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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church, by 
+A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church
+
+Author: A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2008 [EBook #27102]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carla Foust and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been corrected without notice. An obvious
+printer error has been corrected, and it is listed at the end. All
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+
+
+
+     The Cambridge Manuals of Science and
+     Literature
+
+     THE GROUND PLAN OF THE
+     ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH
+
+
+
+
+
+     LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+
+     C. F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+     EDINBURGH: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+     BERLIN: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+     LEIPZIG: F. A. BROCKHAUS
+
+     NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+     BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.
+
+     _All rights reserved_
+
+
+     [Illustration: Hedon, Yorkshire: nave from N.W.]
+
+
+
+
+     [Illustration]
+
+
+     THE GROUND PLAN
+     OF THE ENGLISH
+     PARISH CHURCH
+
+     BY
+
+     A. HAMILTON THOMPSON
+     M.A., F.S.A.
+
+     Cambridge:
+     at the University Press
+     1911
+
+
+
+
+     CAMBRIDGE:
+
+     PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
+     AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+_With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the
+title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge
+printer, John Siberch, 1521_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+There is as yet no book entirely devoted to the development of the plan
+of the parish church in England, and the body of literature which bears
+upon the subject is not very accessible to the ordinary student. The
+present volume is an attempt to indicate the main lines on which that
+development proceeded. It is obvious that, from necessary considerations
+of space, much has been omitted. The elevation of the building, and the
+treatment of its decorative features, window-tracery, sculpture, etc.,
+belong to another and wider branch of architectural study, in which the
+parish church pursues the same line of structural development as the
+cathedral or monastic church, and the architectural forms of the
+timber-roofed building follow the example set by the larger churches
+with their roofs of stone. To this side of the question much attention
+has been devoted, and of late years increasing emphasis has been laid on
+the importance of the vaulted construction of our greater churches,
+which is the very foundation of medieval architecture and the secret of
+its progress through its various "styles." It is expected that the
+reader of this book, in which a less familiar but none the less
+important topic is handled, will already have some acquaintance with the
+general progress of medieval architectural forms, with which the
+development of the ground plan keeps pace.
+
+Some historical and architectural questions, which arise out of the
+consideration of the ground plan, and have an important bearing upon it,
+are treated in another volume of this series, which is intended to be
+complementary to the present one.
+
+The writer is grateful to his wife, for the plans and sketches which she
+has drawn for him, and for much help: to Mr C. C. Hodges and Mr J. P.
+Gibson, for the permission to make use of their photographs; and to the
+Rev. J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., and the Rev. R. M. Serjeantson, M.A.,
+F.S.A., for their kindness in reading through the proofs and supplying
+suggestions of the greatest value.
+
+                                                        A. H. T.
+
+     GRETTON, NORTHANTS
+
+     _26 January 1911_
+
+
+
+
+     CONTENTS
+
+
+     CHAPTER I
+
+     THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+      1. The basilican church plan                                     1
+
+      2. Problem of its derivation                                     2
+
+      3. Rival theories of its origin                                  3
+
+      4. The Roman basilica: old St Peter's                            6
+
+      5. Basilicas at Ravenna                                          8
+
+      6. Tomb-churches and baptisteries                                9
+
+      7. Centralised plans at Ravenna                                 10
+
+      8. Relative advantages of the basilican and the centralised
+         plan                                                         12
+
+      9. The basilican church at Silchester                           13
+
+     10. Early churches in Kent and Essex                             14
+
+     11. Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.                                     16
+
+     12. Escomb church, Durham                                        16
+
+     13. Early Northumbrian churches                                  18
+
+     14. Wilfrid's churches at Hexham and Ripon                       20
+
+     15, 16. Brixworth, Northants: other basilican plans              21
+
+     17. Exceptional occurrence of the basilican plan in
+         England                                                      24
+
+
+     CHAPTER II
+
+     PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     18. The normal pre-Conquest plan                                 27
+
+     19. The western bell-tower                                       29
+
+     20. Plans in which the ground floor of the tower forms the
+         body of the church                                           30
+
+     21. Barton-on-Humber and the centralised plan                    33
+
+     22. Centralised planning in England                              34
+
+     23. The Saxon lateral porch                                      35
+
+     24. Development of the transeptal chapel                         36
+
+     25. Towers between nave and chancel                              37
+
+     26, 27. Development of the cruciform plan                        38
+
+     28. Influence of local material upon the aisleless church
+         plan                                                         42
+
+
+     CHAPTER III
+
+     THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD
+
+     29. Survival and development of the aisleless plan after the
+         Conquest                                                     44
+
+     30. The nave of the aisleless church                             46
+
+     31. Rectangular chancels                                         47
+
+     32. Churches with no structural division between nave
+         and chancel                                                  49
+
+     33. Churches with apsidal chancels                               49
+
+     34. The quire                                                    53
+
+     35. The transeptal chapel                                        54
+
+     36. Cruciform plans: North Newbald and Melbourne                 58
+
+     37. Later developments of the cruciform plan                     60
+
+     38. Symbolism in planning                                        62
+
+
+     CHAPTER IV
+
+     THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+     I. NAVE, TOWER, AND PORCHES
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     39. Survival of the aisleless plan                               64
+
+     40. The addition of aisles                                       66
+
+     41. Use of aisles for side altars                                66
+
+     42. Twelfth century aisled plans                                 69
+
+     43. Ordinary method of adding aisles                             70
+
+     44, 45. Consequent irregularities of plan                        74
+
+     46. Gradual addition of aisles                                   77
+
+     47. Raunds church, Northants                                     79
+
+     48. Conservative feeling of the builders for old work            81
+
+     49. Aisles widened and rebuilt                                   83
+
+     50. Rebuilding of aisles as chantry chapels: Harringworth,
+         Northants                                                    84
+
+     51. Newark, Cirencester, Northleach, and Grantham                87
+
+     52. Naves lengthened westward                                    92
+
+     53. The western tower in relation to the plan                    94
+
+     54. Engaged western towers, etc.                                 96
+
+     55. Rebuilding of towers                                         98
+
+     56. Porches                                                      99
+
+     57. Position of the porch in the plan                            99
+
+
+     CHAPTER V
+
+     THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+     II. TRANSEPTS AND CHANCEL
+
+     58. Cruciform churches with aisled transepts                    101
+
+     59. Addition of transeptal chapels                              102
+
+     60. Variety of treatment of transeptal chapels                  105
+
+     61. Transeptal chapels as a key to original ground plans        107
+
+     62. Incomplete cruciform plans                                  108
+
+     63. Irregular cruciform plans                                   110
+
+     64. Central towers with transeptal chapels                      113
+
+     65. Transeptal towers                                           113
+
+     66. Lengthening of chancels                                     114
+
+     67. Encroachment of the chancel on the nave: Tansor             115
+
+     68. Chancel chapels                                             117
+
+     69. Churches with one chancel chapel                            119
+
+     70. Chantry chapels attached to chancels                        120
+
+     71. Effect of the addition of chapels on the cruciform plan     121
+
+     72. The aisled rectangular plan                                 124
+
+     73. Variations of the plan with aisled nave and chancel         126
+
+     74. Development of the aisled rectangle at Grantham             129
+
+     75. Deviation of the axis of the chancel                        131
+
+     INDEX OF PLACES                                                 134
+
+
+
+
+     LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+     Hedon. Interior of nave                              _Frontispiece_
+
+     FIGS.                                                          PAGE
+
+      1 Plan of old St Peter's                                         6
+
+      2 Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna                                   11
+
+      3 Plan of Escomb--typical Saxon church                          17
+
+      4 St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber                                  31
+
+      5 Aisleless plan, 12th cent.                                    45
+
+      6 Birkin, Yorkshire: interior                                   51
+
+      7 Two aisleless plans with central tower                        55
+
+      8 North Newbald                                                 57
+
+      9 Sketch of older wall above nave arcade, Gretton               72
+
+     10 Plan of Raunds church                                         80
+
+     11 Plan of Harringworth church                                   85
+
+     12 Two plans, nos. 1 and 2, of Grantham church                   88
+
+     13 Sketch of arch joining arcade to tower, Gretton               93
+
+     14 Plan of 13th cent. church: W. tower, S. Porch, transeptal
+        chapels                                                      103
+
+     15 St Mary's, Beverley. Interior of transept.                   111
+
+     16 Plans of Grantham church, nos. 3 and 4                       130
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND
+
+
+§ 1. Side by side with the establishment of Christianity as the religion
+of the Roman empire, there appeared a fully developed plan for places of
+Christian worship. The normal Christian church of the fourth century of
+our era was an aisled building with the entrance at one end, and a
+semi-circular projection known as the apse at the other. The body of the
+building, the nave with its aisles, was used by the congregation, the
+quire of singers occupying a space, enclosed within low walls, at the
+end nearest the apse. In the apse, raised above the level of the nave,
+was the altar, behind which, ranged round the wall, were the seats for
+the bishop and assistant clergy. This type of church, of which the
+aisled nave and the apse are the essential parts, is known as the
+_basilica_. The name, employed to designate a "royal" or magnificent
+building, had long been applied to large buildings, whether open to the
+sky or roofed, which were used, partly as commercial exchanges, partly
+as halls of justice. It is still often said that the Christian basilicas
+were merely adaptations of such buildings to sacred purposes. Some of
+the features of the Christian plan are akin to those of the secular
+basilica. The apse with its semi-circular range of seats and its altar
+reproduces the judicial tribune, with its seats for the praetor and his
+assistant judges, and its altar on which oaths were taken. The open
+galleries, which in some of the earliest Christian basilicas at Rome
+form an upper story to the aisles, recall the galleries above the
+colonnades which surrounded the central hall of some of the larger
+secular basilicas. Again, the _atrium_ or forecourt through which the
+Christian basilica was often approached has been supposed to be derived
+from the _forum_ in connexion with which the secular basilica was
+frequently built.
+
+§ 2. However, while the _atrium_ of the Christian basilica is merely an
+outer court, the secular basilica, when planned, like the Basilica Ulpia
+at Rome, with direct relation to a _forum_, was a principal building in
+connexion with the _forum_, but not a building of which the _forum_ was
+a mere annexe. Further, when we begin to seek for a complete
+identification of the Christian with the secular basilica, we are met by
+the obstacle that the secular basilica had no fixed plan. If we try to
+trace any principle of development in its plan, we find that this
+development is directly inverse to that of the Christian basilica. The
+secular basilica, in earlier examples a colonnaded building with its
+central space open to the sky, became at a later time a roofed hall,
+either, as in the case of the basilica at Trier, without aisles, or,
+like the basilica of Maxentius or Constantine in the Roman forum, with a
+series of deep recesses at the side, the vaulted roofs of which served
+to counteract the outward pressure of the main vault. The Christian
+basilica, if it were a mere imitation of this type of building, would
+follow the same line of development; but, as a matter of fact, the
+highest type of Christian church is always a colonnaded or aisled
+building. And, even if the Christian apse derived its arrangement from
+the apse or apses which projected from the ends or sides of the secular
+basilicas, there is again a difference. The apse with its altar was the
+main feature of the interior of the Christian church: it was the place
+in which the chief rite of Christian worship was performed before the
+eyes of all. In the secular basilica the apse was devoted to special
+purposes which set it apart from the main business of the body of the
+building: it was an appendage to the central hall, not necessarily
+within view of every part of it. In fact, the relation of the apse to
+the main building was totally different in the two cases.
+
+§ 3. It seems probable, then, that the identity between the two
+buildings is mainly an identity of name, and that Christian builders,
+in seeking for suitable arrangements for public worship, may have
+borrowed some details from the arrangements of the secular basilica. It
+is natural, however, to look for the origin of a religious plan in
+buildings devoted to religious purposes. The Roman temple supplied no
+help for the plan of buildings which were required for public worship.
+Of recent years, it has been customary to assume that the Christian
+basilica took its form from the inner halls of the private houses of
+those wealthy citizens who embraced Christianity in its early days. Such
+halls may have been used for Christian services; and if their plan was
+adopted for the Christian basilica, the mature state of the basilican
+plan at its first appearance can be explained. The _atrium_ or entrance
+hall of the house is represented on this hypothesis by the forecourt of
+the basilica; the peristyle, or colonnade round the inner room, becomes
+the aisles and the space screened off at the entrance for those not
+entitled to take full part in the service; the colonnade at the further
+end survives in the arcaded screen which existed, for example, in old St
+Peter's at Rome; the apse takes the place of the _tablinum_, where the
+most sacred relics of family life were preserved; and the transept,
+which is found in some of the early Roman basilican plans, represents
+the _alae_, or transverse space, which existed between the _tablinum_
+and the main body of the hall. But these close analogies are the result
+of an assumption by no means certain. It is always probable that the
+basilican plan had its origin in a plan originally aisleless. Some,
+intent on its religious source, explain it as a development of the plan
+of the Jewish synagogue. Others, regarding assemblies of Christians for
+public worship as, in their essence, meetings of persons associated in
+common brotherhood, have derived the basilica directly from the
+aisleless _scholae_ which were the meeting-places of the various
+confraternities or _collegia_ of ancient Rome. In these there is an apse
+at one end of the building; and, if we imagine aisles added by the
+piercing of the walls with rows of arches and columns, we have at once
+the essential features of the basilican plan. Each theory has its
+attractions and its difficulties; and to none is it possible to give
+unqualified adherence. It may be stated, as a tentative conclusion, that
+the basilican plan probably had its origin in an aisleless form of
+building, and thus pursued a course directly opposite to the development
+of the secular basilica. But it seems clear that, in many details of the
+plan, especially as we see it in Rome, the peristyled hall was kept in
+mind; while in two features, the arrangement of the apse and the
+occasional appearance of galleries above the aisles, the secular
+basilica was taken into consideration. The policy of the early Christian
+Church, when its services were sanctioned by the state, was to adapt
+existing and familiar forms where they could be suitably reproduced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Plan of old St Peter's: (1) _atrium_ or
+fore-court; (2) nave with double aisles; (3) site of screen-colonnade;
+(4, 4) transepts; (5) apse with crypt below.]
+
+§ 4. The plan of the old basilica of St Peter at Rome, founded by
+Constantine the Great, and destroyed early in the sixteenth century to
+make way for the present church, explains the principal features of the
+basilican plan in its developed state. (1) In common with other early
+basilicas in Rome, and in other parts of western Europe, the entrance
+was at the east, and the altar at the west end, so that the celebrant
+faced the congregation during the divine office. (2) The church was
+approached through a cloistered _atrium_ or fore-court, in the middle of
+which was a fountain, the place of purification for those intending to
+enter the church. (3) At the west end of the cloister three doorways
+opened into the nave of the church, and one on either side into the
+side aisles. (4) The nave communicated with the aisles by a row of
+columns beneath an entablature: there were also outer aisles,
+communicating with the inner by columns bearing rounded arches. (5) The
+side walls of the nave, above the entablature, were not pierced for
+galleries, but were covered by two rows of mosaic pictures, one above
+the other, on each side, the upper row corresponding to the height of
+the space between the outer and inner roofs of the aisle. Above this,
+the walls rose into a clerestory, pierced with round-headed windows at
+regular intervals; and a high entablature supported the great tie-beams
+of the wooden roof. (6) The quire of singers, divided from the rest of
+the church by low screen walls, probably occupied the centre of the
+western portion of the nave. (7) A tall open arch divided the nave from
+the transept, which was of equal height with the nave, and projected
+south and north as far as the walls of the outer aisles. Here probably
+were places reserved for distinguished persons, near the platform of the
+altar. (8) West of the transept, entered by a tall and wide arch, was
+the apse. Beneath the arch was a screen, formed by a row of columns,
+under an entablature which bore statues of our Lord and the apostles:
+this crossed the arch at the foot of the steps leading to the altar and
+seats of the clergy. (9) Beneath the altar platform, and entered by
+doorways on each side of the flight of steps, was the crypt or
+_confessio_, the traditional place of martyrdom of St Peter, and the
+resort of pilgrims to the tomb of the apostles. The hallowed place was
+immediately beneath the altar.
+
+§ 5. The sixth century basilicas of Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe
+and Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, differ in plan from the Roman basilicas (1)
+in the fact that they have always had the altar at the east, and the
+entrance at the west end; (2) by substituting, for a colonnaded atrium,
+a closed porch or _narthex_ in front of the entrance of the building. In
+process of time, two of the greater Roman basilicas, San Paolo and San
+Lorenzo fuori le Mura, were enlarged in a westward direction, so that
+the positions of the altar and entrance were reversed; and, in several
+of the early basilicas at Rome, a space near the entrance of the nave
+was screened off, from which penitents and catechumens might watch the
+service. But, in the first instance, the eastern chancel and the
+structural _narthex_ appear to have been introduced from the eastern
+empire. Neither at Ravenna nor at Rome did bell-towers originally form
+part of the plan of the basilica: the round _campanili_ of both churches
+at Ravenna are certainly later additions. It may also be noted (1) that
+ordinarily the aisles were single, not double as at old St Peter's. (2)
+The columned screen of the apse at old St Peter's appears to have been
+exceptional. The ordinary screen or _cancelli_, from which is derived
+our word "chancel" for the space thus enclosed, was a low wall. This is
+the arrangement at the basilica of San Clemente, in which the enclosed
+quire also remains. (3) The transept, even in Rome, was an exceptional
+arrangement, and does not appear in the basilicas of Ravenna.
+
+§ 6. Another type of plan, however, was used in Rome for churches
+devoted to the special purposes of burial and baptism. In this case the
+buildings were planned round a central point, and at Rome were uniformly
+circular. Recesses round the walls of the mausoleum-church contained
+sarcophagi: in the centre of the baptistery was the great font. The
+church of Santa Costanza, outside the north-eastern walls of Rome,
+circular in plan, with a vaulted aisle surrounding the central space,
+was built by Constantine the Great as a tomb-church for his family, and
+was also used as a baptistery. Both these uses were direct adaptations
+of pagan customs. The baptistery, with its central font for total
+immersion, was simply a large bath-room, like the great rotunda of the
+baths of Caracalla. The mausoleum preserved the form of which the finest
+example is the tomb of Hadrian, now known as the castle of Sant' Angelo.
+In the course of the middle ages, certain tomb-churches in Rome, with a
+centralised plan, were turned into places of public worship. But, for
+the plan of the ordinary church, the basilica, with its longitudinal
+axis, was general. In the eastern empire, on the other hand, the
+centralised plan was employed from an early date for large churches; and
+in this way was evolved the magnificent style of architecture which
+culminated in Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Here the centralised plan
+was triumphantly adapted to the internal arrangements of the basilica.
+
+§ 7. The city of Ravenna, closely connected historically both with Rome
+and Constantinople, contains a series of monuments which is of
+unequalled interest in the history of the centralised plan. (1) The
+mausoleum of the empress Galla Placidia, sister of the emperor Honorius,
+who died in 450 A.D., is a building of cruciform shape, consisting of a
+square central space covered by a dome, with rectangular projections on
+all four sides. The projection through which the building is entered is
+longer than the others, and the plan thus forms the Latin cross so
+common in the churches of the middle ages. (2) To the same period
+belongs the octagonal baptistery, known as San Giovanni in Fonte. (3) In
+493 A.D. Theodoric the Ostrogoth obtained possession of Ravenna. To the
+period of his rule belongs the Arian baptistery, also octagonal, known
+as Santa Maria in Cosmedin. (4) Theodoric died in 526 A.D. His mausoleum
+is formed by a polygon of ten equal sides, with a smaller decagonal
+upper stage, a circular attic above which bears the great monolithic
+dome. In the lower story was the tomb: the internal plan is a Greek
+cross, _i.e._ there is a central space with recesses of equal depth on
+all four sides. (5) In the year of the death of Theodoric, the octagonal
+church of San Vitale was begun. It was consecrated in 547, when Ravenna
+had become the capital of the Italian province of Justinian's empire.
+Its somewhat complicated plan was clearly derived from an eastern
+source, but not from Santa Sophia, which was not begun till 532 A.D. The
+central space is almost circular. Between each of the piers which
+support the octagonal clerestory at the base of the cupola is an apsidal
+recess, with three arches on the ground floor opening into the
+encircling aisle, and three upper arches opening into the gallery above
+the aisle. On the east side of the central space this arrangement is
+broken, and one tall arch opens into the chancel, which ends in a
+projecting apse, semi-circular inside, but a half octagon outside. The
+aisle with the gallery above thus occupies seven sides of the outer
+octagon, the eighth side being occupied by the western part of the
+chancel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna: (1) _narthex_ with
+flanking turrets, as originally arranged; (2) central nave; (3) chancel
+and altar.]
+
+§ 8. Of the two types of plan, which can be studied so satisfactorily at
+Ravenna, the ordinary basilican type is the more convenient. The long
+nave provides the necessary accommodation for worshippers, the raised
+apse gives a theatre for the performance of service within view of
+everybody, the aisles facilitate the going and coming of the
+congregation, and prevent over-crowding. The centralised plan provides,
+it is true, a large central area conveniently near the altar; but the
+provision of a chancel or altar-space necessitates the grafting on the
+plan of a feature borrowed from the ordinary basilica, which, as at San
+Vitale, breaks the symmetry of the design. At Santa Sophia, the
+basilican chancel forms an indissoluble part of a centralised plan; but
+this feat is beyond the reach of an ordinary architect. Even at San
+Vitale the planning is highly complicated, and must be due to an
+architect of some genius. In addition to complications of design, the
+centralised plan raised questions of roofing which did not trouble the
+builders of the long wooden-roofed basilicas. The vaulted half-dome of
+the basilican apse was a simple matter, compared with the mighty dome of
+Santa Sophia and its cluster of abutting half-domes. It was in the
+centralised churches, with their domed vaults and the groined vaults of
+their aisles, that the history of medieval vaulting began. But, even
+when medieval masons had learned to regard the vaulting of their
+churches as the controlling principle of their art, they left the
+centralised plan almost entirely alone, and applied what it had taught
+them to the work of roofing basilicas with vaults of stone. We shall
+trace the influence of the centralised church as we proceed; but the
+influence of the basilica will be found to predominate in the history of
+medieval planning.
+
+§ 9. In England, as in other portions of the Roman empire, we might
+naturally expect to find the basilican plan applied to the earliest
+Christian churches. The foundations of a small Romano-British basilican
+church have been discovered at Silchester in Hampshire. The apse, as in
+the Roman basilicas, was at the west end. The nave had aisles, which, at
+the end nearest the apse, broadened out into two transept-like
+projections. The entrance front of the church was covered by a
+_narthex_, the whole width of nave and aisles. This feature, as has been
+shown, is of eastern rather than of Roman origin; while the projections
+at the end of the aisles appear to have been, not transepts like those
+at old St Peter's, but separate chambers corresponding to those which,
+in eastern churches, flank the chancel, and are used for special ritual
+purposes. In fact, the basilica at Silchester recalls the plans of the
+early basilicas of north Africa more closely than those of the basilicas
+of Rome; while it has, unlike them, the Roman feature of the western
+apse. This, however, gives rise to questions which, in our present state
+of knowledge, are beyond solution.
+
+§ 10. Of the seven churches which are usually connected with the
+missionary activity of St Augustine and his companions, five, of which
+we have ruins or foundations, certainly ended in apses; and the apse in
+each case was divided from the nave, not by a single arch, but by an
+arcade with three openings, which recalls the screen-colonnade at old
+St Peter's. But only one church in the group, the ruined church of
+Reculver, followed the plan of the aisled nave of the basilica. From the
+description which remains of the early cathedral of Canterbury,
+destroyed by fire in 1067, we can see that it, too, was an aisled
+basilica, with its original apse at the west end. But the first
+cathedral of Rochester, the plan and extent of which may be gathered
+from existing foundations, was an aisleless building with an eastern
+apse. The church of St Pancras at Canterbury, the lower courses of the
+walls of which in great part remain, had an aisleless nave, divided from
+an apsidal chancel by a screen-wall with three openings, that in the
+middle being wider than the others. The foundations of two of the four
+columns which flanked these openings can still be traced. The walls of
+the chancel, which was slightly narrower than the nave, were continued
+straight for a little way beyond the screen-wall; and then the curve of
+the apse began. St Pancras also possessed a square entrance porch, much
+narrower than the nave, at its west end, and two chapels projecting from
+the nave on either side, half-way up its length. The church is thus
+cruciform in plan. The western porch and the chapels seem to have been
+added as the work proceeded, and not to have been contemplated in the
+original design. The material of the building is Roman brick, and
+buttress projections occur at the western angles of the nave and porch,
+in the fragment which remains of the south wall of the chancel, and at
+the outer angles of the side chapels. Small buttresses are also found at
+the angles and on the sides of St Peter's on the Wall in Essex.
+
+§ 11. In one respect the plan of St Pancras at Canterbury is allied to
+that of the church at Bradford-on-Avon in Wiltshire. At Bradford there
+remains one of the two porches, which also were probably side chapels,
+projecting from the sides of the nave. But at Bradford the remaining
+porch is larger in proportion to the nave than is the case at St
+Pancras. There is no entrance porch on the west side. Further, the
+chancel at Bradford is rectangular, not apsidal. Instead of a
+screen-wall with a central opening nine feet wide, the wall dividing
+nave from chancel is pierced by a small arch only 3 ft. 6 in. wide. The
+date of this little church is a matter of great difficulty; and the
+character of its masonry seems to demand for it a later date than the
+early one popularly claimed for it. The contrast with St Pancras is
+accentuated further by the fact that the internal measurements of the
+nave show a different scheme of proportion. The nave of St Pancras is
+some three feet broader in proportion to its length than the much
+shorter nave at Bradford.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plan of Escomb--typical Saxon church.]
+
+§ 12. A closer parallel to Bradford-on-Avon is found in the little
+church of Escomb, near Bishop Auckland. No record of the early history
+of this building is known; but its masonry is almost entirely composed
+of re-used Roman dressed stone-work. In this respect it presents a
+contrast to Bradford. In another respect the two churches are unlike.
+Both have their entrances in the side walls; but at Escomb there were no
+original porches covering the doorways, while there are traces of what
+may have been an entrance porch, like that of St Pancras, at the west
+end. But they have these points in common: (1) the nave at Escomb is
+long in proportion to its width; (2) the chancel is a rectangular
+eastern projection, narrower and much shorter than the nave; (3) there
+is a solid wall of division between nave and chancel, pierced by a
+narrow arch, broader than that of Bradford, but very much higher in
+proportion to its width. It may be added that the walls of both churches
+are high in proportion to their length and breadth, and that at Escomb
+the original windows are small openings with rounded and flat
+lintel-heads, and with internal splays.
+
+§ 13. It is, however, with the plan that we are concerned. We now have
+met with three separate forms in England, viz. (1) the rare basilican
+plan; (2) the "Kentish" plan of aisleless nave with apsidal chancel; (3)
+the plan of aisleless nave with rectangular chancel. We also have seen
+that the screen-wall is common to (1) and (2), while the single chancel
+arch belongs to (3); and that side chapels and western porches are found
+incidentally in (2) and (3). Now, the early date of Escomb, apart from
+the evidence supplied by its masonry, can be suspected only by its
+analogy to the plan of other churches of which the date is practically
+certain. Two such churches remain in the same county of Durham. One is
+at Monkwearmouth, now a part of Sunderland. Its nave and the lowest
+stage of its western tower represent, and in great part actually are,
+the nave and western porch of an early Saxon church, which is generally
+identified with the church built here by Benedict Biscop for the
+monastery which he founded in 672 A.D. The nave was originally
+aisleless, long, narrow and lofty: the entrance porch had an upper story
+finished with a gabled roof, and a vaulted ground-floor with entrances
+on three sides. There was evidently a chancel arch, and probably the
+chancel was rectangular. The material of the building was not Roman;
+but, in the decoration applied to it, Roman work was imitated. Only a
+few miles further north, Benedict founded, in 680 A.D., the sister
+monastery of Jarrow. The long and narrow chancel of the present church
+of St Paul was the body of a church somewhat similar to that of
+Monkwearmouth. Stone-work which may represent the jambs of a broad
+chancel arch can be traced in the east wall; but this cannot be stated
+with positive certainty. The lower part of the tower, now between the
+present chancel and nave, may represent an original western porch; but,
+in its present state, it is of much later date than the work east of it,
+and its site must have been broadened when the tower was first planned.
+At Jarrow there is no Roman stone-work; but one type of Roman masonry
+has been imitated by the builders in the walls of the chancel, and small
+decorative shafts, turned in a lathe after the Roman fashion, such as
+exist at Monkwearmouth, have been found in the building. The inscribed
+stone, recording the dedication of the church, is preserved in the wall
+above the western tower-arch: the date given is 23 April, 684 A.D. In
+this inscription the building, though aisleless, is called a basilica.
+The word was now probably used to signify a Christian church,
+irrespective of its plan. A third early church in this district is that
+of Corbridge, near Hexham. Here, as at Monkwearmouth, the ground story
+of the tower was originally a western porch; while the lofty arch
+between tower and nave is, like the chancel arch at Escomb, entirely
+composed of dressed Roman masonry, and seems to have been removed from
+one of the buildings of the Roman station of Corstopitum, as the arch at
+Escomb was probably removed from the not far distant station of
+Vinovium.
+
+§ 14. The date to which these four northern churches may be assigned is
+the half century of the activity of St Wilfrid in England (664-709
+A.D.). Bede's account of the architectural work of Wilfrid's friend,
+Benedict Biscop, shows that he procured, for the building of the church
+at Monkwearmouth, stonemasons and glaziers from Gaul, who were
+acquainted with "the manner of the Romans." The account which another
+contemporary, Eddius, gives of Wilfrid's church at Hexham, is clear
+proof that this important building was a reproduction, in plan and
+elevation, of the aisled basilicas of the continent--a fact in keeping
+with Wilfrid's life-long aim of bringing English Christianity into
+closer touch with the main current of historic Christianity in Rome and
+Gaul. The foundations of the outer walls of most of Wilfrid's church
+were uncovered when, lately, the new nave of Hexham priory church was
+begun; but one of its features has been long known, and is of the
+highest interest. The crypt for relics below the apse and high altar
+consists of an oblong chamber, with a western vestibule, approached by a
+straight stairway from the nave. In addition to the western stair, there
+are two stairs which communicated with the apse. That on the south side
+remains perfect, and ends in a passage and vestibule, through which the
+relic-chamber is entered. The northern stairway leads through a passage
+to the western vestibule, at the foot of the stair from the nave. The
+crypt of Wilfrid's contemporary basilica at Ripon also remains: here the
+arrangement is less complicated; but the arrangement of the main
+relic-chamber is equally the chief feature of the plan.
+
+§ 15. The foundations of the Saxon church at Peterborough present many
+difficulties, and may be of a later date than the foundation of the
+monastery in 655 A.D. But no such difficulties of date or plan exist
+with regard to the large Saxon church at Brixworth, between Northampton
+and Market Harborough. Its size and the fact that Roman material has
+been much re-used in its building have given rise to the tradition that
+it is a secular basilica applied to the purposes of a Christian church.
+As a matter of fact, the Roman brick-work has been re-used in obvious
+ignorance of Roman methods; so that this circumstance alone would make
+the legend improbable. The date of the building can hardly be earlier
+than about 680 A.D., when a monastery was founded here by a colony of
+monks from Peterborough. The plan originally consisted of (1) a western
+entrance porch, with a lofty western doorway, and smaller doorways on
+north and south; (2) a broad nave, divided from the aisles by arches,
+which spring from large square piers of plain brick-work; (3) a
+rectangular presbytery, divided from the nave by a screen-wall pierced
+with three arches; (4) an apsidal chancel, entered from the presbytery
+by a single arch. On each side of the chancel arch, a doorway entered
+into a narrow vaulted passage below the ground level, which probably
+formed an aisle round a crypt below the apse. At a later date, probably
+in the period of quiet following the later Danish invasions, the apse
+seems to have been rebuilt, polygonal externally, semi-circular on the
+inside, and the central crypt-chamber was then possibly filled up. The
+western porch was also used as the foundation for a tower, and the
+western arch blocked up with a filling containing a lower doorway,
+through which the circular turret for the tower-stair was entered. The
+aisles, either then or at a somewhat later date, having probably fallen
+into ruin, were removed. The clerestory of the nave remains, with
+unusually broad round-headed windows.
