. The ideal disinfectant has not as
+yet been discovered.
+
+For successful scientific disinfection it is necessary to know: (1)
+the nature of the specific germs of the disease; (2) the methods and
+agents of its spread and infection; (3) the places where the germs are
+most likely to be found; (4) the action of each disinfectant upon the
+germs; and (5) the best methods of applying the disinfectant to the
+materials infected with germs of disease.
+
+Disinfection is not a routine, uniform, unscientific process; a
+disinfector must be conversant with the basic principles of
+disinfection, must make a thorough study of the scientific part of the
+subject, and moreover must be thoroughly imbued with the importance of
+his work, upon which the checking of the further spread of disease
+depends.
+
+
+_Physical Disinfectants_
+
+The physical disinfectants are sunlight, desiccation, and heat.
+
+=Sunlight= is a good disinfectant provided the infected material or
+germs are directly exposed to the rays of the sun. Bacteria are killed
+within a short time, but spores need a long time, and some of them
+resist the action of the sun for an indefinite period. The
+disadvantages of sunlight as a disinfectant are its superficial
+action, its variability and uncertainty, and its slow action upon most
+germs of infection. Sunlight is a good adjunct to other methods of
+disinfection; it is most valuable in tuberculosis, and should be used
+wherever possible in conjunction with other physical or chemical
+methods of disinfection.[20]
+
+=Desiccation= is a good means of disinfection, but can be applied only
+to very few objects; all bacteria need moisture for their existence
+and multiplication, hence absolute dryness acts as a good germicide.
+Meat and fish, certain cereals, and also fruit, when dried, become at
+the same time disinfected.
+
+_Heat_ is the best, most valuable, all-pervading, most available, and
+cheapest disinfectant. The various ways in which heat may be used for
+disinfection are burning, dry heat, boiling, and steam.
+
+=Burning= is of course the best disinfectant, but it not only destroys
+the germs in the infected materials, but the materials themselves; its
+application is therefore limited to articles of little or no value,
+and to rags, rubbish, and refuse.
+
+=Dry Heat.=--All life is destroyed when exposed to a dry heat of 150°
+C. for one hour, although most of the bacteria of infection are killed
+at a lower temperature and in shorter time. Dry heat is a good
+disinfectant for objects that can stand the heat without injury, but
+most objects, and especially textile fabrics, are injured by it.
+
+=Boiling.=--Perhaps the best and most valuable disinfectant in
+existence is boiling, because it is always at command, is applicable
+to most materials and objects, is an absolutely safe sterilizer and
+disinfectant, and needs very little if any preparation and apparatus
+for its use. One half hour of boiling will destroy all life; and most
+bacteria can be killed at even a lower temperature. Subjection to a
+temperature of only 70° C. for half an hour suffices to kill the germs
+of cholera, tuberculosis, diphtheria, plague, etc. Boiling is
+especially applicable to textile fabrics and small objects, and can
+readily be done in the house where the infection exists, thus
+obviating the necessity of conveying the infected objects elsewhere,
+and perhaps for some distance, to be disinfected.
+
+=Steam.=--Of all the physical disinfectants steam is the most valuable
+because it is very penetrating, reliable, and rapid; it kills all
+bacteria at once and all spores in a few minutes, and besides is
+applicable to a great number and many kinds of materials and objects.
+Steam is especially valuable for the disinfection of clothing,
+bedding, carpets, textile fabrics, mattresses, etc. Steam can be used
+in a small way, as well as in very large plants. The well-known
+Arnold sterilizers, used for the sterilization of milk, etc., afford
+an example of the use of steam in a small apparatus; while municipal
+authorities usually construct very large steam disinfecting plants. A
+steam disinfector is made of steel or of wrought iron, is usually
+cylindrical in shape, and is covered with felt, asbestos, etc. The
+disinfector has doors on one or both ends, and is fitted inside with
+rails upon which a specially constructed car can be slid in through
+one door and out through the other. The car is divided into several
+compartments, in which the infected articles are placed; when thus
+loaded it is run into the disinfector. The steam disinfectors may be
+fitted with thermometers, vacuum formers, steam jackets, etc.
+
+
+_Gaseous Chemical Disinfectants_
+
+Physical disinfectants, however valuable and efficient, cannot be
+employed in many places and for many materials infected with disease
+germs, and therefore chemicals have been sought to be used wherever
+physical disinfectants could not for one or more reasons be employed.
+Chemicals are used as disinfectants either in gaseous form or in
+solutions; the gaseous kinds are of especial value on account of their
+penetrating qualities, and are employed for the disinfection of rooms,
+holds of ships, etc. There are practically but two chemicals which are
+used in gaseous disinfection, and these are sulphur dioxide and
+formaldehyde.
+
+=Sulphur Dioxide.=--Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a good surface
+disinfectant, and is very destructive to all animal life; it is one of
+the best insecticides we have, but its germicidal qualities are rather
+weak; it does not kill spores, and it penetrates only superficially.
+The main disadvantages of sulphur dioxide as a disinfectant are: (1)
+that it weakens textile fabrics; (2) blackens and bleaches all
+vegetable coloring matter; (3) tarnishes metal; and (4) is very
+injurious and dangerous to those handling it.
+
+There are several methods of employing sulphur in the disinfection of
+rooms and objects, e. g., the pot, candle, liquid, and furnace
+methods.
+
+In the pot methods crude sulphur, preferably ground, is used; it is
+placed in an iron pot and ignited by the aid of alcohol, and in the
+burning evolves the sulphur dioxide gas. About five pounds of sulphur
+are to be used for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. As moisture plays
+a very important part in developing the disinfecting properties of
+sulphur dioxide, the anhydrous gas being inactive as a disinfectant,
+it is advisable to place the pot in a large pan filled with water, so
+that the evaporated water may render the gas active. For the purpose
+of destroying all insects in a room an exposure of about two hours to
+the gas are necessary, while for the destruction of bacteria an
+exposure of at least fifteen to sixteen hours is required.
+
+In the application of disinfection with sulphur dioxide, as with any
+other gas, it must not be forgotten that gases very readily escape
+through the many apertures, cracks, and openings in the room and
+through the slits near doors and windows; and in order to confine the
+gas in the room it is absolutely necessary to hermetically close all
+such apertures, cracks, etc., before generating the gaseous
+disinfectant. The closing of the openings, etc., is done by the
+pasting over these strips of gummed paper, an important procedure
+which must not be overlooked, and which must be carried out in a
+conscientious manner.
+
+When sulphur is used in candle form the expense is considerably
+increased without any additional efficiency. When a solution of
+sulphurous acid is employed, exposure of the liquid to the air
+suffices to disengage the sulphur dioxide necessary for disinfection.
+The quantity of the solution needed is double that of the crude drug,
+i. e., ten pounds for every 1,000 cubic feet of room space.
+
+=Formaldehyde.=--At present the tendency is to employ formaldehyde gas
+instead of the sulphur so popular some time ago. The advantages of
+formaldehyde over sulphur are: (1) its nonpoisonous nature; (2) it is
+a very good germicide; (3) it has no injurious effect upon fabrics and
+objects; (4) it does not change colors; and (5) it can be used for the
+disinfection of rooms with the richest hangings, bric-a-brac, etc.,
+without danger to these. Formaldehyde is evolved either from paraform
+or from the liquid formalin; formerly it was also obtained by the
+action of wood-alcohol vapor upon red-hot platinum.
+
+Formaldehyde gas has not very great penetrating power; it is not an
+insecticide, but kills bacteria in a very short time, and spores in an
+hour or two.
+
+Paraform (polymerized formaldehyde; trioxymethylene) is sold in
+pastilles or in powder form, and when heated reverts again to
+formaldehyde; it must not burn, for no gas is evolved when the heating
+reaches the stage of burning. The lamps used for disinfection with
+paraform are very simple in construction, but as the evolution of the
+gas is very uncertain, this method is used only for small places, and
+it demands two ounces of paraform for every 1,000 cubic feet of space,
+with an exposure of twelve hours. Formaldehyde is also used in the
+form of the liquid formalin either by spraying and sprinkling the
+objects to be disinfected with the liquid, and then placing them in a
+tightly covered box, so that they are disinfected by the evolution of
+the gas, or by wetting sheets with a formalin solution and letting
+them hang in the room to be disinfected.
+
+The method most frequently employed is to generate the formaldehyde in
+generators, retorts, and in the so-called autoclaves, and then to
+force it through apertures into the room.
+
+Of the other gaseous disinfectants used, hydrocyanic acid and chlorine
+may be mentioned, although they are very rarely used because of their
+irritating and poisonous character.
+
+=Hydrocyanic Acid= is frequently used as an insecticide in ships,
+mills, and greenhouses, but its germicidal power is weak.
+
+=Chlorine= is a good germicide, but is very irritating, poisonous, and
+dangerous to handle; it is evolved by the decomposition of chlorinated
+lime with sulphuric acid. Chlorine gas is very injurious to objects,
+materials, and colors, and its use is therefore very limited.
+
+
+_Chemicals Used as Disinfectants_
+
+Solution of chemicals, in order to be effective, must be used
+generously, in concentrated form, for a prolonged time, and, if
+possible, warm or hot. The strength of the solution must depend upon
+the work to be performed and the materials used. The method of
+applying the solution differs. It may consist in immersing and soaking
+the infected object in the solution; or the solution may be applied as
+a wash to surfaces, or used in the form of sprays, atomizers, etc. The
+most important solutions of chemicals and the ones most frequently
+employed are those of carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury.
+
+=Carbolic Acid.=--In the strength of 1:15,000 carbolic acid prevents
+decomposition; a strength of 1:1,000 is needed for the destruction of
+bacteria, and a three per cent to five per cent solution for the
+destruction of spores. Carbolic acid is used, as a rule, in two per
+cent to five per cent solutions, and is a very good disinfectant for
+washing floors, walls, ceilings, woodwork, small objects, etc. The
+cresols, creolin, lysol, and other solutions of the cresols are more
+germicidal than carbolic acid, and are sometimes used for the same
+purposes.
+
+=Bichloride of Mercury= (corrosive sublimate) is a potent poison and a
+powerful germicide; in solutions of 1:15,000 it stops decomposition;
+in solutions of 1:2,000 it kills bacteria in two hours; and in a
+strength of 1:500 it acts very quickly as a germicide for all
+bacteria, and even for spores. Corrosive sublimate dissolves in
+sixteen parts of cold and three parts of boiling water, but for
+disinfecting purposes it should be colored so that it may not be
+inadvertently used for other purposes, as the normal solutions are
+colorless and may accidentally be used internally. The action of the
+bichloride is increased by heat.
+
+=Formalin= is a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas, and its
+uses and methods of employment have already been considered.
+
+=Potassium Permanganate= is a good germicide, and weak solutions of it
+are sufficient to kill some bacteria, but the objections against its
+use are that solutions of potassium permanganate become inert and
+decompose on coming in contact with any organic matter. Furthermore,
+the chemical would be too expensive for disinfecting purposes.
+
+=Ferrous Sulphate= (copperas) was formerly very extensively used for
+disinfecting purposes, but is not so used at present, owing to the
+fact that it has been learned that the germicidal power of this
+material is very slight, and that its value depends mostly upon its
+deodorizing power, for which reason it is used on excreta in privy
+vaults, etc.
+
+=Lime.=--When carbonate of lime is calcined the product is common
+lime, which, upon being mixed with water, produces slaked lime; when
+to the latter considerable water is added, the product is milk of
+lime, and also whitewash. Whitewash is often used to disinfect walls
+and ceilings of cellars as well as of rooms; milk of lime is used to
+disinfect excreta in privy vaults, school sinks, etc. Whenever lime is
+used for disinfecting excreta it should be used generously, and be
+thoroughly mixed with the material to be disinfected.
+
+
+_Disinfection of Rooms_
+
+Practical disinfection is not a routine, uniform, and thoughtless
+process, but demands the detailed, conscientious application of
+scientific data gained by research and laboratory experiments.
+Disinfection to be thorough and successful cannot be applied to all
+objects, material, and diseases in like manner, but must be adjusted
+to the needs of every case, and must be performed conscientiously.
+Placing a sulphur candle in a room, spilling a quart of carbolic acid
+or a couple of pounds of chlorinated lime upon the floors or objects,
+may be regarded as disinfection by laymen, but in municipal
+disinfection the disinfector must be thoroughly versed in the science
+of disinfection and be prepared to apply its dictates to practice.
+
+=Rooms.=--In the disinfection of rooms the disinfectant used varies
+with the part of the room as well as with the character of the room.
+When a gaseous disinfectant is to be used sulphur dioxide or
+formaldehyde is employed, with the tendency lately to replace the
+former by the latter. Wherever there are delicate furnishings,
+tapestries, etc., sulphur cannot be used on account of its destructive
+character; when sulphur is employed it is, as a rule, in the poorer
+class of tenement houses where there is very little of value to be
+injured by the gas, and where the sulphur is of additional value as an
+insecticide. Whenever gaseous disinfectants are used the principal
+work of the disinfector is in the closing up of the cracks, apertures,
+holes, and all openings from the room to the outer air, as otherwise
+the gaseous disinfectant will escape. The closing up of the open
+spaces is accomplished usually by means of gummed-paper strips, which
+are obtainable in rolls and need only to be moistened and applied to
+the cracks, etc. Openings into chimneys, ventilators, transoms, and
+the like must not be overlooked by the disinfector. After the openings
+have already been closed up the disinfectant is applied and the
+disinfector quickly leaves the room, being careful to close the door
+behind him and to paste gummed paper over the door cracks. The room
+must be left closed for at least twelve, or better, for twenty-four
+hours, when it should be opened and well aired.
+
+=Walls and Ceilings= of rooms should be disinfected by scrubbing with
+a solution of corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid; and in cases of
+tuberculosis and wherever there is fear of infection adhering to the
+walls and ceilings, all paper, kalsomine, or paint should be scraped
+off and new paper, kalsomine, or paint applied.
+
+=Metal Furniture= should first be scrubbed and washed with hot
+soapsuds, and then a solution of formalin, carbolic acid, or
+bichloride applied to the surfaces and cracks.
+
+=Wooden Bedsteads= should be washed with a disinfecting solution and
+subjected to a gaseous disinfectant in order that all cracks and
+openings be penetrated and all insects be destroyed.
+
+=Bedding, Mattresses, Pillows, Quilts, etc.=, should be packed in
+clean sheets moistened with a five per cent solution of formalin, and
+then carted away to be thoroughly disinfected by steam in a special
+apparatus.
+
+=Sheets, Small Linen and Cotton Objects, Tablecloths, etc.=, should be
+soaked in a carbolic-acid solution and then boiled.
+
+=Rubbish, Rags, and Objects of Little Value= found in an infected room
+are best burned.
+
+=Glassware and Chinaware= should either be boiled or subjected to dry
+heat.
+
+=Carpets= should first be subjected to a gaseous disinfectant, and
+then be wrapped in sheets wetted with formalin solution and sent to be
+steamed. Spots and stains in carpets should be thoroughly washed
+before being steamed, as the latter fixes the stains.
+
+=Woolen Goods and Wool= are injured by being steamed, and hence may be
+best disinfected by formalin solutions or by formaldehyde gas.
+
+=Books= are very difficult to disinfect, especially such books as were
+handled by the patient, on account of the difficulty of getting the
+disinfectant to act on every page of the book. The only way to
+disinfect books is to hang them up so that the leaves are all open,
+and then to subject them to the action of formaldehyde gas for twelve
+hours. Another method sometimes employed is to sprinkle a five per
+cent solution of formalin on every other page of the book; but this is
+rather a slow process.[21]
+
+=Stables= need careful and thorough disinfection. All manure, hay,
+feed, etc., should be collected, soaked in oil, and burned. The walls,
+ceilings, and floors should then be washed with a strong disinfecting
+solution applied with a hose; all cracks are to be carefully cleaned
+and washed. The solution to be used is preferably lysol, creolin, or
+carbolic acid. After this the whole premises should be fumigated with
+sulphur or formaldehyde, and then the stable left open for a week to
+be aired and dried, after which all surfaces should be freshly and
+thickly kalsomined.
+
+=Food= cannot be very well disinfected unless it can be subjected to
+boiling. When this is impossible it should be burned.
+
+=Cadavers= of infected persons ought to be cremated, but as this is
+not always practicable, the next best way is to properly wash the
+surface of the body with a formalin or other disinfecting solution,
+and then to have the body embalmed, thus disinfecting it internally
+and externally.
+
+Disinfectors, coming often as they do in contact with infected
+materials and persons, should know how to disinfect their own _persons
+and clothing_. So far as clothing is concerned the rule should be that
+those handling infected materials have a special uniform[22] which is
+cleaned and disinfected after the day's work is done. The hands should
+receive careful attention, as otherwise the disinfector may carry
+infection to his home. The best method of disinfecting the hands is to
+thoroughly wash and scrub them for five minutes with green soap,
+brush, and water, then immerse first for one minute in alcohol, and
+then in a hot 1:1,000 bichloride solution. The nails should be
+carefully scrubbed and cleaned.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Blankets, carpets, and rugs should be frequently hung out on the
+line in the bright sunlight.--EDITOR.
+
+[21] Unless books are valuable it is best to burn them. Paper will
+hold germs for several weeks. Recent experiments show that certain
+pathogenic bacteria, including the bacilli of diphtheria, will live
+for twenty-eight days on paper money.--EDITOR.
+
+[22] Duck, linen, or any washable material will do.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+=Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems=[23]
+
+
+In our variable climate, with its sudden and extreme changes in
+temperature, the matter of heating and ventilation demands the serious
+attention of all houseowners and housebuilders.
+
+The most common method of heating the modern dwelling is by a hot-air
+furnace in the cellar, with sheet-metal ducts for conveying the heated
+air to the various rooms. The advantages of a furnace are cheapness of
+installation and, in moderate weather, a plentiful supply of warm but
+very dry air. The disadvantages are the cost of fuel consumed, the
+liability of the furnace to give off gas under certain conditions, and
+the inability to heat certain rooms with some combinations of
+temperature and wind. The cost of installing a furnace and its proper
+ducts in a ten-room house is from $250 to $350; such a furnace will
+consume fifteen to twenty tons of anthracite coal in a season in the
+latitude of New York City. The hot-air system works better with
+compact square houses than with long, "rangy" structures. For a house
+fully exposed to the northwest blasts, one of the other systems should
+be considered.
+
+Perhaps the next most popular arrangement is a sectional cast-iron
+hot-water heater, with a system of piping to and from radiators in the
+rooms to be heated. Hot-water heating has many advantages, some of
+which are the warmth of the radiators almost as soon as the fire is
+started and after the fire is out; the moderation of the heat; the
+freedom from sudden changes in amount of heat radiated; the absence of
+noise in operation, and the low cost in fuel consumed. Some of the
+disadvantages are the high cost of installation and the lack of easy
+or ready control (as the hot water cools slowly, and shutting the
+radiator valves often puts the whole system out of adjustment). A
+hot-water heating plant for a ten-room house will cost $400 to $600,
+according to the type of boiler; the corresponding fuel consumption
+will be twelve to sixteen tons of coal per season.
+
+The third system in common use is by steam through radiators or coils
+of pipe connected to a cast-iron sectional boiler, or a steel tubular
+boiler set in brickwork. This system is in use in practically all
+large buildings; and its advantages are the moderate cost of
+installation (as the single-pipe system is very efficient and the
+pressure to be provided against in connections and fittings is
+slight); the ease of control (since any good equipment will furnish
+steam in twenty minutes from the time the fire is started, and fresh
+coal thrown upon the fire with a closing of dampers will stop the
+steam supply in five minutes--or any radiator may be turned on or off
+in an instant); the ability to heat the entire house in any weather,
+or any single room or suite of rooms only; and, lastly, the moderate
+fuel consumption.
+
+The disadvantages of steam heat are no heat, or next to none, without
+the production of steam, involving some noise in operation, and danger
+of explosion. Steam equipment in a ten-room house will cost $300 to
+$550, the lower price being for a sectional boiler and the higher for
+a steel boiler set in brickwork. The fuel consumed will be from ten to
+fifteen tons per season.
+
+Both hot-water and steam systems require supplementary means of
+ventilation. Placing the radiators in exposed places, as beneath
+windows, in the main hall near the front door, in northwest corners
+and near outside walls, will insure some circulation of air; and, if
+one or two open fire places be provided on each floor, there will be,
+in most cases, sufficient ventilation without the use of special
+ducts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] See Chapter III for full discussion.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
++--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE.                                                |
+| ===================                                                |
+|                                                                    |
+| 1) Figure numbers (which aren't contiguous) have been preserved.   |
+|                                                                    |
+| 2) Part III, Chapter V. The table showing thickness of vitrified   |
+|    pipes reads:                                                    |
+|                                                                    |
+|    4 inches diameter               1/2  inch thick                 |
+|    6   "        "                  1/16  "     "                   |
+|    8   "        "                  3/4   "     "                   |
+|   12   "        "                  1     "     "                   |
+|                                                                    |
+| The thickness figure for the 6 inch pipe has been left as          |
+| originally printed, but probably is incorrect (logically it should |
+| be somewhere between 1/2 inch and 3/4 inch thick).                 |
+|                                                                    |
++--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of
+VI), by Various
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+
+Project Gutenberg's The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI), by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI)
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Kenelm Winslow
+
+Release Date: January 31, 2009 [EBook #27947]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOME MEDICAL LIBRARY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Chris Logan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div id="title_page">
+<h1>The Home Medical<br />
+Library</h1>
+
+<p class="by">By</p>
+
+<p class="kenelm">Kenelm Winslow, B.A.S., M.D.</p>
+
+<p class="assistant"><em>Formerly Assistant Professor Comparative Therapeutics, Harvard<br />
+University; Late Surgeon to the Newton Hospital;<br />
+Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society, etc.</em></p>
+
+<p>With the Coöperation of Many Medical<br />
+Advising Editors and Special Contributors</p>
+
+<p class="volumes">IN SIX VOLUMES</p>
+
+<p><em>First Aid :: Family Medicines :: Nose, Throat, Lungs,<br />
+Eye, and Ear :: Stomach and Bowels :: Tumors and<br />
+Skin Diseases :: Rheumatism :: Germ Diseases<br />
+Nervous Diseases :: Insanity :: Sexual Hygiene<br />
+Woman and Child :: Heart, Blood, and Digestion<br />
+Personal Hygiene :: Indoor Exercise<br />
+Diet and Conduct for Long Life :: Practical<br />
+Kitchen Science :: Nervousness<br />
+and Outdoor Life :: Nurse and Patient<br />
+Camping Comfort :: Sanitation<br />
+of the Household :: Pure<br />
+Water Supply :: Pure Food<br />
+Stable and Kennel</em></p>
+
+<p class="published"><span class="ny">New York</span><br />
+The Review of Reviews Company<br />
+1907</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="contributors">
+<h2>Medical Advising Editors</h2>
+
+<div class="thought_break"></div>
+
+<p class="managing">Managing Editor</p>
+
+<p class="name">Albert Warren Ferris, A.M., M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Former Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Chairman,
+Section on Neurology and Psychiatry, New York Academy of Medicine;
+Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Medical Editor, New International Encyclopedia.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Nervous Diseases</p>
+
+<p class="name">Charles E. Atwood, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Physician, Utica
+State Hospital and Bloomingdale Hospital for Insane Patients; Former
+Clinical Assistant to Sir William Gowers, National Hospital, London.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Pregnancy</p>
+
+<p class="name">Russell Bellamy, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Assistant in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cornell University Medical
+College Dispensary; Captain and Assistant Surgeon (in charge),
+Squadron A, New York Cavalry; Assistant in Surgery, New York
+Polyclinic.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Germ Diseases</p>
+
+<p class="name">Hermann Michael Biggs, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>General Medical Officer and Director of Bacteriological Laboratories,
+New York City Department of Health; Professor of Clinical Medicine in
+University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician
+to Bellevue, St. Vincent's, Willard Parker, and Riverside Hospitals.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">The Eye and Ear</p>
+
+<p class="name">J. Herbert Claiborne, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Clinical Instructor in Ophthalmology, Cornell University Medical
+College; Former Adjunct Professor of Ophthalmology, New York
+Polyclinic; Former Instructor in Ophthalmology in Columbia University;
+Surgeon, New Amsterdam Eye and Ear Hospital.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Sanitation</p>
+
+<p class="name">Thomas Darlington, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board,
+New York Foundling Hospital; Consulting Physician, French Hospital;
+Attending Physician, St. John's Riverside Hospital, Yonkers; Surgeon
+to New Croton Aqueduct and other Public Works, to Copper Queen
+Consolidated Mining Company of Arizona, and Arizona and Southeastern
+Railroad Hospital; Author of Medical and Climatological Works.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Menstruation</p>
+
+<p class="name">Austin Flint, Jr., M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Professor of Obstetrics and Clinical Gynecology, New York University
+and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician, Bellevue
+Hospital; Consulting Obstetrician, New York Maternity Hospital;
+Attending Physician, Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled, Manhattan
+Maternity and Emergency Hospitals.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Heart and Blood</p>
+
+<p class="name">John Bessner Huber, A.M., M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Visiting Physician to St. Joseph's Home for Consumptives;
+Author of "Consumption: Its Relation to Man and His Civilization; Its
+Prevention and Cure."</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Skin Diseases</p>
+
+<p class="name">James C. Johnston, A.B., M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Instructor in Pathology and Chief of Clinic, Department of
+Dermatology, Cornell University Medical College.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Diseases of Children</p>
+
+<p class="name">Charles Gilmore Kerley, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Professor of Pediatrics, New York Polyclinic Medical School and
+Hospital; Attending Physician, New York Infant Asylum, Children's
+Department of Sydenham Hospital, and Babies' Hospital, N. Y.;
+Consulting Physician, Home for Crippled Children.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Bites and Stings</p>
+
+<p class="name">George Gibier Rambaud, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>President, New York Pasteur Institute.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Headache</p>
+
+<p class="name">Alonzo D. Rockwell, A.M., M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Former Professor Electro-Therapeutics and Neurology at New York
+Post-Graduate Medical School; Neurologist and Electro-Therapeutist to
+the Flushing Hospital; Former Electro-Therapeutist to the Woman's
+Hospital in the State of New York; Author of Works on Medical and
+Surgical Uses of Electricity, Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia), etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Poisons</p>
+
+<p class="name">E. Ellsworth Smith, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Pathologist, St. John's Hospital, Yonkers; Somerset Hospital,
+Somerville, N. J.; Trinity Hospital, St. Bartholomew's Clinic, and the
+New York West Side German Dispensary.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Catarrh</p>
+
+<p class="name">Samuel Wood Thurber, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Chief of Clinic and Instructor in Laryngology, Columbia University;
+Laryngologist to the Orphan's Home and Hospital.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Care of Infants</p>
+
+<p class="name">Herbert B. Wilcox, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Assistant in Diseases of Children, Columbia University.</em></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="contributors">
+<h2>Special Contributors</h2>
+
+<div class="thought_break"></div>
+
+<p class="subject">Food Adulteration</p>
+
+<p class="name">S. Josephine Baker, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Pure Water Supply</p>
+
+<p class="name">William Paul Gerhard, C.E.</p>
+
+<p><em>Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Member of American Public
+Health Association; Member, American Society Mechanical Engineers;
+Corresponding Member of American Institute of Architects, etc.; Author
+of "House Drainage," etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Care of Food</p>
+
+<p><span class="name">Janet McKenzie Hill</span></p>
+
+<p><em>Editor, Boston Cooking School Magazine.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Nerves and Outdoor Life</p>
+
+<p class="name">S. Weir Mitchell, M.D., LL.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>LL.D. (Harvard, Edinburgh, Princeton); Former President, Philadelphia
+College of Physicians; Member, National Academy of Sciences,
+Association of American Physicians, etc.; Author of essays: "Injuries
+to Nerves," "Doctor and Patient," "Fat and Blood," etc.; of scientific
+works: "Researches Upon the Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc.; of
+novels: "Hugh Wynne," "Characteristics," "Constance Trescott," "The
+Adventures of François," etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Sanitation</p>
+
+<p class="name">George M. Price, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York
+City; Inspector, New York Sanitary Aid Society of the 10th Ward, 1885;
+Manager, Model Tenement-houses of the New York Tenement-house Building
+Co., 1888; Inspector, New York State Tenement-house Commission, 1895;
+Author of "Tenement-house Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation," etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Indoor Exercise</p>
+
+<p class="name">Dudley Allen Sargent, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University; Former President,
+American Physical Culture Society; Director, Normal School of Physical
+Training, Cambridge, Mass.; President, American Association for
+Promotion of Physical Education; Author of "Universal Test for
+Strength," "Health, Strength and Power," etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Long Life</p>
+
+<p><span class="name">Sir Henry Thompson, Bart., F.R.C.S., M.B.</span> (Lond.)</p>
+
+<p><em>Surgeon Extraordinary to His Majesty the King of the Belgians;
+Consulting Surgeon to University College Hospital, London; Emeritus
+Professor of Clinical Surgery to University College, London, etc.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="subject">Camp Comfort</p>
+
+<p class="name">Stewart Edward White</p>
+
+<p><em>Author of "The Forest," "The Mountains," "The Silent Places," "The
+Blazed Trail," etc.</em></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;">
+<img src="images/reed.jpg" width="487" height="500" alt="WALTER REED." title="WALTER REED." />
+<span class="caption">WALTER REED.</span>
+
+<p>In the year 1900, Major Walter Reed, a surgeon in the United States
+Army, demonstrated, by experiments conducted in Cuba, that a mosquito
+of a single species, Stegomyia fasciata, which has sucked the blood of
+a yellow-fever patient may transmit the disease by biting another
+person, but not until about twelve days have elapsed. He also proved,
+as described in Volume I, Part II, that the malady is not contagious.
+"With the exception of the discovery of anæsthesia," said Professor
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, "Dr. Reed's researches are the
+most valuable contributions to science ever made in this country."
+General Leonard Wood declared the discovery to be the "greatest
+medical work of modern times," which, in the words of President
+Roosevelt, "renders mankind his debtor." Major Reed died November 23,
+1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div id="volume_title">
+<h2>The Home Medical<br />
+Library</h2>
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+
+<p class="volume">VOLUME V :: SANITATION</p>
+
+<p>Edited by</p>
+
+<p class="name smcap">Thomas Darlington, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical<br />
+Board, New York Foundling Hospital, etc.; Author of<br />
+Medical and Climatological Works</em></p>
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+
+<p class="title">WATER SUPPLY AND PURIFICATION</p>
+
+<p class="name">By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.</p>
+
+<p><em>Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Author of "House Drainage,"<br />
+"Sanitary Engineering," "Household Wastes," etc.</em></p>
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+
+<p class="title">PURE FOOD FOR THE<br />
+HOUSEKEEPER</p>
+
+<p class="name">By S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health</em></p>
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+
+<p class="title">THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS</p>
+
+<p class="name">By GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.</p>
+
+<p><em>Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New<br />
+York City; Author of "Tenement-House Inspection,"<br />
+"Handbook on Sanitation," etc.</em></p>
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+
+<p class="published"><span class="ny">New York</span><br />
+The Review of Reviews Company<br />
+1907</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div id="copyright">
+<p>Copyright, 1907, by</p>
+
+<p class="company">The Review of Reviews Company</p>
+
+
+<p class="press">THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div id="toc">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h2><em>Contents</em></h2>
+
+
+<h3>PART I</h3>
+
+<table summary="Table of contents - Part 1">
+<thead>
+<tr>
+  <th>CHAPTER</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>PAGE</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Country Sources of Water Supply</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Relation of Water to Health&mdash;Collection of
+Rain Water&mdash;Cisterns&mdash;Springs&mdash;Various
+Kinds of Wells&mdash;Laws Regulating Supply.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Appliances for Distributing Water</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Pumping Machines&mdash;The Hydraulic Ram&mdash;Use
+of Windmills&mdash;Engines&mdash;Steam
+and Electric Pumps&mdash;Reservoirs and
+Tanks&mdash;Appliances for Country Houses.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">III.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Clear Water Often Dangerous&mdash;Pollution
+Due to Plants&mdash;Copper Sulphate Method&mdash;Directions
+for the Copper Cure.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">IV.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Malaria Due to Mosquitoes&mdash;Cause of Yellow
+Fever&mdash;Effect of a Mosquito Bite&mdash;Destruction
+of Larvæ&mdash;Best Preventive
+Measures&mdash;Use of Kerosene.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3>PART II</h3>
+
+<table summary="Table of contents - Part 2">
+<thead>
+<tr>
+  <th>CHAPTER</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>PAGE</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">How To Detect Food Adulteration</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Definition of Adulteration&mdash;Food Laws&mdash;Permissible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+Adulterants&mdash;How to Select
+Pure Food&mdash;Chemical Tests.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Mushroom Poisoning</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Symptoms and Treatment&mdash;Coffee and
+Atropine the Best Antidotes&mdash;How to Tell
+the Edible Kind&mdash;"Horse," "Fairy-ring,"
+and Other Varieties&mdash;Poisonous Species.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+
+<h3>PART III</h3>
+
+<table summary="Table of contents - Part 3">
+<thead>
+<tr>
+  <th>CHAPTER</th>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>PAGE</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">I.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Soil and Sites</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Constituents of the Soil&mdash;Influence on
+Health&mdash;Improving Defective Soil&mdash;Street
+Paving and Tree Planting&mdash;Proper Construction
+of Houses&mdash;Subsoil Drainage.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">II.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Ventilation</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">What is Meant by Ventilation&mdash;Quantity
+of Air Required&mdash;Natural Agents of Ventilation&mdash;Special
+Appliances.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">III.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Warming</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Various Methods&mdash;Materials of Combustion&mdash;Chimneys&mdash;Fireplaces
+and Grates&mdash;Stoves&mdash;Hot-air
+Warming&mdash;Hot-water
+Systems&mdash;Principles of Steam Heating.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">IV.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Disposal of Sewage</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Refuse and Garbage&mdash;Discharge into Waters&mdash;Cremation&mdash;Precipitation&mdash;Intermittent
+Filtration&mdash;Immediate Disposal, etc.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>V.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Sewers</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Definition&mdash;Materials Used in Construction&mdash;Levels
+of Trenches&mdash;Joints of Pipes&mdash;The
+Fall and Flow of the Contents&mdash;Connections&mdash;Tide
+Valves&mdash;Sewer Gas.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">VI.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Purposes and Requisites&mdash;Materials Used&mdash;Joints
+and Connections&mdash;Construction
+of Traps&mdash;Siphonage and Back Pressure&mdash;The
+Vent-pipe System.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">VII.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing Pipes</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Construction of House Drains&mdash;Fall, Position,
+and Connection&mdash;Main Traps&mdash;Extension
+of Vertical Pipes&mdash;Fresh-air Inlets&mdash;Soil
+and Waste Pipes&mdash;Branch Pipes, etc.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Plumbing Fixtures</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Sinks&mdash;Washbasins&mdash;Washtubs&mdash;Bathtubs&mdash;Refrigerators,
+etc.&mdash;Safes and
+Wastes&mdash;Pan, Valve, and Hopper Closets&mdash;Flush
+Tanks&mdash;Yard Closets&mdash;Drains.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">IX.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Defects in Plumbing</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Poor Work&mdash;Improper Conditions&mdash;How
+to Test Traps, Joints, and Connections&mdash;Detect
+Sewer Gas&mdash;Water-pressure,
+Smoke, and Scent Tests&mdash;Special Appliances.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>X.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Infection and Disinfection</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Physical and Chemical Disinfectants&mdash;Use
+of Sulphur Dioxide&mdash;Formaldehyde&mdash;Hydrocyanic
+Acid&mdash;Chlorine&mdash;Carbolic
+Acid&mdash;Bichloride of Mercury&mdash;Formalin&mdash;Potassium
+Permanganate, etc.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_number">XI.</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter">Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems</td>
+  <td class="toc_page"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="toc_chapter_summary">Cost of Hot-air Systems&mdash;Cast-iron Hot-water
+Heater&mdash;Advantages and Disadvantages&mdash;Cost
+for a Ten-room House&mdash;Steam
+Heating&mdash;Cost of Equipment.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2><em>The Editor's Preface</em></h2>
+
+
+<p>The character and scope of this volume render it a most useful book
+for the home maker. The question of sanitation is one that closely
+affects the life of each individual, and many of its aspects are
+treated here in a lucid and comprehensive manner. Designed for wide
+distribution, these articles have been written to meet the needs of
+the dweller in the more densely populated communities, as well as
+those living in the less thickly settled portion of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In large cities the water supply is a problem that is cared for by
+regularly constituted sanitary authorities. Pure water is a vital
+necessity, but the inhabitant of a city has no need to personally
+concern himself with the source of supply. In the country, however,
+the home builder must often decide the matter for himself, and it is
+the aim of this book to give him the needed directions for avoiding
+many errors and pitfalls that abound in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>House construction, with its intricate problems, is also a more
+serious matter for the country dweller than for his city brother.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of food supply, the inhabitant of a country district is
+more fortunate. Fresh vegetables<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> and dairy products are much more
+easily obtained, and their freshness and purity more dependable.</p>
+
+<p>The article on water supply by Mr. Gerhard is authoritative, written,
+as it is, by a most eminent sanitarian. The publishers are to be
+congratulated upon the following valuable contribution to the same
+subject as regards the use of copper sulphate and the concise
+presentation of plans for mosquito extermination, while the extended
+work of Dr. Price and Dr. Baker's "Food Adulteration" are much to be
+commended. The two latter have been connected with the Department of
+Health of New York City, and have the advantage of experience in an
+organization which gives to the citizens of New York the protection to
+health that the wise use of science, knowledge, and money afford.</p>
+
+<p>I trust that the notes I have added in the light of recent practice of
+the New York City Department of Health may make this material of the
+utmost practical value to the householder of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Through this Department of Health, New York City spent, during 1905,
+over $1,500,000, and for 1906 it has appropriated over $1,800,000.
+This vast sum of money is used for the sole purpose of safeguarding
+its citizens from disease. Sanitation in its varied branches is
+pursued as an almost exact science, and the efforts of trained minds
+are constantly employed in combating disease and promoting sanitation.</p>
+
+<p>The cities care for their own, but the greater num<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>ber of the
+inhabitants of this country must rely upon their individual efforts.
+Therefore, any dissemination of knowledge regarding sanitation is most
+worthy. This book has a useful mission. It is pregnant with helpful
+suggestions, and I most heartily commend its purpose and its contents.</p>
+
+<p class="signed"><span class="smcap">Thomas Darlington</span>,<br />
+<em>President of the Board of Health</em>.</p>
+
+<p class="signed_location">New York City.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="part_head">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>Part I</h2>
+
+<p class="title">WATER SUPPLY AND<br />
+PURIFICATION</p>
+
+<p class="by">BY</p>
+
+<p>WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Country Sources of Water Supply</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The writer was recently engaged to plan and install a water-supply
+system for a country house which had been erected and completed
+without any provision whatever having been made for supplying the
+buildings and grounds with water. The house had all the usual
+appointments for comfort and ample modern conveniences, but these
+could be used only with water borrowed from a neighbor. In all parts
+of the country there are numerous farm buildings which are without a
+proper water-supply installation. These facts are mentioned to
+emphasize the importance of a good water supply for the country home,
+and to point out that water is unquestionably the most indispensable
+requirement for such structures.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Adequate Water Supply Important</em></h4>
+
+<p>But the advantages of a water supply are not limited to the dwelling
+house, for it is equally useful on the farm, for irrigation, and in
+the garden, on the golf grounds and tennis courts, in the barns and
+stables;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> it affords, besides, the best means for the much-desired
+fire protection. And, most important of all, an unstinted and adequate
+use of water promotes cleanliness and thereby furthers the cause of
+sanitation, in the country not less than in the city home.</p>
+
+<p>The water supply for country houses has been so often discussed
+recently that the writer cannot hope to bring up any new points. This
+article should, therefore, be understood to offer simple suggestions
+as to how and where water can be obtained, what water is pure and fit
+for use, what water must be considered with suspicion, what water is
+dangerous to health, and how a source of supply, meeting the
+requirements of health, can be made available for convenient use.</p>
+
+<p>Right here I wish to utter a warning against the frequent tendency of
+owners of country houses to play the rôle of amateur engineers. As a
+rule this leads to failure and disappointment. Much money uselessly
+spent can be saved if owners will, from the beginning, place the
+matter in experienced hands, or at least seek the advice of competent
+engineers, and adopt their suggestions and recommendations as a guide.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Points to be Borne in Mind</em></h4>
+
+<p>Many are the points to be borne in mind in the search for water.
+Science teaches us that all water comes from the clouds, the
+atmospheric precipitation being in the form of either rain, or dew, or
+snow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> After reaching the earth's surface, the water takes three
+different courses, and these are mentioned here because they serve to
+explain the different sources of supply and their varied character.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the water runs off on the surface, forming brooks, streams,
+and lakes, and if it falls on roofs of houses or on prepared catchment
+areas, it can be collected in cisterns or tanks as rain water. Another
+part of the water soaks away into pervious strata of the subsoil, and
+constitutes underground water, which becomes available for supply
+either in springs or in wells. A third part is either absorbed by
+plants or else evaporated.</p>
+
+<p>In our search for a source of supply, we should always bear in mind
+the essential requirements of the problem. Briefly stated, these are:
+the wholesomeness of the water, the adequateness and steadiness of the
+supply, its availability under a sufficient pressure, insuring a good
+flow, and the legal restrictions with which many water-supply problems
+are surrounded.</p>
+
+<p>The first essential requirement is that of <em>wholesomeness</em>. The
+quality of a water supply is dependent upon physical properties and
+upon chemical and bacteriological characteristics. Water, to be
+suitable for drinking, must be neither too hard nor too soft; it
+should not contain too many suspended impurities, nor too much foreign
+matter in solution. Pure water is colorless and without odor. But it
+must be understood that the quality cannot be decided merely by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> the
+color, appearance, taste, and odor. The chemical and bacteriological
+examinations, if taken together, form a much safer guide, and with
+these analyses should go hand in hand a detailed survey of the water
+source and its surroundings.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Relation of Water to Health</em></h4>
+
+<p>Any pronounced taste in the water renders it suspicious; an offensive
+smell points to organic contamination; turbidity indicates presence of
+suspended impurities, which may be either mineral or organic. But even
+bright and sparkling waters having a very good taste are sometimes
+found to be highly polluted. Hence, it should be remembered that
+neither bright appearance nor lack of bad taste warrants the belief
+that water is free from dangerous contamination.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-established fact now that there is a relation between the
+character of the water supply and the health of a community; and what
+is true of cities, villages, and towns, is, of course, equally true of
+the individual country house.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>How Water Becomes Contaminated</em></h4>
+
+<p>There are numerous ways in which water may become polluted, either at
+the source or during storage or finally during distribution. Rain
+water, falling pure from the clouds, encounters dust, soot, decaying
+leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and other vegetable matters, and ordure of birds on the roofs;
+its quality is also affected by the roofing material, or else it is
+contaminated in the cisterns by leakage from drains or cesspools.
+Upland waters contain generally vegetable matter, while surface water
+from cultivated lands becomes polluted by animal manure. River water
+becomes befouled by the discharge into it of the sewers from
+settlements and towns located on its banks. Subsoil water is liable to
+infiltration of solid and liquid wastes emanating from the human
+system, from leaky drains, sewers, or cesspools, stables, or
+farmyards; and even deep well water may become contaminated by reason
+of defects in the construction of the well.</p>
+
+<p>During storage, water becomes contaminated in open reservoirs by
+atmospheric impurities; a growth of vegetable organisms or algæ often
+causes trouble, bad taste, or odor; water in open house tanks and in
+cisterns is also liable to pollution. During distribution, water may
+become changed in quality, owing to the action of the water on the
+material of the pipes.</p>
+
+<p>From what source shall good water be obtained? This is the problem
+which confronts many of those who decide to build in the country.</p>
+
+<p>The usual sources, in their relative order of purity, are: deep
+springs and land or surface springs, located either above or below the
+house, but not too near to settlements; deep subterranean water, made
+available by boring or drilling a well; upland or mountain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> brooks
+from uninhabited regions; underground water in places not populated,
+reached by a dug or driven well; lake water; rain water; surface water
+from cultivated fields; pond and river water; and finally, least
+desirable of all, shallow well water in villages or towns. These
+various sources of supply will be considered farther on.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>An Ample Volume Necessary</em></h4>
+
+<p>The second essential requirement is <em>ample quantity</em>. The supply must
+be one which furnishes an ample volume <em>at all seasons</em> and for all
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>What is a reasonable daily domestic consumption? The answer to this
+question necessarily depends upon the character of the building and
+the habits and occupation of its inmates. It is a universal experience
+that as soon as water is introduced it is used more lavishly, but also
+more recklessly and regardless of waste. For personal use, from twenty
+to twenty-five gallons per person should prove to be ample per day:
+this comprises water for drinking and cooking, for washing clothes,
+house and kitchen utensils, personal ablutions, and bathing; but,
+taking into account other requirements on the farm or of country
+houses, we require at least sixty gallons per capita per diem. To
+provide water for the horses, cows, sheep, for carriage washing, for
+the garden, for irrigation of the lawn, for fountains, etc., and keep
+a suitable reserve in case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> of fire, the supply should be not less
+than 150 gallons per person per day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>A Good Pressure Required</em></h4>
+
+<p>The third essential requirement is a <em>good water pressure</em>. Where a
+suitable source of water is found, it pays to make it conveniently
+available, so as to avoid carrying water by hand, which is troublesome
+and not conducive to cleanliness. A sufficient pressure is attained by
+either storing water at, or lifting it to, a suitable elevation above
+the point of consumption. In this respect many farm and country houses
+are found to be but very imperfectly supplied. Often the tank is
+placed only slightly higher than the second story of the house. As a
+result, the water flows sluggishly at the bathroom faucets, and, in
+case of fire, no effective fire stream can be thrown. Where a
+reservoir is suitably located above the house, the pressure is
+sometimes lost by laying pipes too small in diameter to furnish an
+ample stream. Elevated tanks should always be placed so high as to
+afford a good working pressure in the entire system of pipes. Where a
+tower of the required height is objectionable, either on account of
+the cost or on account of appearance, pressure tanks may be installed
+which have many advantages.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting a source of water supply, the following points should be
+borne in mind for guidance: first, the wholesomeness of the water;
+next, the cost required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> to collect, store, and distribute the water;
+finally, where a gravity supply is unavailable, the probable operating
+expenses of the water system, cost of pumping, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Collection of Rain Water</em></h4>
+
+<p>The collection of rain water near extensive manufacturing
+establishments is not advisable, except where arrangements are
+provided for either filtering or distilling the water. In the country,
+rain water is pure and good, if the precaution is observed to allow
+the first wash from roofs to run to waste. The rain may be either
+caught on the roofs, which must always have a clean surface and clean
+gutters, or else on artificially prepared catchment areas. As an
+example, I quote: "All about the Bermuda Islands one sees great white
+scars on the hill slopes. These are dished spaces, where the soil has
+been scraped off and the coral rock exposed and glazed with hard
+whitewash. Some of these are a quarter acre in size. They catch and
+carry the rainfall to reservoirs, for the wells are few and poor, and
+there are no natural springs and no brooks." (Mark Twain, "Some
+Rambling Notes of an Idle Excursion.")</p>
+
+<p>After the close of the Boer War the English sent about 7,000 Boer
+prisoners of war to Bermuda, where they were encamped on some of the
+smaller islands of the group, and the entire water supply for the
+encampment was obtained by building artificial catchment areas as
+described in the above quotation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>Sometimes, instead of building underground cisterns, rain water is
+caught and stored in barrels above ground; if so, these should always
+be well covered, not only to avoid pollution, but to prevent the
+barrels from becoming mosquito breeders. Cisterns should always be
+built with care and made water-tight and impervious. The walls should
+be lined with cemented brickwork. In soil consisting of hard pan,
+cisterns in some parts of the country are built without brick walls,
+the walls of the excavation being simply cemented. I do not approve of
+such cheap construction, particularly where the cistern is located
+near a privy or cesspool. Pollution of cistern water is often due to
+the cracking of the cement lining. Overflows of cisterns should never
+be connected with a drain, sewer, or cesspool. Run the overflow into
+some surface ditch and provide the mouth with a fine wire screen, to
+exclude small animals. It is not recommended to build cisterns in
+cellars of houses.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Quality of Water Obtained from Lakes</em></h4>
+
+<p>Lakes yield, as a rule, a supply of clear, bright, and soft water.
+This is particularly the case with mountain lakes, because they are at
+a distance from sources of contamination. The character of the water
+depends upon whether the lake is fed by brooks, that is, by the rain
+falling upon the watershed, or also by springs. In one case the water
+is surface water exclusively; in the other, it is surface and
+underground water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> mixed. The purity also depends upon the depth of
+the lake and upon the character of its bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Deep lakes furnish a better supply and clearer water than shallow
+ones. The solid matter brought into the lake by the brooks or rivers
+which feed it does not remain long in suspension, but soon settles at
+the bottom, and in this way some lakes acquire the wonderfully clear
+water and the beautiful bluish-green color for which they are far
+famed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Strong Winds Dangerous on Lakes</em></h4>
+
+<p>Strong winds or currents at times stir up the mud from the bottom;
+hence, in locating the intake, the direction of the prevailing winds
+should be considered, if practicable. The suction pipe should always
+be placed in deep water, at a depth of at least fifteen to twenty
+feet, for here the water is purer and always cooler.</p>
+
+<p>Settlements on the shores of a lake imply danger of sewage
+contamination, but the larger the lake, the less is the danger of a
+marked or serious pollution, if the houses are scattered and few.</p>
+
+<p>Pools and stagnant ponds are not to be recommended as a source of
+supply. In artificially made lakes there is sometimes danger of
+vegetable pollution, and trouble with growth of algæ. The bottom of
+such lakes should always be cleared from all dead vegetation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>Surface water may be obtained from brooks flowing through uninhabited
+upland or from mountain streams. Such water is very pure and limpid,
+particularly where the stream in its downward course tumbles over
+rocks or forms waterfalls. But, even then, the watershed of the stream
+should be guarded to prevent subsequent contamination. Larger creeks
+or rivers are not desirable as a source of supply, for settlements of
+human habitations, hamlets, villages, and even towns are apt to be
+located on the banks of the river, which is quite generally
+used&mdash;wrong as it is&mdash;as an outlet for the liquid wastes of the
+community, thus becoming in time grossly polluted. Down-stream
+neighbors are sure to suffer from a pollution of the stream, which the
+law should prevent.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>The Water of Springs</em></h4>
+
+<p>The water of springs is subterranean, or ground water, which for
+geological reasons has found a natural outlet on the surface. We
+distinguish two kinds of springs, namely, land or surface springs, and
+deep springs. The former furnish water which originally fell as rain
+upon a permeable stratum of sand or gravel, underlaid by an impervious
+one of either clay or rock. Such water soaks away underground until it
+meets some obstacle causing it to crop out on the surface. Such spring
+water is not under pressure and therefore cannot again rise. Water
+from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> deep springs is rain water fallen on the surface of a porous
+stratum on a high level, and which passes under an impermeable
+stratum, and thus, being under pressure, rises again where an opening
+is encountered in the impervious stratum; these latter springs are
+really artesian in character.</p>
+
+<p>Deep-spring water is less apt to be polluted than water from surface
+or land springs, for it has a chance in its flow through the veins of
+the earth to become filtered. Land springs always require careful
+watching, particularly in inhabited regions, to prevent surface
+contamination.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Not all Spring Water Pure</em></h4>
+
+<p>It is a popular fallacy that all spring water is absolutely pure and
+healthful. The above explanation will be helpful in pointing out how,
+in some cases, spring water may be nothing but contaminated ground
+water. Land springs in uncultivated and uninhabited regions,
+particularly in the mountains, yield a good and pure supply. But it is
+always advisable, when tapping a spring for water supply, to study its
+probable source, and carefully to inspect its immediate surroundings.
+The spring should be protected by constructing a small basin, or
+reservoir, and by building a house over this. The basin will also
+serve to store the night flow of the spring. Before deciding upon a
+supply from a spring, its yield should be ascer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>tained by one of the
+well-known gauging methods. Springs are usually lowest in the months
+of October and November, though there is some difference in this
+respect between land springs and deep springs. The minimum yield of
+the spring determines whether it forms a supply to be relied upon at
+all times of the year.</p>
+
+<p>If the spring is located higher than the grounds and buildings to be
+supplied, a simple gravity supply line may be carried from it, with
+pipes of good size, thus avoiding undue friction in the line, and
+stoppages. If lower than the house, the water from the spring must be
+raised by some pumping method.</p>
+
+<p>All water found underground owes its origin to the rainfall. If
+concealed water is returned to the surface by <em>natural processes</em> it
+is called spring water, but if recovered by <em>artificial means</em> it is
+called well water.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Different Kinds of Wells</em></h4>
+
+<p>There are numerous kinds of wells, distinguished from one another by
+their mode of construction, by their depth from the surface, by the
+fact of their piercing an impervious stratum or merely tapping the
+first underground sheet of water, and by the height to which the water
+in them rises or flows. Thus we have shallow and deep wells,
+horizontal wells or infiltration galleries, open or dug wells, tube
+wells, non-flowing and flowing wells, bored, drilled, and driven
+wells, tile-lined and brick-lined wells, and combination
+dug-and-tubular wells.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>When it is desired to provide a water supply by means of wells some
+knowledge of the geology of the region, of the character of the strata
+and of their direction and dip, will be very useful. In the case of
+deep wells, it is really essential. By making inquiries as to similar
+well operations in the neighborhood, one may gain some useful
+information, and thus, to some extent, avoid guesswork. When one must
+drill or bore through rock for a very deep well, which necessarily is
+expensive, much money, often uselessly spent, may be saved by
+consulting the reports of the State geologist, or the publications of
+the United States Geological Survey, or by engaging the services of an
+expert hydrogeologist.</p>
+
+
+<h4>"<em>Water Finders</em>"</h4>
+
+<p>It used to be a common practice to send for so-called "water finders,"
+who being usually shrewd observers would locate by the aid of a hazel
+twig the exact spot where water could be found. In searching for water
+one sometimes runs across these men even to-day. The superstitious
+faith in the power of the forked twig or branch from the hazelnut bush
+to indicate by its twisting or turning the presence of underground
+water was at one time widespread, but only the very slightest
+foundation of fact exists for the belief in such supernatural powers.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, attention has again, during the past years, been called to
+this "method" of finding water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> and it has even received the
+indorsement of a very high German authority in hydraulic engineering,
+a man well up in years, with a very wide practical experience, and the
+author of the most up-to-date hand-book on "Water Supply," but men of
+science have not failed to contradict his statements.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Definition of "Ground-water Level"</em></h4>
+
+<p>Water percolating through the soil passes downward by gravity until it
+reaches an impervious stratum. The surface of this underground sheet
+of water is technically called "water table" or ground-water level.
+The water is not at rest, but has a slow and well-defined motion, the
+rate of which depends upon the porosity of the soil and also upon the
+inclination or gradient of the water table. A shallow well may be
+either excavated or driven into this subsoil sheet of water. In
+populous districts, in villages, towns, but also near habitations, the
+soil from which water is obtained must, of necessity, be impregnated
+with organic waste matter. If, in such a surface well, the level of
+the water is lowered by pumping, the zone of pollution is extended
+laterally in all directions. Ordinary shallow well water should always
+be considered "suspicious water." There are two distinct ways in which
+surface wells are contaminated: one is by leakage from cesspools,
+sewers, privies, etc.; the other, just as important and no less
+dangerous, by direct contamination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> from the surface. The latter
+danger is particularly great in wells which are open at the surface,
+and from which water is drawn in buckets or pails. A pump well is
+always the safer of the two. Frogs, mice, and other small animals are
+apt to fall into the water; dust and dirt settle into it; the wooden
+curb and the rotten cover also contribute to the pollution; even the
+draw-buckets add to it by reason of being often handled with unclean
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>Always avoid, in the country, drinking water from farmers' wells
+located near cesspools or privies. Such shallow wells are particularly
+dangerous after a long-protracted drought. It is impossible to define
+by measurement the distance from a cesspool or manure pit at which a
+well can be located with safety, for this depends entirely upon local
+circumstances. Contamination of shallow wells may, in exceptional
+cases, be avoided by a proper location of the well with reference to
+the existing sources of impurity. A well should always be placed
+<em>above</em> the source of pollution, using the word "above" with reference
+to the direction in which the ground water flows.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Precautions Regarding Wells</em></h4>
+
+<p>Other precautions to be observed with reference to surface wells are
+the following:</p>
+
+<p>Never dig a well near places where soil contamination has taken or is
+taking place. Line the sides of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> well with either brick, stone, or
+tile pipe, cemented in a water-tight manner to a depth of at least
+twenty feet from the surface, so that no water can enter except from
+the bottom, or at the sides near the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Raise the surface at the top of the well above the grade; arrange it
+so as to slope away on all sides from the well; cover it with a
+flagstone, and cement the same to prevent foreign matters from
+dropping into the well; make sure that no surface water can pass
+directly into the well; make some provision to carry away waste water
+and drippings from the well.</p>
+
+<p>Shallow wells made by driving iron tubes with well points into the
+subsoil water are preferable to dug wells. Use a draw-pump in
+preference to draw buckets.</p>
+
+<p>When a well is sunk through an impervious stratum to tap the larger
+supply of water in the deeper strata, we obtain a "deep well." Water
+so secured is usually of great purity, for the impurities have been
+filtered and strained out by the passage of the water through the
+soil. Moreover, the nature of the construction of deep wells is such
+that they are more efficiently protected against contamination, the
+sides being made impervious by an iron-pipe casing. In some rare
+cases, even deep wells show pollution due to careless jointing of the
+lining, or water follows the outside of the well casing until it
+reaches the deeper water sheet. Deep wells usually yield more water
+than shallow driven wells, and the supply increases perceptibly when
+the water level in the well is lowered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> by pumping. While surface
+wells draw upon the rainfall percolating in their immediate vicinity,
+deep wells are supplied by the rainfall from more remote districts.
+Deep wells are either non-flowing or flowing wells. When the
+hydrostatic pressure under which the water stands is sufficient to
+make it flow freely out on the surface or at the mouth of the well, we
+have a flowing, or true artesian well.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Character of Water From Deep Wells</em></h4>
+
+<p>Water from deep wells is of a cool and even temperature. It is usually
+very pure, but in some cases made hard by mineral salts in the water.
+Sulphur is also at times present, and some wells on the southern
+Atlantic coast yield water impregnated with sulphur gases, which,
+however, readily pass off, leaving the water in good condition for all
+uses. In many cases the water has a taste of iron. No general rule can
+be quoted as to the exact amount of water which any given well will
+yield, for this depends upon a number of factors. Increasing the
+diameter of very deep wells does not seem to have any marked effect in
+increasing the supply. Thus, a two-foot well gives only from fifteen
+to thirty per cent more water than a three-inch-pipe well. This rule
+does not seem to apply to shallow wells of large diameter, for here we
+find that the yield is about in proportion to the diameter of the
+well.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note the fact that wells located<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> near the
+seashore, within the influence of the tide, vary in the hourly flow.
+According to Dr. Honda, of the University of Tokio, there is "a
+remarkable concordance between the daily variations in the level of
+the tides and the water level in wells." The water in wells one mile
+from the seashore was found to stand highest at high tide. The daily
+variation amounted to sixteen centimeters, or a little over six
+inches. A similar variation was observed by the writer in some flowing
+wells located on the north shore of Long Island. Dr. Honda found also
+that the water level in wells varied with the state of the barometer,
+the water level being lowered with a rise in the barometer.</p>
+
+<p>Where a large supply is wanted a series of wells may be driven, and,
+as the expense involved is considerable, it is always advisable to
+begin by sinking a smaller test well to find out whether water may be
+had.</p>
+
+<p>Ground water may also be recovered from water-bearing strata by
+arranging horizontal collecting galleries with loose-jointed sides
+through which the water percolates. Such infiltration galleries have
+been used in some instances for the supply of towns and of
+manufacturing establishments, but they are not common for the supply
+of country houses.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Laws Regulating Appropriation of Water</em></h4>
+
+<p>Persons contemplating the establishment of a system of water supply in
+the country should bear in mind that the taking of water for supply
+purposes is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> in nearly all States, hemmed in by legal restrictions.
+The law makes a distinction between subterranean waters, surface
+waters flowing in a well-defined channel and within definite banks,
+and surface waters merely spread over the ground or accumulated in
+natural depressions, pools, or in swamps. There are separate and
+distinct laws governing each kind of water. It is advisable, where a
+water-supply problem presents itself, to look up these laws, or to
+consult a lawyer well versed in the law of water courses.</p>
+
+<p>If it is the intention to take water from a lake, the property owner
+should make sure that he owns the right to take such water, and that
+the deed of his property does not read "to high-water mark only." The
+owner of a property not abutting on a lake has no legal right to
+abstract some of the water from the lake by building an infiltration
+gallery, or a vertical well of large diameter intended for the same
+purpose. On the other hand, an owner may take subterranean water by
+driving or digging a well on his own property, and it does not matter,
+from the law's point of view, whether by so doing he intercepts partly
+or wholly the flow of water in a neighboring well. But, if it can be
+shown that the subterranean water flows in a well-defined channel, he
+is not permitted to do this. The water from a stream cannot be
+appropriated or diverted for supply or irrigation purposes by a single
+property holder without the consent of the other riparian owners, and
+without compensation to them.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Appliances for Distributing Water</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>We have so far discussed only the various sources of potable water. We
+must now turn our attention to the mechanical means for making it
+available for use, which comprise appliances for lifting, storing,
+conveying, distributing, and purifying the water.</p>
+
+<p>The location of the source of supply with reference to the buildings
+and grounds decides generally the question whether a gravity supply is
+feasible or whether water must be pumped. The former is desirable
+because its operating expenses are almost nothing, but it is not
+always cheapest in first cost. Rather than have a very long line of
+conduit, it may be cheaper to pump water, particularly if wind or
+water power, costing nothing, can be used.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Machines for Pumping</em></h4>
+
+<p>When it becomes necessary to pump water, there are numerous machines
+from which to choose; only the more important ones will be considered.
+We may use pumps operated by manual labor, those run by ani<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>mal power,
+pumping machinery using the power of the wind or that of falling or
+running water; then there are hot-air, steam, and electric pumps,
+besides several forms of internal-combustion engines, such as gas,
+gasoline, and oil engines. Each has advantages in certain locations
+and under certain conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Of appliances utilizing the forces of Nature, perhaps the simplest
+efficient machine is the hydraulic ram. While other machines for
+lifting water are composed of two parts, namely, a motor and a pump,
+the ram combines both in one apparatus. It is a self-acting pump of
+the impulse type, in which force is suddenly applied and discontinued,
+these periodical applications resulting in the lifting of water.
+Single-acting rams pump the water which operates them; double-acting
+rams utilize an impure supply to lift a pure supply from a different
+source.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the ram are: it works continuously, day and night,
+summer and winter, with but very little attendance; no lubrication is
+required, repairs are few, the first cost of installation is small.
+Frost protection, however, is essential. The disadvantages are that a
+ram can be used only where a large volume of water is available. The
+correct setting up is important, also the proper proportioning in size
+and length of drive and discharge pipes. The continual jarring tends
+to strain the pipes, joints, and valves; hence, heavy piping and
+fittings are necessary. A ram of the improved type raises water from
+twenty-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>five to thirty feet for every foot of fall in the drive pipe,
+and its efficiency is from seventy to eighty per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Running water is a most convenient and cheap power, which is often
+utilized in water wheels and turbines. These supply power to run a
+pump; the water to be raised may come from any source, and the pump
+may be placed at some distance from the water wheel. Where sufficient
+fall is available&mdash;at least three feet&mdash;the overshot wheel is used. In
+California and some other Western States an impulse water wheel is
+much used, which is especially adapted to high heads.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Windmills Used for Driving Pumps</em></h4>
+
+<p>The power of the wind applied to a windmill is much used for driving
+pumps. It is a long step forward from the ancient and picturesque
+Dutch form of windmill, consisting of only four arms with cloth sails,
+to the modern improved forms of wheels constructed in wood and in
+iron, with a large number of impulse blades, and provided with devices
+regulating the speed, turning the wheel out of the wind during a gale,
+and stopping it automatically when the storage tank is filled. The
+useful power developed by windmills when pumping water in a moderate
+wind, say of sixteen miles an hour velocity, is not very high, ranging
+from one twenty-fifth horse-power for an eight and one-half foot wheel
+to one and one-half horse-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>power for a twenty-five foot wheel. The
+claims of some makers of windmills as to the power developed should be
+accepted with caution.</p>
+
+<p>The chief advantage is that, like a ram, the windmill may work night
+and day, with but slight attention to lubrication, so long as the wind
+blows. But there are also drawbacks; it requires very large storage
+tanks to provide for periods of calm; the wheel must be placed
+sufficiently exposed to receive the full wind force, either on a tower
+or on a high hill, and usually this is not the best place to find
+water. Besides, a windmill tower, at least the modern one, is not an
+ornamental feature in the landscape. It is expensive when built
+sufficiently strong to withstand severe winter gales. During the hot
+months of the year, when the farmer, the gardener, and the coachman
+require most water, the wind is apt to fail entirely for days in
+succession.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>The Use of Engines</em></h4>
+
+<p>If water is not available, and wind is considered too unreliable,
+pumping must be accomplished by using an engine which, no matter of
+what form or type, derives its energy from the combustion of fuel, be
+the same coal, wood, charcoal, petroleum or kerosene, gas, gasoline,
+or naphtha. The use of such pumping engines implies a constant expense
+for fuel, operation, maintenance, and repairs. In some modern forms of
+engines this expense is small, notably so in the oil engine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> and also
+in the gasoline engine; hence these types have become favorites.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Advantages of Pumping Engines</em></h4>
+
+<p>An advantage common to all pumping engines is that they can be run at
+any time, not like the windmill, which does not operate in a light
+breeze, nor like the ram, which fails when the brook runs low.