+
+§ 16. The original plan of Brixworth has points in common with some of
+the other plans which have been noted. In its triple arched screen-wall
+it recalls the Kentish type of church; its rectangular presbytery
+between nave and apse is a development of the chancel space which
+existed west of the spring of the apse at St Pancras. It shares its
+western porch with St Pancras and two, if not four, of the northern
+group of churches. In the north and south doorways of this porch it has
+kinship with Monkwearmouth, and at Brixworth there are definite signs
+that these doorways led into passages which may have been connected with
+other buildings of the monastery, or possibly even with an _atrium_ or
+fore-court. The aisled nave and the traces of a crypt bring it into
+relation, not merely with Hexham or Ripon, but with the historical
+church plan of western Europe generally. At the same time, the plan,
+regarded as that of an English church, is exceptional. The aisled plan
+of the parish church was arrived at in spite, not in consequence, of the
+few early aisled churches which might have supplied it with a model.
+During the epoch which followed the Danish invasions the aisleless plan
+was deliberately preferred: the rectangular chancel entirely superseded
+the apse. No further example of the structural screen-wall occurs. In
+addition to those mentioned, only three more pre-Conquest examples of
+crypts are known, and such crypts as occur in parish churches after the
+Conquest are exceptional, and are usually due to exigencies of site.
+Only three more aisled churches of unquestionably pre-Conquest date
+exist above ground. Reculver has been mentioned. The others are Lydd in
+Kent, where only indications of an arcade remain, and the complete
+basilican church of Wing, near Leighton Buzzard, which has a polygonal
+apse with a crypt below. Wing is probably much later in date than most
+of Brixworth, but one cannot but be struck by a certain resemblance in
+construction between the two naves, and in plan between the crypt at
+Wing and the remains of the crypt at Brixworth.
+
+§ 17. These early churches have been treated at some length, because
+they contain certain essential elements of planning in a state of
+probation. The basilican plan was doubtless the ideal of English
+builders during the sixth and early seventh centuries, but an ideal
+which was hard to compass where good building material was not
+plentiful. Thus Augustine and his companions contented themselves in
+most instances with a plan which recalled the aisled basilica, without
+following out its more elaborate details. It is remarkable that they
+should have departed from the usual Roman custom, and made their
+chancels at the east end of their churches: it is also remarkable to
+find at St Pancras the western porch, the origin of which appears to be
+the non-Roman _narthex_. Models existed, no doubt in the ruins of the
+Romano-British churches, which they repaired; and we have seen that at
+Silchester there is a regular _narthex_, while, on the other hand,
+there is a western apse. These models, however, were probably all of one
+general type, in which the chancel end was formed by an apsidal
+projection. When Roman Christianity reached the north, it had to contend
+with the efforts of Celtic missionaries; and those efforts were not met
+by it effectively until, in 664, the energetic leadership of Wilfrid
+secured a triumph for his party at the council of Whitby. Of the Celtic
+churches of the north we know but little: it seems likely that they were
+for the most part plain oratories of stone or wood, with or without a
+separate chancel. The simplest form, obviously, which a church can
+assume is a plain rectangle with an altar at one end. As the
+desirability of a special enclosure for the altar is recognised, a
+smaller rectangle will be added at the altar end of the main building,
+and so the distinction between nave and chancel will be formed. There
+are indications of this natural growth of plan in some of the early
+religious buildings in Ireland. In remote districts, as in Wales, the
+simple nave and chancel plan is general all through the middle ages; and
+the smaller country churches often follow the common Celtic plan of a
+single rectangle with no structural division. The ruined chapel at
+Heysham in Lancashire, a work of early date, is an undivided rectangle
+in plan. This is the form which would suggest itself naturally to the
+unskilled builder: the division of nave and chancel into a larger and
+smaller rectangle is the next step which would occur to his intelligence
+in the ordinary course of things. It is possible that Wilfrid and
+Benedict Biscop found that their aims would be best served by adhering
+in certain instances to the familiar Celtic plan, and so, while they
+hired foreign masons and craftsmen to build and furnish their earlier
+churches, and to set the example of building stone churches after the
+manner of the Romans, they were careful to avoid the prejudice which
+insistence on a new plan would have excited. The simplicity, moreover,
+of a plan like that at Escomb, which requires little architectural skill
+to work upon, may have been a recommendation; and the fact that the
+construction of an apse is more difficult than that of a rectangular
+chancel must have weighed powerfully with English masons, both at this
+time and later. The fact remains that, in the early age of our church
+architecture in stone, the aisled basilica was a rare exception, and the
+rectangular chancel was, in the north, at least as common as the apse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD
+
+
+§ 18. In later Saxon churches the aisleless plan and the rectangular
+chancel were normal. Instances of an aisled plan after the seventh
+century have been noted already: it has been seen that there are only
+two definite examples, and, although there may be indications of others,
+these are few and far between and uncertain. The apsidal chancel again
+is exceedingly rare. We have noted it in combination with other
+basilican features at Wing: the instances in which it occurs again are
+very few, and in these, as in the important monastic church of
+Deerhurst, there are other variations from the aisleless plan. In by far
+the largest number of examples, the plan adhered to was that simple one
+of which we have a complete prototype at Escomb. Late Saxon fabrics
+which remain free of later additions are few; but there is a
+considerable number of churches which still keep the quoins of an
+aisleless Saxon nave _in situ_, although aisles have been added during
+the twelfth or thirteenth centuries. Such are St Mary-le-Wigford and St
+Peter-at-Gowts at Lincoln, Bracebridge in the western suburb of Lincoln,
+St Benet's at Cambridge, and Wittering, near Stamford. At Winterton in
+Lincolnshire large pieces of the western part of both walls of the nave
+were kept as an abutment to the tower, when aisles were added.
+Sometimes, as at Geddington and Brigstock in Northamptonshire, the whole
+wall above the nave arcades is the upper part of the wall of the
+aisleless building; and instances in which blocked window openings, of a
+not improbably pre-Conquest date, remain in walls that have subsequently
+been pierced with arcades, are exceedingly common. If an untouched Saxon
+nave is a rare thing, an unaltered Saxon chancel is obviously rarer. The
+small rectangular chancel of the large medieval church at Repton, in
+Derbyshire, is practically unique; it was probably preserved for the
+sake of the crypt beneath, which, at first a plain rectangular chamber,
+was subsequently, but still in pre-Conquest times, vaulted in
+compartments supported by columns. But at Sidbury in Devon, where there
+is a small rectangular crypt, the chancel above was rebuilt in the
+twelfth, and lengthened in the thirteenth century, without any reference
+to the line of the walls of the crypt below it. A good example of an
+unaltered late Saxon fabric is the church of Coln Rogers in
+Gloucestershire. Here the western tower, built up inside the nave, is a
+later addition, but the nave, rectangular chancel, and arch between
+them, are still intact. The chancel arch, though by no means broad, is
+yet much wider than those at Escomb and Bradford-on-Avon; and its width
+probably represents the normal width of a chancel arch of this period.
+
+§ 19. An addition occurs in most of these late Saxon plans, which had a
+great influence on the subsequent, and even on the contemporary,
+development of the church plan. We have noted that at Rome and Ravenna
+towers formed no part of the original basilican plan, but were added
+later as _campanili_. In England it appears that the tower formed no
+part of the plan until, at any rate, the epoch of the Danish wars.
+
+Western bell-towers were very general by the beginning of the eleventh
+century. In most of these towers, the ground floor forms an entrance
+porch; but it does not follow that the western tower in England was
+generated by the heightening of the western porch. The porches of
+Brixworth and Monkwearmouth were probably not heightened until the
+western tower had come into existence elsewhere. An origin for the
+western tower has been sought in the fore-buildings which occur in some
+of the early German churches, and contain separate upper chambers. It
+may be that, derived from this source, the western tower superseded the
+porch, and, where porches existed, they were adapted to the new
+fashion.
+
+§ 20. The towers of Earl's Barton, Barnack, and St Peter's at
+Barton-on-Humber, are perhaps the most obviously interesting relics of
+Saxon architecture which we possess. All are much larger in area than
+the normal western tower of the later Saxon period. Earl's Barton is a
+western tower, and its ground floor has probably always served as a
+porch: the rest of the church, however, is a medieval building of
+various periods. At Barnack, again, the complete plan of the Saxon
+church has been lost. Here, however, the western tower was something
+more than a porch. The doorway is not in the west, but in the south
+wall; and in the west wall, inside the church, is a niche with a
+triangular head, which was certainly neither doorway nor window, but a
+seat. Whether this implies that the ground floor of the tower was used
+for special religious functions, or for some purpose connected with the
+common life of the parish, is not clear; but it shows, at any rate, that
+there was some good reason for the unusually roomy planning of the
+tower. We stand on firmer ground at Barton-on-Humber. Here, again, a
+large medieval church exists to the east of the tower. But upon its
+western side is a small rectangular building of contemporary date, which
+was not a porch in front of the tower, but a westward extension of the
+body of the church, the main entrances being on either side of the
+tower. The foundations of a similar projecting building have been
+discovered to the east of the tower, beneath the floor of the later
+nave. It is therefore clear that the ground floor of the tower, or
+rather of a high tower-like building, formed the body of the church, and
+that the eastern projection was the chancel. There are clear indications
+at Broughton, also in north Lincolnshire, that this plan was used, at
+any rate, once again. The tower at Broughton is obviously later than
+that at Barton: the doorway, whose details are of a post-Conquest
+character, is in the south wall; and a large circular stair-turret, like
+that at Brixworth, projects from the west wall. Probably there was only
+a chancel here, and no western annexe to correspond. A similar
+stair-turret occurs at Hough-on-the-Hill, between Grantham and Lincoln:
+the tower, now western, has a doorway in the south wall, and probably
+stands mid-way in date between Barton and Broughton. It is planned on a
+very ample scale, with thin walls and a large floor-space. The main
+fabric of the church is altogether of a later date; and there are no
+indications, at any rate above ground, of an earlier building east of
+the tower. The size of the tower, the provision of a stair-turret, as at
+Broughton, to leave the ground floor clear, suggest that here we may
+have a third example of the plan in which the tower covered the main
+body of the church. The arrangement at Barnack gives grounds for a
+suspicion of something of the same kind there. In all these cases the
+tower has been a tower from the beginning; but at Barton-on-Humber the
+uppermost stage was added towards the end of the Saxon period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber: from S.W.]
+
+§ 21. In these buildings we seem to discover the influence of the
+centralised plan, acting through the channel of German art. It would be
+absurd to say that the plan of Barton-on-Humber was inspired by the plan
+of the palace-church at Aachen, which was an adaptation, with some
+improvement, of the plan of San Vitale at Ravenna. No masterly
+intellectual effort, such as the Aachen plan shows, was necessary to
+plan a rectangle with two smaller rectangles at either end. But the
+church at Aachen had made the centralised plan familiar to the builders
+of western Europe. In Germany and in France there are traces of its
+influence; and we may reasonably suppose that the builders of
+Barton-on-Humber were acquainted with the existence of an alternative to
+the usual plan of the church with a longitudinal axis, and did not
+arrive by haphazard at their concentration of the plan upon a central
+point. One earlier example of the centralised plan is known to have
+existed in England. In addition to his basilica at Hexham, Wilfrid had
+built another church there in the shape of a Greek cross. The
+description of it which we possess shows that the central space was the
+actual church, that it was tower-like in form, and nearly circular in
+shape, and that the arms were simply porch-like projections. Probably it
+was a combination of baptistery with tomb-church. It is not likely that
+the simple plan of Barton was derived from that at Hexham. Both were
+probably the result of continental influence; but, while the church at
+Hexham may have been the work of Gallo-Roman masons in direct
+communication with the general current of architectural progress, the
+church at Barton was probably built by Englishmen, who adapted the
+centralised plan to methods natural to their comparative want of skill.
+
+§ 22. Neither at this time nor later did the centralised plan in England
+develop along the lines suggested by Barton-on-Humber. No real
+development on such lines was possible. In Germany, the achievement at
+Aachen made possible the polygonal nave of St Gereon at Cologne and the
+centralised plan of the Liebfrauenkirche at Trier, as well as many
+twelfth and thirteenth century churches whose complicated parts are
+planned and massed together with relation to a central tower space. In
+England, however, the habit of dealing with circular or polygonal forms
+made little progress; and our few "round churches," the plan of the
+naves of which was a devout imitation of the church of the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and our polygonal chapter houses, are almost all
+that we have to show in the way of attempts at a definitely centralised
+plan. Our church plan develops as the result of an effort to combine a
+series of rectangles effectively; and, while this combination can be
+attempted in several different ways, it is obvious that the rigid lines
+of the rectangle do not admit of that free scope in centralised planning
+which is given by the circle or polygon.
+
+§ 23. We have seen, however, that, even in the earliest days, there was
+a tendency to admit additions to the simple longitudinal plan, which, in
+process of time, were bound to give birth, if not to a definitely
+centralised plan, to something, at any rate, in which a central point
+counted for much. A feature of the early cathedral and of St Pancras at
+Canterbury, was the projection of _porticus_, porches or side chapels,
+from the nave. These were entered by archways pierced in the centre of
+the lateral walls. In the cathedral they had outer doorways, and formed
+the main entrances of the church, on the north from the monastery, on
+the south from the city. The south porch contained the altar of St
+Gregory, and, as Eadmer tells us, was used as a court of justice to
+which litigants, in process of time, resorted from every part of
+England. In the north porch, dedicated to St Martin, was held the school
+of the monastery. Upon both porches towers were built at a date which
+cannot be ascertained, but was probably later than the time of
+Augustine. Of the use of the porches at St Pancras, which did not
+contain outer doorways, it is impossible to say anything definitely.
+Entrance porches, of which one remains, projected from the sides of the
+church at Bradford-on-Avon: the outer and inner doorways of the north
+porch are extremely narrow, and are placed west of the centre of its
+north and south walls. It is possible, therefore, that there was an
+altar in this porch, so that it served the double purpose of entrance
+porch and side chapel.
+
+§ 24. As time went on, the western porch beneath the tower was disused
+as a public entrance. The principal entrance of most churches is on the
+south side, west of the centre of the aisle wall, and is usually covered
+by a porch. There is a Saxon example of this at Bishopstone in Sussex,
+where, as at Bradford, room seems to have been left for an altar on the
+east side. However, the main entrance of the ordinary Saxon church was
+at the west end, through the ground floor of the tower. The porch in the
+lateral wall seems to have been regarded primarily as a side chapel; and
+in some later Saxon churches the porches were dissociated from lateral
+doorways, and were planned as closed projections from the eastern part
+of the north and south walls of the nave. This seems to have happened at
+Britford, near Salisbury, where archways remain on both sides near the
+east end of the nave. At Deerhurst square projections were entered from
+both sides of the nave, immediately west of the chancel arch; and it is
+probable that there were somewhat similar projections at Repton. At
+Worth in Sussex, where the north and south doorways of the nave are
+Saxon, and there is no western entrance or original tower, there are
+large Saxon chapels projecting from the eastern part of the nave, and
+entered by wide arches. The cruciform plan is sufficiently marked in the
+conjectural restorations of Deerhurst and Repton. At Worth it is quite
+unmistakable.
+
+§ 25. At Worth, however, in spite of the dignity of the lateral arches,
+the chapels are still porch-like excrescences, larger in scale than
+usual, but lower in elevation than the nave. In elevation their
+transept-like appearance is less noticeable than on plan. Moreover, the
+length of the nave remains unbroken from west wall to chancel arch: no
+central space is marked off to which these transeptal projections give
+emphasis. Nevertheless, a suggestion of an intermediate space between
+nave and chancel is given; and this space is definitely marked in the
+plans of churches which may be quite as early in date as Worth--_i.e._
+about the first half of the eleventh century--by the admission of a
+tower between nave and chancel. The eastern part of the walls of the
+nave at St Mary's in Dover Castle are continued upwards as a tower, with
+small rectangular chapels projecting from the sides of the ground
+floor. Externally, no division between the tower and nave is noticeable;
+but, inside the church, in addition to the chancel arch and the arches
+into the chapels, a fourth arch is pierced in the western wall of the
+tower, and so an intermediate space between tower and nave is
+effectually created. At Breamore in Hants, a further step is taken. The
+tower space, between nave and chancel, is of the same width as the nave;
+but, in addition to the necessary internal division, an external
+division is also marked by the quoins of the tower, which are complete
+to the ground. Only one chapel remains at Breamore, on the south of the
+tower, entered by a narrow Saxon archway; but there was originally
+another on the north.
+
+§ 26. The chapels which project from these early "central" towers are,
+it is to be noted, not true transepts. They are narrower than the tower,
+which is built up from the ground, and not upon a system of piers and
+arches which require lateral abutments in the form of transepts. The
+western tower is transferred, as it were, to a point near the centre of
+the church, assumes the width of the nave, and is provided with
+transeptal excrescences, to communicate with which its side walls are
+pierced. Such excrescences are not necessary. At Stanton Lacy, in
+Shropshire, there is only one. At Dunham Magna, in Norfolk, and other
+places, such as Waith in Lincolnshire, there are, or were originally,
+none at all. The construction of the "central" tower upon piers
+connected by arches was beyond the skill of the ordinary Saxon builder;
+and its natural consequence, the development of the full cruciform plan,
+with transepts of the height and width of nave and chancel, was thus out
+of his reach. We know, from contemporary evidence, that one important
+abbey church, that of Ramsey, had a central tower which was built upon
+piers and arches as early as 974 A.D.; and perhaps this was the case in
+other large churches. But, even in the large church of Stow in
+Lincolnshire, which is commonly taken on trust, without sufficient
+historical evidence, as the cathedral church of the Saxon diocese of
+Lindsey, although an advance in transeptal construction was made, the
+main principle was imperfectly grasped. This church was made the home of
+a community of clergy about the beginning of the reign of Edward the
+Confessor, by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and his wife Godiva. It was
+restored after the Conquest by Rémi, the first Norman bishop of Lincoln.
+The aisleless nave and chancel are Norman work of two periods: probably
+the nave was rebuilt upon Saxon foundations. The transepts, however, of
+considerable length and equal height with nave and chancel, were
+retained from the pre-Conquest building. The tall jambs of the arches of
+the central tower also remain on all four sides. The arches which they
+bear are of early Norman character; and the present tower is a late
+Gothic structure, the arches and piers of which are built up on the
+inner side of the older masonry. But the Saxon tower space, including
+the area of the arch-jambs, is rather wider than the arms of the cross
+which project from it. The tower formed a separate building, with quoins
+complete from the ground, and nave, chancel, and transepts, instead of
+combining to support it, were mere excrescences from it, entered by
+arches in its walls. Possibly the example of Barton-on-Humber may have
+had to do with this treatment of the tower as a separate central
+pavilion, which may have been deliberately preferred to the arch and
+pier treatment. In other respects the plan is an advance upon the plans
+of Dover and Breamore. And the necessary advance upon Stow is found in
+the church of Norton-on-Tees in south Durham. Here the tower, between
+nave and chancel, rests on piers connected by arches. The arches have
+been widened; two have been entirely rebuilt at a later date; and the
+rest of the church has been subjected at different times to enlargement
+and rebuilding. In spite of this, we have at Norton our earliest
+surviving example of a plan in which the various portions of the
+church--nave, chancel, and transepts--are gathered together in one
+structural connexion. The tower is to the east of the centre of the
+longitudinal axis of the church; but structurally, it is the central
+point with regard to which the building is planned, and the unity of the
+composition depends upon it.
+
+§ 27. We have arrived thus at a centralised plan of cruciform shape, of
+which the component parts are rectangular, the central space being
+approximately a square. The examples which have been given cannot be
+proved to follow one another in chronological order, but they represent
+successive steps in planning and construction, of which Norton-on-Tees
+is the highest. The importance of the inclusion of the tower in the plan
+is obvious. In its early appearances, its position is unsettled, but the
+natural tendency is to place it above a main entrance; and this is
+usually at the west end of the building. Where the builders aim at a
+simple centralised plan, the high central rectangle will form, like the
+round or octagonal central space of Wilfrid's church of St Mary at
+Hexham, _ecclesia ... in modum turris erecta_, and, as at
+Barton-on-Humber, will possibly be heightened by a later generation into
+a real tower. The distinction of the side chapel from the entrance
+porches, becoming more fully recognised, will lead to the building of
+transeptal chapels at the east end of the nave; and thus an important
+addition will be made to the ordinary longitudinal plan. The need of
+some central building, against which these additions may abut, will be
+felt. The tower will thus be introduced between nave and chancel, either
+as an independent structure, or as an upward extension of part of the
+side walls. The transepts thus, as at Stow, can be raised to an equal
+height with nave and chancel. From this to a plan in which the component
+parts are recognised as interdependent, and are closely knit together in
+structural unity, is an obvious step. At this point, architectural
+skill, as distinct from mere building ingenuity, comes into play.
+
+§ 28. As we proceed, we shall find survivals of old plans, even at an
+advanced period in the middle ages, which prove that progress in
+architecture was by no means of an uniform kind. Builders in remote, and
+especially in hilly, districts, from Saxon times to the present day,
+have naturally restricted themselves to plans which require as little
+cost as possible to carry out. Local building material is also an
+important consideration. In districts where good building stone is to be
+obtained on the spot, or where money is plentiful and water carriage is
+possible, the development of plan is naturally rapid, and every fifty
+years or so, additions to churches will be made in which the old plan
+will become entirely transformed. In woodland districts, the plan will
+be controlled to no small extent by the requirements of timber
+construction. In such regions, Saxon churches were probably built of
+wood. The only wooden church of Saxon times which remains is that of
+Greenstead in south Essex, with a rectangular chancel and aisleless nave
+constructed of vertical logs placed side by side, and framed originally
+into a timber plinth. However, it may be stated as a general rule, that,
+whatever may be the helps or hindrances to development provided by local
+materials, the real starting-point of the parish church plan of the
+middle ages is in every part of the country an aisleless plan; and that
+this plan consists either of a nave and chancel with a longitudinal
+axis, or of a nave and chancel whose longitudinal axis is intersected by
+a transverse axis across transepts. Variations, no doubt, occur; but
+these will never carry us far from one or other of these fundamental
+plans. The aisled basilica of the continent found no scope for itself in
+Saxon England; and it was through an interval of aisleless building that
+the aisled plan eventually became acclimatised, and then in a form which
+bears only a superficial kinship to the basilican plan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD
+
+
+§ 29. During the century after the Norman Conquest, the great abbey
+churches and cathedrals represent the work of a foreign architectural
+school, gradually acclimatising itself in England; while, on the other
+hand, the parish church continued to be planned by local men, open to
+receive the improvements which more skilled foreign masons had
+introduced. Consequently, while local art received a continually
+increasing refinement, the plan of the church developed upon traditional
+lines, and not upon those novel lines which foreign masons would have
+laid down for it. The chief proof of this is seen in the persistence of
+the aisleless plan with rectangular chancel and western tower. The
+tendency of a Norman builder would be to design his church with an
+apsidal chancel, transepts, and a central tower; his practice would
+vary, but this would be his favourite plan. On the other hand, the
+rectangular chancel and western tower remained the favourite
+terminations of the parish church in England. But, while a large number
+of rubble-built, unbuttressed Norman towers, usually heightened or
+otherwise altered in the later middle ages, remain in many parts of
+England, their relation to the plan suffers some change. The ground
+floor of the Saxon tower was, as we have noticed, the main entrance to
+the church. The Norman western tower either contained no western doorway
+at all, or provided merely an entrance, which was used only on special
+occasions. At Caistor the ground floor was probably the main porch of
+the aisleless church; and there are exceptional instances, as at
+Finchingfield in Essex, where, in fairly advanced Norman work, the same
+arrangement was clearly contemplated. On the other hand, at Laceby,
+between Caistor and Grimsby, a south doorway, coeval with the western
+tower, has always been the main entrance to the church. Similarly, at
+Hooton Pagnell, and at Blatherwycke in Northamptonshire, south doorways,
+of the same age as the tower, form the chief entrance. These last three
+are early Norman examples; but we may go back even further, to find the
+same thing in churches which are usually reckoned as late Saxon work, at
+Heapham in Lincolnshire, and Kirk Hammerton, between York and
+Boroughbridge. In south Yorkshire there are a few churches of the middle
+of the twelfth century whose western towers are noticeably derived, in
+their plan and general construction, from the Saxon type--Birkin,
+Brayton, and Riccall. But in all three, the main entrance to the church
+was made through a south doorway, the arch of which is covered with
+elaborate late Norman ornaments. The western tower was thus reduced to
+the state of a bell-tower at one end of the church, and, while
+increasing in size and in magnificence, was actually a less
+indispensable part of the plan than before.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Aisleless plan: 12th century.]
+
+§ 30. The nave of the Norman aisleless church was usually short, and,
+where the church was entirely rebuilt, rather wide in proportion to its
+length. The naves of churches like Garton-on-the-Wolds or Kirkburn in
+Yorkshire, give the effect of spacious halls, of no great length, but
+wide and lofty. It cannot be doubted, however, that the fabric of the
+Saxon church was frequently kept, or that the church was rebuilt upon
+Saxon foundations. It is not unusual, as already stated, to find Saxon
+quoins still existing at the angles of naves to which aisles have
+subsequently been added. Evidences, on the other hand, of the westward
+lengthening of a Saxon nave in the Norman period appear to be rare. At
+North Witham in south Lincolnshire, the south and (blocked) north
+doorways are Norman work, in the usual position near the west end of the
+nave. East of them, however, in the centre of the nave walls, there are
+distinct traces of the inner openings of a north and south doorway,
+which may belong to the late Saxon period. That we have here a case of
+the twelfth century lengthening of an earlier nave may be inferred. The
+probability is increased by the fact that, in the neighbouring church of
+Colsterworth, where aisles were added during the early Norman period to
+a late Saxon fabric, the nave and aisles, towards the end of the twelfth
+century, were certainly extended a bay westward. As little architectural
+work is done without a precedent, we may assume that the builders at
+Colsterworth were following the example of North Witham.
+
+§ 31. The great majority of Norman rectangular chancels have been
+lengthened and enlarged; for the plain "altar-house" at the east end of
+the nave was too small for the purposes of the ritual of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries, and afforded no intermediate space between
+nave and chancel. However, short and approximately square chancels were
+by no means invariable; and, before the middle of the twelfth century,
+oblong chancels of considerable length in proportion to their width were
+being built. There is a good early twelfth century example at Moor
+Monkton, in the Ainsty of York; and the chancel of the middle of the
+twelfth century at Earl's Barton, Northants, is of considerable depth,
+and was of ample size for all later purposes. At Earl's Barton the
+eastern portion was the chancel proper; while the western portion
+supplied that space for a quire which was not provided in less elongated
+plans. In by far the larger number of cases, the rectangular chancel had
+a wooden roof. There is, however, a fair number of churches in which the
+system of ribbed vaulting, as employed in larger buildings, was used.
+Thus at Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumberland, there is a small square
+chancel with a ribbed vault. At Warkworth, there is a long vaulted
+chancel of two bays, built during the first quarter of the twelfth
+century; and at Tickencote, Rutland, two bays are combined in one by the
+use of sexpartite vaulting. In these cases the chancel arches are wide,
+forming the western transverse arches of the vaulting: that at
+Tickencote is of remarkable magnificence.
+
+§ 32. There are certain cases in which the chancel was of the same width
+as the nave, and no structural division existed between them. At Askham
+Bryan and at the chapel of Copmanthorpe, near York, the plan, externally
+and internally, is a plain undivided oblong. At Tansor, Northants, the
+chancel was rebuilt about 1140, when the side walls were set back in a
+line with those of the nave. In St Mary's in the Castle at Leicester,
+the long and very narrow nave was, as may still be clearly seen,
+continued eastward without a break into the long and narrow quire and
+chancel. Here the eastern half was used, no doubt, by the college of
+dean and canons, while the western half was the parish church. The
+beautiful church of St Peter, Northampton, built towards the end of the
+third quarter of the twelfth century, gives us a complete example of an
+undivided plan, aisled throughout save in the eastern bay, which forms a
+projecting chancel east of the aisles of the choir.
+
+§ 33. Hitherto we have dealt merely with the rectangular chancel. But
+there are also churches which end in an eastern apse. These are
+comparatively few and exceptional. In Yorkshire, where the number of
+Norman rectangular chancels is large, and buildings such as Adel exhibit
+the aisleless church in its highest state of architectural development,
+the number of apsidal chancels can be counted on the fingers of one
+hand. In Sussex, where Caen stone was largely used, and we should expect
+foreign influence to be noticeable, the proportion of apsidal chancels
+is small. In Gloucestershire, the Cotswold district contains several
+small Norman churches, which have been little altered: the rectangular
+chancel is universal. These are typical districts; and, to state a
+general rule, we may say that, while the apsidal chancel is foreign to
+no part of England, and occurs in unexpected places, as in the chapel of
+Old Bewick, Northumberland, it is never general in any single region.
+Its rarity is an important fact. Were our parish churches the work of
+masons sent out from the larger churches and monasteries, we should
+expect to find it a common feature; for in those buildings the apsidal
+plan prevailed. But, in the hands of local masons, its sparing
+employment is easily explained. To build an apse needs skill, not only
+in planning, but in stone-cutting. The question of vaulting the apse
+increases the difficulty and the expense. These difficulties would not
+trouble masons who had worked at the building of Durham or Ely or
+Winchester; nor would expense trouble the monasteries, which, according
+to the popular idea, were so ready to lavish money on the fabrics of
+parish churches. Many apsidal chancels have disappeared, no doubt; but,
+if we take the bulk of those which remain into account, we shall find
+that they have a habit of occurring in small groups, as in Berkshire,
+where three occur together within a single old rural deanery, and that
+the large majority of the churches in which they are found were not
+monastic property. A few belonged to preceptories of Knights Templars in
+their neighbourhood; and perhaps we may see in their apses a reference
+to the circular form of the Holy Sepulchre. But, as a rule, we may say
+that a band of masons in certain neighbourhoods developed some skill in
+building apses, that money was forthcoming, and that so a few examples
+came into existence. In one curious instance, Langford in Essex, which
+is within easy distance of four or five other apsed churches, there is
+an apse at the west, and there are foundations of another at the east
+end of the building. For this church a Saxon origin has been claimed:
+the plan, at any rate, indicates a survival of a plan once common in
+western Christendom, and especially in the German provinces. In apsed
+churches, like Birkin in Yorkshire, the apse does not spring from points
+directly east of the chancel arch. The arch is wide and lofty; behind it
+is a nearly square rectangular space, which is divided from the apse by
+another arch. At Birkin the apse has ribbed vaulting, which allows the
+walls to be pierced freely for windows. At Copford in Essex, Old
+Bewick, and other places, the roof is a half-dome without ribs: this
+allows for the display of mural painting, but admits of less light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Birkin, Yorkshire: interior.]
+
+§ 34. The most important feature in the apsidal plan is the provision of
+the distinctly marked quire space between the nave and chancel. This
+space also occurs in plans where the chancel is rectangular; but in such
+cases it becomes the ground story of a tower. There are famous examples
+of this at Iffley, near Oxford, and Studland in Dorset, where the
+chancels are vaulted. Coln St Denis in Gloucestershire, where the tower
+is of very wide area, and projects noticeably north and south of nave
+and chancel; and Christon in Somerset, are further instances of the
+plan. The tower between nave and chancel, without transepts, is seldom
+found in an apsidal plan. It occurs at Newhaven in Sussex, where there
+is a small apse. Here the plan is virtually that of some small parish
+churches in Normandy, such as Yainville, near Jumièges. The majority of
+such plans in England, however, end in a rectangular chancel. Precedent
+for the plan is, as we have seen, to be found in Saxon churches. At St
+Pancras, Canterbury, we have noticed the westward prolongation of the
+apse: at Brixworth a definite presbytery or quire space was planned, on
+a large scale, between apse and nave. In later Saxon churches, where the
+chancel was rectangular, a tower, with or without transeptal chapels,
+was sometimes built between nave and chancel; and here, although
+externally the division was not always clearly marked, an internal quire
+space was divided off from the nave by the western arch of the tower.
+The aisleless plan, therefore, with a tower above the quire, and a
+rectangular chancel, points to a development along old-fashioned lines,
+even in churches in which, as at Iffley, the builders have acquired
+great skill in expressing themselves in Norman terms. In certain
+districts, as in Gloucestershire, this plan was a favourite one. Even in
+the fourteenth century, Leckhampton church, near Cheltenham, was rebuilt
+in faithful adherence to this tradition. Here the tower is narrower than
+the small chancel, and the nave has a south aisle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Two aisleless plans with central tower: (1) tower
+between nave and chancel; (2) tower over crossing of transepts with nave
+and chancel.]
+
+§ 35. In the cases of Dover, Breamore, Stow, and Norton, we have watched
+the gradual evolution of the cruciform plan with central tower. It must
+be noted once more that to the cruciform plan the central tower built on
+piers and arches is essential. It is possible, as in the Gloucestershire
+churches of Almondsbury and Avening, to pierce the north and south walls
+of a tower and add transeptal chapels: the plan will have a cruciform
+appearance, but will still be only an elongated plan with lateral
+additions. It is possible, in a church where there is no central tower
+at all, to extend the side walls at right angles north and south, and
+so form transepts; but here again the transepts have no structural
+reference to a central point in the plan, but are mere widenings of the
+nave or aisles. The thirteenth century aisleless churches of Potterne,
+in Wiltshire, and Acton Burnell, in Shropshire, are both cruciform in
+plan. The church at Potterne was planned throughout with reference to
+the crossing of transepts, nave, and quire, above which its central
+tower rose: the tower space is the central point of the whole. But, at
+Acton Burnell, there is no central tower or space: the body of the
+church consists of a long aisleless nave and an aisleless chancel
+beyond; and the transeptal chapels are simply stuck on, as it were, to
+the eastern part of either wall of the nave. This is at once noticeable
+in elevation, when the chapels are seen to be mere excrescences, with
+roofs lower than the nave. Moreover, where there is a true central
+crossing, with a tower above, such as we find in almost all our
+cathedrals, a transept on either side is necessary for the support of
+the tower. The transepts need not be wholly symmetrical, although in
+most cases they are; but they must be there. On the other hand, where
+there is no central tower, and the crossing is merely apparent, symmetry
+of treatment is quite unnecessary. While there are two transeptal
+chapels of similar size at Acton Burnell, or at Achurch in
+Northamptonshire, there are far more instances in which a less regular
+treatment was adopted. Thus, at Childs Wickham in Gloucestershire, and
+Montacute in Somerset, there is only one transeptal chapel, in each case
+on the north side. At Corbridge in Northumberland, transeptal chapels,
+extended outwards from the aisle walls, are of different lengths. At
+Medbourne in Leicestershire, a long aisleless transeptal chapel was
+built out from the north side of the nave in the thirteenth century.
+Within the next fifty years a south chapel was built, but, instead of
+copying the proportions of the northern chapel symmetrically, the
+builders gave their new chapel a much greater width, and placed its
+altars in an eastern aisle. The plan is thus accidentally cruciform. At
+Acton Burnell and Achurch it is, no doubt, designedly cruciform; at
+Montacute and Childs Wickham, imperfectly cruciform. But all three
+varieties belong to one class, the longitudinal plan with transeptal
+extensions. The structural feature which makes the truly cruciform plan,
+the central tower upon arches and piers, is wanting. And this
+distinction between churches planned from a centre, and churches whose
+plan follows a longitudinal axis, although often overlooked, is
+essential.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. North Newbald, Yorkshire: tower arches, chancel
+and S. transept, from N.W.]
+
+§ 36. A noble example of a Norman cruciform church, whose plan has
+suffered little alteration, exists at North Newbald in the east Riding
+of Yorkshire. At each angle of the crossing are masses of shafted piers,
+connected by wide and lofty rounded arches. The nave, as is usual, is
+the longest arm of the four, so that the plan is a Latin cross. It has
+north and south doorways: there are also doorways in the end walls of
+the transepts, placed in the western part of each wall. In the east
+wall of each transept is an arch, now blocked up, the filling being
+pierced with fifteenth century windows. These arches are the openings of
+original apses, which contained the transept altars. The chancel,
+probably always rectangular, was rebuilt in the fifteenth century. As a
+corollary of the true cruciform plan, the four arms are all of equal
+width. At Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon, where the plan of the church was
+greatly altered in the thirteenth century by the addition of aisles, the
+Norman plan was very similar to that of North Newbald. The cruciform
+plan of Melbourne, Derbyshire, with its aisled nave, was probably
+inspired more directly by continental examples. The aisleless chancel
+was vaulted, and ended in an apse, which was squared in later times by
+the addition of a rectangular piece east of its springing points. Out of
+the east walls of the short transepts opened wide apses, the walls of
+which joined the western ends of the walls of the chancel. Thus,
+externally, the plan of the eastern part of the church was closely
+allied to the plan with three apses which, in some of our larger
+churches, was derived from Normandy. At Melbourne, however, there are
+important variations from this plan. The chancel is short, there are no
+quire aisles, and the transept apses were rounded externally. In the
+larger churches of Normandy, the side apses were at the end of
+the quire aisles, and were usually squared externally, while the
+apses projecting from the east walls of the transepts, as at
+Saint-Georges-de-Boscherville, were left rounded. At Newbald and Bampton
+there seems to have been no attempt to give complete unity of design, as
+at Melbourne, to the rectangular chancel and transeptal apses. In any
+case, transeptal apses were the exception in the plans of our Norman
+cruciform churches, although their convenience for holding altars is
+obvious.
+
+§ 37. The cruciform plan, beautiful as it is, was never generally
+adopted. It was inconvenient for purposes of public worship, as long as
+the rounded arch remained fashionable. In our own day, even in churches
+where the central tower is carried on high pointed arches, and the view
+of the altar is practically unhindered, the chancel is cut off from the
+nave by the crossing, and the acoustic problem, which in modern church
+planning is so necessary a consideration, is almost insurmountable. In
+the middle ages, this problem was not so acute; but it was undesirable
+that the interior of the chancel should be nearly invisible from the
+nave. At Newbald the tower arches are planned upon a liberal scale: at
+Bampton, on the other hand, where the eastern tower arch is left, the
+others having been rebuilt in the thirteenth century, it is very low.
+The low tower arches at Burford, Oxon, and the narrow arches at St
+Giles, Northampton, are examples of the way in which the supports of
+the Norman central tower interfered with the internal convenience of
+churches. It was not until much later that this difficulty was solved,
+and then only in one or two cases, when the cruciform plan had become
+exceptional. The plans of Bampton, Burford, and Witney, show how the
+builders of west Oxfordshire experimented in cruciform planning. The
+division between chancel and nave is felt much less at Witney than in
+the other two churches; for the great thirteenth century tower and
+spire, resting upon massive piers joined by pointed arches, throw a
+considerable portion of their weight upon nave and transept arcades,
+whose exceptional massiveness gives unity to the whole design. In the
+fifteenth century, however, the rebuilders of the aisleless church of
+Minster Lovell, between Witney and Burford, solved the problem by
+removing the supports of their square central tower from the angles of
+the crossing to points entirely within the church, and building arches
+from the piers thus formed to the angles of the crossing. The
+comparatively light piers, instead of hindering the view, allow of easy
+access from the nave to the transepts, and there is hardly a point in
+the body of the church from which seeing and hearing alike are in any
+way impeded. With the earlier builders, however, the natural course was
+to leave the piers where they were, and endeavour to lighten them as
+far as possible; and, in aisled churches, the difficulties involved
+often led to the abandonment of the complete cruciform plan.
+
+§ 38. The cruciform church gives occasion for a brief remark on one
+aspect of medieval building which is often exaggerated. The revival of
+interest in medieval architecture, in the early part of the nineteenth
+century, was accompanied by an insistence on symbolism in the plan and
+design of churches. A minute symbolism, which often was the fruit of
+pious imagination, or was derived from the fancies of post-medieval
+writers on ritual, was read into every detail of the medieval church
+fabric. It is true that, as has been said, some builders worked
+imaginatively, imitating in the round naves of a few churches the
+rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre. Other instances of devout imitation might
+be found, if we looked for them. But the imitation of a concrete model
+is a different thing from translating abstract mysteries into the plan
+and elevation of a building. And, although the ground plan with nave,
+transepts, and chancel, certainly forms a cross; and, although, as time
+went on, the resemblance to the chief symbol of the Christian faith was
+no doubt recognised and valued, the plan itself, as we have shown, came
+into being from entirely natural causes. Where the central tower was
+introduced, the plan was dictated by structural necessity. Where there
+was no central tower, transeptal chapels provided accommodation for
+altars, for which the body of the church afforded no convenience. In
+this and in other cases, medieval builders were impelled by practical
+common sense and the requirements of the services of the church; and
+symbolism, if it was a consideration at all, was purely secondary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+
+I. NAVE, TOWER, AND PORCHES
+
+§ 39. The variations of the aisleless plan, which have been indicated,
+are all of which it is capable. Naturally, after the twelfth century,
+many aisleless churches were still built, and are common in country
+districts. In their humblest form we find them in the small churches of
+highland regions, the masonry of which is so rough that their date is
+often a matter of doubt. Sometimes they have been rebuilt, with a
+lengthened chancel, as at West Heslerton, near Scarborough. In many
+instances, we have aisleless country churches rebuilt in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, with western towers. This, uncommon in no part
+of England, is especially common in Norfolk and Suffolk; and some of
+these churches, like Ranworth in Norfolk, have much dignity and
+spaciousness of proportion. In some late Gothic churches the structural
+division between nave and chancel is left out, and the building has been
+deliberately planned as a spacious aisleless rectangle, of which the
+eastern bay is allotted to the chancel. This happens at Temple Balsall
+in Warwickshire and the chapel of South Skirlaugh in Yorkshire.
+Aisleless plans with one or two transeptal chapels are to be found all
+through the middle ages: Acton Burnell represents a thoroughly
+symmetrical employment of this type. On the other hand, aisleless
+cruciform plans with central towers are by no means common after the
+twelfth century. Potterne is a perfect development of this plan in the
+thirteenth century. There is a complete aisleless cruciform plan at
+Othery, near Bridgwater, where the tall central tower is quite out of
+proportion to the humble church above which it rises, and has
+necessitated substantial outer buttressing. Here probably the church was
+rebuilt on earlier foundations, transepts being possibly added. In many
+instances an aisleless cruciform church seems to have been rebuilt on
+the lines of a complete Norman plan. This was with little doubt the case
+at Acaster Malbis, near York, where the church is planned with direct
+relation to the central space, but without a tower; and the foundations
+of earlier walls can be traced all round the building, at the foot of
+the walls built in the fourteenth century. The absence of the tower is
+an anomaly, but is one method of solving the problem of the connexion
+between nave and chancel in the cruciform plan.
+
+§ 40. Thus, if here and there we can detect novelties which make for
+improvements upon the aisleless plan, the plan itself is subject to no
+general development upon its own unelastic lines. The real course of
+development is to be traced in the gradual addition of aisles to the
+church. Just as the basilica may have come into existence by the
+addition of aisles to an aisleless building, so the parish church was
+enlarged by the piercing of its walls for columns and arches, and the
+incorporation of aisles with the main building. The usefulness of aisles
+is at once apparent. They afford greater space for the distribution of
+the congregation. The aisleless church may be inconveniently crowded
+from wall to wall: on the other hand, where spaces are left between the
+nave and side walls, the congregation will mass itself in the nave, but
+the aisles will be left free until the nave is filled, and thus there
+will be free access through the side doorways for as long a time as
+possible. Aisles also afford a clear space for processions, and allow
+them to turn inside the church at a certain point and without
+difficulty. In addition to this, aisles form a convenient situation for
+the smaller altars of a church, and, from an early date, were added with
+this view.
+
+§ 41. A parish church usually contained more than one altar, even if
+served by a single priest. In the small aisleless church of Patricio in
+Breconshire, in addition to the altar in the chancel, there were two
+smaller altars, which still remain in place, on either side of the
+central doorway of the rood screen. Such altars were dedicated in honour
+of various saints; and mass would be said at them on the festivals of
+those saints and on other occasions. The various popular devotions which
+came into being in the middle ages, led to the multiplication of special
+altars and chapels. In cathedral and abbey churches, where there were
+many priests, the provision of a number of altars was, from the first, a
+necessity. To this is due the adoption, from the beginning, of the
+aisled plan in our larger churches, where it is a direct inheritance
+from the basilican plan. At Norwich and at Gloucester, for instance, the
+apse was provided with an encircling aisle, which gave access to small
+apsidal chapels. The transepts also had eastern chapels ending in apses.
+At Durham each transept had an eastern aisle, containing a row of such
+chapels; and the abnormal development of the transepts in thirteenth
+century churches, as at York, Lincoln, and Salisbury, and the occasional
+provision of an eastern transept, or of a great transverse eastern arm,
+like the Nine Altars at Fountains and Durham, was made with a view to
+the continually growing number of altars and daily masses. In Cistercian
+abbeys, the churches of which were wholly devoted to the uses of the
+monastery, the aisles of the nave were divided into chapels by
+transverse walls. In the secular cathedral of Chichester, where the
+aisles had to be left free, outer aisles, similarly divided, were made.
+Great French cathedrals, like Amiens, not only have a complicated series
+of chapels opening from the aisles of the apse, but have their naves
+lined with chapels, which were formed by removing the outer walls of the
+aisles to a level with the outer face of the buttresses. The ordinary
+parish church had no need of these elaborate arrangements, although in
+towns and in districts where money was plentiful and its possessors
+recognised its true source, plans hardly less spacious than those of the
+cathedral and monastery churches came into being. But it is obvious
+that, in a church where there were no more than two or three altars,
+space would be gained by removing them from the body of the church to
+the end of the aisles. In some twelfth century churches there were
+probably altars against the wall on either side of the narrow chancel
+arch; and, in later days, as at Ranworth and Patricio, when the rood
+screen filled the lower part of a broad arch, altars were placed against
+the screen. In the first case, the chancel arch might have been widened;
+in the second case, the sides of the screen would have been freed, by
+the addition of aisles into which the altars could have been removed.
+
+§ 42. The most common plan of the aisled church is formed by an aisled
+nave with a long aisleless chancel, western tower, and south porch. So
+common is this that it may be spoken of as the normal plan of the larger
+English parish church. There must have been, we already have said, a
+very large number of aisleless churches in England at the time of the
+Conquest. Where Norman builders reconstructed parish churches, they
+showed a distinct preference for the aisleless plan. But, in many
+churches, built about or soon after the beginning of the twelfth
+century, aisles were planned and executed. The walls of earlier churches
+were entirely taken down, and new arcades built in their place, not
+necessarily on the precise line of the old foundations. Aisled twelfth
+century naves on a magnificent scale may be seen, for example, at
+Melbourne in Derbyshire, and Sherburn-in-Elmet, between York and Leeds.
+Both places were important episcopal residences: Melbourne belonged to
+the bishops of Carlisle; the manor of Sherburn was the head of a barony
+of the archbishops of York, who, all through the middle ages, did much
+to promote architecture on their domains. Another twelfth century nave
+of great magnificence is that of Norham-on-Tweed, which belonged to the
+cathedral priory of Durham; and, although we must not assume that it was
+built at the expense of the monastery, it doubtless owes its stately
+proportions to the influence of the mother house. Less imposing in
+elevation, but richer in refined detail, are such aisled naves as those
+of Long Sutton in south Lincolnshire, and Walsoken in west Norfolk,
+which belong to the later part of the twelfth century. The plans in each
+case are very regular; and the new arcades were probably built, at any
+rate in part, on older foundations. These naves reach the extent,
+unusual in a parish church, of seven bays. The nave of Norham is of five
+bays. Melbourne has five bays, but the plan of the church was as
+exceptional at the west as at the east end. Western towers were planned,
+but not completed, at the end of either aisle: this feature, probably
+imitated from Southwell minster, was also contemplated at Bakewell in
+Derbyshire. Between the towers was an extra western bay of the nave,
+divided into two stories, the lower forming a vaulted return aisle, the
+upper forming a gallery. There are only four bays at Sherburn, but here
+the aisles were continued as far as the western face of the tower. The
+tower is thus engaged within the aisles, and its vaulted ground floor
+forms, like the western bay at Melbourne, a return to them.
+
+§ 43. But, when the question of adding aisles to a church arose, the
+builders were met by the difficulty that the church was wanted
+constantly for service. The taking down of the walls and the building of
+new arcades interfered with this necessary use of the fabric. In our
+own day a congregation, driven out by builders or restorers, can resort
+to a school room or mission room. In the middle ages, these alternatives
+were unknown; and the church was positively indispensable. With this in
+view, the builders were obliged to add their aisles without touching
+more of the main fabric than they could help. Usually, then, they took
+the length of the existing aisleless building for the length of their
+aisles. They then set out the aisles upon either side of the church,
+building the outer walls, and dividing them into bays by external
+buttresses. Then, opposite each buttress, they proceeded to break
+through the walls of the church. Leaving a piece of the old wall to
+serve as a footing for each column, they built up the columns in the
+thickness of the wall, the masonry being gradually removed as each rose
+in height. The arches were made in the same way, the wall being removed
+by degrees until the two sides of each arch met at the key-stone. The
+aisles were then roofed, and, finally, the masses of wall which still
+remained beneath each arch were broken down, and the nave and aisles
+thrown into one. The old masonry could be removed through the doorways
+of the aisles; and sometimes one of the end walls of either aisle was
+left unbuilt to the last, so that the masons could have free entrance
+for new, and exit for old, material. The old walls of the nave, above
+the columns and arches, were left untouched. In this way the upper parts
+of the walls of several Saxon naves--more, probably, than we have
+opportunity of discovering--remain to us. The north wall at Geddington
+in Northamptonshire is the most striking instance. The practice was so
+common as to be general. In hundreds of country churches the plinths on
+which the columns of the nave rest are probably pieces of the foundation
+of the older wall, refaced, or even left in the rough. Instances are
+nearly as common in which the heads of the new arches have blocked
+earlier windows; for, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when glass
+was rare and expensive, and the openings were usually closed by latticed
+shutters, the windows were set high in the wall. There is a remarkable
+example of the retention of old work at Seamer, near Scarborough. To
+this fine twelfth century aisleless church a north aisle was added in
+the fifteenth century. The builders, possibly wishing to avoid expense,
+employed the old method, which in those days of prosperity and general
+rebuilding had fallen into disuse. In order not to interfere with the
+older windows, they deliberately made their arches very low: the result
+is that, from the interior of the aisle, one can see that the old wall
+was almost entirely kept, the new columns being built up on the line of
+the flat pilaster buttresses, which were left unaltered above the
+capitals. Sometimes, the connexion between nave and aisles was made by
+cutting arches at intervals in the wall, without building columns. The
+north arcade at Billingham in Durham, and the thirteenth century arcades
+at Tytherington in Gloucestershire consist of arches with large masses
+of the earlier wall left between them. Such a method was economical, as
+much less dressed stone was required; and we find it employed at Copford
+in Essex, where good building stone was hard to get. Nevertheless, it
+prevented the free circulation of light from the windows of the aisles,
+and practically shut off the aisles from the church.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Gretton, Northants: arcade of nave showing
+blocked window head.]
+
+§ 44. There is one obvious consequence of the setting out of aisles on
+either side of an existing building which, although an imperfection in
+itself, contributes greatly to the variety of the parish church plan.
+The builders cannot see both their aisles at one and the same time: the
+older church comes in between. In fact, until the nave and aisles are
+actually joined, at the close of the work, by the breaking down of the
+walls beneath the arches, there can be no opportunity of appreciating
+the full effect of the work. There is a famous instance at Beverley
+minster of the mistakes to which the presence of the older building may
+lead. The aisles of the nave were set out in the fourteenth century on
+either side of an older and shorter nave. The south aisle was set out
+first, the width of the eastern bay being measured from a new buttress
+in the angle of nave and transept. On the north side there was a
+thirteenth century buttress in this position: the builders, in setting
+out their north aisle, overlooked the fact that this buttress was of
+less projection than the newly built one on the other side, with the
+result that their buttress measurements throughout varied on both sides,
+while the standard of width between the buttresses, which had been
+employed on the south side, was retained. Consequently, as the columns,
+in a vaulted church, have to be built in line with the buttresses of the
+corresponding aisle walls, the columns were not opposite one another,
+and the discrepancy increased as the church advanced westward. When the
+builders got clear of the intervening building, in the western bays of
+the nave, they were able to rectify their mistake slightly; but the
+effect is unpleasantly noticeable in the obliquity of the transverse
+arches of the vaulting.
+
+§ 45. If errors like this could take place in churches where the width
+of the bays of the aisles was calculated, they were much more likely to
+take place where builders worked with less accurate ideas of
+measurement. In an unvaulted church, where the pressure of the roof is
+not a serious factor in the construction, the exact correspondence of
+pier to buttress need not be taken into account; and there are many
+churches in which the spacing of the aisles is quite independent of that
+of the arcades. This happens at Melbourne, where the church was not
+planned for stone vaulting. The builders seem to have thought that they
+could get in six bays between the transept and the space planned for
+one of the western towers; but found that, on the measurements they had
+adopted, there was room only for five. They corrected their
+miscalculation by broadening the division of the wall between the fourth
+and fifth bay of the aisles. When they came to build the arcades, they
+were conscious of their previous error, and planned them in five equal
+bays irrespective of the plan of the aisles. In churches of the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, especially in districts like Norfolk
+or south Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding was done, the regularity of
+plan is often remarkable. The nave of the famous church of Heckington,
+near Sleaford, was planned with an exact correspondence between aisles
+and arcades: pier is opposite buttress, window opposite window. Islip
+and Brampton Ash in Northamptonshire show an equal accuracy. But, while
+such agreement is desirable, it is neither necessary nor general. And,
+where the arcades are broken through earlier walls, the correspondence
+is seldom very precise. The central line of the east walls of the
+aisles, as set out first, will usually correspond to a line drawn across
+the centre of the chancel arch: similarly, the line of the west walls
+will be an extension of the west wall of the nave, or of a line drawn
+across the tower arch. The aisles will be spaced into as many equal, or
+nearly equal bays, as can be got in between the buttresses at either
+end. When, however, the building of the arcade is taken in hand, the
+responds or half-piers at either end will seldom be built directly
+against the piers of the chancel arch, or against the west wall of the
+nave; but projecting pieces of the old walls will be left as a backing
+to them. It follows that, although the arcade may be divided into the
+same number of bays as the aisles, the standard of spacing will be
+different, and consequently, unless a very regular system of planning is
+adopted, the piers will not be exactly opposite the solid portions of
+the aisle walls, and consequently the centres of the arches will be out
+of line with the centres of the windows. Again, it may be that, by
+accident or design, the backing for the responds may project more on one
+side of the nave than on the other, at either or both ends. The result
+will be that the piers of one arcade will be out of line with those of
+the arcade opposite. That discrepancies of this kind were sometimes the
+result of intention cannot be denied; but there is generally some
+practical reason to be found for the intention, and the discrepancies
+themselves were a _pis aller_ which the builders would have avoided, if
+they could. That deliberate irregularity with which medieval masons are
+sometimes credited is a fancy, which careful consideration of the
+circumstances will dispel.
+
+§ 46. Hitherto we have spoken of the aisled nave as though both aisles
+were planned at one and the same time. This, however, was by no means
+always the case. At Gretton in Northamptonshire, the north aisle was
+built soon after the beginning of the twelfth century: the south aisle
+followed twenty or thirty years later. The north arcade at Northallerton
+is of massive twelfth century work, with rounded arches: the south
+arcade was added in the thirteenth century, and has slender columns with
+pointed arches. In such cases, the north aisle may have been built
+first, to avoid interference with the burial ground south of the church.
+Very often only one aisle was added. The little church of Whitwell,
+Rutland, has a south aisle, added in the fourteenth century, with a
+chapel at its east end. No north aisle was built: but a drain in the
+north wall of the nave shows that there was a third altar against the
+north side of the rood screen. Usually, when one aisle was built long
+after another, the spacing of the new arcade was made to correspond with
+that of the old. If the old arcade had heavy twelfth century columns,
+the new one, with its lighter columns, would have broader arches. But it
+sometimes happens that the old spacing was disregarded, for very good
+reasons. The north arcade of Middleton Tyas church, in north Yorkshire,
+consists of six bays: the columns are heavy, the arches low and round
+headed, and very narrow. The interior of the church must have been very
+dark; and the builders of the south aisle, in the fourteenth century,
+aimed at throwing more light upon it. They therefore planned their new
+arcade, with broad pointed arches springing from octagonal columns, in
+four instead of six bays, and so, from broad windows in the aisle,
+introduced the necessary light. Something of the same kind happened at
+Theddingworth in Leicestershire: the effect is, of course, one-sided,
+but in both cases the light admitted enhances the merits of the earlier
+arcade, which, until then, had to be taken on trust.
+
+§ 47. But there are further instances--and these, perhaps, are the most
+instructive--where aisles were not merely built at two different
+periods, but where the growth of one or both aisles was gradual. As an
+instance of this, may be cited the beautiful church of Raunds in
+Northamptonshire. Raunds seems to have been one of those cases in which
+the Norman chancel and nave were of the same width, and possibly were
+undivided by any chancel arch. In the thirteenth century the west tower
+and spire were built, and a broad south aisle was added to the nave.
+This aisle was of four bays, and the point at which it stopped probably
+marked the dividing line between the nave and chancel. However, the
+builders certainly intended to carry on the aisle eastward, as a south
+chapel to the chancel, which they now rebuilt and lengthened. Early in
+the fourteenth century, the south aisle was continued eastward, an
+arcade of five bays being added to the four bays already existing. The
+new bays were made rather narrower than those in the earlier part of
+the arcade. A strange feature of the new work was the insertion of a
+chancel arch, the south pier of which bisects one of the new arches.
+Thus, while three bays and a half of the new arcade belong to the
+chancel and quire, a bay and a half belong to the nave. The arch
+dividing the south aisle from the chancel chapel springs from the pier
+between the end of the old arcade and the inserted pier of the chancel
+arch. At the same time, the outer wall of the south aisle seems to have
+been practically rebuilt, although much of the older work was retained.
+There may have been a thirteenth century north aisle as well. Whether
+this was the case or no, a new north aisle and arcade were built during
+the fourteenth century. The aisle was set out in seven bays, six of
+which contained broad three-light windows, while a north doorway was
+made in the third bay from the west end. The east wall was built on
+foundations in a line with the chancel arch, while the west wall was in
+a line with the tower arch and west wall of the south aisle. It is
+obvious, therefore, that the planning of the new aisle was totally
+different from that of the older aisle and chapel. However, when the
+builders came to their arcade, instead of building it in seven bays, as
+the new aisle demanded, they built it in five, setting their new columns
+in a line with those on the opposite side. But while, on the south side,
+there was an awkward half-bay between the end of the arcade and the
+chancel arch, a solid piece of wall was left between the north pier of
+the chancel arch and the eastern respond of the new arcade. A compromise
+was thus effected between the aisles, and an appearance of regularity
+was ensured. Directly, however, one begins to examine the plan of the
+church, and to trace the transverse lines from window to window, and
+buttress to buttress, it will be found that only in one place can a line
+be drawn which will pass straight from the centre of one buttress to
+that of the buttress opposite, and will pass through the centre of the
+intervening columns on its way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Plan of Raunds church, Northants.]
+
+§ 48. It already has been shown that builders were very unwilling, in
+making their additions to churches, to destroy old work altogether. At
+times they displayed an extraordinary conservatism in their re-use of
+old material in their new work. This was not invariable. In the splendid
+churches of south Lincolnshire, during the fourteenth century, their aim
+seems to have been complete rebuilding; and such examples as the
+magnificent nave at Swaton, near Sleaford, or the neighbouring church of
+Billingborough, show how old work must have been swept away by the
+enthusiasm for lofty arcades, elaborately traceried windows, and walls
+of dressed stone-work. On the other hand, half the charm of the hardly
+less beautiful churches of Northamptonshire is the result of the clever
+way in which the masons dove-tailed all the old stone-work which was
+worth preserving into their new additions. Such churches as Tansor and
+Oundle are, for that reason, unexcelled in interest, offering, as they
+do, almost inexhaustible problems as to the development of their plan.
+In all parts of England we find that builders, whatever else they
+destroyed, carefully kept, as a general rule, the doorways, and
+especially the south doorway, of the buildings which they enlarged. This
+accounts for the large number of handsome Norman doorways which remain
+in the walls of aisles obviously later than the doorways themselves. At
+Birkin in Yorkshire, the south aisle was not built till the middle of
+the fourteenth century, but the doorway was removed to its new position
+from the wall of the aisleless church. One very exceptional case occurs
+at Felton in Northumberland. Towards the beginning of the thirteenth
+century, the west part of the south wall of the church was cut through,
+a chapel was added, and, east of the chapel, a porch was built. Rather
+more than fifty or sixty years later, it was determined to add a south
+aisle the full length of the nave. The width of the aisle was taken from
+that of the existing chapel and porch. To connect the chapel with the
+new work, the side walls of the porch were cut through. The outer
+doorway of the porch became the new south doorway, while the inner
+doorway was kept unaltered, as an arch in the new arcade.
+
+§ 49. Features which have been touched upon in connexion with Raunds
+bring us to two new features in the plan--the rebuilding of aisles and
+the lengthening of churches westward. In most parish churches, aisles,
+when they were added at first, were extremely narrow. The west wall of
+Hallaton church in Leicestershire, for example, shows that, in the
+fourteenth century, originally narrow aisles were heightened and
+widened. The roof lines of the earlier aisles remain; they were clearly
+under the same roof as the nave of the church, and had very low side
+walls. This was not always the case. At Raunds the thirteenth century
+south aisle was always broad and lofty, and must have had its own roof
+from the first. And, as the principles of Gothic construction became
+more familiar, and the larger churches began to exercise a more
+wide-spread influence upon the parish church, aisles began to increase
+in breadth and elevation. The small and narrow windows of churches of
+the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries gave way to the broad
+mullioned and traceried windows of fully developed Gothic work. For
+these, with their advantage of increased light, more headway was
+necessary. Aisle walls were consequently heightened or altogether
+rebuilt. The acutely pointed roof of the nave could no longer be
+continued downwards to cover these higher aisles. The aisle was
+consequently covered with a lean-to roof, or with a separate gabled roof
+of its own. A free increase in width was thus possible. The church of
+Appleton-le-Street in Yorkshire has a short nave with north and south
+aisles. The north aisle, added in the early part of the thirteenth
+century, is narrow, and the roof of the nave was continued over it. The
+south aisle, which was probably rebuilt a little before 1300, is broader
+and has a separate lean-to roof. The wide east window of this aisle
+could not have been introduced, had the south aisle been built to match
+the scale of the north aisle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Plan of Harringworth church, Northants.]
+
+§ 50. The introduction of more light, however, was not the only reason
+for the rebuilding and heightening of aisles. The east end of an
+aisle, as has been said, provided a convenient place for one of the side
+altars of the church. This was the case even in the narrow aisles of the
+twelfth and thirteenth century, many of which, like the north aisle of
+Great Easton church in Leicestershire, provided with a drain, aumbry, or
+a corbel for a statue, bear witness to the existence of a contemporary
+altar. At Harringworth in Northamptonshire there had been an aisleless
+church, to which a tower had been added at the end of the twelfth, and
+aisles early in the thirteenth century. On 24 October 1305 Edward I
+granted letters patent to William la Zouche, by which he had licence to
+assign a certain amount of land to two chantry chaplains in the chapel
+of All Saints. This may have been his private chapel, but was possibly
+in the church. A little earlier than this, to judge by the character of
+the architecture, a new north aisle had been built, with a new altar at
+the east end. Very soon after the granting of the licence, it would
+appear that the whole of the south arcade was taken down, and a new
+south aisle and arcade built. The work was done in a very conservative
+spirit, for the old thirteenth century porch and inner doorway were
+rebuilt on the new site, and an old string-course was re-used
+internally, beneath the new windows. The piscina and the three sedilia,
+which belonged to the altar at the end of the aisle, remain in the
+south wall, and there are corbels for statues on either side of the east
+window. However, rebuilding did not stop here; for it seems that, during
+the next few years, the north arcade was entirely rebuilt so as nearly
+to match that on the south. Thus the work, beginning with the north
+aisle, and extending over some thirty or forty years, finished on the
+side on which it began. Numerous examples of a closely parallel kind,
+fortified by documentary evidence, might be given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Plans of Grantham church: (1) probable
+arrangement about 1190; (2) at beginning of 14th century.]