+Domestic pumping engines are built as simple as possible, so that the
+gardener, a farm hand, or the domestic help may run them. Skill is not
+required to operate them, and they are constructed so as to be safe,
+provided ordinary intelligence is applied.</p>
+
+<p>In using a fuel engine it is desirable, because of the attendance
+required, to take a machine of such capacity and size that the water
+supply required for two or three days may be pumped to the storage
+tank in a few hours.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Expansive Force of Heated Air Utilized</em></h4>
+
+<p>A favorite and extensively used type of domestic pump is the hot-air
+engine, in which the expansive force of heated air is used to do
+useful work. Among the types are simple and safe machines which do not
+easily get out of order. They are started by hand by giving the fly
+wheel one or more revolutions. If properly taken care of they are
+durable and do not require expensive repairs.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h4><em>Gas and Gasoline Engines</em></h4>
+
+<p>In gas engines power is derived from the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air. Where a gas supply is available, such engines are very
+convenient, for, once started, they will run for hours without
+attention. They are economical in the consumption of gas, and give
+trouble only where the quality of gas varies.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the unavailability of gas on the farm and in country houses,
+two other forms of pumping engines have been devised which are
+becoming exceedingly popular. One is the gasoline, the other is the
+oil engine. Both resemble the gas engine, but differ from it in using
+a liquid fuel which is volatilized by a sprayer. Gasoline engines are
+now brought to a high state of perfection.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Kerosene or Crude Oil as Fuel</em></h4>
+
+<p>In recent years, internal-combustion engines which use heavy kerosene
+or crude oil as fuel have been introduced. These have two palpable
+advantages: first, they are safer than gasoline engines; second, they
+cost less to run, for crude oil and even refined kerosene are much
+cheaper than gasoline. Oil engines resemble the gas and gasoline
+engines, but they have larger cylinders, because the mean effective
+pressure evolved from the explosion is much less than that of the
+gasoline engines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>Oil engines for pumping water are particularly suitable in regions
+where coal and wood cannot be obtained except at exorbitant cost.
+Usually, the engine is so built as to be adapted for other farm work.
+It shares this advantage with the gasoline engine. Oil engines are
+simple, reliable, almost automatic, compact, and reasonable in first
+cost and in cost of repairs. There are many forms of such engines in
+the market. To be successful from a commercial point of view, an oil
+engine should be so designed and built that any unskilled attendant
+can run, adjust, and clean it. The cost of operating them, at eight
+cents per gallon for kerosene, is only one cent per hour per
+horse-power; or one-half of this when ordinary crude oil is used. The
+only attention required when running is periodical lubrication and
+occasional replenishing of the oil reservoir. The noise of the
+exhaust, common to all engines using an explosive force, can be
+largely done away with by using a muffler or a silencer. The smell of
+oil from the exhaust likewise forms an objection, but can be overcome
+by the use of an exhaust washer.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Steam and Electric Pumps</em></h4>
+
+<p>The well-known forms of steam-pumping engines need not be considered
+in detail, because high-pressure steam is not often available in
+country houses. Where electric current is brought to the building, or
+generated for lighting purposes, water may be pumped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> by an electric
+pump. Electric motors are easy and convenient to run, very clean, but
+so far not very economical. Electric pumps may be arranged so as to
+start and stop entirely automatically. Water may be pumped, where
+electricity forms the power, either by triplex plunger pumps or by
+rotary, screw, or centrifugal pumps.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Pumps Worked by Hand</em></h4>
+
+<p>Space forbids giving a description of the many simpler devices used
+for lifting water. In small farmhouses lift and force pumps worked by
+hand are now introduced, and the old-fashioned, moss-covered
+draw-bucket, which is neither convenient nor sanitary, is becoming a
+relic of past times.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Reservoirs and Storage Tanks</em></h4>
+
+<p>The water pumped is stored either in small masonry or earth
+reservoirs, or else in storage tanks of either wood, iron, or steel,
+placed on a wood or steel tower. Wooden tanks are cheap but unsightly,
+require frequent renewal of the paint, and give trouble by leaking,
+freezing, and corrosion of hoops. In recent years elevated tanks are
+supplanted by pressure tanks. Several such systems, differing but
+little from one another, are becoming quite well known. In these water
+is stored under suitable pressure in air-tight tanks, filled partly
+with water and partly with air.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<h4><em>A Simple Pressure System</em></h4>
+
+<p>One system consists of a circular, wrought-steel, closed tank, made
+air- and water-tight, a force pump for pumping water into the tank,
+and pipe connections. The tank is placed either horizontally or
+vertically in the basement or cellar, or else placed outdoors in the
+ground at a depth below freezing. Water is pumped into the bottom of
+the tank, whereby its air acquires sufficient pressure to force water
+to the upper floors.</p>
+
+<p>This simple system has some marked advantages over the outside or the
+attic tank. In these, water gets warm in summer and freezes in winter.
+Vermin and dust get into the tank, and the water stagnates. In the
+pressure tank, water is kept aërated, cool, and clean.</p>
+
+<p>Another pressure tank has an automatic valve, controlled by a float
+and connected with suction of pump. It prevents the tank from becoming
+water-logged by maintaining the correct amount of air inside.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>An Ideal System for a Country House</em></h4>
+
+<p>Still another system using pressure tanks is more complete than either
+of the others, comprising engine, pump, air compressor, a water tank,
+and also an air tank. It is best described by a recent example
+constructed from plans and under the direction of the writer. The
+buildings supplied with water comprise the mansion, the stable, the
+cottage, and a dairy, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 48]<br />[Pg 49]</a></span> the pumping station is placed near the
+shore of the lake from which the supply is taken. See Figs. <a href="#Illo_FIG_1">1</a> and <a href="#Illo_FIG_2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Illo_FIG_1" id="Illo_FIG_1"></a><a href="images/fig1_big.png">
+<img src="images/fig1.png" width="500" height="372" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.<br />
+<a href="images/fig1_big.png">VIEW FULL SIZE</a></span>
+
+<p class="title">DIAGRAM OF COMPRESSED AIR TANK SYSTEM.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Illo_FIG_2" id="Illo_FIG_2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="500" height="426" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span>
+
+<p class="title">PRESSURE-TANK PUMPING STATION.</p>
+
+<p>Interior view of pumping station of compressed air-tank system (see
+<a href="#Illo_FIG_1">plan</a> on opposite page) showing 3,000 gallon water tank, air tank of
+150 pounds pressure and 10 horse-power gasoline engine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pump house is about 20 feet by 27 feet, and contains a
+water-storage tank 6 feet in diameter and 13<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> feet long, of a
+capacity of 3,000 gallons; an air tank of same dimensions as the water
+tank, holding air under 150 pounds pressure; a 10 horse-power gasoline
+engine, direct-connected, by means of friction clutch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> with an air
+compressor and also with a triplex pump of 75 gallons capacity per
+minute.</p>
+
+<p>The water in the tank is kept under 75 pounds pressure, and at the
+hydrant near the house, located about 100 feet above the pumping
+station, there is an available pressure of 33 pounds. The last drop of
+water flows from the water tank under the full pressure of 75 pounds
+at the pumping station. The suction pipe into the lake is 4 inches and
+is provided with well strainers to prevent clogging.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of pumping water by this system is quite reasonable. The
+gasoline engine requires per horse-power per hour about 1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> gallons
+of gasoline, and at sixteen cents per gallon this makes the cost for
+1,000 gallons pumped about five cents. To this expense should,
+however, be added the cost of lubricating oil, repairs, amount for
+depreciation, and the small cost for labor in running the engine.</p>
+
+<p>Water pipes forming a distribution system should always be chosen
+generous in diameter, in order to avoid undue loss of pressure by
+friction. Where fire hydrants are provided, the size of the water main
+should not be below four inches. All branches should be controlled by
+shut-offs, for which the full-way gate valves are used in preference
+to globe valves. Pipe-line material is usually galvanized,
+screw-jointed wrought iron for sizes up to four inches.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, a word about water purification. Where the quality of
+the water supply is not above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> suspicion it may be improved by
+filtration. A filter should never be installed without the advice of a
+qualified expert, for there are numerous worthless devices and few
+really efficient ones. Where a filter is not available, the water used
+for drinking should be boiled or sterilized if there is the slightest
+doubt as to its wholesomeness.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>From the standpoint of the health of the community, the most vital
+problem is to get pure water. Almost equally important, when comfort
+and peace of mind is considered, is the procuring of sweet water. The
+wise owner of a country home looks to the water supply upon which his
+family is dependent. The careful farmer is particular about the water
+his stock, as well as his family, must drink. But careless persons
+constitute the large majority. Most people in the city and in the
+country pay no attention to their drinking water so long as it "tastes
+all right."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Clear Water Often Dangerous</em></h4>
+
+<p>Some years ago the inhabitants of Ithaca, N. Y., furnished a pitiful
+example of this foolhardy spirit. For a year previous to the breaking
+out of the typhoid epidemic, the public was warned, through the local
+and the metropolitan press, of the dangerous condition of Ithaca's
+water supply. Professors of Cornell College joined in these warnings.
+But the people gave no heed, probably because the water was <em>clear</em>
+and its taste sweet and agreeable. As was the case in this instance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+bacteria are tolerated indefinitely, and it is only an alarming
+increase in the death rate that makes people careful. Then they begin
+to boil the water&mdash;when it is too late for some of them.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Bad-Tasting Water not Always Poisonous</em></h4>
+
+<p>But let the taste become bad and the odor repulsive, and a scare is
+easily started. "There must be dead things in the water, or it
+wouldn't taste so horrible," is the common verdict. Some newspaper
+seizes upon the trouble and makes of it a sensation. The ubiquitous
+reporter writes of one of "the animals" that it "looks like a wagon
+wheel and tastes like a fish." With such a remarkable organism
+contaminating one's drink no wonder there is fear of some dread
+disease. The water is believed to be full of "germs"; whereas the
+pollution is entirely due to the presence of algæ&mdash;never poisonous to
+mankind, in some cases acting as purifying agents, but at certain
+seasons of the year imparting a taste and odor to the water that
+cannot be tolerated.</p>
+
+<p>Algæ&mdash;what are they? They are aquatic plants. Algæ are not to be
+confounded with the water vegetation common to the eye and passing by
+the term weeds. Such plants include eelgrass, pickerel weed, water
+plantain, and "duckmeat"&mdash;all of which have roots and produce flowers.
+This vegetation does not lend a bad odor or taste to the water. In
+itself it is harm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>less, although it sometimes affords a refuge for
+organisms of a virulent type.</p>
+
+<p>But when the aquatic vegetation of the flowering variety is eliminated
+from consideration, there still remains a group of water plants called
+algæ. They comprise one-fifth of the known flowerless plants. They are
+the ancestors of the entire vegetable kingdom. Those whose habitat is
+the sea number the largest plants known in nature. Certain forms found
+in the Pacific are supposed to be 800 feet in length; others are
+reported to be 1,500 feet long. The marine variety are familiar as the
+brown kelps and the wracks, which are very common along our Northern
+coast.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Plants Which Pollute Drinking Water</em></h4>
+
+<p>The fresh-water algæ are usually grass green in color. This green
+variety is often seen as a spongy coating to the surface of stagnant
+pools, which goes by the name of "frog spawn" or "pond scum." One of
+this description, <em>Spirogyra</em>, has done thousands of dollars' worth of
+damage by smothering the life out of young water-cress plants in
+artificial beds constructed for winter propagation. When the cress is
+cut the plants are necessarily left in a weakened condition, and the
+algæ form a thick mat over the surface of the water, thus preventing
+the growth of the cress plants and oftentimes killing them. The
+absolute necessity of exterminating these algæ led to the perfection
+of the copper-purification process.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>It is, however, a variety of algæ not easily detected that
+contaminates the water. So long as they are in a live, healthy
+condition they benefit drinking water by purifying it. Indeed, some
+scientists have attributed the so-called self-purification of a stream
+entirely to the activities of these plants. Of such, one form,
+<em>Chlamydomonas</em>, is bright grass green in appearance. But the largest
+group&mdash;the plants which have the worst reputation as polluters of
+drinking water&mdash;are popularly known as the "blue-green algæ"
+(<em>Schizophyceæ</em>). The common name tells the color of these plants,
+although there are exceptions in this respect, some of them showing
+shades of yellow, brown, olive, chocolate, and purplish red. This
+variety of algæ flourishes in the summer months, since a relatively
+high temperature and shallow stagnant water favor its germination. If
+the pond begins to dry up, the death of the organisms takes place, and
+the result is a most disagreeable, persistent odor which renders the
+water unfit for drinking purposes. This result is chemically due to
+the breaking down of highly organized compounds of sulphur and
+phosphorus in the presence of the large amount of nitrogen contained
+in these plants. Decomposition is not necessary for some of the blue
+greens to give off a bad odor, however. A number of them, on account
+of their oil-content, produce an odor when in a healthy condition that
+is sometimes likened to raw green corn or to nasturtiums, but usually
+it cannot be so pleasantly described.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>The Department of Agriculture has been able to solve the problem of
+exterminating algæ from water supplies.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The department has done
+more; for it has succeeded in perfecting a method by which a reservoir
+contaminated with typhoid or other pathogenic bacteria can be
+purified. The work was begun with an inquiry into the extent of the
+trouble from algal pollution. Letters were addressed to some five
+hundred engineers and superintendents of water companies scattered all
+over the United States. The replies, which came from almost every
+State in the Union, were burdened with one complaint&mdash;"Algæ are our
+worst pest"; and with one prayer&mdash;"Come over into Macedonia, and help
+us."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>A Cheap and Available Remedy for Algæ</em></h4>
+
+<p>Convinced of the need of earnest work, extensive laboratory
+experiments were inaugurated. The problem presented was this: the
+remedy must not only be readily available, but it must be cheap, that
+advantage may be taken of it by the poorest communities, as well as by
+those owning large reservoirs. Above all, the remedy must be
+absolutely harmless to man; the poison used to exterminate algæ must
+not in any way affect the water drinkers. A large number of
+sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>stances were used in the experiments before the final decision
+rested with copper sulphate. This salt is very poisonous to algæ. On
+the other hand, copper in solution just strong enough to destroy algal
+growth could not possibly injure man; in fact, the temporary presence
+of such a small amount of copper in drinking water could not be
+detected.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>A Practical Demonstration</em></h4>
+
+<p>The results in the laboratory being successful, the next step was to
+make a practical demonstration of the value of the method. This was
+first done in the fall of 1901. At Ben, Va., water cress is grown in
+large quantities during the winter, when it is a valuable market crop.
+Dams are constructed across a stream in such a manner as to enable the
+maintenance of a water level not too high for the growth of plants;
+when a freeze is threatened the plants can be flooded. In the cress
+beds selected for the experiments the water is obtained from a thermal
+spring whose temperature throughout the year is about 70° F. This
+temperature is particularly favorable to the growth of "frog spawn."
+After the cress was cut for market, the algæ frequently developed so
+rapidly as to smother the life out of the weakened plants. When this
+occurred, the practice was to rake out both water cress and algæ and
+reset the entire bed. This was not only expensive; half the time it
+failed to exterminate the pest. It was,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> therefore, most desirable to
+devise a method of ridding the bed of algal growth without injuring
+the cress.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>The Copper-sulphate Method Tested</em></h4>
+
+<p>Here the copper-sulphate method was put to a practical test. At the
+outset a strong solution was sprayed on the algæ which coated the
+surface of the pond. This only killed the algal growth with which the
+particles of copper came in contact and left the main body of algæ
+unaffected. Then trial was made of dissolving the copper directly in
+the water, and the result was most satisfactory. The solution used was
+that of 1 part of copper to 50,000,000 parts of water.</p>
+
+<p>Growers need have no trouble in the future. They need have no fear of
+employing the method, as the copper solution required for killing the
+algæ could not possibly injure water cress, provided ordinary care is
+used in the work. As to the frequency of treatment required, one or
+two applications a year will generally be found sufficient, as this
+letter, received from the manager of the Virginia company, goes to
+show:</p>
+
+<p>"The 'moss' has given me no trouble at all this winter; in fact, I
+have for six months had to resort to the copper sulphate only once....
+All the conditions were favorable last fall and early winter for a
+riot of 'moss,' but it did not appear at all until just a few days
+ago, and then yielded to treatment much more readily than it did when
+I first began to use the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> copper." This letter was written over three
+years after Dr. Moore made his experiment in these cress beds.</p>
+
+<p>Satisfied with the results attained in exterminating algal growth in
+water-cress beds, attention was next given to reservoirs. Some fifty
+water supplies were treated during the summer of 1904, and in every
+case success attended the copper cure. In one respect the results were
+surprising. It was found that in practice the copper-sulphate method
+worked better than in theoretic experimentation; results in large
+reservoirs were more pronounced than in the laboratory. In fact, it
+developed that the solution necessary to kill algæ in the laboratory
+must contain from five to twenty times as much copper as that
+contained in a solution which will exterminate algal growth in its
+natural habitat. This is not easily explained, if it can be explained
+at all. The test reason advanced is that only the most resistant
+organisms stand transplanting to an artificial environment. But, after
+all, the important point is that the new method works better in
+practice than was expected.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>A Prescription for the Copper Cure</em></h4>
+
+<p>Thus the department is able to announce that the process is no longer
+in the experimental stage, and also to say what conditions must be
+known in determining the proper quantity of copper sulphate for
+destroying algæ, together with a prescription for the copper cure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+Here it is, for the benefit of careful persons who will use the method
+with proper intelligence: "The importance of knowing the temperature
+of the contaminated water is second only to the necessity of knowing
+the organism present. With increase of temperature the toxicity of a
+given dilution increases, and <em>vice versa</em>. Assuming that 59° F. is
+the average temperature of reservoirs during the seasons when
+treatment is demanded, the quantity of copper should be increased or
+decreased approximately 2.5 per cent for each degree below or above
+59° F.</p>
+
+<p>"Similar scales should be arranged for the organic content and the
+temporary hardness of the water. With the limited data at hand it is
+impracticable to determine these figures, but an increase of 2 per
+cent in the quantity of copper for each part per 100,000 of organic
+matter and an increase of 0.5 to 5 per cent in the proportion of
+copper for each part per 100,000 of temporary hardness will possibly
+be found correct. The proper variation in the increase due to hardness
+will depend upon the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide; if very
+small, 5 per cent increase is desirable; if large, 0.5 per cent is
+sufficient."</p>
+
+<p>The information in this prescription is to be used in connection with
+a table<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> published by the Department of Agriculture. This table
+gives the number of parts of water to one part of copper sulphate
+necessary to kill the various forms of algæ which are listed. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+formulæ vary from 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water,
+necessary to destroy the most resistant and very rare forms (three of
+these are listed), to 1 part of copper in 25,000,000 parts of water,
+which is a sufficiently strong solution to exterminate <em>Spirogyra</em>,
+the cress-bed pest. By far the majority of forms do not require a
+solution stronger than that of 1 part of copper to 1,000,000 parts of
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>What the Agricultural Department is Doing</em></h4>
+
+<p>It is true that the department is not now holding out, directly, a
+helping hand to the owner of a country place, or to the farmer, in
+this campaign of purifying drinking water. In the first place, the
+greatest good of the greatest number demands that large reservoirs,
+which supply a great number of people with drinking water, ought to be
+considered first. Such supplies, moreover, are most frequently
+contaminated. Where fifty reservoirs were treated last summer, ten
+times that number will be "cured" this summer. It will be readily
+seen, therefore, that in conducting such a large number of
+experiments&mdash;considering preliminary reports, prescribing for
+treatment, and keeping proper account of results&mdash;the department, with
+a limited force and limited facilities, has its hands more than full.</p>
+
+<p>More important still, there is an absolute need of the services of
+some expert on the ground. While an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> algologist is a functionary not
+generally employed by water companies&mdash;in fact, a man trained in the
+physiology of algæ is difficult to find&mdash;nevertheless, it is highly
+important, as the department views it, to have the coöperation of an
+expert versed to some extent in the biological examination of drinking
+water. In other words, the copper cure is not a "patent medicine,"
+with printed directions which any person could follow. Intelligence
+and care are absolutely essential in the use of this treatment.
+Furthermore, each case must be treated as a distinct and separate
+case, as a physician would treat a patient.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Actual Purification Simple</em></h4>
+
+<p>Suppose, however, an owner of a country place, which is dependent upon
+a fresh-water pond for its water supply, finds that his drinking water
+is contaminated, that the taste and odor are such as to render the
+water unfit for use. There is no reason why he should not treat the
+supply, provided he is properly careful. When the nature of the
+polluting organism is definitely determined and the average
+temperature of the water observed, then the necessary formula can be
+decided upon. First, of course, the pond must be plotted, the depth
+found, and the capacity computed. The department will willingly
+furnish data for this purpose, together with blanks upon which to
+submit details as to contaminating organisms and water tem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>perature,
+to any applicant. Once the proper solution is determined upon, the
+actual work of purification is most simple. In the following
+directions the department outlines the most practicable method of
+introducing the copper sulphate into a water supply:</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Directions for the Copper Cure</em></h4>
+
+<p>"Place the required number of pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse
+bag&mdash;gunny sack or some equally loose mesh&mdash;and, attaching this to the
+stern of a row-boat near the surface of the water, row slowly back and
+forth over the reservoir, on each trip keeping the boat within ten to
+twenty feet of the previous path. In this manner about a hundred
+pounds of copper sulphate can be distributed in one hour. By
+increasing the number of boats, and, in the case of deep reservoirs,
+hanging two or three bags to each boat, the treatment of even a large
+reservoir may be accomplished in from four to six hours. It is
+necessary, of course, to reduce as much as possible the time required
+for applying the copper, so that for immense supplies, with a capacity
+of several billion gallons, it would probably be desirable to use a
+launch, carrying long projecting spars to which could be attached bags
+containing several hundred pounds of copper sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>"The substitution of wire netting for the gunny-sack bag allows a more
+rapid solution of the sulphate, and the time required for the
+introduction of the salt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> may thus be considerably reduced. It is best
+to select as warm a day for treatment as circumstances will permit."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Cost of the Treatment</em></h4>
+
+<p>Not difficult, one would say. No&mdash;when the proper solution is
+determined; to reach that determination is the difficulty. That the
+method can be tried "at home" is proved by the results obtained by the
+owner of a country home in the vicinity of New York. Tired of
+consulting engineers, who looked at his water supply, informed him
+that they could do nothing, and then charged him a big fee (to one he
+paid $250), this owner resorted to the copper-sulphate treatment. The
+cure cost the man just $2&mdash;but let his letter to the department tell
+the story:</p>
+
+<p>"My place in the country is located at Water Mill, in the township of
+Southampton, in Long Island. I purchased it in April, 1902, and was
+largely influenced in selecting this piece of land by the beauty of a
+pond which bounds it on the east. This little body of water covers
+about two acres, is fed by numerous springs, and discharges into Mecox
+Bay, the southern boundary of the land. When I bought the place the
+pond was filled with clear water. About the middle of the following
+June algæ began to show, and in August the surface was almost entirely
+covered by the growth. The odor was offensive, and myriads of small
+insects hovered over the masses of algæ much of the time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> I consulted
+two engineers interested in the storage of water, and they told me
+that nothing could be done. The condition was so objectionable that I
+planned to plant a thick hedge of willows along the bank to shut off
+the view of the pond from the house.... I examined the pond on June
+15th and found large masses of algæ covering an area several hundred
+feet in length and from twenty to forty feet in width. No
+microscopical examination was made of the growth, but I was informed
+that it seemed to be largely composed of filaments of <em>Spirogyra</em> and
+other <em>Confervæ</em>. On June 18th the treatment was begun.... In one week
+the growth had sunk and the pond was clear water. I examined the pond
+September 15th and found it still clear.</p>
+
+<p>"The use of the sulphate of copper converted an offensive
+insect-breeding pond into a body of beautifully clear water. The pond
+was full of fish, but the copper did not seem to harm them."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Effect of Copper Sulphate on Fish</em></h4>
+
+<p>Native trout were not injured when the large reservoir at Cambridge,
+N. Y., was purified by the copper treatment. A slightly different
+result, in this respect, was reported from Elmira, N. Y., however.
+Part of the report is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The effect of the copper-sulphate treatment on the different animal
+life was as follows: numerous 'polly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>wogs' killed, but no frogs;
+numerous small (less than two inches long) black bass and two large
+ones (eight inches long) killed; about ten large 'bullheads' were
+killed, but no small ones; numerous small (less than two inches long)
+'sunfish' were killed, but no large ones.</p>
+
+<p>"The wind brought the dead fish to the corners of the reservoir, and
+it was very little trouble to remove them. No dead fish were seen
+twenty-four hours after completion of the treatment."</p>
+
+<p>The injury done by copper sulphate to fish is a more serious matter
+than was at first supposed. Brook trout are, apparently, the least
+resistant to the salt. A Massachusetts trout pond stocked with
+eight-inch trout lost forty per cent as a result of the introduction
+of a strong solution of copper sulphate. The Bureau of Fisheries is
+working in conjunction with the Division of Plant Physiology in this
+matter, and it is hoped to secure reliable information. In the
+meantime, owners of ponds stocked with game fish would do well to take
+great care before resorting to the copper cure for algæ&mdash;that is, if
+they hesitate to lose a part of the fish.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Water May be Drunk During Treatment</em></h4>
+
+<p>When a pond or reservoir is treated with the proper amount of copper
+sulphate to remove algæ&mdash;except in the case of the few very resistant
+forms requiring a stronger solution than 1 part of copper to
+1,000,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> parts of water&mdash;there is no need of discontinuing the use
+of the water supply during treatment; the water may be drunk with
+impunity. But when water known to be polluted with pathogenic bacteria
+is sterilized by means of copper sulphate in strong solution, it is
+just as well to discontinue the use of the water for drinking purposes
+for not more than twenty-four hours. Even then, this is an overcareful
+precaution rather than a necessity.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments conducted with great care and thoroughness demonstrate
+that at room temperature, which is near the temperature of a reservoir
+in summer, a solution of 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water
+will destroy typhoid bacteria in from three to five hours. Similar
+experiments have proved that a copper solution of like strength is
+fatal to cholera germs in three hours, provided the temperature is
+above 20° F. As was the case with algæ, bacteria were found to be much
+more sensitive to copper when polluting water than when grown in
+artificial media.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>The Use of Copper Tanks</em></h4>
+
+<p>The toxic effect of metallic copper upon typhoid bacteria in water
+gives some hints as to prevention of the disease by the use of copper
+tanks. This should not altogether take the place of the boiling of the
+water; it is useful in keeping it free from contamination, although
+water allowed to stand in copper re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>ceptacles for a period of from
+twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room temperature would be
+effectively sterilized, no matter what its contamination and no matter
+how much matter it held in suspension. But in order to insure such
+results the copper must be kept thoroughly clean. This polishing is
+not, as was popularly supposed, to protect the consumer from "copper
+poisoning," but to prevent the metal from becoming so coated with
+foreign substances that there is no contact of the copper with the
+water, hence no antiseptic quality.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Henry Kreamer, of Philadelphia, proved that within four hours
+typhoid germs were completely destroyed by the introduction into the
+polluted water of copper foil.</p>
+
+<p>"Granting the efficiency of the boiling of water for domestic
+purposes, I believe that the copper-treated water is more natural and
+more healthful.... The intestinal bacteria, like colon and typhoid,
+are completely destroyed by placing clean copper foil in the water
+containing them.</p>
+
+<p>"Pending the introduction of the copper treatment of water on a large
+scale, the householder may avail himself of a method for the
+purification of drinking water by the use of strips of copper foil
+about three and one-half inches square to each quart of water, this
+being allowed to stand overnight, or from six to eight hours at the
+ordinary temperature, and then the water drawn off or the copper foil
+removed."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Although a splendid antiseptic, copper in weak solution is not
+harmful, no more so than the old copper utensils used by our
+forefathers were harmful. Undoubtedly they were of benefit, and the
+use of them prevented the growth of typhoid and other bacteria. People
+of to-day might well go back to copper receptacles for drinking
+water.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For published reports of the work, see Bulletins 64 and
+76, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture; reports
+prepared by Dr. George T. Moore and his assistant, Mr. Karl F.
+Kellerman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See Bulletin No. 76, supra.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>Because of the serious and often fatal injury it inflicts on man, the
+most dangerous animal known is the mosquito. Compared with the evil
+done by the insect pest, the cobra's death toll is small. This
+venomous serpent is found only in hot countries, particularly in
+India, while mosquitoes know no favorite land or clime&mdash;unless it be
+Jersey. Arctic explorers complain of them. In Alaska, it is recorded
+by a scientist that "mosquitoes existed in countless millions, driving
+us to the verge of suicide or insanity." A traveler on the north shore
+of Lake Superior, when the snow was several feet deep, and the ice on
+the lake five feet in thickness, relates that "mosquitoes appeared in
+swarms, literally blackening the banks of snow in sheltered places."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Mosquitoes Responsible for Yellow Fever</em></h4>
+
+<p>In the temperate zone this evil-breeding insect was, until recent
+years, considered more in the light of an exasperating pest. It is now
+known, however, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> malaria is due entirely to the bites of
+mosquitoes. But it is in the tropical countries that their deadliest
+work is done. There, it has been proved beyond question, the
+mosquitoes are responsible for the carriage of yellow fever. If, in a
+yellow-fever ridden region, one were to live entirely in an inclosure,
+carefully protected with proper screens&mdash;as certain entomologists
+did&mdash;there practically would be no danger from the dread disease, even
+if all other precautions were neglected.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Effect of a Mosquito Bite</em></h4>
+
+<p>The crime committed by the mosquito against its innocent victim, man,
+is more in the nature of manslaughter than of murder, according to the
+authorities. There is no <em>premeditated malice</em>. "A mosquito bites
+primarily to obtain food," says a leading entomologist; "there is
+neither malice nor venom in the intent, whatever there may be in the
+act." There isn't great comfort in the intelligence conveyed by the
+scientist, nor in his further observation:</p>
+
+<p>"Theoretically, there would seem to be no reason why there should be
+any pain from the introduction of the minute lancets of the insects,
+and the small amount of bloodletting is usually a benefit rather than
+otherwise. Unfortunately, however, in its normal condition the human
+blood is too much inclined to clot to be taken unchanged into the
+mosquito stomach;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> hence, when the insect bites, a minute droplet of
+poison is introduced, whose function it is to thin out the fluid and
+make it more suitable for mosquito digestion. It is this poison that
+sets up the inflammation and produces the irritation or swelling....
+The pain is caused entirely by the action of the poison in breaking up
+the blood, and, as the first act of a biting mosquito is to introduce
+the poison into the wound, the pain and inflammation will be the same,
+whether the insect gets its meal or not. In fact, it has been said
+that if a mosquito be allowed to suck its fill and then fly, the bite
+will not itch, and there is just a basis of justification for this."</p>
+
+<p>To make a scientific inquiry into the habits of the mosquito, and to
+do it patiently, one should be far from the maddening swarms, or at
+least effectively screened in. Then it would be possible to believe
+the statement of the Government's entomologist that not "one mosquito
+in a million" ever gets the opportunity to taste the blood of a
+warm-blooded animal. As proof of this there are, in this country,
+great tracts of marshy land never frequented by warm-blooded animals,
+and in which mosquitoes are breeding in countless numbers. The point
+is emphasized by the prevalence of mosquitoes in the arctic circle and
+other uninhabited regions.</p>
+
+<p>If this gory insect does not live by blood alone, how is it nourished?
+Female mosquitoes are by nature vegetarians; they are plant feeders.
+Why they should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> draw blood at all is a question which remains
+unsolved by entomologists&mdash;as well as by the suffering victims. The
+females have been observed sucking the nectar from flowers; obtaining
+nutriment from boiled potatoes, even from watermelon rinds, from which
+they extract the juice. As regards the blood habit, the male mosquito
+is a "teetotaler." Just how this male insect lives, scientists have
+not determined. He may not take nourishment at all. At any rate, the
+mouth parts of the male are so different from those of the female that
+it is probable his food is obtained differently. The male is often
+seen sipping at drops of water, and a taste for molasses is ascribed
+to the male mosquito by one authority.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Presence of Mosquitoes Depends Upon Winds</em></h4>
+
+<p>A common remark heard along the Jersey shore, also on Long Island, is
+this: "When we have a sea breeze we are not troubled with mosquitoes,
+but when there comes a land breeze they are a pest." While this
+observation is true, the reasons therefore entertained by the
+unscientific mind are erroneous. The matter of the absence or
+abundance of mosquitoes in varying winds is closely related to the
+inquiry which entomologists have made: how far will mosquitoes fly?
+Says one investigator:</p>
+
+<p>"The migration of mosquitoes has been the source of much
+misapprehension on the part of the public.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> The idea prevalent at our
+seaside resorts that a land breeze brings swarms of mosquitoes from
+far inland is based on the supposition that these insects are capable
+of long-sustained flight, and a certain amount of battling against the
+wind. This is an error. Mosquitoes are frail of wing; a light puff of
+breath will illustrate this by hurling the helpless creature away, and
+it will not venture on the wing again for some time after finding a
+safe harbor. The prevalence of mosquitoes during a land breeze is
+easily explained. It is usually only during the lulls in the wind that
+Culex can fly. Generally on our coast a sea breeze means a stiff
+breeze, and during these mosquitoes will be found hovering on the
+leeward side of houses, sand dunes, and thick foliage.... While the
+strong breezes last, they will stick closely to these friendly
+shelters, though a cluster of houses may be but a few rods off, filled
+with unsuspecting mortals who imagine their tormentors are far inland
+over the salt meadows. But if the wind dies down, as it usually does
+when veering, out come swarms upon swarms of females intent upon
+satisfying their depraved taste for blood. This explains why they
+appear on the field of action almost immediately after the cessation
+of the strong breeze; on the supposition that they were blown inland,
+this sudden reappearance would be unaccountable."</p>
+
+<p>A sultry, rainy period of midsummer is commonly referred to as "good
+mosquito weather." The ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>cepted idea is that mosquitoes are much more
+abundant at such times. This is true, and the explanation is simple.
+Mosquito larvæ, or wrigglers, as they are termed, require water for
+their development. A heavy shower leaves standing water, which, when
+the air is full of moisture, evaporates slowly. Then, too, the heat
+favors the growth of the microörganisms on which the larvæ feed;
+wrigglers found in the water forty-eight hours after their formation
+will have plenty of food, and adult mosquitoes will appear six to
+eight days after the eggs are laid. Clear weather, with quick
+evaporation, interferes with the development of the wrigglers, so that
+a season with plenty of rain, but with sunshiny, drying weather
+intervening, is not "good mosquito weather."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Destroy the Larvæ</em></h4>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as a generation of mosquitoes appear to torment man within
+ten days, at the longest, after the eggs are laid; as a batch laid by
+a female mosquito contains from two hundred to four hundred eggs; as
+from each egg may issue a larva or wriggler which in six days will be
+an adult mosquito on the wing&mdash;it is to the destruction of the larvæ
+that attention should be directed. The larva is a slender organism,
+white or gray in color, comprising eight segments. The last of these
+parts is in the form of a tube, through which the wriggler breathes.
+Although its habitat is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> water, it must come to the surface to
+breathe, therefore its natural position is head down and tail, or
+respiratory tube, up. Now, if oil is spread on the surface of a pool
+inhabited by mosquito larvæ, the wrigglers are denied access to the
+air which they must have. Therefore, they drown, just as any other
+air-breathing animal would drown under similar circumstances.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Best Preventive Measures</em></h4>
+
+<p>As to the best methods to employ in ridding a country place, or any
+other region, of mosquitoes, the directions furnished by Dr. L. O.
+Howard, the Government entomologist, who has been a careful student of
+the problem since 1867, are of great value:</p>
+
+<p>"Altogether,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are
+those which result in the destruction of the larvæ or the abolition of
+their breeding places. In not every locality are these measures
+feasible, but in many places there is absolutely no necessity for the
+mosquito annoyance. The three main preventive measures are the
+draining of breeding places, the introduction of small fish into
+fishless breeding places, and the treatment of such pools with
+kerosene. These are three alternatives, any one of which will be
+efficacious and any one of which may be used where there are reasons
+against the trial of the others."</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<h4><em>Quantity of Kerosene to be Used</em></h4>
+
+<p>"The quantity of kerosene to be practically used, as shown by the
+writer's experiments, is approximately one ounce to fifteen square
+feet of water surface, and ordinarily the application need not be
+renewed for one month.... The writer is now advising the use of the
+grade known as lubricating oil, as the result of the extensive
+experiments made on Staten Island. It is much more persistent than the
+ordinary illuminating oils.... On ponds of any size the quickest and
+most perfect method of forming a film of kerosene will be to spray the
+oil over the surface of the water.... It is not, however, the great
+sea marshes along the coast, where mosquitoes breed in countless
+numbers, which we can expect to treat by this method, but the inland
+places, where the mosquito supply is derived from comparatively small
+swamps and circumscribed pools. In most localities people endure the
+torment or direct their remedies against the adult insect only,
+without the slightest attempt to investigate the source of the supply,
+when the very first step should be the undertaking of such an
+investigation.</p>
+
+<p>"The remedy which depends upon draining breeding places needs no
+extended discussion. Naturally the draining off of the water of pools
+will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there, and the possibility of
+such draining and the means by which it may be done will vary with
+each individual case. The writer is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>formed that an elaborate bit of
+work which has been done at Virginia Beach bears on this method.
+Behind the hotels at this place, the hotels themselves fronting upon
+the beach, was a large fresh-water lake, which, with its adjoining
+swamps, was a source of mosquito supply, and it was further feared
+that it made the neighborhood malarious. Two canals were cut from the
+lake to the ocean, and by means of machinery the water of the lake was
+changed from a body of fresh to a body of salt water. Water that is
+somewhat brackish will support mosquitoes, but water that is purely
+salt will destroy them."</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Employing Fish to Destroy Larvæ</em></h4>
+
+<p>"The introduction of fish into fishless breeding places is another
+matter. It may be undesirable to treat certain breeding places with
+kerosene, as, for instance, water which is intended for drinking,
+although this has been done without harm in tanks where, as is
+customary, the drinking supply is drawn from the bottom of the tank.
+The value of most small fishes for the purpose of destroying mosquito
+larvæ was well indicated by an experience described to us by Mr. C. H.
+Russell, of Bridgeport, Conn. In this case a very high tide broke away
+a dike and flooded the salt meadows of Stratford, a small town a few
+miles from Bridgeport. The receding tide left two small lakes, nearly
+side by side and of the same size.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> In one lake the tide left a dozen
+or more small fishes, while the other was fishless. An examination by
+Mr. Russell in the summer of 1891 showed that while the fishless lake
+contained tens of thousands of mosquito larvæ, that containing the
+fish had no larvæ. The use of carp for this purpose has been
+demonstrated, but most small fish will answer as well. The writer
+knows of none that will be better than either of the common little
+sticklebacks (<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em> or <em>Pygosteus pungitius</em>)."</p>
+
+<p>Is mosquito fighting a success? This question is an all-important one,
+not only to the summer resident, but also to cities and towns
+contiguous to salt-water marshes, or to swampy lands, well suited for
+mosquito breeding. The answer is this: Mosquito control is possible;
+actual extermination impossible with an insect that develops so
+rapidly. The "Jersey mosquito," the unscientific name popularly given
+to an insect of huge size and ravenous appetite, has become famous. As
+a matter of fact, the species of mosquitoes found in New Jersey are no
+more rare or varied than those found on Staten Island or on Long
+Island. But until very recently the region lying between Jersey City
+and Newark has been particularly favorable to the development of
+mosquito larvæ. It has been announced in the press that mosquitoes
+have been driven out of the Newark meadows. This is an exaggeration,
+of course, but the work accomplished there is remarkable, and other
+infected regions may take heart from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> marked success which has
+attended the efforts of Dr. John B. Smith, Entomologist of the New
+Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Remarkable Work Accomplished</em></h4>
+
+<p>The salt marsh lying within the limits of the city of Newark covers an
+area of about 3,500 acres. It extends from a point on the Passaic
+River to the mouth of Bound Creek, where it empties into Newark Bay.
+Its length is about eight miles and it has an extreme width of three
+miles. The Newark marsh problem was a very complex one. The meadows
+are cut into many sections by the several traversing railroads and by
+creeks; this materially influences the drainage. The Peddie Street
+sewer crosses the marsh in a straight line of about three miles from
+the city to the bay. This sewer is twenty feet wide, and its banks are
+from three to four feet above the marsh land.</p>
+
+<p>An experiment with machine ditching was made in 1903. The worst parts
+of the marsh were selected, and about 40,000 feet of ditches were cut.
+These ditches were six inches wide, two feet deep, and the drainage
+was perfect from the outset. The section of meadow thus drained became
+so dry in consequence that the grass growing there can now be cut by a
+machine in summer, whereas formerly the hay could be mown only in
+winter. The work was so successful that the Newark Common Council
+appropriated $5,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> to complete the mosquito drainage of the marsh.
+Of the results obtained up to this spring, Dr. Smith says:</p>
+
+<p>"This Newark marsh problem was an unusual one, and one that would not
+be likely to recur in the same way at any other point along the coast.
+Nevertheless, of the entire 3,500 acres of marsh, not 100 acres remain
+on which there is any breeding whatever, and that is dangerous only in
+a few places and under certain abnormal conditions. Including old
+ditches cleaned out, about 360,000 running feet of ditches have been
+dug on the Newark marshes, partly by machine and partly by hand, and
+if the work is not entirely successful, that is due to the defects
+which were not included in the drainage scheme. It is a safe
+prediction, I think, that Newark will have no early brood of
+mosquitoes in 1905, comparable with the invasions of 1903 and 1904."</p>
+
+<p>This prophecy has proved true.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>The Campaign on Long Island</em></h4>
+
+<p>The wealthy summer residents along the north shore of Long Island,
+keenly alive to the necessity of driving mosquitoes from the region
+where they spend so much of their time, have attacked the problem in a
+scientific, as well as an energetic way. The North Shore Improvement
+Association intrusted the work to Henry Clay Weeks, a sanitary
+engineer, with whom was associated, as entomologist, Prof. Charles B.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+Davenport, Professor of Entomology at the University of Chicago and
+head of the Cold Spring Biological Laboratory; also F. E. Lutz, an
+instructor in biology at the University of Chicago. Prof. N. S.
+Shaler, of Harvard University, the most eminent authority in the
+country on marine marshes, was retained to make a special examination
+of the salt marshes with a view to recommending the best means of
+eliminating what were the most prolific breeding grounds of
+mosquitoes. A detailed examination of the entire territory was made.
+Practically every breeding place of mosquitoes, including the smaller
+pools and streams, and even the various artificial receptacles of
+water, were located and reported on. Mr. Weeks, with his assistant,
+then examined each body of water in which mosquito larvæ had been
+found, with a view to devising the best means of preventing the
+further breeding of mosquitoes in these plague spots. Finally, a
+report was prepared, together with a map on which was located every
+natural breeding place.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Investigations in Connecticut</em></h4>
+
+<p>Important investigations have been made in Connecticut by the
+Agricultural Experiment Station, under the direction of W. E. Britton
+and Henry L. Viereck, and the results have been most encouraging. Dr.
+Howard, in his directions for fighting mosquitoes, acknowledges his
+indebtedness to the very successful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> experiments carried on at Staten
+Island. Maryland is aroused to the point of action. Dr. Howard A.
+Kelley, of Johns Hopkins University, is to coöperate with Thomas B.
+Symons, the State entomologist, in carrying the war to the shores of
+Chesapeake Bay. "Home talent," moreover, can accomplish much. To fight
+intelligently, let it not be forgotten that the battle should be
+directed against the larvæ. These wrigglers are bred for aquatic life;
+therefore, it is to all standing water that attention should be
+directed. Mosquito larvæ will not breed in large ponds, or in open,
+permanent pools, except at the edges, because the water is ruffled by
+the wind. Any pool can be rendered free from wrigglers by cleaning up
+the edges and stocking with fish. Every fountain or artificial water
+basin ought to be so stocked, if it is only with goldfish. The house
+owner should not overlook any pond, however small, or a puddle of
+water, a ditch, or any depression which retains water. A half-filled
+pail, a watering trough, even a tin receptacle will likely be
+populated with mosquito larvæ. Water barrels are favorite haunts for
+wrigglers.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>A Simple Household Remedy</em></h4>
+
+<p>There are those, however, who will obstinately conduct their campaign
+against the adult mosquito. If energetic, such persons will search the
+house with a kerosene cup attached to a stick; when this is held<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+under resting mosquitoes the insects fall into the cup and are
+destroyed. Those possessed of less energy daub their faces and hands
+with camphor, or with the oil of pennyroyal, and bid defiance to the
+pests. With others it is, Slap! slap!&mdash;with irritation mental as well
+as physical; for the latter, entomologists recommend household
+ammonia.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+Division of Entomology.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="part_head">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>Part II</h2>
+
+<p class="title">PURE FOOD FOR THE<br />
+HOUSEKEEPER</p>
+
+<p class="by">BY</p>
+
+<p>S. JOSEPHINE BAKER</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>How to Detect Food Adulteration</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>Adulteration when applied to foodstuffs is a broad, general term, and
+covers all classes of misrepresentation, substitution, deterioration,
+or addition of foreign substances; adulteration may be either
+intentional or accidental, but the housekeeper should be prepared to
+recognize it and so protect herself and her household.</p>
+
+<p>Food is considered adulterated when it can be classified under any of
+the following headings:</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>DEFINITIONS OF ADULTERATION.</strong>&mdash;(1) If any substance has been mixed or
+packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its
+quality or strength.</p>
+
+<p>(2) If any inferior substance has been substituted for it, wholly or
+in part.</p>
+
+<p>(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted
+from it.</p>
+
+<p>(4) If it consists wholly or in part of diseased or decomposed or
+putrid or rotten animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an
+animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the
+product<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> of a diseased animal or one who has died otherwise than by
+slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>(5) If it be colored or coated or polished or powdered, whereby damage
+is concealed or it is made to appear better than it really is.</p>
+
+<p>(6) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient
+which may render such article injurious to health; or if it contains
+any antiseptic or preservative not evident or not known to the
+purchaser or consumer.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>FOOD LAWS.</strong>&mdash;There is now in effect in the United States a rigid law
+against the offering for sale of any article intended for human
+consumption which is adulterated in any way, without the fact and
+nature of such adulteration being plainly stated on a label attached
+to the package containing the article. This law, however, applies only
+to articles of this nature which originate, or are produced, in one
+State and offered for sale in another. The purchaser is, therefore, in
+a great degree protected, but many foodstuffs or manufactured articles
+may have their origin within the State wherein they are sold, and in
+this case the only safeguards are those afforded by the laws of the
+State, city, or town immediately concerned. If these restraining laws
+do not exist or if they are not enforced the housekeeper must rely
+upon her own efforts to protect her family from adulterated food.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>PERMISSIBLE ADULTERANTS.</strong>&mdash;In this class are included articles having a
+food value such as salt,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> sugar, vinegar, spices, or smoke used as
+preservatives of meats; or starch when added to the salts composing
+baking powder, where a certain amount is permissible for the purpose
+of absorbing moisture.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</strong>&mdash;The ability to select fresh, wholesome meats,
+poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables, to determine readily the purity
+of dairy products, and to detect adulteration or misrepresentation in
+all classes of foodstuffs must, in most instances, be acquired. Common
+sense and good reasoning powers are needed here as in every problem of
+life. While some adulterants can be detected only by trained chemists
+and by means of tests too difficult and involved for general use, the
+average housekeeper may amply protect herself from gross imposition by
+simply cultivating her powers of observation and by making use of a
+few simple tests well within her grasp and easily applied.</p>
+
+<p><strong>First&mdash;Sight, Taste, and Smell.</strong>&mdash;All are of prime importance in
+determining the freshness and wholesomeness of foods, especially
+meats, poultry, fish, vegetables, and fruits. Avoid all highly colored
+bottled or canned fruits or vegetables; pure preserved fruits, jams,
+jellies, or relishes may have a good bright color, but never have the
+brilliant reds and greens so often shown in the artificially colored
+products.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The same is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> true of canned peas, beans, or Brussels
+sprouts; here the natural product is a dull, rather dingy green, and
+all bright green samples must be suspected. Foreign articles of this
+class are the worst offenders.</p>
+
+<p>All food products should have a clean wholesome odor, characteristic
+of their particular class. The odor of decomposition can be readily
+detected; stale and musty odors are soon recognized.</p>
+
+<p>It should be rarely necessary to use the sense of taste, but any food
+with a taste foreign to the known taste of a similar product of known
+purity should be discarded or at least suspected.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Second&mdash;Price.</strong>&mdash;Remember that the best and purest food, however high
+priced, is cheapest in the end. Its value in purity, cleanliness, food
+value, and strength gives a greater proportionate return than foods
+priced lower than one might legitimately expect from their supposed
+character. To cite a few instances: pure Java and Mocha coffee cannot
+be retailed at twenty cents per pound; therefore, when the housekeeper
+pays that price she must expect to get chicory mixed with the coffee;
+if it contains no other adulterant, she may consider herself
+fortunate. Cheap vanilla is not made from the vanilla bean. These
+beans sell at wholesale for from ten to fifteen dollars a pound, and
+the cheap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> extracts are made from the Tonka bean or from a chemical
+product known as vanillin. These substances are not harmful, but they
+are not vanilla. Pure virgin olive oil is made from the flesh of
+olives after the stones and skin have been removed; cheaper grades are
+made from the stones themselves and have little food value, while the
+virgin oil is one of the most nutritious and wholesome of foods.</p>
+
+<p>Such instances might be cited almost without end. Good, pure food
+demands a good price, and economy defeats its own purpose when it is
+practiced at the expense of one of the most vital necessities of
+health and life.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Third&mdash;Reliable Dealers.</strong>&mdash;Select your tradesmen with the same care you
+bestow in the choice of a physician. A grocer or butcher who has once
+sold stale, adulterated, or impure wares has forfeited his right to be
+trusted. A man who is honestly trying to build up a good trade must
+have the confidence of his customers and it is to his interest to sell
+only worthy goods; this confidence he can gain only by proving his
+trustworthiness. When you are convinced of your dealer's honesty give
+him your trade and do not be lured away by flashy advertisements and
+the promise of "something for nothing."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>PREPARATION FOR CHEMICAL TESTS.</strong>&mdash;Although the housekeeper will rarely
+need the use of any chemical tests for the purpose of determining the
+purity of food, the following directions must be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> in mind if such
+an expedient is deemed necessary. It will be wise, however, in the
+majority of cases when the presence of chemical preservatives and
+adulterants is suspected, to send the article to a chemist for
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>1. All refuse matter, such as shells, bones, bran, and skin, must be
+removed from the edible portion of the food to be tested.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the sample is solid or semi-solid, divide it as finely as
+possible. All vegetables and meats may be minced in the common
+household chopping machine. Tea, coffee, whole spices, and the like
+may be ground or crushed in a mortar or in a spice mill.</p>
+
+<p>3. Milk must be thoroughly stirred or shaken so that the cream is well
+mixed with the body of the milk.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>FLESH FOODS&mdash;Meat.</strong>&mdash;Fresh, wholesome meat is neither pink nor purple;
+these colors indicate either that the animal was not slaughtered or
+that it was diseased. Good meat is firm and elastic and when dented
+with the finger does not retain the impression; it has the same
+consistency and color throughout; the flesh is marbled, due to the
+presence of fat distributed among the muscular fibers; it will hardly
+moisten the finger when touched; it has no disagreeable odor and has a
+slightly acid reaction so that red litmus paper applied to it should
+not turn blue.</p>
+
+<p>Wet, sodden, or flabby meat with jellylike fat, a strong putrid odor,
+and alkaline reaction should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> avoided. These signs indicate
+advanced decomposition, and such meat is unfit for food.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Beef.</strong>&mdash;This meat should have a fine grain, be firm in texture, with
+rosy-red flesh and yellowish-white fat.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lamb and Mutton</strong> should have a clear, hard, white fat with the lean
+part juicy, firm, and of rather light-red color. The flesh should be
+firm and close of grain.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Veal.</strong>&mdash;The meat should not be eaten unless the animal was at least six
+weeks old before slaughtering. The sale of this immature veal, or "bob
+veal" as it is sometimes called, is prohibited by law in many States.
+It is unwholesome and may be recognized by its soft, rather mushy
+consistency and bluish tinge. Good veal has a firm white fat with the
+lean of a pale-red color.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pork.</strong>&mdash;This meat when fresh has a fat that is solid and pure white; if
+yellow and soft it should be rejected; the lean is pink and the skin
+like white translucent parchment.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Poultry.</strong>&mdash;Good poultry is firm to the touch, pink or yellowish in
+color, is fairly plump, and has a strong skin showing an unbroken
+surface. It has a fresh odor.</p>
+
+<p>Stale poultry is flabby and shows a bluish color; it becomes green
+over the crop and abdomen, and the skin is already broken or easily
+pulled apart in handling. The odor of such a bird is disagreeable and
+may even be putrid.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fish.</strong>&mdash;With the exception of the salted or preserved varieties fish
+should always be perfectly fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> when eaten. Probably no other
+article of food is more dangerous to health than fish when it shows
+even the slightest traces of decomposition. The ability to recognize
+the earliest signs of staleness is of the utmost importance. Fish
+deteriorate rapidly and should always be carefully inspected before
+purchasing.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh fish are firm to the touch, the scales moist and bright, the
+gills red, and the eyes clear and slightly prominent. When held flat
+in the hand the fish should remain rigid and the head and tail droop
+slightly, if at all.</p>
+
+<p>Stale fish are soft and flabby, the skin is dull and the eyes sunken
+and often covered with a film. The tendency of the head and tail to
+droop is marked and the fish has a characteristic disagreeable odor.
+This odor of decomposition is best detected in the gills.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lobsters and Crabs.</strong>&mdash;These shellfish should always be alive when
+purchased. This condition is easily demonstrated by their movements,
+and the rule should never be disregarded.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Oysters and Clams.</strong>&mdash;Oysters should not be eaten during the months of
+May, June, July, and August; these are their breeding months and they
+are unwholesome during that period. That oysters sometimes contain the
+germs of typhoid fever is an assured fact; these germs are acquired
+not from the natural habitat of the oyster in salt water but from the
+fresh-water, so-called "fattening beds," where the oysters are placed
+for a season to remove the brackish and salty taste of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> the sea and to
+render them more plump. These beds are frequently subject to
+pollution, and the housekeeper should only purchase oysters from
+reliable dealers where the purity of the source of the supply is
+unquestioned.</p>
+
+<p>Clams are in season and may be eaten throughout the year.</p>
+
+<p>All shellfish when fresh have an agreeable fresh odor. The shells
+should be firmly closed or should close when immersed in water and
+touched with the finger. If they have been removed from their shells
+when purchased, the flesh of the fish itself should be firm, clean in
+appearance and not covered with slime or scum; the odor should be
+fresh. The odor of dead or decomposed oysters and clams is pungent and
+disagreeable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>MEAT PRODUCTS&mdash;Canned or Potted Meats.</strong>&mdash;The label on cans containing
+meat products should state clearly the exact nature of the contents.
+Deception as to the character of the meat is easy to practice and
+difficult to detect by any but a trained analyst. The presence of
+preservatives can also only be detected by chemical analysis. As these
+products are practically all put on the market by the large packing
+houses and designed for interstate commerce, they are subject to
+government inspection, and, therefore, if they bear the government
+stamp may be considered pure. The point that the housekeeper may
+consider is the length of time the meat has remained in the can. Put
+up under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> proper precautions these canned goods retain their
+wholesomeness for an almost indefinite period. The heads of the cans
+should always present a concave surface; if they are convex, it is a
+sign of decomposition of the contents. When the can is opened the meat
+should have a clean appearance, free from mold or greenish hue, and
+the odor should be fresh and not tainted.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sausages.</strong>&mdash;If possible, sausages should be homemade, then one may be
+assured of their purity and freedom from adulteration.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the rapid color changes and early decomposition of fresh
+meat, artificial colors are often used to conceal the former, and
+preservatives like boric acid or saltpeter to retard the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial colors, such as carmine and aniline red, may be
+detected by observation or by warming the finely divided material on a
+water bath with a five per cent solution of sodium salicylate. This
+fluid will extract the color, if present.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lard.</strong>&mdash;Good lard is white and granular and has a firm consistency. It
+has an agreeable characteristic odor and taste. The choicest leaf lard
+is made from the fat about the kidneys of the hog; the cheaper grades
+are made from the fat of the whole animal.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>FRESH VEGETABLES AND FRUITS&mdash;Vegetables.</strong>&mdash;All green vegetables to be
+eaten uncooked should be carefully washed and examined for insects,
+dirt, and foreign matter generally. The ova or eggs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> of the tapeworm
+may be ingested with improperly cleaned vegetables. Running water and
+a clean brush (kept for this purpose) should be used.</p>
+
+<p>Green vegetables should have a fresh, unwilted appearance; any sign of
+staleness or decay should cause their rejection. Overripe or underripe
+vegetables are harmful.</p>
+
+<p>Lettuce, celery, and all leaved or stemmed vegetables should be
+examined to see if the outer leaves have been removed; this may be
+determined by the distance of the leaves from the stem head. The
+general signs of disease in vegetables are softening, change of color,
+and mold.</p>
+
+<p>The following characteristics indicate fresh and wholesome vegetables:</p>
+
+<p><strong>Asparagus.</strong>&mdash;Firm and white in the stalk with a green, compact tip.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Beans and Peas</strong> should have green, not yellow, pods, brittle, and
+easily snapped open. The vegetable itself should be tender, full and
+fleshy, not wrinkled or shrunken.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cabbage</strong>, crisp and firm, with a well-rounded and compact head.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Carrots</strong>, light red or yellow, with a regular, conical shape, sweet and
+crisp.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cauliflower</strong>, white, compact head; any tinge of yellow or green
+generally indicates an inferior quality.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Celery</strong>, nearly white in color; large, crisp, and solid stalks, nutty
+in flavor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span><strong>Cucumbers</strong>, firm, crisp, with a smooth skin and white flesh.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lettuce</strong>, the head close and compact; the leaves clean, crisp, and
+sweet. When it is too young or running to seed the taste is bitter.
+Pale patches on the leaves are caused by mildew and are a sign of
+decay.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Parsnips</strong>, buff in color, with unforked roots, sweet and crisp.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Potatoes</strong>, underripe, green potatoes are unfit for food; they contain a
+poisonous substance which renders them actually harmful. Good potatoes
+should have a smooth skin and few eyes; the flesh pale and of a
+uniform color and of a firm consistency. A rough skin, with little
+depressions, indicates a disease called "scab"; dark-brown patches on
+the skin are due to a disease called "smut." Potatoes with such
+diseases are of inferior quality. If green on one side, due to
+exposure to the sun when growing, the potatoes are unwholesome.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Fruits.</strong>&mdash;Underripe or green fruit should never be eaten. This
+condition may be easily detected by the color and consistency of the
+fruit. Diseased or decayed fruit is known by its change of color,
+softening, and external mold. Spots on fruit are often caused by a
+fungus which lowers its quality and renders it less wholesome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>CEREALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS&mdash;Cereals.</strong>&mdash;Particularly when bought in
+original packages cereals are generally pure and unadulterated. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+bought in bulk there may be found dust, dirt, worms, insects, and
+excessive moisture. These may all be determined by careful inspection.
+The presence of an undue amount of moisture adds greatly to the weight
+of cereals and is therefore a fraud. Cereals should be dry to the
+touch and the individual kernels or particles separate and distinct.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Flour.</strong>&mdash;By this general term is meant the ordinary wheat flour. It
+should not be too moist, should have a fine white appearance, remain
+lumpy, or hold its form, on pressure, not show any particles which
+cannot be crushed, and when a handful is thrown against the wall, part
+of it should adhere. The odor and taste should be fresh and clean and
+not musty or moldy.</p>
+
+<p>The common adulterants are corn and rice meal. If a sample of the
+flour be thrown on the surface of a glassful of water, the corn and
+rice, being heavier, will sink; grit and sand may be detected in the
+same way. If the flour has been adulterated with mineral substances it
+may be shown by burning a portion down to an ash; the ash of pure
+flour should not exceed two per cent of the total amount; if mineral
+substances are present the amount of ash will be greatly increased.</p>
+
+<p>Alum is sometimes added to flour in order to give it a whiter
+appearance and to produce whiter and lighter bread; it is most
+unwholesome. It can be detected by the so-called "logwood" test, which
+is prepared and used as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>Make two solutions. The first: a five per cent solution of logwood
+chips in alcohol. The second: a fifteen per cent solution of ammonium
+carbonate in water. Make a paste of one teaspoonful of the flour and
+an equal amount of water; mix with it one-quarter of a teaspoonful of
+the logwood solution; follow this immediately with one-quarter of a
+teaspoonful of the ammonium carbonate solution. If alum is present,
+the paste will show a lavender or blue color; if absent, the mass will
+become pink, fading to a dirty brown. If the result is doubtful, set
+the paste aside for several hours, when the colors will show more
+plainly.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bread.</strong>&mdash;Bread should be well baked and not too light or too heavy; the
+crust should be light brown and adherent to the substance of the
+bread. The center should be of even consistency, spongy, and firm; it
+should not pit or be soggy or doughy. The pores or holes should be of
+practically the same size throughout.</p>
+
+<p>Exceedingly white, light, or porous bread shows the presence of alum.
+It may be detected by means of the solutions already mentioned in the
+"logwood" test. Mix one teaspoonful of each solution and add three
+ounces (six tablespoonfuls) of water; pour this over a lump of bread,
+free from crust and about an inch square. After the bread has become
+thoroughly soaked, pour off the excess of liquid and dry the bread in
+the dish; if alum is present, the mass will show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> a violet or blue
+tint, more marked on drying; if absent, a brownish color will appear.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Baking Powders.</strong>&mdash;Baking powders are of three classes, all having
+sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) as their alkaline salt. The first
+style is the commonly used and wholesome mixture of cream of tartar
+and baking soda; the second has calcium phosphate for the acid salt,
+and the third contains alum. All have a certain proportion of starch
+to absorb moisture. Of these the alum powders are the most harmful and
+should be avoided. Practically all of the well-known brands of baking
+powder are of the first-mentioned class and wholesome, and are rarely
+adulterated.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>DAIRY PRODUCTS&mdash;Milk.</strong>&mdash;Pure milk should have a specific gravity of
+from 1.027 to 1.033. Its normal reaction is neutral or slightly acid;
+it should never be strongly acid. If it is strongly alkaline, i. e.,
+turning red litmus paper blue, it is pretty certain that something in
+the way of a preservative has been added to it. When left standing for
+a few hours the cream should show as a slightly yellowish top layer,
+one-tenth or more of the whole amount; the milk below the cream should
+be lighter in color and with the slightest bluish tinge. If the color
+is of a yellowish tinge throughout, the addition of coloring matter
+must be suspected. "Annatto," a vegetable pigment, is used to give a
+"rich" tint to milk. To detect it, add one teaspoonful of baking soda
+to one quart of milk and immerse in it a strip of unglazed paper; in a
+few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> hours examine the paper; if annatto is present, it will have
+become an orange color.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>If the whole milk has a blue and thin appearance, or if the cream is
+scant in quantity, it has probably been diluted with water. The
+popular idea that chalk is sometimes added to poor milk to make it
+appear of better quality is erroneous; chalk would always show as a
+precipitate, as it does not dissolve, and the presence of such a
+sediment would be a too obvious adulteration to be practiced.</p>
+
+<p>Milk should always be kept at a temperature below 50° F.; above that
+temperature the bacteria in it multiply with great rapidity and render
+it unfit for use.</p>
+
+<p>Milk may be preserved for several days if "pasteurized" or
+"sterilized." Pasteurization consists of heating milk to a temperature
+of about 167° F., and maintaining it at that degree for twenty
+minutes. Sterilization means keeping the milk at a temperature of 212°
+F. for two hours and a half. Immediately after either process the milk
+should be cooled, then placed in absolutely clean, covered bottles and
+kept on ice. These methods are not only harmless but actually
+beneficial in that they destroy any disease germs that might be
+present.</p>
+
+<p>Chemical preservatives are occasionally found in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> milk. They may be
+suspected if the milk is alkaline in reaction and has a disguised
+taste. The ones most commonly used are boric and salicylic acids and
+formaldehyde; the two former can only be detected by chemical tests
+too delicate and intricate to be used by the housewife. Formaldehyde
+may be tested for by using a solution of one drop of a ten per cent
+solution of ferric chloride to one ounce of hydrochloric acid.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Fill
+a small porcelain dish one-third full of this solution; add an equal
+volume of milk and heat slowly over a flame nearly to the boiling
+point, giving the dish a rotary motion to break up the curd. If
+formaldehyde is present, the mass will show a violet color, varying in
+depth with the amount present; if it is absent, the mass turns brown.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Butter.</strong>&mdash;Good butter has a fresh, sweet odor and an agreeable taste.