+
+§ 51. The rebuilding of the south aisle, about 1313, at Newark, was the
+prelude to an entire rebuilding of the church, which extended over many
+years. The builders began by setting out their aisles as usual, and by
+the middle of the fourteenth century the south aisle was finished, and
+the lower courses of the north aisle and the new aisled chancel were
+built. However, in 1349, the Black Death interrupted the work. The north
+aisle and chancel were not completed, and the new arcades of nave and
+chancel were not built until the fifteenth century. In this case there
+were certainly older, and almost certainly narrower aisles. The
+rebuilding included aisles on a larger scale, and new internal arcades
+whose spacing corresponded to the spacing of the aisle walls. All
+systematic rebuilding, in the full development of Gothic art, began with
+the planning of the aisles. The naves of Cirencester and Northleach
+churches, rebuilt at the end of the middle ages, are examples of this
+method. The arcades at Cirencester are known to have been built about
+1514-5; but the aisles were obviously completed first, and their
+remodelling may have been begun in the second quarter of the fifteenth
+century. At Northleach the nave was finished about 1458; and there seems
+to have been a break of some years between the building of the aisles
+and the destruction of the older church which, no doubt, lay within
+them. But it did not always happen that the full intention of the
+builders was carried out. One of the most splendid schemes which we
+possess for the enlargement of a parish church was the great enterprise
+begun at Grantham soon after the middle of the thirteenth century. An
+aisleless Norman church had been enlarged at the end of the twelfth
+century by the addition of aisles to the nave, the connexion being
+formed by arcades of rounded arches springing from very elegant
+clustered columns. Above the arcades were low clerestories, lighted by
+round-headed windows. About 1230, the neighbouring church of Newark was
+taken in hand by masons, who built a new west tower up to a certain
+height, and, as an afterthought, planned aisles to engage the tower
+completely. As we have seen, the building of the aisles at Newark upon
+their present scale did not begin till much later. The work of
+rebuilding at Grantham was clearly inspired by that already begun at
+Newark. A tower was planned on a site much to the west of the nave, and
+was engaged within very broad aisles. The tower and north aisle were set
+out first. The north aisle was divided into seven bays, with a large
+traceried window in each bay, the western bay being much wider between
+the buttresses than the rest, owing to the greater space taken up by the
+tower and its piers internally. The remaining six bays were set out with
+equal widths between the buttresses, the middle bay of the aisle being
+covered by a porch. The eastern bay overlapped the western part of the
+aisleless chancel, its western buttress being in a line with the
+division between chancel and nave. The western bay of the south aisle
+was set out about the same time, and there was, no doubt, an intention
+of proceeding with the rest on the same lines as in the north aisle.
+There can also be little doubt that the builders intended to take down
+the old arcades, and build new arcades, with spacing corresponding to
+that of their aisles, and to lengthen the chancel eastwards, while
+bringing its western portion into the nave. The tower and north aisle
+were built on the intended scale; and, when the tower had risen to a
+certain height, the ambition of the builders was fired to add to it an
+extra stage, hitherto uncontemplated, below the spire with which it was
+to be crowned. This project of giving their church a tower and stone
+spire, which remained, for many years, the loftiest in England,
+evidently curtailed the full accomplishment of their earlier plan. The
+columns of the old arcades were kept, and the tower was connected by
+arcades of two bays with the angles of the west wall of the old church;
+while an arch was pierced through the north wall of the chancel, to give
+access to the east bay of the new aisle. The new arches were pointed: in
+order to match them, the older round-headed arches were taken down, and
+pointed arches built, which cut into and blocked the clerestory windows.
+This change was made with great economy of material, the springing
+stones of some of the old arches being kept to afford footing for the
+new. When the south aisle was seriously begun, about 1300, similar
+economy was shown. Four bays, in addition to the western bay, were
+spaced out, without regard to the plan of the north aisle. The fourth
+bay from the west was covered by a porch, smaller than that on the north
+side; and the east wall of the aisle was probably built on a line with
+the division between nave and chancel. Half a century later, the east
+wall was taken down, and the south aisle was extended to the full length
+of the chancel; but this later development was not contemplated by the
+thirteenth century builders. These hesitations and changes, consequent
+upon the expense entailed by the north aisle and by the alteration in
+the elevation of the tower and spire, make Grantham second to no English
+church in interest.
+
+§ 52. Grantham also provides us with a lengthened nave. The position of
+its earlier west wall is clearly shown by the masses of masonry which
+occur between the eastern bay of the new, and western bay of the old,
+arcade on either side. The responds on the eastern side of these pieces
+of wall are twelfth century work: on the west side, they belong to the
+later part of the thirteenth century. Such lengthening was probably very
+common in later Gothic times, and we may surmise that it took place in
+many instances where arcades were entirely rebuilt, and no visible trace
+of the process was left. However, there are many churches in which one
+or more extra bays have been added to the nave, and the join of the old
+and new work is marked as at Grantham. Whaplode church in south
+Lincolnshire had its early twelfth century nave lengthened by three bays
+about 1180. At Colsterworth, near Grantham, a western bay was added to
+the nave about the same time, and an earlier north aisle lengthened.
+Above the piece of wall which occurs between the older and newer work,
+the quoins of the aisleless church remain entire. Usually, as at
+Grantham, the lengthening of the nave was undertaken in connexion with a
+new western tower, which was built up outside the church, and then
+connected with it by one or two bays of arcading. Almost contemporary
+with the tower and spire of Grantham are those of Tilney All Saints,
+near Lynn. Here a single bay was added west of the late twelfth century
+nave; and, as no new aisles were contemplated, the old arcades, with
+their rounded arches, were left intact. Bubwith in Yorkshire, and
+Caunton in Nottinghamshire, are later examples of churches where the
+tower was built west of the end of an earlier nave, and a bay was built
+to connect it with the older work. Sometimes, as at Gretton in
+Northamptonshire, where the slope of a steep hill forbade extension far
+to the west, a new tower was built only a few feet beyond the limit of
+the old nave. In such a case, the side walls of the nave might be
+carried solid westwards to meet the tower, or, as happened at Gretton,
+narrow arches might be made between the tower and the west end of the
+older wall. The beautiful tower and spire at Oundle were built just
+outside the west wall of the thirteenth century nave; and were doubtless
+intended to be followed by a complete rebuilding of the arcades--such a
+rebuilding as took place at Lavenham in Suffolk, towards the end of the
+fifteenth century. The idea, however, was abandoned, and the space
+between the arcades and the tower filled in solid with rather rough
+masonry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Gretton, Northants: extension of 12th century
+arcade to meet 15th century tower.]
+
+§ 53. The position of the western tower in the plan is normally at the
+west end of the nave, with which it is connected by an arch, low at
+first, but loftier as time goes on, until, in later Gothic churches, its
+height frequently is nearly that of the whole nave. The remaining three
+walls are usually external, and clear of the aisles. But sometimes,
+owing to a freak of planning, or, more frequently, owing to the
+conditions of the site, the tower is, as at Bibury, at the west end of
+one of the aisles. At Gedling in Nottinghamshire the tower and spire are
+at the end of the north aisle. The tower of St Michael's, Cambridge, is
+at the west end of the south aisle: probably the western extension of
+the church was prevented by the neighbourhood of the street, a
+circumstance which often accounts for the irregularity of plan in some
+town churches. At St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, built on the edge of the
+"red cliff" from which it takes its name, the tower and spire are at the
+end of the north aisle: had they been planned in the usual place, a full
+bay of the nave would have been sacrificed. The tower at Spalding was
+planned, in the first instance, to stand against the south wall of the
+west bay of the south aisle: subsequently a new south aisle was built
+east of it. One of the most curious instances is that of St Mary's at
+Leicester, where the tower, subsequently, as at Spalding, heightened by
+a spire, was planned in the thirteenth century, outside a very narrow
+south aisle. A tower at the west end of the nave would have encroached
+upon the inner ward of the adjacent castle. The chancel of St Mary's was
+used for collegiate services, and parochial accommodation was limited.
+Towards the end of the thirteenth century, a very wide south aisle, a
+parish church in itself, was built the full length of the nave, and
+overlapping the chancel at the east end. The tower was left standing on
+piers entirely within the west end of the new aisle. It may be added
+that, where towers occur at the end of aisles, they seldom project
+beyond the west wall of the nave, but open into the nave by an arch in
+the north or south wall, as the case may be. Plans with two western
+towers, as at Melbourne or St Margaret's at Lynn, are of very rare
+occurrence; and, where they are found, the plan was probably designed on
+more ambitious lines than those of the ordinary parish church.
+
+§ 54. The plan in which the western tower is engaged within the
+aisles--that is, where the aisles are brought up flush with the west end
+of the church--is not very common. Still, instances occur in all parts
+of England. At Grantham, the plan is deliberate. It was imitated, as has
+been said, from Newark, where the side walls of the tower had been
+pierced with arches as an after-thought. Newark, in turn, may have taken
+the design from Tickhill in south Yorkshire; and the design at Tickhill
+may have been taken from the early and unpretentious example at
+Sherburn-in-Elmet. Grantham probably suggested other similar designs,
+such as Ewerby, near Sleaford. Several of our finest late Gothic
+churches, like St Nicholas at Newcastle, have plans in which the aisles
+are continued up to the west face of the tower. The method affords full
+development to the aisles, and, as at Sileby in Leicestershire, has an
+imposing interior effect. Outside, however, the aisles crowd the base of
+the tower too much, and the fine effect of a lofty, free standing tower
+is lost. Sometimes aisles were extended westwards, so as to engage an
+earlier tower, as at Sleaford, where the low tower and spire are almost
+overwhelmed by a pair of wide fourteenth century aisles. At Brigstock
+and Winterton, late Saxon towers have been left without alteration
+inside aisles which have been brought westward in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. The nave of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, was much
+widened in the fourteenth century, and a small tower and spire of
+earlier date were brought entirely within the new nave, as happened in
+the south aisle at St Mary's, Leicester, and were left without
+sufficient abutment. As a consequence, the arches of the ground story
+had to be strengthened about a century later with additional masonry.
+Cases occur, as at Coln Rogers in Gloucestershire, where a tower has
+been built within the west end of an earlier church. In most of such
+instances, the churchyard boundary probably allowed of no further
+building westward. The nearness of the churchyard boundary also seems to
+have given cause to a peculiarity which may be seen at Wollaton, near
+Nottingham, Dedham in Essex, and in a few other places, where the west
+tower is in its usual position, but is pierced from north to south by an
+archway. It is possible that this gave facility to processions, which
+could thus pass round the church without leaving consecrated ground. The
+tower of old All Saints, Cambridge, now destroyed, projected over the
+public foot-way of the street, which passed through its ground story;
+while St John's, Bristol, is built on the city wall, and the tower and
+spire, which it shared with the adjoining church of St Lawrence, are
+over the south gate of the city.
+
+§ 55. Sometimes, as at Oundle, the tower was rebuilt with a view to the
+reconstruction of the whole church. But, as also at Oundle, the design
+was often abandoned, or was altered. The magnificent tower of St
+Michael's, Coventry, was built, between 1373 and 1394, at the west end
+of an older nave: its spire was not begun till 1430. Whether the
+rebuilding of the nave was contemplated when the tower was begun, it is
+impossible to say. A new nave was actually begun in 1432, and finished
+in 1450. A thoroughfare immediately south of the church prevented
+extension on that side. The old south porch was retained in place as the
+principal entrance, so that the line of the wall of the south aisle
+follows closely that of the original church. The new south arcade was
+set out, not in a line with the south-east buttress of the tower, but
+somewhat to the north of it, so that the buttress is external; while,
+for the width of the nave, a space approximating to twice the internal
+breadth of the tower was taken. The tower is thus placed almost wholly
+south of the central axis of the nave produced westward. Here, once
+more, we may note the influence of site on the plan.
+
+§ 56. The people's entrance to the church was ordinarily through a
+porch, covering the north or south doorway of the nave. The south
+doorway is usually covered by a porch. Frequently, as at Hallaton in
+Leicestershire, or Henbury in Gloucestershire, there is a north as well
+as a south porch. At Warmington, near Oundle, where there is a beautiful
+doorway in the west tower, the vaulted south porch is the principal
+entrance; but there is also a somewhat smaller north porch, also
+vaulted. The chief porch at Grantham is on the north side; but there is
+also a large porch on the south. At Newark, there is only a south porch,
+on the side of the church next the market place. The south porch of St
+Mary Redcliffe, at Bristol, is the ordinary entrance of the church; but
+the chief entrance of the building, until the fifteenth century, was on
+the north side, at the head of the abrupt slope towards the city. In the
+fourteenth century, this entrance was covered by a large and lofty
+octagonal porch, approached by a flight of steps. There is an octagonal
+south porch at Chipping Norton, and a hexagonal south porch at Ludlow.
+The magnificent porches of the fifteenth century, as at Burford in
+Oxfordshire, Northleach in Gloucestershire, Worstead in Norfolk,
+Walberswick in Suffolk, St Mary Magdalene's at Taunton, or Yatton in
+Somerset, are usually on the south side of the church.
+
+§ 57. The positions of the porch and doorway in the wall of the aisle
+vary. At St Nicholas, Newcastle, where the west tower is engaged within
+the aisles, there is a porch in the western bay of each aisle. Usually,
+however, the porch will be found in the second bay of one of the aisles,
+counting from the west end. Sometimes, especially in larger churches,
+the porch occurs a bay further east. At Warmington and at Grantham, the
+two porches of either church are nearly opposite each other, and project
+approximately from the centre of the walls of the aisles. Where the
+porch has been pushed eastward in this way, the west end of the aisle
+seems to have been occupied by one or more chapels. There are
+indications of this at Warmington; while, in the neighbouring church of
+Tansor, where the porch is in the usual place, but the aisle has been
+lengthened somewhat to the west, there was certainly an altar west, as
+well as east, of the porch. There was at least one chantry chapel west
+of the south porch at Grantham. The south porch at Ludlow covers the
+wall of the third bay of the aisle from the west: here there were two
+chapels in the western part of the aisle. There was another chapel at
+the west end of the north aisle. It can hardly be proved that the
+position of porches was actually planned with this use of the aisles in
+view; but there can be no doubt that advantage was frequently taken of
+the space thus added to the aisle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+II. TRANSEPTS AND CHANCEL
+
+
+§ 58. The aisled nave, with its usual appendages of porch and tower, has
+now been described at length. Before we proceed to the development of
+the chancel, the transepts or transeptal chapels of the parish church
+invite discussion. The distinction between true transepts, in churches
+with central towers, and the transeptal chapels which are nothing more
+than northern and southern extensions of the aisles, has been made
+already; and it has been seen that the cruciform plan with central tower
+reached a very full state of perfection during the twelfth century.
+Further dignity was given to some cruciform churches by the addition of
+aisles to the transepts. St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, the plan of which
+is that of a large collegiate or cathedral rather than a parish church,
+has transepts with eastern and western aisles: there is no central
+tower, but the transepts form a definite cross-arm to the church, which
+was designed with regard to the central point formed by the crossing of
+a longitudinal and a transverse axis. There are few churches in England
+as beautiful as that of Melton Mowbray, with its aisled transepts and
+tower above the crossing: had the chancel only been planned on a larger
+scale and with aisles, the unrivalled beauty and dignity of St Mary
+Redcliffe might have been approached here. The cruciform plan with
+central tower is the most noble of all church plans, when carried out by
+builders with large ideas. Churches like Ludlow, Nantwich, Holy Trinity
+and St John's at Coventry, St Mary's at Beverley, excite an admiration
+which is the natural result of the fact that the plan, instead of
+straggling in the ordinary way from east to west, is brought to a focus
+beneath the central tower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Plan of 13th century church: west tower, south
+porch, unequal transeptal chapels.]
+
+§ 59. Apart, however, from the tower above the crossing, the transept
+had a value of its own. It gave additional room for the side altars of
+the church. The transeptal chapels at Worth allowed of greater width for
+the chancel arch: the altars, which naturally would have stood against
+the wall on either side of the chancel arch, could be placed within
+these excrescences from the north and south walls of the church, and the
+central space was thus left clear. This method of extension of the
+church by adding north and south chapels to the nave was pursued
+throughout the middle ages. The thirteenth century plan of Acton Burnell
+is virtually identical with the tenth or eleventh century plan of
+Worth. In aisled churches, such transeptal additions are simply
+outgrowths of the aisle walls, and were not necessarily planned with any
+regard to the spacing of the arcades of the nave. They may, of course,
+be placed symmetrically at the east end of the aisles, the width of each
+chapel corresponding to the width of the arch of the arcade which is
+opposite its opening. Thus Exton church in Rutland, rebuilt about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, has north and south transeptal
+chapels whose width is that of the eastern bay of each arcade. A
+transverse arch was thrown across each aisle at its junction with the
+adjacent chapel. Here the chapels form quasi-transepts in perfect union
+with the design of nave and aisles. Symmetrical plans in which it is
+clear at a glance that the transeptal chapels are developments of the
+aisles, and have no necessary relation to the nave, are those of
+Kegworth in Leicestershire, rebuilt in the fourteenth century, and
+Aylsham, Cawston, and Sall in Norfolk, which belong to the fifteenth
+century. But even more obvious than these are the plans in which
+transeptal chapels have been thrown out at different periods, or even at
+one and the same period, without the least regard to symmetry. A small
+aisleless nave at Stretton in Rutland received a north aisle about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century. Soon after, the eastern part of the
+side walls was taken down, and chapels built out to north and south. The
+width of the south chapel was determined by that of the old chancel
+arch, which was rebuilt between the chapel and the nave, there being no
+aisle on that side. The north chapel, on the other hand, was formed
+simply by returning the wall of the aisle northward, and throwing a
+transverse arch across the aisle from the wall above the arcade. Its
+width corresponds roughly with that of the south chapel, but has no
+correspondence with that of the adjacent bay of the arcade. Examples of
+this form of growth of plan, dictated by convenience and the necessity
+of the moment, are common in every part of England.
+
+§ 60. It is quite clear that the transeptal chapel, being nothing more
+than an excrescence from the wall of a nave or aisle, is a feature which
+may be treated with some freedom. Its width and length are dependent
+upon the convenience and will of the builders. The north chapel of the
+aisleless church of Clapton-in-Gordano, Somerset, is entered by an arch
+in the east part of the north wall: the chapel itself, however, extends
+some distance westward, so that its longer axis is parallel to the
+longer axis of the nave. The south chapel, again, at Lowick in
+Northamptonshire has its longer axis from east to west, although its
+roof is at right angles to that of the adjacent aisle. Externally, its
+transeptal character is apparent; internally, it has the appearance of
+an additional south aisle. A chantry was founded in this chapel in 1498.
+Very often, where special chantry chapels were built, they took the
+position of transeptal chapels. Cases in point are the late Gothic
+chantry chapels in All Saints and St Lawrence's at Evesham. Such chapels
+may obviously be lengthened westward, like the chapel at
+Clapton-in-Gordano, so that they become additional aisles. The Milcombe
+chapel at Bloxham in Oxfordshire, the Greenway aisle at Tiverton in
+Devonshire, and the side chapels of the north and south aisles at St
+Andrew's, Plymouth, and Plympton St Mary are the logical outcome of the
+habit of adding transeptal chapels to the plan. Two transeptal chapels
+of the ordinary type are found in other Devonshire churches rebuilt in
+the fifteenth century, as at East Portlemouth: the Kirkham chapel at
+Paignton, famous for its carved stone-work, is transeptal. From this it
+is but a step to the chapels at Plymouth and Plympton, with their longer
+axes from east to west: while the aisle at Tiverton (1517) develops
+naturally, in the churches of Cullompton (1526) and Ottery St Mary
+(before 1530), into a vaulted aisle the full length of the nave. At
+Bloxham, on the other hand, the Milcombe chapel, which extends from the
+east wall of the south aisle as far as the porch, was probably grafted
+upon an earlier and smaller transeptal chapel. A comparison with the
+neighbouring church of Adderbury shows that the fabric of the transeptal
+chapels at Adderbury is largely of the twelfth century. The north chapel
+at Bloxham is, in its present state, much later; but the similarity of
+plan to that of Adderbury leads to the justifiable conclusion that it
+was rebuilt on old foundations, and that there was a similar south
+chapel. About 1290 the aisles at Bloxham were widened, and a beautiful
+arcade of two bays was built at the east end of the north aisle, between
+it and the north chapel. Within the next few years, the aisles at
+Adderbury were also widened, and arcades similar to that at Bloxham,
+though coarser in detail, were built at the east end of either aisle.
+The projection of the transeptal chapels from the side walls was now
+very slight; and, in the fifteenth century, the projection of the south
+chapel at Bloxham was absorbed by the building of the Milcombe chapel,
+between which and the south aisle an arcade of two bays was made. There
+is more intrinsic interest in this gradual development of plan than in
+the Devonshire plans we have noticed, which are all due to fifteenth
+century rebuildings; and the mutual influence exercised throughout the
+middle ages by two neighbouring churches like Bloxham and Adderbury
+gives us an insight into the progress of local art which the energy of
+fifteenth century masons in certain districts has somewhat obscured.
+From the arrangement of the south transept at Adderbury, there appear to
+have been two altars in each of the chapels.
+
+§ 61. Transeptal chapels occasionally appear in unusual positions. For
+example, at Branscombe in south Devon, there is a tower between nave and
+chancel. There are, however, no transepts; but transeptal chapels are
+built out from the walls of the aisleless nave, west of the tower. These
+chapels appear to be enlargements of earlier transeptal chapels; while
+the tower seems to have been built over the chancel of the earlier
+church. Heckington church in south Lincolnshire was rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century. The nave has aisles with transeptal chapels, very
+regular and symmetrical in plan, but is continued beyond the opening of
+the transeptal projections by an aisleless bay, east of which comes the
+chancel arch. At Bottesford in north Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding
+was done in the thirteenth century, the transeptal chapels open from the
+bay east of the chancel arch. In the case of Heckington, the earlier
+church was probably cruciform: when the rebuilding came to pass, the
+ground plan of the western portion of the church was kept, while the
+chancel was built on an extended plan, and the site of the western part
+of the old chancel thrown into the nave. The case of Bottesford is
+probably accounted for in the opposite way: the site was not enlarged
+eastwards, but the chancel was lengthened by the absorption of the
+eastern part of the old nave.
+
+§ 62. There are a number of cases in which transeptal chapels have been
+kept from an earlier cruciform plan, in which they may have formed true
+transepts. The fine church of Oundle, whose western tower and spire
+already have been mentioned as built about 1400, has very fully
+developed transeptal chapels. The nave and aisles, and the greater part
+of the chapels, are, in their present state, work of the thirteenth
+century; but the eastern bay of the present nave was entirely remodelled
+about 1350, when a clerestory was added. This bay had evidently been
+designed to carry a central tower: the nave arcades stop west of it, and
+there is a thick piece of wall between them and the arches opening from
+it into the chapels. These arches and the chancel arch were entirely
+reconstructed at the time just mentioned. The western arch, however, was
+removed, and an original crossing was thus converted into a bay of the
+nave. Whether there ever was a central tower is, of course, an uncertain
+point; but the building of a west tower on a new site not many years
+after this reconstruction is a fact which makes the previous existence
+of a central tower probable. The removal of a central tower would be due
+to one of two causes. Either its supports were weak, or it blocked up
+the space between nave and chancel too much. The central tower of
+Petersfield in Hampshire was taken down; but its east wall still remains
+between nave and chancel. However, if there are cases in which a central
+tower was removed, and a west tower built, there are probably more in
+which a central tower was planned, and then abandoned. Campsall church,
+near Doncaster, has unmistakable signs of a projected cruciform plan
+with a central tower, and has a regular crossing with transepts. But it
+is probable that the builders changed their minds before the nave was
+finished; and, although they doubtless left the arches, which were
+intended to bear their tower, for a later generation to remove and
+rebuild, they went westward and built a tower at the other end of the
+nave. This tower was finished towards the end of the third quarter of
+the twelfth century. The builders of Newark church, who were peculiarly
+susceptible to after-thoughts, apparently planned a central tower in the
+later part of the twelfth century. It is difficult to explain otherwise
+the slender clusters of shafts which project into the nave from the
+first pier west of the chancel arch on either side. Such piers were
+hardly capable of bearing the weight of a tower; and so the builders
+must have thought. Early in the thirteenth century, they began the
+present west tower, the first stage of a rebuilding which, with long
+intervals, continued into the sixteenth century. The final step by which
+the church reached its present plan was the addition of a transeptal
+chapel to either aisle, opposite the site which, more than three
+centuries before, had been chosen for the piers of the abandoned central
+tower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. St Mary's, Beverley: arcades of quire and S.
+transept, from S.W.]
+
+§ 63. Even in strictly cruciform churches, transepts were sometimes
+treated with a freedom which was more appropriate to the transeptal
+chapel. It is not unusual to find one transept longer than the other, as
+at Felmersham in Bedfordshire. Here, however, the transepts are not only
+of different lengths, but the south transept is loftier, as well as
+shorter, than the north, which is little more than a chapel-like
+excrescence from the tower. At Witney in Oxfordshire both transepts are
+of great projection, but the north transept is slightly longer than that
+on the south. Both have considerable traces of thirteenth century
+work; but, in the fourteenth century, the north transept was lengthened
+by an addition divided into two stories, the upper of which was a
+chapel, while the lower was probably a vaulted bone-hole. The south
+transept was also lengthened; and a chapel was built, projecting from
+its east wall near the south end. Both transepts have western aisles:
+that of the north transept, which stops short of the two-storied
+extension, contained an altar near the north end. There are traces of at
+least three other altars in the transepts, so that there was excellent
+reason for their somewhat unusual projection. At St Mary's, Beverley, an
+eastern aisle was added to the south transept in the fifteenth century,
+to provide more room for altars. The north transept already had a large
+chapel of two stages upon its eastern side, so that the plan was treated
+unsymmetrically. The tower of St Mary's at Stafford rests on heavy piers
+and narrow arches, and is flanked by north and south transepts. However,
+while the south transept, of good thirteenth century work, is rather
+small and short, the north transept was rebuilt with great magnificence
+in the fourteenth century, and its internal effect is that of a large
+side chapel rather than a transept. Aisled transepts are never common,
+even in large churches. Instances in which a transeptal chapel is aisled
+are even less common. The aisled south chapel at Medbourne in
+Leicestershire has been mentioned in an earlier chapter. Oakham and
+Langham churches in Rutland have large transeptal chapels with western
+aisles: the north chapel at Langham was removed in the fifteenth
+century, when the aisles of the nave were widened.
+
+§ 64. Reference has also been made to those plans in which the side
+walls of a tower between chancel and nave have been pierced with arches,
+and quasi-transepts have been constructed. This is very noticeable at
+Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, where the transeptal chapels, turned at
+a later date into burial-places for two local families, are very large
+and roomy. The cross-plan of Burford church in Oxfordshire was formed in
+this way, early in the thirteenth century. Plans like this, in which the
+chapels grow out of the central space, instead of being planned from the
+first in relation to it, are imperfectly cruciform; but are highly
+characteristic of the irregular methods of development pursued by the
+builders of medieval parish churches.
+
+§ 65. Towers above transeptal chapels are not uncommon. The two
+transeptal towers at Ottery St Mary in Devon were doubtless copied from
+the arrangement at Exeter cathedral: there was an altar against the east
+wall of each chapel. The tower at Coln St Aldwyn, Gloucestershire, rises
+above a south chapel projecting from an aisleless nave. This addition
+was made in the fifteenth century. At Duddington in Northamptonshire the
+ground floor of the tower virtually forms, in its present state, an
+eastward extension of the south aisle parallel to the western part of
+the chancel: the original plan was probably similar to the present plan
+of Coln St Aldwyn. The noble church of Whaplode had transeptal chapels
+projecting from the east end of either aisle: the thirteenth century
+tower is above the south chapel. At Clymping in Sussex the arrangement
+is very peculiar. The church, which is almost entirely of the thirteenth
+century, has north and south transeptal chapels, and only a south aisle
+to the nave. The tower, which is at the end of the south chapel, is
+earlier than the rest of the building, but is clearly in its original
+position.
+
+§ 66. The early progress of Gothic art in parish churches was marked by
+a general lengthening of chancels, analogous to that elongation of the
+eastern arm which is characteristic of cathedrals and monastic churches.
+This may be seen very clearly at Iffley, near Oxford, and Avening in
+Gloucestershire, where vaulted chancels of the twelfth century were
+lengthened in the thirteenth century by an eastern bay. Sometimes, as at
+St Mary's, Shrewsbury, where successive generations of builders were
+very faithful to the remains of earlier work, the old sedilia of a
+twelfth century chancel have been left in place. But, as a rule, the
+enlargement of the chancel implied an entire reconstruction, or the
+entire transformation of old work by the insertion of new windows or
+buttresses. From the end of the twelfth century onwards, the normal
+chancel of the parish church has a length which is from a half to
+two-thirds of the length of the nave, the nave being slightly broader
+than the chancel. This is the case with most of those Norfolk churches,
+which may be regarded as the ideal examples of parish church planning.
+Room was in this way secured both for the altar and the quire stalls,
+for which the ordinary rectangular chancel offered a very restricted
+space.
+
+§ 67. Sometimes a new chancel encroached upon the nave. This happened at
+Skipwith in Yorkshire, where the church underwent some alteration about
+the middle of the fourteenth century. The new chancel was made of the
+same width as the nave; and apparently the old chancel arch was entirely
+removed, and its site, with the part of the nave immediately west of it,
+made into an extra bay of the chancel. No new chancel arch was built.
+One of the most curious and perplexing instances, in which additional
+westward room has been given to the chancel, and there is no structural
+division between chancel and nave, is at Tansor in Northants. The
+perplexity which arises here is due to the plentiful re-use of old work
+by the builders, the presence of which in unexpected places makes the
+history of the building a nearly insoluble puzzle. The church reached
+its present length about 1140, when probably the Saxon nave was left as
+the west part of a church, which was now of the same width the whole way
+through, and had no chancel arch. Some forty years later, narrow aisles
+of three bays were added to the nave; and, about the same time, a
+transeptal chapel may have been thrown out from the south wall,
+immediately east of the south aisle. As the church stands on southward
+sloping ground, there seems to have been no room for another chapel on
+the north side. In the thirteenth century, the aisles were lengthened
+eastwards, to flank the western part of the chancel. The builders moved
+back the eastern responds of the old arcades to the points from which
+the lengthened arcades were to start. They set themselves, however, a
+difficult problem when they reserved a space at the end of the north
+aisle for a sacristy, and set the respond on the west side of this
+narrow bay. Their north aisle thus consisted of five bays and a very
+narrow eastern bay for the sacristy. On the south side no space
+corresponding to the sacristy was marked out, although the eastern
+respond was placed in a line with the east side of the opening of the
+sacristy. The number of bays on the south side had to be five, as there
+was no room for six. The result is that the pillars of the arcades,
+with the exception of those of the two bays furthest west, which were
+left unaltered, are not opposite each other. In the meantime, the old
+transeptal chapel was left standing between a south aisle and a short
+south chapel of the chancel. About 1300, the aisle and chapel seem to
+have been widened to the full length of the transeptal chapel, and thus
+a broad south aisle was formed. In this plan, the chancel proper
+projects for some distance east of the aisles; but, for ritual purposes,
+the eastern part of the nave, corresponding to the eastern bay of the
+north aisle and the sacristy bay beyond, forms, and has formed since the
+twelfth century, a western extension of the chancel.
+
+§ 68. The addition of aisles to chancels was an even more gradual
+process than the addition of aisles to naves; and, as a rule, the aisles
+were at first mere chapels. Chancel aisles or chapels of twelfth century
+date are not very common in smaller churches. But a plan like that at
+Melbourne, where the apsidal chapels east of the transepts flank the
+chancel very closely, leads naturally to the provision of chapels
+communicating directly with the chancel. The logical consequence of such
+a plan is seen at Oundle, at the close of the twelfth century, where
+rectangular chapels were built along the north and south walls of the
+western part of the chancel. The walls were pierced with broad, low
+arches, and arches were built between the chapels and the transepts. The
+chapels, in this instance, are at the back of the quire stalls; and a
+long projecting piece of aisleless chancel was left beyond them, to
+which, in the fifteenth century, a large northern vestry was added. This
+plan, where both chancel chapels were added at much the same time and on
+the same scale, is symmetrical. But, as a rule, chancel chapels were
+built just when they were needed. At Arksey, near Doncaster, where, as
+at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, the walls of late twelfth century transepts
+have been largely preserved inside the church in spite of many
+alterations, the chancel is a long aisleless twelfth century building
+east of a central tower. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the
+north chancel wall was pierced, and a narrow chapel built, which was one
+bay shorter than the chancel itself. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the nave was enlarged, and the south aisle was widened to the
+full length of the south transept. A south chapel was added to the
+chancel: its outer wall was continued from the south wall of the
+transept, and carried eastwards for a little distance beyond the east
+wall of the chancel. Thus chancel, south chapel, and north chapel, are
+all of three different lengths and breadths, the south chapel being the
+longest and widest. When the south chapel was built, a considerable
+portion of the old chancel wall was left untouched on its north side. It
+is obvious that the methods of building employed in such additions were
+those which have been described in connexion with the addition of aisles
+to a nave. It is no uncommon thing to enter, as at Tamworth, a chancel
+aisle or chantry chapel, and find substantial remains of the old outer
+wall of the chancel, which has been pierced with one or more arches of
+communication.
+
+§ 69. As the relative dates and proportions of chancel chapels vary so
+greatly, it is obvious that in many cases only one will be found. We
+frequently meet with churches which have only one aisle to the nave; but
+these are for the most part small buildings, and one aisle usually, in
+larger buildings, presupposes another, although symmetry of proportion
+need not be expected. However, many important churches have one chancel
+chapel, and no more. Raunds in Northamptonshire, and Leverington in
+Cambridgeshire, have south, but not north, chapels. Stanion in
+Northamptonshire, and Hullavington in Wiltshire, have north, but not
+south chapels. In both these last cases, the chapels are simply
+continuations of the aisles, without a break or intermediate arch; and
+the chapel at Stanion is neither more nor less than a second chancel. As
+the dedication of Stanion church is to St Peter and St Paul, it is not
+unlikely that the prominence given to the north chapel may be due to the
+provision of altars for both saints. The same consideration may have
+influenced the building of the church at Wisbech, which is also
+dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. Here, the twelfth century chancel had
+a south chapel; but when, at the end of the thirteenth century, the
+chancel was lengthened, the south chapel was also enlarged into what is
+practically a second chancel. Not only this, but the south aisle of the
+church was rebuilt on the scale of a second nave, a second south aisle
+was built out beyond it, and the whole church, which afterwards was
+enlarged towards the north and otherwise altered, was more than doubled
+in size.
+
+§ 70. Where chantry chapels are attached to one side or other of a
+chancel, their variations in size and plan are almost infinite. In the
+smallest examples, they are mere projections from the wall of the
+chancel, and little more than tomb recesses, such as the Cresacre chapel
+at Barnburgh, near Rotherham, or the Booth chapel on the south side of
+the chancel at Sawley in Derbyshire. The little north chapel of the
+chancel at Clapton-in-Gordano in Somerset may have served as a vestry.
+At Brancepeth, near Durham, where there is a long chancel and an aisled
+nave with transeptal chapels, a south chantry chapel adjoins the east
+side of the south transeptal chapel, while a north chantry chapel forms
+an independent excrescence from the north wall, and is shut off from the
+chancel by a doorway. Brigstock in Northamptonshire has a very large
+north chancel chapel, which is virtually the eastern portion of a
+widened aisle: the south chapel, on the other hand, is of much later
+date, and is so small that there must have been room in it for an altar
+and little more. These smaller chantry chapels, like the beautiful south
+chapel at Aldwinkle All Saints, Northants, have often great
+architectural beauty of their own, and give great variety to the plan of
+the church. But chancel chapels are often larger and more important,
+like the fourteenth century south chapel at Leverton, near Boston, which
+is practically a separate building, separated from the chancel by a wall
+without an arcade, or like the very spacious north chapel of the priory
+church at Brecon. The south chapel of the chancel at Berkeley in
+Gloucestershire, and the Clopton chapel at Long Melford in Suffolk, are
+shut off from the adjacent parts of the church, and belong to that class
+of chantry chapel of which our cathedrals furnish many examples. In this
+case, the chapel is a small separate building, attached to the fabric of
+the church, but hardly forming an integral part of it.
+
+§ 71. One very important consequence of the addition of aisles and
+chantry chapels to chancels, at any rate on a large scale, is seen where
+they are applied to plans originally cruciform. We have already seen
+that at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, and at Arksey, although much of the
+fabric of the old transepts was left, broad chancel chapels tended to
+obliterate the cruciform character of the building. The transepts at
+Spalding almost escape notice, owing to the double aisle on the south
+side of the nave, the aisle and north chapel on the opposite side, and
+the large chapel east of the south transept. Moreover, when, in the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, aisles were rebuilt or widened,
+there was always, as at Tansor, a tendency to decide the width of the
+aisle by the length of an existing transept or transeptal chapel, and to
+build the new outer wall flush with its gable wall. In this case, the
+aisle would be planned to communicate with the transept, and the west
+wall of the transept would have to be cut through. Where, as at Arksey,
+there was a central tower, the old transept was structurally necessary,
+and only as much of its masonry would be removed as was absolutely
+necessary. But we have seen that there were cases in which it was
+thought advisable to take down the central tower altogether, and build a
+new one at the west end, in which case the transepts were of no
+structural use; and there were far more cases in which the transeptal
+excrescences were merely projecting chapels. In these instances, the
+transept was felt to intervene awkwardly between the aisles of nave and
+chancel. Accordingly, its side walls and gabled roof were taken down,
+its end wall was remodelled, and it was placed under one roof with the
+adjacent aisles, in which it became merged. The cruciform plan was thus
+lost in certain churches, becoming absorbed in the ordinary elongated
+plan, with aisles to nave and chancel. Tamworth church in Staffordshire,
+and Marshfield in Gloucestershire, had twelfth century central towers.
+These were removed or destroyed, at Tamworth in the fourteenth, at
+Marshfield in the fifteenth century, and the aisles and chancel chapels
+were widened to the original length, approximately, of the transepts.
+The north and south arches of the crossing, however, remain in a blocked
+condition, and tell the tale of what has happened. Wakefield cathedral
+is another instance of a large parish church whose aisleless cruciform
+plan has gradually disappeared within the aisles, until the plan is--or
+was till the additions of a few years ago--an aisled rectangle, the
+origin of which is certainly not obvious at first sight. The
+transformations here described must clearly be understood not to apply
+to cruciform churches generally, but merely to churches which, with an
+originally cruciform plan, needed enlargement. Many handsome late Gothic
+buildings, like the churches of Rotherham and Chesterfield, or St Mary's
+at Nottingham, are regular cruciform churches with central towers; and
+sometimes, as at Newark, transeptal chapels were the latest of all
+additions to a church. But, where the transeptal chapel cramped
+necessary space, it had to disappear. At St Margaret's, Leicester, the
+arches into the transeptal chapels remain; but the chapels themselves
+have entirely disappeared, and the arches merely form part of the arcade
+between the nave and its broad aisles.
+
+§ 72. The aim of restorers and rebuilders from the middle of the
+fourteenth century onwards was to convert the church into a rectangle
+with aisles. As we have seen, the chancel was constantly, in late Gothic
+churches, an aisleless projection from the main fabric; but, where it
+was aisled, the old haphazard methods were often abandoned, and the
+aisles were made of approximately equal size. The old distinction
+between nave and chancel, marked by the chancel arch, and the arches
+between chapels and aisles, begin to vanish. Where the chancel arch was
+kept, as at Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, new chancel chapels were
+prolonged westward on each side of the nave, in place of the old nave
+aisles. Fairford church in Gloucestershire was rebuilt towards the end
+of the fifteenth century, to contain the splendid stained glass which
+had just been acquired for it. A central tower was built on strong
+piers, as a concession to the old plan; but the aisles of the nave were
+continued on either side of the tower and along the sides of the chancel
+till within a bay of the east end. But, in a great many churches, not
+merely the aisles, but the nave and chancel also became continuous,
+without a structural division. This feature, common in East Anglia and
+the south-west of England, was the result of the importance of carved
+and painted wood-work in late Gothic churches. The rood screen,
+stretching across nave and aisles, appeared to full advantage, when
+unbroken by the chancel arch. The splendid timber roofs of nave and
+aisles gained in effect, if they formed, as at Southwold, or in the
+churches of Norwich, an unbroken covering to the church from end to end.
+In Norfolk and Suffolk, where the work of rebuilding began in the
+fourteenth century, as at Cawston, Worstead, or Tunstead, the chancel
+arch was often kept. At Worstead and other Norfolk churches the method
+pursued by the builders was precisely opposite to that which we have
+seen employed by Gloucestershire masons at Cirencester and other places,
+and may see in most of the fifteenth century churches of Somerset. The
+arcades were rebuilt first, and the aisles followed. Many of these
+churches were doubtless enlarged from much smaller buildings. The south
+aisle at Ingham was probably the nave of the earlier church, to which
+the present nave, north aisle, chancel, and west tower, were added. The
+aisles in most cases continued at a uniform width eastward as chancel
+chapels. The north aisle at Worstead was continued by a two-storied
+sacristy to the level of the east wall of the chancel. The south aisle
+stops at a bay short of the east wall, leaving the end of the chancel
+projecting as an altar space. Whether the chancel arch was retained or
+not, the projection of this aisleless eastern bay became a very general
+feature of the larger churches of East Anglia, and, in churches like
+Trunch, Southwold, and Clare, its tall side windows flood the space with
+light The most striking example of this plan is at Long Melford in
+Suffolk, where there is no chancel arch, and the actual chancel projects
+beyond the aisles. Here, however, it is flanked on the north by the
+Clopton chapel, and on the south by the vestry, which forms a covered
+way to the detached lady chapel further east. The Long Melford plan,
+with a projecting altar space, and without a chancel arch, is nearly
+universal in Cornwall, and is common in south Devon, where, as at
+Totnes, the aisles of the chancel are usually little more than
+comparatively short chapels, and sometimes, as at West Alvington, near
+Kingsbridge, extend only a bay beyond the screen. Its great advantages,
+apart from the display of wood-work which it permits, are the gain of
+internal space permitted by the reduction of the solid portions of the
+building to a minimum, the additional light admitted by the same means,
+and the long uninterrupted clerestory which forms a wall of glass, with
+thin stone divisions, on each side of the upper part of the church.
+
+§ 73. The tendency to give the whole church aisles of equal width
+throughout, and extending along its whole length, was irresistible,
+especially in East Anglia. The church of North Walsham, rebuilt towards
+the end of the fourteenth century, is a great rectangle of three
+parallel divisions, with axes from east to west, and of nearly equal
+breadth. The chapel of St Nicholas at Lynn, rebuilt in 1419, is an even
+more striking example of the same design: in both cases the simple and
+somewhat monotonous plan is varied by the projection of a handsome south
+porch. At Lynn, the thirteenth century west tower, with a spire, was
+kept at the south-west corner of the aisled building. But the aisled
+rectangular plan, if it attained its highest development in East Anglia,
+had been reached already in other parts of England by gradual methods.
+It has sometimes been fathered upon aisled naves of friary churches,
+which, like the great nave of the Black friars at Norwich, afforded
+space for large congregations who came to hear sermons. But it is
+probable that the first churches which followed the course of expansion
+into the aisled rectangle were directly influenced by the example of the
+larger churches, like Lincoln, or, at a later date, York, which, in
+extending their eastern arms, aisled their quires, presbyteries, and
+eastern chapels, right up to the east wall. Thus the whole quire and
+chancel of Newark, with aisles extending their whole length, were
+planned in the early part of the fourteenth century, when the great
+eastern chapel, the "Angel Quire," of Lincoln, was little more than a
+generation old; and, although the progress of the work was long
+delayed, the eventual arrangement, in which the high altar was brought
+two bays forward from the east wall, and a spacious chapel was left at
+the back, exactly recalls the arrangements of Lincoln and York.
+Similarly the quire and chancel of the cruciform church of Holy Trinity
+at Hull are aisled to their full length: the arrangement, again, is that
+of a cathedral rather than a parish church. The influence of cathedral
+plans is clearly visible in St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, and in the
+collegiate churches of Ottery St Mary and Crediton: but here the type
+followed is not that of Lincoln and York, but that more usual in the
+west and south of England at Hereford, Wells, Salisbury, Exeter, and
+elsewhere, where the aisles of the chancel are returned at the back of
+the east wall, and form a vestibule to a projecting aisleless lady
+chapel. This type of plan occurs outside its regular district at
+Tickhill, on the borders of Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire. But it is
+naturally exceptional, and would be used only where there was plenty of
+money and space to spare: it demands for its full effect a considerable
+elevation, involving a large clerestory, and a church could seldom, if
+ever, be found whose original plan invited expansion on these lines. On
+the other hand, the aisling of the chancel throughout was simply the
+logical development of the ordinary church plan: if the plans of
+cathedrals may have suggested the later developments at churches like
+Newark or Hull, the simple aisled rectangle, with its three parallel
+divisions, and without any clerestory to distinguish the nave from the
+aisles--a plan remarkably characteristic of Cornwall--came into
+existence in the ordinary course of things, by an extension of the wings
+of the building until they flanked the whole of the nave and chancel.
+
+§ 74. The work done at Grantham in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries illustrates the purely natural development of the ordinary
+aisled church into the aisled rectangle. We have seen, in an earlier
+chapter, that, soon after 1300, the church consisted of an aisleless
+chancel, which was, however, overlapped at the west end by the north
+aisle of the nave; a nave, the north and south aisles of which followed
+different systems of spacing; a western tower and spire, engaged within
+the aisles; and north and south porches. Several chantries were founded
+in the church during the fourteenth century. Not long after the Black
+Death of 1349, the south aisle was extended eastward to the whole length
+of the chancel. The south wall of the chancel was pierced by an arcade;
+and the lady chapel thus formed was raised upon a double crypt. It was
+not until more than a century later that the east wall of the north
+aisle was taken down, and the "Corpus Christi chancel" built out,
+continuing the north aisle without a break, and completely flanking
+the north wall of the chancel, through which an arcade was made. Here
+the reason of expansion was obviously the growth of chantry chapels; and
+the expansion follows the simplest course. The last addition to the
+fabric was the present vestry, in which was a chantry founded by the
+Hall family. This was built out at right angles to the north aisle, at
+the point where the old work was met by the later extension. Not until
+the church had been fully aisled, and afforded no further room for new
+altars, were chantry chapels usually added in the shape of excrescences
+from the fabric.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Plans of Grantham church: (3) about 1350; (4)
+present day.]
+
+§ 75. One interesting feature in the planning of chancels, which has
+been much discussed, is worth a note. This is the fact that the axis of
+the chancel is frequently out of line with the axis of the nave, and
+generally has a slight northward inclination. Sometimes, as at Henbury
+in Gloucestershire, the inclination is very considerable, so that, from
+the west end of the church, nearly a quarter of the east wall is out of
+sight. Usually, the inclination is very slight; and there are many cases
+in which it is not northward, but southward--Sidbury and Salcombe Regis,
+near Sidmouth, Eastbourne in Sussex and Aldwinkle St Peter in Northants,
+are cases in point. The popular explanation is that it symbolises the
+leaning of our Saviour's head upon the cross. Like most symbolical
+explanations, this is founded entirely upon fancy: the inclination is
+by no means confined to churches with cross plans, and, if it were, the
+theorists who argue from this standpoint confound the symbolism of the
+cross-plan between the cross itself and the Body which it bore. Others
+have sought to explain the phenomenon by suggesting that the orientation
+of the chancel followed the direction in which the sun rose on the
+morning of the patronal feast. A succession of visits at sunrise to
+churches on appropriate dates has not hitherto been attempted upon a
+comprehensive scale: if it were undertaken, it probably would be found
+that the sun, instead of rising obediently opposite the middle light of
+every east window, as the theory requires, would have many puzzling
+exceptions in reserve. The marked divergence of axis at Henbury is
+explained by the site of the building, which is on a gentle slope, with
+the axis of the nave distinctly from south-east to north-west. When the
+chancel was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, the masons kept as high
+upon the slope as they could, and so twisted the axis of the chancel a
+little further east. But we must also remember that, when chancels were
+lengthened and rebuilt, the work was done while the old chancels were
+still standing. The axis of the old chancel might be out of line with
+that of the nave. Unless very careful measurements were taken, the new
+east wall would probably be not quite parallel with the old east wall of
+the chancel. The side walls would be set out at right angles to the new
+east wall; and thus, when the new chancel was joined to the church, the
+divergence of axis would be more palpable than before. Or, for the same
+reason, a divergence of axis might be created for the first time. This
+seems to be the common sense explanation of a very common feature. But
+it must be added that there are instances in which the inclination is so
+decided that one is tempted to conclude either that the masons had very
+crooked sight, or that they were playing tricks with their perspective.
+The feature, where it is at all marked, is something of a deformity. In
+our own day it has been introduced, apparently by design, into the plan
+of Truro cathedral. In medieval work, however, it will seldom be found
+in a chancel where no enlargement upon an early site has taken place;
+and it seems safe to conclude that, like so much else in medieval
+building which is irregular, it generally arises from the rebuilding of
+a fabric upon an encumbered site.
+
+
+
+
+     INDEX OF PLACES
+
+
+     Aachen, Rhenish Prussia, palace church, 33, 34
+
+     Acaster Malbis, Yorks., 65
+
+     Achurch, Northants., 56, 58
+
+     Acton Burnell, Salop., 55, 56, 58, 65, 102
+
+     Adderbury, Oxon., 106, 107
+
+     Adel, Yorks., 49
+
+     Africa, basilicas in north, 14
+
+     Aldwinkle, Northants., All Saints, 121;
+       St Peter, 131
+
+     Almondsbury, Glouces., 54, 113
+
+     Alvington, West, Devon, 126
+
+     Amiens, France (Somme), cathedral, 68
+
+     Appleton-le-Street, Yorks., 84
+
+     Arksey, Yorks., 118, 121, 122
+
+     Askham Bryan, Yorks., 49
+
+     Avening, Glouces., 54, 114
+
+     Aylsham, Norfolk, 104
+
+
+     Bakewell, Derby, 70
+
+     Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon., 59, 60, 61
+
+     Barnack, Northants., 30, 32
+
+     Barnburgh, Yorks., 120
+
+     Barton-on-Humber, Lincs., St
+
+     Peter, 30, 32, 33, 34, 40, 41
+
+     Berkeley, Glouces., 121
+
+     Beverley, Yorks., minster, 74, 75;
+       St Mary, 102, 111, 112
+
+     Bewick, Old, Northumb., 50, 52
+
+     Bibury, Glouces., 94
+
+     Billingborough, Lincs., 82
+
+     Billingham, Durham, 73
+
+     Birkin, Yorks., 46, 51, 52, 82, 83
+
+     Bishopstone, Sussex, 36
+
+     Blatherwycke, Northants., 46
+
+     Bloxham, Oxon., 105, 106, 107
+
+     Bottesford, Lincs., 108
+
+     Bracebridge, Lincs., 28
+
+     Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts., 16, 29, 36
+
+     Bradwell-juxta-Mare, Essex, St Peter's on the Wall, 16
+
+     Brampton Ash, Northants., 76
+
+     Brancepeth, Durham, 120
+
+     Branscombe, Devon, 107
+
+     Brayton, Yorks., 46
+
+     Breamore, Hants., 38, 40, 54
+
+     Brecon, priory church, 121
+
+     Brigstock, Northants., 28, 97, 120, 121
+
+     Bristol, St John Baptist, 98;
+       St Lawrence, 98;
+       St Mary Redcliffe, 95, 99, 101, 102, 128
+
+     Britford, Wilts., 36
+
+     Brixworth, Northants., 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 32, 53
+
+     Broughton, Lincs., 32
+
+     Bubwith, Yorks., 93
+
+     Burford, Oxon., 60, 61, 99, 113
+
+
+     Caistor, Lincs., 45
+
+     Cambridge, All Saints, 97, 98;
+       St Benedict, 28;
+       Holy Trinity, 97;
+       St Michael, 94, 95
+
+     Campsall, Yorks., 109, 110
+
+     Canterbury, Kent, cathedral, 15, 35;
+       St Pancras, 15, 16, 23, 24, 35, 36, 53
+
+     Caunton, Notts., 93
+
+     Cawston, Norfolk, 104, 125
+
+     Chesterfield, Derby, 123
+
+     Chichester, Sussex, cathedral, 68
+
+     Childs Wickham, Glouces., 56, 58
+
+     Chipping Norton, Oxon., 99
+
+     Christon, Som., 53
+
+     Cirencester, Glouces., 87, 88, 89, 125
+
+     Clapton-in-Gordano, Som., 105, 120
+
+     Clare, Suffolk, 126
+
+     Clymping, Sussex, 114
+
+     Coln Rogers, Glouces., 28, 29, 97
+
+     Coln St Aldwyn, Glouces., 113, 114
+
+     Coln St Denis, Glouces., 53
+
+     Cologne, Rhenish Prussia, St Gereon, 34
+
+     Colsterworth, Lincs., 47, 92
+
+     Constantinople, Sta Sophia, 10, 12, 13
+
+     Copford, Essex, 52, 74
+
+     Copmanthorpe, Yorks., 49
+
+     Corbridge-on-Tyne, Northumb., 19, 20, 56
+
+     Corstopitum, _see_ Corbridge-on-Tyne
+
+     Coventry, Warwicks., Holy Trinity, 102;
+       St John Baptist, 102;
+       St Michael, 98
+
+     Crediton, Devon, 128
+
+     Cullompton, Devon, 106
+
+
+     Dedham, Essex, 97
+
+     Deerhurst, Glouces., 27, 36, 37
+
+     Dover, Kent, St Mary in the Castle, 37, 38, 40, 54
+
+     Duddington, Northants., 114
+
+     Dunham Magna, Norfolk, 38
+
+     Durham, cathedral, 50, 67, 69
+
+
+     Earl's Barton, Northants., 30, 48
+
+     Eastbourne, Sussex, 131
+
+     Easton, Great, Leices., 86
+
+     Ely, Cambs., cathedral, 50
+
+     Escomb, Durham, 17, 18, 20, 26, 27, 29
+
+     Evesham, Worces., All Saints, 105;
+       St Lawrence, 105
+
+     Ewerby, Lincs., 96
+
+     Exeter, Devon, cathedral, 113, 128
+
+     Exton, Rutland, 103, 104
+
+
+     Fairford, Glouces., 124
+
+     Felmersham, Beds., 110
+
+     Felton, Northumb., 83
+
+     Finchingfield, Essex, 45
+
+     Fountains abbey, Yorks., 67
+
+
+     Garton-on-the-Wolds, Yorks., 46
+
+     Geddington, Northants., 28, 72
+
+     Gedling, Notts., 94
+
+     Gloucester, cathedral, 67
+
+     Grantham, Lincs., 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 99, 100, 129, 130, 131
+
+     Greenstead, Essex, 43
+
+     Gretton, Northants., 72, 78, 93, 94
+
+
+     Hallaton, Leices., 83, 99
+
+     Harringworth, Northants., 85, 86, 87
+
+     Heapham, Lincs., 46
+
+     Heckington, Lincs., 76, 107, 108
+
+     Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumb., 48
+
+     Henbury, Glouces., 99, 131, 132
+
+     Hereford, cathedral, 128
+
+     Heslerton, West, Yorks., 64
+
+     Hexham, Northumb., priory church, 20, 21, 23;
+       St Mary, 33, 34, 41
+
+     Heysham, Lancs., 25
+
+     Hooton Pagnell, Yorks., 46
+
+     Hough-on-the-Hill, Lincs., 32
+
+     Hull, Yorks., Holy Trinity, 128, 129
+
+     Hullavington, Wilts., 119
+
+
+     Iffley, Oxon., 53, 54, 114
+
+     Islip, Northants., 76
+
+
+     Jarrow-on-Tyne, Durham, St Paul, 19
+
+     Jerusalem, Holy Sepulchre, 34, 52, 62
+
+
+     Kegworth, Leices., 104
+
+     Kirkburn, Yorks., 46
+
+     Kirk Hammerton, Yorks., 46
+
+
+     Laceby, Lincs., 45
+
+     Langford, Essex, 52
+
+     Langham, Rutland, 113
+
+     Lavenham, Suffolk, 94
+
+     Leckhampton, Glouces., 54
+
+     Leicester, St Margaret, 123, 124;
+       St Mary in the Castle, 49, 95, 97
+
+     Leverington, Cambs., 119
+
+     Leverton, Lincs., 121
+
+     Lincoln, cathedral, 67, 127, 128;
+       St Mary-le-Wigford, 28; St
+       Peter-at-Gowts, 28
+
+     Lowick, Northants., 105
+
+     Ludlow, Salop., 99, 100, 102
+
+     Lydd, Kent, 24
+
+     Lynn, King's, Norfolk, St Margaret, 96;
+       St Nicholas, 127
+
+
+     Marshfield, Glouces., 123
+
+     Medbourne, Leices., 56, 58, 113
+
+     Melbourne, Derby, 59, 60, 69, 70, 75, 76, 96, 117
+
+     Melford, Long, Suffolk, 121, 126
+
+     Melton Mowbray, Leices., 102
+
+     Middleton Tyas, Yorks., 78, 79
+
+     Minster Lovell, Oxon., 61
+
+     Monkwearmouth, Durham, 18, 19, 20, 23, 29
+
+     Montacute, Som., 56, 58
+
+     Moor Monkton, Yorks., 48
+
+
+     Nantwich, Cheshire, 102
+
+     Newark-on-Trent, Notts., 87, 89, 96, 99, 110, 123, 127, 128, 129
+
+     Newbald, North, Yorks., 57, 58, 59, 60
+
+     Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northumb., St Nicholas, 96, 100
+
+     Newhaven, Sussex, 53
+
+     Norham-on-Tweed, Northumb., 69, 70
+
+     Northallerton, Yorks., 78
+
+     Northampton, St Giles, 60, 61;
+       St Peter, 49
+
+     Northleach, Glouces., 87, 88, 89, 99
+
+     Norton-on-Tees, Durham, 40, 41, 54
+
+     Norwich, cathedral, 67;
+       church of Black friars, 127
+
+     Nottingham, St Mary, 123
+
+
+     Oakham, Rutland, 113
+
+     Othery, Som., 65
+
+     Othona, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+     Ottery St Mary, Devon, 106, 113, 128
+
+     Oundle, Northants., 82, 94, 98, 108, 109, 117, 118
+
+
+     Paignton, Devon, 106
+
+     Patricio, Brecon, 66, 67, 68
+
+     Peterborough, Northants., Saxon abbey church, 21, 22
+
+     Petersfield, Hants., 109
+
+     Plymouth, Devon, St Andrew, 105, 106
+
+     Plympton St Mary, Devon, 105, 106
+
+     Portlemouth, East, Devon, 106
+
+     Potterne, Wilts., 55, 56, 65
+
+
+     Ramsey, Hunts., Saxon abbey church, 39
+
+     Ranworth, Norfolk, 64, 68
+
+     Raunds, Northants., 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 119
+
+     Ravenna, Italy, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 10;
+       of Theodoric, 10, 11, 12;
+       Sant' Apollinare in Classe, 8, 9;
+       Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, 8, 9;
+       San Giovanni in Fonte, 10;
+       Sta Maria in Cosmedin, 10;
+       San Vitale, 11, 12, 13, 33
+
+     Reculver, Kent, 15, 24
+
+     Repton, Derby, 28, 37
+
+     Riccall, Yorks., 46
+
+     Ripon, Yorks, cathedral, 21, 23
+
+     Rochester, Kent, cathedral, 15
+
+     Rome, Basilica of Maxentius, 3;
+       Basilica Ulpia, 2;
+       Baths of Caracalla, 9;
+       Castle of Sant' Angelo, 9;
+       San Clemente, 9;
+       Sta Costanza, 9;
+       San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, 8;
+       San Paolo, 8;
+       old St Peter's, 4, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15;
+       _scholae_, 5
+
+     Rotherham, Yorks., 123
+
+
+     St-Georges-de-Boscherville, France (Seine-Inf.), 60
+
+     St Peter's on the Wall, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+     Salcombe Regis, Devon, 131
+
+     Salisbury, Wilts., cathedral, 67, 128
+
+     Sall, Norfolk, 104
+
+     Sawley, Derby, 120
+
+     Seamer, Yorks., 73
+
+     Sherburn-in-Elmet, Yorks., 69, 70, 96
+
+     Shrewsbury, Salop., St Mary, 114, 118, 121
+
+     Sidbury, Devon, 28, 131
+
+     Silchester, Hants., 14, 24, 25
+
+     Sileby, Leices., 96
+
+     Skipwith, Yorks., 115
+
+     Skirlaugh, South, Yorks., 65
+
+     Sleaford, Lincs., 82, 97
+
+     Southwell, Notts., cathedral, 70
+
+     Southwold, Suffolk, 125, 126
+
+     Spalding, Lincs., 95, 122
+
+     Stafford, St Mary, 112
+
+     Stanion, Northants., 119
+
+     Stanton Lacy, Salop., 38
+
+     Stow, Lincs., 39, 40, 42, 54
+
+     Stretton-in-the-Street, Rutland, 104
+
+     Studland, Dorset, 53
+
+     Sutton, Long, Lincs., 70, 124
+
+     Swaton, Lincs., 82
+
+
+     Tamworth, Staffs., 119, 123
+
+     Tansor, Northants., 49, 82, 100, 115, 116, 117, 122
+
+     Taunton, Som., St Mary Magdalene, 99
+
+     Temple Balsall, Warwicks., 65
+
+     Theddingworth, Leices., 79
+
+     Tickencote, Rutland, 48
+
+     Tickhill, Yorks., 96, 128
+
+     Tilney All Saints, Norfolk, 92, 93
+
+     Tiverton, Devon, 105, 106
+
+     Totnes, Devon, 126
+
+     Trier, Rhenish Prussia, basilica, 3;
+       Liebfrauenkirche, 34
+
+     Trunch, Norfolk, 126
+
+     Truro, Cornwall, cathedral, 133
+
+     Tunstead, Norfolk, 125
+
+     Tytherington, Glouces., 73
+
+
+     Vinovium, _see_ Escomb.
+
+
+     Waith, Lincs., 38, 39
+
+     Wakefield, Yorks., cathedral, 123
+
+     Walberswick, Suffolk, 99
+
+     Walsham, North, Norfolk, 127
+
+     Walsoken, Norfolk, 70
+
+     Warkworth, Northumb., 48
+
+     Warmington, Northants., 99, 100
+
+     Wells, Som., cathedral, 128
+
+     Whaplode, Lincs., 92, 114
+
+     Whitwell, Rutland, 78
+
+     Winchester, cathedral, 50
+
+     Wing, Bucks., 24, 27
+
+     Winterton, Lincs., 28, 97
+
+     Wisbech, Cambs., 120
+
+     Witham, North, Lincs., 47
+
+     Witney, Oxon., 61, 110, 112
+
+     Wittering, Northants., 28
+
+     Wollaton, Notts., 97
+
+     Worstead, Norfolk, 99, 125
+
+     Worth, Sussex, 37, 102, 103
+
+
+     Yainville, France (Seine-Inf.), 53
+
+     Yatton, Som., 99
+
+     York, cathedral, 67, 127, 128
+
+     Ythanceaster, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been corrected without notice. An obvious
+printer error has been corrected, and it is listed below. All
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+Page 36: "a Saxon ex-example" changed to "a Saxon example".
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish
+Church, by A. Hamilton Thompson
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church, by A Hamilton Thompson.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church, by 
+A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church
+
+Author: A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2008 [EBook #27102]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carla Foust and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's note</h3>
+
+<p>
+In the HTML version some of the illustrations
+have been moved beside the relevant section of the text.