+It should be of the same color and consistency throughout, easily cut
+and adherent and not crumbly when molded into shapes. Pure butter is
+very light in color; nearly all that is sold is colored, in order to
+meet the popular demand for "yellow" butter; annatto and other
+vegetable and mineral substances are sometimes employed for this
+purpose. These coloring matters are generally harmless but may be
+detected by dissolving a portion of the butter in alcohol; the natural
+color will dissolve, while foreign coloring will not. Butter should
+consist of eighty-five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> per cent fat, with the remainder water,
+casein, and salt. The most common methods of adulteration consist in
+an excess of water and the addition of oleomargarine. If an excess of
+water has been added it may be shown by melting the butter; the water
+and fat will separate in two distinct layers. Oleomargarine has a
+distinctive meaty smell, like that of cooked meat, and lacks the
+characteristic odor of pure butter. If pure butter is melted in a
+spoon, it will not sputter; if oleomargarine is present, it will.</p>
+
+<p>The preservatives sometimes used, namely, boric and salicylic acids
+and formaldehyde, can only be detected by chemical tests.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Eggs.</strong>&mdash;Two methods may be used to detect stale eggs. First: make a
+solution of one part of table salt to ten parts of water and immerse
+the suspected egg; if it sinks, it is perfectly fresh; if it remains
+in the water below the surface, it is at least three days old, and if
+it floats, it is five or more days old.</p>
+
+<p>Second: hold the egg between a bright light and the eye. If it is
+fresh, it will show a rosy tint throughout, without dark spots, as the
+air chamber is small; if not fresh, it will look cloudy, with many
+dark spots present.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>TEA AND COFFEE.</strong>&mdash;These substances are extensively adulterated, but the
+adulterants are almost without exception harmless.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tea.</strong>&mdash;The commonest forms of adulteration of tea are as follows: (<em>a</em>)
+Exhausted tea leaves which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> already been used are dried and
+added. Their presence may be detected by the weakness of the infusion,
+made from a given quantity of the suspected tea, compared with a
+similar infusion made from tea known to be pure. (<em>b</em>) Leaves from
+other plants are sometimes dried and added; these are easily shown if
+an infusion is made and when the leaves are thoroughly wet unrolling
+and comparing them. (<em>c</em>) Green teas may be "faced" or colored with
+Prussian blue, indigo, French chalk, or sulphate of lime; black teas
+may be similarly treated with plumbago or "Dutch pink." If teas so
+treated are shaken up in cold water the coloring matter will wash off.
+(<em>d</em>) Sand and iron filings are occasionally added for weight;
+observation, and the fact that they sink when tea is thrown in water,
+will show their presence. Iron filings may be readily found by using a
+magnet. (<em>e</em>) The presence of starch may be shown by washing the tea
+in cold water, straining it, and testing the solution in the following
+manner: dissolve one-half teaspoonful of potassium iodide in three
+ounces of water and add as much iodine as the solution will dissolve;
+a few drops of this solution added to the suspected sample will give a
+blue color if starch is present.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Coffee.</strong>&mdash;Coffee should always be purchased in the bean, as ground
+coffee is much more frequently adulterated and the foreign substances
+are more difficult to detect.</p>
+
+<p>The adulterants commonly used are: chicory, peas,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> beans, peanuts, and
+pellets of roasted wheat flour, rye, corn, or barley.</p>
+
+<p>Fat globules are always present in pure coffee; their presence may be
+shown by the fact that imitation coffee sinks in water, while pure
+coffee floats.</p>
+
+<p>Chicory is the most frequently used adulterant; it is added for flavor
+and to produce a darker infusion, thus giving the impression of
+greater strength. It is perfectly harmless and as a drink is actually
+preferred by some people. Its detection is comparatively easy. Chicory
+grains are dark, gummy, soft, and bitter; coffee grains are hard and
+brittle; a small amount put in the mouth will demonstrate the
+difference. Chicory will often adhere to the wheels of a coffee
+grinder, clogging them on account of its gummy consistency.</p>
+
+<p>When a sample of adulterated coffee is thrown in water the pure coffee
+floats and leaves the water unstained; chicory sinks almost instantly,
+coloring the water, while peas and beans sink more slowly but also
+color the water.</p>
+
+<p>Peas and beans are also detected by the polished appearance of the
+broken or crushed grains in marked contrast to the dull surface of
+crushed coffee.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of peas, beans, rye, wheat, bread crumbs, and allied
+substances may be shown by the fact that they all contain starch.</p>
+
+<p>Make a ten per cent infusion of the suspected coffee; filter it, and
+decolorize the solution by boiling it with a piece of animal charcoal.
+Test the decolorized solu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>tion by slowly adding a few drops of the
+"potassium-iodide-iodine solution," directions for preparing which
+were given under heading of "Tea." A resulting blue color will
+indicate the presence of starch.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.</strong>&mdash;The adulterants of these substances are
+generally harmless, as they usually consist of flavoring extracts,
+sugar, starch, flour, and animal fats. No tests other than flavor,
+consistency, and smoothness need be considered. Good cocoa and
+chocolate should be slightly bitter, with a pleasant characteristic
+odor and taste; they should have a smooth, even consistency and be
+free from grit or harsh particles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.</strong>&mdash;In general, acid
+substances, such as tomatoes and fruits, should not be canned in tin,
+as the action of the acid tends to dissolve the tin. It is better,
+therefore, to purchase these articles in glass.</p>
+
+<p>After opening the can the odor and appearance of the contents should
+be noted. The odor should be clean and fresh, and the slightest trace
+of any sour, musty, or disagreeable smell should cause the rejection
+of the food. The appearance should be clean, with no mold; the
+consistency and color of the fruit or vegetables should be uniform
+throughout. If the color is brighter than that of a similar article
+when canned at home, the presence of artificial coloring matter must
+be suspected. The brilliant green of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> brands of peas, beans, or
+Brussels sprouts is produced by the addition of the salts of copper.
+This may be proved by leaving the blade of a penknife in the contents
+of the can for a short time; if copper is present it will be deposited
+on, and discolor, the blade.</p>
+
+<p>Brightly colored fruits should excite suspicion; this same dictum
+applies to all brightly colored jams and jellies, as the colors are
+usually produced by the addition of carmine or aniline red.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of preservatives, salicylic and boric acids, the
+benzoates, etc., can only be proved by delicate chemical tests.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>SUGAR.</strong>&mdash;Pure granulated or powdered sugar is white and clean. The
+presence of glucose should be suspected in sugar sold below the market
+price; it is perfectly harmless, but has a sweetening power of only
+about two-thirds that of sugar and is added on account of its
+cheapness and to increase the bulk.</p>
+
+<p>If sand, dirt, or flour are present they may be detected by
+observation, or by washing the suspected sample in water; flour will
+not dissolve, sand will sink, and dirt will discolor the water.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>SPICES.</strong>&mdash;Spices should be bought whole and ground in a spice mill as
+needed; if this is done, there need be little fear of their impurity,
+for whole spices are difficult to simulate or adulterate. Ground
+spices may be adulterated with bark, flour, starches, or arrowroot;
+these adulterants are harmless, but are fraudulent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> as they increase
+the bulk and decrease the strength. Their actual presences can only be
+demonstrated by a microscopical or chemical examination.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Peppers.</strong>&mdash;Black pepper is made from the whole berry; white pepper is
+made from the same berry with the outer husk removed. The adulterants
+are usually inert and harmless substances, such as flour, mustard, or
+linseed oil; their presence is obviated by the use of the whole
+peppercorns, ground as needed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Red Pepper.</strong>&mdash;This may be adulterated with red lead; when pure it will
+be entirely suspended in water; if a sediment falls it is probably red
+lead.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Mustard.</strong>&mdash;Practically all of the adulterants of mustard can only be
+detected by intricate chemical tests. The presence of turmeric may be
+detected by the appearance of an orange-red color when ammonia is
+added to a solution of the sample.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tomato Catsup.</strong>&mdash;Artificial dyestuffs are common, giving a brilliant
+crimson or magenta color. Such catsup does not resemble the natural
+dull red or brown color of the homemade article.</p>
+
+<p>Preservatives, such as boric, salicylic, or benzoic acids and their
+salts, are sometimes added. While their presence cannot be condoned,
+yet they are usually present in small amounts and therefore
+practically harmless.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Pickles.</strong>&mdash;These should be of a dull-green color. The bright emerald
+green sometimes observed is due to the presence of the salts of
+copper; this may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> proved by dipping the blade of a penknife in the
+liquor, as described under the heading of "Canned Goods."</p>
+
+<p>Alum is sometimes used as a preservative and in order to make the
+pickles crisp. Its presence may be demonstrated by means of the
+"logwood" test mentioned under the heading of "Flour."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>VINEGAR.</strong>&mdash;Cider vinegar is of a brownish-yellow color and possesses a
+strong odor of apples.</p>
+
+<p>Wine vinegar is light yellow if made from white wine, and red if made
+from red wine.</p>
+
+<p>Malt vinegar is brown and has an odor suggestive of sour beer.</p>
+
+<p>Glucose vinegar has the taste and odor of fermented sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Molasses vinegar has the distinctive odor and taste of molasses.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>OLIVE OIL.</strong>&mdash;Pure olive oil has a pleasant, bland taste and a
+distinctive and agreeable odor, unmistakable in character for that of
+any other oil. The finest virgin oil is pale green in color, the
+cheaper grades are light yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The adulterants consist of cotton-seed, corn, mustard, and peanut
+oils.</p>
+
+<p>When pure olive oil is shaken in a glass or porcelain dish with an
+equal quantity of concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> it turns
+from a pale to a dark green color in a few minutes; if under this
+treatment a red<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>dish to an orange or brown color is produced the
+presence of a foreign vegetable oil is to be suspected.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>FLAVORING EXTRACTS&mdash;Vanilla.</strong>&mdash;This may be wholly or in part the
+extract of the Tonka bean or may be made from a chemical substance
+known as vanillin. The best practical working tests as to its purity
+are the price, taste, and odor. The distinctive odor and taste of
+vanilla are characteristic and cannot be mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p><strong>Lemon.</strong>&mdash;This extract is often made from tartaric or citric acid. They
+may be tested for as follows: to a portion of the extract in a test
+tube add an equal volume of water to precipitate the oil; filter, and
+add one or two drops of the filtrate to a test tube full of cold,
+clear limewater; if tartaric acid is present a precipitate will fall
+to the bottom of the tube. Filter off this precipitate (if present)
+and heat the contents of the tube; if citric acid is present it will
+precipitate in the hot limewater.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Footnote.</span>&mdash;Dr. Baker wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the
+following authorities and the volumes mentioned for many helpful
+suggestions. Pearman and Moore, "Aids to the Analysis of Foods and
+Drugs"; Albert E. Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis"; Francis
+Vacher, "Food Inspector's Hand Book."</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The presence of aniline dyes may be detected by mixing a
+portion of the suspected sample with enough water to make a thin
+paste. Wet a piece of white wool cloth or yarn thoroughly with water
+and place it with the paste in an agate saucepan. Boil for ten
+minutes, stirring frequently. If a dye has been used the wool will be
+brightly colored; a brownish or pinkish color indicates the natural
+coloring matter of the fruit or vegetable.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> A little vinegar added to heated cream or milk produces
+in the curd a distinct orange color if an aniline dye has been used to
+make the cream look "rich." The curd will be brown if annatto or
+caromel has been used. If pure, the curd will be white.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This acid must be used with great care; no portion of it
+should ever come in contact with the skin or clothing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> These acids must be used with great care. They should
+never be allowed to come in contact with the skin or clothing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Add a little sugar-of-lead solution to the suspected
+extract; true vanilla extract will give a yellowish-brown precipitate
+and a pale, straw-colored liquid. If the extract is artificial, the
+addition of the lead solution will have little or no effect.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Mushroom Poisoning</strong></p>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><em>Symptoms&mdash;Treatment&mdash;How to Tell Mushrooms&mdash;The Common Kind&mdash;Other
+Varieties&mdash;The Edible Puffball&mdash;Poisonous Mushrooms Frequently
+Mistaken.</em></p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>MUSHROOM POISONING.</strong>&mdash;Vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, pains in legs;
+possibly confusion, as if drunk, stupidity, followed by excitement,
+and perhaps convulsions. Lips and face may be blue. Pulse may be weak.</p>
+
+<p><em>First Aid Rule 1.&mdash;Rid the stomach and bowels of remaining poison.
+Give emetic of mustard, tablespoonful in three glasses of warm water,
+unless vomiting is already excessive. When vomiting ceases, give
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or compound cathartic pill.</em> <span class="smcap">Give no
+salts.</span> <em>Also empty bowels with injection of tablespoonful of glycerin
+in pint of warm soapsuds and water.</em></p>
+
+<p><em>Rule 2.&mdash;Antidote the poison. Give a cup of strong coffee and fifteen
+drops of tincture of belladonna to adult. Repeat both once, after two
+hours have passed.</em></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span><em>Rule 3.&mdash;Rest and stimulate. Put patient to bed. Give whisky, a
+tablespoonful in twice as much water. Give tincture of digitalis, ten
+drops every two hours, till two or three doses are taken by adult.</em></p>
+
+<p><strong>Symptoms.</strong>&mdash;Vomiting and diarrhea come on in a few hours to half a day,
+with cramps in the stomach and legs. The face and lips may grow blue.
+There is great prostration. In the case of poisoning by the <em>fly
+amanita</em>, stupor may appear early, the patient acting as if drunk, and
+difficult breathing may be a noticeable symptom. Afterwards the
+patient becomes excited and convulsions develop. The pulse becomes
+weak and slow. The patient may die in a few hours, or may linger for
+three or four days. If treatment be thorough, recovery may result.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Treatment.</strong>&mdash;Unless vomiting has already been excessive, the patient
+should receive a tablespoonful of mustard mixed with a glassful of
+tepid water. After the vomiting ceases he should receive a
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or any cathartic except salts. If the
+cathartic is vomited, he should receive an injection into the rectum
+of a tablespoonful of glycerin mixed with a pint of soapsuds and
+water. Coffee and atropine (or belladonna) are the best antidotes.</p>
+
+<p>If a physician be secured, he will probably give a hypodermic
+injection of atropine. If a physician is not procurable, the patient
+should receive a cup of strong coffee, and a dose of ten or fifteen
+drops of tinc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>ture of belladonna in a tablespoonful of water, if an
+adult. This dose should be repeated once after the lapse of two hours.
+The patient should be kept in bed, a bedpan being used when the bowels
+move.</p>
+
+<p>When the pulse begins to grow weak, two tablespoonfuls of whisky and
+ten drops of the tincture of digitalis should be given to an adult in
+quarter of a glass of hot water. The digitalis should be repeated
+every two hours till three or four doses have been taken. The patient
+must be kept warm with hot-water bottles and blankets.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>HOW TO KNOW MUSHROOMS.</strong>&mdash;One-sixth of one of the poisonous mushrooms
+has caused death. It is, therefore, impossible to exert too much care
+in selecting them for food. A novice would much better learn all the
+characteristics of edible and poisonous mushrooms in the field from an
+expert before attempting to gather them himself, and should not trust
+to book descriptions, except in the case of the few edible species
+described hereafter. It is not safe for a novice to gather the
+immature or button mushrooms, because it is much more difficult to
+determine their characteristics than those of the full grown. As
+reference books, the reader is advised to procure Bulletin No. 15 of
+the United States Department of Agriculture, entitled "Some Edible and
+Poisonous Fungi," by Dr. W. G. Farlow, which will be sent without
+charge on request by the Agricultural Department at Washington;
+"Studies of American Fungi," by Atkinson, and Miss Mar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>shall's
+"Mushroom Book," all of which are fully illustrated, and will prove
+helpful to those interested in edible fungi.</p>
+
+<p>There are no single tests by which one can distinguish edible from
+poisonous fungi, such as taste, odor, the blackening of a silver
+spoon, etc., although contrary statements have been made. Even when
+the proper mushrooms have been eaten, ill effects, death itself, may
+follow if the mushrooms have been kept too long, have been
+insufficiently cooked, have been eaten in too large a quantity
+(especially by children), or if the consumer is the possessor of an
+unhappy idiosyncrasy toward mushrooms.</p>
+
+<p>No botanic distinction exists between toadstools and mushrooms;
+mushrooms may be regarded as edible toadstools. They are all,
+botanically speaking, edible or poisonous fungi. A description follows
+of the five kinds of fungi most commonly eaten, and the poisonous
+species which may be mistaken for them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><strong>EDIBLE MUSHROOMS.</strong>&mdash;<strong>1. The Common Mushroom</strong> (<em>Agaricus
+Campestris</em>).&mdash;The fungi called agarici are those which have gills,
+that is, little plates which look like knife blades on the under
+surface of the top of the mushroom, radiating outward from the stem
+like the spokes of a wheel. This is the species most frequently grown
+artificially, and sold in the markets. The top or cap of this mushroom
+is white, or of varying shades of brown, and measures from one and a
+half to three or even four inches in diameter. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]<br />[Pg 117]</a></span> is found in the
+latter part of August, in September, and in October, growing in
+clusters on pastures, fields, and lawns.</p>
+
+<p>The gills are pink or salmon colored in the newly expanded specimen;
+but as it grows older, or after it is picked, the gills turn dark
+purple, chestnut brown, or black. This is the important point to
+remember, since the poisonous species mistaken for it all have white
+gills. The gills end with abrupt upward curves at the center of the
+cap without being attached to the stem. In the young mushroom, when
+the cap is folded down about the stem, the gills are not noticeable,
+as they are covered by a veil or filmy membrane, a part of which
+remains attached to the stem (when the top expands), as a ring or
+collar about the stem a little more than halfway up from the ground.
+The stem is solid and not hollow, and there is no bulbous enlargement
+at the base of the stem, surrounded by scales or a collar, as occurs
+in the <em>fly amanita</em> and other poisonous species. Neither the
+<em>campestris</em> nor any other mushroom should be eaten when over a day
+old, since decomposition quickly sets in.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="375" height="500" alt="Fig. 35." title="Fig. 35." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE FIELD MUSHROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Agaricus Campestris.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">An edible variety; very common.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>2. Horse Mushroom</strong> (<em>Agaricus Arvensis</em>).&mdash;This species may be
+considered with the foregoing, but it differs in being considerably
+larger (measuring four to ten inches across) and in having a more
+shiny cap, of a white or brown hue. The ring about the stem is
+noticeably wider and thicker, and is composed of two distinct layers.
+The gills are white at first, turning dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 118]<br />[Pg 119]</a></span> brown comparatively late,
+and the stem is a little hollow as it matures. In some localities it
+is more common than the <em>campestris</em> in fields and pastures, while in
+other places it is found only in rich gardens, about hot beds, or in
+cold frames. It is not distinguished from the <em>campestris</em> by market
+people, but is often sold with the latter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;">
+<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="256" height="500" alt="Fig. 36." title="Fig. 36." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE HORSE MUSHROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Agaricus Arvensis.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">This variety is edible.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>3. Shaggy Mane, Ink Cap, or Horsetail Fungus</strong> (<em>Coprinus
+Comatus</em>).&mdash;This mushroom possesses the most marked characteristics of
+any of the edible species; it would seem impossible to mistake its
+identity from written descriptions and illustrations. It is considered
+by many superior in flavor to the <em>campestris</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The top or cap does not expand in this mushroom, until it begins to
+turn black, but remains folded down about the stem like a closed
+umbrella. Mature specimens are usually three to five, occasionally
+from eight to ten, inches high. The stem is hollow. The inside of the
+cap or gills and the stem are snow white. The outer surface of the
+cap, which is white in young plants, becomes of a faint, yellow-brown
+or tawny color in mature specimens, and also darker at the top.
+Delicate scales often rolled up at their lower ends are seen on the
+exterior of the cap, more readily in mature mushrooms, hence the name
+"shaggy mane." There is a ring around the stem at the lower margin of
+the cap, and it is so loosely attached to either the cap or stem that
+it sometimes drops down to the base of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]<br />[Pg 121]</a></span>The most salient feature of shaggy mane is the change which occurs
+when it is about a day old; it turns black and dissolves away into an
+inky fluid, whence the other common name "ink cap." The mushroom
+should not be eaten when in this condition. The ink cap is usually
+found growing in autumn, rarely in summer, in richer earth than the
+common mushroom. One finds it in heaps of street scrapings, by
+roadsides, in rich lawns, in soils filled with decomposing wood and in
+low, shaded, moist grounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="263" height="500" alt="Fig. 37." title="Fig. 37." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE HORSE-TAIL FUNGUS.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Coprinus Comatus.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">Edible; cut shows entire plant and section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>4. Fairy-ring Mushroom</strong> (<em>Marasmius Oreades</em>).&mdash;This species usually
+grows on lawns, in clusters which form an imperfect circle or
+crescent. The ring increases in size each year as new fungi grow on
+the outside, while old ones toward the center of the circle perish.
+This mushroom is small and slender, and rarely exceeds two inches in
+breadth. The cap and the tough and tubular stem are buff, and the
+gills, few in number and bulging out in the middle, are of a lighter
+shade of the same color. There is no ring about the stem. Several
+crops of the fairy-ring mushroom are produced all through the season,
+but the most prolific growth appears after the late fall rains. There
+are other fungi forming rings, some of which are poisonous, and they
+may not be easily distinguished from the edible species; hence great
+care is essential in gathering them. The under surface of the cap is
+brown or blackish in the mature plants of poisonous species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="Fig. 38." title="Fig. 38." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Marasmius Oreades.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">An edible variety.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>5. Edible Puffball</strong> (<em>Lycoperdon Cyathiforme</em>).&mdash;Edible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> puffballs grow
+in open pastures, and on lawns and grassplots, often forming rings.
+They are spherical in form, generally from one and a half to two
+inches, occasionally six inches, in diameter, broad and somewhat
+flattened at the top, and tapering at the base, white or brown
+outside. They often present an irregularly checkered appearance, owing
+to the fact that the white interior shows between the dark raised
+parts. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 123]<br />[Pg 124]</a></span> interior is at first pure white and of solid consistency,
+but later becomes softer and yellowish, and then contains an
+amber-colored juice. After the puffball has matured, the contents
+change into a brown, dustlike mass, and the top falls off; and it is
+then inedible. All varieties of puffball with a pure white interior
+are harmless, if eaten before becoming crumbly and powdery. There is
+only one species thought to be poisonous, and that has a yellow-brown
+exterior, while the interior is purple-black, marbled with white.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="276" height="500" alt="Fig. 39." title="Fig. 39." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE EDIBLE PUFFBALL.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Lycoperdon Cyathiforme.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">Upper illustration shows entire plant; lower, a section.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><strong>POISONOUS MUSHROOMS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN.</strong></h4>
+
+<p><em>To escape eating poisonous mushrooms do not gather the buttons, and
+be suspicious of those growing in woods and shady spots that show any
+bright hue, or have a scaly or dotted cap, or white gills.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> By so
+doing the following species will be avoided.</em></p>
+
+<p><strong>Fly Amanita</strong> (<em>Amanita Muscaria</em>).&mdash;Infusions of this mushroom made by
+boiling in water are used to kill flies. This species grows in woods
+and shady places, by roadsides, and along the borders of fields, and
+is much commoner than the <em>campestris</em> in some localities. It prefers
+a poor, gravelly soil, and is found in summer.</p>
+
+<p>The stem is hollow and its gills are white. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 125]<br />[Pg 126]<br />[Pg 127]</a></span> cap is variously
+colored, white, orange, yellow, or even brilliant red, and dotted over
+with corklike particles or warty scales which are easily rubbed off.
+There is a large, drooping collar about the upper part of the hollow,
+white stem, and the latter is scaly below with a bulbous enlargement
+at its base.</p>
+
+<p>The young mushrooms, or buttons, do not exhibit the dotted cap, and
+the bulbous scaly base may be left in the ground when the mushroom is
+picked. The <em>fly amanita</em> is usually larger than the common mushroom.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="Fig. 40." title="Fig. 40." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.</span>
+
+<p class="title">A POISONOUS FUNGUS.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Amanita Muscaria.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">The Fly Agaric.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Death Cup or Deadly Agaric</strong> (<em>Amanita Phalloides</em>).&mdash;This species is
+more fatal in its effects than the preceding. Its salient feature is a
+bulbous base surmounted and surrounded by a collar or cup out of which
+the stem grows. This is often buried beneath the ground, however, so
+that it may escape notice. The gills and stem are white like the
+preceding, but the cap is usually not dotted but glossy, white,
+greenish, or yellow. There is also a broad, noticeable ring about the
+stem, as in the <em>fly amanita</em>. This mushroom frequents moist, shady
+spots, also along the borders of fields. It occurs singly, and rarely
+in fields or pastures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="315" height="500" alt="Fig. 41." title="Fig. 41." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE DEADLY AGARIC.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<em>Amanita Phalloides.</em>)</p>
+
+<p class="centered">This variety is very poisonous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The shaggy mane has white gills, but its other features
+are characteristic.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div class="part_head">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>Part III</h2>
+
+<p class="title">THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS</p>
+
+<p class="by">BY</p>
+
+<p>GEORGE M. PRICE</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+<h3><em>Acknowledgment</em></h3>
+
+
+<p>We beg to tender grateful acknowledgment to author and publisher for
+the use of Dr. George M. Price's valuable articles on sanitation. The
+following extracts are taken from Dr. Price's "Handbook on
+Sanitation," published by John Wiley &amp; Son, and are covered by
+copyright.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Soil and Sites</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Definition.</strong>&mdash;By the term "soil" we mean the superficial layer of the
+earth, a result of the geological disintegration of the primitive rock
+by the action of the elements upon it and of the decay of vegetable
+and animal life.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Composition.</strong>&mdash;Soil consists of solids, water, and air.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Solids.</strong>&mdash;The solid constituents of the soil are inorganic and organic
+in character.</p>
+
+<p>The inorganic constituents are the various minerals and elements found
+alone, or in combination, in the earth, such as silica, aluminum,
+calcium, iron, carbon, sodium, chlorine, potassium, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the soil depend upon its constituents, and upon
+the predominance of one or the other of its composing elements. The
+nature of the soil also depends upon its physical properties. When the
+disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles, the soil is
+called a <em>gravel soil</em>. A <em>sandy soil</em> is one in which the particles
+are very small. <em>Sandstone</em> is consolidated sand. <em>Clay</em> is soil
+consisting principally of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> aluminum silicate; in <em>chalk</em>, soft calcium
+carbonate predominates.</p>
+
+<p>The organic constituents of the soil are the result of vegetable and
+animal growth and decomposition in the soil.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ground Water.</strong>&mdash;Ground water is that continuous body or sheet of water
+formed by the complete filling and saturation of the soil to a certain
+level by rain water; it is that stratum of subterranean lakes and
+rivers, filled up with alluvium, which we reach at a higher or lower
+level when we dig wells.</p>
+
+<p>The level of the ground water depends upon the underlying strata, and
+also upon the movements of the subterranean water bed. The relative
+position of the impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance
+from the surface soil. In marshy land the ground water is at the
+surface; in other places it can be reached only by deep borings. The
+source of the ground water is the rainfall, part of which drains into
+the porous soil until it reaches an impermeable stratum, where it
+collects.</p>
+
+<p>The movements of the ground water are in two directions&mdash;horizontal
+and vertical. The horizontal or lateral movement is toward the seas
+and adjacent water courses, and is determined by hydrostatic laws and
+topographical relations. The vertical motion of the ground water is to
+and from the surface, and is due to the amount of rainfall, the
+pressure of tides, and water courses into which the ground water
+drains. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> vertical variations of the ground water determine the
+distance of its surface level from the soil surface, and are divided
+into a persistently low-water level, about fifteen feet from the
+surface; a persistently high-water level, about five feet from the
+surface, and a fluctuating level, sometimes high, sometimes low.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ground Air.</strong>&mdash;Except in the hardest granite rocks and in soil
+completely filled with water the interstices of the soil are filled
+with a continuation of atmospheric air, the amount depending on the
+degree of porosity of the soil. The nature of the ground air differs
+from that of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its location.
+The principal constituents of the air&mdash;nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic
+acid&mdash;are also found in the ground air, but in the latter the relative
+quantities of O and CO<sub>2</sub> are different.</p>
+
+<p class="table_head">AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN 100 VOLUMES</p>
+
+<table summary="Average composition of atmospheric air in 100 volumes.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>Nitrogen</td>
+  <td class="table_right">79.00</td>
+  <td>per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Oxygen</td>
+  <td class="table_right">20.96</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Carbonic acid</td>
+  <td class="table_right">0.04</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="table_head">AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GROUND AIR</p>
+
+<table summary="Average composition of ground air.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>Nitrogen</td>
+  <td class="table_right">79.00</td>
+  <td>per cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Oxygen</td>
+  <td class="table_right">10.35</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Carbonic acid</td>
+  <td class="table_right">9.74</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of course, these quantities are not constant, but vary in different
+soils, and at different depths, times, etc. The greater quantity of
+CO<sub>2</sub> in ground air is due to the process of oxidation and
+decomposition taking place<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> in the soil. Ground air also contains a
+large quantity of bacterial and other organic matter found in the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>Ground air is in constant motion, its movements depending upon a great
+many factors, some among these being the winds and movements of the
+atmospheric air, the temperature of the soil, the surface temperature,
+the pressure from the ground water from below, and surface and rain
+water from above, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ground Moisture.</strong>&mdash;The interstices of the soil above the ground-water
+level are filled with air <em>only</em>, when the soil is absolutely dry; but
+as such a soil is very rare, all soils being more or less damp, soil
+usually contains a mixture of air and water, or what is called <em>ground
+moisture</em>.</p>
+
+<p>Ground moisture is derived partly from the evaporation of the ground
+water and its capillary absorption by the surface soil, and partly by
+the retention of water from rains upon the surface. The power of the
+soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to the physical
+and chemical, as well as the thermal, properties of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Loose sand may hold about 2 gallons of water per cubic foot; granite
+takes up about 4 per cent of moisture; chalk about 15 per cent; clay
+about 20 per cent; sandy loam 33 to 35 per cent; humus<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> about 40
+per cent.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ground Temperature.</strong>&mdash;The temperature of the soil is due to the direct
+rays of the sun, the physicochemi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>cal changes in its interior, and to
+the internal heat of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The ground temperature varies according to the annual and diurnal
+changes of the external temperature; also according to the character
+of the soil, its color, composition, depth, degree of organic
+oxidation, ground-water level, and degree of dampness. In hot weather
+the surface soil is cooler, and the subsurface soil still more so,
+than the surrounding air; in cold weather the opposite is the case.
+The contact of the cool soil with the warm surface air on summer
+evenings is what produces the condensation of air moisture which we
+call dew.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bacteria.</strong>&mdash;Quite a large number of bacteria are found in the soil,
+especially near the surface, where chemical and organic changes are
+most active. From 200,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria have been found in 1
+c.c. of earth. The ground bacteria are divided into two
+groups&mdash;saprophytic and pathogenic. The saprophytic bacteria are the
+bacteria of decay, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is to their
+benevolent action that vegetable and animal <em>débris</em> is decomposed,
+oxidized, and reduced to its elements. To these bacteria the soil owes
+its self-purifying capacity and the faculty of disintegrating animal
+and vegetable <em>débris</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The pathogenic bacteria are either those formed during the process of
+organic decay, and which, introduced into the human system, are
+capable of producing various diseases, or those which become lodged in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> soil through the contamination of the latter by ground water and
+air, and which find in the soil a favorable lodging ground, until
+forced out of the soil by the movements of the ground water and air.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Contamination of the Soil.</strong>&mdash;The natural capacity of the soil to
+decompose and reduce organic matter is sometimes taxed to its utmost
+by the introduction into the soil of extraneous matters in quantities
+which the soil is unable to oxidize in a given period. This is called
+contamination or pollution of soil, and is due: (1) to surface
+pollution by refuse, garbage, animal and human excreta; (2) to
+interment of dead bodies of beasts and men; (3) to the introduction of
+foreign deleterious gases, etc.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p><em>Pollution by Surface Refuse and Sewage.</em>&mdash;This occurs where a large
+number of people congregate, as in cities, towns, etc., and very
+seriously contaminates the ground by the surcharge of the surface soil
+with sewage matter, saturating the ground with it, polluting the
+ground water from which the drinking water is derived, and increasing
+the putrefactive changes taking place in the soil. Here the pathogenic
+bacteria abound, and, by multiplying, exert a very marked influence
+upon the health by the possible spread of infectious diseases. Sewage
+pollution of the soils and of the source of water supply is a matter
+of grave im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>portance, and is one of the chief factors of high
+mortality in cities and towns.</p>
+
+<p><em>Interment of Bodies.</em>&mdash;The second cause of soil contamination is also
+of great importance. Owing to the intense physicochemical and organic
+changes taking place within the soil, all dead animal matter interred
+therein is easily disposed of in a certain time, being reduced to the
+primary constituents, viz., ammonia, nitrous acid, carbonic acid,
+sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen, etc. But whenever the number of
+interred bodies is too great, and the products of decomposition are
+allowed to accumulate to a very great degree, until the capacity of
+the soil to absorb and oxidize them is overtaxed, the soil, and the
+air and water therein, are polluted by the noxious poisons produced by
+the processes of decomposition.</p>
+
+<p><em>Introduction of Various Foreign Materials and Gases.</em>&mdash;In cities and
+towns various pipes are laid in the ground for conducting certain
+substances, as illuminating gas, fuel, coal gas, etc.; the pipes at
+times are defective, allowing leakage therefrom, and permitting the
+saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which are frequently drawn
+up by the various currents of ground air into the open air and
+adjacent dwellings.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Influence of the Soil on Health.</strong>&mdash;The intimate relations existing
+between the soil upon which we live and our health, and the marked
+influence of the soil on the life and well-being of man, have been
+recognized from time immemorial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>The influence of the soil upon health is due to: (1) the physical and
+chemical character of the soil; (2) the ground-water level and degree
+of dampness; (3) the organic impurities and contamination of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>The physical and chemical nature of the soil, irrespective of its
+water, moisture, and air, has been regarded by some authorities as
+having an effect on the health, growth, and constitution of man. The
+peculiar disease called cretinism, as well as goitre, has been
+attributed to a predominance of certain chemicals in the soil.</p>
+
+<p>The ground-water level is of great importance to the well-being of
+man. Professor Pettenkofer claimed that a persistently low water level
+(about fifteen feet from the surface) is healthy, the mortality being
+the lowest in such places; a persistently high ground-water level
+(about five feet from the surface) is unhealthy; and a fluctuating
+level, varying from high to low, is the most unhealthy, and is
+dangerous to life and health. Many authorities have sought to
+demonstrate the intimate relations between a high water level in the
+soil and various diseases.</p>
+
+<p>A damp soil, viz., a soil wherein the ground moisture is very great
+and persistent, has been found inimical to the health of the
+inhabitants, predisposing them to various diseases by the direct
+effects of the dampness itself, and by the greater proneness of damp
+ground to become contaminated with various patho<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>genic bacteria and
+organisms which may be drawn into the dwellings by the movements of
+the ground air. As a rule, there is very little to hinder the ground
+air from penetrating the dwellings of man, air being drawn in through
+cellars by changes in temperature, and by the artificial heating of
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>The organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil are especially
+abundant in large cities, and are a cause of the evil influence of
+soil upon health. The impurities are allowed to drain into the ground,
+to pollute the ground water and the source of water supply, and to
+poison the ground air, loading it with bacteria and products of
+putrefaction, thus contaminating the air and water so necessary to
+life.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Diseases Due to Soil.</strong>&mdash;A great many diseases have been thought to be
+due to the influence of the soil. An ætiological relation had been
+sought between soil and the following diseases: malaria, paroxysmal
+fevers, tuberculosis, neuralgias, cholera, yellow fever, bubonic
+plague, typhoid, dysentery, goitre and cretinism, tetanus, anthrax,
+malignant &OElig;dema, septicæmia, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sites.</strong>&mdash;From what we have already learned about the soil, it is
+evident that it is a matter of great importance as to where the site
+for a human habitation is selected, for upon the proper selection of
+the site depend the health, well-being, and longevity of the
+inhabitants. The requisite characteristics of a healthy site for
+dwellings are: a dry, porous, permeable soil; a low and nonfluctuating
+ground-water level, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> soil retaining very little dampness, free
+from organic impurities, and the ground water of which is well drained
+into distant water courses, while its ground air is uncontaminated by
+pathogenic bacteria. Exposure to sunlight, and free circulation of
+air, are also requisite.</p>
+
+<p>According to Parkes, the soils in the order of their fitness for
+building purposes are as follows: (1) primitive rock; (2) gravel, with
+pervious soil; (3) sandstone; (4) limestone; (5) sandstone, with
+impervious subsoil; (6) clays and marls; (7) marshy land, and (8) made
+soils.</p>
+
+<p>It is very seldom, however, that a soil can be secured having all the
+requisites of a healthy site. In smaller places, as well as in cities,
+commercial and other reasons frequently compel the acquisition of and
+building upon a site not fit for the purpose; it then becomes a
+sanitary problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil suitable
+for habitation.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Prevention of the Bad Effects of the Soil on Health.</strong>&mdash;The methods
+taught by sanitary science to improve a defective soil and to prepare
+a healthy site are the following:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>(1) Street paving and tree planting.</li>
+<li>(2) Proper construction of houses.</li>
+<li>(3) Subsoil drainage.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><em>Street Paving</em> serves a double sanitary purpose. It prevents street
+refuse and sewage from penetrating the ground and contaminating the
+surface soil, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> acts as a barrier to the free ascension of
+deleterious ground air.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p><em>Tree Planting</em> serves as a factor in absorbing the ground moisture
+and in oxidizing organic impurities.</p>
+
+<p><em>The Proper Construction of the House</em> has for its purpose the
+prevention of the entrance of ground moisture and air inside the house
+by building the foundations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely
+cut off communication between the ground and the dwelling. This is
+accomplished by putting under the foundation a solid bed of concrete,
+and under the foundation walls damp-proof courses.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the methods recommended by the New York City
+Tenement House Department for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> water-proofing and damp-proofing of
+foundation walls and cellars:</p>
+
+<p><em>Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Foundation Walls.</em>&mdash;"There shall
+be built in with the foundation walls, at a level of six (6) inches
+below the finished floor level, a course of damp-proofing consisting
+of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (not less than fifteen
+(15) pounds weight per one hundred (100) square feet), and one (1) ply
+of burlap, laid in alternate layers, having the burlap placed between
+the felt, and all laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, and projecting six (6) inches inside and six (6) inches
+outside of the walls.</p>
+
+<p>"There shall be constructed on the outside surface of the walls a
+water-proofing lapping on to the damp-proof course in the foundation
+walls and extending up to the soil level. This water-proofing shall
+consist of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (of weight
+specified above), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. This
+water-proofing to be well stuck to the damp course in the foundation
+walls. The layers of felt must break joints."</p>
+
+<p><em>Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Cellar Floors.</em>&mdash;"There shall be
+laid, above a suitable bed of rough concrete, a course of
+water-proofing consisting of not less than three (3) ply of tarred
+felt (not less than fifteen (15) pounds weight per one hundred (100)
+square feet), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 143]<br />[Pg 144]</a></span> pitch, or liquid asphalt,
+finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. The felt is
+to be laid so that each layer laps two-thirds of its width over the
+layer immediately below, the contact surface being thoroughly coated
+with the hot pitch over its entire area before placing the upper
+layer. The water-proofing course must be properly lapped on and
+secured to the damp course in the foundation walls."</p>
+
+<p>Other methods of damp-proofing foundations and cellars consist in the
+use of slate or sheet lead instead of tar and tarred paper. An
+additional means of preventing water and dampness from coming into
+houses has been proposed in the so-called "dry areas," which are open
+spaces four to eight feet wide between the house proper and the
+surrounding ground, the open spaces running as deep as the foundation,
+if possible. The dry areas are certainly a good preventive against
+dampness coming from the sides of the house.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="362" height="500" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.</span>
+
+<p class="title">CONCRETE FOUNDATION AND DAMP-PROOF COURSE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Subsoil Drainage.</em>&mdash;By subsoil drainage is meant the reducing of the
+level of the ground water by draining all subsoil water into certain
+water courses, either artificial or natural. Subsoil drainage is not a
+modern discovery, as it was used in many ancient lands, and was
+extensively employed in ancient Rome, the valleys and suburbs of which
+would have been uninhabitable but for the draining of the marshes by
+the so-called "<em>cloacæ</em>" or drains, which lowered the ground-water
+level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to build upon.
+The drains for the conduction of sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>soil water are placed at a
+certain depth, with a fall toward the exit. The materials for the
+drain are either stone and gravel trenches, or, better, porous
+earthenware pipes or ordinary drain tile. The drains must not be
+impermeable or closed, and sewers are not to be used for drainage
+purposes. Sometimes open, V-shaped pipes are laid under the regular
+sewers, if these are at the proper depth.</p>
+
+<p>By subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level of ground water
+wherever it is near or at the surface, as in swamps, marsh, and other
+lands, and prepare lands previously uninhabitable for healthy sites.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Humus is vegetable mold; swamp muck; peat;
+etc.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A leak in a gas main, allowing the gas to penetrate the
+soil, will destroy trees, shrubbery, or any other vegetation with
+which it comes in contact.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Town and village paving plans will benefit by knowledge
+of the recent satisfactory experience of New York City authorities in
+paving with wood blocks soaked in a preparation of creosote and resin.
+As compared with the other two general classes of paving, granite
+blocks, and asphalt, these wood blocks are now considered superior.</p>
+
+<p>The granite blocks are now nearly discarded in New York because of
+their permeability, expense, and noise, being now used for heavy
+traffic only.</p>
+
+<p>Asphalt is noiseless and impermeable (thereby serving the "double
+sanitary purpose" mentioned by Dr. Price).</p>
+
+<p>But the wood possesses these qualities, and has in addition the
+advantage of inexpensiveness, since it is more durable, not cracking
+at winter cold and melting under summer heat like the asphalt; and
+there is but slight cost for repairs, which are easily made by taking
+out the separate blocks.</p>
+
+<p>These "creo-resinate" wood blocks, recently used on lower Broadway,
+Park Place, and the congested side streets, are giving admirable
+results.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Ventilation</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Definition.</strong>&mdash;The air within an uninhabited room does not differ from
+that without. If the room is occupied by one or more individuals,
+however, then the air in the room soon deteriorates, until the
+impurities therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health.
+This is due to the fact that with each breath a certain quantity of
+CO<sub>2</sub>, organic impurities, and aqueous vapor is exhaled; and these
+products of respiration soon surcharge the air until it is rendered
+impure and unfit for breathing. In order to render the air pure in
+such a room, and make life possible, it is necessary to change the air
+by withdrawing the impure, and substituting pure air from the outside.
+This is <em>ventilation</em>.</p>
+
+<p><em>Ventilation</em>, therefore, is the maintenance of the air in a confined
+space in a condition conducive to health; in other words, "ventilation
+is the replacing of the impure air in a confined space by pure air
+from the outside."</p>
+
+<p><strong>Quantity of Air Required.</strong>&mdash;What do we regard as impure air? What is
+the index of impurity? How much air is required to render pure an air
+in a given space, in a given time, for a given number of people?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> How
+often can the change be safely made, and how? These are the problems
+of ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>An increase in the quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> [carbon dioxide gas], and a
+proportionate increase of organic impurities, are the results of
+respiratory vitiation of the air; and it has been agreed to regard the
+relative quantity of CO<sub>2</sub> as the standard of impurity, its increase
+serving as an index of the condition of the air. The normal quantity
+of CO<sub>2</sub> in the air is 0.04 per cent, or 4 volumes in 10,000; and it
+has been determined that whenever the CO<sub>2</sub> reaches 0.06 per cent, or 6
+parts per 10,000, the maximum of air vitiation is reached&mdash;a point
+beyond which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to health.</p>
+
+<p>We therefore know that an increase of 2 volumes of CO<sub>2</sub> in 10,000 of
+air constitutes the maximum of admissible impurity; the difference
+between 0.04 per cent and 0.06 per cent. Now, a healthy average adult
+at rest exhales in one hour 0.6 cubic foot of CO<sub>2</sub>. Having determined
+these two factors&mdash;the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> exhaled in one hour and the
+maximum of admissible impurity&mdash;we can find by dividing 0.6 by 0.0002
+(or 0.02 per cent) the number of cubic feet of air needed for one
+hour,==3,000.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, a room with a space of 3,000 cubic feet, occupied by one
+average adult at rest, will not reach its maximum of impurity (that
+is, the air in such a room will not be in need of a change) before one
+hour has elapsed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>The relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ for adults at
+work and at rest, for children, women, etc.; it will also differ
+according to the illuminant employed, whether oil, candle, gas,
+etc.&mdash;an ordinary 3-foot gas-burner requiring 1,800 cubic feet of air
+in one hour.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary, however, to have 3,000 cubic feet of space for
+each individual in a room, for the air in the latter can safely be
+changed at least three times within one hour, thus reducing the air
+space needed to about 1,000 cubic feet. This change of air or
+ventilation of a room can be accomplished by mechanical means oftener
+than three times in an hour, but a natural change of more than three
+times in an hour will ordinarily create too strong a current of air,
+and may cause draughts and chills dangerous to health.</p>
+
+<p>In determining the cubic space needed, the height of the room as well
+as the floor space must be taken into consideration. As a rule the
+height of a room ought to be in proportion to the floor space, and in
+ordinary rooms should not exceed fourteen feet, as a height beyond
+that is of very little advantage.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p><strong>Forces of Ventilation.</strong>&mdash;We now come to the question of the various
+modes by which change in the air of a room is possible. Ventilation is
+natural or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> artificial according to whether artificial or mechanical
+devices are or are not used. Natural ventilation is only possible
+because our buildings and houses, their material and construction, are
+such that numerous apertures and crevices are left for air to come in;
+for it is evident that if a room were hermetically air-tight, no
+natural ventilation would be possible.</p>
+
+<p>The properties of air which render both natural and artificial
+ventilation possible are diffusion, motion, and gravity. These three
+forces are the natural agents of ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>There is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in the air; this
+diffusion takes place even through stone and through brick walls. The
+more porous the material of which the building is constructed, the
+more readily does diffusion take place. Dampness, plastering,
+painting, and papering of walls diminish diffusion, however.</p>
+
+<p>The second force in ventilation is the motion of air or winds. This is
+the most powerful agent of ventilation, for even a slight,
+imperceptible wind, traveling about two miles an hour, is capable,
+when the windows and doors of a room are open, of changing the air of
+a room 528 times in one hour. Air passes also through brick and stone
+walls. The objections to winds as a sole mode of ventilation are their
+inconstancy and irregularity. When the wind is very slight its
+ventilating influence is very small; on the other hand, when the wind
+is strong it cannot be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> utilized as a means of ventilation on account
+of the air currents being too strong and capable of exerting
+deleterious effects on health.</p>
+
+<p>The third, the most constant and reliable, and, in fact, principal
+agent of ventilation is the specific gravity of the air, and the
+variations in the gravity and consequent pressure which are results of
+the variations in temperature, humidity, etc. Whenever air is warmer
+in one place than in another, the warmer air being lighter and the
+colder air outside being heavier, the latter exerts pressure upon the
+air in the room, causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be
+displaced by the heavier air from the outside, thus changing the air
+in the room. This mode of ventilation is always constant and at work,
+as the very presence of living beings in the room warms the air
+therein, thus causing a difference from the outside air and effecting
+change of air from the outside to the inside of the room.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Methods of Ventilation.</strong>&mdash;The application of these principles of
+ventilation is said to be accomplished in a natural or an artificial
+way, according as mechanical means to utilize the forces and
+properties of air are used or not. But in reality natural ventilation
+can hardly be said to exist, since dwellings are so constructed as to
+guard against exposure and changes of temperature, and are usually
+equipped with numerous appliances for promoting change of air.
+Windows, doors, fireplaces, chimneys, shafts, courts, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> are all
+artificial methods of securing ventilation, although we usually regard
+them as means of natural ventilation.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Natural Ventilation.</strong>&mdash;The means employed for applying the properties
+of diffusion are the materials of construction. A porous material
+being favorable for diffusion, some such material is placed in several
+places within the wall, thus favoring change of air. Imperfect
+carpenter work is also a help, as the cracks and openings left are
+favorable for the escape and entrance of air.</p>
+
+<p>Wind, or the motion of air, is utilized either directly, through
+windows, doors, and other openings; or indirectly, by producing a
+partial vacuum in passing over chimneys and shafts, causing suction of
+the air in them, and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the
+rooms.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of windows and doors is possible only in warm weather; and
+as ventilation becomes a problem only in temperate and cold weather,
+the opening of windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without
+causing colds, etc. Various methods have therefore been proposed for
+using windows for the purposes of ventilation without producing
+forcible currents of air.</p>
+
+<p>The part of the window best fitted for the introduction of air is the
+space between the two sashes, where they meet. The ingress of air is
+made possible whenever the lower sash is raised or the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> one is
+lowered. In order to prevent cold air from without entering through
+the openings thus made, it has been proposed by Hinkes Bird to fit a
+block of wood in the lower opening; or else, as in Dr. Keen's
+arrangement, a piece of paper or cloth is used to cover the space left
+by the lifting or lowering of either or both sashes. Louvers or
+inclined panes or parts of these may also be used. Parts or entire
+window panes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> are sometimes wholly removed and replaced by tubes or
+perforated pieces of zinc, so that air may come in through the
+apertures. Again, apertures for inlets and outlets may be made
+directly in the walls of the rooms. These openings are filled in with
+porous bricks or with specially made bricks (like Ellison's conical
+bricks), or boxes provided with several openings. A very useful
+apparatus of this kind is the so-called Sheringham valve, which
+consists of an iron box fitted into the wall, the front of the box
+facing the room having an iron valve hinged along its lower edge, and
+so constructed that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a
+current of air pass upward. Another very good apparatus of this kind
+is the Tobin ventilator, consisting of horizontal tubes let through
+the walls, the outer ends open to the air, but the inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> ends
+projecting into the room, where they are joined by vertical tubes
+carried up five feet or more from the floor, thus allowing the outside
+air to enter upwardly into the room. This plan is also adapted for
+filtering and cleaning the incoming air by placing cloth or other
+material across the lumen of the hori<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>zontal tubes to intercept dust,
+etc. McKinnell's ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation,
+especially of underground rooms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<img src="images/fig5.png" width="324" height="500" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span>
+
+<p class="title">HINKES BIRD WINDOW. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig6.png" width="500" height="498" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.</span>
+
+<p class="title">ELLISON'S AIR INLETS. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig7.png" width="500" height="305" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.</span>
+
+<p class="title">SHERINGHAM VALVE. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig8.png" width="500" height="489" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.</span>
+
+<p class="title">THE TOBIN VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig9.png" width="500" height="341" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.</span>
+
+<p class="title">McKINNELL'S VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Taylor.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts and chimneys,
+various cowls have been devised. These cowls are arranged so as to
+help aspirate the air from the tubes and chimneys, and prevent a down
+draught.</p>
+
+<p>The same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize winds may also
+be used for the ventilation effected by the motion of air due to
+difference in the specific gravity of outside and inside air. Any
+artificial warming of the air in the room, whether by illuminants or
+by the various methods of heating rooms, will aid in ventilating it,
+the chimneys acting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> as powerful means of removal for the warmer air.
+Various methods have also been proposed for utilizing the chimney,
+even when no stoves, etc., are connected with it, by placing a
+gaslight within the chimney to cause an up draught and consequent
+aspiration of the air of the room through it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig10.png" width="500" height="464" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span>
+
+<p class="title">VENTILATING THROUGH CHIMNEY. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The question of the number, relative size, and position of the inlets
+and outlets is a very important one, but we can here give only an
+epitome of the requirements. The inlet and outlet openings should be
+about twenty-four inches square per head. Inlet openings should be
+short, easily cleaned, sufficient in number to insure a proper
+distribution of air; should be protected from heat, provided with
+valves so as to regulate the inflow of air, and, if possible, should
+be placed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> so as to allow the air passing through them to be warmed
+before entering the room.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Outlet openings should be placed near
+the ceiling, should be straight and smooth, and, if possible, should
+be heated so as to make the air therein warmer, thus preventing a down
+draught, as is frequently the case when the outlets become inlets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<img src="images/fig11.png" width="369" height="500" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.</span>
+
+<p class="title">COWL VENTILATOR. (<span class="image_source">Knight.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Artificial Ventilation.</strong>&mdash;Artificial ventilation is accomplished either
+by aspirating the air from the building, known as the vacuum or
+extraction method, or by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> forcing into the building air from without;
+this is known as the plenum or propulsion method.</p>
+
+<p>The extraction of the air in a building is done by means of heat, by
+warming the air in chimneys or special tubes, or by mechanical means
+with screws or fans run by steam or electricity; these screws or fans
+revolve and aspirate the air of the rooms, and thus cause pure air to
+enter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="429" height="500" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span>
+
+<p class="title">AN AIR PROPELLER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The propelling method of ventilation is carried out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> by mechanical
+means only, air being forced in from the outside by fans, screws,
+bellows, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large volume of air
+is needed, and for large spaces, such as theaters, churches, lecture
+rooms, etc. For the ordinary building the expense for mechanical
+contrivances is too high.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, ventilation without complex and cumbersome mechanisms is
+to be preferred.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and
+pneumonia, fresh air is curative. Any person, sick or well, cannot
+have too much fresh air. The windows of sleeping rooms should always
+be kept open at night.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> These outlets may be placed close to a chimney or
+heating pipes. Warm air rises and thus will be forced out, allowing
+cool fresh air to enter at the inlets.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The ordinary dwelling house needs no artificial methods
+of ventilation. The opening and closing of windows will supply all
+necessary regulation in this regard. The temperature of living rooms
+should be kept, in general, at 70° F. Almost all rooms for the sick
+are unfortunately overheated. Cool, fresh air is one of the most
+potent means of curing disease. Overheated rooms are a menace to
+health.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III_III" id="CHAPTER_III_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Warming</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Ventilation and Heating.</strong>&mdash;The subject of the heating of our rooms and
+houses is very closely allied to that of ventilation, not only because
+both are a special necessity at the same time of the year, but also
+because we cannot heat a room without at the same time having to
+ventilate it by providing an egress for the products of combustion and
+introducing fresh air to replace the vitiated.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Need of Heating.</strong>&mdash;In a large part of the country, and during the
+greater period of the year, some mode of artificial heating of rooms
+is absolutely necessary for our comfort and health. The temperature of
+the body is 98° to 99° F., and there is a constant radiation of heat
+due to the cooling of the body surface. If the external temperature is
+very much below that of the body, and if the low temperature is
+prolonged, the radiation of heat from the body is too rapid, and
+colds, pneumonia, etc., result. The temperature essential for the
+individual varies according to age, constitution, health, environment,
+occupation, etc. A child, a sick person, or one at rest requires a
+relatively higher tem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>perature than a healthy adult at work. The mean
+temperature of a room most conducive to the health of the average
+person is from 65° to 75° F.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Three Methods of Heating.</strong>&mdash;The heating of a room can be
+accomplished either <em>directly</em> by the rays of the sun or processes of
+combustion. We thus receive <em>radiant</em> heat, exemplified by that of
+open fires and grates.</p>
+
+<p>Or, the heating of places can be accomplished by the heat of
+combustion being conducted through certain materials, like brick
+walls, tile, stone, and also iron; this is <em>conductive</em> heat, as
+afforded by stoves, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Or, the heat is <em>conveyed</em> by means of air, water, or steam from one
+place to another, as in the hot-water, hot-air, and steam systems of
+heating; this we call <em>convected</em> heat.</p>
+
+<p>There is no strict line of demarcation differentiating the three
+methods of heating, as it is possible that a radiant heat may at the
+same time be conductive as well as convective&mdash;as is the case in the
+Galton fireplace, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Materials of Combustion.</strong>&mdash;The materials of combustion are air, wood,
+coal, oil, and gas. Air is indispensable, for, without oxygen, there
+can be no combustion. Wood is used in many places, but is too bulky
+and expensive. Oil is rarely used as a material of combustion, its
+principal use being for illumination. Coal is the best and cheapest
+material for combustion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> The chief objection against its use is the
+production of smoke, soot, and of various gases, as CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, etc. Gas
+is a very good, in fact, the best material for heating, especially if,
+when used, it is connected with chimneys; otherwise, it is
+objectionable, as it burns up too much air, vitiates the atmosphere,
+and the products of combustion are deleterious; it is also quite
+expensive. The ideal means of heating is electricity.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chimneys.</strong>&mdash;All materials used for combustion yield products more or
+less injurious to health. Every system of artificially heating houses
+must therefore have not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in
+the burning up of the materials, but also an outlet for the vitiated,
+warmed air, partly charged with the products of combustion. These
+outlets are provided by chimneys. Chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts
+built of brick and lined with earthen pipes or other material inside.
+These tubes begin at the lowest fireplace or connection, and are
+carried up several feet above the roof. The thickness of a chimney is
+from four to nine inches; the shape square, rectangular, or,
+preferably, circular. The diameter of the chimney depends upon the
+size of the house, the number of fire connections, etc. It should be
+neither too small nor too large. Square chimneys should be twelve to
+sixteen inches square; circular ones from six to eight inches in
+diameter for each fire connection. The chimney consists of a <em>shaft</em>,
+or vertical tube, and <em>cowls</em> placed over chimneys on the roof to
+prevent down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> draughts and the falling in of foreign bodies. That part
+of the chimney opening into the fireplace is called the <em>throat</em>.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Smoky Chimneys.</strong>&mdash;A very frequent cause of complaint in a great many
+houses is the so-called "smoky chimney"; this is the case when smoke
+and coal gas escape from the chimney and enter the living rooms. The
+principal causes of this nuisance are:</p>
+
+<p>(1) A too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts. A shaft which is
+too narrow does not let all the smoke escape; one which is too wide
+lets the smoke go up only in a part of its diameter, and when the
+smoke meets a countercurrent of cold air it is liable to be forced
+back into the rooms.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The throat of the chimney may be too wide, and will hold cold air,
+preventing the warming of the air in the chimneys and the consequent
+up draught.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The cowls may be too low or too tight, preventing the escape of
+the smoke.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The brickwork of the chimney may be loose, badly constructed, or
+broken into by nails, etc., thus allowing smoke to escape therefrom.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The supply of air may be deficient, as when all doors and windows
+are tightly closed.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The chimney may be obstructed by soot or some foreign material.</p>
+
+<p>(7) The wind above the house may be so strong that its pressure will
+cause the smoke from the chimney to be forced back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>(8) If two chimneys rise together from the same house, and one is
+shorter than the other, the draught of the longer chimney may cause an
+inversion of the current of air in the lower chimney.</p>
+
+<p>(9) Wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its incomplete combustion.</p>
+
+<p>(10) A chimney without a fire may suck down the smoke from a
+neighboring chimney; or, if two fireplaces in different rooms are
+connected with the same chimney, the smoke from one room may be drawn
+into the other.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Methods of Heating.</strong> <strong>Open Fireplaces and Grates.</strong>&mdash;Open fireplaces and
+fires in grates connected with chimneys, and using coal, wood, or gas,
+are very comfortable; nevertheless there are weighty objections to
+them. Firstly, but a very small part of the heat of the material
+burning is utilized, only about twelve per cent being radiated into
+the room, the rest going up the chimney. Secondly, the heat of grates
+and fireplaces is only local, being near the fires and warming only
+that part of the person exposed to it, leaving the other parts of the
+room and person cold. Thirdly, the burning of open fires necessitates
+a great supply of air, and causes powerful draughts.</p>
+
+<p>The open fireplace can, however, be greatly improved by surrounding
+its back and sides by an air space, in which air can be warmed and
+conveyed into the upper part of the room; and if a special air inlet
+is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> warmed, we
+get a very valuable means of heating. These principles are embodied in
+the Franklin and Galton grates. A great many other grates have been
+suggested, and put on the market, but the principal objection to them
+is their complexity and expense, making their use a luxury not
+attainable by the masses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 278px;">
+<img src="images/fig13.png" width="278" height="500" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.</span>
+
+<p class="title">A GALTON GRATE. (<span class="image_source">Tracy.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Stoves.</strong>&mdash;Stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel is burned, and
+the heat produced is radiated toward the persons, etc., near them, and
+also conducted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> through the iron or other materials of which the
+stoves are made, to surrounding objects. In stoves seventy-five per
+cent of the fuel burned is utilized. They are made of brick, tile, and
+cast or wrought iron.</p>
+
+<p>Brick stoves, and stoves made of tile, are extensively used in some
+European countries, as Russia, Germany, Sweden, etc.; they are made of
+slow-conducting material, and give a very equable, efficient, and
+cheap heat, although their ventilating power is very small.</p>
+
+<p>Iron is used very extensively because it is a very good conductor of
+heat, and can be made into very convenient forms. Iron stoves,
+however, often become superheated, dry up, and sometimes burn the air
+around them, and produce certain deleterious gases during combustion.
+When the fire is confined in a clay fire box, and the stove is not
+overheated, a good supply of fresh air being provided and a vessel of
+water placed on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air, iron
+stoves are quite efficient.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Hot-air Warming.</strong>&mdash;In small houses the warming of the various rooms and
+halls can be accomplished by placing the stove or furnace in the
+cellar, heating a large quantity of air and conveying it through
+proper tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed. The points to be
+observed in a proper and efficient hot-air heating system are the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>(1) The furnace must be of a proper size in proportion to the area of
+space to be warmed. (2) The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> joints and parts of the furnace must be
+gas-tight. (3) The furnace should be placed on the cold side of the
+house, and provision made to prevent cellar air from being drawn up
+into the cold-air box of the furnace. (4) The air for the supply of
+the furnace must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> gotten from outside, and the source must be pure,
+above the ground level, and free from contamination of any kind.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+(5) The cold-air box and ducts must be clean, protected against the
+entrance of vermin, etc., and easily cleaned. (6) The air should not
+be overheated. (7) The hot-air flues or tubes must be short, direct,
+circular, and covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting
+material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/fig14.png" width="360" height="500" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.</span>
+
+<p class="title">A HOT-AIR FURNACE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<p>The cold air from outside comes to the COLD-AIR INTAKE through the
+cold-air duct, enters the furnace from beneath, and is heated by
+passing around the FIRE POT and the annular combustion chamber above.
+It then goes through pipes to the various registers throughout the
+house. The coal is burnt in the fire pot, the gases are consumed in
+the combustion chamber above, while the heat eventually passes into
+the SMOKE FLUE. The WATER PAN supplies moisture to the air.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Hot-water System.</strong>&mdash;The principles of hot-water heating are very
+simple. Given a circuit of pipes filled with water, on heating the
+lower part of the circuit the water, becoming warmer, will rise,
+circulate, and heat the pipes in which it is contained, thus warming
+the air in contact with the pipes. The lower part of the circuit of
+pipe begins in the furnace or heater, and the other parts of the
+circuit are conducted through the various rooms and halls throughout
+the house to the uppermost story. The pipes need not be straight all
+through; hence, to secure a larger area for heating, they are
+convoluted within the furnace, and also in the rooms, where the
+convoluted pipes are called <em>radiators</em>. The water may be warmed by
+the low- or high-pressure system; in the latter, pipes of small
+diameter may be employed; while in the former, pipes of a large
+diameter will be required. The character, etc., of the boilers,
+furnace, pipes, etc., cannot be gone into here.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span><strong>Steam-heating System.</strong>&mdash;The principle of steam heating does not differ
+from that of the hot-water system. Here the pressure is greater and
+steam is employed instead of water. The steam gives a greater degree
+of heat, but the pipes must be stronger and able to withstand the
+pressure. There are also combinations of steam and hot-water heating.
+For large houses either steam or hot-water heating is the best means
+of warming, and, if properly constructed and cared for, quite
+healthy.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Great care should be taken that the air box is not
+placed in contaminated soil or where it may become filled with
+stagnant or polluted water.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_III_XI">Chapter XI</a> for practical notes on cost of
+installation of these three conveyed systems&mdash;hot-air, hot-water, and
+steam.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Disposal of Sewage</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Waste Products.</strong>&mdash;There is a large amount of waste products in human
+and social economy. The products of combustion, such as ashes,
+cinders, etc.; the products of street sweepings and waste from houses,
+as dust, rubbish, paper, etc.; the waste from various trades; the
+waste from kitchens, e. g., scraps of food, etc.; the waste water from
+the cleansing processes of individuals, domestic animals, clothing,
+etc.; and, finally, the excreta&mdash;urine and fæces&mdash;of man and animals;
+all these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed of, more
+especially in cities, and wherever a large number of people
+congregate. All waste products are classified into three distinct
+groups: (1) refuse, (2) garbage, and (3) sewage.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of <em>refuse</em> and <em>garbage</em> in cities is quite considerable;
+in Manhattan, alone, the dry refuse amounts to 1,000,000 tons a year,
+and that of garbage to 175,000 tons per year. A large percentage of
+the dry refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial standpoint,
+and could be utilized, with proper facilities for collection and
+separation. The disposal of refuse and garbage has not as yet been
+satisfac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>torily dealt with. The modes of waste disposal in the United
+States are: (1) dumping into the sea; (2) filling in made land, or
+plowing into lands; (3) cremation and (4) reduction by various
+processes, and the products utilized.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sewage.</strong>&mdash;By sewage we mean the waste and effete human matter and
+excreta&mdash;the urine and fæces of human beings and the urine of domestic
+animals (the fæces of horses, etc., has great commercial value, and is
+usually collected separately and disposed of for fertilizing
+purposes).</p>
+
+<p>The amount of excreta per person has been estimated (Frankland) as 3
+ounces of solid and 40 ounces of fluid per day, or about 30 tons of
+solid and 100,000 gallons of fluid for each 1,000 persons per year.</p>
+
+<p>In sparsely populated districts the removal and ultimate disposal of
+sewage presents no difficulties; it is returned to the soil, which, as
+we know, is capable of purifying, disintegrating, and assimilating
+quite a large amount of organic matter. But when the number of
+inhabitants to the square mile increases, and the population becomes
+as dense as it is in some towns and cities, the disposal of the human
+waste products becomes a question of vast importance, and the proper,
+as well as the immediate and final, disposal of sewage becomes a
+serious sanitary problem.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that sewage must be removed in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> thorough manner,
+otherwise it would endanger the lives and health of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The dangers of sewage to health are:</p>
+
+<p>(1) From its offensive odors, which, while not always directly
+dangerous to health, often produce headaches, nausea, etc.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The organic matter contained in sewage decomposes and eliminates
+gases and other products of decomposition.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic bacteria (typhoid,
+dysentery, cholera, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>(4) Contamination of the soil, ground water, and air by percolation of
+sewage.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of sewage disposal is twofold: (1) immediate, viz., the
+need of not allowing sewage to remain too long on the premises, and
+its immediate removal beyond the limits of the city; and (2) the final
+disposition of the sewage, after its removal from the cities, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Modes of Ultimate Disposal of Sewage.</strong>&mdash;The chief constituents of
+sewage are organic matter, mineral salts, nitrogenous substances,
+potash, and phosphoric acid. Fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has an
+acid reaction, but within twelve to twenty hours it becomes alkaline,
+because of the free ammonia formed in it. Sewage rapidly decomposes,
+evolving organic and fetid matters, ammonium sulphide, sulphureted and
+carbureted hydrogen, etc., besides teeming with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> animal and bacterial
+life. A great many of the substances contained in sewage are valuable
+as fertilizers of soil.</p>
+
+<p>The systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>(1) Discharge into seas, lakes, and rivers.</li>
+<li>(2) Cremation.</li>
+<li>(3) Physical and chemical precipitation.</li>
+<li>(4) Intermittent filtration.</li>
+<li>(5) Land irrigation.</li>
+<li>(6) "Bacterial" methods.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><em>Discharge into Waters.</em>&mdash;The easiest way to dispose of sewage is to
+let it flow into the sea or other running water course. The objections
+to sewage discharging into the rivers and lakes near cities, and
+especially such lakes and rivers as supply water to the
+municipalities, are obvious. But as water can purify a great amount of
+sewage, this method is still in vogue in certain places, although it
+is to be hoped that it will in the near future be superseded by more
+proper methods. The objection against discharging into seas is the
+operation of the tides, which cause a backflow and overflow of sewage
+from the pipes. This backflow is remedied by the following methods:
+(1) providing tidal flap valves, permitting the outflow of sewage, but
+preventing the inflow of sea water; (2) discharging the sewage
+intermittently, only during low tide; and (3) providing a constant
+outflow by means of steam-power pressure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span><em>Cremation.</em>&mdash;Another method of getting rid of the sewage without
+attempting to utilize it is by cremation. The liquid portion of the
+sewage is allowed to drain and discharge into water courses, and the
+more or less solid residues are collected and cremated in suitable
+crematories.</p>
+
+<p><em>Precipitation.</em>&mdash;This method consists in separating the solid matters
+from the sewage by precipitation by physical or chemical processes,
+the liquid being allowed to drain into rivers and other waters, and
+the precipitated solids utilized for certain purposes. The
+precipitation is done either by straining the sewage, collecting it
+into tanks, and letting it subside, when the liquid is drawn off and
+the solids remain at the bottom of the tanks, a rather unsatisfactory
+method; or, by chemical processes, precipitating the sewage by
+chemical means, and utilizing the products of such precipitation. The
+chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished are many and
+various; among them are lime, alum, iron perchloride, phosphates, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Intermittent Filtration.</em>&mdash;Sewage may be purified mechanically and
+chemically by method of intermittent filtration by passing it through
+filter beds of gravel, sand, coke, cinders, or any such materials.
+Intermittent filtration has passed beyond the experimental stage and
+has been adopted already by a number of cities where such a method of
+sewage disposal seems to answer all purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span><em>Land Irrigation.</em>&mdash;In this method the organic and other useful
+portions of sewage are utilized for irrigating land, to improve garden
+and other vegetable growths by feeding the plants with the organic
+products of animal excretion. Flat land, with a gentle slope, is best
+suited for irrigation. The quantity of sewage disposed of will depend
+on the character of the soil, its porosity, the time of the year,
+temperature, intermittency of irrigation, etc. As a rule, one acre of
+land is sufficient to dispose of the sewage of 100 to 150 people.</p>
+
+<p><em>Bacterial Methods.</em>&mdash;The other biological methods, or the so-called
+"bacterial" sewage treatment, are but modifications of the filtration
+and irrigation methods of sewage disposal. Properly speaking the
+bacterial purification of sewage is the scientific application of the
+knowledge gained by the study of bacterial life and its action upon
+sewage.</p>
+
+<p>In intermittent filtration the sewage is passed through filter beds of
+sands, etc., upon which filter beds the whole burden of the
+purification of the sewage rests. In the bacterial methods the work of
+purification is divided between the septic tanks where the sewage is
+first let into and where it undergoes the action of the anaërobic
+bacteria, and from these septic tanks the sewage is run to the contact
+beds of coke and cinders to further undergo the action of the aërobic
+bacteria, after the action of which the nitrified sewage is in a
+proper form to be utilized for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> fertilization of land, etc. The septic
+tanks are but a modification of the common cesspool, and are
+constructed of masonry, brick, and concrete.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of special applications of the bacterial methods of
+sewage treatment, into which we cannot go here.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sewage Disposal in the United States.</strong>&mdash;According to its location,
+position, etc., each city in the United States has its own method of
+final disposition of sewage. Either one or the other, or a combination
+of two of the above methods, is used.</p>
+
+<p>The following cities discharge their sewage into the sea: Portland,
+Salem, Lynn, Gloucester, Boston, Providence, New York, Baltimore,
+Charleston, and Savannah.</p>
+
+<p>The following cities discharge their sewage into rivers and lakes:
+Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Albany, Minneapolis, St. Paul,
+Washington, Buffalo, Detroit, Richmond, Chicago, Milwaukee, and
+Cleveland.</p>
+
+<p>"Worcester uses chemical precipitation. In Atlanta a part of the soil
+is cremated, but the rest is deposited in pits 8 × 10 feet, and 5 feet
+deep. It is then thoroughly mixed with dry ashes from the crematory,
+and afterwards covered with either grain or grass. In Salt Lake City
+and in Woonsocket it is disposed of in the same way. In Indianapolis
+it is composted with marl and sawdust, and after some months used as a
+fertilizer. A portion of the sew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>age is cremated in Atlanta, Camden,
+Dayton, Evansville, Findlay, Ohio; Jacksonville, McKeesport, Pa.;
+Muncie, and New Brighton. In Atlanta, in 1898, there were cremated
+2,362 loads of sewage. In Dayton, during 30 days, there were cremated
+1,900 barrels of 300 pounds each." (<em>Chapin, Mun. San. in U. S.</em>)</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Immediate Disposal of Sewage.</strong>&mdash;The final disposition of sewage is
+only one part of the problem of sewage disposal; the other part is how
+to remove it from the house into the street, and from the street into
+the places from which it is finally disposed.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by two methods&mdash;the
+so-called <em>dry</em>, and the <em>water-carriage</em> methods. By the <em>dry method</em>
+we mean the removal of sewage without the aid of water, simply
+collecting the dry and liquid portions of excreta, storing it for some
+time, and then removing it for final disposal. By the <em>water-carriage
+method</em> is understood the system by which sewage, solid and liquid, is
+flushed out by means of water, through pipes or conduits called
+sewers, from the houses through the streets to the final destination.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Dry Methods.</strong>&mdash;The dry or conservacy method of sewage disposal is a
+primitive method used by all ancient peoples, in China at the present
+time, and in all villages and sparsely populated districts; it has for
+its basic principle the return to mother earth of all excreta, to be
+used and worked over in its natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> laboratory. The excreta are
+simply left in the ground to undergo in the soil the various organic
+changes, the difference in methods being only as regards the vessels
+of collection and storage.</p>
+
+<p>The methods are:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>(1) Cesspool and privy vault.</li>
+<li>(2) Pail system.</li>
+<li>(3) Pneumatic system.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><em>The Privy Vault</em> is the general mode of sewage disposal in villages,
+some towns, and even in some large cities, wherever sewers are not
+provided. In its primitive and unfortunately common form, the privy
+vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some distance
+from the house; the hole is but a few feet deep, with a plank or rough
+seat over it, and an improvised shed over all. The privy is filled
+with the excreta; the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which
+becomes saturated, and contaminates the nearest wells and water
+courses. The solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is
+filled or the stench becomes unbearable, when the hole is either
+covered up and forgotten, or the excreta are removed and the hole used
+over again. This is the common privy as we so often find it near the
+cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and even in towns. A
+better and improved form of privy is that built in the ground, and
+made water-tight by being constructed of bricks set in cement, the
+privy being placed at a distance from the house, the shed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> over it
+ventilated, and the contents of the privy removed regularly and at
+stated intervals, before they become a nuisance. At its best, however,
+the privy vault is an abomination, as it can scarcely be so well
+constructed as not to contaminate the surrounding soil, or so often
+cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of poisonous gases.</p>
+
+<p><em>The Pail System</em> is an economic, simple, and, on the whole, very
+efficient method of removing fresh excreta. The excreta are passed
+directly into stone or metal water- and gas-tight pails, which, after
+filling, are hermetically covered and removed to the places for final
+disposal. This system is in use in Rochedale, Manchester, Glasgow, and
+other places in England.</p>
+
+<p>The pails may also be filled with dried earth, ashes, etc., which are
+mixed with the excreta and convert it into a substance fit for
+fertilization.</p>
+
+<p><em>The Pneumatic System</em> is a rather complicated mechanical method
+invented by Captain Lieurneur, and is used extensively in some places.
+In this system the excreta are passed to certain pipes and
+receptacles, and from there aspirated by means of air exhausts.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Water-carriage System.</strong>&mdash;We now come to the modern mode of using
+water to carry and flush all sewage material. This method is being
+adopted throughout the civilized world. For it is claimed a reduction
+of the mortality rate issues wherever it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> introduced. The
+water-carriage system presupposes the construction and existence of
+pipes from the house to and through the street to the place of final
+disposition. The pipes running from the house to the streets are
+called house sewers; and when in the streets, are called street
+sewers.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Separate and Combined Systems.</strong>&mdash;Whenever the water-carriage system
+is used, it is either intended to carry only sewage proper, viz.,
+solid and liquid excreta flushed by water, or fain water and other
+waste water from the household in addition. The water-carriage system
+is accordingly divided into two systems: <em>the combined</em>, by which all
+sewage and all waste and rain water are carried through the sewers,
+and the <em>separate</em> system, in which two groups of pipes are used&mdash;the
+sewers proper to carry sewage only, and the other pipes to dispose of
+rain water and other uncontaminated waste water. Each system has its
+advocates, its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages claimed
+for the separate system are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Sewers may be of small diameter, not more than six inches.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Constant, efficient flow and flushing of sewage.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The sewers never overflow, as is frequently the case in the
+combined system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>(5) The sewers being small, no decomposition takes place therein.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Sewers of small diameter need no special means of ventilation, or
+main traps on house drains, and can be ventilated through the house
+pipes.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the disadvantages of the separate system are:</p>
+
+<p>(1) The need of two systems of sewers, for sewage and for rain water,
+and the expense attached thereto.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The sewers used for sewage proper require some system for
+periodically flushing them, which, in the combined system, is done by
+the occasional rains.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten at as larger
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>The separate system has been used in Memphis and in Keene, N. H., for
+a number of years with complete satisfaction. Most cities, however,
+use the combined system.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Sewers</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Definitions.</strong>&mdash;A sewer is a conduit or pipe intended for the passage of
+sewage, waste, and rain water.</p>
+
+<p>A <em>House Sewer</em> is the branch sewer extending from a point two feet
+outside of the outer wall of the building to its connection with the
+street sewer, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Materials.</strong>&mdash;The materials from which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware "vitrified pipes."</p>
+
+<p>Iron is used only for pipes of small diameter; and as most of the
+sewers are of greater diameter than six inches, they are made of other
+material than iron.</p>
+
+<p>Cement and brick sewers are frequently used, and, when properly
+constructed, are efficient, although the inner surface of such pipes
+is rough, which causes adherence of sewage matter.</p>
+
+<p>The most common material of which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware, "vitrified pipes."</p>
+
+<p>"Vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind of clay, and are
+salt-glazed inside. Good vitrified pipe must be circular and true in
+section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight, and free from
+cracks or other defects; they must be hard, tough,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> not porous, and
+have a highly smooth surface. The thicknesses of vitrified pipes are
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Thicknesses of vitrified pipes.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td><a name="TABLE_Pipe_Thickness" id="TABLE_Pipe_Thickness"></a>4 inches diameter</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> inch thick</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The pipes are made in two- and three-foot lengths, with spigot, and
+socket ends." (Gerhardt.)</p>
+
+<p>Sewer pipes are laid in trenches at least three feet deep, to insure
+against the action of frosts.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Construction.</strong>&mdash;The level of the trenches in which sewers are laid
+should be accurate, and a hard bed must be secured, or prepared, for
+the pipes to lie on. If the ground is sandy and soft, a solid bed of
+concrete should be laid, and the places where the joints are should be
+hollowed out, and the latter embedded in cement.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Joints.</strong>&mdash;The joints of the various lengths must be gas-tight, and are
+made as follows: into the hub (the enlargement on one end of the pipe)
+the spigot end of the next length is inserted, and in the space left
+between the two a small piece, or gasket, of oakum is rammed in; the
+remaining space is filled in with a mixture of the best Portland
+cement and clean, sharp sand. The office of the oakum is to prevent
+the cement from getting on the inside of the pipe. The joint is then
+wiped around with additional cement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span><strong>Fall.</strong>&mdash;In order that there should be a steady and certain flow of the
+contents of the sewer, the size and fall of the latter must be
+suitable; that is, the pipes must be laid with a steady, gradual
+inclination or fall toward the exit. This fall must be even, without
+sudden changes, and not too great or too small.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="393" height="500" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span>
+
+<p class="title">A BRICK SEWER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following has been determined to be about the right fall for the
+sizes stated:</p>
+
+<table summary="Fall by pipe size.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>4-inch pipe</td>
+  <td>1 foot in  40  feet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" 60&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" 90&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" 120&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><strong>Flow.</strong>&mdash;The velocity of the flow in sewers depends on the volume of
+their contents, the size of the pipes, and the fall. The velocity
+should not be less than 120 feet in a minute, or the sewer will not be
+self-cleansing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Size.</strong>&mdash;In order for the sewer to be self-cleansing, its size must be
+proportional to the work to be accomplished, so that it may be fully
+and thoroughly flushed and not permit stagnation and consequent
+decomposition of its contents. If the sewer be too small, it will not
+be adequate for its purpose, and will overflow, back up, etc.; if too
+large, the velocity of the flow will be too low, and stagnation will
+result. In the separate system, where there is a separate provision
+for rain water, the size of the sewer ought not to exceed six inches
+in diameter. In the combined system, however, when arrangements must
+be made for the disposal of large volumes of storm water, the size of
+the sewer must be larger, thus making it less self-cleansing.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Connections.</strong>&mdash;The connections of the branch sewers and the house
+sewers with the main sewer must be carefully made, so that there shall
+be no impediment to the flow of the contents, either of the branches
+or of the main pipe. The connections must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> be made gas-tight; not at
+right angles or by T branches, but by bends, curves, and Y branches,
+in the direction of the current of the main pipe, and not opposite
+other branch pipes; and the junction of the branch pipes and the main
+pipe must not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer, but
+just within the water line.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Tide Valves.</strong>&mdash;Where sewers discharge their contents into the sea, the
+tide may exert pressure upon the contents of the sewer and cause
+"backing up," blocking up the sewer, bursting open trap covers, and
+overflowing into streets and houses. To prevent this, there are
+constructed at the mouth of the street sewers, at the outlets to the
+sea, proper valves or tide flaps, so constructed as to permit the
+contents of the sewers to flow out, yet prevent sea water from backing
+up by immediately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside.</p>
+
+<p><strong>House Sewers.</strong>&mdash;Where the ground is "made," or filled in, the house
+sewer must be made of cast iron, with the joints properly calked with
+lead. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock,
+the house sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical
+earthenware pipe, laid in a smooth bottom, free from projections of
+rock, and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the
+pipe. Each section must be wetted before applying the cement, and the
+space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be
+completely and uniformly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> filled with the best hydraulic cement. Care
+must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the pipe to form
+an obstruction. No tempered-up cement should be used. A straight edge
+must be used inside the pipe, and the different sections must be laid
+in perfect line on the bottom and sides.</p>
+
+<p>Connections of the house sewer (when of iron) with the house main pipe
+must be made by lead-calked joints; the connection of the iron house
+pipe with the earthenware house sewer must be made with cement, and
+should be gas-tight.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sewer Air and Gas.</strong>&mdash;Sewer gas is not a gas at all. What is commonly
+understood by the term is the air of sewers, the ordinary atmospheric
+air, but charged and contaminated with the various products of organic
+decomposition taking place in sewers. Sewer air is a mixture of gases,
+the principal gases being carbonic acid; marsh gas; compounds of
+hydrogen and carbon; carbonate and sulphides of ammonium; ammonia;
+sulphureted hydrogen; carbonic oxide, volatile fetid matter; organic
+putrefactive matter, and may also contain some bacteria, saprophytic
+or pathogenic.</p>
+
+<p>Any and all the above constituents may be contained in sewer air in
+larger or smaller doses, in minute or toxic doses.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that an habitual breathing of air in which even minute
+doses of toxic substances and gases are floating will in time impair
+the health of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> human beings, and that large doses of those substances
+may be directly toxic and dangerous to health. It is certainly an
+error to ascribe to sewer air death-dealing properties, but it would
+be a more serious mistake to undervalue the evil influence of bad
+sewer air upon health.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Ventilation.</strong>&mdash;To guard against the bad effects of sewer air, it is
+necessary to dilute, change, and ventilate the air in sewers. This is
+accomplished by the various openings left in the sewers, the so-called
+lamp and manholes which ventilate by diluting the sewer air with the
+street air. In some places, chemical methods of disinfecting the
+contents of sewers have been undertaken with a view to killing the
+disease germs and deodorizing the sewage. In the separate system of
+sewage disposal, where sewer pipes are small and usually
+self-cleansing, the late Colonel Waring proposed to ventilate the
+sewers through the house pipes, omitting the usual disconnection of
+the house sewer from the house pipes. But in the combined system such
+a procedure would be dangerous, as the sewer air would be apt to enter
+the house.</p>
+
+<p>Rain storms are the usual means by which a thorough flushing of the
+street sewers is effected. There are, however, many devices proposed
+for flushing sewers; e. g., by special flushing tanks, which either
+automatically or otherwise discharge a large volume of water, thereby
+flushing the contents of the street sewers.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>Purpose and Requisites for House Plumbing.</strong>&mdash;A system of house plumbing
+presupposes the existence of a street sewer, and a water-supply
+distribution within the house. While the former is not absolutely
+essential, as a house may have a system of plumbing without there
+being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage system of
+disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various
+waste and excrementitious matter of the house. The house-water
+distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the
+various pipes in the house plumbing.</p>
+
+<p>The purposes of house plumbing are: (1) to get rid of all excreta and
+waste water; (2) to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer
+from entering the house through the pipes; and (3) to dilute the air
+in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous.</p>
+
+<p>To accomplish these results, house plumbing demands the following
+requisites:</p>
+
+<p>(1) <em>Receptacles</em> for collecting the waste and excreta. These
+receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, must<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> be adequate for the purpose,
+small, noncorrosive, self-cleansing, well flushed, accessible, and so
+constructed as to easily dispose of their contents.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <em>Separate Vertical Pipes</em> for sewage proper, for waste water, and
+for rain water; upright, direct, straight, noncorrosive, water- and
+gas-tight, well flushed, and ventilated.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Short, direct, clean, well-flushed, gas-tight branch pipes to
+connect receptacles with vertical pipes.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <em>Disconnection</em> of the house sewer from the house pipes by the
+main trap on house drain, and disconnection of house from the house
+pipes by traps on all fixtures.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <em>Ventilation</em> of the whole system by the fresh-air inlet, vent
+pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Definitions.</strong>&mdash;The <em>House Drain</em> is the horizontal main pipe receiving
+all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes, and conducting
+them outside of the foundation walls, where it joins the house sewer.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>Soil Pipe</em> is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter
+from the water-closets in the house.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>Main Waste Pipe</em> is the pipe receiving waste water from any
+fixtures except the water-closets.</p>
+
+<p><em>Branch Soil and Waste Pipes</em> are the short pipes between the fixtures
+in the house and the main soil and waste pipes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span><em>Traps</em> are bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a certain volume
+of water, called the water seal; this water seal serves as a barrier
+to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house.</p>
+
+<p><em>Vent Pipes</em> are the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are
+connected by short-branch vent pipes, and serve to ventilate the air
+in the pipes, and prevent siphonage.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>Rain Leader</em> is the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the
+roof of the house.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes.</strong>&mdash;The materials from which the
+different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to
+the use of each pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials
+are used: cement, vitrified pipe, lead; cast, wrought, and galvanized
+iron; brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Cement and Vitrified Pipes</em> are used for the manufacture of street
+and house sewers. In some places vitrified pipe is used for house
+drains, but in most cities this is strongly objected to; and in New
+York City no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The
+objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for
+the purpose, break easily, and cannot be made gas-tight.</p>
+
+<p><em>Lead Pipe</em> is used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of
+water pipes. The advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily
+bent and shaped, hence their use for traps and connections. The
+dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>advantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which
+is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Brass, Nickel, Steel</em>, and other such materials are used in the
+manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not commonly employed.</p>
+
+<p><em>Sheet Metal</em> and <em>Galvanized Iron</em> are used for rain leaders,
+refrigerator pipes, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Wrought Iron</em> is used in the so-called Durham system of plumbing.
+Wrought iron is very strong; the sections of pipe are twenty feet
+long, the connections are made by screw joints, and a system of house
+plumbing made of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong,
+and perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron for plumbing
+pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too
+expensive.</p>
+
+<p><em>Cast Iron</em> is the material universally used for all vertical and
+horizontal pipes in the house. There are two kinds of cast-iron pipes
+manufactured for plumbing uses, the "standard and the extra heavy."</p>
+
+<p>The following are the relative weights of each:</p>
+
+<table summary="Cast-iron pipe weights.">
+<thead>
+<tr>
+  <th>&nbsp;</th>
+  <th>Standard.</th>
+  <th>Extra Heavy.</th>
+</tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>2-inch pipe,</td>
+  <td>4 lbs. per foot</td>
+  <td>5<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>  lbs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>9<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>13&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>12&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>15&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>20&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>27&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>25&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>33<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> "</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 193]<br />[Pg 194]</a></span>The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by plumbers, is
+generally prohibited by most municipalities, as it is not strong
+enough for the purpose, and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint
+with these pipes without breaking them.</p>
+
+<p>Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each, with an
+enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the "hub" or "socket," into
+which the other, or "spigot," end is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must
+be straight, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand holes,
+cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness.</p>
+
+<p>The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Cast-iron pipe thicknesses.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>2-inch pipe,</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">5</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span> inches thick</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">8</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">7</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar, or by
+some other process. Tar coating is, however, not allowed in New York,
+because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Joints and Connections.</strong>&mdash;To facilitate connections of cast-iron pipes,
+short and convenient forms and fittings are cast. Some of these
+connections are named according to their shape, such as L, T, Y, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<img src="images/fig16.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.</span>
+
+<p class="title">DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Iron Pipe</em> is joined to <em>Iron Pipe</em> by lead-calked joints. These
+joints are made as follows: the spigot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 195]<br />[Pg 196]</a></span> end of one pipe is inserted
+into the enlarged end, or the "hub," of the next pipe. The space
+between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The
+remaining space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, is
+well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose. To
+make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked joint, experience and skill are
+necessary. The ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be
+from 1 to 2 inches deep, and from <span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to <span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> of an inch thick; 12
+ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the
+diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of
+so-called rust joints. Instead of lead, the space between the socket
+and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of
+cast-iron borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal
+ammoniac.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+<img src="images/fig17.png" width="343" height="500" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All connections between <em>Lead Pipes</em> and between <em>Lead</em> and <em>Brass</em> or
+<em>Copper</em> pipes must be made by means of "wiped" solder joints. A wiped
+joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the
+solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an oval lump, and
+wiped around with a cloth, giving the joint a bulbous form.</p>
+
+<p>All connections between <em>Lead Pipes</em> and <em>Iron Pipes</em> are made by
+means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be soldered to iron, so a brass
+fitting or ferrule is used; it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped
+joint, and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]<br />[Pg 198]</a></span><em>Putty</em>, <em>Cement</em>, and <em>Slip</em> joints should not be tolerated on any
+pipes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;">
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="347" height="500" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Traps.</strong>&mdash;We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed as
+to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier between
+the sewer and the fixture. There are many and various kinds of traps,
+some depending on water alone as their "seal," others employing
+mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also mercury, etc., to
+assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the
+pipe system.</p>
+
+<p>The value of a trap depends: (1) on the depth of its water seal; (2)
+on the strengths and permanency of the seal; (3) on the diameter and
+uniformity of the trap; (4) on its simplicity; (5) on its
+accessibility; and (6) on its self-cleansing character.</p>
+
+<p>The depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet
+traps, and about two inches for sink and other traps.</p>
+
+<p>Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are
+attached.</p>
+
+<p>The simpler the trap, the better it is.</p>
+
+<p>Traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings, caps, etc., to
+facilitate cleaning.</p>
+
+<p>The shapes of traps vary, and the number of the various kinds of traps
+manufactured is very great.</p>
+
+<p>Traps are named according to their use: gully, grease, sediment,
+intercepting, etc.; according to their shape: D, P, S, V, bell,
+bottle, pot, globe, etc.;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 199]<br />[Pg 200]</a></span> and according to the name of their
+inventor: Buchan, Cottam, Dodd, Antill, Renk, Hellyer, Croydon, and
+others too numerous to mention.</p>
+
+<p>The S trap is the best for sink waste pipes; the running trap is the
+best on house drains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<img src="images/fig19.png" width="336" height="500" alt="Fig. 19." title="Fig. 19." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.</span>
+
+<p class="title">FORMS OF TRAPS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;">
+<img src="images/fig20.png" width="204" height="500" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.</span>
+
+<p class="title">FORMS OF TRAPS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Loss of Seal by Traps.</strong>&mdash;The seals of traps are not always secure, and
+the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(1) <em>Evaporation.</em>&mdash;If a fixture in a house is not used for a long
+time, the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will
+evaporate; the seal will thus be lost, and ingress of sewer air will
+result. To guard against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently
+flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the house is
+unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps are to be filled with
+oil or glycerin, either of which will serve as an efficient seal.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <em>Momentum.</em>&mdash;A sudden flow of water from the fixture may, by the
+force of its momentum, empty all water in the trap and thus leave it
+unsealed. To prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must be
+of a proper size, not less than the waste pipe of the fixture, the
+seal must be deep, and the trap in a perfectly straight position, as a
+slight inclination will favor its emptying. Care should also be taken
+while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <em>Capillary Attraction.</em>&mdash;If a piece of paper, cotton, thread,
+hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 201]<br />[Pg 202]</a></span> of the paper, etc.,
+projects into the lumen of the pipe, a part of the water will be
+withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it. To
+guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps should
+be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and corners, and of not too
+large a size, and should also be well flushed, so that nothing but
+water remains in the trap.</p>
+
+<p><em>Siphonage and Back Pressure.</em>&mdash;The water in the trap, or the "seal,"
+is suspended between two columns of air, that from the fixture to the
+seal, and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on
+house drain. The seal in the trap is therefore not very secure, as it
+is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both
+sides, and especially from its distal side. Any heating of the air in
+the pipes with which the trap is connected, any increase of
+temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the
+trap is connected, and any evolution of gases within those pipes will
+naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them,
+with the result that the increased pressure will influence the
+contents of the trap, or the "seal," and may dislodge the seal
+backward, if the pressure is very great, or, at any rate, may force
+the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the
+water therein, thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the
+traps of the fixtures. This condition, which in practice exists
+oftener than it is ordinarily thought,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> is called "back pressure." By
+"back pressure" is therefore understood the <em>forcing back</em>, or, at
+least, the <em>fouling</em>, of the water in traps, due to the increased
+pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps; the increase
+in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water
+occasionally circulating within them, or by the evolution of gases due
+to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<img src="images/fig21.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 21." title="Fig. 21." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21.</span>
+
+<p class="title">NON-SYPHONING TRAP.</p>
+
+<p class="centered">Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A condition somewhat similar, but acting in a reverse way, is
+presented in what is commonly termed "siphonage." Just as well as the
+seal in traps may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> be forced back by the increased pressure of the air
+within the pipes, the same seal may be <em>forced out</em>, pulled out,
+aspirated, or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity
+of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected. Such a sudden
+withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there
+is a rush of large column of water through the pipes, e. g., when a
+water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged; the water
+rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong
+down current of air, with the result that where the down-rushing
+column passes by a trap, the air in the trap and, later, its seal are
+aspirated or siphoned out, thus leaving the trap without a seal. By
+"siphonage" is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by
+the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of
+water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected.</p>
+
+<p>To guard against the loss of seal through siphonage "nonsiphoning"
+traps have been invented, that is, the traps are so constructed that
+the seal therein is very large, and the shape of the traps made so
+that siphonage is difficult. These traps are, however, open to the
+objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of
+the seals by back pressure, and in the second place they are not
+easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets. The
+universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by
+the system of vent pipes, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> what plumbers call "back-air" pipes.
+Every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the
+crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house
+the same as the waste and soil pipes, and which contains nothing but
+air, which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the
+"back-pressure" air, or to be drawn upon by the siphoning, and thus
+preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps; for
+it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the
+distal part of the seal, the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by
+any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the
+trap is connected.</p>
+
+<p>The vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the
+plumbing system of the house, already partly ventilated by the
+extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air
+inlet. The principal objection urged against the installation of the
+vent-pipe system is the added expense, which is considerable; and
+plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes
+various mechanical traps, also nonsiphoning traps. The vent pipes are,
+however, worth the additional expense, as they are certainly the best
+means to prevent siphonage and back pressure, and are free from the
+objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy
+nonsiphoning traps.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing Pipes</strong></p>
+
+
+<p><strong>The House Drain.</strong>&mdash;All waste and soil matter in the house is carried
+from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes, and from these
+into the house drain, the main pipe of the house, which carries all
+waste and soil into the street sewer. The house drain extends from the
+junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to
+outside of the foundations two to five feet, whence it is called
+"house sewer." The house drain is a very important part of the
+house-plumbing system, and great care must be taken to make its
+construction perfect.</p>
+
+<p><em>Material.</em>&mdash;The material of which house drains are manufactured is
+extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes should never be used, and the use
+of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed.</p>
+
+<p><em>Size.</em>&mdash;The size of the house drain must be proportional to the work
+to be performed. Too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing, and the
+bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime. Were it not for the
+need of carrying off large volumes of storm water, the house drain
+could be a great deal smaller than it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 207]<br />[Pg 208]</a></span> usually is. A three-inch pipe
+is sufficient for a small house, though a four-inch pipe is made
+obligatory in most cities. In New York City no house drains are
+allowed of smaller diameter than six inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig22.png" width="500" height="306" alt="Fig. 22." title="Fig. 22." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.</span>
+
+<p class="title">SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (<span class="image_source">H.
+Bramley.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Fall.</em>&mdash;The fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its
+size. Every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain
+inclination toward the house sewer, so as to increase the velocity of
+flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of
+fall should be as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Fall of house drain by pip size.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>For 4-inch pipe</td>
+  <td>1 in 40 feet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;" 50&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;" 60&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><em>Position.</em>&mdash;The house drain lies in a horizontal position in the
+cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to view. It should be hung
+on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is impracticable, as when
+fixtures in the cellar discharge into it; in this case, it must be
+laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with
+bricks laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and with a
+hydraulic-cement base four inches thick, on which the pipe is to rest.
+The house drain must be laid in straight lines, if possible; all
+changes in direction must be made with curved pipes, the curves to be
+of a large radius.</p>
+
+<p><em>Connections.</em>&mdash;The house drain must properly connect with the house
+sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or
+area wall of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> building. An arched or other proper opening in the
+wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling.</p>
+
+<p>All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead-calked joints, as
+stated before. The junction of the vertical soil, waste, and
+rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints, but by a
+curved elbow fitting of a large radius, or by "Y" branches and 45°
+bends.</p>
+
+<p>When the house drain does not rest on the floor, but is hung on the
+wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connection of the vertical soil and
+waste pipes must have suitable supports, the best support being a
+brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the
+wall.</p>
+
+<p>Near all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes with the house
+drain suitable hand-holes should be provided, these hand-holes to be
+tightly covered by brass screw ferrules, screwed in, and fitted with
+red lead.</p>
+
+<p>"No steam exhaust, boiler blow-off, or drip pipe shall be connected
+with the house drain or sewer. Such pipes must first discharge into a
+proper condensing tank, and from this a proper outlet to the house
+sewer outside of the building must be provided."</p>
+
+<p><em>Main Traps.</em>&mdash;The disconnection of the house pipes from the street
+sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front
+wall, inside the house, or just outside the foundation wall but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+usually inside of the house. The best trap for this purpose is the
+siphon or running trap. This trap must be constructed with a cleaning
+hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap, or on both sides,
+and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw
+ferrules.</p>
+
+<p><em>Extension of Vertical Pipes.</em>&mdash;By the main trap the house-plumbing
+system is disconnected from the sewer, and by the traps on each
+fixture from the air in the rooms; still, as the soil, waste, and
+drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which
+contaminate the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate
+these pipes. This ventilation of the soil, waste, and house drain
+pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors, etc., given
+off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes, and it is
+accomplished by two means: (1) by extension of the vertical pipes to
+the fresh air above the roof, and (2) by the fresh-air inlet on the
+house drain.</p>
+
+<p>By these means a current of air is established through the vertical
+and horizontal pipes.</p>
+
+<p>Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet
+above the highest coping of the roof or chimney. The extension must be
+far from the air shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys,
+so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them. The
+extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe, so as to
+avoid friction from the circulation of air. The use of covers, cowls,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+return bends, etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free
+circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign
+substances from falling into pipes.</p>
+
+<p><em>Fresh-air Inlet.</em>&mdash;The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches
+in diameter; it enters the house drain on the house side of the main
+trap, and extends to the external air at or near the curb, or at any
+convenient place, at least fifteen feet from the nearest window. The
+fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an
+iron grating, and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air
+furnace. When clean, properly cared for, and extended above the
+ground, the fresh-air inlet, in conjunction with the open extended
+vertical pipe, is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the
+house pipes; unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly
+obstructed, and do not serve the purpose for which they are made.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Soil and Waste Pipes.</strong>&mdash;The soil pipe receives liquid and solid
+sewage from the water-closets and urinals; the waste pipe receives all
+waste water from sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is
+cast iron.</p>
+
+<p>The size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches; of main
+soil pipes, from four to five inches. In tenement houses with five
+water-closets or more, not less than five inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>The joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked. The
+connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines
+must be by Y joints, and by means of brass ferrules, as explained
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall,
+built in, nor outside the house, but preferably in a special
+three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures, extending from the
+cellar to the roof, where the air shaft should be covered by a
+louvered skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly
+inclined, so as to favor ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to view in all their
+lengths, and, when covered with boards, so fitted that the boards may
+be readily removed.</p>
+
+<p>Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter, as
+previously stated. When less than four inches in diameter, they must
+be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the
+roof surface by an "increaser," of not less than nine inches long.</p>
+
+<p>All soil and waste pipes must, whenever necessary, be securely
+fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps.</p>
+
+<p>Vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base, as
+the trap would not serve any purpose, and would prevent a perfect flow
+of the contents.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Branch Soil and Waste Pipes.</strong>&mdash;The fixtures must be near the vertical
+soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes
+should be as short as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> possible. The trap of the branch soil and waste
+pipes must not be far from the fixture, not more than two feet from
+it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil
+branch will emit bad odors.</p>
+
+<p>The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows:</p>
+
+<table summary="Minimum sizes for branch pipes.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>Kitchen sinks</td>
+  <td class="table_right">2 inches</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Bath tubs</td>
+  <td class="table_right">1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Laundry tubs</td>
+  <td class="table_right">1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Water-closets</td>
+  <td class="table_right">not less than 4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter
+inch to one foot.</p>
+
+<p>The branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed, accessible,
+and provided with screw caps, etc., for inspection and cleaning
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as
+possible, as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes
+will cause the air between the traps to be closed in, forming a
+so-called "cushion," that will prevent the ready flow of contents.</p>
+
+<p>"All traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their
+water level."</p>
+
+<p><strong>Vent Pipes and Their Branches.</strong>&mdash;The purpose of vent pipes, we have
+seen, is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the
+traps and pipes. The material of which vent pipes are made is cast
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>The size of vent pipes depends on the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> traps with which they
+are connected; it is usually two or three inches. The connection of
+the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap, and the
+connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the
+trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent pipes are not
+perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope, so as to prevent
+condensation of air or vapor therein.</p>
+
+<p>The vent pipes should be extended above the roof, several feet above
+the coping, etc.; and the extension above the roof should not be of
+less than four inches diameter, so as to avoid obstruction by frost.
+No return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes.
+Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, is connected
+with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig23.png" width="500" height="71" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.</span>
+
+<p class="title">LEADER PIPE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Rain Leaders.</strong>&mdash;The rain leader serves to collect the rain water from
+the roof and eaves gutter. It usually discharges its contents into the
+house drain, although some leaders are led to the street gutter, while
+others are connected with school sinks in the yard. The latter
+practice is objectionable, as it may lead the foul air from the school
+sink into the rooms, the windows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> of which are near the rain leader;
+besides, the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces
+bad odors. When the rain leader is placed within the house, it must be
+made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when outside, as is the
+rule, it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered
+joints. When the rain leader is run near windows, the rules and
+practice are that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a
+deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed several feet
+below the ground, so as to prevent freezing.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Plumbing Fixtures</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste
+and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to
+the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing. Great care must
+be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, etc., of the
+plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of comfort in the house
+instead of becoming a curse to the occupants.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sinks.</strong>&mdash;The waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of
+sinks. Sinks are usually made of cast iron, painted, enameled, or
+galvanized. They are also made of wrought iron, as well as of
+earthenware and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided with
+a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse
+from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it. If possible the
+back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece; the back and
+sides, when of wood, should be covered by nonabsorbent material, to
+prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> No
+woodwork should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> inclose sinks; they should be supported on iron legs
+and be open beneath and around. The trap of a sink is usually two
+inches in diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a
+screw cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch vent pipe should
+be at the crown of the trap.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Washbasins.</strong>&mdash;Washbasins are placed in bathrooms, and, when properly
+constructed and fitted, are a source of comfort. They should not be
+located in bedrooms, and should be open, without any woodwork around
+them. The washbowls are made of porcelain or marble, with a socket at
+the outlet, into which a plug is fitted.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wash Tubs.</strong>&mdash;For laundry purposes wooden, iron-enameled, stone, and
+porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room. Porcelain is
+the best material, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the
+next best; it is clean, nonabsorbent, and not too expensive. Wood
+should never be used, as it soon becomes saturated, is foul, leaks,
+and is offensive. In old houses, wherever there are wooden tubs, they
+should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material. The wash
+tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a row, and they are
+generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two
+inches in diameter, with one trap for all the tubs.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bath Tubs.</strong>&mdash;Bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain, and
+should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork. The branch waste
+pipe should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> trapped and connected with the main waste or soil
+pipe. The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of
+nonabsorbent material.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p><strong>Refrigerators.</strong>&mdash;The waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect
+with any of the house pipes, but should be emptied into a basin or
+pail; or, if the refrigerator is large, its waste pipe should be
+conducted to the cellar, where it should discharge into a properly
+trapped, sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Boilers.</strong>&mdash;The so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in the
+kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side of
+the trap.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Urinals.</strong>&mdash;As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated within a house;
+they are permissible only in factories and office buildings. The
+material is enameled iron or porcelain. They must be provided with a
+proper water supply to flush them.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Overflows.</strong>&mdash;To guard against overflow of washbasins, bath tubs, etc.,
+overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are commonly
+provided. These pipes are connected with the inlet side of the trap of
+the same fixture. They are, however, liable to become a nuisance by
+being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly flushed; whenever
+possible they should be dispensed with.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Safes and Wastes.</strong>&mdash;A common usage with plumb<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>ers in the past has been
+to provide sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, and water-closets, not only
+with overflow pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist of
+sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch all
+drippings and overflow from fixtures; from these safes a drip pipe or
+waste is conducted to the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of
+course, when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste
+pipes, they become a source of danger, even if they are trapped, as
+they are not properly cared for or flushed; and their traps are
+usually not sealed. Even when discharging into a sink in the cellar,
+safes and safe waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumulate
+filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and with the floors
+under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material, they are useless.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Water-closets.</strong>&mdash;The most important plumbing fixtures within the house
+are the water-closets. Upon the proper construction and location of
+the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of the
+house. Water-closets should be placed in separate, well-lighted,
+perfectly ventilated, damp-proof, and clean compartments, and no
+water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement
+house. The type and construction of the water-closets should be
+carefully attended to, as the many existing, old, and obsolete types
+of water-closets are still being installed in houses, or are left
+there to foul the air of rooms and apartments. There are many
+water-closets<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> on the market, some of which will be described; the
+best are those made of one piece, of porcelain or enameled
+earthenware, and so constructed as always to be and remain clean.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;">
+<img src="images/fig24.png" width="498" height="500" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span>
+
+<p class="title">PAN WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>The Pan Closet.</em>&mdash;The water-closet most commonly used in former times
+was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical
+contrivances. This is the <em>pan closet</em>, now universally condemned and
+prohibited from further use. The pan closet consists of four principal
+parts: (1) basin of china, small and round; (2) a copper six-inch pan
+under the basin; (3) a large iron container, into which the basin with
+the pan under it is placed; and (4) a D trap, to which the container
+is joined. The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, when
+pulled, moves the pan; this describes a half circle and drops the
+contents into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> container and trap. The objections to pan closets
+are the following:</p>
+
+<p>(1) There being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances, they
+are liable to get out of order.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected, and is
+usually very dirty beneath.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is liable to be
+soiled by adhering excreta.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper parts, and the
+iron becomes corroded and coated with filth.</p>
+
+<p>(5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air enters rooms.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The junctions between the bowl and container, and the container
+and trap, are usually not gas-tight.</p>
+
+<p>(7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and the trap is
+usually not completely emptied.</p>
+
+<p><em>Valve and Plunger Closets</em> are an improvement upon the pan closets,
+but are not free from several objections enumerated above. As a rule,
+all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable.</p>
+
+<p><em>Hopper Closets</em> are made of iron or earthenware. Iron hopper closets
+easily corrode; they are usually enameled on the inside. Earthenware
+hoppers are preferable to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or
+short; when long, they expose a very large surface to be fouled,
+require a trap below the floor, and are, as a rule, very difficult to
+clean or to keep clean. Short hopper closets are preferable, as they
+are easily kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> clean and are well flushed. When provided with
+flushing rim, and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply
+pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet.</p>
+
+<p>The washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the
+hopper closets. They are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain,
+and are so shaped that they contain a water seal, obviating the
+necessity of a separate trap under the closet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;">
+<img src="images/fig25.png" width="434" height="500" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span>
+
+<p class="title">LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<img src="images/fig26.png" width="451" height="473" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.</span>
+
+<p class="title">SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (<span class="image_source">Gerhard.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="357" height="500" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.</span>
+
+<p class="title">STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Flush Tanks.</em>&mdash;Water-closets must not be flushed directly from the
+water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of contaminating the
+water supply. Water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks, either
+of iron or of wood, metal lined; these cisterns should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> placed not
+less than four feet above the water-closet, and provided with a
+straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that by pulling at the
+handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the
+contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the
+water-closet. A separate ball arrangement is made for closing the
+water supply when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a
+capacity of at least three to five gallons of water; the flush pipe
+must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch, and
+the pipe must be straight, without bends, and the arrangement within
+the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.</span>
+
+<p class="title">FLUSHING CISTERN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]<br />[Pg 225]</a></span><strong>Yard Closets.</strong>&mdash;In many old houses the water-closet accommodations are
+placed in the yard. There are two forms of these yard closets commonly
+used&mdash;the school sink and the yard hopper.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>school sink</em> is an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet
+long, and one to two feet wide and one foot deep, set in a trench
+several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit; on
+one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the
+other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe.
+Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, inclosing it; over it
+are placed wooden seats, and surrounding the whole is a wooden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> shed
+with compartments for every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into
+the trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a day, or as
+often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is pulled up and the excreta
+allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is
+connected. These school sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are
+dangerous to health. The objections to them are the following:</p>
+
+<p>(1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and may decompose
+even in one day; and it is always offensive.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The iron trough is easily corroded.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large surface for
+adherence of excreta.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink
+is emptied, and excreta, which usually adheres to it, decomposes,
+creating offensive odors.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The junction of the iron trough with the brickwork, and the
+brickwork itself, is usually defective, or becomes defective, and
+allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard, or into the wall
+adjacent to the school sink. By the Tenement House Law of New York,
+the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/fig29.png" width="372" height="500" alt="Fig. 29." title="Fig. 29." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.</span>
+
+<p class="title">SCHOOL SINK AFTER SEVERAL MONTHS' USE.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(<span class="image_source">J. Sullivan.</span>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><em>Yard Hopper Closets.</em>&mdash;Where the water-closet accommodations cannot,
+for some reason, be put within the house, yard hopper closets are
+commonly employed. These closets are simply long, iron-enameled
+hoppers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> trapped, and connected with a drain pipe discharging into
+the house drain. These closets are flushed from cisterns, but, in such
+case, the cisterns must be protected from freezing; this is
+accomplished in some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> houses by putting the yard hopper near the house
+and placing the cistern within the house; however, this can hardly be
+done where several hoppers must be employed. In most cases, yard
+hoppers are flushed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 229]<br />[Pg 230]</a></span> automatic rod valves, so constructed as to
+flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon. These
+valves, as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care must
+be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be
+perfectly water-tight. An improved form of yard hopper has been
+suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department,
+and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The
+improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment
+being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside,
+and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or
+mineral wool packing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<img src="images/fig30.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 30." title="Fig. 30." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.</span>
+
+<p class="title">J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="220" height="500" alt="Fig. 31." title="Fig. 31." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.</span>
+
+<p class="title">A MODERN WATER-CLOSET.</p>
+
+<p class="title">(J. L. Mott Iron Works.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><strong>Yard and Area Drains.</strong>&mdash;The draining of the surface of the yard or
+other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or
+house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be
+condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap
+should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and
+should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in
+winter.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this
+purpose.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or
+carpets.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Defects in Plumbing</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts
+are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the
+position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and
+hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of
+the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as
+well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of
+house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done
+as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many
+defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing.
+At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance
+and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials,
+bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may
+endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Defects in Plumbing.</strong>&mdash;The defects usually found in plumbing are so
+many that they cannot all be enumerated here. Among the principal and
+most common defects, however, are the following:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span><em>Materials.</em>&mdash;Light-weight iron pipes; these crack easily and cannot
+stand the strain of calking. Sand-holes made during casting; these
+cannot always be detected, especially when the pipes are tar-coated.
+Thin lead pipe; not heavy enough to withstand the bending and drawing
+it is subjected to.</p>
+
+<p><em>Location and Position.</em>&mdash;Pipes may be located within the walls and
+built in, in which case they are inaccessible, and may be defective
+without anyone being able to discover the defects. Pipes may be laid
+with a wrong or an insufficient fall, thus leaving them unflushed, or
+retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes. Pipes may be
+put underground and have no support underneath, when some parts or
+lengths may sink, get out of joint, and the sewage run into the ground
+instead of through the pipes. The pipes may be so located as to
+require sharp bends and curves, which will retard the flow in them.</p>
+
+<p><em>Joints.</em>&mdash;Joints in pipes may be defective, leaking, and not
+gas-tight because of imperfect calking, insufficient lead having been
+used; or, no oakum having been used and the lead running into the
+lumen of the pipe; or, not sufficient care and time being taken for
+the work. Joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being used
+instead of brass ferrules; through improperly wiped joints; through
+bad workmanship, bad material, or ignorance of the plumber. Plumbers
+often use T branches instead of Y branches; sharp bends instead of
+bends of forty-five degrees or more;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> slip joints instead of
+lead-calked ones; also, they often connect a pipe of larger diameter
+with a pipe of small diameter, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Traps.</em>&mdash;The traps may be bad in principle and in construction; they
+may be badly situated or connected, or they may be easily unsealed,
+frequently obstructed, inaccessible, foul, etc.</p>
+
+<p><em>Ventilation.</em>&mdash;The house drain may have no fresh-air inlet, or the
+fresh-air inlet may be obstructed; the vent pipes may be absent, or
+obstructed; the vertical pipes may not be extended.</p>
+
+<p><em>Condition.</em>&mdash;Pipes may have holes, may be badly repaired, bent, out
+of shape, or have holes patched up with cement or putty; pipes may be
+corroded, gnawed by rats, or they may be obstructed, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The above are only a few of the many defects that may be found in the
+plumbing of a house. It is, therefore, of paramount importance to have
+the house plumbing regularly, frequently, and thoroughly examined and
+inspected, as well as put to the various tests, so as to discover the
+defects and remedy them.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Plumbing Tests.</strong>&mdash;The following are a few minor points for testing
+plumbing:</p>
+
+<p>(1) To test a trap with a view to finding out whether its seal is lost
+or not, knock on the trap with a piece of metal; if the trap is empty,
+a hollow sound will be given out; if full, the sound will be dull.
+This is not reliable in case the trap is full or half-full with slime,
+etc. Another test for the same purpose is as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> follows: hold a light
+near the outlet of the fixture; if the light is drawn in, it is a sign
+that the trap is empty.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Defects in leaded joints can be detected if white lead has been
+used, as it will be discolored in case sewer gas escape from the
+joints.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The connection of a waste pipe of a bath tub with the trap of the
+water-closet can sometimes be discovered by suddenly emptying the bath
+tub and watching the contents of the water-closet trap; the latter
+will be agitated if the waste pipe is discharged into the trap or on
+the inlet side of trap of the water-closet.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The presence of sewer gas in a room can be detected by the
+following chemical method: saturate a piece of unglazed paper with a
+solution of acetate of lead in rain or boiled water, in the proportion
+of one to eight; allow the paper to dry, and hang up in the room where
+the escape of sewer gas is suspected; if sewer gas is present, the
+paper will be completely blackened.</p>
+
+<p>The main tests for plumbing are: (1) the <em>Hydraulic</em> or water-pressure
+test; (2) the <em>Smoke</em>, or sight test, and (3) the <em>Scent</em>, or
+peppermint, etc., test.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>Water-pressure Test</em> is used to test the vertical and horizontal
+pipes in new plumbing before the fixtures have been connected. It is
+applied as follows: the end of the house drain is plugged up with a
+proper air-tight plug, of which there are a number on the market. The
+pipes are then filled with water to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> certain level, which is
+carefully noted. The water is allowed to stand in the pipes for half
+an hour, at the expiration of which time, if the joints show no sign
+of leakage, and are not sweating, and if the level of the water in the
+pipes has not fallen, the pipes are water-tight. This is a very
+reliable test, and is made obligatory for testing all new plumbing
+work.</p>
+
+<p><em>The Smoke Test</em> is also a very good test. It is applied as follows:
+by means of bellows, or some exploding, smoke-producing rocket, smoke
+is forced into the system of pipes, the ends plugged up, and the
+escape of the smoke watched for, as wherever there are defects in the
+pipes the smoke will appear. A number of special appliances for this
+test are manufactured, all of them more or less ingenious.</p>
+
+<p><em>The Scent Test</em> is made by putting into the pipes a certain quantity
+of some pungent chemical, like peppermint oil, etc., the odor of which
+will escape from the defects in the pipes, if there are any. Oil of
+peppermint is commonly used in this country for the test. The
+following is the way this test is applied: all the openings of the
+pipes on the roof, except one, are closed up tightly with paper, rags,
+etc. Into the one open pipe is poured from two to four ounces of
+peppermint oil, followed by a pail of hot water, and then the pipe
+into which the oil has been put is also plugged up. This is done,
+preferably, by an assistant. The inspector then proceeds to slowly
+follow the course of the various pipes, and will detect the smell of
+the oil wherever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> it may escape from any defects in the pipes. If the
+test is thoroughly and carefully done, if care is taken that no
+fixture in the house is used and the traps of same not disturbed
+during the test, if the openings of the pipes on the roofs are plugged
+up tightly, if the main house trap is not unsealed (otherwise the oil
+will escape into the sewer), and if the handling of the oil has been
+done by an assistant, so that none adheres to the inspector&mdash;if all
+these conditions are carried out, the peppermint test is a most
+valuable test for the detection of any and all defects in plumbing.
+Another precaution to be taken is with regard to the rain leader. If
+the rain leader is not trapped, or if its trap is empty, the
+peppermint oil may escape from the pipes into the rain leader. Care
+must be taken, therefore, that the trap at the base of the rain leader
+be sealed; or, if no trap is existing, to close up the connection of
+the rain leader with the house drain; or, if this be impossible, to
+plug up the opening of the leader near the roof.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe on the roof, it
+may be put through a fixture on the top floor of the house, although
+this is not so satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Various appliances have been manufactured to make this test more easy
+and accurate. Of the English appliances, the Banner patent drain
+grenade, and Kemp's drain tester are worthy of mention. The former
+consists "of a thin glass vial charged with pun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>gent and volatile
+chemicals. One of the grenades, when dropped down any suitable pipe,
+such as the soil pipe, breaks, or the grenade may be inserted through
+a trap into the drain, where it is exploded." (Taylor.) Kemp's drain
+tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical with a strong
+odor; the tube is fitted with a glass cover, held in place by a string
+and a paper band. When the tester is thrown into the pipes and hot
+water poured after it, the paper band breaks, the spring opens the
+cover, and the contents of the tube fall into the drain.</p>
+
+<p>Recently Dr. W. G. Hudson, an inspector in the Department of Health of
+New York, has invented a very ingenious "peppermint cartridge" for
+testing plumbing. The invention is, however, not yet manufactured, and
+is not on the market.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Infection and Disinfection</strong></p>
+
+
+<p>Disinfection is the destruction of the infective power of infectious
+material; or, in other words, disinfection is the destruction of the
+agents of infection.</p>
+
+<p>An infectious material is one contaminated with germs of infection.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of infection are organic microörganisms, vegetable and
+animal&mdash;protozoa and bacteria.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of infection once being lodged within the body cause certain
+reactions producing specific pathological changes and a variety of
+groups of symptoms which we know by the specific names of infectious
+diseases, e. g., typhoid, typhus, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Among the infectious diseases known to be due to specific germs are
+the following: typhoid, typhus, relapsing fevers, cholera, diphtheria,
+croup, tuberculosis, pneumonia, malaria, yellow fever, erysipelas,
+<em>septicæmia</em>, anthrax, <em>tetanus</em>, gonorrhea, etc.; and among the
+infectious diseases the germs of which have not as yet been discovered
+are the following: scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, syphilis,
+varicella, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The part of the body and the organs in which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> germs first find
+their entrance, or which they specifically attack, vary with each
+disease; thus, the mucous membranes, skin, internal organs,
+secretions, and excretions are, severally, either portals of infection
+or the places where the infection shows itself the most.</p>
+
+<p>The agents carrying the germs of infection from one person to the
+other may be the infected persons themselves, or anything which has
+come in contact with their bodies and its secretions and excretions;
+thus, the air, room, furniture, vessels, clothing, food and drink,
+also insects and vermin, may all be carriers of infection.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sterilization</strong> is the absolute destruction of <em>all</em> organic life,
+whether infectious or not; it is therefore <em>more</em> than disinfection,
+which destroys the germs of infection alone.</p>
+
+<p>A <strong>Disinfectant</strong> is an agent which destroys germs of infection.</p>
+
+<p>A <strong>Germicide</strong> is the same; an agent destroying germs.</p>
+
+<p>An <strong>Insecticide</strong> is an agent capable of destroying insects; it is not
+necessarily a disinfectant, nor is a disinfectant necessarily an
+insecticide.</p>
+
+<p>An <strong>Antiseptic</strong> is a substance which inhibits and stops the growth of
+the bacteria of putrefaction and decomposition. A disinfectant is
+therefore an antiseptic, but an antiseptic may not be a disinfectant.</p>
+
+<p>A <strong>Deodorant</strong> is a substance which neutralizes or destroys the
+unpleasant odors arising from matter un<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>dergoing putrefaction. A
+deodorant is not necessarily a disinfectant, nor is every disinfectant
+a deodorant.</p>
+
+<p>The ideal disinfectant is one which, while capable of destroying the
+germs of disease, does not injure the bodies and material upon which
+the germs may be found; it must also be penetrating, harmless in
+handling, inexpensive, and reliable. The ideal disinfectant has not as
+yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>For successful scientific disinfection it is necessary to know: (1)
+the nature of the specific germs of the disease; (2) the methods and
+agents of its spread and infection; (3) the places where the germs are
+most likely to be found; (4) the action of each disinfectant upon the
+germs; and (5) the best methods of applying the disinfectant to the
+materials infected with germs of disease.</p>
+
+<p>Disinfection is not a routine, uniform, unscientific process; a
+disinfector must be conversant with the basic principles of
+disinfection, must make a thorough study of the scientific part of the
+subject, and moreover must be thoroughly imbued with the importance of
+his work, upon which the checking of the further spread of disease
+depends.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Physical Disinfectants</em></h4>
+
+<p>The physical disinfectants are sunlight, desiccation, and heat.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sunlight</strong> is a good disinfectant provided the in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>fected material or
+germs are directly exposed to the rays of the sun. Bacteria are killed
+within a short time, but spores need a long time, and some of them
+resist the action of the sun for an indefinite period. The
+disadvantages of sunlight as a disinfectant are its superficial
+action, its variability and uncertainty, and its slow action upon most
+germs of infection. Sunlight is a good adjunct to other methods of
+disinfection; it is most valuable in tuberculosis, and should be used
+wherever possible in conjunction with other physical or chemical
+methods of disinfection.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><strong>Desiccation</strong> is a good means of disinfection, but can be applied only
+to very few objects; all bacteria need moisture for their existence
+and multiplication, hence absolute dryness acts as a good germicide.
+Meat and fish, certain cereals, and also fruit, when dried, become at
+the same time disinfected.</p>
+
+<p><em>Heat</em> is the best, most valuable, all-pervading, most available, and
+cheapest disinfectant. The various ways in which heat may be used for
+disinfection are burning, dry heat, boiling, and steam.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Burning</strong> is of course the best disinfectant, but it not only destroys
+the germs in the infected materials, but the materials themselves; its
+application is therefore limited to articles of little or no value,
+and to rags, rubbish, and refuse.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Dry Heat.</strong>&mdash;All life is destroyed when exposed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> a dry heat of 150°
+C. for one hour, although most of the bacteria of infection are killed
+at a lower temperature and in shorter time. Dry heat is a good
+disinfectant for objects that can stand the heat without injury, but
+most objects, and especially textile fabrics, are injured by it.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Boiling.</strong>&mdash;Perhaps the best and most valuable disinfectant in existence
+is boiling, because it is always at command, is applicable to most
+materials and objects, is an absolutely safe sterilizer and
+disinfectant, and needs very little if any preparation and apparatus
+for its use. One half hour of boiling will destroy all life; and most
+bacteria can be killed at even a lower temperature. Subjection to a
+temperature of only 70° C. for half an hour suffices to kill the germs
+of cholera, tuberculosis, diphtheria, plague, etc. Boiling is
+especially applicable to textile fabrics and small objects, and can
+readily be done in the house where the infection exists, thus
+obviating the necessity of conveying the infected objects elsewhere,
+and perhaps for some distance, to be disinfected.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Steam.</strong>&mdash;Of all the physical disinfectants steam is the most valuable
+because it is very penetrating, reliable, and rapid; it kills all
+bacteria at once and all spores in a few minutes, and besides is
+applicable to a great number and many kinds of materials and objects.
+Steam is especially valuable for the disinfection of clothing,
+bedding, carpets, textile fabrics, mattresses, etc. Steam can be used
+in a small way, as well as in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> very large plants. The well-known
+Arnold sterilizers, used for the sterilization of milk, etc., afford
+an example of the use of steam in a small apparatus; while municipal
+authorities usually construct very large steam disinfecting plants. A
+steam disinfector is made of steel or of wrought iron, is usually
+cylindrical in shape, and is covered with felt, asbestos, etc. The
+disinfector has doors on one or both ends, and is fitted inside with
+rails upon which a specially constructed car can be slid in through
+one door and out through the other. The car is divided into several
+compartments, in which the infected articles are placed; when thus
+loaded it is run into the disinfector. The steam disinfectors may be
+fitted with thermometers, vacuum formers, steam jackets, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Gaseous Chemical Disinfectants</em></h4>
+
+<p>Physical disinfectants, however valuable and efficient, cannot be
+employed in many places and for many materials infected with disease
+germs, and therefore chemicals have been sought to be used wherever
+physical disinfectants could not for one or more reasons be employed.
+Chemicals are used as disinfectants either in gaseous form or in
+solutions; the gaseous kinds are of especial value on account of their
+penetrating qualities, and are employed for the disinfection of rooms,
+holds of ships, etc. There are practically but two chemicals which are
+used in gaseous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> disinfection, and these are sulphur dioxide and
+formaldehyde.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sulphur Dioxide.</strong>&mdash;Sulphur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>) is a good surface
+disinfectant, and is very destructive to all animal life; it is one of
+the best insecticides we have, but its germicidal qualities are rather
+weak; it does not kill spores, and it penetrates only superficially.
+The main disadvantages of sulphur dioxide as a disinfectant are: (1)
+that it weakens textile fabrics; (2) blackens and bleaches all
+vegetable coloring matter; (3) tarnishes metal; and (4) is very
+injurious and dangerous to those handling it.</p>
+
+<p>There are several methods of employing sulphur in the disinfection of
+rooms and objects, e. g., the pot, candle, liquid, and furnace
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>In the pot methods crude sulphur, preferably ground, is used; it is
+placed in an iron pot and ignited by the aid of alcohol, and in the
+burning evolves the sulphur dioxide gas. About five pounds of sulphur
+are to be used for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. As moisture plays
+a very important part in developing the disinfecting properties of
+sulphur dioxide, the anhydrous gas being inactive as a disinfectant,
+it is advisable to place the pot in a large pan filled with water, so
+that the evaporated water may render the gas active. For the purpose
+of destroying all insects in a room an exposure of about two hours to
+the gas are necessary, while for the destruction of bacteria an
+exposure of at least fifteen to sixteen hours is required.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>In the application of disinfection with sulphur dioxide, as with any
+other gas, it must not be forgotten that gases very readily escape
+through the many apertures, cracks, and openings in the room and
+through the slits near doors and windows; and in order to confine the
+gas in the room it is absolutely necessary to hermetically close all
+such apertures, cracks, etc., before generating the gaseous
+disinfectant. The closing of the openings, etc., is done by the
+pasting over these strips of gummed paper, an important procedure
+which must not be overlooked, and which must be carried out in a
+conscientious manner.</p>
+
+<p>When sulphur is used in candle form the expense is considerably
+increased without any additional efficiency. When a solution of
+sulphurous acid is employed, exposure of the liquid to the air
+suffices to disengage the sulphur dioxide necessary for disinfection.