+Page numbers in the List of Illustrations reflect the position of the illustration
+in the original text, but links link to current position of illustrations.
+<br /><br />
+Minor punctuation errors have been corrected without notice.
+<br /><br />
+An obvious
+printer error has been corrected. It is indicated with a
+<a class="correction" title="like this" href="#tnotes">mouse-hover</a>,
+and it is listed at the <a href="#tnotes">end</a>.
+<br /><br />
+All other inconsistencies are as in
+the original. The author's spelling has been maintained.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="fm1">The Cambridge Manuals of Science and</p>
+<p class="fm1">Literature</p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<h1>THE GROUND PLAN OF THE</h1>
+<h1>ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="fm2">CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+
+<p class="fm2"><i>London</i>: FETTER LANE, E.C.</p>
+<p class="fm2">C. F. CLAY, <span class="smcap">Manager</span></p>
+<p class="fm2"><i>Edinburgh</i>: 100, PRINCES STREET</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i002.png" width="153" height="156" alt="fig1" title=""></img>
+</div>
+
+<p class="fm2"><i>Berlin</i>: A. ASHER AND CO.</p>
+<p class="fm2"><i>Leipzig</i>: F. A. BROCKHAUS</p>
+<p class="fm2"><i>New York</i>: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</p>
+<p class="fm2"><i>Bombay and Calcutta</i>: MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span></p>
+<p class="fm3"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+<p><br /></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i004.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="fig2" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Hedon, Yorkshire: nave from N.W.
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i005.png" width="316" height="500" alt="fig3" title=""></img>
+</div>
+
+<p class="fm1">THE GROUND PLAN</p>
+<p class="fm1">OF THE ENGLISH</p>
+<p class="fm1">PARISH CHURCH</p>
+
+<p class="fm3">BY</p>
+
+<p class="fm2">A. HAMILTON THOMPSON</p>
+<p class="fm2">M.A., F.S.A.</p>
+
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<p class="fm2">Cambridge:</p>
+<p class="fm2">at the University Press</p>
+<p class="fm2">1911</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="fm3"><i>Cambridge:</i></p>
+<p class="fm3">PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.</p>
+<p class="fm3">AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+
+<p><i>With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the
+title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge
+printer, John Siberch, 1521</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>There is as yet no book entirely devoted to the development of the plan
+of the parish church in England, and the body of literature which bears
+upon the subject is not very accessible to the ordinary student. The
+present volume is an attempt to indicate the main lines on which that
+development proceeded. It is obvious that, from necessary considerations
+of space, much has been omitted. The elevation of the building, and the
+treatment of its decorative features, window-tracery, sculpture, etc.,
+belong to another and wider branch of architectural study, in which the
+parish church pursues the same line of structural development as the
+cathedral or monastic church, and the architectural forms of the
+timber-roofed building follow the example set by the larger churches
+with their roofs of stone. To this side of the question much attention
+has been devoted, and of late years increasing emphasis has been laid on
+the importance of the vaulted construction of our greater churches,
+which is the very foundation of medieval architecture and the secret of
+its progress through its various "styles." It is expected that the
+reader of this book, in which a less familiar but none<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> the less
+important topic is handled, will already have some acquaintance with the
+general progress of medieval architectural forms, with which the
+development of the ground plan keeps pace.</p>
+
+<p>Some historical and architectural questions, which arise out of the
+consideration of the ground plan, and have an important bearing upon it,
+are treated in another volume of this series, which is intended to be
+complementary to the present one.</p>
+
+<p>The writer is grateful to his wife, for the plans and sketches which she
+has drawn for him, and for much help: to Mr C. C. Hodges and Mr J. P.
+Gibson, for the permission to make use of their photographs; and to the
+Rev. J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., and the Rev. R. M. Serjeantson, M.A.,
+F.S.A., for their kindness in reading through the proofs and supplying
+suggestions of the greatest value.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span style="padding-right: 5em;">A. H. T.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gretton, Northants</span><br />
+<i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;26 January 1911</i><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND</h3>
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">SECTION</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">1.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The basilican church plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">2.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Problem of its derivation</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">3.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Rival theories of its origin</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">4.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The Roman basilica: old St Peter's</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">5.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Basilicas at Ravenna</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">6.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Tomb-churches and baptisteries</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">7.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Centralised plans at Ravenna</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">8.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Relative advantages of the basilican and the centralised plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">9.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The basilican church at Silchester</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">10.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Early churches in Kent and Essex</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">11.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">12.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Escomb church, Durham</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">13.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Early Northumbrian churches</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">14.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Wilfrid's churches at Hexham and Ripon</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">15,</td>
+<td class="tdl">16. Brixworth, Northants: other basilican plans</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">17.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Exceptional occurrence of the basilican plan in England</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<h3>PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD</h3>
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">SECTION</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">18.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The normal pre-Conquest plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">19.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The western bell-tower</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">20.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plans in which the ground floor of the tower forms the body of the church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">21.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Barton-on-Humber and the centralised plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">22.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Centralised planning in England</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">23.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The Saxon lateral porch</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">24.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Development of the transeptal chapel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">25.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Towers between nave and chancel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">26,</td>
+<td class="tdl">27. Development of the cruciform plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">28.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Influence of local material upon the aisleless church plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD</h3>
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">SECTION</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">29.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Survival and development of the aisleless plan after the Conquest</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">30.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The nave of the aisleless church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">31.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Rectangular chancels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">32.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Churches with no structural division between nave and chancel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">33.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Churches with apsidal chancels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">34.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The quire</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">35.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The transeptal chapel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">36.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Cruciform plans: North Newbald and Melbourne</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">37.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Later developments of the cruciform plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">38.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Symbolism in planning</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi, xii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH</h3>
+<h3>I. NAVE, TOWER, AND PORCHES</h3>
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">SECTION</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">39.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Survival of the aisleless plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">40.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The addition of aisles</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">41.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Use of aisles for side altars</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">42.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Twelfth century aisled plans</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">43.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Ordinary method of adding aisles</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">44,</td>
+<td class="tdl">45. Consequent irregularities of plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">46.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Gradual addition of aisles</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">47.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Raunds church, Northants</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">48.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Conservative feeling of the builders for old work</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">49.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Aisles widened and rebuilt</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">50.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Rebuilding of aisles as chantry chapels: Harringworth, Northants</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">51.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Newark, Cirencester, Northleach, and Grantham</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">52.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Naves lengthened westward</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">53.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The western tower in relation to the plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">54.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Engaged western towers, etc.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">55.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Rebuilding of towers</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">56.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Porches</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">57.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Position of the porch in the plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH</h3>
+<h3>II. TRANSEPTS AND CHANCEL</h3>
+
+<table summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">SECTION</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">58.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Cruciform churches with aisled transepts</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">59.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Addition of transeptal chapels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">60.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Variety of treatment of transeptal chapels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">61.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Transeptal chapels as a key to original ground plans</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">62.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Incomplete cruciform plans</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">63.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Irregular cruciform plans</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">64.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Central towers with transeptal chapels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">65.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Transeptal towers</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">66.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Lengthening of chancels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">67.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Encroachment of the chancel on the nave: Tansor</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">68.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Chancel chapels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">69.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Churches with one chancel chapel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">70.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Chantry chapels attached to chancels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">71.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Effect of the addition of chapels on the cruciform plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">72.</td>
+<td class="tdl">The aisled rectangular plan</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">73.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Variations of the plan with aisled nave and chancel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">74.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Development of the aisled rectangle at Grantham</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">75.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Deviation of the axis of the chancel</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index of Places</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">Hedon.</td>
+<td class="tdl">Interior of nave</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_iv"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">FIGS.</td>
+<td class="tdr page" colspan="2">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of old St Peter's</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of Escomb&mdash;typical Saxon church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+<td class="tdl">St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+<td class="tdl">Aisleless plan, 12th cent.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+<td class="tdl">Birkin, Yorkshire: interior</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+<td class="tdl">Two aisleless plans with central tower</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+<td class="tdl">North Newbald</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+<td class="tdl">Sketch of older wall above nave arcade, Gretton</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of Raunds church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of Harringworth church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+<td class="tdl">Two plans, nos. 1 and 2, of Grantham church</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+<td class="tdl">Sketch of arch joining arcade to tower, Gretton</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plan of 13th cent. church: W. tower, S. Porch, transeptal chapels</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_102">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+<td class="tdl">St Mary's, Beverley. Interior of transept.</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+<td class="tdl">Plans of Grantham church, nos. 3 and 4</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND</h3>
+
+
+<p>&sect; 1. Side by side with the establishment of Christianity as the religion
+of the Roman empire, there appeared a fully developed plan for places of
+Christian worship. The normal Christian church of the fourth century of
+our era was an aisled building with the entrance at one end, and a
+semi-circular projection known as the apse at the other. The body of the
+building, the nave with its aisles, was used by the congregation, the
+quire of singers occupying a space, enclosed within low walls, at the
+end nearest the apse. In the apse, raised above the level of the nave,
+was the altar, behind which, ranged round the wall, were the seats for
+the bishop and assistant clergy. This type of church, of which the
+aisled nave and the apse are the essential parts, is known as the
+<i>basilica</i>. The name, employed to designate a "royal" or magnificent
+building, had long been applied to large buildings, whether open to the
+sky or roofed, which were used, partly as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> commercial exchanges, partly
+as halls of justice. It is still often said that the Christian basilicas
+were merely adaptations of such buildings to sacred purposes. Some of
+the features of the Christian plan are akin to those of the secular
+basilica. The apse with its semi-circular range of seats and its altar
+reproduces the judicial tribune, with its seats for the praetor and his
+assistant judges, and its altar on which oaths were taken. The open
+galleries, which in some of the earliest Christian basilicas at Rome
+form an upper story to the aisles, recall the galleries above the
+colonnades which surrounded the central hall of some of the larger
+secular basilicas. Again, the <i>atrium</i> or forecourt through which the
+Christian basilica was often approached has been supposed to be derived
+from the <i>forum</i> in connexion with which the secular basilica was
+frequently built.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 2. However, while the <i>atrium</i> of the Christian basilica is merely an
+outer court, the secular basilica, when planned, like the Basilica Ulpia
+at Rome, with direct relation to a <i>forum</i>, was a principal building in
+connexion with the <i>forum</i>, but not a building of which the <i>forum</i> was
+a mere annexe. Further, when we begin to seek for a complete
+identification of the Christian with the secular basilica, we are met by
+the obstacle that the secular basilica had no fixed plan. If we try to
+trace any principle of development in its plan, we find that this
+develop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>ment is directly inverse to that of the Christian basilica. The
+secular basilica, in earlier examples a colonnaded building with its
+central space open to the sky, became at a later time a roofed hall,
+either, as in the case of the basilica at Trier, without aisles, or,
+like the basilica of Maxentius or Constantine in the Roman forum, with a
+series of deep recesses at the side, the vaulted roofs of which served
+to counteract the outward pressure of the main vault. The Christian
+basilica, if it were a mere imitation of this type of building, would
+follow the same line of development; but, as a matter of fact, the
+highest type of Christian church is always a colonnaded or aisled
+building. And, even if the Christian apse derived its arrangement from
+the apse or apses which projected from the ends or sides of the secular
+basilicas, there is again a difference. The apse with its altar was the
+main feature of the interior of the Christian church: it was the place
+in which the chief rite of Christian worship was performed before the
+eyes of all. In the secular basilica the apse was devoted to special
+purposes which set it apart from the main business of the body of the
+building: it was an appendage to the central hall, not necessarily
+within view of every part of it. In fact, the relation of the apse to
+the main building was totally different in the two cases.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 3. It seems probable, then, that the identity between the two
+buildings is mainly an identity of name, and that Christian builders,
+in seeking for suitable arrangements for public worship, may have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+borrowed some details from the arrangements of the secular basilica. It
+is natural, however, to look for the origin of a religious plan in
+buildings devoted to religious purposes. The Roman temple supplied no
+help for the plan of buildings which were required for public worship.
+Of recent years, it has been customary to assume that the Christian
+basilica took its form from the inner halls of the private houses of
+those wealthy citizens who embraced Christianity in its early days. Such
+halls may have been used for Christian services; and if their plan was
+adopted for the Christian basilica, the mature state of the basilican
+plan at its first appearance can be explained. The <i>atrium</i> or entrance
+hall of the house is represented on this hypothesis by the forecourt of
+the basilica; the peristyle, or colonnade round the inner room, becomes
+the aisles and the space screened off at the entrance for those not
+entitled to take full part in the service; the colonnade at the further
+end survives in the arcaded screen which existed, for example, in old St
+Peter's at Rome; the apse takes the place of the <i>tablinum</i>, where the
+most sacred relics of family life were preserved; and the transept,
+which is found in some of the early Roman basilican plans, represents
+the <i>alae</i>, or transverse space, which existed between the <i>tablinum</i>
+and the main body of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> hall. But these close analogies are the result
+of an assumption by no means certain. It is always probable that the
+basilican plan had its origin in a plan originally aisleless. Some,
+intent on its religious source, explain it as a development of the plan
+of the Jewish synagogue. Others, regarding assemblies of Christians for
+public worship as, in their essence, meetings of persons associated in
+common brotherhood, have derived the basilica directly from the
+aisleless <i>scholae</i> which were the meeting-places of the various
+confraternities or <i>collegia</i> of ancient Rome. In these there is an apse
+at one end of the building; and, if we imagine aisles added by the
+piercing of the walls with rows of arches and columns, we have at once
+the essential features of the basilican plan. Each theory has its
+attractions and its difficulties; and to none is it possible to give
+unqualified adherence. It may be stated, as a tentative conclusion, that
+the basilican plan probably had its origin in an aisleless form of
+building, and thus pursued a course directly opposite to the development
+of the secular basilica. But it seems clear that, in many details of the
+plan, especially as we see it in Rome, the peristyled hall was kept in
+mind; while in two features, the arrangement of the apse and the
+occasional appearance of galleries above the aisles, the secular
+basilica was taken into consideration. The policy of the early Christian
+Church, when its services were sanctioned by the state, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> to adapt
+existing and familiar forms where they could be suitably reproduced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i020.png" width="667" height="266" alt="fig4" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 1. Plan of old St Peter's: (1) <i>atrium</i> or
+fore-court; (2) nave with double aisles; (3) site of screen-colonnade;
+(4, 4) transepts; (5) apse with crypt below.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 4. The plan of the old basilica of St Peter at Rome, founded by
+Constantine the Great, and destroyed early in the sixteenth century to
+make way for the present church, explains the principal features of the
+basilican plan in its developed state. (1) In common with other early
+basilicas in Rome, and in other parts of western Europe, the entrance
+was at the east, and the altar at the west end, so that the celebrant
+faced the congregation during the divine office. (2) The church was
+approached through a cloistered <i>atrium</i> or fore-court, in the middle of
+which was a fountain, the place of purification for those intending to
+enter the church. (3) At the west end of the cloister three doorways
+opened into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> the nave of the church, and one on either side into the
+side aisles. (4) The nave communicated with the aisles by a row of
+columns beneath an entablature: there were also outer aisles,
+communicating with the inner by columns bearing rounded arches. (5) The
+side walls of the nave, above the entablature, were not pierced for
+galleries, but were covered by two rows of mosaic pictures, one above
+the other, on each side, the upper row corresponding to the height of
+the space between the outer and inner roofs of the aisle. Above this,
+the walls rose into a clerestory, pierced with round-headed windows at
+regular intervals; and a high entablature supported the great tie-beams
+of the wooden roof. (6) The quire of singers, divided from the rest of
+the church by low screen walls, probably occupied the centre of the
+western portion of the nave. (7) A tall open arch divided the nave from
+the transept, which was of equal height with the nave, and projected
+south and north as far as the walls of the outer aisles. Here probably
+were places reserved for distinguished persons, near the platform of the
+altar. (8) West of the transept, entered by a tall and wide arch, was
+the apse. Beneath the arch was a screen, formed by a row of columns,
+under an entablature which bore statues of our Lord and the apostles:
+this crossed the arch at the foot of the steps leading to the altar and
+seats of the clergy. (9) Beneath the altar plat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>form, and entered by
+doorways on each side of the flight of steps, was the crypt or
+<i>confessio</i>, the traditional place of martyrdom of St Peter, and the
+resort of pilgrims to the tomb of the apostles. The hallowed place was
+immediately beneath the altar.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 5. The sixth century basilicas of Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe
+and Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, differ in plan from the Roman basilicas (1)
+in the fact that they have always had the altar at the east, and the
+entrance at the west end; (2) by substituting, for a colonnaded atrium,
+a closed porch or <i>narthex</i> in front of the entrance of the building. In
+process of time, two of the greater Roman basilicas, San Paolo and San
+Lorenzo fuori le Mura, were enlarged in a westward direction, so that
+the positions of the altar and entrance were reversed; and, in several
+of the early basilicas at Rome, a space near the entrance of the nave
+was screened off, from which penitents and catechumens might watch the
+service. But, in the first instance, the eastern chancel and the
+structural <i>narthex</i> appear to have been introduced from the eastern
+empire. Neither at Ravenna nor at Rome did bell-towers originally form
+part of the plan of the basilica: the round <i>campanili</i> of both churches
+at Ravenna are certainly later additions. It may also be noted (1) that
+ordinarily the aisles were single, not double as at old St Peter's. (2)
+The columned screen of the apse at old St Peter's ap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>pears to have been
+exceptional. The ordinary screen or <i>cancelli</i>, from which is derived
+our word "chancel" for the space thus enclosed, was a low wall. This is
+the arrangement at the basilica of San Clemente, in which the enclosed
+quire also remains. (3) The transept, even in Rome, was an exceptional
+arrangement, and does not appear in the basilicas of Ravenna.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 6. Another type of plan, however, was used in Rome for churches
+devoted to the special purposes of burial and baptism. In this case the
+buildings were planned round a central point, and at Rome were uniformly
+circular. Recesses round the walls of the mausoleum-church contained
+sarcophagi: in the centre of the baptistery was the great font. The
+church of Santa Costanza, outside the north-eastern walls of Rome,
+circular in plan, with a vaulted aisle surrounding the central space,
+was built by Constantine the Great as a tomb-church for his family, and
+was also used as a baptistery. Both these uses were direct adaptations
+of pagan customs. The baptistery, with its central font for total
+immersion, was simply a large bath-room, like the great rotunda of the
+baths of Caracalla. The mausoleum preserved the form of which the finest
+example is the tomb of Hadrian, now known as the castle of Sant' Angelo.
+In the course of the middle ages, certain tomb-churches in Rome, with a
+centralised plan, were turned into places of public worship. But, for
+the plan of the ordinary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> church, the basilica, with its longitudinal
+axis, was general. In the eastern empire, on the other hand, the
+centralised plan was employed from an early date for large churches; and
+in this way was evolved the magnificent style of architecture which
+culminated in Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Here the centralised plan
+was triumphantly adapted to the internal arrangements of the basilica.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 7. The city of Ravenna, closely connected historically both with Rome
+and Constantinople, contains a series of monuments which is of
+unequalled interest in the history of the centralised plan. (1) The
+mausoleum of the empress Galla Placidia, sister of the emperor Honorius,
+who died in 450 <span class="smcaps">A.D.</span>, is a building of cruciform shape, consisting of a
+square central space covered by a dome, with rectangular projections on
+all four sides. The projection through which the building is entered is
+longer than the others, and the plan thus forms the Latin cross so
+common in the churches of the middle ages. (2) To the same period
+belongs the octagonal baptistery, known as San Giovanni in Fonte. (3) In
+493 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Theodoric the Ostrogoth obtained possession of Ravenna. To the
+period of his rule belongs the Arian baptistery, also octagonal, known
+as Santa Maria in Cosmedin. (4) Theodoric died in 526 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> His mausoleum
+is formed by a polygon of ten equal sides, with a smaller decagonal
+upper stage, a circular attic above<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> which bears the great monolithic
+dome. In the lower story was the tomb: the internal plan is a Greek
+cross, <i>i.e.</i> there is a central space with recesses of equal depth on
+all four sides. (5) In the year of the death of Theodoric, the octagonal
+church of San Vitale was begun. It was consecrated in 547, when Ravenna
+had become the capital of the Italian province of Justinian's empire.
+Its somewhat complicated plan was clearly derived from an eastern
+source, but not from Santa Sophia, which was not begun till 532 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The
+central space is almost circular. Between each of the piers which
+support the octagonal clerestory at the base of the cupola is an apsidal
+recess, with three arches on the ground floor opening into the
+encircling aisle, and three upper arches opening into the gallery above
+the aisle. On the east side of the central space this arrangement is
+broken, and one tall arch opens into the chancel, which ends in a
+projecting apse, semi-circular inside, but a half octagon outside. The
+aisle with the gallery above thus occupies seven sides of the outer
+octagon, the eighth side being occupied by the western part of the
+chancel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i025.png" width="360" height="525" alt="fig5" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 2. Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna: (1) <i>narthex</i> with
+flanking turrets, as originally arranged; (2) central nave; (3) chancel
+and altar.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 8. Of the two types of plan, which can be studied so satisfactorily at
+Ravenna, the ordinary basilican type is the more convenient. The long
+nave provides the necessary accommodation for worshippers, the raised
+apse gives a theatre for the performance of service within view of
+everybody, the aisles facilitate the going and coming of the
+congregation, and prevent over-crowding. The centralised plan provides,
+it is true, a large central area conveniently near the altar; but the
+provision of a chancel or altar-space necessitates the grafting on the
+plan of a feature borrowed from the ordinary basilica, which, as at San
+Vitale, breaks the symmetry of the design. At Santa Sophia, the
+basilican chancel forms an indissoluble part of a centralised plan; but
+this feat is beyond the reach of an ordinary architect. Even at San
+Vitale the planning is highly complicated, and must be due to an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+architect of some genius. In addition to complications of design, the
+centralised plan raised questions of roofing which did not trouble the
+builders of the long wooden-roofed basilicas. The vaulted half-dome of
+the basilican apse was a simple matter, compared with the mighty dome of
+Santa Sophia and its cluster of abutting half-domes. It was in the
+centralised churches, with their domed vaults and the groined vaults of
+their aisles, that the history of medieval vaulting began. But, even
+when medieval masons had learned to regard the vaulting of their
+churches as the controlling principle of their art, they left the
+centralised plan almost entirely alone, and applied what it had taught
+them to the work of roofing basilicas with vaults of stone. We shall
+trace the influence of the centralised church as we proceed; but the
+influence of the basilica will be found to predominate in the history of
+medieval planning.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 9. In England, as in other portions of the Roman empire, we might
+naturally expect to find the basilican plan applied to the earliest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+Christian churches. The foundations of a small Romano-British basilican
+church have been discovered at Silchester in Hampshire. The apse, as in
+the Roman basilicas, was at the west end. The nave had aisles, which, at
+the end nearest the apse, broadened out into two transept-like
+projections. The entrance front of the church was covered by a
+<i>narthex</i>, the whole width of nave and aisles. This feature, as has been
+shown, is of eastern rather than of Roman origin; while the projections
+at the end of the aisles appear to have been, not transepts like those
+at old St Peter's, but separate chambers corresponding to those which,
+in eastern churches, flank the chancel, and are used for special ritual
+purposes. In fact, the basilica at Silchester recalls the plans of the
+early basilicas of north Africa more closely than those of the basilicas
+of Rome; while it has, unlike them, the Roman feature of the western
+apse. This, however, gives rise to questions which, in our present state
+of knowledge, are beyond solution.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 10. Of the seven churches which are usually connected with the
+missionary activity of St Augustine and his companions, five, of which
+we have ruins or foundations, certainly ended in apses; and the apse in
+each case was divided from the nave, not by a single arch, but by an
+arcade with three openings, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> recalls the screen-colonnade at old
+St Peter's. But only one church in the group, the ruined church of
+Reculver, followed the plan of the aisled nave of the basilica. From the
+description which remains of the early cathedral of Canterbury,
+destroyed by fire in 1067, we can see that it, too, was an aisled
+basilica, with its original apse at the west end. But the first
+cathedral of Rochester, the plan and extent of which may be gathered
+from existing foundations, was an aisleless building with an eastern
+apse. The church of St Pancras at Canterbury, the lower courses of the
+walls of which in great part remain, had an aisleless nave, divided from
+an apsidal chancel by a screen-wall with three openings, that in the
+middle being wider than the others. The foundations of two of the four
+columns which flanked these openings can still be traced. The walls of
+the chancel, which was slightly narrower than the nave, were continued
+straight for a little way beyond the screen-wall; and then the curve of
+the apse began. St Pancras also possessed a square entrance porch, much
+narrower than the nave, at its west end, and two chapels projecting from
+the nave on either side, half-way up its length. The church is thus
+cruciform in plan. The western porch and the chapels seem to have been
+added as the work proceeded, and not to have been contemplated in the
+original design. The material of the building is Roman brick, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+buttress projections occur at the western angles of the nave and porch,
+in the fragment which remains of the south wall of the chancel, and at
+the outer angles of the side chapels. Small buttresses are also found at
+the angles and on the sides of St Peter's on the Wall in Essex.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 11. In one respect the plan of St Pancras at Canterbury is allied to
+that of the church at Bradford-on-Avon in Wiltshire. At Bradford there
+remains one of the two porches, which also were probably side chapels,
+projecting from the sides of the nave. But at Bradford the remaining
+porch is larger in proportion to the nave than is the case at St
+Pancras. There is no entrance porch on the west side. Further, the
+chancel at Bradford is rectangular, not apsidal. Instead of a
+screen-wall with a central opening nine feet wide, the wall dividing
+nave from chancel is pierced by a small arch only 3 ft. 6 in. wide. The
+date of this little church is a matter of great difficulty; and the
+character of its masonry seems to demand for it a later date than the
+early one popularly claimed for it. The contrast with St Pancras is
+accentuated further by the fact that the internal measurements of the
+nave show a different scheme of proportion. The nave of St Pancras is
+some three feet broader in proportion to its length than the much
+shorter nave at Bradford.
+</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 12. A closer parallel to Bradford-on-Avon is found in the little
+church of Escomb, near Bishop Auckland. No record of the early history<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+of this building is known; but its masonry is almost entirely composed
+of re-used Roman dressed stone-work. In this respect it presents a
+contrast to Bradford. In another respect the two churches are unlike.
+Both have their entrances in the side walls; but at Escomb there were no
+original porches covering the doorways, while there are traces of what
+may have been an entrance porch, like that of St Pancras, at the west
+end. But they have these points in common: (1) the nave at Escomb is
+long in proportion to its width; (2) the chancel is a rectangular
+eastern projection, narrower and much shorter than the nave; (3) there
+is a solid wall of division between nave and chancel, pierced by a
+narrow arch, broader than that of Bradford, but very much higher in
+proportion to its width. It may be added that the walls of both churches
+are high in proportion to their length and breadth, and that at Escomb
+the original windows are small openings with rounded and flat
+lintel-heads, and with internal splays.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i031.png" width="600" height="311" alt="fig6" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 3. Plan of Escomb&mdash;typical Saxon church.
+</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 13. It is, however, with the plan that we are concerned. We now have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+met with three separate forms in England, viz. (1) the rare basilican
+plan; (2) the "Kentish" plan of aisleless nave with apsidal chancel; (3)
+the plan of aisleless nave with rectangular chancel. We also have seen
+that the screen-wall is common to (1) and (2), while the single chancel
+arch belongs to (3); and that side chapels and western porches are found
+incidentally in (2) and (3). Now, the early date of Escomb, apart from
+the evidence supplied by its masonry, can be suspected only by its
+analogy to the plan of other churches of which the date is practically
+certain. Two such churches remain in the same county of Durham. One is
+at Monkwearmouth, now a part of Sunderland. Its nave and the lowest
+stage of its western tower represent, and in great part actually are,
+the nave and western porch of an early Saxon church, which is generally
+identified with the church built here by Benedict Biscop for the
+monastery which he founded in 672 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The nave was originally
+aisleless, long, narrow and lofty: the entrance porch had an upper story
+finished with a gabled roof, and a vaulted ground-floor with entrances
+on three sides. There was evidently a chancel arch, and probably the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+chancel was rectangular. The material of the building was not Roman;
+but, in the decoration applied to it, Roman work was imitated. Only a
+few miles further north, Benedict founded, in 680 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, the sister
+monastery of Jarrow. The long and narrow chancel of the present church
+of St Paul was the body of a church somewhat similar to that of
+Monkwearmouth. Stone-work which may represent the jambs of a broad
+chancel arch can be traced in the east wall; but this cannot be stated
+with positive certainty. The lower part of the tower, now between the
+present chancel and nave, may represent an original western porch; but,
+in its present state, it is of much later date than the work east of it,
+and its site must have been broadened when the tower was first planned.
+At Jarrow there is no Roman stone-work; but one type of Roman masonry
+has been imitated by the builders in the walls of the chancel, and small
+decorative shafts, turned in a lathe after the Roman fashion, such as
+exist at Monkwearmouth, have been found in the building. The inscribed
+stone, recording the dedication of the church, is preserved in the wall
+above the western tower-arch: the date given is 23 April, 684 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> In
+this inscription the building, though aisleless, is called a basilica.
+The word was now probably used to signify a Christian church,
+irrespective of its plan. A third early church in this district is that
+of Corbridge, near Hexham. Here,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> as at Monkwearmouth, the ground story
+of the tower was originally a western porch; while the lofty arch
+between tower and nave is, like the chancel arch at Escomb, entirely
+composed of dressed Roman masonry, and seems to have been removed from
+one of the buildings of the Roman station of Corstopitum, as the arch at
+Escomb was probably removed from the not far distant station of
+Vinovium.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 14. The date to which these four northern churches may be assigned is
+the half century of the activity of St Wilfrid in England (664-709
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span>). Bede's account of the architectural work of Wilfrid's friend,
+Benedict Biscop, shows that he procured, for the building of the church
+at Monkwearmouth, stonemasons and glaziers from Gaul, who were
+acquainted with "the manner of the Romans." The account which another
+contemporary, Eddius, gives of Wilfrid's church at Hexham, is clear
+proof that this important building was a reproduction, in plan and
+elevation, of the aisled basilicas of the continent&mdash;a fact in keeping
+with Wilfrid's life-long aim of bringing English Christianity into
+closer touch with the main current of historic Christianity in Rome and
+Gaul. The foundations of the outer walls of most of Wilfrid's church
+were uncovered when, lately, the new nave of Hexham priory church was
+begun; but one of its features has been long known, and is of the
+highest interest. The crypt for relics below the apse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> and high altar
+consists of an oblong chamber, with a western vestibule, approached by a
+straight stairway from the nave. In addition to the western stair, there
+are two stairs which communicated with the apse. That on the south side
+remains perfect, and ends in a passage and vestibule, through which the
+relic-chamber is entered. The northern stairway leads through a passage
+to the western vestibule, at the foot of the stair from the nave. The
+crypt of Wilfrid's contemporary basilica at Ripon also remains: here the
+arrangement is less complicated; but the arrangement of the main
+relic-chamber is equally the chief feature of the plan.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 15. The foundations of the Saxon church at Peterborough present many
+difficulties, and may be of a later date than the foundation of the
+monastery in 655 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> But no such difficulties of date or plan exist
+with regard to the large Saxon church at Brixworth, between Northampton
+and Market Harborough. Its size and the fact that Roman material has
+been much re-used in its building have given rise to the tradition that
+it is a secular basilica applied to the purposes of a Christian church.
+As a matter of fact, the Roman brick-work has been re-used in obvious
+ignorance of Roman methods; so that this circumstance alone would make
+the legend improbable. The date of the building can hardly be earlier
+than about 680 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, when a monastery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> was founded here by a colony of
+monks from Peterborough. The plan originally consisted of (1) a western
+entrance porch, with a lofty western doorway, and smaller doorways on
+north and south; (2) a broad nave, divided from the aisles by arches,
+which spring from large square piers of plain brick-work; (3) a
+rectangular presbytery, divided from the nave by a screen-wall pierced
+with three arches; (4) an apsidal chancel, entered from the presbytery
+by a single arch. On each side of the chancel arch, a doorway entered
+into a narrow vaulted passage below the ground level, which probably
+formed an aisle round a crypt below the apse. At a later date, probably
+in the period of quiet following the later Danish invasions, the apse
+seems to have been rebuilt, polygonal externally, semi-circular on the
+inside, and the central crypt-chamber was then possibly filled up. The
+western porch was also used as the foundation for a tower, and the
+western arch blocked up with a filling containing a lower doorway,
+through which the circular turret for the tower-stair was entered. The
+aisles, either then or at a somewhat later date, having probably fallen
+into ruin, were removed. The clerestory of the nave remains, with
+unusually broad round-headed windows.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 16. The original plan of Brixworth has points in common with some of
+the other plans which have been noted. In its triple arched screen-wall
+it re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>calls the Kentish type of church; its rectangular presbytery
+between nave and apse is a development of the chancel space which
+existed west of the spring of the apse at St Pancras. It shares its
+western porch with St Pancras and two, if not four, of the northern
+group of churches. In the north and south doorways of this porch it has
+kinship with Monkwearmouth, and at Brixworth there are definite signs
+that these doorways led into passages which may have been connected with
+other buildings of the monastery, or possibly even with an <i>atrium</i> or
+fore-court. The aisled nave and the traces of a crypt bring it into
+relation, not merely with Hexham or Ripon, but with the historical
+church plan of western Europe generally. At the same time, the plan,
+regarded as that of an English church, is exceptional. The aisled plan
+of the parish church was arrived at in spite, not in consequence, of the
+few early aisled churches which might have supplied it with a model.
+During the epoch which followed the Danish invasions the aisleless plan
+was deliberately preferred: the rectangular chancel entirely superseded
+the apse. No further example of the structural screen-wall occurs. In
+addition to those mentioned, only three more pre-Conquest examples of
+crypts are known, and such crypts as occur in parish churches after the
+Conquest are exceptional, and are usually due to exigencies of site.
+Only three more aisled churches of unquestion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>ably pre-Conquest date
+exist above ground. Reculver has been mentioned. The others are Lydd in
+Kent, where only indications of an arcade remain, and the complete
+basilican church of Wing, near Leighton Buzzard, which has a polygonal
+apse with a crypt below. Wing is probably much later in date than most
+of Brixworth, but one cannot but be struck by a certain resemblance in
+construction between the two naves, and in plan between the crypt at
+Wing and the remains of the crypt at Brixworth.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 17. These early churches have been treated at some length, because
+they contain certain essential elements of planning in a state of
+probation. The basilican plan was doubtless the ideal of English
+builders during the sixth and early seventh centuries, but an ideal
+which was hard to compass where good building material was not
+plentiful. Thus Augustine and his companions contented themselves in
+most instances with a plan which recalled the aisled basilica, without
+following out its more elaborate details. It is remarkable that they
+should have departed from the usual Roman custom, and made their
+chancels at the east end of their churches: it is also remarkable to
+find at St Pancras the western porch, the origin of which appears to be
+the non-Roman <i>narthex</i>. Models existed, no doubt in the ruins of the
+Romano-British churches, which they repaired; and we have seen that at
+Silchester there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> is a regular <i>narthex</i>, while, on the other hand,
+there is a western apse. These models, however, were probably all of one
+general type, in which the chancel end was formed by an apsidal
+projection. When Roman Christianity reached the north, it had to contend
+with the efforts of Celtic missionaries; and those efforts were not met
+by it effectively until, in 664, the energetic leadership of Wilfrid
+secured a triumph for his party at the council of Whitby. Of the Celtic
+churches of the north we know but little: it seems likely that they were
+for the most part plain oratories of stone or wood, with or without a
+separate chancel. The simplest form, obviously, which a church can
+assume is a plain rectangle with an altar at one end. As the
+desirability of a special enclosure for the altar is recognised, a
+smaller rectangle will be added at the altar end of the main building,
+and so the distinction between nave and chancel will be formed. There
+are indications of this natural growth of plan in some of the early
+religious buildings in Ireland. In remote districts, as in Wales, the
+simple nave and chancel plan is general all through the middle ages; and
+the smaller country churches often follow the common Celtic plan of a
+single rectangle with no structural division. The ruined chapel at
+Heysham in Lancashire, a work of early date, is an undivided rectangle
+in plan. This is the form which would suggest itself naturally to the
+unskilled builder: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> division of nave and chancel into a larger and
+smaller rectangle is the next step which would occur to his intelligence
+in the ordinary course of things. It is possible that Wilfrid and
+Benedict Biscop found that their aims would be best served by adhering
+in certain instances to the familiar Celtic plan, and so, while they
+hired foreign masons and craftsmen to build and furnish their earlier
+churches, and to set the example of building stone churches after the
+manner of the Romans, they were careful to avoid the prejudice which
+insistence on a new plan would have excited. The simplicity, moreover,
+of a plan like that at Escomb, which requires little architectural skill
+to work upon, may have been a recommendation; and the fact that the
+construction of an apse is more difficult than that of a rectangular
+chancel must have weighed powerfully with English masons, both at this
+time and later. The fact remains that, in the early age of our church
+architecture in stone, the aisled basilica was a rare exception, and the
+rectangular chancel was, in the north, at least as common as the apse.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<h3>PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD</h3>
+
+
+<p>&sect; 18. In later Saxon churches the aisleless plan and the rectangular
+chancel were normal. Instances of an aisled plan after the seventh
+century have been noted already: it has been seen that there are only
+two definite examples, and, although there may be indications of others,
+these are few and far between and uncertain. The apsidal chancel again
+is exceedingly rare. We have noted it in combination with other
+basilican features at Wing: the instances in which it occurs again are
+very few, and in these, as in the important monastic church of
+Deerhurst, there are other variations from the aisleless plan. In by far
+the largest number of examples, the plan adhered to was that simple one
+of which we have a complete prototype at Escomb. Late Saxon fabrics
+which remain free of later additions are few; but there is a
+considerable number of churches which still keep the quoins of an
+aisleless Saxon nave <i>in situ</i>, although aisles have been added during
+the twelfth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> or thirteenth centuries. Such are St Mary-le-Wigford and St
+Peter-at-Gowts at Lincoln, Bracebridge in the western suburb of Lincoln,
+St Benet's at Cambridge, and Wittering, near Stamford. At Winterton in
+Lincolnshire large pieces of the western part of both walls of the nave
+were kept as an abutment to the tower, when aisles were added.
+Sometimes, as at Geddington and Brigstock in Northamptonshire, the whole
+wall above the nave arcades is the upper part of the wall of the
+aisleless building; and instances in which blocked window openings, of a
+not improbably pre-Conquest date, remain in walls that have subsequently
+been pierced with arcades, are exceedingly common. If an untouched Saxon
+nave is a rare thing, an unaltered Saxon chancel is obviously rarer. The
+small rectangular chancel of the large medieval church at Repton, in
+Derbyshire, is practically unique; it was probably preserved for the
+sake of the crypt beneath, which, at first a plain rectangular chamber,
+was subsequently, but still in pre-Conquest times, vaulted in
+compartments supported by columns. But at Sidbury in Devon, where there
+is a small rectangular crypt, the chancel above was rebuilt in the
+twelfth, and lengthened in the thirteenth century, without any reference
+to the line of the walls of the crypt below it. A good example of an
+unaltered late Saxon fabric is the church of Coln Rogers in
+Gloucestershire. Here the western tower, built up inside the nave, is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+later addition, but the nave, rectangular chancel, and arch between
+them, are still intact. The chancel arch, though by no means broad, is
+yet much wider than those at Escomb and Bradford-on-Avon; and its width
+probably represents the normal width of a chancel arch of this period.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 19. An addition occurs in most of these late Saxon plans, which had a
+great influence on the subsequent, and even on the contemporary,
+development of the church plan. We have noted that at Rome and Ravenna
+towers formed no part of the original basilican plan, but were added
+later as <i>campanili</i>. In England it appears that the tower formed no
+part of the plan until, at any rate, the epoch of the Danish wars.</p>
+
+<p>Western bell-towers were very general by the beginning of the eleventh
+century. In most of these towers, the ground floor forms an entrance
+porch; but it does not follow that the western tower in England was
+generated by the heightening of the western porch. The porches of
+Brixworth and Monkwearmouth were probably not heightened until the
+western tower had come into existence elsewhere. An origin for the
+western tower has been sought in the fore-buildings which occur in some
+of the early German churches, and contain separate upper chambers. It
+may be that, derived from this source, the western tower superseded the
+porch, and, where porches existed, they were adapted to the new
+fashion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 20. The towers of Earl's Barton, Barnack, and St Peter's at
+Barton-on-Humber, are perhaps the most obviously interesting relics of
+Saxon architecture which we possess. All are much larger in area than
+the normal western tower of the later Saxon period. Earl's Barton is a
+western tower, and its ground floor has probably always served as a
+porch: the rest of the church, however, is a medieval building of
+various periods. At Barnack, again, the complete plan of the Saxon
+church has been lost. Here, however, the western tower was something
+more than a porch. The doorway is not in the west, but in the south
+wall; and in the west wall, inside the church, is a niche with a
+triangular head, which was certainly neither doorway nor window, but a
+seat. Whether this implies that the ground floor of the tower was used
+for special religious functions, or for some purpose connected with the
+common life of the parish, is not clear; but it shows, at any rate, that
+there was some good reason for the unusually roomy planning of the
+tower. We stand on firmer ground at Barton-on-Humber. Here, again, a
+large medieval church exists to the east of the tower. But upon its
+western side is a small rectangular building of contemporary date, which
+was not a porch in front of the tower, but a westward extension of the
+body of the church, the main entrances being on either side of the
+tower. The foundations of a similar projecting building have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> been
+discovered to the east of the tower, beneath the floor of the later
+nave. It is therefore clear that the ground floor of the tower, or
+rather of a high tower-like building, formed the body of the church, and
+that the eastern projection was the chancel. There are clear indications
+at Broughton, also in north Lincolnshire, that this plan was used, at
+any rate, once again. The tower at Broughton is obviously later than
+that at Barton: the doorway, whose details are of a post-Conquest
+character, is in the south wall; and a large circular stair-turret, like
+that at Brixworth, projects from the west wall. Probably there was only
+a chancel here, and no western annexe to correspond. A similar
+stair-turret occurs at Hough-on-the-Hill, between Grantham and Lincoln:
+the tower, now western, has a doorway in the south wall, and probably
+stands mid-way in date between Barton and Broughton. It is planned on a
+very ample scale, with thin walls and a large floor-space. The main
+fabric of the church is altogether of a later date; and there are no
+indications, at any rate above ground, of an earlier building east of
+the tower. The size of the tower, the provision of a stair-turret, as at
+Broughton, to leave the ground floor clear, suggest that here we may
+have a third example of the plan in which the tower covered the main
+body of the church. The arrangement at Barnack gives grounds for a
+suspicion of something of the same kind there. In all these cases the
+tower has been a tower from the beginning; but at Barton-on-Humber the
+uppermost stage was added towards the end of the Saxon period.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i045.jpg" width="437" height="600" alt="fig7" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 4. St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber: from S.W.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 21. In these buildings we seem to discover the influence of the
+centralised plan, acting through the channel of German art. It would be
+absurd to say that the plan of Barton-on-Humber was inspired by the plan
+of the palace-church at Aachen, which was an adaptation, with some
+improvement, of the plan of San Vitale at Ravenna. No masterly
+intellectual effort, such as the Aachen plan shows, was necessary to
+plan a rectangle with two smaller rectangles at either end. But the
+church at Aachen had made the centralised plan familiar to the builders
+of western Europe. In Germany and in France there are traces of its
+influence; and we may reasonably suppose that the builders of
+Barton-on-Humber were acquainted with the existence of an alternative to
+the usual plan of the church with a longitudinal axis, and did not
+arrive by haphazard at their concentration of the plan upon a central
+point. One earlier example of the centralised plan is known to have
+existed in England. In addition to his basilica at Hexham, Wilfrid had
+built another church there in the shape of a Greek cross. The
+description of it which we possess shows that the central space was the
+actual church, that it was tower-like in form, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> nearly circular in
+shape, and that the arms were simply porch-like projections. Probably it
+was a combination of baptistery with tomb-church. It is not likely that
+the simple plan of Barton was derived from that at Hexham. Both were
+probably the result of continental influence; but, while the church at
+Hexham may have been the work of Gallo-Roman masons in direct
+communication with the general current of architectural progress, the
+church at Barton was probably built by Englishmen, who adapted the
+centralised plan to methods natural to their comparative want of skill.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 22. Neither at this time nor later did the centralised plan in England
+develop along the lines suggested by Barton-on-Humber. No real
+development on such lines was possible. In Germany, the achievement at
+Aachen made possible the polygonal nave of St Gereon at Cologne and the
+centralised plan of the Liebfrauenkirche at Trier, as well as many
+twelfth and thirteenth century churches whose complicated parts are
+planned and massed together with relation to a central tower space. In
+England, however, the habit of dealing with circular or polygonal forms
+made little progress; and our few "round churches," the plan of the
+naves of which was a devout imitation of the church of the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and our polygonal chapter houses, are almost all
+that we have to show in the way of attempts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> at a definitely centralised
+plan. Our church plan develops as the result of an effort to combine a
+series of rectangles effectively; and, while this combination can be
+attempted in several different ways, it is obvious that the rigid lines
+of the rectangle do not admit of that free scope in centralised planning
+which is given by the circle or polygon.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 23. We have seen, however, that, even in the earliest days, there was
+a tendency to admit additions to the simple longitudinal plan, which, in
+process of time, were bound to give birth, if not to a definitely
+centralised plan, to something, at any rate, in which a central point
+counted for much. A feature of the early cathedral and of St Pancras at
+Canterbury, was the projection of <i>porticus</i>, porches or side chapels,
+from the nave. These were entered by archways pierced in the centre of
+the lateral walls. In the cathedral they had outer doorways, and formed
+the main entrances of the church, on the north from the monastery, on
+the south from the city. The south porch contained the altar of St
+Gregory, and, as Eadmer tells us, was used as a court of justice to
+which litigants, in process of time, resorted from every part of
+England. In the north porch, dedicated to St Martin, was held the school
+of the monastery. Upon both porches towers were built at a date which
+cannot be ascertained, but was probably later than the time of
+Augustine. Of the use of the porches at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> St Pancras, which did not
+contain outer doorways, it is impossible to say anything definitely.
+Entrance porches, of which one remains, projected from the sides of the
+church at Bradford-on-Avon: the outer and inner doorways of the north
+porch are extremely narrow, and are placed west of the centre of its
+north and south walls. It is possible, therefore, that there was an
+altar in this porch, so that it served the double purpose of entrance
+porch and side chapel.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 24. As time went on, the western porch beneath the tower was disused
+as a public entrance. The principal entrance of most churches is on the
+south side, west of the centre of the aisle wall, and is usually covered
+by a porch. There is a Saxon
+<a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><a class="correction" href="#cn1" title="changed from 'ex-example'">example</a>
+of this at Bishopstone in Sussex,
+where, as at Bradford, room seems to have been left for an altar on the
+east side. However, the main entrance of the ordinary Saxon church was
+at the west end, through the ground floor of the tower. The porch in the
+lateral wall seems to have been regarded primarily as a side chapel; and
+in some later Saxon churches the porches were dissociated from lateral
+doorways, and were planned as closed projections from the eastern part
+of the north and south walls of the nave. This seems to have happened at
+Britford, near Salisbury, where archways remain on both sides near the
+east end of the nave. At Deerhurst square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> projections were entered from
+both sides of the nave, immediately west of the chancel arch; and it is
+probable that there were somewhat similar projections at Repton. At
+Worth in Sussex, where the north and south doorways of the nave are
+Saxon, and there is no western entrance or original tower, there are
+large Saxon chapels projecting from the eastern part of the nave, and
+entered by wide arches. The cruciform plan is sufficiently marked in the
+conjectural restorations of Deerhurst and Repton. At Worth it is quite
+unmistakable.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 25. At Worth, however, in spite of the dignity of the lateral arches,
+the chapels are still porch-like excrescences, larger in scale than
+usual, but lower in elevation than the nave. In elevation their
+transept-like appearance is less noticeable than on plan. Moreover, the
+length of the nave remains unbroken from west wall to chancel arch: no
+central space is marked off to which these transeptal projections give
+emphasis. Nevertheless, a suggestion of an intermediate space between
+nave and chancel is given; and this space is definitely marked in the
+plans of churches which may be quite as early in date as Worth&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
+about the first half of the eleventh century&mdash;by the admission of a
+tower between nave and chancel. The eastern part of the walls of the
+nave at St Mary's in Dover Castle are continued upwards as a tower, with
+small rectangular chapels projecting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> from the sides of the ground
+floor. Externally, no division between the tower and nave is noticeable;
+but, inside the church, in addition to the chancel arch and the arches
+into the chapels, a fourth arch is pierced in the western wall of the
+tower, and so an intermediate space between tower and nave is
+effectually created. At Breamore in Hants, a further step is taken. The
+tower space, between nave and chancel, is of the same width as the nave;
+but, in addition to the necessary internal division, an external
+division is also marked by the quoins of the tower, which are complete
+to the ground. Only one chapel remains at Breamore, on the south of the
+tower, entered by a narrow Saxon archway; but there was originally
+another on the north.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 26. The chapels which project from these early "central" towers are,
+it is to be noted, not true transepts. They are narrower than the tower,
+which is built up from the ground, and not upon a system of piers and
+arches which require lateral abutments in the form of transepts. The
+western tower is transferred, as it were, to a point near the centre of
+the church, assumes the width of the nave, and is provided with
+transeptal excrescences, to communicate with which its side walls are
+pierced. Such excrescences are not necessary. At Stanton Lacy, in
+Shropshire, there is only one. At Dunham Magna, in Norfolk, and other
+places, such as Waith in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> Lincolnshire, there are, or were originally,
+none at all. The construction of the "central" tower upon piers
+connected by arches was beyond the skill of the ordinary Saxon builder;
+and its natural consequence, the development of the full cruciform plan,
+with transepts of the height and width of nave and chancel, was thus out
+of his reach. We know, from contemporary evidence, that one important
+abbey church, that of Ramsey, had a central tower which was built upon
+piers and arches as early as 974 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>; and perhaps this was the case in
+other large churches. But, even in the large church of Stow in
+Lincolnshire, which is commonly taken on trust, without sufficient
+historical evidence, as the cathedral church of the Saxon diocese of
+Lindsey, although an advance in transeptal construction was made, the
+main principle was imperfectly grasped. This church was made the home of
+a community of clergy about the beginning of the reign of Edward the
+Confessor, by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and his wife Godiva. It was
+restored after the Conquest by R&eacute;mi, the first Norman bishop of Lincoln.
+The aisleless nave and chancel are Norman work of two periods: probably
+the nave was rebuilt upon Saxon foundations. The transepts, however, of
+considerable length and equal height with nave and chancel, were
+retained from the pre-Conquest building. The tall jambs of the arches of
+the central tower also remain on all four sides.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> The arches which they
+bear are of early Norman character; and the present tower is a late
+Gothic structure, the arches and piers of which are built up on the
+inner side of the older masonry. But the Saxon tower space, including
+the area of the arch-jambs, is rather wider than the arms of the cross
+which project from it. The tower formed a separate building, with quoins
+complete from the ground, and nave, chancel, and transepts, instead of
+combining to support it, were mere excrescences from it, entered by
+arches in its walls. Possibly the example of Barton-on-Humber may have
+had to do with this treatment of the tower as a separate central
+pavilion, which may have been deliberately preferred to the arch and
+pier treatment. In other respects the plan is an advance upon the plans
+of Dover and Breamore. And the necessary advance upon Stow is found in
+the church of Norton-on-Tees in south Durham. Here the tower, between
+nave and chancel, rests on piers connected by arches. The arches have
+been widened; two have been entirely rebuilt at a later date; and the
+rest of the church has been subjected at different times to enlargement
+and rebuilding. In spite of this, we have at Norton our earliest
+surviving example of a plan in which the various portions of the
+church&mdash;nave, chancel, and transepts&mdash;are gathered together in one
+structural connexion. The tower is to the east of the centre of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> the
+longitudinal axis of the church; but structurally, it is the central
+point with regard to which the building is planned, and the unity of the
+composition depends upon it.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 27. We have arrived thus at a centralised plan of cruciform shape, of
+which the component parts are rectangular, the central space being
+approximately a square. The examples which have been given cannot be
+proved to follow one another in chronological order, but they represent
+successive steps in planning and construction, of which Norton-on-Tees
+is the highest. The importance of the inclusion of the tower in the plan
+is obvious. In its early appearances, its position is unsettled, but the
+natural tendency is to place it above a main entrance; and this is
+usually at the west end of the building. Where the builders aim at a
+simple centralised plan, the high central rectangle will form, like the
+round or octagonal central space of Wilfrid's church of St Mary at
+Hexham, <i>ecclesia ... in modum turris erecta</i>, and, as at
+Barton-on-Humber, will possibly be heightened by a later generation into
+a real tower. The distinction of the side chapel from the entrance
+porches, becoming more fully recognised, will lead to the building of
+transeptal chapels at the east end of the nave; and thus an important
+addition will be made to the ordinary longitudinal plan. The need of
+some central building, against which these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> additions may abut, will be
+felt. The tower will thus be introduced between nave and chancel, either
+as an independent structure, or as an upward extension of part of the
+side walls. The transepts thus, as at Stow, can be raised to an equal
+height with nave and chancel. From this to a plan in which the component
+parts are recognised as interdependent, and are closely knit together in
+structural unity, is an obvious step. At this point, architectural
+skill, as distinct from mere building ingenuity, comes into play.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 28. As we proceed, we shall find survivals of old plans, even at an
+advanced period in the middle ages, which prove that progress in
+architecture was by no means of an uniform kind. Builders in remote, and
+especially in hilly, districts, from Saxon times to the present day,
+have naturally restricted themselves to plans which require as little
+cost as possible to carry out. Local building material is also an
+important consideration. In districts where good building stone is to be
+obtained on the spot, or where money is plentiful and water carriage is
+possible, the development of plan is naturally rapid, and every fifty
+years or so, additions to churches will be made in which the old plan
+will become entirely transformed. In woodland districts, the plan will
+be controlled to no small extent by the requirements of timber
+construction. In such regions, Saxon churches were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> probably built of
+wood. The only wooden church of Saxon times which remains is that of
+Greenstead in south Essex, with a rectangular chancel and aisleless nave
+constructed of vertical logs placed side by side, and framed originally
+into a timber plinth. However, it may be stated as a general rule, that,
+whatever may be the helps or hindrances to development provided by local
+materials, the real starting-point of the parish church plan of the
+middle ages is in every part of the country an aisleless plan; and that
+this plan consists either of a nave and chancel with a longitudinal
+axis, or of a nave and chancel whose longitudinal axis is intersected by
+a transverse axis across transepts. Variations, no doubt, occur; but
+these will never carry us far from one or other of these fundamental
+plans. The aisled basilica of the continent found no scope for itself in
+Saxon England; and it was through an interval of aisleless building that
+the aisled plan eventually became acclimatised, and then in a form which
+bears only a superficial kinship to the basilican plan.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD</h3>
+
+
+<p>&sect; 29. During the century after the Norman Conquest, the great abbey
+churches and cathedrals represent the work of a foreign architectural
+school, gradually acclimatising itself in England; while, on the other
+hand, the parish church continued to be planned by local men, open to
+receive the improvements which more skilled foreign masons had
+introduced. Consequently, while local art received a continually
+increasing refinement, the plan of the church developed upon traditional
+lines, and not upon those novel lines which foreign masons would have
+laid down for it. The chief proof of this is seen in the persistence of
+the aisleless plan with rectangular chancel and western tower. The
+tendency of a Norman builder would be to design his church with an
+apsidal chancel, transepts, and a central tower; his practice would
+vary, but this would be his favourite plan. On the other hand, the
+rectangular chancel and western tower remained the favourite
+terminations of the parish church in England. But,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> while a large number
+of rubble-built, unbuttressed Norman towers, usually heightened or
+otherwise altered in the later middle ages, remain in many parts of
+England, their relation to the plan suffers some change. The ground
+floor of the Saxon tower was, as we have noticed, the main entrance to
+the church. The Norman western tower either contained no western doorway
+at all, or provided merely an entrance, which was used only on special
+occasions. At Caistor the ground floor was probably the main porch of
+the aisleless church; and there are exceptional instances, as at
+Finchingfield in Essex, where, in fairly advanced Norman work, the same
+arrangement was clearly contemplated. On the other hand, at Laceby,
+between Caistor and Grimsby, a south doorway, coeval with the western
+tower, has always been the main entrance to the church. Similarly, at
+Hooton Pagnell, and at Blatherwycke in Northamptonshire, south doorways,
+of the same age as the tower, form the chief entrance. These last three
+are early Norman examples; but we may go back even further, to find the
+same thing in churches which are usually reckoned as late Saxon work, at
+Heapham in Lincolnshire, and Kirk Hammerton, between York and
+Boroughbridge. In south Yorkshire there are a few churches of the middle
+of the twelfth century whose western towers are noticeably derived, in
+their plan and general construction, from the Saxon type&mdash;Birkin,
+Brayton, and Riccall. But in all three, the main entrance to the church
+was made through a south doorway, the arch of which is covered with
+elaborate late Norman ornaments. The western tower was thus reduced to
+the state of a bell-tower at one end of the church, and, while
+increasing in size and in magnificence, was actually a less
+indispensable part of the plan than before.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i059.png" width="486" height="295" alt="fig8" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 5. Aisleless plan: 12th century.</p>
+
+
+<p>&sect; 30. The nave of the Norman aisleless church was usually short, and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+where the church was entirely rebuilt, rather wide in proportion to its
+length. The naves of churches like Garton-on-the-Wolds or Kirkburn in
+Yorkshire, give the effect of spacious halls, of no great length, but
+wide and lofty. It cannot be doubted, however, that the fabric of the
+Saxon church was frequently kept, or that the church was rebuilt upon
+Saxon foundations. It is not unusual, as already stated, to find Saxon
+quoins still existing at the angles of naves to which aisles have
+subsequently been added. Evidences, on the other hand, of the westward
+lengthening of a Saxon nave in the Norman period appear to be rare. At
+North Witham in south Lincolnshire, the south and (blocked) north<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+doorways are Norman work, in the usual position near the west end of the
+nave. East of them, however, in the centre of the nave walls, there are
+distinct traces of the inner openings of a north and south doorway,
+which may belong to the late Saxon period. That we have here a case of
+the twelfth century lengthening of an earlier nave may be inferred. The
+probability is increased by the fact that, in the neighbouring church of
+Colsterworth, where aisles were added during the early Norman period to
+a late Saxon fabric, the nave and aisles, towards the end of the twelfth
+century, were certainly extended a bay westward. As little architectural
+work is done without a precedent, we may assume that the builders at
+Colsterworth were following the example of North Witham.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 31. The great majority of Norman rectangular chancels have been
+lengthened and enlarged; for the plain "altar-house" at the east end of
+the nave was too small for the purposes of the ritual of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries, and afforded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> no intermediate space between
+nave and chancel. However, short and approximately square chancels were
+by no means invariable; and, before the middle of the twelfth century,
+oblong chancels of considerable length in proportion to their width were
+being built. There is a good early twelfth century example at Moor
+Monkton, in the Ainsty of York; and the chancel of the middle of the
+twelfth century at Earl's Barton, Northants, is of considerable depth,
+and was of ample size for all later purposes. At Earl's Barton the
+eastern portion was the chancel proper; while the western portion
+supplied that space for a quire which was not provided in less elongated
+plans. In by far the larger number of cases, the rectangular chancel had
+a wooden roof. There is, however, a fair number of churches in which the
+system of ribbed vaulting, as employed in larger buildings, was used.
+Thus at Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumberland, there is a small square
+chancel with a ribbed vault. At Warkworth, there is a long vaulted
+chancel of two bays, built during the first quarter of the twelfth
+century; and at Tickencote, Rutland, two bays are combined in one by the
+use of sexpartite vaulting. In these cases the chancel arches are wide,
+forming the western transverse arches of the vaulting: that at
+Tickencote is of remarkable magnificence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 32. There are certain cases in which the chancel was of the same width
+as the nave, and no structural division existed between them. At Askham
+Bryan and at the chapel of Copmanthorpe, near York, the plan, externally
+and internally, is a plain undivided oblong. At Tansor, Northants, the
+chancel was rebuilt about 1140, when the side walls were set back in a
+line with those of the nave. In St Mary's in the Castle at Leicester,
+the long and very narrow nave was, as may still be clearly seen,
+continued eastward without a break into the long and narrow quire and
+chancel. Here the eastern half was used, no doubt, by the college of
+dean and canons, while the western half was the parish church. The
+beautiful church of St Peter, Northampton, built towards the end of the
+third quarter of the twelfth century, gives us a complete example of an
+undivided plan, aisled throughout save in the eastern bay, which forms a
+projecting chancel east of the aisles of the choir.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 33. Hitherto we have dealt merely with the rectangular chancel. But
+there are also churches which end in an eastern apse. These are
+comparatively few and exceptional. In Yorkshire, where the number of
+Norman rectangular chancels is large, and buildings such as Adel exhibit
+the aisleless church in its highest state of architectural development,
+the number of apsidal chancels can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> be counted on the fingers of one
+hand. In Sussex, where Caen stone was largely used, and we should expect
+foreign influence to be noticeable, the proportion of apsidal chancels
+is small. In Gloucestershire, the Cotswold district contains several
+small Norman churches, which have been little altered: the rectangular
+chancel is universal. These are typical districts; and, to state a
+general rule, we may say that, while the apsidal chancel is foreign to
+no part of England, and occurs in unexpected places, as in the chapel of
+Old Bewick, Northumberland, it is never general in any single region.
+Its rarity is an important fact. Were our parish churches the work of
+masons sent out from the larger churches and monasteries, we should
+expect to find it a common feature; for in those buildings the apsidal
+plan prevailed. But, in the hands of local masons, its sparing
+employment is easily explained. To build an apse needs skill, not only
+in planning, but in stone-cutting. The question of vaulting the apse
+increases the difficulty and the expense. These difficulties would not
+trouble masons who had worked at the building of Durham or Ely or
+Winchester; nor would expense trouble the monasteries, which, according
+to the popular idea, were so ready to lavish money on the fabrics of
+parish churches. Many apsidal chancels have disappeared, no doubt; but,
+if we take the bulk of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+those which remain into account, we shall find
+that they have a habit of occurring in small groups, as in Berkshire,
+where three occur together within a single old rural deanery, and that
+the large majority of the churches in which they are found were not
+monastic property. A few belonged to preceptories of Knights Templars in
+their neighbourhood; and perhaps we may see in their apses a reference
+to the circular form of the Holy Sepulchre. But, as a rule, we may say
+that a band of masons in certain neighbourhoods developed some skill in
+building apses, that money was forthcoming, and that so a few examples
+came into existence. In one curious instance, Langford in Essex, which
+is within easy distance of four or five other apsed churches, there is
+an apse at the west, and there are foundations of another at the east
+end of the building. For this church a Saxon origin has been claimed:
+the plan, at any rate, indicates a survival of a plan once common in
+western Christendom, and especially in the German provinces. In apsed
+churches, like Birkin in Yorkshire, the apse does not spring from points
+directly east of the chancel arch. The arch is wide and lofty; behind it
+is a nearly square rectangular space, which is divided from the apse by
+another arch. At Birkin the apse has ribbed vaulting, which allows the
+walls to be pierced freely for windows. At Copford in Essex, Old
+Bewick, and other places, the roof is a half-dome without ribs: this
+allows for the display of mural painting, but admits of less light.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i065.jpg" width="436" height="600" alt="fig9" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 6. Birkin, Yorkshire: interior.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 34. The most important feature in the apsidal plan is the provision of
+the distinctly marked quire space between the nave and chancel. This
+space also occurs in plans where the chancel is rectangular; but in such
+cases it becomes the ground story of a tower. There are famous examples
+of this at Iffley, near Oxford, and Studland in Dorset, where the
+chancels are vaulted. Coln St Denis in Gloucestershire, where the tower
+is of very wide area, and projects noticeably north and south of nave
+and chancel; and Christon in Somerset, are further instances of the
+plan. The tower between nave and chancel, without transepts, is seldom
+found in an apsidal plan. It occurs at Newhaven in Sussex, where there
+is a small apse. Here the plan is virtually that of some small parish
+churches in Normandy, such as Yainville, near Jumi&egrave;ges. The majority of
+such plans in England, however, end in a rectangular chancel. Precedent
+for the plan is, as we have seen, to be found in Saxon churches. At St
+Pancras, Canterbury, we have noticed the westward prolongation of the
+apse: at Brixworth a definite presbytery or quire space was planned, on
+a large scale, between apse and nave. In later Saxon churches, where the
+chancel was rectangular,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> a tower, with or without transeptal chapels,
+was sometimes built between nave and chancel; and here, although
+externally the division was not always clearly marked, an internal quire
+space was divided off from the nave by the western arch of the tower.