+The quantity of the solution needed is double that of the crude drug,
+i. e., ten pounds for every 1,000 cubic feet of room space.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Formaldehyde.</strong>&mdash;At present the tendency is to employ formaldehyde gas
+instead of the sulphur so popular some time ago. The advantages of
+formaldehyde over sulphur are: (1) its nonpoisonous nature; (2) it is
+a very good germicide; (3) it has no injurious effect upon fabrics and
+objects; (4) it does not change colors; and (5) it can be used for the
+disinfection of rooms with the richest hangings, bric-a-brac, etc.,
+without danger to these. Formaldehyde is evolved either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> from paraform
+or from the liquid formalin; formerly it was also obtained by the
+action of wood-alcohol vapor upon red-hot platinum.</p>
+
+<p>Formaldehyde gas has not very great penetrating power; it is not an
+insecticide, but kills bacteria in a very short time, and spores in an
+hour or two.</p>
+
+<p>Paraform (polymerized formaldehyde; trioxymethylene) is sold in
+pastilles or in powder form, and when heated reverts again to
+formaldehyde; it must not burn, for no gas is evolved when the heating
+reaches the stage of burning. The lamps used for disinfection with
+paraform are very simple in construction, but as the evolution of the
+gas is very uncertain, this method is used only for small places, and
+it demands two ounces of paraform for every 1,000 cubic feet of space,
+with an exposure of twelve hours. Formaldehyde is also used in the
+form of the liquid formalin either by spraying and sprinkling the
+objects to be disinfected with the liquid, and then placing them in a
+tightly covered box, so that they are disinfected by the evolution of
+the gas, or by wetting sheets with a formalin solution and letting
+them hang in the room to be disinfected.</p>
+
+<p>The method most frequently employed is to generate the formaldehyde in
+generators, retorts, and in the so-called autoclaves, and then to
+force it through apertures into the room.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other gaseous disinfectants used, hydrocyanic acid and chlorine
+may be mentioned, although they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> are very rarely used because of their
+irritating and poisonous character.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Hydrocyanic Acid</strong> is frequently used as an insecticide in ships, mills,
+and greenhouses, but its germicidal power is weak.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Chlorine</strong> is a good germicide, but is very irritating, poisonous, and
+dangerous to handle; it is evolved by the decomposition of chlorinated
+lime with sulphuric acid. Chlorine gas is very injurious to objects,
+materials, and colors, and its use is therefore very limited.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Chemicals Used as Disinfectants</em></h4>
+
+<p>Solution of chemicals, in order to be effective, must be used
+generously, in concentrated form, for a prolonged time, and, if
+possible, warm or hot. The strength of the solution must depend upon
+the work to be performed and the materials used. The method of
+applying the solution differs. It may consist in immersing and soaking
+the infected object in the solution; or the solution may be applied as
+a wash to surfaces, or used in the form of sprays, atomizers, etc. The
+most important solutions of chemicals and the ones most frequently
+employed are those of carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Carbolic Acid.</strong>&mdash;In the strength of 1:15,000 carbolic acid prevents
+decomposition; a strength of 1:1,000 is needed for the destruction of
+bacteria, and a three per cent to five per cent solution for the
+destruc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>tion of spores. Carbolic acid is used, as a rule, in two per
+cent to five per cent solutions, and is a very good disinfectant for
+washing floors, walls, ceilings, woodwork, small objects, etc. The
+cresols, creolin, lysol, and other solutions of the cresols are more
+germicidal than carbolic acid, and are sometimes used for the same
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bichloride of Mercury</strong> (corrosive sublimate) is a potent poison and a
+powerful germicide; in solutions of 1:15,000 it stops decomposition;
+in solutions of 1:2,000 it kills bacteria in two hours; and in a
+strength of 1:500 it acts very quickly as a germicide for all
+bacteria, and even for spores. Corrosive sublimate dissolves in
+sixteen parts of cold and three parts of boiling water, but for
+disinfecting purposes it should be colored so that it may not be
+inadvertently used for other purposes, as the normal solutions are
+colorless and may accidentally be used internally. The action of the
+bichloride is increased by heat.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Formalin</strong> is a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas, and its
+uses and methods of employment have already been considered.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Potassium Permanganate</strong> is a good germicide, and weak solutions of it
+are sufficient to kill some bacteria, but the objections against its
+use are that solutions of potassium permanganate become inert and
+decompose on coming in contact with any organic matter. Furthermore,
+the chemical would be too expensive for disinfecting purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span><strong>Ferrous Sulphate</strong> (copperas) was formerly very extensively used for
+disinfecting purposes, but is not so used at present, owing to the
+fact that it has been learned that the germicidal power of this
+material is very slight, and that its value depends mostly upon its
+deodorizing power, for which reason it is used on excreta in privy
+vaults, etc.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Lime.</strong>&mdash;When carbonate of lime is calcined the product is common lime,
+which, upon being mixed with water, produces slaked lime; when to the
+latter considerable water is added, the product is milk of lime, and
+also whitewash. Whitewash is often used to disinfect walls and
+ceilings of cellars as well as of rooms; milk of lime is used to
+disinfect excreta in privy vaults, school sinks, etc. Whenever lime is
+used for disinfecting excreta it should be used generously, and be
+thoroughly mixed with the material to be disinfected.</p>
+
+
+<h4><em>Disinfection of Rooms</em></h4>
+
+<p>Practical disinfection is not a routine, uniform, and thoughtless
+process, but demands the detailed, conscientious application of
+scientific data gained by research and laboratory experiments.
+Disinfection to be thorough and successful cannot be applied to all
+objects, material, and diseases in like manner, but must be adjusted
+to the needs of every case, and must be performed conscientiously.
+Placing a sulphur candle in a room, spilling a quart of carbolic acid
+or a couple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> of pounds of chlorinated lime upon the floors or objects,
+may be regarded as disinfection by laymen, but in municipal
+disinfection the disinfector must be thoroughly versed in the science
+of disinfection and be prepared to apply its dictates to practice.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Rooms.</strong>&mdash;In the disinfection of rooms the disinfectant used varies with
+the part of the room as well as with the character of the room. When a
+gaseous disinfectant is to be used sulphur dioxide or formaldehyde is
+employed, with the tendency lately to replace the former by the
+latter. Wherever there are delicate furnishings, tapestries, etc.,
+sulphur cannot be used on account of its destructive character; when
+sulphur is employed it is, as a rule, in the poorer class of tenement
+houses where there is very little of value to be injured by the gas,
+and where the sulphur is of additional value as an insecticide.
+Whenever gaseous disinfectants are used the principal work of the
+disinfector is in the closing up of the cracks, apertures, holes, and
+all openings from the room to the outer air, as otherwise the gaseous
+disinfectant will escape. The closing up of the open spaces is
+accomplished usually by means of gummed-paper strips, which are
+obtainable in rolls and need only to be moistened and applied to the
+cracks, etc. Openings into chimneys, ventilators, transoms, and the
+like must not be overlooked by the disinfector. After the openings
+have already been closed up the disinfectant is applied and the
+disinfector quickly leaves the room, being careful to close the door<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+behind him and to paste gummed paper over the door cracks. The room
+must be left closed for at least twelve, or better, for twenty-four
+hours, when it should be opened and well aired.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Walls and Ceilings</strong> of rooms should be disinfected by scrubbing with a
+solution of corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid; and in cases of
+tuberculosis and wherever there is fear of infection adhering to the
+walls and ceilings, all paper, kalsomine, or paint should be scraped
+off and new paper, kalsomine, or paint applied.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Metal Furniture</strong> should first be scrubbed and washed with hot soapsuds,
+and then a solution of formalin, carbolic acid, or bichloride applied
+to the surfaces and cracks.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Wooden Bedsteads</strong> should be washed with a disinfecting solution and
+subjected to a gaseous disinfectant in order that all cracks and
+openings be penetrated and all insects be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Bedding, Mattresses, Pillows, Quilts, etc.</strong>, should be packed in clean
+sheets moistened with a five per cent solution of formalin, and then
+carted away to be thoroughly disinfected by steam in a special
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Sheets, Small Linen and Cotton Objects, Tablecloths, etc.</strong>, should be
+soaked in a carbolic-acid solution and then boiled.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Rubbish, Rags, and Objects of Little Value</strong> found in an infected room
+are best burned.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Glassware and Chinaware</strong> should either be boiled or subjected to dry
+heat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span><strong>Carpets</strong> should first be subjected to a gaseous disinfectant, and then
+be wrapped in sheets wetted with formalin solution and sent to be
+steamed. Spots and stains in carpets should be thoroughly washed
+before being steamed, as the latter fixes the stains.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Woolen Goods and Wool</strong> are injured by being steamed, and hence may be
+best disinfected by formalin solutions or by formaldehyde gas.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Books</strong> are very difficult to disinfect, especially such books as were
+handled by the patient, on account of the difficulty of getting the
+disinfectant to act on every page of the book. The only way to
+disinfect books is to hang them up so that the leaves are all open,
+and then to subject them to the action of formaldehyde gas for twelve
+hours. Another method sometimes employed is to sprinkle a five per
+cent solution of formalin on every other page of the book; but this is
+rather a slow process.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p><strong>Stables</strong> need careful and thorough disinfection. All manure, hay, feed,
+etc., should be collected, soaked in oil, and burned. The walls,
+ceilings, and floors should then be washed with a strong disinfecting
+solution applied with a hose; all cracks are to be carefully cleaned
+and washed. The solution to be used is preferably lysol, creolin, or
+carbolic acid. After this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> the whole premises should be fumigated with
+sulphur or formaldehyde, and then the stable left open for a week to
+be aired and dried, after which all surfaces should be freshly and
+thickly kalsomined.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Food</strong> cannot be very well disinfected unless it can be subjected to
+boiling. When this is impossible it should be burned.</p>
+
+<p><strong>Cadavers</strong> of infected persons ought to be cremated, but as this is not
+always practicable, the next best way is to properly wash the surface
+of the body with a formalin or other disinfecting solution, and then
+to have the body embalmed, thus disinfecting it internally and
+externally.</p>
+
+<p>Disinfectors, coming often as they do in contact with infected
+materials and persons, should know how to disinfect their own <em>persons
+and clothing</em>. So far as clothing is concerned the rule should be that
+those handling infected materials have a special uniform<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> which is
+cleaned and disinfected after the day's work is done. The hands should
+receive careful attention, as otherwise the disinfector may carry
+infection to his home. The best method of disinfecting the hands is to
+thoroughly wash and scrub them for five minutes with green soap,
+brush, and water, then immerse first for one minute in alcohol, and
+then in a hot 1:1,000 bichloride solution. The nails should be
+carefully scrubbed and cleaned.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Blankets, carpets, and rugs should be frequently hung
+out on the line in the bright sunlight.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Unless books are valuable it is best to burn them. Paper
+will hold germs for several weeks. Recent experiments show that
+certain pathogenic bacteria, including the bacilli of diphtheria, will
+live for twenty-eight days on paper money.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Duck, linen, or any washable material will do.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III_XI" id="CHAPTER_III_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<p class="chapter_head"><strong>Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems</strong><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In our variable climate, with its sudden and extreme changes in
+temperature, the matter of heating and ventilation demands the serious
+attention of all houseowners and housebuilders.</p>
+
+<p>The most common method of heating the modern dwelling is by a hot-air
+furnace in the cellar, with sheet-metal ducts for conveying the heated
+air to the various rooms. The advantages of a furnace are cheapness of
+installation and, in moderate weather, a plentiful supply of warm but
+very dry air. The disadvantages are the cost of fuel consumed, the
+liability of the furnace to give off gas under certain conditions, and
+the inability to heat certain rooms with some combinations of
+temperature and wind. The cost of installing a furnace and its proper
+ducts in a ten-room house is from $250 to $350; such a furnace will
+consume fifteen to twenty tons of anthracite coal in a season in the
+latitude of New York City. The hot-air system works better with
+compact square houses than with long, "rangy" structures. For a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> house
+fully exposed to the northwest blasts, one of the other systems should
+be considered.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the next most popular arrangement is a sectional cast-iron
+hot-water heater, with a system of piping to and from radiators in the
+rooms to be heated. Hot-water heating has many advantages, some of
+which are the warmth of the radiators almost as soon as the fire is
+started and after the fire is out; the moderation of the heat; the
+freedom from sudden changes in amount of heat radiated; the absence of
+noise in operation, and the low cost in fuel consumed. Some of the
+disadvantages are the high cost of installation and the lack of easy
+or ready control (as the hot water cools slowly, and shutting the
+radiator valves often puts the whole system out of adjustment). A
+hot-water heating plant for a ten-room house will cost $400 to $600,
+according to the type of boiler; the corresponding fuel consumption
+will be twelve to sixteen tons of coal per season.</p>
+
+<p>The third system in common use is by steam through radiators or coils
+of pipe connected to a cast-iron sectional boiler, or a steel tubular
+boiler set in brickwork. This system is in use in practically all
+large buildings; and its advantages are the moderate cost of
+installation (as the single-pipe system is very efficient and the
+pressure to be provided against in connections and fittings is
+slight); the ease of control (since any good equipment will furnish
+steam in twenty minutes from the time the fire is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> started, and fresh
+coal thrown upon the fire with a closing of dampers will stop the
+steam supply in five minutes&mdash;or any radiator may be turned on or off
+in an instant); the ability to heat the entire house in any weather,
+or any single room or suite of rooms only; and, lastly, the moderate
+fuel consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The disadvantages of steam heat are no heat, or next to none, without
+the production of steam, involving some noise in operation, and danger
+of explosion. Steam equipment in a ten-room house will cost $300 to
+$550, the lower price being for a sectional boiler and the higher for
+a steel boiler set in brickwork. The fuel consumed will be from ten to
+fifteen tons per season.</p>
+
+<p>Both hot-water and steam systems require supplementary means of
+ventilation. Placing the radiators in exposed places, as beneath
+windows, in the main hall near the front door, in northwest corners
+and near outside walls, will insure some circulation of air; and, if
+one or two open fire places be provided on each floor, there will be,
+in most cases, sufficient ventilation without the use of special
+ducts.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_III_III">Chapter III</a> for full discussion.&mdash;<span class="editor">Editor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section_break"></div>
+<div id="trannote">
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE.</h2>
+
+<p>1) Figure numbers (which aren't contiguous) have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>2) Part III, Chapter V. The <a href="#TABLE_Pipe_Thickness">table</a> showing thickness of vitrified pipes
+reads:</p>
+
+<table summary="Thicknesses of vitrified pipes.">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+  <td>4 inches diameter</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> inch thick</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">16</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td><span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+  <td>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The thickness figure for the 6 inch pipe has been left as originally
+printed, but probably is incorrect (logically it should be somewhere
+between 1/2 inch and 3/4 inch thick).</p>
+
+<p>3) A larger version of <a href="#Illo_FIG_1">figure 1</a> can be viewed by clicking on the figure image.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,6552 @@
+Project Gutenberg's The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI), by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of VI)
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Kenelm Winslow
+
+Release Date: January 31, 2009 [EBook #27947]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HOME MEDICAL LIBRARY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Chris Logan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                           The Home Medical
+                               Library
+
+                                  By
+
+                     KENELM WINSLOW, B.A.S., M.D.
+
+   _Formerly Assistant Professor Comparative Therapeutics, Harvard
+           University; Late Surgeon to the Newton Hospital;
+          Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society, etc._
+
+                 With the Cooperation of Many Medical
+              Advising Editors and Special Contributors
+
+                            IN SIX VOLUMES
+
+        _First Aid :: Family Medicines :: Nose, Throat, Lungs,
+           Eye, and Ear :: Stomach and Bowels :: Tumors and
+             Skin Diseases :: Rheumatism :: Germ Diseases
+            Nervous Diseases :: Insanity :: Sexual Hygiene
+            Woman and Child :: Heart, Blood, and Digestion
+                 Personal Hygiene :: Indoor Exercise
+             Diet and Conduct for Long Life :: Practical
+                    Kitchen Science :: Nervousness
+                and Outdoor Life :: Nurse and Patient
+                    Camping Comfort :: Sanitation
+                       of the Household :: Pure
+                      Water Supply :: Pure Food
+                          Stable and Kennel_
+
+                               NEW YORK
+
+                    The Review of Reviews Company
+
+                                 1907
+
+
+
+
+Medical Advising Editors
+
+
+Managing Editor
+
+ALBERT WARREN FERRIS, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Former Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Chairman,
+Section on Neurology and Psychiatry, New York Academy of Medicine;
+Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Medical Editor, New International Encyclopedia._
+
+
+Nervous Diseases
+
+CHARLES E. ATWOOD, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Physician, Utica
+State Hospital and Bloomingdale Hospital for Insane Patients; Former
+Clinical Assistant to Sir William Gowers, National Hospital, London._
+
+
+Pregnancy
+
+RUSSELL BELLAMY, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cornell University Medical
+College Dispensary; Captain and Assistant Surgeon (in charge),
+Squadron A, New York Cavalry; Assistant in Surgery, New York
+Polyclinic._
+
+
+Germ Diseases
+
+HERMANN MICHAEL BIGGS, M.D.
+
+_General Medical Officer and Director of Bacteriological Laboratories,
+New York City Department of Health; Professor of Clinical Medicine in
+University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician
+to Bellevue, St. Vincent's, Willard Parker, and Riverside Hospitals._
+
+
+The Eye and Ear
+
+J. HERBERT CLAIBORNE, M.D.
+
+_Clinical Instructor in Ophthalmology, Cornell University Medical
+College; Former Adjunct Professor of Ophthalmology, New York
+Polyclinic; Former Instructor in Ophthalmology in Columbia University;
+Surgeon, New Amsterdam Eye and Ear Hospital._
+
+
+Sanitation
+
+THOMAS DARLINGTON, M.D.
+
+_Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board,
+New York Foundling Hospital; Consulting Physician, French Hospital;
+Attending Physician, St. John's Riverside Hospital, Yonkers; Surgeon
+to New Croton Aqueduct and other Public Works, to Copper Queen
+Consolidated Mining Company of Arizona, and Arizona and Southeastern
+Railroad Hospital; Author of Medical and Climatological Works._
+
+
+Menstruation
+
+AUSTIN FLINT, JR., M.D.
+
+_Professor of Obstetrics and Clinical Gynecology, New York University
+and Bellevue Hospital Medical College; Visiting Physician, Bellevue
+Hospital; Consulting Obstetrician, New York Maternity Hospital;
+Attending Physician, Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled, Manhattan
+Maternity and Emergency Hospitals._
+
+
+Heart and Blood
+
+JOHN BESSNER HUBER, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellevue Hospital Medical
+College; Visiting Physician to St. Joseph's Home for Consumptives;
+Author of "Consumption: Its Relation to Man and His Civilization; Its
+Prevention and Cure."_
+
+
+Skin Diseases
+
+JAMES C. JOHNSTON, A.B., M.D.
+
+_Instructor in Pathology and Chief of Clinic, Department of
+Dermatology, Cornell University Medical College._
+
+
+Diseases of Children
+
+CHARLES GILMORE KERLEY, M.D.
+
+_Professor of Pediatrics, New York Polyclinic Medical School and
+Hospital; Attending Physician, New York Infant Asylum, Children's
+Department of Sydenham Hospital, and Babies' Hospital, N. Y.;
+Consulting Physician, Home for Crippled Children._
+
+
+Bites and Stings
+
+GEORGE GIBIER RAMBAUD, M.D.
+
+_President, New York Pasteur Institute._
+
+
+Headache
+
+ALONZO D. ROCKWELL, A.M., M.D.
+
+_Former Professor Electro-Therapeutics and Neurology at New York
+Post-Graduate Medical School; Neurologist and Electro-Therapeutist to
+the Flushing Hospital; Former Electro-Therapeutist to the Woman's
+Hospital in the State of New York; Author of Works on Medical and
+Surgical Uses of Electricity, Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia), etc._
+
+
+Poisons
+
+E. ELLSWORTH SMITH, M.D.
+
+_Pathologist, St. John's Hospital, Yonkers; Somerset Hospital,
+Somerville, N. J.; Trinity Hospital, St. Bartholomew's Clinic, and the
+New York West Side German Dispensary._
+
+
+Catarrh
+
+SAMUEL WOOD THURBER, M.D.
+
+_Chief of Clinic and Instructor in Laryngology, Columbia University;
+Laryngologist to the Orphan's Home and Hospital._
+
+
+Care of Infants
+
+HERBERT B. WILCOX, M.D.
+
+_Assistant in Diseases of Children, Columbia University._
+
+
+
+
+Special Contributors
+
+
+Food Adulteration
+
+S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.
+
+_Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health._
+
+
+Pure Water Supply
+
+WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.
+
+_Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Member of American Public
+Health Association; Member, American Society Mechanical Engineers;
+Corresponding Member of American Institute of Architects, etc.; Author
+of "House Drainage," etc._
+
+
+Care of Food
+
+JANET MCKENZIE HILL
+
+_Editor, Boston Cooking School Magazine._
+
+
+Nerves and Outdoor Life
+
+S. WEIR MITCHELL, M.D., LL.D.
+
+_LL.D. (Harvard, Edinburgh, Princeton); Former President, Philadelphia
+College of Physicians; Member, National Academy of Sciences,
+Association of American Physicians, etc.; Author of essays: "Injuries
+to Nerves," "Doctor and Patient," "Fat and Blood," etc.; of scientific
+works: "Researches Upon the Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc.; of
+novels: "Hugh Wynne," "Characteristics," "Constance Trescott," "The
+Adventures of Francois," etc._
+
+
+Sanitation
+
+GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.
+
+_Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York
+City; Inspector, New York Sanitary Aid Society of the 10th Ward, 1885;
+Manager, Model Tenement-houses of the New York Tenement-house Building
+Co., 1888; Inspector, New York State Tenement-house Commission, 1895;
+Author of "Tenement-house Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation," etc._
+
+
+Indoor Exercise
+
+DUDLEY ALLEN SARGENT, M.D.
+
+_Director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University; Former President,
+American Physical Culture Society; Director, Normal School of Physical
+Training, Cambridge, Mass.; President, American Association for
+Promotion of Physical Education; Author of "Universal Test for
+Strength," "Health, Strength and Power," etc._
+
+
+Long Life
+
+SIR HENRY THOMPSON, Bart., F.R.C.S., M.B. (Lond.)
+
+_Surgeon Extraordinary to His Majesty the King of the Belgians;
+Consulting Surgeon to University College Hospital, London; Emeritus
+Professor of Clinical Surgery to University College, London, etc._
+
+
+Camp Comfort
+
+STEWART EDWARD WHITE
+
+_Author of "The Forest," "The Mountains," "The Silent Places," "The
+Blazed Trail," etc._
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: WALTER REED.
+
+In the year 1900, Major Walter Reed, a surgeon in the United States
+Army, demonstrated, by experiments conducted in Cuba, that a mosquito
+of a single species, Stegomyia fasciata, which has sucked the blood of
+a yellow-fever patient may transmit the disease by biting another
+person, but not until about twelve days have elapsed. He also proved,
+as described in Volume I, Part II, that the malady is not contagious.
+"With the exception of the discovery of anaesthesia," said Professor
+Welch, of Johns Hopkins University, "Dr. Reed's researches are the
+most valuable contributions to science ever made in this country."
+General Leonard Wood declared the discovery to be the "greatest
+medical work of modern times," which, in the words of President
+Roosevelt, "renders mankind his debtor." Major Reed died November 23,
+1902.]
+
+
+
+
+The Home Medical
+Library
+
+
+VOLUME V :: SANITATION
+
+Edited by
+
+THOMAS DARLINGTON, M.D.
+
+_Health Commissioner of New York City; Former President Medical Board,
+New York Foundling Hospital, etc.; Author of Medical and
+Climatological Works_
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY AND PURIFICATION
+
+By WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.
+
+_Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Author of "House Drainage,"
+"Sanitary Engineering," "Household Wastes," etc._
+
+
+PURE FOOD FOR THE
+HOUSEKEEPER
+
+By S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D.
+
+_Medical Inspector, New York City Department of Health_
+
+
+THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS
+
+By GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D.
+
+_Former Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York
+City; Author of "Tenement-House Inspection," "Handbook on Sanitation,"
+etc._
+
+
+NEW YORK
+
+The Review of Reviews Company
+
+1907
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1907, by
+
+THE REVIEW OF REVIEWS COMPANY
+
+
+THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+_Contents_
+
+
+    PART I
+
+    CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+    I.    COUNTRY SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY                           19
+
+            Relation of Water to Health--Collection of Rain
+            Water--Cisterns--Springs--Various Kinds of
+            Wells--Laws Regulating Supply.
+
+    II.   APPLIANCES FOR DISTRIBUTING WATER                         39
+
+            Pumping Machines--The Hydraulic Ram--Use of
+            Windmills--Engines--Steam and Electric
+            Pumps--Reservoirs and Tanks--Appliances for Country
+            Houses.
+
+    III.  PURIFYING WATER BY COPPER SULPHATE                        52
+
+            Clear Water Often Dangerous--Pollution Due to
+            Plants--Copper Sulphate Method--Directions for the
+            Copper Cure.
+
+    IV.   RIDDING STAGNANT WATER OF MOSQUITOES                      70
+
+            Malaria Due to Mosquitoes--Cause of Yellow
+            Fever--Effect of a Mosquito Bite--Destruction of
+            Larvae--Best Preventive Measures--Use of Kerosene.
+
+
+    PART II
+
+    I.    HOW TO DETECT FOOD ADULTERATION                           87
+
+            Definition of Adulteration--Food Laws--Permissible
+            Adulterants--How to Select Pure Food--Chemical
+            Tests.
+
+    II.   MUSHROOM POISONING                                       112
+
+            Symptoms and Treatment--Coffee and Atropine the Best
+            Antidotes--How to Tell the Edible Kind--"Horse,"
+            "Fairy-ring," and Other Varieties--Poisonous
+            Species.
+
+
+    PART III
+
+    I.    SOIL AND SITES                                           131
+
+            Constituents of the Soil--Influence on
+            Health--Improving Defective Soil--Street Paving and
+            Tree Planting--Proper Construction of
+            Houses--Subsoil Drainage.
+
+    II.   VENTILATION                                              146
+
+            What is Meant by Ventilation--Quantity of Air
+            Required--Natural Agents of Ventilation--Special
+            Appliances.
+
+    III.  WARMING                                                  160
+
+            Various Methods--Materials of
+            Combustion--Chimneys--Fireplaces and
+            Grates--Stoves--Hot-air Warming--Hot-water
+            Systems--Principles of Steam Heating.
+
+    IV.   DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE                                       170
+
+            Refuse and Garbage--Discharge into
+            Waters--Cremation--Precipitation--Intermittent
+            Filtration--Immediate Disposal, etc.
+
+    V.    SEWERS                                                   182
+
+            Definition--Materials Used in Construction--Levels
+            of Trenches--Joints of Pipes--The Fall and Flow of
+            the Contents--Connections--Tide Valves--Sewer Gas.
+
+    VI.   PLUMBING                                                 189
+
+            Purposes and Requisites--Materials Used--Joints and
+            Connections--Construction of Traps--Siphonage and
+            Back Pressure--The Vent-pipe System.
+
+    VII.  PLUMBING PIPES                                           206
+
+            Construction of House Drains--Fall, Position, and
+            Connection--Main Traps--Extension of Vertical
+            Pipes--Fresh-air Inlets--Soil and Waste
+            Pipes--Branch Pipes, etc.
+
+    VIII. PLUMBING FIXTURES                                        216
+
+            Sinks--Washbasins--Washtubs--Bathtubs--Refrigerators,
+            etc.--Safes and Wastes--Pan, Valve, and Hopper
+            Closets--Flush Tanks--Yard Closets--Drains.
+
+    IX.   DEFECTS IN PLUMBING                                      231
+
+            Poor Work--Improper Conditions--How to Test Traps,
+            Joints, and Connections--Detect Sewer
+            Gas--Water-pressure, Smoke, and Scent Tests--Special
+            Appliances.
+
+    X.    INFECTION AND DISINFECTION                               238
+
+            Physical and Chemical Disinfectants--Use of Sulphur
+            Dioxide--Formaldehyde--Hydrocyanic
+            Acid--Chlorine--Carbolic Acid--Bichloride of
+            Mercury--Formalin--Potassium Permanganate, etc.
+
+    XI.   COST OF CONVEYED HEATING SYSTEMS                         254
+
+            Cost of Hot-air Systems--Cast-iron Hot-water
+            Heater--Advantages and Disadvantages--Cost for a
+            Ten-room House--Steam Heating--Cost of Equipment.
+
+
+
+
+_The Editor's Preface_
+
+
+The character and scope of this volume render it a most useful book
+for the home maker. The question of sanitation is one that closely
+affects the life of each individual, and many of its aspects are
+treated here in a lucid and comprehensive manner. Designed for wide
+distribution, these articles have been written to meet the needs of
+the dweller in the more densely populated communities, as well as
+those living in the less thickly settled portion of the country.
+
+In large cities the water supply is a problem that is cared for by
+regularly constituted sanitary authorities. Pure water is a vital
+necessity, but the inhabitant of a city has no need to personally
+concern himself with the source of supply. In the country, however,
+the home builder must often decide the matter for himself, and it is
+the aim of this book to give him the needed directions for avoiding
+many errors and pitfalls that abound in this direction.
+
+House construction, with its intricate problems, is also a more
+serious matter for the country dweller than for his city brother.
+
+In the matter of food supply, the inhabitant of a country district is
+more fortunate. Fresh vegetables and dairy products are much more
+easily obtained, and their freshness and purity more dependable.
+
+The article on water supply by Mr. Gerhard is authoritative, written,
+as it is, by a most eminent sanitarian. The publishers are to be
+congratulated upon the following valuable contribution to the same
+subject as regards the use of copper sulphate and the concise
+presentation of plans for mosquito extermination, while the extended
+work of Dr. Price and Dr. Baker's "Food Adulteration" are much to be
+commended. The two latter have been connected with the Department of
+Health of New York City, and have the advantage of experience in an
+organization which gives to the citizens of New York the protection to
+health that the wise use of science, knowledge, and money afford.
+
+I trust that the notes I have added in the light of recent practice of
+the New York City Department of Health may make this material of the
+utmost practical value to the householder of to-day.
+
+Through this Department of Health, New York City spent, during 1905,
+over $1,500,000, and for 1906 it has appropriated over $1,800,000.
+This vast sum of money is used for the sole purpose of safeguarding
+its citizens from disease. Sanitation in its varied branches is
+pursued as an almost exact science, and the efforts of trained minds
+are constantly employed in combating disease and promoting sanitation.
+
+The cities care for their own, but the greater number of the
+inhabitants of this country must rely upon their individual efforts.
+Therefore, any dissemination of knowledge regarding sanitation is most
+worthy. This book has a useful mission. It is pregnant with helpful
+suggestions, and I most heartily commend its purpose and its contents.
+
+                                   THOMAS DARLINGTON,
+                                   _President of the Board of Health_.
+
+    NEW YORK CITY.
+
+
+
+
+Part I
+
+WATER SUPPLY AND
+PURIFICATION
+
+BY
+
+WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=Country Sources of Water Supply=
+
+
+The writer was recently engaged to plan and install a water-supply
+system for a country house which had been erected and completed
+without any provision whatever having been made for supplying the
+buildings and grounds with water. The house had all the usual
+appointments for comfort and ample modern conveniences, but these
+could be used only with water borrowed from a neighbor. In all parts
+of the country there are numerous farm buildings which are without a
+proper water-supply installation. These facts are mentioned to
+emphasize the importance of a good water supply for the country home,
+and to point out that water is unquestionably the most indispensable
+requirement for such structures.
+
+
+_Adequate Water Supply Important_
+
+But the advantages of a water supply are not limited to the dwelling
+house, for it is equally useful on the farm, for irrigation, and in
+the garden, on the golf grounds and tennis courts, in the barns and
+stables; it affords, besides, the best means for the much-desired
+fire protection. And, most important of all, an unstinted and adequate
+use of water promotes cleanliness and thereby furthers the cause of
+sanitation, in the country not less than in the city home.
+
+The water supply for country houses has been so often discussed
+recently that the writer cannot hope to bring up any new points. This
+article should, therefore, be understood to offer simple suggestions
+as to how and where water can be obtained, what water is pure and fit
+for use, what water must be considered with suspicion, what water is
+dangerous to health, and how a source of supply, meeting the
+requirements of health, can be made available for convenient use.
+
+Right here I wish to utter a warning against the frequent tendency of
+owners of country houses to play the role of amateur engineers. As a
+rule this leads to failure and disappointment. Much money uselessly
+spent can be saved if owners will, from the beginning, place the
+matter in experienced hands, or at least seek the advice of competent
+engineers, and adopt their suggestions and recommendations as a guide.
+
+
+_Points to be Borne in Mind_
+
+Many are the points to be borne in mind in the search for water.
+Science teaches us that all water comes from the clouds, the
+atmospheric precipitation being in the form of either rain, or dew, or
+snow. After reaching the earth's surface, the water takes three
+different courses, and these are mentioned here because they serve to
+explain the different sources of supply and their varied character.
+
+A part of the water runs off on the surface, forming brooks, streams,
+and lakes, and if it falls on roofs of houses or on prepared catchment
+areas, it can be collected in cisterns or tanks as rain water. Another
+part of the water soaks away into pervious strata of the subsoil, and
+constitutes underground water, which becomes available for supply
+either in springs or in wells. A third part is either absorbed by
+plants or else evaporated.
+
+In our search for a source of supply, we should always bear in mind
+the essential requirements of the problem. Briefly stated, these are:
+the wholesomeness of the water, the adequateness and steadiness of the
+supply, its availability under a sufficient pressure, insuring a good
+flow, and the legal restrictions with which many water-supply problems
+are surrounded.
+
+The first essential requirement is that of _wholesomeness_. The
+quality of a water supply is dependent upon physical properties and
+upon chemical and bacteriological characteristics. Water, to be
+suitable for drinking, must be neither too hard nor too soft; it
+should not contain too many suspended impurities, nor too much foreign
+matter in solution. Pure water is colorless and without odor. But it
+must be understood that the quality cannot be decided merely by the
+color, appearance, taste, and odor. The chemical and bacteriological
+examinations, if taken together, form a much safer guide, and with
+these analyses should go hand in hand a detailed survey of the water
+source and its surroundings.
+
+
+_Relation of Water to Health_
+
+Any pronounced taste in the water renders it suspicious; an offensive
+smell points to organic contamination; turbidity indicates presence of
+suspended impurities, which may be either mineral or organic. But even
+bright and sparkling waters having a very good taste are sometimes
+found to be highly polluted. Hence, it should be remembered that
+neither bright appearance nor lack of bad taste warrants the belief
+that water is free from dangerous contamination.
+
+It is a well-established fact now that there is a relation between the
+character of the water supply and the health of a community; and what
+is true of cities, villages, and towns, is, of course, equally true of
+the individual country house.
+
+
+_How Water Becomes Contaminated_
+
+There are numerous ways in which water may become polluted, either at
+the source or during storage or finally during distribution. Rain
+water, falling pure from the clouds, encounters dust, soot, decaying
+leaves and other vegetable matters, and ordure of birds on the roofs;
+its quality is also affected by the roofing material, or else it is
+contaminated in the cisterns by leakage from drains or cesspools.
+Upland waters contain generally vegetable matter, while surface water
+from cultivated lands becomes polluted by animal manure. River water
+becomes befouled by the discharge into it of the sewers from
+settlements and towns located on its banks. Subsoil water is liable to
+infiltration of solid and liquid wastes emanating from the human
+system, from leaky drains, sewers, or cesspools, stables, or
+farmyards; and even deep well water may become contaminated by reason
+of defects in the construction of the well.
+
+During storage, water becomes contaminated in open reservoirs by
+atmospheric impurities; a growth of vegetable organisms or algae often
+causes trouble, bad taste, or odor; water in open house tanks and in
+cisterns is also liable to pollution. During distribution, water may
+become changed in quality, owing to the action of the water on the
+material of the pipes.
+
+From what source shall good water be obtained? This is the problem
+which confronts many of those who decide to build in the country.
+
+The usual sources, in their relative order of purity, are: deep
+springs and land or surface springs, located either above or below the
+house, but not too near to settlements; deep subterranean water, made
+available by boring or drilling a well; upland or mountain brooks
+from uninhabited regions; underground water in places not populated,
+reached by a dug or driven well; lake water; rain water; surface water
+from cultivated fields; pond and river water; and finally, least
+desirable of all, shallow well water in villages or towns. These
+various sources of supply will be considered farther on.
+
+
+_An Ample Volume Necessary_
+
+The second essential requirement is _ample quantity_. The supply must
+be one which furnishes an ample volume _at all seasons_ and for all
+purposes.
+
+What is a reasonable daily domestic consumption? The answer to this
+question necessarily depends upon the character of the building and
+the habits and occupation of its inmates. It is a universal experience
+that as soon as water is introduced it is used more lavishly, but also
+more recklessly and regardless of waste. For personal use, from twenty
+to twenty-five gallons per person should prove to be ample per day:
+this comprises water for drinking and cooking, for washing clothes,
+house and kitchen utensils, personal ablutions, and bathing; but,
+taking into account other requirements on the farm or of country
+houses, we require at least sixty gallons per capita per diem. To
+provide water for the horses, cows, sheep, for carriage washing, for
+the garden, for irrigation of the lawn, for fountains, etc., and keep
+a suitable reserve in case of fire, the supply should be not less
+than 150 gallons per person per day.
+
+
+_A Good Pressure Required_
+
+The third essential requirement is a _good water pressure_. Where a
+suitable source of water is found, it pays to make it conveniently
+available, so as to avoid carrying water by hand, which is troublesome
+and not conducive to cleanliness. A sufficient pressure is attained by
+either storing water at, or lifting it to, a suitable elevation above
+the point of consumption. In this respect many farm and country houses
+are found to be but very imperfectly supplied. Often the tank is
+placed only slightly higher than the second story of the house. As a
+result, the water flows sluggishly at the bathroom faucets, and, in
+case of fire, no effective fire stream can be thrown. Where a
+reservoir is suitably located above the house, the pressure is
+sometimes lost by laying pipes too small in diameter to furnish an
+ample stream. Elevated tanks should always be placed so high as to
+afford a good working pressure in the entire system of pipes. Where a
+tower of the required height is objectionable, either on account of
+the cost or on account of appearance, pressure tanks may be installed
+which have many advantages.
+
+In selecting a source of water supply, the following points should be
+borne in mind for guidance: first, the wholesomeness of the water;
+next, the cost required to collect, store, and distribute the water;
+finally, where a gravity supply is unavailable, the probable operating
+expenses of the water system, cost of pumping, etc.
+
+
+_Collection of Rain Water_
+
+The collection of rain water near extensive manufacturing
+establishments is not advisable, except where arrangements are
+provided for either filtering or distilling the water. In the country,
+rain water is pure and good, if the precaution is observed to allow
+the first wash from roofs to run to waste. The rain may be either
+caught on the roofs, which must always have a clean surface and clean
+gutters, or else on artificially prepared catchment areas. As an
+example, I quote: "All about the Bermuda Islands one sees great white
+scars on the hill slopes. These are dished spaces, where the soil has
+been scraped off and the coral rock exposed and glazed with hard
+whitewash. Some of these are a quarter acre in size. They catch and
+carry the rainfall to reservoirs, for the wells are few and poor, and
+there are no natural springs and no brooks." (Mark Twain, "Some
+Rambling Notes of an Idle Excursion.")
+
+After the close of the Boer War the English sent about 7,000 Boer
+prisoners of war to Bermuda, where they were encamped on some of the
+smaller islands of the group, and the entire water supply for the
+encampment was obtained by building artificial catchment areas as
+described in the above quotation.
+
+Sometimes, instead of building underground cisterns, rain water is
+caught and stored in barrels above ground; if so, these should always
+be well covered, not only to avoid pollution, but to prevent the
+barrels from becoming mosquito breeders. Cisterns should always be
+built with care and made water-tight and impervious. The walls should
+be lined with cemented brickwork. In soil consisting of hard pan,
+cisterns in some parts of the country are built without brick walls,
+the walls of the excavation being simply cemented. I do not approve of
+such cheap construction, particularly where the cistern is located
+near a privy or cesspool. Pollution of cistern water is often due to
+the cracking of the cement lining. Overflows of cisterns should never
+be connected with a drain, sewer, or cesspool. Run the overflow into
+some surface ditch and provide the mouth with a fine wire screen, to
+exclude small animals. It is not recommended to build cisterns in
+cellars of houses.
+
+
+_Quality of Water Obtained from Lakes_
+
+Lakes yield, as a rule, a supply of clear, bright, and soft water.
+This is particularly the case with mountain lakes, because they are at
+a distance from sources of contamination. The character of the water
+depends upon whether the lake is fed by brooks, that is, by the rain
+falling upon the watershed, or also by springs. In one case the water
+is surface water exclusively; in the other, it is surface and
+underground water mixed. The purity also depends upon the depth of
+the lake and upon the character of its bottom.
+
+Deep lakes furnish a better supply and clearer water than shallow
+ones. The solid matter brought into the lake by the brooks or rivers
+which feed it does not remain long in suspension, but soon settles at
+the bottom, and in this way some lakes acquire the wonderfully clear
+water and the beautiful bluish-green color for which they are far
+famed.
+
+
+_Strong Winds Dangerous on Lakes_
+
+Strong winds or currents at times stir up the mud from the bottom;
+hence, in locating the intake, the direction of the prevailing winds
+should be considered, if practicable. The suction pipe should always
+be placed in deep water, at a depth of at least fifteen to twenty
+feet, for here the water is purer and always cooler.
+
+Settlements on the shores of a lake imply danger of sewage
+contamination, but the larger the lake, the less is the danger of a
+marked or serious pollution, if the houses are scattered and few.
+
+Pools and stagnant ponds are not to be recommended as a source of
+supply. In artificially made lakes there is sometimes danger of
+vegetable pollution, and trouble with growth of algae. The bottom of
+such lakes should always be cleared from all dead vegetation.
+
+Surface water may be obtained from brooks flowing through uninhabited
+upland or from mountain streams. Such water is very pure and limpid,
+particularly where the stream in its downward course tumbles over
+rocks or forms waterfalls. But, even then, the watershed of the stream
+should be guarded to prevent subsequent contamination. Larger creeks
+or rivers are not desirable as a source of supply, for settlements of
+human habitations, hamlets, villages, and even towns are apt to be
+located on the banks of the river, which is quite generally
+used--wrong as it is--as an outlet for the liquid wastes of the
+community, thus becoming in time grossly polluted. Down-stream
+neighbors are sure to suffer from a pollution of the stream, which the
+law should prevent.
+
+
+_The Water of Springs_
+
+The water of springs is subterranean, or ground water, which for
+geological reasons has found a natural outlet on the surface. We
+distinguish two kinds of springs, namely, land or surface springs, and
+deep springs. The former furnish water which originally fell as rain
+upon a permeable stratum of sand or gravel, underlaid by an impervious
+one of either clay or rock. Such water soaks away underground until it
+meets some obstacle causing it to crop out on the surface. Such spring
+water is not under pressure and therefore cannot again rise. Water
+from deep springs is rain water fallen on the surface of a porous
+stratum on a high level, and which passes under an impermeable
+stratum, and thus, being under pressure, rises again where an opening
+is encountered in the impervious stratum; these latter springs are
+really artesian in character.
+
+Deep-spring water is less apt to be polluted than water from surface
+or land springs, for it has a chance in its flow through the veins of
+the earth to become filtered. Land springs always require careful
+watching, particularly in inhabited regions, to prevent surface
+contamination.
+
+
+_Not all Spring Water Pure_
+
+It is a popular fallacy that all spring water is absolutely pure and
+healthful. The above explanation will be helpful in pointing out how,
+in some cases, spring water may be nothing but contaminated ground
+water. Land springs in uncultivated and uninhabited regions,
+particularly in the mountains, yield a good and pure supply. But it is
+always advisable, when tapping a spring for water supply, to study its
+probable source, and carefully to inspect its immediate surroundings.
+The spring should be protected by constructing a small basin, or
+reservoir, and by building a house over this. The basin will also
+serve to store the night flow of the spring. Before deciding upon a
+supply from a spring, its yield should be ascertained by one of the
+well-known gauging methods. Springs are usually lowest in the months
+of October and November, though there is some difference in this
+respect between land springs and deep springs. The minimum yield of
+the spring determines whether it forms a supply to be relied upon at
+all times of the year.
+
+If the spring is located higher than the grounds and buildings to be
+supplied, a simple gravity supply line may be carried from it, with
+pipes of good size, thus avoiding undue friction in the line, and
+stoppages. If lower than the house, the water from the spring must be
+raised by some pumping method.
+
+All water found underground owes its origin to the rainfall. If
+concealed water is returned to the surface by _natural processes_ it
+is called spring water, but if recovered by _artificial means_ it is
+called well water.
+
+
+_Different Kinds of Wells_
+
+There are numerous kinds of wells, distinguished from one another by
+their mode of construction, by their depth from the surface, by the
+fact of their piercing an impervious stratum or merely tapping the
+first underground sheet of water, and by the height to which the water
+in them rises or flows. Thus we have shallow and deep wells,
+horizontal wells or infiltration galleries, open or dug wells, tube
+wells, non-flowing and flowing wells, bored, drilled, and driven
+wells, tile-lined and brick-lined wells, and combination
+dug-and-tubular wells.
+
+When it is desired to provide a water supply by means of wells some
+knowledge of the geology of the region, of the character of the strata
+and of their direction and dip, will be very useful. In the case of
+deep wells, it is really essential. By making inquiries as to similar
+well operations in the neighborhood, one may gain some useful
+information, and thus, to some extent, avoid guesswork. When one must
+drill or bore through rock for a very deep well, which necessarily is
+expensive, much money, often uselessly spent, may be saved by
+consulting the reports of the State geologist, or the publications of
+the United States Geological Survey, or by engaging the services of an
+expert hydrogeologist.
+
+
+"_Water Finders_"
+
+It used to be a common practice to send for so-called "water finders,"
+who being usually shrewd observers would locate by the aid of a hazel
+twig the exact spot where water could be found. In searching for water
+one sometimes runs across these men even to-day. The superstitious
+faith in the power of the forked twig or branch from the hazelnut bush
+to indicate by its twisting or turning the presence of underground
+water was at one time widespread, but only the very slightest
+foundation of fact exists for the belief in such supernatural powers.
+
+In Europe, attention has again, during the past years, been called to
+this "method" of finding water, and it has even received the
+indorsement of a very high German authority in hydraulic engineering,
+a man well up in years, with a very wide practical experience, and the
+author of the most up-to-date hand-book on "Water Supply," but men of
+science have not failed to contradict his statements.
+
+
+_Definition of "Ground-water Level"_
+
+Water percolating through the soil passes downward by gravity until it
+reaches an impervious stratum. The surface of this underground sheet
+of water is technically called "water table" or ground-water level.
+The water is not at rest, but has a slow and well-defined motion, the
+rate of which depends upon the porosity of the soil and also upon the
+inclination or gradient of the water table. A shallow well may be
+either excavated or driven into this subsoil sheet of water. In
+populous districts, in villages, towns, but also near habitations, the
+soil from which water is obtained must, of necessity, be impregnated
+with organic waste matter. If, in such a surface well, the level of
+the water is lowered by pumping, the zone of pollution is extended
+laterally in all directions. Ordinary shallow well water should always
+be considered "suspicious water." There are two distinct ways in which
+surface wells are contaminated: one is by leakage from cesspools,
+sewers, privies, etc.; the other, just as important and no less
+dangerous, by direct contamination from the surface. The latter
+danger is particularly great in wells which are open at the surface,
+and from which water is drawn in buckets or pails. A pump well is
+always the safer of the two. Frogs, mice, and other small animals are
+apt to fall into the water; dust and dirt settle into it; the wooden
+curb and the rotten cover also contribute to the pollution; even the
+draw-buckets add to it by reason of being often handled with unclean
+hands.
+
+Always avoid, in the country, drinking water from farmers' wells
+located near cesspools or privies. Such shallow wells are particularly
+dangerous after a long-protracted drought. It is impossible to define
+by measurement the distance from a cesspool or manure pit at which a
+well can be located with safety, for this depends entirely upon local
+circumstances. Contamination of shallow wells may, in exceptional
+cases, be avoided by a proper location of the well with reference to
+the existing sources of impurity. A well should always be placed
+_above_ the source of pollution, using the word "above" with reference
+to the direction in which the ground water flows.
+
+
+_Precautions Regarding Wells_
+
+Other precautions to be observed with reference to surface wells are
+the following:
+
+Never dig a well near places where soil contamination has taken or is
+taking place. Line the sides of the well with either brick, stone, or
+tile pipe, cemented in a water-tight manner to a depth of at least
+twenty feet from the surface, so that no water can enter except from
+the bottom, or at the sides near the bottom.
+
+Raise the surface at the top of the well above the grade; arrange it
+so as to slope away on all sides from the well; cover it with a
+flagstone, and cement the same to prevent foreign matters from
+dropping into the well; make sure that no surface water can pass
+directly into the well; make some provision to carry away waste water
+and drippings from the well.
+
+Shallow wells made by driving iron tubes with well points into the
+subsoil water are preferable to dug wells. Use a draw-pump in
+preference to draw buckets.
+
+When a well is sunk through an impervious stratum to tap the larger
+supply of water in the deeper strata, we obtain a "deep well." Water
+so secured is usually of great purity, for the impurities have been
+filtered and strained out by the passage of the water through the
+soil. Moreover, the nature of the construction of deep wells is such
+that they are more efficiently protected against contamination, the
+sides being made impervious by an iron-pipe casing. In some rare
+cases, even deep wells show pollution due to careless jointing of the
+lining, or water follows the outside of the well casing until it
+reaches the deeper water sheet. Deep wells usually yield more water
+than shallow driven wells, and the supply increases perceptibly when
+the water level in the well is lowered by pumping. While surface
+wells draw upon the rainfall percolating in their immediate vicinity,
+deep wells are supplied by the rainfall from more remote districts.
+Deep wells are either non-flowing or flowing wells. When the
+hydrostatic pressure under which the water stands is sufficient to
+make it flow freely out on the surface or at the mouth of the well, we
+have a flowing, or true artesian well.
+
+
+_Character of Water From Deep Wells_
+
+Water from deep wells is of a cool and even temperature. It is usually
+very pure, but in some cases made hard by mineral salts in the water.
+Sulphur is also at times present, and some wells on the southern
+Atlantic coast yield water impregnated with sulphur gases, which,
+however, readily pass off, leaving the water in good condition for all
+uses. In many cases the water has a taste of iron. No general rule can
+be quoted as to the exact amount of water which any given well will
+yield, for this depends upon a number of factors. Increasing the
+diameter of very deep wells does not seem to have any marked effect in
+increasing the supply. Thus, a two-foot well gives only from fifteen
+to thirty per cent more water than a three-inch-pipe well. This rule
+does not seem to apply to shallow wells of large diameter, for here we
+find that the yield is about in proportion to the diameter of the
+well.
+
+It is interesting to note the fact that wells located near the
+seashore, within the influence of the tide, vary in the hourly flow.
+According to Dr. Honda, of the University of Tokio, there is "a
+remarkable concordance between the daily variations in the level of
+the tides and the water level in wells." The water in wells one mile
+from the seashore was found to stand highest at high tide. The daily
+variation amounted to sixteen centimeters, or a little over six
+inches. A similar variation was observed by the writer in some flowing
+wells located on the north shore of Long Island. Dr. Honda found also
+that the water level in wells varied with the state of the barometer,
+the water level being lowered with a rise in the barometer.
+
+Where a large supply is wanted a series of wells may be driven, and,
+as the expense involved is considerable, it is always advisable to
+begin by sinking a smaller test well to find out whether water may be
+had.
+
+Ground water may also be recovered from water-bearing strata by
+arranging horizontal collecting galleries with loose-jointed sides
+through which the water percolates. Such infiltration galleries have
+been used in some instances for the supply of towns and of
+manufacturing establishments, but they are not common for the supply
+of country houses.
+
+
+_Laws Regulating Appropriation of Water_
+
+Persons contemplating the establishment of a system of water supply in
+the country should bear in mind that the taking of water for supply
+purposes is, in nearly all States, hemmed in by legal restrictions.
+The law makes a distinction between subterranean waters, surface
+waters flowing in a well-defined channel and within definite banks,
+and surface waters merely spread over the ground or accumulated in
+natural depressions, pools, or in swamps. There are separate and
+distinct laws governing each kind of water. It is advisable, where a
+water-supply problem presents itself, to look up these laws, or to
+consult a lawyer well versed in the law of water courses.
+
+If it is the intention to take water from a lake, the property owner
+should make sure that he owns the right to take such water, and that
+the deed of his property does not read "to high-water mark only." The
+owner of a property not abutting on a lake has no legal right to
+abstract some of the water from the lake by building an infiltration
+gallery, or a vertical well of large diameter intended for the same
+purpose. On the other hand, an owner may take subterranean water by
+driving or digging a well on his own property, and it does not matter,
+from the law's point of view, whether by so doing he intercepts partly
+or wholly the flow of water in a neighboring well. But, if it can be
+shown that the subterranean water flows in a well-defined channel, he
+is not permitted to do this. The water from a stream cannot be
+appropriated or diverted for supply or irrigation purposes by a single
+property holder without the consent of the other riparian owners, and
+without compensation to them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Appliances for Distributing Water=
+
+
+We have so far discussed only the various sources of potable water. We
+must now turn our attention to the mechanical means for making it
+available for use, which comprise appliances for lifting, storing,
+conveying, distributing, and purifying the water.
+
+The location of the source of supply with reference to the buildings
+and grounds decides generally the question whether a gravity supply is
+feasible or whether water must be pumped. The former is desirable
+because its operating expenses are almost nothing, but it is not
+always cheapest in first cost. Rather than have a very long line of
+conduit, it may be cheaper to pump water, particularly if wind or
+water power, costing nothing, can be used.
+
+
+_Machines for Pumping_
+
+When it becomes necessary to pump water, there are numerous machines
+from which to choose; only the more important ones will be considered.
+We may use pumps operated by manual labor, those run by animal power,
+pumping machinery using the power of the wind or that of falling or
+running water; then there are hot-air, steam, and electric pumps,
+besides several forms of internal-combustion engines, such as gas,
+gasoline, and oil engines. Each has advantages in certain locations
+and under certain conditions.
+
+Of appliances utilizing the forces of Nature, perhaps the simplest
+efficient machine is the hydraulic ram. While other machines for
+lifting water are composed of two parts, namely, a motor and a pump,
+the ram combines both in one apparatus. It is a self-acting pump of
+the impulse type, in which force is suddenly applied and discontinued,
+these periodical applications resulting in the lifting of water.
+Single-acting rams pump the water which operates them; double-acting
+rams utilize an impure supply to lift a pure supply from a different
+source.
+
+The advantages of the ram are: it works continuously, day and night,
+summer and winter, with but very little attendance; no lubrication is
+required, repairs are few, the first cost of installation is small.
+Frost protection, however, is essential. The disadvantages are that a
+ram can be used only where a large volume of water is available. The
+correct setting up is important, also the proper proportioning in size
+and length of drive and discharge pipes. The continual jarring tends
+to strain the pipes, joints, and valves; hence, heavy piping and
+fittings are necessary. A ram of the improved type raises water from
+twenty-five to thirty feet for every foot of fall in the drive pipe,
+and its efficiency is from seventy to eighty per cent.
+
+Running water is a most convenient and cheap power, which is often
+utilized in water wheels and turbines. These supply power to run a
+pump; the water to be raised may come from any source, and the pump
+may be placed at some distance from the water wheel. Where sufficient
+fall is available--at least three feet--the overshot wheel is used. In
+California and some other Western States an impulse water wheel is
+much used, which is especially adapted to high heads.
+
+
+_Windmills Used for Driving Pumps_
+
+The power of the wind applied to a windmill is much used for driving
+pumps. It is a long step forward from the ancient and picturesque
+Dutch form of windmill, consisting of only four arms with cloth sails,
+to the modern improved forms of wheels constructed in wood and in
+iron, with a large number of impulse blades, and provided with devices
+regulating the speed, turning the wheel out of the wind during a gale,
+and stopping it automatically when the storage tank is filled. The
+useful power developed by windmills when pumping water in a moderate
+wind, say of sixteen miles an hour velocity, is not very high, ranging
+from one twenty-fifth horse-power for an eight and one-half foot wheel
+to one and one-half horse-power for a twenty-five foot wheel. The
+claims of some makers of windmills as to the power developed should be
+accepted with caution.
+
+The chief advantage is that, like a ram, the windmill may work night
+and day, with but slight attention to lubrication, so long as the wind
+blows. But there are also drawbacks; it requires very large storage
+tanks to provide for periods of calm; the wheel must be placed
+sufficiently exposed to receive the full wind force, either on a tower
+or on a high hill, and usually this is not the best place to find
+water. Besides, a windmill tower, at least the modern one, is not an
+ornamental feature in the landscape. It is expensive when built
+sufficiently strong to withstand severe winter gales. During the hot
+months of the year, when the farmer, the gardener, and the coachman
+require most water, the wind is apt to fail entirely for days in
+succession.
+
+
+_The Use of Engines_
+
+If water is not available, and wind is considered too unreliable,
+pumping must be accomplished by using an engine which, no matter of
+what form or type, derives its energy from the combustion of fuel, be
+the same coal, wood, charcoal, petroleum or kerosene, gas, gasoline,
+or naphtha. The use of such pumping engines implies a constant expense
+for fuel, operation, maintenance, and repairs. In some modern forms of
+engines this expense is small, notably so in the oil engine, and also
+in the gasoline engine; hence these types have become favorites.
+
+
+_Advantages of Pumping Engines_
+
+An advantage common to all pumping engines is that they can be run at
+any time, not like the windmill, which does not operate in a light
+breeze, nor like the ram, which fails when the brook runs low.
+Domestic pumping engines are built as simple as possible, so that the
+gardener, a farm hand, or the domestic help may run them. Skill is not
+required to operate them, and they are constructed so as to be safe,
+provided ordinary intelligence is applied.
+
+In using a fuel engine it is desirable, because of the attendance
+required, to take a machine of such capacity and size that the water
+supply required for two or three days may be pumped to the storage
+tank in a few hours.
+
+
+_Expansive Force of Heated Air Utilized_
+
+A favorite and extensively used type of domestic pump is the hot-air
+engine, in which the expansive force of heated air is used to do
+useful work. Among the types are simple and safe machines which do not
+easily get out of order. They are started by hand by giving the fly
+wheel one or more revolutions. If properly taken care of they are
+durable and do not require expensive repairs.
+
+
+_Gas and Gasoline Engines_
+
+In gas engines power is derived from the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air. Where a gas supply is available, such engines are very
+convenient, for, once started, they will run for hours without
+attention. They are economical in the consumption of gas, and give
+trouble only where the quality of gas varies.
+
+Owing to the unavailability of gas on the farm and in country houses,
+two other forms of pumping engines have been devised which are
+becoming exceedingly popular. One is the gasoline, the other is the
+oil engine. Both resemble the gas engine, but differ from it in using
+a liquid fuel which is volatilized by a sprayer. Gasoline engines are
+now brought to a high state of perfection.
+
+
+_Kerosene or Crude Oil as Fuel_
+
+In recent years, internal-combustion engines which use heavy kerosene
+or crude oil as fuel have been introduced. These have two palpable
+advantages: first, they are safer than gasoline engines; second, they
+cost less to run, for crude oil and even refined kerosene are much
+cheaper than gasoline. Oil engines resemble the gas and gasoline
+engines, but they have larger cylinders, because the mean effective
+pressure evolved from the explosion is much less than that of the
+gasoline engines.
+
+Oil engines for pumping water are particularly suitable in regions
+where coal and wood cannot be obtained except at exorbitant cost.
+Usually, the engine is so built as to be adapted for other farm work.
+It shares this advantage with the gasoline engine. Oil engines are
+simple, reliable, almost automatic, compact, and reasonable in first
+cost and in cost of repairs. There are many forms of such engines in
+the market. To be successful from a commercial point of view, an oil
+engine should be so designed and built that any unskilled attendant
+can run, adjust, and clean it. The cost of operating them, at eight
+cents per gallon for kerosene, is only one cent per hour per
+horse-power; or one-half of this when ordinary crude oil is used. The
+only attention required when running is periodical lubrication and
+occasional replenishing of the oil reservoir. The noise of the
+exhaust, common to all engines using an explosive force, can be
+largely done away with by using a muffler or a silencer. The smell of
+oil from the exhaust likewise forms an objection, but can be overcome
+by the use of an exhaust washer.
+
+
+_Steam and Electric Pumps_
+
+The well-known forms of steam-pumping engines need not be considered
+in detail, because high-pressure steam is not often available in
+country houses. Where electric current is brought to the building, or
+generated for lighting purposes, water may be pumped by an electric
+pump. Electric motors are easy and convenient to run, very clean, but
+so far not very economical. Electric pumps may be arranged so as to
+start and stop entirely automatically. Water may be pumped, where
+electricity forms the power, either by triplex plunger pumps or by
+rotary, screw, or centrifugal pumps.
+
+
+_Pumps Worked by Hand_
+
+Space forbids giving a description of the many simpler devices used
+for lifting water. In small farmhouses lift and force pumps worked by
+hand are now introduced, and the old-fashioned, moss-covered
+draw-bucket, which is neither convenient nor sanitary, is becoming a
+relic of past times.
+
+
+_Reservoirs and Storage Tanks_
+
+The water pumped is stored either in small masonry or earth
+reservoirs, or else in storage tanks of either wood, iron, or steel,
+placed on a wood or steel tower. Wooden tanks are cheap but unsightly,
+require frequent renewal of the paint, and give trouble by leaking,
+freezing, and corrosion of hoops. In recent years elevated tanks are
+supplanted by pressure tanks. Several such systems, differing but
+little from one another, are becoming quite well known. In these water
+is stored under suitable pressure in air-tight tanks, filled partly
+with water and partly with air.
+
+
+_A Simple Pressure System_
+
+One system consists of a circular, wrought-steel, closed tank, made
+air- and water-tight, a force pump for pumping water into the tank,
+and pipe connections. The tank is placed either horizontally or
+vertically in the basement or cellar, or else placed outdoors in the
+ground at a depth below freezing. Water is pumped into the bottom of
+the tank, whereby its air acquires sufficient pressure to force water
+to the upper floors.
+
+This simple system has some marked advantages over the outside or the
+attic tank. In these, water gets warm in summer and freezes in winter.
+Vermin and dust get into the tank, and the water stagnates. In the
+pressure tank, water is kept aerated, cool, and clean.
+
+Another pressure tank has an automatic valve, controlled by a float
+and connected with suction of pump. It prevents the tank from becoming
+water-logged by maintaining the correct amount of air inside.
+
+
+_An Ideal System for a Country House_
+
+Still another system using pressure tanks is more complete than either
+of the others, comprising engine, pump, air compressor, a water tank,
+and also an air tank. It is best described by a recent example
+constructed from plans and under the direction of the writer. The
+buildings supplied with water comprise the mansion, the stable, the
+cottage, and a dairy, and the pumping station is placed near the
+shore of the lake from which the supply is taken. See Figs. 1 and 2.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+DIAGRAM OF COMPRESSED AIR TANK SYSTEM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+PRESSURE-TANK PUMPING STATION.
+
+Interior view of pumping station of compressed air-tank system (see
+plan on opposite page) showing 3,000 gallon water tank, air tank of
+150 pounds pressure and 10 horse-power gasoline engine.]
+
+The pump house is about 20 feet by 27 feet, and contains a
+water-storage tank 6 feet in diameter and 13-1/2 feet long, of a
+capacity of 3,000 gallons; an air tank of same dimensions as the water
+tank, holding air under 150 pounds pressure; a 10 horse-power gasoline
+engine, direct-connected, by means of friction clutch, with an air
+compressor and also with a triplex pump of 75 gallons capacity per
+minute.
+
+The water in the tank is kept under 75 pounds pressure, and at the
+hydrant near the house, located about 100 feet above the pumping
+station, there is an available pressure of 33 pounds. The last drop of
+water flows from the water tank under the full pressure of 75 pounds
+at the pumping station. The suction pipe into the lake is 4 inches and
+is provided with well strainers to prevent clogging.
+
+The cost of pumping water by this system is quite reasonable. The
+gasoline engine requires per horse-power per hour about 1-1/4 gallons
+of gasoline, and at sixteen cents per gallon this makes the cost for
+1,000 gallons pumped about five cents. To this expense should,
+however, be added the cost of lubricating oil, repairs, amount for
+depreciation, and the small cost for labor in running the engine.
+
+Water pipes forming a distribution system should always be chosen
+generous in diameter, in order to avoid undue loss of pressure by
+friction. Where fire hydrants are provided, the size of the water main
+should not be below four inches. All branches should be controlled by
+shut-offs, for which the full-way gate valves are used in preference
+to globe valves. Pipe-line material is usually galvanized,
+screw-jointed wrought iron for sizes up to four inches.
+
+In conclusion, a word about water purification. Where the quality of
+the water supply is not above suspicion it may be improved by
+filtration. A filter should never be installed without the advice of a
+qualified expert, for there are numerous worthless devices and few
+really efficient ones. Where a filter is not available, the water used
+for drinking should be boiled or sterilized if there is the slightest
+doubt as to its wholesomeness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+=Purifying Water by Copper Sulphate=
+
+
+From the standpoint of the health of the community, the most vital
+problem is to get pure water. Almost equally important, when comfort
+and peace of mind is considered, is the procuring of sweet water. The
+wise owner of a country home looks to the water supply upon which his
+family is dependent. The careful farmer is particular about the water
+his stock, as well as his family, must drink. But careless persons
+constitute the large majority. Most people in the city and in the
+country pay no attention to their drinking water so long as it "tastes
+all right."
+
+
+_Clear Water Often Dangerous_
+
+Some years ago the inhabitants of Ithaca, N. Y., furnished a pitiful
+example of this foolhardy spirit. For a year previous to the breaking
+out of the typhoid epidemic, the public was warned, through the local
+and the metropolitan press, of the dangerous condition of Ithaca's
+water supply. Professors of Cornell College joined in these warnings.
+But the people gave no heed, probably because the water was _clear_
+and its taste sweet and agreeable. As was the case in this instance,
+bacteria are tolerated indefinitely, and it is only an alarming
+increase in the death rate that makes people careful. Then they begin
+to boil the water--when it is too late for some of them.
+
+
+_Bad-Tasting Water not Always Poisonous_
+
+But let the taste become bad and the odor repulsive, and a scare is
+easily started. "There must be dead things in the water, or it
+wouldn't taste so horrible," is the common verdict. Some newspaper
+seizes upon the trouble and makes of it a sensation. The ubiquitous
+reporter writes of one of "the animals" that it "looks like a wagon
+wheel and tastes like a fish." With such a remarkable organism
+contaminating one's drink no wonder there is fear of some dread
+disease. The water is believed to be full of "germs"; whereas the
+pollution is entirely due to the presence of algae--never poisonous to
+mankind, in some cases acting as purifying agents, but at certain
+seasons of the year imparting a taste and odor to the water that
+cannot be tolerated.
+
+Algae--what are they? They are aquatic plants. Algae are not to be
+confounded with the water vegetation common to the eye and passing by
+the term weeds. Such plants include eelgrass, pickerel weed, water
+plantain, and "duckmeat"--all of which have roots and produce flowers.
+This vegetation does not lend a bad odor or taste to the water. In
+itself it is harmless, although it sometimes affords a refuge for
+organisms of a virulent type.
+
+But when the aquatic vegetation of the flowering variety is eliminated
+from consideration, there still remains a group of water plants called
+algae. They comprise one-fifth of the known flowerless plants. They are
+the ancestors of the entire vegetable kingdom. Those whose habitat is
+the sea number the largest plants known in nature. Certain forms found
+in the Pacific are supposed to be 800 feet in length; others are
+reported to be 1,500 feet long. The marine variety are familiar as the
+brown kelps and the wracks, which are very common along our Northern
+coast.
+
+
+_Plants Which Pollute Drinking Water_
+
+The fresh-water algae are usually grass green in color. This green
+variety is often seen as a spongy coating to the surface of stagnant
+pools, which goes by the name of "frog spawn" or "pond scum." One of
+this description, _Spirogyra_, has done thousands of dollars' worth of
+damage by smothering the life out of young water-cress plants in
+artificial beds constructed for winter propagation. When the cress is
+cut the plants are necessarily left in a weakened condition, and the
+algae form a thick mat over the surface of the water, thus preventing
+the growth of the cress plants and oftentimes killing them. The
+absolute necessity of exterminating these algae led to the perfection
+of the copper-purification process.
+
+It is, however, a variety of algae not easily detected that
+contaminates the water. So long as they are in a live, healthy
+condition they benefit drinking water by purifying it. Indeed, some
+scientists have attributed the so-called self-purification of a stream
+entirely to the activities of these plants. Of such, one form,
+_Chlamydomonas_, is bright grass green in appearance. But the largest
+group--the plants which have the worst reputation as polluters of
+drinking water--are popularly known as the "blue-green algae"
+(_Schizophyceae_). The common name tells the color of these plants,
+although there are exceptions in this respect, some of them showing
+shades of yellow, brown, olive, chocolate, and purplish red. This
+variety of algae flourishes in the summer months, since a relatively
+high temperature and shallow stagnant water favor its germination. If
+the pond begins to dry up, the death of the organisms takes place, and
+the result is a most disagreeable, persistent odor which renders the
+water unfit for drinking purposes. This result is chemically due to
+the breaking down of highly organized compounds of sulphur and
+phosphorus in the presence of the large amount of nitrogen contained
+in these plants. Decomposition is not necessary for some of the blue
+greens to give off a bad odor, however. A number of them, on account
+of their oil-content, produce an odor when in a healthy condition that
+is sometimes likened to raw green corn or to nasturtiums, but usually
+it cannot be so pleasantly described.
+
+The Department of Agriculture has been able to solve the problem of
+exterminating algae from water supplies.[1] The department has done
+more; for it has succeeded in perfecting a method by which a reservoir
+contaminated with typhoid or other pathogenic bacteria can be
+purified. The work was begun with an inquiry into the extent of the
+trouble from algal pollution. Letters were addressed to some five
+hundred engineers and superintendents of water companies scattered all
+over the United States. The replies, which came from almost every
+State in the Union, were burdened with one complaint--"Algae are our
+worst pest"; and with one prayer--"Come over into Macedonia, and help
+us."
+
+
+_A Cheap and Available Remedy for Algae_
+
+Convinced of the need of earnest work, extensive laboratory
+experiments were inaugurated. The problem presented was this: the
+remedy must not only be readily available, but it must be cheap, that
+advantage may be taken of it by the poorest communities, as well as by
+those owning large reservoirs. Above all, the remedy must be
+absolutely harmless to man; the poison used to exterminate algae must
+not in any way affect the water drinkers. A large number of
+substances were used in the experiments before the final decision
+rested with copper sulphate. This salt is very poisonous to algae. On
+the other hand, copper in solution just strong enough to destroy algal
+growth could not possibly injure man; in fact, the temporary presence
+of such a small amount of copper in drinking water could not be
+detected.
+
+
+_A Practical Demonstration_
+
+The results in the laboratory being successful, the next step was to
+make a practical demonstration of the value of the method. This was
+first done in the fall of 1901. At Ben, Va., water cress is grown in
+large quantities during the winter, when it is a valuable market crop.
+Dams are constructed across a stream in such a manner as to enable the
+maintenance of a water level not too high for the growth of plants;
+when a freeze is threatened the plants can be flooded. In the cress
+beds selected for the experiments the water is obtained from a thermal
+spring whose temperature throughout the year is about 70 deg. F. This
+temperature is particularly favorable to the growth of "frog spawn."
+After the cress was cut for market, the algae frequently developed so
+rapidly as to smother the life out of the weakened plants. When this
+occurred, the practice was to rake out both water cress and algae and
+reset the entire bed. This was not only expensive; half the time it
+failed to exterminate the pest. It was, therefore, most desirable to
+devise a method of ridding the bed of algal growth without injuring
+the cress.
+
+
+_The Copper-sulphate Method Tested_
+
+Here the copper-sulphate method was put to a practical test. At the
+outset a strong solution was sprayed on the algae which coated the
+surface of the pond. This only killed the algal growth with which the
+particles of copper came in contact and left the main body of algae
+unaffected. Then trial was made of dissolving the copper directly in
+the water, and the result was most satisfactory. The solution used was
+that of 1 part of copper to 50,000,000 parts of water.
+
+Growers need have no trouble in the future. They need have no fear of
+employing the method, as the copper solution required for killing the
+algae could not possibly injure water cress, provided ordinary care is
+used in the work. As to the frequency of treatment required, one or
+two applications a year will generally be found sufficient, as this
+letter, received from the manager of the Virginia company, goes to
+show:
+
+"The 'moss' has given me no trouble at all this winter; in fact, I
+have for six months had to resort to the copper sulphate only once....
+All the conditions were favorable last fall and early winter for a
+riot of 'moss,' but it did not appear at all until just a few days
+ago, and then yielded to treatment much more readily than it did when
+I first began to use the copper." This letter was written over three
+years after Dr. Moore made his experiment in these cress beds.
+
+Satisfied with the results attained in exterminating algal growth in
+water-cress beds, attention was next given to reservoirs. Some fifty
+water supplies were treated during the summer of 1904, and in every
+case success attended the copper cure. In one respect the results were
+surprising. It was found that in practice the copper-sulphate method
+worked better than in theoretic experimentation; results in large
+reservoirs were more pronounced than in the laboratory. In fact, it
+developed that the solution necessary to kill algae in the laboratory
+must contain from five to twenty times as much copper as that
+contained in a solution which will exterminate algal growth in its
+natural habitat. This is not easily explained, if it can be explained
+at all. The test reason advanced is that only the most resistant
+organisms stand transplanting to an artificial environment. But, after
+all, the important point is that the new method works better in
+practice than was expected.
+
+
+_A Prescription for the Copper Cure_
+
+Thus the department is able to announce that the process is no longer
+in the experimental stage, and also to say what conditions must be
+known in determining the proper quantity of copper sulphate for
+destroying algae, together with a prescription for the copper cure.
+Here it is, for the benefit of careful persons who will use the method
+with proper intelligence: "The importance of knowing the temperature
+of the contaminated water is second only to the necessity of knowing
+the organism present. With increase of temperature the toxicity of a
+given dilution increases, and _vice versa_. Assuming that 59 deg. F. is
+the average temperature of reservoirs during the seasons when
+treatment is demanded, the quantity of copper should be increased or
+decreased approximately 2.5 per cent for each degree below or above
+59 deg. F.
+
+"Similar scales should be arranged for the organic content and the
+temporary hardness of the water. With the limited data at hand it is
+impracticable to determine these figures, but an increase of 2 per
+cent in the quantity of copper for each part per 100,000 of organic
+matter and an increase of 0.5 to 5 per cent in the proportion of
+copper for each part per 100,000 of temporary hardness will possibly
+be found correct. The proper variation in the increase due to hardness
+will depend upon the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide; if very
+small, 5 per cent increase is desirable; if large, 0.5 per cent is
+sufficient."
+
+The information in this prescription is to be used in connection with
+a table[2] published by the Department of Agriculture. This table
+gives the number of parts of water to one part of copper sulphate
+necessary to kill the various forms of algae which are listed. The
+formulae vary from 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water,
+necessary to destroy the most resistant and very rare forms (three of
+these are listed), to 1 part of copper in 25,000,000 parts of water,
+which is a sufficiently strong solution to exterminate _Spirogyra_,
+the cress-bed pest. By far the majority of forms do not require a
+solution stronger than that of 1 part of copper to 1,000,000 parts of
+water.
+
+
+_What the Agricultural Department is Doing_
+
+It is true that the department is not now holding out, directly, a
+helping hand to the owner of a country place, or to the farmer, in
+this campaign of purifying drinking water. In the first place, the
+greatest good of the greatest number demands that large reservoirs,
+which supply a great number of people with drinking water, ought to be
+considered first. Such supplies, moreover, are most frequently
+contaminated. Where fifty reservoirs were treated last summer, ten
+times that number will be "cured" this summer. It will be readily
+seen, therefore, that in conducting such a large number of
+experiments--considering preliminary reports, prescribing for
+treatment, and keeping proper account of results--the department, with
+a limited force and limited facilities, has its hands more than full.
+
+More important still, there is an absolute need of the services of
+some expert on the ground. While an algologist is a functionary not
+generally employed by water companies--in fact, a man trained in the
+physiology of algae is difficult to find--nevertheless, it is highly
+important, as the department views it, to have the cooeperation of an
+expert versed to some extent in the biological examination of drinking
+water. In other words, the copper cure is not a "patent medicine,"
+with printed directions which any person could follow. Intelligence
+and care are absolutely essential in the use of this treatment.
+Furthermore, each case must be treated as a distinct and separate
+case, as a physician would treat a patient.
+
+
+_Actual Purification Simple_
+
+Suppose, however, an owner of a country place, which is dependent upon
+a fresh-water pond for its water supply, finds that his drinking water
+is contaminated, that the taste and odor are such as to render the
+water unfit for use. There is no reason why he should not treat the
+supply, provided he is properly careful. When the nature of the
+polluting organism is definitely determined and the average
+temperature of the water observed, then the necessary formula can be
+decided upon. First, of course, the pond must be plotted, the depth
+found, and the capacity computed. The department will willingly
+furnish data for this purpose, together with blanks upon which to
+submit details as to contaminating organisms and water temperature,
+to any applicant. Once the proper solution is determined upon, the
+actual work of purification is most simple. In the following
+directions the department outlines the most practicable method of
+introducing the copper sulphate into a water supply:
+
+
+_Directions for the Copper Cure_
+
+"Place the required number of pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse
+bag--gunny sack or some equally loose mesh--and, attaching this to the
+stern of a row-boat near the surface of the water, row slowly back and
+forth over the reservoir, on each trip keeping the boat within ten to
+twenty feet of the previous path. In this manner about a hundred
+pounds of copper sulphate can be distributed in one hour. By
+increasing the number of boats, and, in the case of deep reservoirs,
+hanging two or three bags to each boat, the treatment of even a large
+reservoir may be accomplished in from four to six hours. It is
+necessary, of course, to reduce as much as possible the time required
+for applying the copper, so that for immense supplies, with a capacity
+of several billion gallons, it would probably be desirable to use a
+launch, carrying long projecting spars to which could be attached bags
+containing several hundred pounds of copper sulphate.
+
+"The substitution of wire netting for the gunny-sack bag allows a more
+rapid solution of the sulphate, and the time required for the
+introduction of the salt may thus be considerably reduced. It is best
+to select as warm a day for treatment as circumstances will permit."
+
+
+_Cost of the Treatment_
+
+Not difficult, one would say. No--when the proper solution is
+determined; to reach that determination is the difficulty. That the
+method can be tried "at home" is proved by the results obtained by the
+owner of a country home in the vicinity of New York. Tired of
+consulting engineers, who looked at his water supply, informed him
+that they could do nothing, and then charged him a big fee (to one he
+paid $250), this owner resorted to the copper-sulphate treatment. The
+cure cost the man just $2--but let his letter to the department tell
+the story:
+
+"My place in the country is located at Water Mill, in the township of
+Southampton, in Long Island. I purchased it in April, 1902, and was
+largely influenced in selecting this piece of land by the beauty of a
+pond which bounds it on the east. This little body of water covers
+about two acres, is fed by numerous springs, and discharges into Mecox
+Bay, the southern boundary of the land. When I bought the place the
+pond was filled with clear water. About the middle of the following
+June algae began to show, and in August the surface was almost entirely
+covered by the growth. The odor was offensive, and myriads of small
+insects hovered over the masses of algae much of the time. I consulted
+two engineers interested in the storage of water, and they told me
+that nothing could be done. The condition was so objectionable that I
+planned to plant a thick hedge of willows along the bank to shut off
+the view of the pond from the house.... I examined the pond on June
+15th and found large masses of algae covering an area several hundred
+feet in length and from twenty to forty feet in width. No
+microscopical examination was made of the growth, but I was informed
+that it seemed to be largely composed of filaments of _Spirogyra_ and
+other _Confervae_. On June 18th the treatment was begun.... In one week
+the growth had sunk and the pond was clear water. I examined the pond
+September 15th and found it still clear.
+
+"The use of the sulphate of copper converted an offensive
+insect-breeding pond into a body of beautifully clear water. The pond
+was full of fish, but the copper did not seem to harm them."
+
+
+_Effect of Copper Sulphate on Fish_
+
+Native trout were not injured when the large reservoir at Cambridge,
+N. Y., was purified by the copper treatment. A slightly different
+result, in this respect, was reported from Elmira, N. Y., however.
+Part of the report is as follows:
+
+"The effect of the copper-sulphate treatment on the different animal
+life was as follows: numerous 'pollywogs' killed, but no frogs;
+numerous small (less than two inches long) black bass and two large
+ones (eight inches long) killed; about ten large 'bullheads' were
+killed, but no small ones; numerous small (less than two inches long)
+'sunfish' were killed, but no large ones.
+
+"The wind brought the dead fish to the corners of the reservoir, and
+it was very little trouble to remove them. No dead fish were seen
+twenty-four hours after completion of the treatment."
+
+The injury done by copper sulphate to fish is a more serious matter
+than was at first supposed. Brook trout are, apparently, the least
+resistant to the salt. A Massachusetts trout pond stocked with
+eight-inch trout lost forty per cent as a result of the introduction
+of a strong solution of copper sulphate. The Bureau of Fisheries is
+working in conjunction with the Division of Plant Physiology in this
+matter, and it is hoped to secure reliable information. In the
+meantime, owners of ponds stocked with game fish would do well to take
+great care before resorting to the copper cure for algae--that is, if
+they hesitate to lose a part of the fish.
+
+
+_Water May be Drunk During Treatment_
+
+When a pond or reservoir is treated with the proper amount of copper
+sulphate to remove algae--except in the case of the few very resistant
+forms requiring a stronger solution than 1 part of copper to
+1,000,000 parts of water--there is no need of discontinuing the use
+of the water supply during treatment; the water may be drunk with
+impunity. But when water known to be polluted with pathogenic bacteria
+is sterilized by means of copper sulphate in strong solution, it is
+just as well to discontinue the use of the water for drinking purposes
+for not more than twenty-four hours. Even then, this is an overcareful
+precaution rather than a necessity.
+
+Experiments conducted with great care and thoroughness demonstrate
+that at room temperature, which is near the temperature of a reservoir
+in summer, a solution of 1 part of copper to 100,000 parts of water
+will destroy typhoid bacteria in from three to five hours. Similar
+experiments have proved that a copper solution of like strength is
+fatal to cholera germs in three hours, provided the temperature is
+above 20 deg. F. As was the case with algae, bacteria were found to be much
+more sensitive to copper when polluting water than when grown in
+artificial media.
+
+
+_The Use of Copper Tanks_
+
+The toxic effect of metallic copper upon typhoid bacteria in water
+gives some hints as to prevention of the disease by the use of copper
+tanks. This should not altogether take the place of the boiling of the
+water; it is useful in keeping it free from contamination, although
+water allowed to stand in copper receptacles for a period of from
+twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room temperature would be
+effectively sterilized, no matter what its contamination and no matter
+how much matter it held in suspension. But in order to insure such
+results the copper must be kept thoroughly clean. This polishing is
+not, as was popularly supposed, to protect the consumer from "copper
+poisoning," but to prevent the metal from becoming so coated with
+foreign substances that there is no contact of the copper with the
+water, hence no antiseptic quality.
+
+Dr. Henry Kreamer, of Philadelphia, proved that within four hours
+typhoid germs were completely destroyed by the introduction into the
+polluted water of copper foil.
+
+"Granting the efficiency of the boiling of water for domestic
+purposes, I believe that the copper-treated water is more natural and
+more healthful.... The intestinal bacteria, like colon and typhoid,
+are completely destroyed by placing clean copper foil in the water
+containing them.
+
+"Pending the introduction of the copper treatment of water on a large
+scale, the householder may avail himself of a method for the
+purification of drinking water by the use of strips of copper foil
+about three and one-half inches square to each quart of water, this
+being allowed to stand overnight, or from six to eight hours at the
+ordinary temperature, and then the water drawn off or the copper foil
+removed."
+
+Although a splendid antiseptic, copper in weak solution is not
+harmful, no more so than the old copper utensils used by our
+forefathers were harmful. Undoubtedly they were of benefit, and the
+use of them prevented the growth of typhoid and other bacteria. People
+of to-day might well go back to copper receptacles for drinking
+water.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] For published reports of the work, see Bulletins 64 and 76, Bureau
+of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture; reports prepared
+by Dr. George T. Moore and his assistant, Mr. Karl F. Kellerman.
+
+[2] See Bulletin No. 76, supra.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+=Ridding Stagnant Water of Mosquitoes=
+
+
+Because of the serious and often fatal injury it inflicts on man, the
+most dangerous animal known is the mosquito. Compared with the evil
+done by the insect pest, the cobra's death toll is small. This
+venomous serpent is found only in hot countries, particularly in
+India, while mosquitoes know no favorite land or clime--unless it be
+Jersey. Arctic explorers complain of them. In Alaska, it is recorded
+by a scientist that "mosquitoes existed in countless millions, driving
+us to the verge of suicide or insanity." A traveler on the north shore
+of Lake Superior, when the snow was several feet deep, and the ice on
+the lake five feet in thickness, relates that "mosquitoes appeared in
+swarms, literally blackening the banks of snow in sheltered places."
+
+
+_Mosquitoes Responsible for Yellow Fever_
+
+In the temperate zone this evil-breeding insect was, until recent
+years, considered more in the light of an exasperating pest. It is now
+known, however, that malaria is due entirely to the bites of
+mosquitoes. But it is in the tropical countries that their deadliest
+work is done. There, it has been proved beyond question, the
+mosquitoes are responsible for the carriage of yellow fever. If, in a
+yellow-fever ridden region, one were to live entirely in an inclosure,
+carefully protected with proper screens--as certain entomologists
+did--there practically would be no danger from the dread disease, even
+if all other precautions were neglected.
+
+
+_Effect of a Mosquito Bite_
+
+The crime committed by the mosquito against its innocent victim, man,
+is more in the nature of manslaughter than of murder, according to the
+authorities. There is no _premeditated malice_. "A mosquito bites
+primarily to obtain food," says a leading entomologist; "there is
+neither malice nor venom in the intent, whatever there may be in the
+act." There isn't great comfort in the intelligence conveyed by the
+scientist, nor in his further observation:
+
+"Theoretically, there would seem to be no reason why there should be
+any pain from the introduction of the minute lancets of the insects,
+and the small amount of bloodletting is usually a benefit rather than
+otherwise. Unfortunately, however, in its normal condition the human
+blood is too much inclined to clot to be taken unchanged into the
+mosquito stomach; hence, when the insect bites, a minute droplet of
+poison is introduced, whose function it is to thin out the fluid and
+make it more suitable for mosquito digestion. It is this poison that
+sets up the inflammation and produces the irritation or swelling....
+The pain is caused entirely by the action of the poison in breaking up
+the blood, and, as the first act of a biting mosquito is to introduce
+the poison into the wound, the pain and inflammation will be the same,
+whether the insect gets its meal or not. In fact, it has been said
+that if a mosquito be allowed to suck its fill and then fly, the bite
+will not itch, and there is just a basis of justification for this."
+
+To make a scientific inquiry into the habits of the mosquito, and to
+do it patiently, one should be far from the maddening swarms, or at
+least effectively screened in. Then it would be possible to believe
+the statement of the Government's entomologist that not "one mosquito
+in a million" ever gets the opportunity to taste the blood of a
+warm-blooded animal. As proof of this there are, in this country,
+great tracts of marshy land never frequented by warm-blooded animals,
+and in which mosquitoes are breeding in countless numbers. The point
+is emphasized by the prevalence of mosquitoes in the arctic circle and
+other uninhabited regions.
+
+If this gory insect does not live by blood alone, how is it nourished?
+Female mosquitoes are by nature vegetarians; they are plant feeders.
+Why they should draw blood at all is a question which remains
+unsolved by entomologists--as well as by the suffering victims. The
+females have been observed sucking the nectar from flowers; obtaining
+nutriment from boiled potatoes, even from watermelon rinds, from which
+they extract the juice. As regards the blood habit, the male mosquito
+is a "teetotaler." Just how this male insect lives, scientists have
+not determined. He may not take nourishment at all. At any rate, the
+mouth parts of the male are so different from those of the female that
+it is probable his food is obtained differently. The male is often
+seen sipping at drops of water, and a taste for molasses is ascribed
+to the male mosquito by one authority.
+
+
+_Presence of Mosquitoes Depends Upon Winds_
+
+A common remark heard along the Jersey shore, also on Long Island, is
+this: "When we have a sea breeze we are not troubled with mosquitoes,
+but when there comes a land breeze they are a pest." While this
+observation is true, the reasons therefore entertained by the
+unscientific mind are erroneous. The matter of the absence or
+abundance of mosquitoes in varying winds is closely related to the
+inquiry which entomologists have made: how far will mosquitoes fly?
+Says one investigator:
+
+"The migration of mosquitoes has been the source of much
+misapprehension on the part of the public. The idea prevalent at our
+seaside resorts that a land breeze brings swarms of mosquitoes from
+far inland is based on the supposition that these insects are capable
+of long-sustained flight, and a certain amount of battling against the
+wind. This is an error. Mosquitoes are frail of wing; a light puff of
+breath will illustrate this by hurling the helpless creature away, and
+it will not venture on the wing again for some time after finding a
+safe harbor. The prevalence of mosquitoes during a land breeze is
+easily explained. It is usually only during the lulls in the wind that
+Culex can fly. Generally on our coast a sea breeze means a stiff
+breeze, and during these mosquitoes will be found hovering on the
+leeward side of houses, sand dunes, and thick foliage.... While the
+strong breezes last, they will stick closely to these friendly
+shelters, though a cluster of houses may be but a few rods off, filled
+with unsuspecting mortals who imagine their tormentors are far inland
+over the salt meadows. But if the wind dies down, as it usually does
+when veering, out come swarms upon swarms of females intent upon
+satisfying their depraved taste for blood. This explains why they
+appear on the field of action almost immediately after the cessation
+of the strong breeze; on the supposition that they were blown inland,
+this sudden reappearance would be unaccountable."
+
+A sultry, rainy period of midsummer is commonly referred to as "good
+mosquito weather." The accepted idea is that mosquitoes are much more
+abundant at such times. This is true, and the explanation is simple.
+Mosquito larvae, or wrigglers, as they are termed, require water for
+their development. A heavy shower leaves standing water, which, when
+the air is full of moisture, evaporates slowly. Then, too, the heat
+favors the growth of the microoerganisms on which the larvae feed;
+wrigglers found in the water forty-eight hours after their formation
+will have plenty of food, and adult mosquitoes will appear six to
+eight days after the eggs are laid. Clear weather, with quick
+evaporation, interferes with the development of the wrigglers, so that
+a season with plenty of rain, but with sunshiny, drying weather
+intervening, is not "good mosquito weather."
+
+
+_Destroy the Larvae_
+
+Inasmuch as a generation of mosquitoes appear to torment man within
+ten days, at the longest, after the eggs are laid; as a batch laid by
+a female mosquito contains from two hundred to four hundred eggs; as
+from each egg may issue a larva or wriggler which in six days will be
+an adult mosquito on the wing--it is to the destruction of the larvae
+that attention should be directed. The larva is a slender organism,
+white or gray in color, comprising eight segments. The last of these
+parts is in the form of a tube, through which the wriggler breathes.
+Although its habitat is the water, it must come to the surface to
+breathe, therefore its natural position is head down and tail, or
+respiratory tube, up. Now, if oil is spread on the surface of a pool
+inhabited by mosquito larvae, the wrigglers are denied access to the
+air which they must have. Therefore, they drown, just as any other
+air-breathing animal would drown under similar circumstances.
+
+
+_Best Preventive Measures_
+
+As to the best methods to employ in ridding a country place, or any
+other region, of mosquitoes, the directions furnished by Dr. L. O.
+Howard, the Government entomologist, who has been a careful student of
+the problem since 1867, are of great value:
+
+"Altogether,[3] the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are
+those which result in the destruction of the larvae or the abolition of
+their breeding places. In not every locality are these measures
+feasible, but in many places there is absolutely no necessity for the
+mosquito annoyance. The three main preventive measures are the
+draining of breeding places, the introduction of small fish into
+fishless breeding places, and the treatment of such pools with
+kerosene. These are three alternatives, any one of which will be
+efficacious and any one of which may be used where there are reasons
+against the trial of the others."
+
+
+_Quantity of Kerosene to be Used_
+
+"The quantity of kerosene to be practically used, as shown by the
+writer's experiments, is approximately one ounce to fifteen square
+feet of water surface, and ordinarily the application need not be
+renewed for one month.... The writer is now advising the use of the
+grade known as lubricating oil, as the result of the extensive
+experiments made on Staten Island. It is much more persistent than the
+ordinary illuminating oils.... On ponds of any size the quickest and
+most perfect method of forming a film of kerosene will be to spray the
+oil over the surface of the water.... It is not, however, the great
+sea marshes along the coast, where mosquitoes breed in countless
+numbers, which we can expect to treat by this method, but the inland
+places, where the mosquito supply is derived from comparatively small
+swamps and circumscribed pools. In most localities people endure the
+torment or direct their remedies against the adult insect only,
+without the slightest attempt to investigate the source of the supply,
+when the very first step should be the undertaking of such an
+investigation.
+
+"The remedy which depends upon draining breeding places needs no
+extended discussion. Naturally the draining off of the water of pools
+will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there, and the possibility of
+such draining and the means by which it may be done will vary with
+each individual case. The writer is informed that an elaborate bit of
+work which has been done at Virginia Beach bears on this method.
+Behind the hotels at this place, the hotels themselves fronting upon
+the beach, was a large fresh-water lake, which, with its adjoining
+swamps, was a source of mosquito supply, and it was further feared
+that it made the neighborhood malarious. Two canals were cut from the
+lake to the ocean, and by means of machinery the water of the lake was
+changed from a body of fresh to a body of salt water. Water that is
+somewhat brackish will support mosquitoes, but water that is purely
+salt will destroy them."
+
+
+_Employing Fish to Destroy Larvae_
+
+"The introduction of fish into fishless breeding places is another
+matter. It may be undesirable to treat certain breeding places with
+kerosene, as, for instance, water which is intended for drinking,
+although this has been done without harm in tanks where, as is
+customary, the drinking supply is drawn from the bottom of the tank.
+The value of most small fishes for the purpose of destroying mosquito
+larvae was well indicated by an experience described to us by Mr. C. H.
+Russell, of Bridgeport, Conn. In this case a very high tide broke away
+a dike and flooded the salt meadows of Stratford, a small town a few
+miles from Bridgeport. The receding tide left two small lakes, nearly
+side by side and of the same size. In one lake the tide left a dozen
+or more small fishes, while the other was fishless. An examination by
+Mr. Russell in the summer of 1891 showed that while the fishless lake
+contained tens of thousands of mosquito larvae, that containing the
+fish had no larvae. The use of carp for this purpose has been
+demonstrated, but most small fish will answer as well. The writer
+knows of none that will be better than either of the common little
+sticklebacks (_Gasterosteus aculeatus_ or _Pygosteus pungitius_)."
+
+Is mosquito fighting a success? This question is an all-important one,
+not only to the summer resident, but also to cities and towns
+contiguous to salt-water marshes, or to swampy lands, well suited for
+mosquito breeding. The answer is this: Mosquito control is possible;
+actual extermination impossible with an insect that develops so
+rapidly. The "Jersey mosquito," the unscientific name popularly given
+to an insect of huge size and ravenous appetite, has become famous. As
+a matter of fact, the species of mosquitoes found in New Jersey are no
+more rare or varied than those found on Staten Island or on Long
+Island. But until very recently the region lying between Jersey City
+and Newark has been particularly favorable to the development of
+mosquito larvae. It has been announced in the press that mosquitoes
+have been driven out of the Newark meadows. This is an exaggeration,
+of course, but the work accomplished there is remarkable, and other
+infected regions may take heart from the marked success which has
+attended the efforts of Dr. John B. Smith, Entomologist of the New
+Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station.
+
+
+_Remarkable Work Accomplished_
+
+The salt marsh lying within the limits of the city of Newark covers an
+area of about 3,500 acres. It extends from a point on the Passaic
+River to the mouth of Bound Creek, where it empties into Newark Bay.
+Its length is about eight miles and it has an extreme width of three
+miles. The Newark marsh problem was a very complex one. The meadows
+are cut into many sections by the several traversing railroads and by
+creeks; this materially influences the drainage. The Peddie Street
+sewer crosses the marsh in a straight line of about three miles from
+the city to the bay. This sewer is twenty feet wide, and its banks are
+from three to four feet above the marsh land.
+
+An experiment with machine ditching was made in 1903. The worst parts
+of the marsh were selected, and about 40,000 feet of ditches were cut.
+These ditches were six inches wide, two feet deep, and the drainage
+was perfect from the outset. The section of meadow thus drained became
+so dry in consequence that the grass growing there can now be cut by a
+machine in summer, whereas formerly the hay could be mown only in
+winter. The work was so successful that the Newark Common Council
+appropriated $5,000 to complete the mosquito drainage of the marsh.
+Of the results obtained up to this spring, Dr. Smith says:
+
+"This Newark marsh problem was an unusual one, and one that would not
+be likely to recur in the same way at any other point along the coast.
+Nevertheless, of the entire 3,500 acres of marsh, not 100 acres remain
+on which there is any breeding whatever, and that is dangerous only in
+a few places and under certain abnormal conditions. Including old
+ditches cleaned out, about 360,000 running feet of ditches have been
+dug on the Newark marshes, partly by machine and partly by hand, and
+if the work is not entirely successful, that is due to the defects
+which were not included in the drainage scheme. It is a safe
+prediction, I think, that Newark will have no early brood of
+mosquitoes in 1905, comparable with the invasions of 1903 and 1904."
+
+This prophecy has proved true.
+
+
+_The Campaign on Long Island_
+
+The wealthy summer residents along the north shore of Long Island,
+keenly alive to the necessity of driving mosquitoes from the region
+where they spend so much of their time, have attacked the problem in a
+scientific, as well as an energetic way. The North Shore Improvement
+Association intrusted the work to Henry Clay Weeks, a sanitary
+engineer, with whom was associated, as entomologist, Prof. Charles B.
+Davenport, Professor of Entomology at the University of Chicago and
+head of the Cold Spring Biological Laboratory; also F. E. Lutz, an
+instructor in biology at the University of Chicago. Prof. N. S.
+Shaler, of Harvard University, the most eminent authority in the
+country on marine marshes, was retained to make a special examination
+of the salt marshes with a view to recommending the best means of
+eliminating what were the most prolific breeding grounds of
+mosquitoes. A detailed examination of the entire territory was made.
+Practically every breeding place of mosquitoes, including the smaller
+pools and streams, and even the various artificial receptacles of
+water, were located and reported on. Mr. Weeks, with his assistant,
+then examined each body of water in which mosquito larvae had been
+found, with a view to devising the best means of preventing the
+further breeding of mosquitoes in these plague spots. Finally, a
+report was prepared, together with a map on which was located every
+natural breeding place.
+
+
+_Investigations in Connecticut_
+
+Important investigations have been made in Connecticut by the
+Agricultural Experiment Station, under the direction of W. E. Britton
+and Henry L. Viereck, and the results have been most encouraging. Dr.
+Howard, in his directions for fighting mosquitoes, acknowledges his
+indebtedness to the very successful experiments carried on at Staten
+Island. Maryland is aroused to the point of action. Dr. Howard A.
+Kelley, of Johns Hopkins University, is to cooeperate with Thomas B.
+Symons, the State entomologist, in carrying the war to the shores of
+Chesapeake Bay. "Home talent," moreover, can accomplish much. To fight
+intelligently, let it not be forgotten that the battle should be
+directed against the larvae. These wrigglers are bred for aquatic life;
+therefore, it is to all standing water that attention should be
+directed. Mosquito larvae will not breed in large ponds, or in open,
+permanent pools, except at the edges, because the water is ruffled by
+the wind. Any pool can be rendered free from wrigglers by cleaning up
+the edges and stocking with fish. Every fountain or artificial water
+basin ought to be so stocked, if it is only with goldfish. The house
+owner should not overlook any pond, however small, or a puddle of
+water, a ditch, or any depression which retains water. A half-filled
+pail, a watering trough, even a tin receptacle will likely be
+populated with mosquito larvae. Water barrels are favorite haunts for
+wrigglers.
+
+
+_A Simple Household Remedy_
+
+There are those, however, who will obstinately conduct their campaign
+against the adult mosquito. If energetic, such persons will search the
+house with a kerosene cup attached to a stick; when this is held
+under resting mosquitoes the insects fall into the cup and are
+destroyed. Those possessed of less energy daub their faces and hands
+with camphor, or with the oil of pennyroyal, and bid defiance to the
+pests. With others it is, Slap! slap!--with irritation mental as well
+as physical; for the latter, entomologists recommend household
+ammonia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] See Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of
+Entomology.
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+PURE FOOD FOR THE
+HOUSEKEEPER
+
+BY
+
+S. JOSEPHINE BAKER
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=How to Detect Food Adulteration=
+
+
+Adulteration when applied to foodstuffs is a broad, general term, and
+covers all classes of misrepresentation, substitution, deterioration,
+or addition of foreign substances; adulteration may be either
+intentional or accidental, but the housekeeper should be prepared to
+recognize it and so protect herself and her household.
+
+Food is considered adulterated when it can be classified under any of
+the following headings:
+
+
+=DEFINITIONS OF ADULTERATION.=--(1) If any substance has been mixed or
+packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its
+quality or strength.
+
+(2) If any inferior substance has been substituted for it, wholly or
+in part.
+
+(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted
+from it.
+
+(4) If it consists wholly or in part of diseased or decomposed or
+putrid or rotten animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an
+animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the
+product of a diseased animal or one who has died otherwise than by
+slaughter.
+
+(5) If it be colored or coated or polished or powdered, whereby damage
+is concealed or it is made to appear better than it really is.
+
+(6) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient
+which may render such article injurious to health; or if it contains
+any antiseptic or preservative not evident or not known to the
+purchaser or consumer.
+
+
+=FOOD LAWS.=--There is now in effect in the United States a rigid law
+against the offering for sale of any article intended for human
+consumption which is adulterated in any way, without the fact and
+nature of such adulteration being plainly stated on a label attached
+to the package containing the article. This law, however, applies only
+to articles of this nature which originate, or are produced, in one
+State and offered for sale in another. The purchaser is, therefore, in
+a great degree protected, but many foodstuffs or manufactured articles
+may have their origin within the State wherein they are sold, and in
+this case the only safeguards are those afforded by the laws of the
+State, city, or town immediately concerned. If these restraining laws
+do not exist or if they are not enforced the housekeeper must rely
+upon her own efforts to protect her family from adulterated food.
+
+
+=PERMISSIBLE ADULTERANTS.=--In this class are included articles having
+a food value such as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, or smoke used as
+preservatives of meats; or starch when added to the salts composing
+baking powder, where a certain amount is permissible for the purpose
+of absorbing moisture.
+
+
+=GENERAL DIRECTIONS.=--The ability to select fresh, wholesome meats,
+poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables, to determine readily the purity
+of dairy products, and to detect adulteration or misrepresentation in
+all classes of foodstuffs must, in most instances, be acquired. Common
+sense and good reasoning powers are needed here as in every problem of
+life. While some adulterants can be detected only by trained chemists
+and by means of tests too difficult and involved for general use, the
+average housekeeper may amply protect herself from gross imposition by
+simply cultivating her powers of observation and by making use of a
+few simple tests well within her grasp and easily applied.
+
+=First--Sight, Taste, and Smell.=--All are of prime importance in
+determining the freshness and wholesomeness of foods, especially
+meats, poultry, fish, vegetables, and fruits. Avoid all highly colored
+bottled or canned fruits or vegetables; pure preserved fruits, jams,
+jellies, or relishes may have a good bright color, but never have the
+brilliant reds and greens so often shown in the artificially colored
+products.[4] The same is true of canned peas, beans, or Brussels
+sprouts; here the natural product is a dull, rather dingy green, and
+all bright green samples must be suspected. Foreign articles of this
+class are the worst offenders.
+
+All food products should have a clean wholesome odor, characteristic
+of their particular class. The odor of decomposition can be readily
+detected; stale and musty odors are soon recognized.
+
+It should be rarely necessary to use the sense of taste, but any food
+with a taste foreign to the known taste of a similar product of known
+purity should be discarded or at least suspected.
+
+=Second--Price.=--Remember that the best and purest food, however high
+priced, is cheapest in the end. Its value in purity, cleanliness, food
+value, and strength gives a greater proportionate return than foods
+priced lower than one might legitimately expect from their supposed
+character. To cite a few instances: pure Java and Mocha coffee cannot
+be retailed at twenty cents per pound; therefore, when the housekeeper
+pays that price she must expect to get chicory mixed with the coffee;
+if it contains no other adulterant, she may consider herself
+fortunate. Cheap vanilla is not made from the vanilla bean. These
+beans sell at wholesale for from ten to fifteen dollars a pound, and
+the cheap extracts are made from the Tonka bean or from a chemical
+product known as vanillin. These substances are not harmful, but they
+are not vanilla. Pure virgin olive oil is made from the flesh of
+olives after the stones and skin have been removed; cheaper grades are
+made from the stones themselves and have little food value, while the
+virgin oil is one of the most nutritious and wholesome of foods.
+
+Such instances might be cited almost without end. Good, pure food
+demands a good price, and economy defeats its own purpose when it is
+practiced at the expense of one of the most vital necessities of
+health and life.
+
+=Third--Reliable Dealers.=--Select your tradesmen with the same care
+you bestow in the choice of a physician. A grocer or butcher who has
+once sold stale, adulterated, or impure wares has forfeited his right
+to be trusted. A man who is honestly trying to build up a good trade
+must have the confidence of his customers and it is to his interest to
+sell only worthy goods; this confidence he can gain only by proving
+his trustworthiness. When you are convinced of your dealer's honesty
+give him your trade and do not be lured away by flashy advertisements
+and the promise of "something for nothing."
+
+
+=PREPARATION FOR CHEMICAL TESTS.=--Although the housekeeper will
+rarely need the use of any chemical tests for the purpose of
+determining the purity of food, the following directions must be kept
+in mind if such an expedient is deemed necessary. It will be wise,
+however, in the majority of cases when the presence of chemical
+preservatives and adulterants is suspected, to send the article to a
+chemist for analysis.
+
+1. All refuse matter, such as shells, bones, bran, and skin, must be
+removed from the edible portion of the food to be tested.
+
+2. If the sample is solid or semi-solid, divide it as finely as
+possible. All vegetables and meats may be minced in the common
+household chopping machine. Tea, coffee, whole spices, and the like
+may be ground or crushed in a mortar or in a spice mill.
+
+3. Milk must be thoroughly stirred or shaken so that the cream is well
+mixed with the body of the milk.
+
+
+=FLESH FOODS--Meat.=--Fresh, wholesome meat is neither pink nor
+purple; these colors indicate either that the animal was not
+slaughtered or that it was diseased. Good meat is firm and elastic and
+when dented with the finger does not retain the impression; it has the
+same consistency and color throughout; the flesh is marbled, due to
+the presence of fat distributed among the muscular fibers; it will
+hardly moisten the finger when touched; it has no disagreeable odor
+and has a slightly acid reaction so that red litmus paper applied to
+it should not turn blue.
+
+Wet, sodden, or flabby meat with jellylike fat, a strong putrid odor,
+and alkaline reaction should be avoided. These signs indicate
+advanced decomposition, and such meat is unfit for food.
+
+=Beef.=--This meat should have a fine grain, be firm in texture, with
+rosy-red flesh and yellowish-white fat.
+
+=Lamb and Mutton= should have a clear, hard, white fat with the lean
+part juicy, firm, and of rather light-red color. The flesh should be
+firm and close of grain.
+
+=Veal.=--The meat should not be eaten unless the animal was at least
+six weeks old before slaughtering. The sale of this immature veal, or
+"bob veal" as it is sometimes called, is prohibited by law in many
+States. It is unwholesome and may be recognized by its soft, rather
+mushy consistency and bluish tinge. Good veal has a firm white fat
+with the lean of a pale-red color.
+
+=Pork.=--This meat when fresh has a fat that is solid and pure white;
+if yellow and soft it should be rejected; the lean is pink and the
+skin like white translucent parchment.
+
+=Poultry.=--Good poultry is firm to the touch, pink or yellowish in
+color, is fairly plump, and has a strong skin showing an unbroken
+surface. It has a fresh odor.
+
+Stale poultry is flabby and shows a bluish color; it becomes green
+over the crop and abdomen, and the skin is already broken or easily
+pulled apart in handling. The odor of such a bird is disagreeable and
+may even be putrid.
+
+=Fish.=--With the exception of the salted or preserved varieties fish
+should always be perfectly fresh when eaten. Probably no other
+article of food is more dangerous to health than fish when it shows
+even the slightest traces of decomposition. The ability to recognize
+the earliest signs of staleness is of the utmost importance. Fish
+deteriorate rapidly and should always be carefully inspected before
+purchasing.
+
+Fresh fish are firm to the touch, the scales moist and bright, the
+gills red, and the eyes clear and slightly prominent. When held flat
+in the hand the fish should remain rigid and the head and tail droop
+slightly, if at all.
+
+Stale fish are soft and flabby, the skin is dull and the eyes sunken
+and often covered with a film. The tendency of the head and tail to
+droop is marked and the fish has a characteristic disagreeable odor.
+This odor of decomposition is best detected in the gills.
+
+=Lobsters and Crabs.=--These shellfish should always be alive when
+purchased. This condition is easily demonstrated by their movements,
+and the rule should never be disregarded.
+
+=Oysters and Clams.=--Oysters should not be eaten during the months of
+May, June, July, and August; these are their breeding months and they
+are unwholesome during that period. That oysters sometimes contain the
+germs of typhoid fever is an assured fact; these germs are acquired
+not from the natural habitat of the oyster in salt water but from the
+fresh-water, so-called "fattening beds," where the oysters are placed
+for a season to remove the brackish and salty taste of the sea and to
+render them more plump. These beds are frequently subject to
+pollution, and the housekeeper should only purchase oysters from
+reliable dealers where the purity of the source of the supply is
+unquestioned.
+
+Clams are in season and may be eaten throughout the year.
+
+All shellfish when fresh have an agreeable fresh odor. The shells
+should be firmly closed or should close when immersed in water and
+touched with the finger. If they have been removed from their shells
+when purchased, the flesh of the fish itself should be firm, clean in
+appearance and not covered with slime or scum; the odor should be
+fresh. The odor of dead or decomposed oysters and clams is pungent and
+disagreeable.
+
+
+=MEAT PRODUCTS--Canned or Potted Meats.=--The label on cans containing
+meat products should state clearly the exact nature of the contents.
+Deception as to the character of the meat is easy to practice and
+difficult to detect by any but a trained analyst. The presence of
+preservatives can also only be detected by chemical analysis. As these
+products are practically all put on the market by the large packing
+houses and designed for interstate commerce, they are subject to
+government inspection, and, therefore, if they bear the government
+stamp may be considered pure. The point that the housekeeper may
+consider is the length of time the meat has remained in the can. Put
+up under proper precautions these canned goods retain their
+wholesomeness for an almost indefinite period. The heads of the cans
+should always present a concave surface; if they are convex, it is a
+sign of decomposition of the contents. When the can is opened the meat
+should have a clean appearance, free from mold or greenish hue, and
+the odor should be fresh and not tainted.
+
+=Sausages.=--If possible, sausages should be homemade, then one may be
+assured of their purity and freedom from adulteration.
+
+Owing to the rapid color changes and early decomposition of fresh
+meat, artificial colors are often used to conceal the former, and
+preservatives like boric acid or saltpeter to retard the latter.
+
+The artificial colors, such as carmine and aniline red, may be
+detected by observation or by warming the finely divided material on a
+water bath with a five per cent solution of sodium salicylate. This
+fluid will extract the color, if present.
+
+=Lard.=--Good lard is white and granular and has a firm consistency.
+It has an agreeable characteristic odor and taste. The choicest leaf
+lard is made from the fat about the kidneys of the hog; the cheaper
+grades are made from the fat of the whole animal.
+
+
+=FRESH VEGETABLES AND FRUITS--Vegetables.=--All green vegetables to be
+eaten uncooked should be carefully washed and examined for insects,
+dirt, and foreign matter generally. The ova or eggs of the tapeworm
+may be ingested with improperly cleaned vegetables. Running water and
+a clean brush (kept for this purpose) should be used.
+
+Green vegetables should have a fresh, unwilted appearance; any sign of
+staleness or decay should cause their rejection. Overripe or underripe
+vegetables are harmful.
+
+Lettuce, celery, and all leaved or stemmed vegetables should be
+examined to see if the outer leaves have been removed; this may be
+determined by the distance of the leaves from the stem head. The
+general signs of disease in vegetables are softening, change of color,
+and mold.
+
+The following characteristics indicate fresh and wholesome vegetables:
+
+=Asparagus.=--Firm and white in the stalk with a green, compact tip.
+
+=Beans and Peas= should have green, not yellow, pods, brittle, and
+easily snapped open. The vegetable itself should be tender, full and
+fleshy, not wrinkled or shrunken.
+
+=Cabbage=, crisp and firm, with a well-rounded and compact head.
+
+=Carrots=, light red or yellow, with a regular, conical shape, sweet
+and crisp.
+
+=Cauliflower=, white, compact head; any tinge of yellow or green
+generally indicates an inferior quality.
+
+=Celery=, nearly white in color; large, crisp, and solid stalks, nutty
+in flavor.
+
+=Cucumbers=, firm, crisp, with a smooth skin and white flesh.
+
+=Lettuce=, the head close and compact; the leaves clean, crisp, and
+sweet. When it is too young or running to seed the taste is bitter.
+Pale patches on the leaves are caused by mildew and are a sign of
+decay.
+
+=Parsnips=, buff in color, with unforked roots, sweet and crisp.
+
+=Potatoes=, underripe, green potatoes are unfit for food; they contain
+a poisonous substance which renders them actually harmful. Good
+potatoes should have a smooth skin and few eyes; the flesh pale and of
+a uniform color and of a firm consistency. A rough skin, with little
+depressions, indicates a disease called "scab"; dark-brown patches on
+the skin are due to a disease called "smut." Potatoes with such
+diseases are of inferior quality. If green on one side, due to
+exposure to the sun when growing, the potatoes are unwholesome.
+
+=Fruits.=--Underripe or green fruit should never be eaten. This
+condition may be easily detected by the color and consistency of the
+fruit. Diseased or decayed fruit is known by its change of color,
+softening, and external mold. Spots on fruit are often caused by a
+fungus which lowers its quality and renders it less wholesome.
+
+
+=CEREALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS--Cereals.=--Particularly when bought in
+original packages cereals are generally pure and unadulterated. When
+bought in bulk there may be found dust, dirt, worms, insects, and
+excessive moisture. These may all be determined by careful inspection.
+The presence of an undue amount of moisture adds greatly to the weight
+of cereals and is therefore a fraud. Cereals should be dry to the
+touch and the individual kernels or particles separate and distinct.
+
+=Flour.=--By this general term is meant the ordinary wheat flour. It
+should not be too moist, should have a fine white appearance, remain
+lumpy, or hold its form, on pressure, not show any particles which
+cannot be crushed, and when a handful is thrown against the wall, part
+of it should adhere. The odor and taste should be fresh and clean and
+not musty or moldy.
+
+The common adulterants are corn and rice meal. If a sample of the
+flour be thrown on the surface of a glassful of water, the corn and
+rice, being heavier, will sink; grit and sand may be detected in the
+same way. If the flour has been adulterated with mineral substances it
+may be shown by burning a portion down to an ash; the ash of pure
+flour should not exceed two per cent of the total amount; if mineral
+substances are present the amount of ash will be greatly increased.
+
+Alum is sometimes added to flour in order to give it a whiter
+appearance and to produce whiter and lighter bread; it is most
+unwholesome. It can be detected by the so-called "logwood" test, which
+is prepared and used as follows:
+
+Make two solutions. The first: a five per cent solution of logwood
+chips in alcohol. The second: a fifteen per cent solution of ammonium
+carbonate in water. Make a paste of one teaspoonful of the flour and
+an equal amount of water; mix with it one-quarter of a teaspoonful of
+the logwood solution; follow this immediately with one-quarter of a
+teaspoonful of the ammonium carbonate solution. If alum is present,
+the paste will show a lavender or blue color; if absent, the mass will
+become pink, fading to a dirty brown. If the result is doubtful, set
+the paste aside for several hours, when the colors will show more
+plainly.
+
+=Bread.=--Bread should be well baked and not too light or too heavy;
+the crust should be light brown and adherent to the substance of the
+bread. The center should be of even consistency, spongy, and firm; it
+should not pit or be soggy or doughy. The pores or holes should be of
+practically the same size throughout.
+
+Exceedingly white, light, or porous bread shows the presence of alum.
+It may be detected by means of the solutions already mentioned in the
+"logwood" test. Mix one teaspoonful of each solution and add three
+ounces (six tablespoonfuls) of water; pour this over a lump of bread,
+free from crust and about an inch square. After the bread has become
+thoroughly soaked, pour off the excess of liquid and dry the bread in
+the dish; if alum is present, the mass will show a violet or blue
+tint, more marked on drying; if absent, a brownish color will appear.
+
+=Baking Powders.=--Baking powders are of three classes, all having
+sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) as their alkaline salt. The first
+style is the commonly used and wholesome mixture of cream of tartar
+and baking soda; the second has calcium phosphate for the acid salt,
+and the third contains alum. All have a certain proportion of starch
+to absorb moisture. Of these the alum powders are the most harmful and
+should be avoided. Practically all of the well-known brands of baking
+powder are of the first-mentioned class and wholesome, and are rarely
+adulterated.
+
+
+=DAIRY PRODUCTS--Milk.=--Pure milk should have a specific gravity of
+from 1.027 to 1.033. Its normal reaction is neutral or slightly acid;
+it should never be strongly acid. If it is strongly alkaline, i. e.,
+turning red litmus paper blue, it is pretty certain that something in
+the way of a preservative has been added to it. When left standing for
+a few hours the cream should show as a slightly yellowish top layer,
+one-tenth or more of the whole amount; the milk below the cream should
+be lighter in color and with the slightest bluish tinge. If the color
+is of a yellowish tinge throughout, the addition of coloring matter
+must be suspected. "Annatto," a vegetable pigment, is used to give a
+"rich" tint to milk. To detect it, add one teaspoonful of baking soda
+to one quart of milk and immerse in it a strip of unglazed paper; in a
+few hours examine the paper; if annatto is present, it will have
+become an orange color.[5]
+
+If the whole milk has a blue and thin appearance, or if the cream is
+scant in quantity, it has probably been diluted with water. The
+popular idea that chalk is sometimes added to poor milk to make it
+appear of better quality is erroneous; chalk would always show as a
+precipitate, as it does not dissolve, and the presence of such a
+sediment would be a too obvious adulteration to be practiced.
+
+Milk should always be kept at a temperature below 50 deg. F.; above that
+temperature the bacteria in it multiply with great rapidity and render
+it unfit for use.
+
+Milk may be preserved for several days if "pasteurized" or
+"sterilized." Pasteurization consists of heating milk to a temperature
+of about 167 deg. F., and maintaining it at that degree for twenty
+minutes. Sterilization means keeping the milk at a temperature of 212 deg.
+F. for two hours and a half. Immediately after either process the milk
+should be cooled, then placed in absolutely clean, covered bottles and
+kept on ice. These methods are not only harmless but actually
+beneficial in that they destroy any disease germs that might be
+present.
+
+Chemical preservatives are occasionally found in milk. They may be
+suspected if the milk is alkaline in reaction and has a disguised
+taste. The ones most commonly used are boric and salicylic acids and
+formaldehyde; the two former can only be detected by chemical tests
+too delicate and intricate to be used by the housewife. Formaldehyde
+may be tested for by using a solution of one drop of a ten per cent
+solution of ferric chloride to one ounce of hydrochloric acid.[6] Fill
+a small porcelain dish one-third full of this solution; add an equal
+volume of milk and heat slowly over a flame nearly to the boiling
+point, giving the dish a rotary motion to break up the curd. If
+formaldehyde is present, the mass will show a violet color, varying in
+depth with the amount present; if it is absent, the mass turns brown.
+
+=Butter.=--Good butter has a fresh, sweet odor and an agreeable taste.
+It should be of the same color and consistency throughout, easily cut
+and adherent and not crumbly when molded into shapes. Pure butter is
+very light in color; nearly all that is sold is colored, in order to
+meet the popular demand for "yellow" butter; annatto and other
+vegetable and mineral substances are sometimes employed for this
+purpose. These coloring matters are generally harmless but may be
+detected by dissolving a portion of the butter in alcohol; the natural
+color will dissolve, while foreign coloring will not. Butter should
+consist of eighty-five per cent fat, with the remainder water,
+casein, and salt. The most common methods of adulteration consist in
+an excess of water and the addition of oleomargarine. If an excess of
+water has been added it may be shown by melting the butter; the water
+and fat will separate in two distinct layers. Oleomargarine has a
+distinctive meaty smell, like that of cooked meat, and lacks the
+characteristic odor of pure butter. If pure butter is melted in a
+spoon, it will not sputter; if oleomargarine is present, it will.
+
+The preservatives sometimes used, namely, boric and salicylic acids
+and formaldehyde, can only be detected by chemical tests.
+
+=Eggs.=--Two methods may be used to detect stale eggs. First: make a
+solution of one part of table salt to ten parts of water and immerse
+the suspected egg; if it sinks, it is perfectly fresh; if it remains
+in the water below the surface, it is at least three days old, and if
+it floats, it is five or more days old.
+
+Second: hold the egg between a bright light and the eye. If it is
+fresh, it will show a rosy tint throughout, without dark spots, as the
+air chamber is small; if not fresh, it will look cloudy, with many
+dark spots present.
+
+
+=TEA AND COFFEE.=--These substances are extensively adulterated, but
+the adulterants are almost without exception harmless.
+
+=Tea.=--The commonest forms of adulteration of tea are as follows:
+(_a_) Exhausted tea leaves which have already been used are dried and
+added. Their presence may be detected by the weakness of the infusion,
+made from a given quantity of the suspected tea, compared with a
+similar infusion made from tea known to be pure. (_b_) Leaves from
+other plants are sometimes dried and added; these are easily shown if
+an infusion is made and when the leaves are thoroughly wet unrolling
+and comparing them. (_c_) Green teas may be "faced" or colored with
+Prussian blue, indigo, French chalk, or sulphate of lime; black teas
+may be similarly treated with plumbago or "Dutch pink." If teas so
+treated are shaken up in cold water the coloring matter will wash off.
+(_d_) Sand and iron filings are occasionally added for weight;
+observation, and the fact that they sink when tea is thrown in water,
+will show their presence. Iron filings may be readily found by using a
+magnet. (_e_) The presence of starch may be shown by washing the tea
+in cold water, straining it, and testing the solution in the following
+manner: dissolve one-half teaspoonful of potassium iodide in three
+ounces of water and add as much iodine as the solution will dissolve;
+a few drops of this solution added to the suspected sample will give a
+blue color if starch is present.
+
+=Coffee.=--Coffee should always be purchased in the bean, as ground
+coffee is much more frequently adulterated and the foreign substances
+are more difficult to detect.
+
+The adulterants commonly used are: chicory, peas, beans, peanuts, and
+pellets of roasted wheat flour, rye, corn, or barley.
+
+Fat globules are always present in pure coffee; their presence may be
+shown by the fact that imitation coffee sinks in water, while pure
+coffee floats.
+
+Chicory is the most frequently used adulterant; it is added for flavor
+and to produce a darker infusion, thus giving the impression of
+greater strength. It is perfectly harmless and as a drink is actually
+preferred by some people. Its detection is comparatively easy. Chicory
+grains are dark, gummy, soft, and bitter; coffee grains are hard and
+brittle; a small amount put in the mouth will demonstrate the
+difference. Chicory will often adhere to the wheels of a coffee
+grinder, clogging them on account of its gummy consistency.
+
+When a sample of adulterated coffee is thrown in water the pure coffee
+floats and leaves the water unstained; chicory sinks almost instantly,
+coloring the water, while peas and beans sink more slowly but also
+color the water.
+
+Peas and beans are also detected by the polished appearance of the
+broken or crushed grains in marked contrast to the dull surface of
+crushed coffee.
+
+The presence of peas, beans, rye, wheat, bread crumbs, and allied
+substances may be shown by the fact that they all contain starch.
+
+Make a ten per cent infusion of the suspected coffee; filter it, and
+decolorize the solution by boiling it with a piece of animal charcoal.
+Test the decolorized solution by slowly adding a few drops of the
+"potassium-iodide-iodine solution," directions for preparing which
+were given under heading of "Tea." A resulting blue color will
+indicate the presence of starch.
+
+
+=COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.=--The adulterants of these substances are
+generally harmless, as they usually consist of flavoring extracts,
+sugar, starch, flour, and animal fats. No tests other than flavor,
+consistency, and smoothness need be considered. Good cocoa and
+chocolate should be slightly bitter, with a pleasant characteristic
+odor and taste; they should have a smooth, even consistency and be
+free from grit or harsh particles.
+
+
+=CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.=--In general, acid
+substances, such as tomatoes and fruits, should not be canned in tin,
+as the action of the acid tends to dissolve the tin. It is better,
+therefore, to purchase these articles in glass.
+
+After opening the can the odor and appearance of the contents should
+be noted. The odor should be clean and fresh, and the slightest trace
+of any sour, musty, or disagreeable smell should cause the rejection
+of the food. The appearance should be clean, with no mold; the
+consistency and color of the fruit or vegetables should be uniform
+throughout. If the color is brighter than that of a similar article
+when canned at home, the presence of artificial coloring matter must
+be suspected. The brilliant green of some brands of peas, beans, or
+Brussels sprouts is produced by the addition of the salts of copper.
+This may be proved by leaving the blade of a penknife in the contents
+of the can for a short time; if copper is present it will be deposited
+on, and discolor, the blade.
+
+Brightly colored fruits should excite suspicion; this same dictum
+applies to all brightly colored jams and jellies, as the colors are
+usually produced by the addition of carmine or aniline red.
+
+The presence of preservatives, salicylic and boric acids, the
+benzoates, etc., can only be proved by delicate chemical tests.
+
+
+=SUGAR.=--Pure granulated or powdered sugar is white and clean. The
+presence of glucose should be suspected in sugar sold below the market
+price; it is perfectly harmless, but has a sweetening power of only
+about two-thirds that of sugar and is added on account of its
+cheapness and to increase the bulk.
+
+If sand, dirt, or flour are present they may be detected by
+observation, or by washing the suspected sample in water; flour will
+not dissolve, sand will sink, and dirt will discolor the water.
+
+
+=SPICES.=--Spices should be bought whole and ground in a spice mill as
+needed; if this is done, there need be little fear of their impurity,
+for whole spices are difficult to simulate or adulterate. Ground
+spices may be adulterated with bark, flour, starches, or arrowroot;
+these adulterants are harmless, but are fraudulent, as they increase
+the bulk and decrease the strength. Their actual presences can only be
+demonstrated by a microscopical or chemical examination.
+
+=Peppers.=--Black pepper is made from the whole berry; white pepper is
+made from the same berry with the outer husk removed. The adulterants
+are usually inert and harmless substances, such as flour, mustard, or
+linseed oil; their presence is obviated by the use of the whole
+peppercorns, ground as needed.
+
+=Red Pepper.=--This may be adulterated with red lead; when pure it
+will be entirely suspended in water; if a sediment falls it is
+probably red lead.
+
+=Mustard.=--Practically all of the adulterants of mustard can only be
+detected by intricate chemical tests. The presence of turmeric may be
+detected by the appearance of an orange-red color when ammonia is
+added to a solution of the sample.
+
+=Tomato Catsup.=--Artificial dyestuffs are common, giving a brilliant
+crimson or magenta color. Such catsup does not resemble the natural
+dull red or brown color of the homemade article.
+
+Preservatives, such as boric, salicylic, or benzoic acids and their
+salts, are sometimes added. While their presence cannot be condoned,
+yet they are usually present in small amounts and therefore
+practically harmless.
+
+=Pickles.=--These should be of a dull-green color. The bright emerald
+green sometimes observed is due to the presence of the salts of
+copper; this may be proved by dipping the blade of a penknife in the
+liquor, as described under the heading of "Canned Goods."
+
+Alum is sometimes used as a preservative and in order to make the
+pickles crisp. Its presence may be demonstrated by means of the
+"logwood" test mentioned under the heading of "Flour."
+
+
+=VINEGAR.=--Cider vinegar is of a brownish-yellow color and possesses
+a strong odor of apples.
+
+Wine vinegar is light yellow if made from white wine, and red if made
+from red wine.
+
+Malt vinegar is brown and has an odor suggestive of sour beer.
+
+Glucose vinegar has the taste and odor of fermented sugar.
+
+Molasses vinegar has the distinctive odor and taste of molasses.
+
+
+=OLIVE OIL.=--Pure olive oil has a pleasant, bland taste and a
+distinctive and agreeable odor, unmistakable in character for that of
+any other oil. The finest virgin oil is pale green in color, the
+cheaper grades are light yellow.
+
+The adulterants consist of cotton-seed, corn, mustard, and peanut
+oils.
+
+When pure olive oil is shaken in a glass or porcelain dish with an
+equal quantity of concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid[7] it turns
+from a pale to a dark green color in a few minutes; if under this
+treatment a reddish to an orange or brown color is produced the
+presence of a foreign vegetable oil is to be suspected.
+
+
+=FLAVORING EXTRACTS--Vanilla.=--This may be wholly or in part the
+extract of the Tonka bean or may be made from a chemical substance
+known as vanillin. The best practical working tests as to its purity
+are the price, taste, and odor. The distinctive odor and taste of
+vanilla are characteristic and cannot be mistaken.[8]
+
+=Lemon.=--This extract is often made from tartaric or citric acid.
+They may be tested for as follows: to a portion of the extract in a
+test tube add an equal volume of water to precipitate the oil; filter,
+and add one or two drops of the filtrate to a test tube full of cold,
+clear limewater; if tartaric acid is present a precipitate will fall
+to the bottom of the tube. Filter off this precipitate (if present)
+and heat the contents of the tube; if citric acid is present it will
+precipitate in the hot limewater.
+
+
+    FOOTNOTE.--Dr. Baker wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the
+    following authorities and the volumes mentioned for many helpful
+    suggestions. Pearman and Moore, "Aids to the Analysis of Foods and
+    Drugs"; Albert E. Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis"; Francis
+    Vacher, "Food Inspector's Hand Book."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The presence of aniline dyes may be detected by mixing a portion
+of the suspected sample with enough water to make a thin paste. Wet a
+piece of white wool cloth or yarn thoroughly with water and place it
+with the paste in an agate saucepan. Boil for ten minutes, stirring
+frequently. If a dye has been used the wool will be brightly colored;
+a brownish or pinkish color indicates the natural coloring matter of
+the fruit or vegetable.--EDITOR.
+
+[5] A little vinegar added to heated cream or milk produces in the
+curd a distinct orange color if an aniline dye has been used to make
+the cream look "rich." The curd will be brown if annatto or caromel
+has been used. If pure, the curd will be white.--EDITOR.
+
+[6] This acid must be used with great care; no portion of it should
+ever come in contact with the skin or clothing.
+
+[7] These acids must be used with great care. They should never be
+allowed to come in contact with the skin or clothing.
+
+[8] Add a little sugar-of-lead solution to the suspected extract; true
+vanilla extract will give a yellowish-brown precipitate and a pale,
+straw-colored liquid. If the extract is artificial, the addition of
+the lead solution will have little or no effect.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Mushroom Poisoning=
+
+_Symptoms--Treatment--How to Tell Mushrooms--The Common Kind--Other
+Varieties--The Edible Puffball--Poisonous Mushrooms Frequently
+Mistaken._
+
+
+=MUSHROOM POISONING.=--Vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, pains in legs;
+possibly confusion, as if drunk, stupidity, followed by excitement,
+and perhaps convulsions. Lips and face may be blue. Pulse may be weak.
+
+_First Aid Rule 1.--Rid the stomach and bowels of remaining poison.
+Give emetic of mustard, tablespoonful in three glasses of warm water,
+unless vomiting is already excessive. When vomiting ceases, give
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or compound cathartic pill._ GIVE NO
+SALTS. _Also empty bowels with injection of tablespoonful of glycerin
+in pint of warm soapsuds and water._
+
+_Rule 2.--Antidote the poison. Give a cup of strong coffee and fifteen
+drops of tincture of belladonna to adult. Repeat both once, after two
+hours have passed._
+
+_Rule 3.--Rest and stimulate. Put patient to bed. Give whisky, a
+tablespoonful in twice as much water. Give tincture of digitalis, ten
+drops every two hours, till two or three doses are taken by adult._
+
+=Symptoms.=--Vomiting and diarrhea come on in a few hours to half a
+day, with cramps in the stomach and legs. The face and lips may grow
+blue. There is great prostration. In the case of poisoning by the _fly
+amanita_, stupor may appear early, the patient acting as if drunk, and
+difficult breathing may be a noticeable symptom. Afterwards the
+patient becomes excited and convulsions develop. The pulse becomes
+weak and slow. The patient may die in a few hours, or may linger for
+three or four days. If treatment be thorough, recovery may result.
+
+=Treatment.=--Unless vomiting has already been excessive, the patient
+should receive a tablespoonful of mustard mixed with a glassful of
+tepid water. After the vomiting ceases he should receive a
+tablespoonful of castor oil, or any cathartic except salts. If the
+cathartic is vomited, he should receive an injection into the rectum
+of a tablespoonful of glycerin mixed with a pint of soapsuds and
+water. Coffee and atropine (or belladonna) are the best antidotes.
+
+If a physician be secured, he will probably give a hypodermic
+injection of atropine. If a physician is not procurable, the patient
+should receive a cup of strong coffee, and a dose of ten or fifteen
+drops of tincture of belladonna in a tablespoonful of water, if an
+adult. This dose should be repeated once after the lapse of two hours.
+The patient should be kept in bed, a bedpan being used when the bowels
+move.
+
+When the pulse begins to grow weak, two tablespoonfuls of whisky and
+ten drops of the tincture of digitalis should be given to an adult in
+quarter of a glass of hot water. The digitalis should be repeated
+every two hours till three or four doses have been taken. The patient
+must be kept warm with hot-water bottles and blankets.
+
+
+=HOW TO KNOW MUSHROOMS.=--One-sixth of one of the poisonous mushrooms
+has caused death. It is, therefore, impossible to exert too much care
+in selecting them for food. A novice would much better learn all the
+characteristics of edible and poisonous mushrooms in the field from an
+expert before attempting to gather them himself, and should not trust
+to book descriptions, except in the case of the few edible species
+described hereafter. It is not safe for a novice to gather the
+immature or button mushrooms, because it is much more difficult to
+determine their characteristics than those of the full grown. As
+reference books, the reader is advised to procure Bulletin No. 15 of
+the United States Department of Agriculture, entitled "Some Edible and
+Poisonous Fungi," by Dr. W. G. Farlow, which will be sent without
+charge on request by the Agricultural Department at Washington;
+"Studies of American Fungi," by Atkinson, and Miss Marshall's
+"Mushroom Book," all of which are fully illustrated, and will prove
+helpful to those interested in edible fungi.
+
+There are no single tests by which one can distinguish edible from
+poisonous fungi, such as taste, odor, the blackening of a silver
+spoon, etc., although contrary statements have been made. Even when
+the proper mushrooms have been eaten, ill effects, death itself, may
+follow if the mushrooms have been kept too long, have been
+insufficiently cooked, have been eaten in too large a quantity
+(especially by children), or if the consumer is the possessor of an
+unhappy idiosyncrasy toward mushrooms.
+
+No botanic distinction exists between toadstools and mushrooms;
+mushrooms may be regarded as edible toadstools. They are all,
+botanically speaking, edible or poisonous fungi. A description follows
+of the five kinds of fungi most commonly eaten, and the poisonous
+species which may be mistaken for them.
+
+
+=EDIBLE MUSHROOMS.=--=1. The Common Mushroom= (_Agaricus
+Campestris_).--The fungi called agarici are those which have gills,
+that is, little plates which look like knife blades on the under
+surface of the top of the mushroom, radiating outward from the stem
+like the spokes of a wheel. This is the species most frequently grown
+artificially, and sold in the markets. The top or cap of this mushroom
+is white, or of varying shades of brown, and measures from one and a
+half to three or even four inches in diameter. It is found in the
+latter part of August, in September, and in October, growing in
+clusters on pastures, fields, and lawns.
+
+The gills are pink or salmon colored in the newly expanded specimen;
+but as it grows older, or after it is picked, the gills turn dark
+purple, chestnut brown, or black. This is the important point to
+remember, since the poisonous species mistaken for it all have white
+gills. The gills end with abrupt upward curves at the center of the
+cap without being attached to the stem. In the young mushroom, when
+the cap is folded down about the stem, the gills are not noticeable,
+as they are covered by a veil or filmy membrane, a part of which
+remains attached to the stem (when the top expands), as a ring or
+collar about the stem a little more than halfway up from the ground.
+The stem is solid and not hollow, and there is no bulbous enlargement
+at the base of the stem, surrounded by scales or a collar, as occurs
+in the _fly amanita_ and other poisonous species. Neither the
+_campestris_ nor any other mushroom should be eaten when over a day
+old, since decomposition quickly sets in.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.
+
+THE FIELD MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Agaricus Campestris._)
+
+An edible variety; very common.]
+
+=2. Horse Mushroom= (_Agaricus Arvensis_).--This species may be
+considered with the foregoing, but it differs in being considerably
+larger (measuring four to ten inches across) and in having a more
+shiny cap, of a white or brown hue. The ring about the stem is
+noticeably wider and thicker, and is composed of two distinct layers.
+The gills are white at first, turning dark brown comparatively late,
+and the stem is a little hollow as it matures. In some localities it
+is more common than the _campestris_ in fields and pastures, while in
+other places it is found only in rich gardens, about hot beds, or in
+cold frames. It is not distinguished from the _campestris_ by market
+people, but is often sold with the latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.
+
+THE HORSE MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Agaricus Arvensis._)
+
+This variety is edible.]
+
+=3. Shaggy Mane, Ink Cap, or Horsetail Fungus= (_Coprinus
+Comatus_).--This mushroom possesses the most marked characteristics of
+any of the edible species; it would seem impossible to mistake its
+identity from written descriptions and illustrations. It is considered
+by many superior in flavor to the _campestris_.
+
+The top or cap does not expand in this mushroom, until it begins to
+turn black, but remains folded down about the stem like a closed
+umbrella. Mature specimens are usually three to five, occasionally
+from eight to ten, inches high. The stem is hollow. The inside of the
+cap or gills and the stem are snow white. The outer surface of the
+cap, which is white in young plants, becomes of a faint, yellow-brown
+or tawny color in mature specimens, and also darker at the top.
+Delicate scales often rolled up at their lower ends are seen on the
+exterior of the cap, more readily in mature mushrooms, hence the name
+"shaggy mane." There is a ring around the stem at the lower margin of
+the cap, and it is so loosely attached to either the cap or stem that
+it sometimes drops down to the base of the latter.
+
+The most salient feature of shaggy mane is the change which occurs
+when it is about a day old; it turns black and dissolves away into an
+inky fluid, whence the other common name "ink cap." The mushroom
+should not be eaten when in this condition. The ink cap is usually
+found growing in autumn, rarely in summer, in richer earth than the
+common mushroom. One finds it in heaps of street scrapings, by
+roadsides, in rich lawns, in soils filled with decomposing wood and in
+low, shaded, moist grounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.
+
+THE HORSE-TAIL FUNGUS.
+
+(_Coprinus Comatus._)
+
+Edible; cut shows entire plant and section.]
+
+=4. Fairy-ring Mushroom= (_Marasmius Oreades_).--This species usually
+grows on lawns, in clusters which form an imperfect circle or
+crescent. The ring increases in size each year as new fungi grow on
+the outside, while old ones toward the center of the circle perish.
+This mushroom is small and slender, and rarely exceeds two inches in
+breadth. The cap and the tough and tubular stem are buff, and the
+gills, few in number and bulging out in the middle, are of a lighter
+shade of the same color. There is no ring about the stem. Several
+crops of the fairy-ring mushroom are produced all through the season,
+but the most prolific growth appears after the late fall rains. There
+are other fungi forming rings, some of which are poisonous, and they
+may not be easily distinguished from the edible species; hence great
+care is essential in gathering them. The under surface of the cap is
+brown or blackish in the mature plants of poisonous species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.
+
+THE FAIRY-RING MUSHROOM.
+
+(_Marasmius Oreades._)
+
+An edible variety.]
+
+=5. Edible Puffball= (_Lycoperdon Cyathiforme_).--Edible puffballs
+grow in open pastures, and on lawns and grassplots, often forming
+rings. They are spherical in form, generally from one and a half to
+two inches, occasionally six inches, in diameter, broad and somewhat
+flattened at the top, and tapering at the base, white or brown
+outside. They often present an irregularly checkered appearance, owing
+to the fact that the white interior shows between the dark raised
+parts. The interior is at first pure white and of solid consistency,
+but later becomes softer and yellowish, and then contains an
+amber-colored juice. After the puffball has matured, the contents
+change into a brown, dustlike mass, and the top falls off; and it is
+then inedible. All varieties of puffball with a pure white interior
+are harmless, if eaten before becoming crumbly and powdery. There is
+only one species thought to be poisonous, and that has a yellow-brown
+exterior, while the interior is purple-black, marbled with white.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.
+
+THE EDIBLE PUFFBALL.
+
+(_Lycoperdon Cyathiforme._)
+
+Upper illustration shows entire plant; lower, a section.]
+
+
+=POISONOUS MUSHROOMS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN.=
+
+_To escape eating poisonous mushrooms do not gather the buttons, and
+be suspicious of those growing in woods and shady spots that show any
+bright hue, or have a scaly or dotted cap, or white gills.[9] By so
+doing the following species will be avoided._
+
+=Fly Amanita= (_Amanita Muscaria_).--Infusions of this mushroom made
+by boiling in water are used to kill flies. This species grows in
+woods and shady places, by roadsides, and along the borders of fields,
+and is much commoner than the _campestris_ in some localities. It
+prefers a poor, gravelly soil, and is found in summer.
+
+The stem is hollow and its gills are white. The cap is variously
+colored, white, orange, yellow, or even brilliant red, and dotted over
+with corklike particles or warty scales which are easily rubbed off.
+There is a large, drooping collar about the upper part of the hollow,
+white stem, and the latter is scaly below with a bulbous enlargement
+at its base.
+
+The young mushrooms, or buttons, do not exhibit the dotted cap, and
+the bulbous scaly base may be left in the ground when the mushroom is
+picked. The _fly amanita_ is usually larger than the common mushroom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.
+
+A POISONOUS FUNGUS.
+
+(_Amanita Muscaria._)
+
+The Fly Agaric.]
+
+=Death Cup or Deadly Agaric= (_Amanita Phalloides_).--This species is
+more fatal in its effects than the preceding. Its salient feature is a
+bulbous base surmounted and surrounded by a collar or cup out of which
+the stem grows. This is often buried beneath the ground, however, so
+that it may escape notice. The gills and stem are white like the
+preceding, but the cap is usually not dotted but glossy, white,
+greenish, or yellow. There is also a broad, noticeable ring about the
+stem, as in the _fly amanita_. This mushroom frequents moist, shady
+spots, also along the borders of fields. It occurs singly, and rarely
+in fields or pastures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.
+
+THE DEADLY AGARIC.
+
+(_Amanita Phalloides._)
+
+This variety is very poisonous.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] The shaggy mane has white gills, but its other features are
+characteristic.
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+THE HOUSE AND GROUNDS
+
+BY
+
+GEORGE M. PRICE
+
+
+
+
+_Acknowledgment_
+
+
+We beg to tender grateful acknowledgment to author and publisher for
+the use of Dr. George M. Price's valuable articles on sanitation. The
+following extracts are taken from Dr. Price's "Handbook on
+Sanitation," published by John Wiley & Son, and are covered by
+copyright.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+=Soil and Sites=
+
+
+=Definition.=--By the term "soil" we mean the superficial layer of the
+earth, a result of the geological disintegration of the primitive rock
+by the action of the elements upon it and of the decay of vegetable
+and animal life.
+
+=Composition.=--Soil consists of solids, water, and air.
+
+=Solids.=--The solid constituents of the soil are inorganic and
+organic in character.
+
+The inorganic constituents are the various minerals and elements found
+alone, or in combination, in the earth, such as silica, aluminum,
+calcium, iron, carbon, sodium, chlorine, potassium, etc.
+
+The characteristics of the soil depend upon its constituents, and upon
+the predominance of one or the other of its composing elements. The
+nature of the soil also depends upon its physical properties. When the
+disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles, the soil is
+called a _gravel soil_. A _sandy soil_ is one in which the particles
+are very small. _Sandstone_ is consolidated sand. _Clay_ is soil
+consisting principally of aluminum silicate; in _chalk_, soft calcium
+carbonate predominates.
+
+The organic constituents of the soil are the result of vegetable and
+animal growth and decomposition in the soil.
+
+=Ground Water.=--Ground water is that continuous body or sheet of
+water formed by the complete filling and saturation of the soil to a
+certain level by rain water; it is that stratum of subterranean lakes
+and rivers, filled up with alluvium, which we reach at a higher or
+lower level when we dig wells.
+
+The level of the ground water depends upon the underlying strata, and
+also upon the movements of the subterranean water bed. The relative
+position of the impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance
+from the surface soil. In marshy land the ground water is at the
+surface; in other places it can be reached only by deep borings. The
+source of the ground water is the rainfall, part of which drains into
+the porous soil until it reaches an impermeable stratum, where it
+collects.
+
+The movements of the ground water are in two directions--horizontal
+and vertical. The horizontal or lateral movement is toward the seas
+and adjacent water courses, and is determined by hydrostatic laws and
+topographical relations. The vertical motion of the ground water is to
+and from the surface, and is due to the amount of rainfall, the
+pressure of tides, and water courses into which the ground water
+drains. The vertical variations of the ground water determine the
+distance of its surface level from the soil surface, and are divided
+into a persistently low-water level, about fifteen feet from the
+surface; a persistently high-water level, about five feet from the
+surface, and a fluctuating level, sometimes high, sometimes low.
+
+=Ground Air.=--Except in the hardest granite rocks and in soil
+completely filled with water the interstices of the soil are filled
+with a continuation of atmospheric air, the amount depending on the
+degree of porosity of the soil. The nature of the ground air differs
+from that of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its location.
+The principal constituents of the air--nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic
+acid--are also found in the ground air, but in the latter the relative
+quantities of O and CO2 are different.
+
+    AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN 100 VOLUMES
+
+    Nitrogen                          79.00 per cent.
+    Oxygen                            20.96    "
+    Carbonic acid                      0.04    "
+
+    AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GROUND AIR
+
+    Nitrogen                          79.00 per cent.
+    Oxygen                            10.35    "
+    Carbonic acid                      9.74    "
+
+Of course, these quantities are not constant, but vary in different
+soils, and at different depths, times, etc. The greater quantity of
+CO2 in ground air is due to the process of oxidation and decomposition
+taking place in the soil. Ground air also contains a large quantity
+of bacterial and other organic matter found in the soil.
+
+Ground air is in constant motion, its movements depending upon a great
+many factors, some among these being the winds and movements of the
+atmospheric air, the temperature of the soil, the surface temperature,
+the pressure from the ground water from below, and surface and rain
+water from above, etc.
+
+=Ground Moisture.=--The interstices of the soil above the ground-water
+level are filled with air _only_, when the soil is absolutely dry; but
+as such a soil is very rare, all soils being more or less damp, soil
+usually contains a mixture of air and water, or what is called _ground
+moisture_.
+
+Ground moisture is derived partly from the evaporation of the ground
+water and its capillary absorption by the surface soil, and partly by
+the retention of water from rains upon the surface. The power of the
+soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to the physical
+and chemical, as well as the thermal, properties of the soil.
+
+Loose sand may hold about 2 gallons of water per cubic foot; granite
+takes up about 4 per cent of moisture; chalk about 15 per cent; clay
+about 20 per cent; sandy loam 33 to 35 per cent; humus[10] about 40
+per cent.
+
+=Ground Temperature.=--The temperature of the soil is due to the
+direct rays of the sun, the physicochemical changes in its interior,
+and to the internal heat of the earth.
+
+The ground temperature varies according to the annual and diurnal
+changes of the external temperature; also according to the character
+of the soil, its color, composition, depth, degree of organic
+oxidation, ground-water level, and degree of dampness. In hot weather
+the surface soil is cooler, and the subsurface soil still more so,
+than the surrounding air; in cold weather the opposite is the case.
+The contact of the cool soil with the warm surface air on summer
+evenings is what produces the condensation of air moisture which we
+call dew.
+
+=Bacteria.=--Quite a large number of bacteria are found in the soil,
+especially near the surface, where chemical and organic changes are
+most active. From 200,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria have been found in 1
+c.c. of earth. The ground bacteria are divided into two
+groups--saprophytic and pathogenic. The saprophytic bacteria are the
+bacteria of decay, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is to their
+benevolent action that vegetable and animal _debris_ is decomposed,
+oxidized, and reduced to its elements. To these bacteria the soil owes
+its self-purifying capacity and the faculty of disintegrating animal
+and vegetable _debris_.
+
+The pathogenic bacteria are either those formed during the process of
+organic decay, and which, introduced into the human system, are
+capable of producing various diseases, or those which become lodged in
+the soil through the contamination of the latter by ground water and
+air, and which find in the soil a favorable lodging ground, until
+forced out of the soil by the movements of the ground water and air.
+
+=Contamination of the Soil.=--The natural capacity of the soil to
+decompose and reduce organic matter is sometimes taxed to its utmost
+by the introduction into the soil of extraneous matters in quantities
+which the soil is unable to oxidize in a given period. This is called
+contamination or pollution of soil, and is due: (1) to surface
+pollution by refuse, garbage, animal and human excreta; (2) to
+interment of dead bodies of beasts and men; (3) to the introduction of
+foreign deleterious gases, etc.[11]
+
+_Pollution by Surface Refuse and Sewage._--This occurs where a large
+number of people congregate, as in cities, towns, etc., and very
+seriously contaminates the ground by the surcharge of the surface soil
+with sewage matter, saturating the ground with it, polluting the
+ground water from which the drinking water is derived, and increasing
+the putrefactive changes taking place in the soil. Here the pathogenic
+bacteria abound, and, by multiplying, exert a very marked influence
+upon the health by the possible spread of infectious diseases. Sewage
+pollution of the soils and of the source of water supply is a matter
+of grave importance, and is one of the chief factors of high
+mortality in cities and towns.
+
+_Interment of Bodies._--The second cause of soil contamination is also
+of great importance. Owing to the intense physicochemical and organic
+changes taking place within the soil, all dead animal matter interred
+therein is easily disposed of in a certain time, being reduced to the
+primary constituents, viz., ammonia, nitrous acid, carbonic acid,
+sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen, etc. But whenever the number of
+interred bodies is too great, and the products of decomposition are
+allowed to accumulate to a very great degree, until the capacity of
+the soil to absorb and oxidize them is overtaxed, the soil, and the
+air and water therein, are polluted by the noxious poisons produced by
+the processes of decomposition.
+
+_Introduction of Various Foreign Materials and Gases._--In cities and
+towns various pipes are laid in the ground for conducting certain
+substances, as illuminating gas, fuel, coal gas, etc.; the pipes at
+times are defective, allowing leakage therefrom, and permitting the
+saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which are frequently drawn
+up by the various currents of ground air into the open air and
+adjacent dwellings.
+
+=Influence of the Soil on Health.=--The intimate relations existing
+between the soil upon which we live and our health, and the marked
+influence of the soil on the life and well-being of man, have been
+recognized from time immemorial.
+
+The influence of the soil upon health is due to: (1) the physical and
+chemical character of the soil; (2) the ground-water level and degree
+of dampness; (3) the organic impurities and contamination of the soil.
+
+The physical and chemical nature of the soil, irrespective of its
+water, moisture, and air, has been regarded by some authorities as
+having an effect on the health, growth, and constitution of man. The
+peculiar disease called cretinism, as well as goitre, has been
+attributed to a predominance of certain chemicals in the soil.
+
+The ground-water level is of great importance to the well-being of
+man. Professor Pettenkofer claimed that a persistently low water level
+(about fifteen feet from the surface) is healthy, the mortality being
+the lowest in such places; a persistently high ground-water level
+(about five feet from the surface) is unhealthy; and a fluctuating
+level, varying from high to low, is the most unhealthy, and is
+dangerous to life and health. Many authorities have sought to
+demonstrate the intimate relations between a high water level in the
+soil and various diseases.
+
+A damp soil, viz., a soil wherein the ground moisture is very great
+and persistent, has been found inimical to the health of the
+inhabitants, predisposing them to various diseases by the direct
+effects of the dampness itself, and by the greater proneness of damp
+ground to become contaminated with various pathogenic bacteria and
+organisms which may be drawn into the dwellings by the movements of
+the ground air. As a rule, there is very little to hinder the ground
+air from penetrating the dwellings of man, air being drawn in through
+cellars by changes in temperature, and by the artificial heating of
+houses.
+
+The organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil are especially
+abundant in large cities, and are a cause of the evil influence of
+soil upon health. The impurities are allowed to drain into the ground,
+to pollute the ground water and the source of water supply, and to
+poison the ground air, loading it with bacteria and products of
+putrefaction, thus contaminating the air and water so necessary to
+life.
+
+=Diseases Due to Soil.=--A great many diseases have been thought to be
+due to the influence of the soil. An aetiological relation had been
+sought between soil and the following diseases: malaria, paroxysmal
+fevers, tuberculosis, neuralgias, cholera, yellow fever, bubonic
+plague, typhoid, dysentery, goitre and cretinism, tetanus, anthrax,
+malignant Oedema, septicaemia, etc.
+
+=Sites.=--From what we have already learned about the soil, it is
+evident that it is a matter of great importance as to where the site
+for a human habitation is selected, for upon the proper selection of
+the site depend the health, well-being, and longevity of the
+inhabitants. The requisite characteristics of a healthy site for
+dwellings are: a dry, porous, permeable soil; a low and nonfluctuating
+ground-water level, and a soil retaining very little dampness, free
+from organic impurities, and the ground water of which is well drained
+into distant water courses, while its ground air is uncontaminated by
+pathogenic bacteria. Exposure to sunlight, and free circulation of
+air, are also requisite.
+
+According to Parkes, the soils in the order of their fitness for
+building purposes are as follows: (1) primitive rock; (2) gravel, with
+pervious soil; (3) sandstone; (4) limestone; (5) sandstone, with
+impervious subsoil; (6) clays and marls; (7) marshy land, and (8) made
+soils.
+
+It is very seldom, however, that a soil can be secured having all the
+requisites of a healthy site. In smaller places, as well as in cities,
+commercial and other reasons frequently compel the acquisition of and
+building upon a site not fit for the purpose; it then becomes a
+sanitary problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil suitable
+for habitation.
+
+=Prevention of the Bad Effects of the Soil on Health.=--The methods
+taught by sanitary science to improve a defective soil and to prepare
+a healthy site are the following:
+
+    (1) Street paving and tree planting.
+    (2) Proper construction of houses.
+    (3) Subsoil drainage.
+
+_Street Paving_ serves a double sanitary purpose. It prevents street
+refuse and sewage from penetrating the ground and contaminating the
+surface soil, and it acts as a barrier to the free ascension of
+deleterious ground air.[12]
+
+_Tree Planting_ serves as a factor in absorbing the ground moisture
+and in oxidizing organic impurities.
+
+_The Proper Construction of the House_ has for its purpose the
+prevention of the entrance of ground moisture and air inside the house
+by building the foundations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely
+cut off communication between the ground and the dwelling. This is
+accomplished by putting under the foundation a solid bed of concrete,
+and under the foundation walls damp-proof courses.
+
+The following are the methods recommended by the New York City
+Tenement House Department for the water-proofing and damp-proofing of
+foundation walls and cellars:
+
+_Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Foundation Walls._--"There shall
+be built in with the foundation walls, at a level of six (6) inches
+below the finished floor level, a course of damp-proofing consisting
+of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (not less than fifteen
+(15) pounds weight per one hundred (100) square feet), and one (1) ply
+of burlap, laid in alternate layers, having the burlap placed between
+the felt, and all laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, and projecting six (6) inches inside and six (6) inches
+outside of the walls.
+
+"There shall be constructed on the outside surface of the walls a
+water-proofing lapping on to the damp-proof course in the foundation
+walls and extending up to the soil level. This water-proofing shall
+consist of not less than two (2) ply of tarred felt (of weight
+specified above), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid
+asphalt, finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. This
+water-proofing to be well stuck to the damp course in the foundation
+walls. The layers of felt must break joints."
+
+_Water-proofing and Damp-proofing of Cellar Floors._--"There shall be
+laid, above a suitable bed of rough concrete, a course of
+water-proofing consisting of not less than three (3) ply of tarred
+felt (not less than fifteen (15) pounds weight per one hundred (100)
+square feet), laid in hot, heavy coal-tar pitch, or liquid asphalt,
+finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character. The felt is
+to be laid so that each layer laps two-thirds of its width over the
+layer immediately below, the contact surface being thoroughly coated
+with the hot pitch over its entire area before placing the upper
+layer. The water-proofing course must be properly lapped on and
+secured to the damp course in the foundation walls."
+
+Other methods of damp-proofing foundations and cellars consist in the
+use of slate or sheet lead instead of tar and tarred paper. An
+additional means of preventing water and dampness from coming into
+houses has been proposed in the so-called "dry areas," which are open
+spaces four to eight feet wide between the house proper and the
+surrounding ground, the open spaces running as deep as the foundation,
+if possible. The dry areas are certainly a good preventive against
+dampness coming from the sides of the house.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.
+
+CONCRETE FOUNDATION AND DAMP-PROOF COURSE.]
+
+_Subsoil Drainage._--By subsoil drainage is meant the reducing of the
+level of the ground water by draining all subsoil water into certain
+water courses, either artificial or natural. Subsoil drainage is not a
+modern discovery, as it was used in many ancient lands, and was
+extensively employed in ancient Rome, the valleys and suburbs of which
+would have been uninhabitable but for the draining of the marshes by
+the so-called "_cloacae_" or drains, which lowered the ground-water
+level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to build upon.
+The drains for the conduction of subsoil water are placed at a
+certain depth, with a fall toward the exit. The materials for the
+drain are either stone and gravel trenches, or, better, porous
+earthenware pipes or ordinary drain tile. The drains must not be
+impermeable or closed, and sewers are not to be used for drainage
+purposes. Sometimes open, V-shaped pipes are laid under the regular
+sewers, if these are at the proper depth.
+
+By subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level of ground water
+wherever it is near or at the surface, as in swamps, marsh, and other
+lands, and prepare lands previously uninhabitable for healthy sites.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[10] Humus is vegetable mold; swamp muck; peat; etc.--EDITOR.
+
+[11] A leak in a gas main, allowing the gas to penetrate the soil,
+will destroy trees, shrubbery, or any other vegetation with which it
+comes in contact.--EDITOR.
+
+[12] Town and village paving plans will benefit by knowledge of the
+recent satisfactory experience of New York City authorities in paving
+with wood blocks soaked in a preparation of creosote and resin. As
+compared with the other two general classes of paving, granite blocks,
+and asphalt, these wood blocks are now considered superior.
+
+The granite blocks are now nearly discarded in New York because of
+their permeability, expense, and noise, being now used for heavy
+traffic only.
+
+Asphalt is noiseless and impermeable (thereby serving the "double
+sanitary purpose" mentioned by Dr. Price).
+
+But the wood possesses these qualities, and has in addition the
+advantage of inexpensiveness, since it is more durable, not cracking
+at winter cold and melting under summer heat like the asphalt; and
+there is but slight cost for repairs, which are easily made by taking
+out the separate blocks.
+
+These "creo-resinate" wood blocks, recently used on lower Broadway,
+Park Place, and the congested side streets, are giving admirable
+results.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+=Ventilation=
+
+
+=Definition.=--The air within an uninhabited room does not differ from
+that without. If the room is occupied by one or more individuals,
+however, then the air in the room soon deteriorates, until the
+impurities therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health.
+This is due to the fact that with each breath a certain quantity of
+CO2, organic impurities, and aqueous vapor is exhaled; and these
+products of respiration soon surcharge the air until it is rendered
+impure and unfit for breathing. In order to render the air pure in
+such a room, and make life possible, it is necessary to change the air
+by withdrawing the impure, and substituting pure air from the outside.
+This is _ventilation_.
+
+_Ventilation_, therefore, is the maintenance of the air in a confined
+space in a condition conducive to health; in other words, "ventilation
+is the replacing of the impure air in a confined space by pure air
+from the outside."
+
+=Quantity of Air Required.=--What do we regard as impure air? What is
+the index of impurity? How much air is required to render pure an air
+in a given space, in a given time, for a given number of people? How
+often can the change be safely made, and how? These are the problems
+of ventilation.
+
+An increase in the quantity of CO2 [carbon dioxide gas], and a
+proportionate increase of organic impurities, are the results of
+respiratory vitiation of the air; and it has been agreed to regard the
+relative quantity of CO2 as the standard of impurity, its increase
+serving as an index of the condition of the air. The normal quantity
+of CO2 in the air is 0.04 per cent, or 4 volumes in 10,000; and it has
+been determined that whenever the CO2 reaches 0.06 per cent, or 6
+parts per 10,000, the maximum of air vitiation is reached--a point
+beyond which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to health.
+
+We therefore know that an increase of 2 volumes of CO2 in 10,000 of
+air constitutes the maximum of admissible impurity; the difference
+between 0.04 per cent and 0.06 per cent. Now, a healthy average adult
+at rest exhales in one hour 0.6 cubic foot of CO2. Having determined
+these two factors--the amount of CO2 exhaled in one hour and the
+maximum of admissible impurity--we can find by dividing 0.6 by 0.0002
+(or 0.02 per cent) the number of cubic feet of air needed for one
+hour,==3,000.
+
+Therefore, a room with a space of 3,000 cubic feet, occupied by one
+average adult at rest, will not reach its maximum of impurity (that
+is, the air in such a room will not be in need of a change) before one
+hour has elapsed.
+
+The relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ for adults at
+work and at rest, for children, women, etc.; it will also differ
+according to the illuminant employed, whether oil, candle, gas,
+etc.--an ordinary 3-foot gas-burner requiring 1,800 cubic feet of air
+in one hour.
+
+It is not necessary, however, to have 3,000 cubic feet of space for
+each individual in a room, for the air in the latter can safely be
+changed at least three times within one hour, thus reducing the air
+space needed to about 1,000 cubic feet. This change of air or
+ventilation of a room can be accomplished by mechanical means oftener
+than three times in an hour, but a natural change of more than three
+times in an hour will ordinarily create too strong a current of air,
+and may cause draughts and chills dangerous to health.
+
+In determining the cubic space needed, the height of the room as well
+as the floor space must be taken into consideration. As a rule the
+height of a room ought to be in proportion to the floor space, and in
+ordinary rooms should not exceed fourteen feet, as a height beyond
+that is of very little advantage.[13]
+
+=Forces of Ventilation.=--We now come to the question of the various
+modes by which change in the air of a room is possible. Ventilation is
+natural or artificial according to whether artificial or mechanical
+devices are or are not used. Natural ventilation is only possible
+because our buildings and houses, their material and construction, are
+such that numerous apertures and crevices are left for air to come in;
+for it is evident that if a room were hermetically air-tight, no
+natural ventilation would be possible.
+
+The properties of air which render both natural and artificial
+ventilation possible are diffusion, motion, and gravity. These three
+forces are the natural agents of ventilation.
+
+There is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in the air; this
+diffusion takes place even through stone and through brick walls. The
+more porous the material of which the building is constructed, the
+more readily does diffusion take place. Dampness, plastering,
+painting, and papering of walls diminish diffusion, however.
+
+The second force in ventilation is the motion of air or winds. This is
+the most powerful agent of ventilation, for even a slight,
+imperceptible wind, traveling about two miles an hour, is capable,
+when the windows and doors of a room are open, of changing the air of
+a room 528 times in one hour. Air passes also through brick and stone
+walls. The objections to winds as a sole mode of ventilation are their
+inconstancy and irregularity. When the wind is very slight its
+ventilating influence is very small; on the other hand, when the wind
+is strong it cannot be utilized as a means of ventilation on account
+of the air currents being too strong and capable of exerting
+deleterious effects on health.
+
+The third, the most constant and reliable, and, in fact, principal
+agent of ventilation is the specific gravity of the air, and the
+variations in the gravity and consequent pressure which are results of
+the variations in temperature, humidity, etc. Whenever air is warmer
+in one place than in another, the warmer air being lighter and the
+colder air outside being heavier, the latter exerts pressure upon the
+air in the room, causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be
+displaced by the heavier air from the outside, thus changing the air
+in the room. This mode of ventilation is always constant and at work,
+as the very presence of living beings in the room warms the air
+therein, thus causing a difference from the outside air and effecting
+change of air from the outside to the inside of the room.
+
+=Methods of Ventilation.=--The application of these principles of
+ventilation is said to be accomplished in a natural or an artificial
+way, according as mechanical means to utilize the forces and
+properties of air are used or not. But in reality natural ventilation
+can hardly be said to exist, since dwellings are so constructed as to
+guard against exposure and changes of temperature, and are usually
+equipped with numerous appliances for promoting change of air.
+Windows, doors, fireplaces, chimneys, shafts, courts, etc., are all
+artificial methods of securing ventilation, although we usually regard
+them as means of natural ventilation.
+
+=Natural Ventilation.=--The means employed for applying the properties
+of diffusion are the materials of construction. A porous material
+being favorable for diffusion, some such material is placed in several
+places within the wall, thus favoring change of air. Imperfect
+carpenter work is also a help, as the cracks and openings left are
+favorable for the escape and entrance of air.
+
+Wind, or the motion of air, is utilized either directly, through
+windows, doors, and other openings; or indirectly, by producing a
+partial vacuum in passing over chimneys and shafts, causing suction of
+the air in them, and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the
+rooms.
+
+The opening of windows and doors is possible only in warm weather; and
+as ventilation becomes a problem only in temperate and cold weather,
+the opening of windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without
+causing colds, etc. Various methods have therefore been proposed for
+using windows for the purposes of ventilation without producing
+forcible currents of air.
+
+The part of the window best fitted for the introduction of air is the
+space between the two sashes, where they meet. The ingress of air is
+made possible whenever the lower sash is raised or the upper one is
+lowered. In order to prevent cold air from without entering through
+the openings thus made, it has been proposed by Hinkes Bird to fit a
+block of wood in the lower opening; or else, as in Dr. Keen's
+arrangement, a piece of paper or cloth is used to cover the space left
+by the lifting or lowering of either or both sashes. Louvers or
+inclined panes or parts of these may also be used. Parts or entire
+window panes are sometimes wholly removed and replaced by tubes or
+perforated pieces of zinc, so that air may come in through the
+apertures. Again, apertures for inlets and outlets may be made
+directly in the walls of the rooms. These openings are filled in with
+porous bricks or with specially made bricks (like Ellison's conical
+bricks), or boxes provided with several openings. A very useful
+apparatus of this kind is the so-called Sheringham valve, which
+consists of an iron box fitted into the wall, the front of the box
+facing the room having an iron valve hinged along its lower edge, and
+so constructed that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a
+current of air pass upward. Another very good apparatus of this kind
+is the Tobin ventilator, consisting of horizontal tubes let through
+the walls, the outer ends open to the air, but the inner ends
+projecting into the room, where they are joined by vertical tubes
+carried up five feet or more from the floor, thus allowing the outside
+air to enter upwardly into the room. This plan is also adapted for
+filtering and cleaning the incoming air by placing cloth or other
+material across the lumen of the horizontal tubes to intercept dust,
+etc. McKinnell's ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation,
+especially of underground rooms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.
+
+HINKES BIRD WINDOW. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.
+
+ELLISON'S AIR INLETS. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+
+SHERINGHAM VALVE. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.
+
+THE TOBIN VENTILATOR. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.
+
+McKINNELL'S VENTILATOR. (TAYLOR.)]
+
+To assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts and chimneys,
+various cowls have been devised. These cowls are arranged so as to
+help aspirate the air from the tubes and chimneys, and prevent a down
+draught.
+
+The same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize winds may also
+be used for the ventilation effected by the motion of air due to
+difference in the specific gravity of outside and inside air. Any
+artificial warming of the air in the room, whether by illuminants or
+by the various methods of heating rooms, will aid in ventilating it,
+the chimneys acting as powerful means of removal for the warmer air.
+Various methods have also been proposed for utilizing the chimney,
+even when no stoves, etc., are connected with it, by placing a
+gaslight within the chimney to cause an up draught and consequent
+aspiration of the air of the room through it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.
+
+VENTILATING THROUGH CHIMNEY. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+The question of the number, relative size, and position of the inlets
+and outlets is a very important one, but we can here give only an
+epitome of the requirements. The inlet and outlet openings should be
+about twenty-four inches square per head. Inlet openings should be
+short, easily cleaned, sufficient in number to insure a proper
+distribution of air; should be protected from heat, provided with
+valves so as to regulate the inflow of air, and, if possible, should
+be placed so as to allow the air passing through them to be warmed
+before entering the room.[14] Outlet openings should be placed near
+the ceiling, should be straight and smooth, and, if possible, should
+be heated so as to make the air therein warmer, thus preventing a down
+draught, as is frequently the case when the outlets become inlets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.
+
+COWL VENTILATOR. (KNIGHT.)]
+
+=Artificial Ventilation.=--Artificial ventilation is accomplished
+either by aspirating the air from the building, known as the vacuum or
+extraction method, or by forcing into the building air from without;
+this is known as the plenum or propulsion method.
+
+The extraction of the air in a building is done by means of heat, by
+warming the air in chimneys or special tubes, or by mechanical means
+with screws or fans run by steam or electricity; these screws or fans
+revolve and aspirate the air of the rooms, and thus cause pure air to
+enter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.
+
+AN AIR PROPELLER.]
+
+The propelling method of ventilation is carried out by mechanical
+means only, air being forced in from the outside by fans, screws,
+bellows, etc.
+
+Artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large volume of air
+is needed, and for large spaces, such as theaters, churches, lecture
+rooms, etc. For the ordinary building the expense for mechanical
+contrivances is too high.
+
+On the whole, ventilation without complex and cumbersome mechanisms is
+to be preferred.[15]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] In cerebro-spinal meningitis, tuberculosis, and pneumonia, fresh
+air is curative. Any person, sick or well, cannot have too much fresh
+air. The windows of sleeping rooms should always be kept open at
+night.--EDITOR.
+
+[14] These outlets may be placed close to a chimney or heating pipes.
+Warm air rises and thus will be forced out, allowing cool fresh air to
+enter at the inlets.--EDITOR.
+
+[15] The ordinary dwelling house needs no artificial methods of
+ventilation. The opening and closing of windows will supply all
+necessary regulation in this regard. The temperature of living rooms
+should be kept, in general, at 70 deg. F. Almost all rooms for the sick
+are unfortunately overheated. Cool, fresh air is one of the most
+potent means of curing disease. Overheated rooms are a menace to
+health.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+=Warming=
+
+
+=Ventilation and Heating.=--The subject of the heating of our rooms
+and houses is very closely allied to that of ventilation, not only
+because both are a special necessity at the same time of the year, but
+also because we cannot heat a room without at the same time having to
+ventilate it by providing an egress for the products of combustion and
+introducing fresh air to replace the vitiated.
+
+=Need of Heating.=--In a large part of the country, and during the
+greater period of the year, some mode of artificial heating of rooms
+is absolutely necessary for our comfort and health. The temperature of
+the body is 98 deg. to 99 deg. F., and there is a constant radiation of heat
+due to the cooling of the body surface. If the external temperature is
+very much below that of the body, and if the low temperature is
+prolonged, the radiation of heat from the body is too rapid, and
+colds, pneumonia, etc., result. The temperature essential for the
+individual varies according to age, constitution, health, environment,
+occupation, etc. A child, a sick person, or one at rest requires a
+relatively higher temperature than a healthy adult at work. The mean
+temperature of a room most conducive to the health of the average
+person is from 65 deg. to 75 deg. F.
+
+=The Three Methods of Heating.=--The heating of a room can be
+accomplished either _directly_ by the rays of the sun or processes of
+combustion. We thus receive _radiant_ heat, exemplified by that of
+open fires and grates.
+
+Or, the heating of places can be accomplished by the heat of
+combustion being conducted through certain materials, like brick
+walls, tile, stone, and also iron; this is _conductive_ heat, as
+afforded by stoves, etc.
+
+Or, the heat is _conveyed_ by means of air, water, or steam from one
+place to another, as in the hot-water, hot-air, and steam systems of
+heating; this we call _convected_ heat.
+
+There is no strict line of demarcation differentiating the three
+methods of heating, as it is possible that a radiant heat may at the
+same time be conductive as well as convective--as is the case in the
+Galton fireplace, etc.
+
+=Materials of Combustion.=--The materials of combustion are air, wood,
+coal, oil, and gas. Air is indispensable, for, without oxygen, there
+can be no combustion. Wood is used in many places, but is too bulky
+and expensive. Oil is rarely used as a material of combustion, its
+principal use being for illumination. Coal is the best and cheapest
+material for combustion. The chief objection against its use is the
+production of smoke, soot, and of various gases, as CO, CO2, etc. Gas
+is a very good, in fact, the best material for heating, especially if,
+when used, it is connected with chimneys; otherwise, it is
+objectionable, as it burns up too much air, vitiates the atmosphere,
+and the products of combustion are deleterious; it is also quite
+expensive. The ideal means of heating is electricity.
+
+=Chimneys.=--All materials used for combustion yield products more or
+less injurious to health. Every system of artificially heating houses
+must therefore have not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in
+the burning up of the materials, but also an outlet for the vitiated,
+warmed air, partly charged with the products of combustion. These
+outlets are provided by chimneys. Chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts
+built of brick and lined with earthen pipes or other material inside.
+These tubes begin at the lowest fireplace or connection, and are
+carried up several feet above the roof. The thickness of a chimney is
+from four to nine inches; the shape square, rectangular, or,
+preferably, circular. The diameter of the chimney depends upon the
+size of the house, the number of fire connections, etc. It should be
+neither too small nor too large. Square chimneys should be twelve to
+sixteen inches square; circular ones from six to eight inches in
+diameter for each fire connection. The chimney consists of a _shaft_,
+or vertical tube, and _cowls_ placed over chimneys on the roof to
+prevent down draughts and the falling in of foreign bodies. That part
+of the chimney opening into the fireplace is called the _throat_.
+
+=Smoky Chimneys.=--A very frequent cause of complaint in a great many
+houses is the so-called "smoky chimney"; this is the case when smoke
+and coal gas escape from the chimney and enter the living rooms. The
+principal causes of this nuisance are:
+
+(1) A too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts. A shaft which is
+too narrow does not let all the smoke escape; one which is too wide
+lets the smoke go up only in a part of its diameter, and when the
+smoke meets a countercurrent of cold air it is liable to be forced
+back into the rooms.
+
+(2) The throat of the chimney may be too wide, and will hold cold air,
+preventing the warming of the air in the chimneys and the consequent
+up draught.
+
+(3) The cowls may be too low or too tight, preventing the escape of
+the smoke.
+
+(4) The brickwork of the chimney may be loose, badly constructed, or
+broken into by nails, etc., thus allowing smoke to escape therefrom.
+
+(5) The supply of air may be deficient, as when all doors and windows
+are tightly closed.
+
+(6) The chimney may be obstructed by soot or some foreign material.
+
+(7) The wind above the house may be so strong that its pressure will
+cause the smoke from the chimney to be forced back.
+
+(8) If two chimneys rise together from the same house, and one is
+shorter than the other, the draught of the longer chimney may cause an
+inversion of the current of air in the lower chimney.
+
+(9) Wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its incomplete combustion.
+
+(10) A chimney without a fire may suck down the smoke from a
+neighboring chimney; or, if two fireplaces in different rooms are
+connected with the same chimney, the smoke from one room may be drawn
+into the other.
+
+=Methods of Heating.= =Open Fireplaces and Grates.=--Open fireplaces
+and fires in grates connected with chimneys, and using coal, wood, or
+gas, are very comfortable; nevertheless there are weighty objections
+to them. Firstly, but a very small part of the heat of the material
+burning is utilized, only about twelve per cent being radiated into
+the room, the rest going up the chimney. Secondly, the heat of grates
+and fireplaces is only local, being near the fires and warming only
+that part of the person exposed to it, leaving the other parts of the
+room and person cold. Thirdly, the burning of open fires necessitates
+a great supply of air, and causes powerful draughts.
+
+The open fireplace can, however, be greatly improved by surrounding
+its back and sides by an air space, in which air can be warmed and
+conveyed into the upper part of the room; and if a special air inlet
+is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be warmed, we
+get a very valuable means of heating. These principles are embodied in
+the Franklin and Galton grates. A great many other grates have been
+suggested, and put on the market, but the principal objection to them
+is their complexity and expense, making their use a luxury not
+attainable by the masses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.
+
+A GALTON GRATE. (TRACY.)]
+
+=Stoves.=--Stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel is burned, and
+the heat produced is radiated toward the persons, etc., near them, and
+also conducted, through the iron or other materials of which the
+stoves are made, to surrounding objects. In stoves seventy-five per
+cent of the fuel burned is utilized. They are made of brick, tile, and
+cast or wrought iron.
+
+Brick stoves, and stoves made of tile, are extensively used in some
+European countries, as Russia, Germany, Sweden, etc.; they are made of
+slow-conducting material, and give a very equable, efficient, and
+cheap heat, although their ventilating power is very small.
+
+Iron is used very extensively because it is a very good conductor of
+heat, and can be made into very convenient forms. Iron stoves,
+however, often become superheated, dry up, and sometimes burn the air
+around them, and produce certain deleterious gases during combustion.
+When the fire is confined in a clay fire box, and the stove is not
+overheated, a good supply of fresh air being provided and a vessel of
+water placed on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air, iron
+stoves are quite efficient.
+
+=Hot-air Warming.=--In small houses the warming of the various rooms
+and halls can be accomplished by placing the stove or furnace in the
+cellar, heating a large quantity of air and conveying it through
+proper tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed. The points to be
+observed in a proper and efficient hot-air heating system are the
+following:
+
+(1) The furnace must be of a proper size in proportion to the area of
+space to be warmed. (2) The joints and parts of the furnace must be
+gas-tight. (3) The furnace should be placed on the cold side of the
+house, and provision made to prevent cellar air from being drawn up
+into the cold-air box of the furnace. (4) The air for the supply of
+the furnace must be gotten from outside, and the source must be pure,
+above the ground level, and free from contamination of any kind.[16]
+(5) The cold-air box and ducts must be clean, protected against the
+entrance of vermin, etc., and easily cleaned. (6) The air should not
+be overheated. (7) The hot-air flues or tubes must be short, direct,
+circular, and covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting
+material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.
+
+A HOT-AIR FURNACE.
+
+The cold air from outside comes to the COLD-AIR INTAKE through the
+cold-air duct, enters the furnace from beneath, and is heated by
+passing around the FIRE POT and the annular combustion chamber above.
+It then goes through pipes to the various registers throughout the
+house. The coal is burnt in the fire pot, the gases are consumed in
+the combustion chamber above, while the heat eventually passes into
+the SMOKE FLUE. The WATER PAN supplies moisture to the air.]
+
+=Hot-water System.=--The principles of hot-water heating are very
+simple. Given a circuit of pipes filled with water, on heating the
+lower part of the circuit the water, becoming warmer, will rise,
+circulate, and heat the pipes in which it is contained, thus warming
+the air in contact with the pipes. The lower part of the circuit of
+pipe begins in the furnace or heater, and the other parts of the
+circuit are conducted through the various rooms and halls throughout
+the house to the uppermost story. The pipes need not be straight all
+through; hence, to secure a larger area for heating, they are
+convoluted within the furnace, and also in the rooms, where the
+convoluted pipes are called _radiators_. The water may be warmed by
+the low- or high-pressure system; in the latter, pipes of small
+diameter may be employed; while in the former, pipes of a large
+diameter will be required. The character, etc., of the boilers,
+furnace, pipes, etc., cannot be gone into here.
+
+=Steam-heating System.=--The principle of steam heating does not
+differ from that of the hot-water system. Here the pressure is greater
+and steam is employed instead of water. The steam gives a greater
+degree of heat, but the pipes must be stronger and able to withstand
+the pressure. There are also combinations of steam and hot-water
+heating. For large houses either steam or hot-water heating is the
+best means of warming, and, if properly constructed and cared for,
+quite healthy.[17]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[16] Great care should be taken that the air box is not placed in
+contaminated soil or where it may become filled with stagnant or
+polluted water.--EDITOR.
+
+[17] See Chapter XI for practical notes on cost of installation of
+these three conveyed systems--hot-air, hot-water, and steam.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+=Disposal of Sewage=
+
+
+=Waste Products.=--There is a large amount of waste products in human
+and social economy. The products of combustion, such as ashes,
+cinders, etc.; the products of street sweepings and waste from houses,
+as dust, rubbish, paper, etc.; the waste from various trades; the
+waste from kitchens, e. g., scraps of food, etc.; the waste water from
+the cleansing processes of individuals, domestic animals, clothing,
+etc.; and, finally, the excreta--urine and faeces--of man and animals;
+all these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed of, more
+especially in cities, and wherever a large number of people
+congregate. All waste products are classified into three distinct
+groups: (1) refuse, (2) garbage, and (3) sewage.
+
+The amount of _refuse_ and _garbage_ in cities is quite considerable;
+in Manhattan, alone, the dry refuse amounts to 1,000,000 tons a year,
+and that of garbage to 175,000 tons per year. A large percentage of
+the dry refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial standpoint,
+and could be utilized, with proper facilities for collection and
+separation. The disposal of refuse and garbage has not as yet been
+satisfactorily dealt with. The modes of waste disposal in the United
+States are: (1) dumping into the sea; (2) filling in made land, or
+plowing into lands; (3) cremation and (4) reduction by various
+processes, and the products utilized.
+
+=Sewage.=--By sewage we mean the waste and effete human matter and
+excreta--the urine and faeces of human beings and the urine of domestic
+animals (the faeces of horses, etc., has great commercial value, and is
+usually collected separately and disposed of for fertilizing
+purposes).
+
+The amount of excreta per person has been estimated (Frankland) as 3
+ounces of solid and 40 ounces of fluid per day, or about 30 tons of
+solid and 100,000 gallons of fluid for each 1,000 persons per year.
+
+In sparsely populated districts the removal and ultimate disposal of
+sewage presents no difficulties; it is returned to the soil, which, as
+we know, is capable of purifying, disintegrating, and assimilating
+quite a large amount of organic matter. But when the number of
+inhabitants to the square mile increases, and the population becomes
+as dense as it is in some towns and cities, the disposal of the human
+waste products becomes a question of vast importance, and the proper,
+as well as the immediate and final, disposal of sewage becomes a
+serious sanitary problem.
+
+It is evident that sewage must be removed in a thorough manner,
+otherwise it would endanger the lives and health of the people.
+
+The dangers of sewage to health are:
+
+(1) From its offensive odors, which, while not always directly
+dangerous to health, often produce headaches, nausea, etc.
+
+(2) The organic matter contained in sewage decomposes and eliminates
+gases and other products of decomposition.
+
+(3) Sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic bacteria (typhoid,
+dysentery, cholera, etc.).
+
+(4) Contamination of the soil, ground water, and air by percolation of
+sewage.
+
+The problem of sewage disposal is twofold: (1) immediate, viz., the
+need of not allowing sewage to remain too long on the premises, and
+its immediate removal beyond the limits of the city; and (2) the final
+disposition of the sewage, after its removal from the cities, etc.
+
+=Modes of Ultimate Disposal of Sewage.=--The chief constituents of
+sewage are organic matter, mineral salts, nitrogenous substances,
+potash, and phosphoric acid. Fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has an
+acid reaction, but within twelve to twenty hours it becomes alkaline,
+because of the free ammonia formed in it. Sewage rapidly decomposes,
+evolving organic and fetid matters, ammonium sulphide, sulphureted and
+carbureted hydrogen, etc., besides teeming with animal and bacterial
+life. A great many of the substances contained in sewage are valuable
+as fertilizers of soil.
+
+The systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows:
+
+    (1) Discharge into seas, lakes, and rivers.
+    (2) Cremation.
+    (3) Physical and chemical precipitation.
+    (4) Intermittent filtration.
+    (5) Land irrigation.
+    (6) "Bacterial" methods.
+
+_Discharge into Waters._--The easiest way to dispose of sewage is to
+let it flow into the sea or other running water course. The objections
+to sewage discharging into the rivers and lakes near cities, and
+especially such lakes and rivers as supply water to the
+municipalities, are obvious. But as water can purify a great amount of
+sewage, this method is still in vogue in certain places, although it
+is to be hoped that it will in the near future be superseded by more
+proper methods. The objection against discharging into seas is the
+operation of the tides, which cause a backflow and overflow of sewage
+from the pipes. This backflow is remedied by the following methods:
+(1) providing tidal flap valves, permitting the outflow of sewage, but
+preventing the inflow of sea water; (2) discharging the sewage
+intermittently, only during low tide; and (3) providing a constant
+outflow by means of steam-power pressure.
+
+_Cremation._--Another method of getting rid of the sewage without
+attempting to utilize it is by cremation. The liquid portion of the
+sewage is allowed to drain and discharge into water courses, and the
+more or less solid residues are collected and cremated in suitable
+crematories.
+
+_Precipitation._--This method consists in separating the solid matters
+from the sewage by precipitation by physical or chemical processes,
+the liquid being allowed to drain into rivers and other waters, and
+the precipitated solids utilized for certain purposes. The
+precipitation is done either by straining the sewage, collecting it
+into tanks, and letting it subside, when the liquid is drawn off and
+the solids remain at the bottom of the tanks, a rather unsatisfactory
+method; or, by chemical processes, precipitating the sewage by
+chemical means, and utilizing the products of such precipitation. The
+chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished are many and
+various; among them are lime, alum, iron perchloride, phosphates, etc.
+
+_Intermittent Filtration._--Sewage may be purified mechanically and
+chemically by method of intermittent filtration by passing it through
+filter beds of gravel, sand, coke, cinders, or any such materials.
+Intermittent filtration has passed beyond the experimental stage and
+has been adopted already by a number of cities where such a method of
+sewage disposal seems to answer all purposes.
+
+_Land Irrigation._--In this method the organic and other useful
+portions of sewage are utilized for irrigating land, to improve garden
+and other vegetable growths by feeding the plants with the organic
+products of animal excretion. Flat land, with a gentle slope, is best
+suited for irrigation. The quantity of sewage disposed of will depend
+on the character of the soil, its porosity, the time of the year,
+temperature, intermittency of irrigation, etc. As a rule, one acre of
+land is sufficient to dispose of the sewage of 100 to 150 people.
+
+_Bacterial Methods._--The other biological methods, or the so-called
+"bacterial" sewage treatment, are but modifications of the filtration
+and irrigation methods of sewage disposal. Properly speaking the
+bacterial purification of sewage is the scientific application of the
+knowledge gained by the study of bacterial life and its action upon
+sewage.
+
+In intermittent filtration the sewage is passed through filter beds of
+sands, etc., upon which filter beds the whole burden of the
+purification of the sewage rests. In the bacterial methods the work of
+purification is divided between the septic tanks where the sewage is
+first let into and where it undergoes the action of the anaerobic
+bacteria, and from these septic tanks the sewage is run to the contact
+beds of coke and cinders to further undergo the action of the aerobic
+bacteria, after the action of which the nitrified sewage is in a
+proper form to be utilized for fertilization of land, etc. The septic
+tanks are but a modification of the common cesspool, and are
+constructed of masonry, brick, and concrete.
+
+There are a number of special applications of the bacterial methods of
+sewage treatment, into which we cannot go here.
+
+=Sewage Disposal in the United States.=--According to its location,
+position, etc., each city in the United States has its own method of
+final disposition of sewage. Either one or the other, or a combination
+of two of the above methods, is used.
+
+The following cities discharge their sewage into the sea: Portland,
+Salem, Lynn, Gloucester, Boston, Providence, New York, Baltimore,
+Charleston, and Savannah.
+
+The following cities discharge their sewage into rivers and lakes:
+Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Albany, Minneapolis, St. Paul,
+Washington, Buffalo, Detroit, Richmond, Chicago, Milwaukee, and
+Cleveland.
+
+"Worcester uses chemical precipitation. In Atlanta a part of the soil
+is cremated, but the rest is deposited in pits 8 x 10 feet, and 5 feet
+deep. It is then thoroughly mixed with dry ashes from the crematory,
+and afterwards covered with either grain or grass. In Salt Lake City
+and in Woonsocket it is disposed of in the same way. In Indianapolis
+it is composted with marl and sawdust, and after some months used as a
+fertilizer. A portion of the sewage is cremated in Atlanta, Camden,
+Dayton, Evansville, Findlay, Ohio; Jacksonville, McKeesport, Pa.;
+Muncie, and New Brighton. In Atlanta, in 1898, there were cremated
+2,362 loads of sewage. In Dayton, during 30 days, there were cremated
+1,900 barrels of 300 pounds each." (_Chapin, Mun. San. in U. S._)
+
+=The Immediate Disposal of Sewage.=--The final disposition of sewage
+is only one part of the problem of sewage disposal; the other part is
+how to remove it from the house into the street, and from the street
+into the places from which it is finally disposed.
+
+The immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by two methods--the
+so-called _dry_, and the _water-carriage_ methods. By the _dry method_
+we mean the removal of sewage without the aid of water, simply
+collecting the dry and liquid portions of excreta, storing it for some
+time, and then removing it for final disposal. By the _water-carriage
+method_ is understood the system by which sewage, solid and liquid, is
+flushed out by means of water, through pipes or conduits called
+sewers, from the houses through the streets to the final destination.
+
+=The Dry Methods.=--The dry or conservacy method of sewage disposal is
+a primitive method used by all ancient peoples, in China at the
+present time, and in all villages and sparsely populated districts; it
+has for its basic principle the return to mother earth of all excreta,
+to be used and worked over in its natural laboratory. The excreta are
+simply left in the ground to undergo in the soil the various organic
+changes, the difference in methods being only as regards the vessels
+of collection and storage.
+
+The methods are:
+
+    (1) Cesspool and privy vault.
+    (2) Pail system.
+    (3) Pneumatic system.
+
+_The Privy Vault_ is the general mode of sewage disposal in villages,
+some towns, and even in some large cities, wherever sewers are not
+provided. In its primitive and unfortunately common form, the privy
+vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some distance
+from the house; the hole is but a few feet deep, with a plank or rough
+seat over it, and an improvised shed over all. The privy is filled
+with the excreta; the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which
+becomes saturated, and contaminates the nearest wells and water
+courses. The solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is
+filled or the stench becomes unbearable, when the hole is either
+covered up and forgotten, or the excreta are removed and the hole used
+over again. This is the common privy as we so often find it near the
+cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and even in towns. A
+better and improved form of privy is that built in the ground, and
+made water-tight by being constructed of bricks set in cement, the
+privy being placed at a distance from the house, the shed over it
+ventilated, and the contents of the privy removed regularly and at
+stated intervals, before they become a nuisance. At its best, however,
+the privy vault is an abomination, as it can scarcely be so well
+constructed as not to contaminate the surrounding soil, or so often
+cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of poisonous gases.
+
+_The Pail System_ is an economic, simple, and, on the whole, very
+efficient method of removing fresh excreta. The excreta are passed
+directly into stone or metal water- and gas-tight pails, which, after
+filling, are hermetically covered and removed to the places for final
+disposal. This system is in use in Rochedale, Manchester, Glasgow, and
+other places in England.
+
+The pails may also be filled with dried earth, ashes, etc., which are
+mixed with the excreta and convert it into a substance fit for
+fertilization.
+
+_The Pneumatic System_ is a rather complicated mechanical method
+invented by Captain Lieurneur, and is used extensively in some places.
+In this system the excreta are passed to certain pipes and
+receptacles, and from there aspirated by means of air exhausts.
+
+=The Water-carriage System.=--We now come to the modern mode of using
+water to carry and flush all sewage material. This method is being
+adopted throughout the civilized world. For it is claimed a reduction
+of the mortality rate issues wherever it is introduced. The
+water-carriage system presupposes the construction and existence of
+pipes from the house to and through the street to the place of final
+disposition. The pipes running from the house to the streets are
+called house sewers; and when in the streets, are called street
+sewers.
+
+=The Separate and Combined Systems.=--Whenever the water-carriage
+system is used, it is either intended to carry only sewage proper,
+viz., solid and liquid excreta flushed by water, or fain water and
+other waste water from the household in addition. The water-carriage
+system is accordingly divided into two systems: _the combined_, by
+which all sewage and all waste and rain water are carried through the
+sewers, and the _separate_ system, in which two groups of pipes are
+used--the sewers proper to carry sewage only, and the other pipes to
+dispose of rain water and other uncontaminated waste water. Each
+system has its advocates, its advantages and disadvantages. The
+advantages claimed for the separate system are as follows:
+
+(1) Sewers may be of small diameter, not more than six inches.
+
+(2) Constant, efficient flow and flushing of sewage.
+
+(3) The sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter.
+
+(4) The sewers never overflow, as is frequently the case in the
+combined system.
+
+(5) The sewers being small, no decomposition takes place therein.
+
+(6) Sewers of small diameter need no special means of ventilation, or
+main traps on house drains, and can be ventilated through the house
+pipes.
+
+On the other hand, the disadvantages of the separate system are:
+
+(1) The need of two systems of sewers, for sewage and for rain water,
+and the expense attached thereto.
+
+(2) The sewers used for sewage proper require some system for
+periodically flushing them, which, in the combined system, is done by
+the occasional rains.
+
+(3) Small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten at as larger
+ones.
+
+The separate system has been used in Memphis and in Keene, N. H., for
+a number of years with complete satisfaction. Most cities, however,
+use the combined system.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+=Sewers=
+
+
+=Definitions.=--A sewer is a conduit or pipe intended for the passage
+of sewage, waste, and rain water.
+
+A _House Sewer_ is the branch sewer extending from a point two feet
+outside of the outer wall of the building to its connection with the
+street sewer, etc.
+
+=Materials.=--The materials from which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware "vitrified pipes."
+
+Iron is used only for pipes of small diameter; and as most of the
+sewers are of greater diameter than six inches, they are made of other
+material than iron.
+
+Cement and brick sewers are frequently used, and, when properly
+constructed, are efficient, although the inner surface of such pipes
+is rough, which causes adherence of sewage matter.
+
+The most common material of which sewers are manufactured is
+earthenware, "vitrified pipes."
+
+"Vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind of clay, and are
+salt-glazed inside. Good vitrified pipe must be circular and true in
+section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight, and free from
+cracks or other defects; they must be hard, tough, not porous, and
+have a highly smooth surface. The thicknesses of vitrified pipes are
+as follows:
+
+     4 inches diameter               1/2  inch thick
+     6   "        "                  1/16  "     "
+     8   "        "                  3/4   "     "
+    12   "        "                  1     "     "
+
+The pipes are made in two- and three-foot lengths, with spigot, and
+socket ends." (Gerhardt.)
+
+Sewer pipes are laid in trenches at least three feet deep, to insure
+against the action of frosts.
+
+=Construction.=--The level of the trenches in which sewers are laid
+should be accurate, and a hard bed must be secured, or prepared, for
+the pipes to lie on. If the ground is sandy and soft, a solid bed of
+concrete should be laid, and the places where the joints are should be
+hollowed out, and the latter embedded in cement.
+
+=Joints.=--The joints of the various lengths must be gas-tight, and
+are made as follows: into the hub (the enlargement on one end of the
+pipe) the spigot end of the next length is inserted, and in the space
+left between the two a small piece, or gasket, of oakum is rammed in;
+the remaining space is filled in with a mixture of the best Portland
+cement and clean, sharp sand. The office of the oakum is to prevent
+the cement from getting on the inside of the pipe. The joint is then
+wiped around with additional cement.
+
+=Fall.=--In order that there should be a steady and certain flow of
+the contents of the sewer, the size and fall of the latter must be
+suitable; that is, the pipes must be laid with a steady, gradual
+inclination or fall toward the exit. This fall must be even, without
+sudden changes, and not too great or too small.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.
+
+A BRICK SEWER.]
+
+The following has been determined to be about the right fall for the
+sizes stated:
+
+     4-inch pipe                  1 foot in  40  feet
+     6   "   "                    1  "    "  60   "
+     9   "   "                    1  "    "  90   "
+    12   "   "                    1  "    " 120   "
+
+=Flow.=--The velocity of the flow in sewers depends on the volume of
+their contents, the size of the pipes, and the fall. The velocity
+should not be less than 120 feet in a minute, or the sewer will not be
+self-cleansing.
+
+=Size.=--In order for the sewer to be self-cleansing, its size must be
+proportional to the work to be accomplished, so that it may be fully
+and thoroughly flushed and not permit stagnation and consequent
+decomposition of its contents. If the sewer be too small, it will not
+be adequate for its purpose, and will overflow, back up, etc.; if too
+large, the velocity of the flow will be too low, and stagnation will
+result. In the separate system, where there is a separate provision
+for rain water, the size of the sewer ought not to exceed six inches
+in diameter. In the combined system, however, when arrangements must
+be made for the disposal of large volumes of storm water, the size of
+the sewer must be larger, thus making it less self-cleansing.
+
+=Connections.=--The connections of the branch sewers and the house
+sewers with the main sewer must be carefully made, so that there shall
+be no impediment to the flow of the contents, either of the branches
+or of the main pipe. The connections must be made gas-tight; not at
+right angles or by T branches, but by bends, curves, and Y branches,
+in the direction of the current of the main pipe, and not opposite
+other branch pipes; and the junction of the branch pipes and the main
+pipe must not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer, but
+just within the water line.
+
+=Tide Valves.=--Where sewers discharge their contents into the sea,
+the tide may exert pressure upon the contents of the sewer and cause
+"backing up," blocking up the sewer, bursting open trap covers, and
+overflowing into streets and houses. To prevent this, there are
+constructed at the mouth of the street sewers, at the outlets to the
+sea, proper valves or tide flaps, so constructed as to permit the
+contents of the sewers to flow out, yet prevent sea water from backing
+up by immediately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside.
+
+=House Sewers.=--Where the ground is "made," or filled in, the house
+sewer must be made of cast iron, with the joints properly calked with
+lead. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock,
+the house sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical
+earthenware pipe, laid in a smooth bottom, free from projections of
+rock, and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the
+pipe. Each section must be wetted before applying the cement, and the
+space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be
+completely and uniformly filled with the best hydraulic cement. Care
+must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the pipe to form
+an obstruction. No tempered-up cement should be used. A straight edge
+must be used inside the pipe, and the different sections must be laid
+in perfect line on the bottom and sides.
+
+Connections of the house sewer (when of iron) with the house main pipe
+must be made by lead-calked joints; the connection of the iron house
+pipe with the earthenware house sewer must be made with cement, and
+should be gas-tight.
+
+=Sewer Air and Gas.=--Sewer gas is not a gas at all. What is commonly
+understood by the term is the air of sewers, the ordinary atmospheric
+air, but charged and contaminated with the various products of organic
+decomposition taking place in sewers. Sewer air is a mixture of gases,
+the principal gases being carbonic acid; marsh gas; compounds of
+hydrogen and carbon; carbonate and sulphides of ammonium; ammonia;
+sulphureted hydrogen; carbonic oxide, volatile fetid matter; organic
+putrefactive matter, and may also contain some bacteria, saprophytic
+or pathogenic.
+
+Any and all the above constituents may be contained in sewer air in
+larger or smaller doses, in minute or toxic doses.
+
+It is evident that an habitual breathing of air in which even minute
+doses of toxic substances and gases are floating will in time impair
+the health of human beings, and that large doses of those substances
+may be directly toxic and dangerous to health. It is certainly an
+error to ascribe to sewer air death-dealing properties, but it would
+be a more serious mistake to undervalue the evil influence of bad
+sewer air upon health.
+
+=Ventilation.=--To guard against the bad effects of sewer air, it is
+necessary to dilute, change, and ventilate the air in sewers. This is
+accomplished by the various openings left in the sewers, the so-called
+lamp and manholes which ventilate by diluting the sewer air with the
+street air. In some places, chemical methods of disinfecting the
+contents of sewers have been undertaken with a view to killing the
+disease germs and deodorizing the sewage. In the separate system of
+sewage disposal, where sewer pipes are small and usually
+self-cleansing, the late Colonel Waring proposed to ventilate the
+sewers through the house pipes, omitting the usual disconnection of
+the house sewer from the house pipes. But in the combined system such
+a procedure would be dangerous, as the sewer air would be apt to enter
+the house.
+
+Rain storms are the usual means by which a thorough flushing of the
+street sewers is effected. There are, however, many devices proposed
+for flushing sewers; e. g., by special flushing tanks, which either
+automatically or otherwise discharge a large volume of water, thereby
+flushing the contents of the street sewers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+=Plumbing=
+
+
+=Purpose and Requisites for House Plumbing.=--A system of house
+plumbing presupposes the existence of a street sewer, and a
+water-supply distribution within the house. While the former is not
+absolutely essential, as a house may have a system of plumbing without
+there being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage system
+of disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various
+waste and excrementitious matter of the house. The house-water
+distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the
+various pipes in the house plumbing.
+
+The purposes of house plumbing are: (1) to get rid of all excreta and
+waste water; (2) to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer
+from entering the house through the pipes; and (3) to dilute the air
+in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous.
+
+To accomplish these results, house plumbing demands the following
+requisites:
+
+(1) _Receptacles_ for collecting the waste and excreta. These
+receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, must be adequate for the purpose,
+small, noncorrosive, self-cleansing, well flushed, accessible, and so
+constructed as to easily dispose of their contents.
+
+(2) _Separate Vertical Pipes_ for sewage proper, for waste water, and
+for rain water; upright, direct, straight, noncorrosive, water- and
+gas-tight, well flushed, and ventilated.
+
+(3) Short, direct, clean, well-flushed, gas-tight branch pipes to
+connect receptacles with vertical pipes.
+
+(4) _Disconnection_ of the house sewer from the house pipes by the
+main trap on house drain, and disconnection of house from the house
+pipes by traps on all fixtures.
+
+(5) _Ventilation_ of the whole system by the fresh-air inlet, vent
+pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes.
+
+=Definitions.=--The _House Drain_ is the horizontal main pipe
+receiving all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes, and
+conducting them outside of the foundation walls, where it joins the
+house sewer.
+
+The _Soil Pipe_ is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter
+from the water-closets in the house.
+
+The _Main Waste Pipe_ is the pipe receiving waste water from any
+fixtures except the water-closets.
+
+_Branch Soil and Waste Pipes_ are the short pipes between the fixtures
+in the house and the main soil and waste pipes.
+
+_Traps_ are bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a certain volume
+of water, called the water seal; this water seal serves as a barrier
+to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house.
+
+_Vent Pipes_ are the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are
+connected by short-branch vent pipes, and serve to ventilate the air
+in the pipes, and prevent siphonage.
+
+The _Rain Leader_ is the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the
+roof of the house.
+
+=Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes.=--The materials from which the
+different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to
+the use of each pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials
+are used: cement, vitrified pipe, lead; cast, wrought, and galvanized
+iron; brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc.
+
+_Cement and Vitrified Pipes_ are used for the manufacture of street
+and house sewers. In some places vitrified pipe is used for house
+drains, but in most cities this is strongly objected to; and in New
+York City no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The
+objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for
+the purpose, break easily, and cannot be made gas-tight.
+
+_Lead Pipe_ is used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of
+water pipes. The advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily
+bent and shaped, hence their use for traps and connections. The
+disadvantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which
+is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, etc.
+
+_Brass, Nickel, Steel_, and other such materials are used in the
+manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not commonly employed.
+
+_Sheet Metal_ and _Galvanized Iron_ are used for rain leaders,
+refrigerator pipes, etc.
+
+_Wrought Iron_ is used in the so-called Durham system of plumbing.
+Wrought iron is very strong; the sections of pipe are twenty feet
+long, the connections are made by screw joints, and a system of house
+plumbing made of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong,
+and perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron for plumbing
+pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too
+expensive.
+
+_Cast Iron_ is the material universally used for all vertical and
+horizontal pipes in the house. There are two kinds of cast-iron pipes
+manufactured for plumbing uses, the "standard and the extra heavy."
+
+The following are the relative weights of each:
+
+    Standard.                                Extra Heavy.
+
+    2-inch pipe,  4 lbs. per foot             5-1/2 lbs.
+    3  "  "       6  "    "    "              9-1/2  "
+    4  "  "       9  "    "    "             13      "
+    5  "  "      12  "    "    "             17      "
+    6  "  "      15  "    "    "             20      "
+    7  "  "      20  "    "    "             27      "
+    8  "  "      25  "    "    "             33-1/2  "
+
+The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by plumbers, is
+generally prohibited by most municipalities, as it is not strong
+enough for the purpose, and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint
+with these pipes without breaking them.
+
+Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each, with an
+enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the "hub" or "socket," into
+which the other, or "spigot," end is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must
+be straight, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand holes,
+cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness.
+
+The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows:
+
+    2-inch pipe,  5/16 inches thick
+    3   "   "      "      "     "
+    4   "   "     3/8     "     "
+    5   "   "     7/16    "     "
+    6   "   "     1/2     "     "
+
+Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar, or by
+some other process. Tar coating is, however, not allowed in New York,
+because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes.
+
+=Joints and Connections.=--To facilitate connections of cast-iron
+pipes, short and convenient forms and fittings are cast. Some of these
+connections are named according to their shape, such as L, T, Y, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.
+
+DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.]
+
+_Iron Pipe_ is joined to _Iron Pipe_ by lead-calked joints. These
+joints are made as follows: the spigot end of one pipe is inserted
+into the enlarged end, or the "hub," of the next pipe. The space
+between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The
+remaining space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, is
+well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose. To
+make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked joint, experience and skill are
+necessary. The ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be
+from 1 to 2 inches deep, and from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch thick; 12
+ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the
+diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of
+so-called rust joints. Instead of lead, the space between the socket
+and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of
+cast-iron borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal
+ammoniac.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+All connections between _Lead Pipes_ and between _Lead_ and _Brass_ or
+_Copper_ pipes must be made by means of "wiped" solder joints. A wiped
+joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the
+solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an oval lump, and
+wiped around with a cloth, giving the joint a bulbous form.
+
+All connections between _Lead Pipes_ and _Iron Pipes_ are made by
+means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be soldered to iron, so a brass
+fitting or ferrule is used; it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped
+joint, and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint.
+
+_Putty_, _Cement_, and _Slip_ joints should not be tolerated on any
+pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+=Traps.=--We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed
+as to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier
+between the sewer and the fixture. There are many and various kinds of
+traps, some depending on water alone as their "seal," others employing
+mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also mercury, etc., to
+assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the
+pipe system.
+
+The value of a trap depends: (1) on the depth of its water seal; (2)
+on the strengths and permanency of the seal; (3) on the diameter and
+uniformity of the trap; (4) on its simplicity; (5) on its
+accessibility; and (6) on its self-cleansing character.
+
+The depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet
+traps, and about two inches for sink and other traps.
+
+Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are
+attached.
+
+The simpler the trap, the better it is.
+
+Traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings, caps, etc., to
+facilitate cleaning.
+
+The shapes of traps vary, and the number of the various kinds of traps
+manufactured is very great.
+
+Traps are named according to their use: gully, grease, sediment,
+intercepting, etc.; according to their shape: D, P, S, V, bell,
+bottle, pot, globe, etc.; and according to the name of their
+inventor: Buchan, Cottam, Dodd, Antill, Renk, Hellyer, Croydon, and
+others too numerous to mention.
+
+The S trap is the best for sink waste pipes; the running trap is the
+best on house drains.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.
+
+FORMS OF TRAPS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.
+
+FORMS OF TRAPS.]
+
+=Loss of Seal by Traps.=--The seals of traps are not always secure,
+and the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows:
+
+(1) _Evaporation._--If a fixture in a house is not used for a long
+time, the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will
+evaporate; the seal will thus be lost, and ingress of sewer air will
+result. To guard against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently
+flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the house is
+unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps are to be filled with
+oil or glycerin, either of which will serve as an efficient seal.
+
+(2) _Momentum._--A sudden flow of water from the fixture may, by the
+force of its momentum, empty all water in the trap and thus leave it
+unsealed. To prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must be
+of a proper size, not less than the waste pipe of the fixture, the
+seal must be deep, and the trap in a perfectly straight position, as a
+slight inclination will favor its emptying. Care should also be taken
+while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal.
+
+(3) _Capillary Attraction._--If a piece of paper, cotton, thread,
+hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a part of the paper, etc.,
+projects into the lumen of the pipe, a part of the water will be
+withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it. To
+guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps should
+be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and corners, and of not too
+large a size, and should also be well flushed, so that nothing but
+water remains in the trap.
+
+_Siphonage and Back Pressure._--The water in the trap, or the "seal,"
+is suspended between two columns of air, that from the fixture to the
+seal, and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on
+house drain. The seal in the trap is therefore not very secure, as it
+is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both
+sides, and especially from its distal side. Any heating of the air in
+the pipes with which the trap is connected, any increase of
+temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the
+trap is connected, and any evolution of gases within those pipes will
+naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them,
+with the result that the increased pressure will influence the
+contents of the trap, or the "seal," and may dislodge the seal
+backward, if the pressure is very great, or, at any rate, may force
+the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the
+water therein, thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the
+traps of the fixtures. This condition, which in practice exists
+oftener than it is ordinarily thought, is called "back pressure." By
+"back pressure" is therefore understood the _forcing back_, or, at
+least, the _fouling_, of the water in traps, due to the increased
+pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps; the increase
+in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water
+occasionally circulating within them, or by the evolution of gases due
+to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.
+
+NON-SYPHONING TRAP.
+
+Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.]
+
+A condition somewhat similar, but acting in a reverse way, is
+presented in what is commonly termed "siphonage." Just as well as the
+seal in traps may be forced back by the increased pressure of the air
+within the pipes, the same seal may be _forced out_, pulled out,
+aspirated, or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity
+of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected. Such a sudden
+withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there
+is a rush of large column of water through the pipes, e. g., when a
+water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged; the water
+rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong
+down current of air, with the result that where the down-rushing
+column passes by a trap, the air in the trap and, later, its seal are
+aspirated or siphoned out, thus leaving the trap without a seal. By
+"siphonage" is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by
+the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of
+water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected.
+
+To guard against the loss of seal through siphonage "nonsiphoning"
+traps have been invented, that is, the traps are so constructed that
+the seal therein is very large, and the shape of the traps made so
+that siphonage is difficult. These traps are, however, open to the
+objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of
+the seals by back pressure, and in the second place they are not
+easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets. The
+universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by
+the system of vent pipes, or what plumbers call "back-air" pipes.
+Every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the
+crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house
+the same as the waste and soil pipes, and which contains nothing but
+air, which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the
+"back-pressure" air, or to be drawn upon by the siphoning, and thus
+preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps; for
+it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the
+distal part of the seal, the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by
+any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the
+trap is connected.
+
+The vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the
+plumbing system of the house, already partly ventilated by the
+extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air
+inlet. The principal objection urged against the installation of the
+vent-pipe system is the added expense, which is considerable; and
+plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes
+various mechanical traps, also nonsiphoning traps. The vent pipes are,
+however, worth the additional expense, as they are certainly the best
+means to prevent siphonage and back pressure, and are free from the
+objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy
+nonsiphoning traps.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+=Plumbing Pipes=
+
+
+=The House Drain.=--All waste and soil matter in the house is carried
+from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes, and from these
+into the house drain, the main pipe of the house, which carries all
+waste and soil into the street sewer. The house drain extends from the
+junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to
+outside of the foundations two to five feet, whence it is called
+"house sewer." The house drain is a very important part of the
+house-plumbing system, and great care must be taken to make its
+construction perfect.
+
+_Material._--The material of which house drains are manufactured is
+extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes should never be used, and the use
+of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed.
+
+_Size._--The size of the house drain must be proportional to the work
+to be performed. Too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing, and the
+bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime. Were it not for the
+need of carrying off large volumes of storm water, the house drain
+could be a great deal smaller than it usually is. A three-inch pipe
+is sufficient for a small house, though a four-inch pipe is made
+obligatory in most cities. In New York City no house drains are
+allowed of smaller diameter than six inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.
+
+SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (H.
+BRAMLEY.)]
+
+_Fall._--The fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its
+size. Every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain
+inclination toward the house sewer, so as to increase the velocity of
+flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of
+fall should be as follows:
+
+    For 4-inch pipe                     1 in 40 feet
+     "  5  "    "                       1  " 50   "
+     "  6  "    "                       1  " 60   "
+
+_Position._--The house drain lies in a horizontal position in the
+cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to view. It should be hung
+on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is impracticable, as when
+fixtures in the cellar discharge into it; in this case, it must be
+laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with
+bricks laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and with a
+hydraulic-cement base four inches thick, on which the pipe is to rest.
+The house drain must be laid in straight lines, if possible; all
+changes in direction must be made with curved pipes, the curves to be
+of a large radius.
+
+_Connections._--The house drain must properly connect with the house
+sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or
+area wall of the building. An arched or other proper opening in the
+wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling.
+
+All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead-calked joints, as
+stated before. The junction of the vertical soil, waste, and
+rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints, but by a
+curved elbow fitting of a large radius, or by "Y" branches and 45 deg.
+bends.
+
+When the house drain does not rest on the floor, but is hung on the
+wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connection of the vertical soil and
+waste pipes must have suitable supports, the best support being a
+brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the
+wall.
+
+Near all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes with the house
+drain suitable hand-holes should be provided, these hand-holes to be
+tightly covered by brass screw ferrules, screwed in, and fitted with
+red lead.
+
+"No steam exhaust, boiler blow-off, or drip pipe shall be connected
+with the house drain or sewer. Such pipes must first discharge into a
+proper condensing tank, and from this a proper outlet to the house
+sewer outside of the building must be provided."
+
+_Main Traps._--The disconnection of the house pipes from the street
+sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front
+wall, inside the house, or just outside the foundation wall but
+usually inside of the house. The best trap for this purpose is the
+siphon or running trap. This trap must be constructed with a cleaning
+hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap, or on both sides,
+and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw
+ferrules.
+
+_Extension of Vertical Pipes._--By the main trap the house-plumbing
+system is disconnected from the sewer, and by the traps on each
+fixture from the air in the rooms; still, as the soil, waste, and
+drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which
+contaminate the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate
+these pipes. This ventilation of the soil, waste, and house drain
+pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors, etc., given
+off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes, and it is
+accomplished by two means: (1) by extension of the vertical pipes to
+the fresh air above the roof, and (2) by the fresh-air inlet on the
+house drain.
+
+By these means a current of air is established through the vertical
+and horizontal pipes.
+
+Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet
+above the highest coping of the roof or chimney. The extension must be
+far from the air shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys,
+so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them. The
+extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe, so as to
+avoid friction from the circulation of air. The use of covers, cowls,
+return bends, etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free
+circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign
+substances from falling into pipes.
+
+_Fresh-air Inlet._--The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches
+in diameter; it enters the house drain on the house side of the main
+trap, and extends to the external air at or near the curb, or at any
+convenient place, at least fifteen feet from the nearest window. The
+fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an
+iron grating, and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air
+furnace. When clean, properly cared for, and extended above the
+ground, the fresh-air inlet, in conjunction with the open extended
+vertical pipe, is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the
+house pipes; unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly
+obstructed, and do not serve the purpose for which they are made.
+
+=The Soil and Waste Pipes.=--The soil pipe receives liquid and solid
+sewage from the water-closets and urinals; the waste pipe receives all
+waste water from sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, etc.
+
+The material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is
+cast iron.
+
+The size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches; of main
+soil pipes, from four to five inches. In tenement houses with five
+water-closets or more, not less than five inches.
+
+The joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked. The
+connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines
+must be by Y joints, and by means of brass ferrules, as explained
+above.
+
+The location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall,
+built in, nor outside the house, but preferably in a special
+three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures, extending from the
+cellar to the roof, where the air shaft should be covered by a
+louvered skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly
+inclined, so as to favor ventilation.
+
+The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to view in all their
+lengths, and, when covered with boards, so fitted that the boards may
+be readily removed.
+
+Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter, as
+previously stated. When less than four inches in diameter, they must
+be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the
+roof surface by an "increaser," of not less than nine inches long.
+
+All soil and waste pipes must, whenever necessary, be securely
+fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps.
+
+Vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base, as
+the trap would not serve any purpose, and would prevent a perfect flow
+of the contents.
+
+=Branch Soil and Waste Pipes.=--The fixtures must be near the vertical
+soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes
+should be as short as possible. The trap of the branch soil and waste
+pipes must not be far from the fixture, not more than two feet from
+it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil
+branch will emit bad odors.
+
+The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows:
+
+    Kitchen sinks                              2 inches
+    Bath tubs                         1-1/2 to 2   "
+    Laundry tubs                      1-1/2 to 2   "
+    Water-closets                not less than 4   "
+
+Branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter
+inch to one foot.
+
+The branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed, accessible,
+and provided with screw caps, etc., for inspection and cleaning
+purposes.
+
+Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as
+possible, as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes
+will cause the air between the traps to be closed in, forming a
+so-called "cushion," that will prevent the ready flow of contents.
+
+"All traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their
+water level."
+
+=Vent Pipes and Their Branches.=--The purpose of vent pipes, we have
+seen, is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the
+traps and pipes. The material of which vent pipes are made is cast
+iron.
+
+The size of vent pipes depends on the number of traps with which they
+are connected; it is usually two or three inches. The connection of
+the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap, and the
+connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the
+trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent pipes are not
+perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope, so as to prevent
+condensation of air or vapor therein.
+
+The vent pipes should be extended above the roof, several feet above
+the coping, etc.; and the extension above the roof should not be of
+less than four inches diameter, so as to avoid obstruction by frost.
+No return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes.
+Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, is connected
+with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.
+
+LEADER PIPE.]
+
+=Rain Leaders.=--The rain leader serves to collect the rain water from
+the roof and eaves gutter. It usually discharges its contents into the
+house drain, although some leaders are led to the street gutter, while
+others are connected with school sinks in the yard. The latter
+practice is objectionable, as it may lead the foul air from the school
+sink into the rooms, the windows of which are near the rain leader;
+besides, the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces
+bad odors. When the rain leader is placed within the house, it must be
+made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when outside, as is the
+rule, it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered
+joints. When the rain leader is run near windows, the rules and
+practice are that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a
+deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed several feet
+below the ground, so as to prevent freezing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+=Plumbing Fixtures=
+
+
+The receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste
+and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to
+the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing. Great care must
+be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, etc., of the
+plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of comfort in the house
+instead of becoming a curse to the occupants.
+
+=Sinks.=--The waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of
+sinks. Sinks are usually made of cast iron, painted, enameled, or
+galvanized. They are also made of wrought iron, as well as of
+earthenware and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided with
+a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse
+from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it. If possible the
+back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece; the back and
+sides, when of wood, should be covered by nonabsorbent material, to
+prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water.[18] No
+woodwork should inclose sinks; they should be supported on iron legs
+and be open beneath and around. The trap of a sink is usually two
+inches in diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a
+screw cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch vent pipe should
+be at the crown of the trap.
+
+=Washbasins.=--Washbasins are placed in bathrooms, and, when properly
+constructed and fitted, are a source of comfort. They should not be
+located in bedrooms, and should be open, without any woodwork around
+them. The washbowls are made of porcelain or marble, with a socket at
+the outlet, into which a plug is fitted.
+
+=Wash Tubs.=--For laundry purposes wooden, iron-enameled, stone, and
+porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room. Porcelain is
+the best material, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the
+next best; it is clean, nonabsorbent, and not too expensive. Wood
+should never be used, as it soon becomes saturated, is foul, leaks,
+and is offensive. In old houses, wherever there are wooden tubs, they
+should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material. The wash
+tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a row, and they are
+generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two
+inches in diameter, with one trap for all the tubs.
+
+=Bath Tubs.=--Bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain, and
+should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork. The branch waste
+pipe should be trapped and connected with the main waste or soil
+pipe. The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of
+nonabsorbent material.[19]
+
+=Refrigerators.=--The waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect
+with any of the house pipes, but should be emptied into a basin or
+pail; or, if the refrigerator is large, its waste pipe should be
+conducted to the cellar, where it should discharge into a properly
+trapped, sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink.
+
+=Boilers.=--The so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in
+the kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side
+of the trap.
+
+=Urinals.=--As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated within a house;
+they are permissible only in factories and office buildings. The
+material is enameled iron or porcelain. They must be provided with a
+proper water supply to flush them.
+
+=Overflows.=--To guard against overflow of washbasins, bath tubs,
+etc., overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are
+commonly provided. These pipes are connected with the inlet side of
+the trap of the same fixture. They are, however, liable to become a
+nuisance by being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly
+flushed; whenever possible they should be dispensed with.
+
+=Safes and Wastes.=--A common usage with plumbers in the past has
+been to provide sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, and water-closets, not
+only with overflow pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist
+of sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch
+all drippings and overflow from fixtures; from these safes a drip pipe
+or waste is conducted to the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of
+course, when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste
+pipes, they become a source of danger, even if they are trapped, as
+they are not properly cared for or flushed; and their traps are
+usually not sealed. Even when discharging into a sink in the cellar,
+safes and safe waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumulate
+filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and with the floors
+under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material, they are useless.
+
+=Water-closets.=--The most important plumbing fixtures within the
+house are the water-closets. Upon the proper construction and location
+of the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of
+the house. Water-closets should be placed in separate, well-lighted,
+perfectly ventilated, damp-proof, and clean compartments, and no
+water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement
+house. The type and construction of the water-closets should be
+carefully attended to, as the many existing, old, and obsolete types
+of water-closets are still being installed in houses, or are left
+there to foul the air of rooms and apartments. There are many
+water-closets on the market, some of which will be described; the
+best are those made of one piece, of porcelain or enameled
+earthenware, and so constructed as always to be and remain clean.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.
+
+PAN WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+_The Pan Closet._--The water-closet most commonly used in former times
+was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical
+contrivances. This is the _pan closet_, now universally condemned and
+prohibited from further use. The pan closet consists of four principal
+parts: (1) basin of china, small and round; (2) a copper six-inch pan
+under the basin; (3) a large iron container, into which the basin with
+the pan under it is placed; and (4) a D trap, to which the container
+is joined. The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, when
+pulled, moves the pan; this describes a half circle and drops the
+contents into the container and trap. The objections to pan closets
+are the following:
+
+(1) There being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances, they
+are liable to get out of order.
+
+(2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected, and is
+usually very dirty beneath.
+
+(3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is liable to be
+soiled by adhering excreta.
+
+(4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper parts, and the
+iron becomes corroded and coated with filth.
+
+(5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air enters rooms.
+
+(6) The junctions between the bowl and container, and the container
+and trap, are usually not gas-tight.
+
+(7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and the trap is
+usually not completely emptied.
+
+_Valve and Plunger Closets_ are an improvement upon the pan closets,
+but are not free from several objections enumerated above. As a rule,
+all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable.
+
+_Hopper Closets_ are made of iron or earthenware. Iron hopper closets
+easily corrode; they are usually enameled on the inside. Earthenware
+hoppers are preferable to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or
+short; when long, they expose a very large surface to be fouled,
+require a trap below the floor, and are, as a rule, very difficult to
+clean or to keep clean. Short hopper closets are preferable, as they
+are easily kept clean and are well flushed. When provided with
+flushing rim, and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply
+pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet.
+
+The washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the
+hopper closets. They are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain,
+and are so shaped that they contain a water seal, obviating the
+necessity of a separate trap under the closet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.
+
+LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.
+
+SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (GERHARD.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.
+
+STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.]
+
+_Flush Tanks._--Water-closets must not be flushed directly from the
+water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of contaminating the
+water supply. Water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks, either
+of iron or of wood, metal lined; these cisterns should be placed not
+less than four feet above the water-closet, and provided with a
+straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter.
+
+The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that by pulling at the
+handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the
+contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the
+water-closet. A separate ball arrangement is made for closing the
+water supply when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a
+capacity of at least three to five gallons of water; the flush pipe
+must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch, and
+the pipe must be straight, without bends, and the arrangement within
+the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.
+
+FLUSHING CISTERN.]
+
+=Yard Closets.=--In many old houses the water-closet accommodations
+are placed in the yard. There are two forms of these yard closets
+commonly used--the school sink and the yard hopper.
+
+The _school sink_ is an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet
+long, and one to two feet wide and one foot deep, set in a trench
+several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit; on
+one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the
+other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe.
+Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, inclosing it; over it
+are placed wooden seats, and surrounding the whole is a wooden shed
+with compartments for every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into
+the trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a day, or as
+often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is pulled up and the excreta
+allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is
+connected. These school sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are
+dangerous to health. The objections to them are the following:
+
+(1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and may decompose
+even in one day; and it is always offensive.
+
+(2) The iron trough is easily corroded.
+
+(3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large surface for
+adherence of excreta.
+
+(4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink
+is emptied, and excreta, which usually adheres to it, decomposes,
+creating offensive odors.
+
+(5) The junction of the iron trough with the brickwork, and the
+brickwork itself, is usually defective, or becomes defective, and
+allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard, or into the wall
+adjacent to the school sink. By the Tenement House Law of New York,
+the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.
+
+SCHOOL SINK AFTER SEVERAL MONTHS' USE.
+
+(J. SULLIVAN.)]
+
+_Yard Hopper Closets._--Where the water-closet accommodations cannot,
+for some reason, be put within the house, yard hopper closets are
+commonly employed. These closets are simply long, iron-enameled
+hoppers, trapped, and connected with a drain pipe discharging into
+the house drain. These closets are flushed from cisterns, but, in such
+case, the cisterns must be protected from freezing; this is
+accomplished in some houses by putting the yard hopper near the house
+and placing the cistern within the house; however, this can hardly be
+done where several hoppers must be employed. In most cases, yard
+hoppers are flushed by automatic rod valves, so constructed as to
+flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon. These
+valves, as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care must
+be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be
+perfectly water-tight. An improved form of yard hopper has been
+suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department,
+and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The
+improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment
+being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside,
+and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or
+mineral wool packing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.
+
+J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.
+
+A MODERN WATER-CLOSET.
+
+(J. L. Mott Iron Works.)]
+
+=Yard and Area Drains.=--The draining of the surface of the yard or
+other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or
+house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be
+condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap
+should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and
+should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in
+winter.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this
+purpose.--EDITOR.
+
+[19] Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or
+carpets.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+=Defects in Plumbing=
+
+
+The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts
+are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the
+position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and
+hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of
+the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as
+well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of
+house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done
+as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many
+defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing.
+At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance
+and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials,
+bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may
+endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.
+
+=Defects in Plumbing.=--The defects usually found in plumbing are so
+many that they cannot all be enumerated here. Among the principal and
+most common defects, however, are the following:
+
+_Materials._--Light-weight iron pipes; these crack easily and cannot
+stand the strain of calking. Sand-holes made during casting; these
+cannot always be detected, especially when the pipes are tar-coated.
+Thin lead pipe; not heavy enough to withstand the bending and drawing
+it is subjected to.
+
+_Location and Position._--Pipes may be located within the walls and
+built in, in which case they are inaccessible, and may be defective
+without anyone being able to discover the defects. Pipes may be laid
+with a wrong or an insufficient fall, thus leaving them unflushed, or
+retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes. Pipes may be
+put underground and have no support underneath, when some parts or
+lengths may sink, get out of joint, and the sewage run into the ground
+instead of through the pipes. The pipes may be so located as to
+require sharp bends and curves, which will retard the flow in them.
+
+_Joints._--Joints in pipes may be defective, leaking, and not
+gas-tight because of imperfect calking, insufficient lead having been
+used; or, no oakum having been used and the lead running into the
+lumen of the pipe; or, not sufficient care and time being taken for
+the work. Joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being used
+instead of brass ferrules; through improperly wiped joints; through
+bad workmanship, bad material, or ignorance of the plumber. Plumbers
+often use T branches instead of Y branches; sharp bends instead of
+bends of forty-five degrees or more; slip joints instead of
+lead-calked ones; also, they often connect a pipe of larger diameter
+with a pipe of small diameter, etc.
+
+_Traps._--The traps may be bad in principle and in construction; they
+may be badly situated or connected, or they may be easily unsealed,
+frequently obstructed, inaccessible, foul, etc.
+
+_Ventilation._--The house drain may have no fresh-air inlet, or the
+fresh-air inlet may be obstructed; the vent pipes may be absent, or
+obstructed; the vertical pipes may not be extended.
+
+_Condition._--Pipes may have holes, may be badly repaired, bent, out
+of shape, or have holes patched up with cement or putty; pipes may be
+corroded, gnawed by rats, or they may be obstructed, etc.
+
+The above are only a few of the many defects that may be found in the
+plumbing of a house. It is, therefore, of paramount importance to have
+the house plumbing regularly, frequently, and thoroughly examined and
+inspected, as well as put to the various tests, so as to discover the
+defects and remedy them.
+
+=Plumbing Tests.=--The following are a few minor points for testing
+plumbing:
+
+(1) To test a trap with a view to finding out whether its seal is lost
+or not, knock on the trap with a piece of metal; if the trap is empty,
+a hollow sound will be given out; if full, the sound will be dull.
+This is not reliable in case the trap is full or half-full with slime,
+etc. Another test for the same purpose is as follows: hold a light
+near the outlet of the fixture; if the light is drawn in, it is a sign
+that the trap is empty.
+
+(2) Defects in leaded joints can be detected if white lead has been
+used, as it will be discolored in case sewer gas escape from the
+joints.
+
+(3) The connection of a waste pipe of a bath tub with the trap of the
+water-closet can sometimes be discovered by suddenly emptying the bath
+tub and watching the contents of the water-closet trap; the latter
+will be agitated if the waste pipe is discharged into the trap or on
+the inlet side of trap of the water-closet.
+
+(4) The presence of sewer gas in a room can be detected by the
+following chemical method: saturate a piece of unglazed paper with a
+solution of acetate of lead in rain or boiled water, in the proportion
+of one to eight; allow the paper to dry, and hang up in the room where
+the escape of sewer gas is suspected; if sewer gas is present, the
+paper will be completely blackened.
+
+The main tests for plumbing are: (1) the _Hydraulic_ or water-pressure
+test; (2) the _Smoke_, or sight test, and (3) the _Scent_, or
+peppermint, etc., test.
+
+The _Water-pressure Test_ is used to test the vertical and horizontal
+pipes in new plumbing before the fixtures have been connected. It is
+applied as follows: the end of the house drain is plugged up with a
+proper air-tight plug, of which there are a number on the market. The
+pipes are then filled with water to a certain level, which is
+carefully noted. The water is allowed to stand in the pipes for half
+an hour, at the expiration of which time, if the joints show no sign
+of leakage, and are not sweating, and if the level of the water in the
+pipes has not fallen, the pipes are water-tight. This is a very
+reliable test, and is made obligatory for testing all new plumbing
+work.
+
+_The Smoke Test_ is also a very good test. It is applied as follows:
+by means of bellows, or some exploding, smoke-producing rocket, smoke
+is forced into the system of pipes, the ends plugged up, and the
+escape of the smoke watched for, as wherever there are defects in the
+pipes the smoke will appear. A number of special appliances for this
+test are manufactured, all of them more or less ingenious.
+
+_The Scent Test_ is made by putting into the pipes a certain quantity
+of some pungent chemical, like peppermint oil, etc., the odor of which
+will escape from the defects in the pipes, if there are any. Oil of
+peppermint is commonly used in this country for the test. The
+following is the way this test is applied: all the openings of the
+pipes on the roof, except one, are closed up tightly with paper, rags,
+etc. Into the one open pipe is poured from two to four ounces of
+peppermint oil, followed by a pail of hot water, and then the pipe
+into which the oil has been put is also plugged up. This is done,
+preferably, by an assistant. The inspector then proceeds to slowly
+follow the course of the various pipes, and will detect the smell of
+the oil wherever it may escape from any defects in the pipes. If the
+test is thoroughly and carefully done, if care is taken that no
+fixture in the house is used and the traps of same not disturbed
+during the test, if the openings of the pipes on the roofs are plugged
+up tightly, if the main house trap is not unsealed (otherwise the oil
+will escape into the sewer), and if the handling of the oil has been
+done by an assistant, so that none adheres to the inspector--if all
+these conditions are carried out, the peppermint test is a most
+valuable test for the detection of any and all defects in plumbing.
+Another precaution to be taken is with regard to the rain leader. If
+the rain leader is not trapped, or if its trap is empty, the
+peppermint oil may escape from the pipes into the rain leader. Care
+must be taken, therefore, that the trap at the base of the rain leader
+be sealed; or, if no trap is existing, to close up the connection of
+the rain leader with the house drain; or, if this be impossible, to
+plug up the opening of the leader near the roof.
+
+Instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe on the roof, it
+may be put through a fixture on the top floor of the house, although
+this is not so satisfactory.
+
+Various appliances have been manufactured to make this test more easy
+and accurate. Of the English appliances, the Banner patent drain
+grenade, and Kemp's drain tester are worthy of mention. The former
+consists "of a thin glass vial charged with pungent and volatile
+chemicals. One of the grenades, when dropped down any suitable pipe,
+such as the soil pipe, breaks, or the grenade may be inserted through
+a trap into the drain, where it is exploded." (Taylor.) Kemp's drain
+tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical with a strong
+odor; the tube is fitted with a glass cover, held in place by a string
+and a paper band. When the tester is thrown into the pipes and hot
+water poured after it, the paper band breaks, the spring opens the
+cover, and the contents of the tube fall into the drain.
+
+Recently Dr. W. G. Hudson, an inspector in the Department of Health of
+New York, has invented a very ingenious "peppermint cartridge" for
+testing plumbing. The invention is, however, not yet manufactured, and
+is not on the market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+=Infection and Disinfection=
+
+
+Disinfection is the destruction of the infective power of infectious
+material; or, in other words, disinfection is the destruction of the
+agents of infection.
+
+An infectious material is one contaminated with germs of infection.
+
+The germs of infection are organic microoerganisms, vegetable and
+animal--protozoa and bacteria.
+
+The germs of infection once being lodged within the body cause certain
+reactions producing specific pathological changes and a variety of
+groups of symptoms which we know by the specific names of infectious
+diseases, e. g., typhoid, typhus, etc.
+
+Among the infectious diseases known to be due to specific germs are
+the following: typhoid, typhus, relapsing fevers, cholera, diphtheria,
+croup, tuberculosis, pneumonia, malaria, yellow fever, erysipelas,
+_septicaemia_, anthrax, _tetanus_, gonorrhea, etc.; and among the
+infectious diseases the germs of which have not as yet been discovered
+are the following: scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, syphilis,
+varicella, etc.
+
+The part of the body and the organs in which the germs first find
+their entrance, or which they specifically attack, vary with each
+disease; thus, the mucous membranes, skin, internal organs,
+secretions, and excretions are, severally, either portals of infection
+or the places where the infection shows itself the most.
+
+The agents carrying the germs of infection from one person to the
+other may be the infected persons themselves, or anything which has
+come in contact with their bodies and its secretions and excretions;
+thus, the air, room, furniture, vessels, clothing, food and drink,
+also insects and vermin, may all be carriers of infection.
+
+=Sterilization= is the absolute destruction of _all_ organic life,
+whether infectious or not; it is therefore _more_ than disinfection,
+which destroys the germs of infection alone.
+
+A =Disinfectant= is an agent which destroys germs of infection.
+
+A =Germicide= is the same; an agent destroying germs.
+
+An =Insecticide= is an agent capable of destroying insects; it is not
+necessarily a disinfectant, nor is a disinfectant necessarily an
+insecticide.
+
+An =Antiseptic= is a substance which inhibits and stops the growth of
+the bacteria of putrefaction and decomposition. A disinfectant is
+therefore an antiseptic, but an antiseptic may not be a disinfectant.
+
+A =Deodorant= is a substance which neutralizes or destroys the
+unpleasant odors arising from matter undergoing putrefaction. A
+deodorant is not necessarily a disinfectant, nor is every disinfectant
+a deodorant.
+
+The ideal disinfectant is one which, while capable of destroying the
+germs of disease, does not injure the bodies and material upon which
+the germs may be found; it must also be penetrating, harmless in
+handling, inexpensive, and reliable. The ideal disinfectant has not as
+yet been discovered.
+
+For successful scientific disinfection it is necessary to know: (1)
+the nature of the specific germs of the disease; (2) the methods and
+agents of its spread and infection; (3) the places where the germs are
+most likely to be found; (4) the action of each disinfectant upon the
+germs; and (5) the best methods of applying the disinfectant to the
+materials infected with germs of disease.
+
+Disinfection is not a routine, uniform, unscientific process; a
+disinfector must be conversant with the basic principles of
+disinfection, must make a thorough study of the scientific part of the
+subject, and moreover must be thoroughly imbued with the importance of
+his work, upon which the checking of the further spread of disease
+depends.
+
+
+_Physical Disinfectants_
+
+The physical disinfectants are sunlight, desiccation, and heat.
+
+=Sunlight= is a good disinfectant provided the infected material or
+germs are directly exposed to the rays of the sun. Bacteria are killed
+within a short time, but spores need a long time, and some of them
+resist the action of the sun for an indefinite period. The
+disadvantages of sunlight as a disinfectant are its superficial
+action, its variability and uncertainty, and its slow action upon most
+germs of infection. Sunlight is a good adjunct to other methods of
+disinfection; it is most valuable in tuberculosis, and should be used
+wherever possible in conjunction with other physical or chemical
+methods of disinfection.[20]
+
+=Desiccation= is a good means of disinfection, but can be applied only
+to very few objects; all bacteria need moisture for their existence
+and multiplication, hence absolute dryness acts as a good germicide.
+Meat and fish, certain cereals, and also fruit, when dried, become at
+the same time disinfected.
+
+_Heat_ is the best, most valuable, all-pervading, most available, and
+cheapest disinfectant. The various ways in which heat may be used for
+disinfection are burning, dry heat, boiling, and steam.
+
+=Burning= is of course the best disinfectant, but it not only destroys
+the germs in the infected materials, but the materials themselves; its
+application is therefore limited to articles of little or no value,
+and to rags, rubbish, and refuse.
+
+=Dry Heat.=--All life is destroyed when exposed to a dry heat of 150 deg.
+C. for one hour, although most of the bacteria of infection are killed
+at a lower temperature and in shorter time. Dry heat is a good
+disinfectant for objects that can stand the heat without injury, but
+most objects, and especially textile fabrics, are injured by it.
+
+=Boiling.=--Perhaps the best and most valuable disinfectant in
+existence is boiling, because it is always at command, is applicable
+to most materials and objects, is an absolutely safe sterilizer and
+disinfectant, and needs very little if any preparation and apparatus
+for its use. One half hour of boiling will destroy all life; and most
+bacteria can be killed at even a lower temperature. Subjection to a
+temperature of only 70 deg. C. for half an hour suffices to kill the germs
+of cholera, tuberculosis, diphtheria, plague, etc. Boiling is
+especially applicable to textile fabrics and small objects, and can
+readily be done in the house where the infection exists, thus
+obviating the necessity of conveying the infected objects elsewhere,
+and perhaps for some distance, to be disinfected.
+
+=Steam.=--Of all the physical disinfectants steam is the most valuable
+because it is very penetrating, reliable, and rapid; it kills all
+bacteria at once and all spores in a few minutes, and besides is
+applicable to a great number and many kinds of materials and objects.
+Steam is especially valuable for the disinfection of clothing,
+bedding, carpets, textile fabrics, mattresses, etc. Steam can be used
+in a small way, as well as in very large plants. The well-known
+Arnold sterilizers, used for the sterilization of milk, etc., afford
+an example of the use of steam in a small apparatus; while municipal
+authorities usually construct very large steam disinfecting plants. A
+steam disinfector is made of steel or of wrought iron, is usually
+cylindrical in shape, and is covered with felt, asbestos, etc. The
+disinfector has doors on one or both ends, and is fitted inside with
+rails upon which a specially constructed car can be slid in through
+one door and out through the other. The car is divided into several
+compartments, in which the infected articles are placed; when thus
+loaded it is run into the disinfector. The steam disinfectors may be
+fitted with thermometers, vacuum formers, steam jackets, etc.
+
+
+_Gaseous Chemical Disinfectants_
+
+Physical disinfectants, however valuable and efficient, cannot be
+employed in many places and for many materials infected with disease
+germs, and therefore chemicals have been sought to be used wherever
+physical disinfectants could not for one or more reasons be employed.
+Chemicals are used as disinfectants either in gaseous form or in
+solutions; the gaseous kinds are of especial value on account of their
+penetrating qualities, and are employed for the disinfection of rooms,
+holds of ships, etc. There are practically but two chemicals which are
+used in gaseous disinfection, and these are sulphur dioxide and
+formaldehyde.
+
+=Sulphur Dioxide.=--Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a good surface
+disinfectant, and is very destructive to all animal life; it is one of
+the best insecticides we have, but its germicidal qualities are rather
+weak; it does not kill spores, and it penetrates only superficially.
+The main disadvantages of sulphur dioxide as a disinfectant are: (1)
+that it weakens textile fabrics; (2) blackens and bleaches all
+vegetable coloring matter; (3) tarnishes metal; and (4) is very
+injurious and dangerous to those handling it.
+
+There are several methods of employing sulphur in the disinfection of
+rooms and objects, e. g., the pot, candle, liquid, and furnace
+methods.
+
+In the pot methods crude sulphur, preferably ground, is used; it is
+placed in an iron pot and ignited by the aid of alcohol, and in the
+burning evolves the sulphur dioxide gas. About five pounds of sulphur
+are to be used for every 1,000 cubic feet of space. As moisture plays
+a very important part in developing the disinfecting properties of
+sulphur dioxide, the anhydrous gas being inactive as a disinfectant,
+it is advisable to place the pot in a large pan filled with water, so
+that the evaporated water may render the gas active. For the purpose
+of destroying all insects in a room an exposure of about two hours to
+the gas are necessary, while for the destruction of bacteria an
+exposure of at least fifteen to sixteen hours is required.
+
+In the application of disinfection with sulphur dioxide, as with any
+other gas, it must not be forgotten that gases very readily escape
+through the many apertures, cracks, and openings in the room and
+through the slits near doors and windows; and in order to confine the
+gas in the room it is absolutely necessary to hermetically close all
+such apertures, cracks, etc., before generating the gaseous
+disinfectant. The closing of the openings, etc., is done by the
+pasting over these strips of gummed paper, an important procedure
+which must not be overlooked, and which must be carried out in a
+conscientious manner.
+
+When sulphur is used in candle form the expense is considerably
+increased without any additional efficiency. When a solution of
+sulphurous acid is employed, exposure of the liquid to the air
+suffices to disengage the sulphur dioxide necessary for disinfection.
+The quantity of the solution needed is double that of the crude drug,
+i. e., ten pounds for every 1,000 cubic feet of room space.
+
+=Formaldehyde.=--At present the tendency is to employ formaldehyde gas
+instead of the sulphur so popular some time ago. The advantages of
+formaldehyde over sulphur are: (1) its nonpoisonous nature; (2) it is
+a very good germicide; (3) it has no injurious effect upon fabrics and
+objects; (4) it does not change colors; and (5) it can be used for the
+disinfection of rooms with the richest hangings, bric-a-brac, etc.,
+without danger to these. Formaldehyde is evolved either from paraform
+or from the liquid formalin; formerly it was also obtained by the
+action of wood-alcohol vapor upon red-hot platinum.
+
+Formaldehyde gas has not very great penetrating power; it is not an
+insecticide, but kills bacteria in a very short time, and spores in an
+hour or two.
+
+Paraform (polymerized formaldehyde; trioxymethylene) is sold in
+pastilles or in powder form, and when heated reverts again to
+formaldehyde; it must not burn, for no gas is evolved when the heating
+reaches the stage of burning. The lamps used for disinfection with
+paraform are very simple in construction, but as the evolution of the
+gas is very uncertain, this method is used only for small places, and
+it demands two ounces of paraform for every 1,000 cubic feet of space,
+with an exposure of twelve hours. Formaldehyde is also used in the
+form of the liquid formalin either by spraying and sprinkling the
+objects to be disinfected with the liquid, and then placing them in a
+tightly covered box, so that they are disinfected by the evolution of
+the gas, or by wetting sheets with a formalin solution and letting
+them hang in the room to be disinfected.
+
+The method most frequently employed is to generate the formaldehyde in
+generators, retorts, and in the so-called autoclaves, and then to
+force it through apertures into the room.
+
+Of the other gaseous disinfectants used, hydrocyanic acid and chlorine
+may be mentioned, although they are very rarely used because of their
+irritating and poisonous character.
+
+=Hydrocyanic Acid= is frequently used as an insecticide in ships,
+mills, and greenhouses, but its germicidal power is weak.
+
+=Chlorine= is a good germicide, but is very irritating, poisonous, and
+dangerous to handle; it is evolved by the decomposition of chlorinated
+lime with sulphuric acid. Chlorine gas is very injurious to objects,
+materials, and colors, and its use is therefore very limited.
+
+
+_Chemicals Used as Disinfectants_
+
+Solution of chemicals, in order to be effective, must be used
+generously, in concentrated form, for a prolonged time, and, if
+possible, warm or hot. The strength of the solution must depend upon
+the work to be performed and the materials used. The method of
+applying the solution differs. It may consist in immersing and soaking
+the infected object in the solution; or the solution may be applied as
+a wash to surfaces, or used in the form of sprays, atomizers, etc. The
+most important solutions of chemicals and the ones most frequently
+employed are those of carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury.
+
+=Carbolic Acid.=--In the strength of 1:15,000 carbolic acid prevents
+decomposition; a strength of 1:1,000 is needed for the destruction of
+bacteria, and a three per cent to five per cent solution for the
+destruction of spores. Carbolic acid is used, as a rule, in two per
+cent to five per cent solutions, and is a very good disinfectant for
+washing floors, walls, ceilings, woodwork, small objects, etc. The
+cresols, creolin, lysol, and other solutions of the cresols are more
+germicidal than carbolic acid, and are sometimes used for the same
+purposes.
+
+=Bichloride of Mercury= (corrosive sublimate) is a potent poison and a
+powerful germicide; in solutions of 1:15,000 it stops decomposition;
+in solutions of 1:2,000 it kills bacteria in two hours; and in a
+strength of 1:500 it acts very quickly as a germicide for all
+bacteria, and even for spores. Corrosive sublimate dissolves in
+sixteen parts of cold and three parts of boiling water, but for
+disinfecting purposes it should be colored so that it may not be
+inadvertently used for other purposes, as the normal solutions are
+colorless and may accidentally be used internally. The action of the
+bichloride is increased by heat.
+
+=Formalin= is a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas, and its
+uses and methods of employment have already been considered.
+
+=Potassium Permanganate= is a good germicide, and weak solutions of it
+are sufficient to kill some bacteria, but the objections against its
+use are that solutions of potassium permanganate become inert and
+decompose on coming in contact with any organic matter. Furthermore,
+the chemical would be too expensive for disinfecting purposes.
+
+=Ferrous Sulphate= (copperas) was formerly very extensively used for
+disinfecting purposes, but is not so used at present, owing to the
+fact that it has been learned that the germicidal power of this
+material is very slight, and that its value depends mostly upon its
+deodorizing power, for which reason it is used on excreta in privy
+vaults, etc.
+
+=Lime.=--When carbonate of lime is calcined the product is common
+lime, which, upon being mixed with water, produces slaked lime; when
+to the latter considerable water is added, the product is milk of
+lime, and also whitewash. Whitewash is often used to disinfect walls
+and ceilings of cellars as well as of rooms; milk of lime is used to
+disinfect excreta in privy vaults, school sinks, etc. Whenever lime is
+used for disinfecting excreta it should be used generously, and be
+thoroughly mixed with the material to be disinfected.
+
+
+_Disinfection of Rooms_
+
+Practical disinfection is not a routine, uniform, and thoughtless
+process, but demands the detailed, conscientious application of
+scientific data gained by research and laboratory experiments.
+Disinfection to be thorough and successful cannot be applied to all
+objects, material, and diseases in like manner, but must be adjusted
+to the needs of every case, and must be performed conscientiously.
+Placing a sulphur candle in a room, spilling a quart of carbolic acid
+or a couple of pounds of chlorinated lime upon the floors or objects,
+may be regarded as disinfection by laymen, but in municipal
+disinfection the disinfector must be thoroughly versed in the science
+of disinfection and be prepared to apply its dictates to practice.
+
+=Rooms.=--In the disinfection of rooms the disinfectant used varies
+with the part of the room as well as with the character of the room.
+When a gaseous disinfectant is to be used sulphur dioxide or
+formaldehyde is employed, with the tendency lately to replace the
+former by the latter. Wherever there are delicate furnishings,
+tapestries, etc., sulphur cannot be used on account of its destructive
+character; when sulphur is employed it is, as a rule, in the poorer
+class of tenement houses where there is very little of value to be
+injured by the gas, and where the sulphur is of additional value as an
+insecticide. Whenever gaseous disinfectants are used the principal
+work of the disinfector is in the closing up of the cracks, apertures,
+holes, and all openings from the room to the outer air, as otherwise
+the gaseous disinfectant will escape. The closing up of the open
+spaces is accomplished usually by means of gummed-paper strips, which
+are obtainable in rolls and need only to be moistened and applied to
+the cracks, etc. Openings into chimneys, ventilators, transoms, and
+the like must not be overlooked by the disinfector. After the openings
+have already been closed up the disinfectant is applied and the
+disinfector quickly leaves the room, being careful to close the door
+behind him and to paste gummed paper over the door cracks. The room
+must be left closed for at least twelve, or better, for twenty-four
+hours, when it should be opened and well aired.
+
+=Walls and Ceilings= of rooms should be disinfected by scrubbing with
+a solution of corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid; and in cases of
+tuberculosis and wherever there is fear of infection adhering to the
+walls and ceilings, all paper, kalsomine, or paint should be scraped
+off and new paper, kalsomine, or paint applied.
+
+=Metal Furniture= should first be scrubbed and washed with hot
+soapsuds, and then a solution of formalin, carbolic acid, or
+bichloride applied to the surfaces and cracks.
+
+=Wooden Bedsteads= should be washed with a disinfecting solution and
+subjected to a gaseous disinfectant in order that all cracks and
+openings be penetrated and all insects be destroyed.
+
+=Bedding, Mattresses, Pillows, Quilts, etc.=, should be packed in
+clean sheets moistened with a five per cent solution of formalin, and
+then carted away to be thoroughly disinfected by steam in a special
+apparatus.
+
+=Sheets, Small Linen and Cotton Objects, Tablecloths, etc.=, should be
+soaked in a carbolic-acid solution and then boiled.
+
+=Rubbish, Rags, and Objects of Little Value= found in an infected room
+are best burned.
+
+=Glassware and Chinaware= should either be boiled or subjected to dry
+heat.
+
+=Carpets= should first be subjected to a gaseous disinfectant, and
+then be wrapped in sheets wetted with formalin solution and sent to be
+steamed. Spots and stains in carpets should be thoroughly washed
+before being steamed, as the latter fixes the stains.
+
+=Woolen Goods and Wool= are injured by being steamed, and hence may be
+best disinfected by formalin solutions or by formaldehyde gas.
+
+=Books= are very difficult to disinfect, especially such books as were
+handled by the patient, on account of the difficulty of getting the
+disinfectant to act on every page of the book. The only way to
+disinfect books is to hang them up so that the leaves are all open,
+and then to subject them to the action of formaldehyde gas for twelve
+hours. Another method sometimes employed is to sprinkle a five per
+cent solution of formalin on every other page of the book; but this is
+rather a slow process.[21]
+
+=Stables= need careful and thorough disinfection. All manure, hay,
+feed, etc., should be collected, soaked in oil, and burned. The walls,
+ceilings, and floors should then be washed with a strong disinfecting
+solution applied with a hose; all cracks are to be carefully cleaned
+and washed. The solution to be used is preferably lysol, creolin, or
+carbolic acid. After this the whole premises should be fumigated with
+sulphur or formaldehyde, and then the stable left open for a week to
+be aired and dried, after which all surfaces should be freshly and
+thickly kalsomined.
+
+=Food= cannot be very well disinfected unless it can be subjected to
+boiling. When this is impossible it should be burned.
+
+=Cadavers= of infected persons ought to be cremated, but as this is
+not always practicable, the next best way is to properly wash the
+surface of the body with a formalin or other disinfecting solution,
+and then to have the body embalmed, thus disinfecting it internally
+and externally.
+
+Disinfectors, coming often as they do in contact with infected
+materials and persons, should know how to disinfect their own _persons
+and clothing_. So far as clothing is concerned the rule should be that
+those handling infected materials have a special uniform[22] which is
+cleaned and disinfected after the day's work is done. The hands should
+receive careful attention, as otherwise the disinfector may carry
+infection to his home. The best method of disinfecting the hands is to
+thoroughly wash and scrub them for five minutes with green soap,
+brush, and water, then immerse first for one minute in alcohol, and
+then in a hot 1:1,000 bichloride solution. The nails should be
+carefully scrubbed and cleaned.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] Blankets, carpets, and rugs should be frequently hung out on the
+line in the bright sunlight.--EDITOR.
+
+[21] Unless books are valuable it is best to burn them. Paper will
+hold germs for several weeks. Recent experiments show that certain
+pathogenic bacteria, including the bacilli of diphtheria, will live
+for twenty-eight days on paper money.--EDITOR.
+
+[22] Duck, linen, or any washable material will do.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+=Cost of Conveyed Heating Systems=[23]
+
+
+In our variable climate, with its sudden and extreme changes in
+temperature, the matter of heating and ventilation demands the serious
+attention of all houseowners and housebuilders.
+
+The most common method of heating the modern dwelling is by a hot-air
+furnace in the cellar, with sheet-metal ducts for conveying the heated
+air to the various rooms. The advantages of a furnace are cheapness of
+installation and, in moderate weather, a plentiful supply of warm but
+very dry air. The disadvantages are the cost of fuel consumed, the
+liability of the furnace to give off gas under certain conditions, and
+the inability to heat certain rooms with some combinations of
+temperature and wind. The cost of installing a furnace and its proper
+ducts in a ten-room house is from $250 to $350; such a furnace will
+consume fifteen to twenty tons of anthracite coal in a season in the
+latitude of New York City. The hot-air system works better with
+compact square houses than with long, "rangy" structures. For a house
+fully exposed to the northwest blasts, one of the other systems should
+be considered.
+
+Perhaps the next most popular arrangement is a sectional cast-iron
+hot-water heater, with a system of piping to and from radiators in the
+rooms to be heated. Hot-water heating has many advantages, some of
+which are the warmth of the radiators almost as soon as the fire is
+started and after the fire is out; the moderation of the heat; the
+freedom from sudden changes in amount of heat radiated; the absence of
+noise in operation, and the low cost in fuel consumed. Some of the
+disadvantages are the high cost of installation and the lack of easy
+or ready control (as the hot water cools slowly, and shutting the
+radiator valves often puts the whole system out of adjustment). A
+hot-water heating plant for a ten-room house will cost $400 to $600,
+according to the type of boiler; the corresponding fuel consumption
+will be twelve to sixteen tons of coal per season.
+
+The third system in common use is by steam through radiators or coils
+of pipe connected to a cast-iron sectional boiler, or a steel tubular
+boiler set in brickwork. This system is in use in practically all
+large buildings; and its advantages are the moderate cost of
+installation (as the single-pipe system is very efficient and the
+pressure to be provided against in connections and fittings is
+slight); the ease of control (since any good equipment will furnish
+steam in twenty minutes from the time the fire is started, and fresh
+coal thrown upon the fire with a closing of dampers will stop the
+steam supply in five minutes--or any radiator may be turned on or off
+in an instant); the ability to heat the entire house in any weather,
+or any single room or suite of rooms only; and, lastly, the moderate
+fuel consumption.
+
+The disadvantages of steam heat are no heat, or next to none, without
+the production of steam, involving some noise in operation, and danger
+of explosion. Steam equipment in a ten-room house will cost $300 to
+$550, the lower price being for a sectional boiler and the higher for
+a steel boiler set in brickwork. The fuel consumed will be from ten to
+fifteen tons per season.
+
+Both hot-water and steam systems require supplementary means of
+ventilation. Placing the radiators in exposed places, as beneath
+windows, in the main hall near the front door, in northwest corners
+and near outside walls, will insure some circulation of air; and, if
+one or two open fire places be provided on each floor, there will be,
+in most cases, sufficient ventilation without the use of special
+ducts.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] See Chapter III for full discussion.--EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
++--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE.                                                |
+| ===================                                                |
+|                                                                    |
+| 1) Figure numbers (which aren't contiguous) have been preserved.   |
+|                                                                    |
+| 2) Part III, Chapter V. The table showing thickness of vitrified   |
+|    pipes reads:                                                    |
+|                                                                    |
+|    4 inches diameter               1/2  inch thick                 |
+|    6   "        "                  1/16  "     "                   |
+|    8   "        "                  3/4   "     "                   |
+|   12   "        "                  1     "     "                   |
+|                                                                    |
+| The thickness figure for the 6 inch pipe has been left as          |
+| originally printed, but probably is incorrect (logically it should |
+| be somewhere between 1/2 inch and 3/4 inch thick).                 |
+|                                                                    |
++--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Home Medical Library, Volume V (of
+VI), by Various
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