+The aisleless plan, therefore, with a tower above the quire, and a
+rectangular chancel, points to a development along old-fashioned lines,
+even in churches in which, as at Iffley, the builders have acquired
+great skill in expressing themselves in Norman terms. In certain
+districts, as in Gloucestershire, this plan was a favourite one. Even in
+the fourteenth century, Leckhampton church, near Cheltenham, was rebuilt
+in faithful adherence to this tradition. Here the tower is narrower than
+the small chancel, and the nave has a south aisle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i069.png" width="573" height="484" alt="fig10" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 7. Two aisleless plans with central tower: (1) tower
+between nave and chancel; (2) tower over crossing of transepts with nave
+and chancel.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 35. In the cases of Dover, Breamore, Stow, and Norton, we have watched
+the gradual evolution of the cruciform plan with central tower. It must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+be noted once more that to the cruciform plan the central tower built on
+piers and arches is essential. It is possible, as in the Gloucestershire
+churches of Almondsbury and Avening, to pierce the north and south walls
+of a tower and add transeptal chapels: the plan will have a cruciform
+appearance, but will still be only an elongated plan with lateral
+additions. It is possible, in a church where there is no central tower
+at all, to extend the side walls at right angles north and south, and
+so form transepts; but here again the transepts have no structural
+reference to a central point in the plan, but are mere widenings of the
+nave or aisles. The thirteenth century aisleless churches of Potterne,
+in Wiltshire, and Acton Burnell, in Shropshire, are both cruciform in
+plan. The church at Potterne was planned throughout with reference to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+the crossing of transepts, nave, and quire, above which its central
+tower rose: the tower space is the central point of the whole. But, at
+Acton Burnell, there is no central tower or space: the body of the
+church consists of a long aisleless nave and an aisleless chancel
+beyond; and the transeptal chapels are simply stuck on, as it were, to
+the eastern part of either wall of the nave. This is at once noticeable
+in elevation, when the chapels are seen to be mere excrescences, with
+roofs lower than the nave. Moreover, where there is a true central
+crossing, with a tower above, such as we find in almost all our
+cathedrals, a transept on either side is necessary for the support of
+the tower. The transepts need not be wholly symmetrical, although in
+most cases they are; but they must be there. On the other hand, where
+there is no central tower, and the crossing is merely apparent, symmetry
+of treatment is quite unnecessary. While there are two transeptal
+chapels of similar size at Acton Burnell, or at Achurch in
+Northamptonshire, there are far more instances in which a less regular
+treatment was adopted. Thus, at Childs Wickham in Gloucestershire, and
+Montacute in Somerset, there is only one transeptal chapel, in each case
+on the north side. At Corbridge in Northumberland, transeptal chapels,
+extended outwards from the aisle walls, are of different lengths. At
+Medbourne in Leicestershire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> a long aisleless transeptal chapel was
+built out from the north side of the nave in the thirteenth century.
+Within the next fifty years a south chapel was built, but, instead of
+copying the proportions of the northern chapel symmetrically, the
+builders gave their new chapel a much greater width, and placed its
+altars in an eastern aisle. The plan is thus accidentally cruciform. At
+Acton Burnell and Achurch it is, no doubt, designedly cruciform; at
+Montacute and Childs Wickham, imperfectly cruciform. But all three
+varieties belong to one class, the longitudinal plan with transeptal
+extensions. The structural feature which makes the truly cruciform plan,
+the central tower upon arches and piers, is wanting. And this
+distinction between churches planned from a centre, and churches whose
+plan follows a longitudinal axis, although often overlooked, is
+essential.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i071.jpg" width="422" height="600" alt="fig11" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 8. North Newbald, Yorkshire: tower arches, chancel
+and S. transept, from N.W.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+<p>&sect; 36. A noble example of a Norman cruciform church, whose plan has
+suffered little alteration, exists at North Newbald in the east Riding
+of Yorkshire. At each angle of the crossing are masses of shafted piers,
+connected by wide and lofty rounded arches. The nave, as is usual, is
+the longest arm of the four, so that the plan is a Latin cross. It has
+north and south doorways: there are also doorways in the end walls of
+the transepts, placed in the western part of each wall. In the east
+wall of each transept is an arch, now blocked up, the filling being
+pierced with fifteenth century windows. These arches are the openings of
+original apses, which contained the transept altars. The chancel,
+probably always rectangular, was rebuilt in the fifteenth century. As a
+corollary of the true cruciform plan, the four arms are all of equal
+width. At Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon, where the plan of the church was
+greatly altered in the thirteenth century by the addition of aisles, the
+Norman plan was very similar to that of North Newbald. The cruciform<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+plan of Melbourne, Derbyshire, with its aisled nave, was probably
+inspired more directly by continental examples. The aisleless chancel
+was vaulted, and ended in an apse, which was squared in later times by
+the addition of a rectangular piece east of its springing points. Out of
+the east walls of the short transepts opened wide apses, the walls of
+which joined the western ends of the walls of the chancel. Thus,
+externally, the plan of the eastern part of the church was closely
+allied to the plan with three apses which, in some of our larger
+churches, was derived from Normandy. At Melbourne, however, there are
+important variations from this plan. The chancel is short, there are no
+quire aisles, and the transept apses were rounded externally. In the
+larger churches of Normandy, the side apses were at the end of the quire
+aisles, and were usually squared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> externally, while the apses projecting
+from the east walls of the transepts, as at
+Saint-Georges-de-Boscherville, were left rounded. At Newbald and Bampton
+there seems to have been no attempt to give complete unity of design, as
+at Melbourne, to the rectangular chancel and transeptal apses. In any
+case, transeptal apses were the exception in the plans of our Norman
+cruciform churches, although their convenience for holding altars is
+obvious.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 37. The cruciform plan, beautiful as it is, was never generally
+adopted. It was inconvenient for purposes of public worship, as long as
+the rounded arch remained fashionable. In our own day, even in churches
+where the central tower is carried on high pointed arches, and the view
+of the altar is practically unhindered, the chancel is cut off from the
+nave by the crossing, and the acoustic problem, which in modern church
+planning is so necessary a consideration, is almost insurmountable. In
+the middle ages, this problem was not so acute; but it was undesirable
+that the interior of the chancel should be nearly invisible from the
+nave. At Newbald the tower arches are planned upon a liberal scale: at
+Bampton, on the other hand, where the eastern tower arch is left, the
+others having been rebuilt in the thirteenth century, it is very low.
+The low tower arches at Burford, Oxon, and the narrow arches at St
+Giles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> Northampton, are examples of the way in which the supports of
+the Norman central tower interfered with the internal convenience of
+churches. It was not until much later that this difficulty was solved,
+and then only in one or two cases, when the cruciform plan had become
+exceptional. The plans of Bampton, Burford, and Witney, show how the
+builders of west Oxfordshire experimented in cruciform planning. The
+division between chancel and nave is felt much less at Witney than in
+the other two churches; for the great thirteenth century tower and
+spire, resting upon massive piers joined by pointed arches, throw a
+considerable portion of their weight upon nave and transept arcades,
+whose exceptional massiveness gives unity to the whole design. In the
+fifteenth century, however, the rebuilders of the aisleless church of
+Minster Lovell, between Witney and Burford, solved the problem by
+removing the supports of their square central tower from the angles of
+the crossing to points entirely within the church, and building arches
+from the piers thus formed to the angles of the crossing. The
+comparatively light piers, instead of hindering the view, allow of easy
+access from the nave to the transepts, and there is hardly a point in
+the body of the church from which seeing and hearing alike are in any
+way impeded. With the earlier builders, however, the natural course was
+to leave the piers where they were, and endeavour to lighten them as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+far as possible; and, in aisled churches, the difficulties involved
+often led to the abandonment of the complete cruciform plan.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 38. The cruciform church gives occasion for a brief remark on one
+aspect of medieval building which is often exaggerated. The revival of
+interest in medieval architecture, in the early part of the nineteenth
+century, was accompanied by an insistence on symbolism in the plan and
+design of churches. A minute symbolism, which often was the fruit of
+pious imagination, or was derived from the fancies of post-medieval
+writers on ritual, was read into every detail of the medieval church
+fabric. It is true that, as has been said, some builders worked
+imaginatively, imitating in the round naves of a few churches the
+rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre. Other instances of devout imitation might
+be found, if we looked for them. But the imitation of a concrete model
+is a different thing from translating abstract mysteries into the plan
+and elevation of a building. And, although the ground plan with nave,
+transepts, and chancel, certainly forms a cross; and, although, as time
+went on, the resemblance to the chief symbol of the Christian faith was
+no doubt recognised and valued, the plan itself, as we have shown, came
+into being from entirely natural causes. Where the central tower was
+introduced, the plan was dictated by structural necessity. Where there
+was no central<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> tower, transeptal chapels provided accommodation for
+altars, for which the body of the church afforded no convenience. In
+this and in other cases, medieval builders were impelled by practical
+common sense and the requirements of the services of the church; and
+symbolism, if it was a consideration at all, was purely secondary.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH</h3>
+<h3>I. <span class="smcap">Nave, Tower, and Porches</span></h3>
+
+<p>&sect; 39. The variations of the aisleless plan, which have been indicated,
+are all of which it is capable. Naturally, after the twelfth century,
+many aisleless churches were still built, and are common in country
+districts. In their humblest form we find them in the small churches of
+highland regions, the masonry of which is so rough that their date is
+often a matter of doubt. Sometimes they have been rebuilt, with a
+lengthened chancel, as at West Heslerton, near Scarborough. In many
+instances, we have aisleless country churches rebuilt in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, with western towers. This, uncommon in no part
+of England, is especially common in Norfolk and Suffolk; and some of
+these churches, like Ranworth in Norfolk, have much dignity and
+spaciousness of proportion. In some late Gothic churches the structural
+division between nave and chancel is left out, and the building has been
+deliberately planned as a spacious aisleless rectangle,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> of which the
+eastern bay is allotted to the chancel. This happens at Temple Balsall
+in Warwickshire and the chapel of South Skirlaugh in Yorkshire.
+Aisleless plans with one or two transeptal chapels are to be found all
+through the middle ages: Acton Burnell represents a thoroughly
+symmetrical employment of this type. On the other hand, aisleless
+cruciform plans with central towers are by no means common after the
+twelfth century. Potterne is a perfect development of this plan in the
+thirteenth century. There is a complete aisleless cruciform plan at
+Othery, near Bridgwater, where the tall central tower is quite out of
+proportion to the humble church above which it rises, and has
+necessitated substantial outer buttressing. Here probably the church was
+rebuilt on earlier foundations, transepts being possibly added. In many
+instances an aisleless cruciform church seems to have been rebuilt on
+the lines of a complete Norman plan. This was with little doubt the case
+at Acaster Malbis, near York, where the church is planned with direct
+relation to the central space, but without a tower; and the foundations
+of earlier walls can be traced all round the building, at the foot of
+the walls built in the fourteenth century. The absence of the tower is
+an anomaly, but is one method of solving the problem of the connexion
+between nave and chancel in the cruciform plan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 40. Thus, if here and there we can detect novelties which make for
+improvements upon the aisleless plan, the plan itself is subject to no
+general development upon its own unelastic lines. The real course of
+development is to be traced in the gradual addition of aisles to the
+church. Just as the basilica may have come into existence by the
+addition of aisles to an aisleless building, so the parish church was
+enlarged by the piercing of its walls for columns and arches, and the
+incorporation of aisles with the main building. The usefulness of aisles
+is at once apparent. They afford greater space for the distribution of
+the congregation. The aisleless church may be inconveniently crowded
+from wall to wall: on the other hand, where spaces are left between the
+nave and side walls, the congregation will mass itself in the nave, but
+the aisles will be left free until the nave is filled, and thus there
+will be free access through the side doorways for as long a time as
+possible. Aisles also afford a clear space for processions, and allow
+them to turn inside the church at a certain point and without
+difficulty. In addition to this, aisles form a convenient situation for
+the smaller altars of a church, and, from an early date, were added with
+this view.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 41. A parish church usually contained more than one altar, even if
+served by a single priest. In the small aisleless church of Patricio in
+Breconshire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> in addition to the altar in the chancel, there were two
+smaller altars, which still remain in place, on either side of the
+central doorway of the rood screen. Such altars were dedicated in honour
+of various saints; and mass would be said at them on the festivals of
+those saints and on other occasions. The various popular devotions which
+came into being in the middle ages, led to the multiplication of special
+altars and chapels. In cathedral and abbey churches, where there were
+many priests, the provision of a number of altars was, from the first, a
+necessity. To this is due the adoption, from the beginning, of the
+aisled plan in our larger churches, where it is a direct inheritance
+from the basilican plan. At Norwich and at Gloucester, for instance, the
+apse was provided with an encircling aisle, which gave access to small
+apsidal chapels. The transepts also had eastern chapels ending in apses.
+At Durham each transept had an eastern aisle, containing a row of such
+chapels; and the abnormal development of the transepts in thirteenth
+century churches, as at York, Lincoln, and Salisbury, and the occasional
+provision of an eastern transept, or of a great transverse eastern arm,
+like the Nine Altars at Fountains and Durham, was made with a view to
+the continually growing number of altars and daily masses. In Cistercian
+abbeys, the churches of which were wholly devoted to the uses of the
+monastery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> the aisles of the nave were divided into chapels by
+transverse walls. In the secular cathedral of Chichester, where the
+aisles had to be left free, outer aisles, similarly divided, were made.
+Great French cathedrals, like Amiens, not only have a complicated series
+of chapels opening from the aisles of the apse, but have their naves
+lined with chapels, which were formed by removing the outer walls of the
+aisles to a level with the outer face of the buttresses. The ordinary
+parish church had no need of these elaborate arrangements, although in
+towns and in districts where money was plentiful and its possessors
+recognised its true source, plans hardly less spacious than those of the
+cathedral and monastery churches came into being. But it is obvious
+that, in a church where there were no more than two or three altars,
+space would be gained by removing them from the body of the church to
+the end of the aisles. In some twelfth century churches there were
+probably altars against the wall on either side of the narrow chancel
+arch; and, in later days, as at Ranworth and Patricio, when the rood
+screen filled the lower part of a broad arch, altars were placed against
+the screen. In the first case, the chancel arch might have been widened;
+in the second case, the sides of the screen would have been freed, by
+the addition of aisles into which the altars could have been removed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 42. The most common plan of the aisled church is formed by an aisled
+nave with a long aisleless chancel, western tower, and south porch. So
+common is this that it may be spoken of as the normal plan of the larger
+English parish church. There must have been, we already have said, a
+very large number of aisleless churches in England at the time of the
+Conquest. Where Norman builders reconstructed parish churches, they
+showed a distinct preference for the aisleless plan. But, in many
+churches, built about or soon after the beginning of the twelfth
+century, aisles were planned and executed. The walls of earlier churches
+were entirely taken down, and new arcades built in their place, not
+necessarily on the precise line of the old foundations. Aisled twelfth
+century naves on a magnificent scale may be seen, for example, at
+Melbourne in Derbyshire, and Sherburn-in-Elmet, between York and Leeds.
+Both places were important episcopal residences: Melbourne belonged to
+the bishops of Carlisle; the manor of Sherburn was the head of a barony
+of the archbishops of York, who, all through the middle ages, did much
+to promote architecture on their domains. Another twelfth century nave
+of great magnificence is that of Norham-on-Tweed, which belonged to the
+cathedral priory of Durham; and, although we must not assume that it was
+built at the expense of the monastery, it doubtless owes its stately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+proportions to the influence of the mother house. Less imposing in
+elevation, but richer in refined detail, are such aisled naves as those
+of Long Sutton in south Lincolnshire, and Walsoken in west Norfolk,
+which belong to the later part of the twelfth century. The plans in each
+case are very regular; and the new arcades were probably built, at any
+rate in part, on older foundations. These naves reach the extent,
+unusual in a parish church, of seven bays. The nave of Norham is of five
+bays. Melbourne has five bays, but the plan of the church was as
+exceptional at the west as at the east end. Western towers were planned,
+but not completed, at the end of either aisle: this feature, probably
+imitated from Southwell minster, was also contemplated at Bakewell in
+Derbyshire. Between the towers was an extra western bay of the nave,
+divided into two stories, the lower forming a vaulted return aisle, the
+upper forming a gallery. There are only four bays at Sherburn, but here
+the aisles were continued as far as the western face of the tower. The
+tower is thus engaged within the aisles, and its vaulted ground floor
+forms, like the western bay at Melbourne, a return to them.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 43. But, when the question of adding aisles to a church arose, the
+builders were met by the difficulty that the church was wanted
+constantly for service. The taking down of the walls and the building of
+new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> arcades interfered with this necessary use of the fabric. In our
+own day a congregation, driven out by builders or restorers, can resort
+to a school room or mission room. In the middle ages, these alternatives
+were unknown; and the church was positively indispensable. With this in
+view, the builders were obliged to add their aisles without touching
+more of the main fabric than they could help. Usually, then, they took
+the length of the existing aisleless building for the length of their
+aisles. They then set out the aisles upon either side of the church,
+building the outer walls, and dividing them into bays by external
+buttresses. Then, opposite each buttress, they proceeded to break
+through the walls of the church. Leaving a piece of the old wall to
+serve as a footing for each column, they built up the columns in the
+thickness of the wall, the masonry being gradually removed as each rose
+in height. The arches were made in the same way, the wall being removed
+by degrees until the two sides of each arch met at the key-stone. The
+aisles were then roofed, and, finally, the masses of wall which still
+remained beneath each arch were broken down, and the nave and aisles
+thrown into one. The old masonry could be removed through the doorways
+of the aisles; and sometimes one of the end walls of either aisle was
+left unbuilt to the last, so that the masons could have free entrance
+for new, and exit for old, material.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> The old walls of the nave, above
+the columns and arches, were left untouched. In this way the upper parts
+of the walls of several Saxon naves&mdash;more, probably, than we have
+opportunity of discovering&mdash;remain to us. The north wall at Geddington
+in Northamptonshire is the most striking instance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> The practice was so
+common as to be general. In hundreds of country churches the plinths on
+which the columns of the nave rest are probably pieces of the foundation
+of the older wall, refaced, or even left in the rough. Instances are
+nearly as common in which the heads of the new arches have blocked
+earlier windows; for, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when glass
+was rare and expensive, and the openings were usually closed by latticed
+shutters, the windows were set high in the wall. There is a remarkable
+example of the retention of old work at Seamer, near Scarborough. To
+this fine twelfth century aisleless church a north aisle was added in
+the fifteenth century. The builders, possibly wishing to avoid expense,
+employed the old method, which in those days of prosperity and general
+rebuilding had fallen into disuse. In order not to interfere with the
+older windows, they deliberately made their arches very low: the result
+is that, from the interior of the aisle, one can see that the old wall
+was almost entirely kept, the new columns being built up on the line of
+the flat pilaster buttresses, which were left unaltered above the
+capitals. Sometimes, the connexion between nave and aisles was made by
+cutting arches at intervals in the wall, without building columns. The
+north arcade at Billingham in Durham, and the thirteenth century arcades
+at Tytherington in Gloucestershire consist of arches with large masses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+of the earlier wall left between them. Such a method was economical, as
+much less dressed stone was required; and we find it employed at Copford
+in Essex, where good building stone was hard to get. Nevertheless, it
+prevented the free circulation of light from the windows of the aisles,
+and practically shut off the aisles from the church.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i086.png" width="341" height="480" alt="fig12" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 9. Gretton, Northants: arcade of nave showing
+blocked window head.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 44. There is one obvious consequence of the setting out of aisles on
+either side of an existing building which, although an imperfection in
+itself, contributes greatly to the variety of the parish church plan.
+The builders cannot see both their aisles at one and the same time: the
+older church comes in between. In fact, until the nave and aisles are
+actually joined, at the close of the work, by the breaking down of the
+walls beneath the arches, there can be no opportunity of appreciating
+the full effect of the work. There is a famous instance at Beverley
+minster of the mistakes to which the presence of the older building may
+lead. The aisles of the nave were set out in the fourteenth century on
+either side of an older and shorter nave. The south aisle was set out
+first, the width of the eastern bay being measured from a new buttress
+in the angle of nave and transept. On the north side there was a
+thirteenth century buttress in this position: the builders, in setting
+out their north aisle, overlooked the fact that this buttress was of
+less projection than the newly built one on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> the other side, with the
+result that their buttress measurements throughout varied on both sides,
+while the standard of width between the buttresses, which had been
+employed on the south side, was retained. Consequently, as the columns,
+in a vaulted church, have to be built in line with the buttresses of the
+corresponding aisle walls, the columns were not opposite one another,
+and the discrepancy increased as the church advanced westward. When the
+builders got clear of the intervening building, in the western bays of
+the nave, they were able to rectify their mistake slightly; but the
+effect is unpleasantly noticeable in the obliquity of the transverse
+arches of the vaulting.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 45. If errors like this could take place in churches where the width
+of the bays of the aisles was calculated, they were much more likely to
+take place where builders worked with less accurate ideas of
+measurement. In an unvaulted church, where the pressure of the roof is
+not a serious factor in the construction, the exact correspondence of
+pier to buttress need not be taken into account; and there are many
+churches in which the spacing of the aisles is quite independent of that
+of the arcades. This happens at Melbourne, where the church was not
+planned for stone vaulting. The builders seem to have thought that they
+could get in six bays between the transept and the space planned for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+one of the western towers; but found that, on the measurements they had
+adopted, there was room only for five. They corrected their
+miscalculation by broadening the division of the wall between the fourth
+and fifth bay of the aisles. When they came to build the arcades, they
+were conscious of their previous error, and planned them in five equal
+bays irrespective of the plan of the aisles. In churches of the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, especially in districts like Norfolk
+or south Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding was done, the regularity of
+plan is often remarkable. The nave of the famous church of Heckington,
+near Sleaford, was planned with an exact correspondence between aisles
+and arcades: pier is opposite buttress, window opposite window. Islip
+and Brampton Ash in Northamptonshire show an equal accuracy. But, while
+such agreement is desirable, it is neither necessary nor general. And,
+where the arcades are broken through earlier walls, the correspondence
+is seldom very precise. The central line of the east walls of the
+aisles, as set out first, will usually correspond to a line drawn across
+the centre of the chancel arch: similarly, the line of the west walls
+will be an extension of the west wall of the nave, or of a line drawn
+across the tower arch. The aisles will be spaced into as many equal, or
+nearly equal bays, as can be got in between the buttresses at either
+end. When, however, the building of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> arcade is taken in hand, the
+responds or half-piers at either end will seldom be built directly
+against the piers of the chancel arch, or against the west wall of the
+nave; but projecting pieces of the old walls will be left as a backing
+to them. It follows that, although the arcade may be divided into the
+same number of bays as the aisles, the standard of spacing will be
+different, and consequently, unless a very regular system of planning is
+adopted, the piers will not be exactly opposite the solid portions of
+the aisle walls, and consequently the centres of the arches will be out
+of line with the centres of the windows. Again, it may be that, by
+accident or design, the backing for the responds may project more on one
+side of the nave than on the other, at either or both ends. The result
+will be that the piers of one arcade will be out of line with those of
+the arcade opposite. That discrepancies of this kind were sometimes the
+result of intention cannot be denied; but there is generally some
+practical reason to be found for the intention, and the discrepancies
+themselves were a <i>pis aller</i> which the builders would have avoided, if
+they could. That deliberate irregularity with which medieval masons are
+sometimes credited is a fancy, which careful consideration of the
+circumstances will dispel.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 46. Hitherto we have spoken of the aisled nave as though both aisles
+were planned at one and the same time. This, however, was by no means
+always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> the case. At Gretton in Northamptonshire, the north aisle was
+built soon after the beginning of the twelfth century: the south aisle
+followed twenty or thirty years later. The north arcade at Northallerton
+is of massive twelfth century work, with rounded arches: the south
+arcade was added in the thirteenth century, and has slender columns with
+pointed arches. In such cases, the north aisle may have been built
+first, to avoid interference with the burial ground south of the church.
+Very often only one aisle was added. The little church of Whitwell,
+Rutland, has a south aisle, added in the fourteenth century, with a
+chapel at its east end. No north aisle was built: but a drain in the
+north wall of the nave shows that there was a third altar against the
+north side of the rood screen. Usually, when one aisle was built long
+after another, the spacing of the new arcade was made to correspond with
+that of the old. If the old arcade had heavy twelfth century columns,
+the new one, with its lighter columns, would have broader arches. But it
+sometimes happens that the old spacing was disregarded, for very good
+reasons. The north arcade of Middleton Tyas church, in north Yorkshire,
+consists of six bays: the columns are heavy, the arches low and round
+headed, and very narrow. The interior of the church must have been very
+dark; and the builders of the south aisle, in the fourteenth century,
+aimed at throwing more light upon it. They therefore planned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> their new
+arcade, with broad pointed arches springing from octagonal columns, in
+four instead of six bays, and so, from broad windows in the aisle,
+introduced the necessary light. Something of the same kind happened at
+Theddingworth in Leicestershire: the effect is, of course, one-sided,
+but in both cases the light admitted enhances the merits of the earlier
+arcade, which, until then, had to be taken on trust.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 47. But there are further instances&mdash;and these, perhaps, are the most
+instructive&mdash;where aisles were not merely built at two different
+periods, but where the growth of one or both aisles was gradual. As an
+instance of this, may be cited the beautiful church of Raunds in
+Northamptonshire. Raunds seems to have been one of those cases in which
+the Norman chancel and nave were of the same width, and possibly were
+undivided by any chancel arch. In the thirteenth century the west tower
+and spire were built, and a broad south aisle was added to the nave.
+This aisle was of four bays, and the point at which it stopped probably
+marked the dividing line between the nave and chancel. However, the
+builders certainly intended to carry on the aisle eastward, as a south
+chapel to the chancel, which they now rebuilt and lengthened. Early in
+the fourteenth century, the south aisle was continued eastward, an
+arcade of five bays being added to the four bays already existing. The
+new bays were made rather narrower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> than those in the earlier part of
+the arcade. A strange feature of the new work was the insertion of a
+chancel arch, the south pier of which bisects one of the new arches.
+Thus, while three bays and a half of the new arcade belong to the
+chancel and quire, a bay and a half belong to the nave. The arch
+dividing the south aisle from the chancel chapel springs from the pier
+between the end of the old arcade and the inserted pier of the chancel
+arch. At the same time, the outer wall of the south aisle seems to have
+been practically rebuilt, although much of the older work was retained.
+There may have been a thirteenth century north aisle as well. Whether
+this was the case or no, a new north aisle and arcade were built<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> during
+the fourteenth century. The aisle was set out in seven bays, six of
+which contained broad three-light windows, while a north doorway was
+made in the third bay from the west end. The east wall was built on
+foundations in a line with the chancel arch, while the west wall was in
+a line with the tower arch and west wall of the south aisle. It is
+obvious, therefore, that the planning of the new aisle was totally
+different from that of the older aisle and chapel. However, when the
+builders came to their arcade, instead of building it in seven bays, as
+the new aisle demanded, they built it in five, setting their new columns
+in a line with those on the opposite side. But while, on the south side,
+there was an awkward half-bay between the end of the arcade and the
+chancel arch, a solid piece of wall was left between the north pier of
+the chancel arch and the eastern respond of the new arcade. A compromise
+was thus effected between the aisles, and an appearance of regularity
+was ensured. Directly, however, one begins to examine the plan of the
+church, and to trace the transverse lines from window to window, and
+buttress to buttress, it will be found that only in one place can a line
+be drawn which will pass straight from the centre of one buttress to
+that of the buttress opposite, and will pass through the centre of the
+intervening columns on its way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i094.png" width="672" height="381" alt="fig13" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 10. Plan of Raunds church, Northants.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 48. It already has been shown that builders were very unwilling, in
+making their additions to churches, to destroy old work altogether. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+times they displayed an extraordinary conservatism in their re-use of
+old material in their new work. This was not invariable. In the splendid
+churches of south Lincolnshire, during the fourteenth century, their aim
+seems to have been complete rebuilding; and such examples as the
+magnificent nave at Swaton, near Sleaford, or the neighbouring church of
+Billingborough, show how old work must have been swept away by the
+enthusiasm for lofty arcades, elaborately traceried windows, and walls
+of dressed stone-work. On the other hand, half the charm of the hardly
+less beautiful churches of Northamptonshire is the result of the clever
+way in which the masons dove-tailed all the old stone-work which was
+worth preserving into their new additions. Such churches as Tansor and
+Oundle are, for that reason, unexcelled in interest, offering, as they
+do, almost inexhaustible problems as to the development of their plan.
+In all parts of England we find that builders, whatever else they
+destroyed, carefully kept, as a general rule, the doorways, and
+especially the south doorway, of the buildings which they enlarged. This
+accounts for the large number of handsome Norman doorways which remain
+in the walls of aisles obviously later than the doorways themselves. At
+Birkin in Yorkshire, the south aisle was not built till the middle of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> fourteenth century, but the doorway was removed to its new position
+from the wall of the aisleless church. One very exceptional case occurs
+at Felton in Northumberland. Towards the beginning of the thirteenth
+century, the west part of the south wall of the church was cut through,
+a chapel was added, and, east of the chapel, a porch was built. Rather
+more than fifty or sixty years later, it was determined to add a south
+aisle the full length of the nave. The width of the aisle was taken from
+that of the existing chapel and porch. To connect the chapel with the
+new work, the side walls of the porch were cut through. The outer
+doorway of the porch became the new south doorway, while the inner
+doorway was kept unaltered, as an arch in the new arcade.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 49. Features which have been touched upon in connexion with Raunds
+bring us to two new features in the plan&mdash;the rebuilding of aisles and
+the lengthening of churches westward. In most parish churches, aisles,
+when they were added at first, were extremely narrow. The west wall of
+Hallaton church in Leicestershire, for example, shows that, in the
+fourteenth century, originally narrow aisles were heightened and
+widened. The roof lines of the earlier aisles remain; they were clearly
+under the same roof as the nave of the church, and had very low side
+walls. This was not always the case. At Raunds the thirteenth century
+south aisle was always broad and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> lofty, and must have had its own roof
+from the first. And, as the principles of Gothic construction became
+more familiar, and the larger churches began to exercise a more
+wide-spread influence upon the parish church, aisles began to increase
+in breadth and elevation. The small and narrow windows of churches of
+the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries gave way to the broad
+mullioned and traceried windows of fully developed Gothic work. For
+these, with their advantage of increased light, more headway was
+necessary. Aisle walls were consequently heightened or altogether
+rebuilt. The acutely pointed roof of the nave could no longer be
+continued downwards to cover these higher aisles. The aisle was
+consequently covered with a lean-to roof, or with a separate gabled roof
+of its own. A free increase in width was thus possible. The church of
+Appleton-le-Street in Yorkshire has a short nave with north and south
+aisles. The north aisle, added in the early part of the thirteenth
+century, is narrow, and the roof of the nave was continued over it. The
+south aisle, which was probably rebuilt a little before 1300, is broader
+and has a separate lean-to roof. The wide east window of this aisle
+could not have been introduced, had the south aisle been built to match
+the scale of the north aisle.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i099.png" width="700" height="438" alt="fig14" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 11. Plan of Harringworth church, Northants.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 50. The introduction of more light, however, was not the only reason
+for the rebuilding and
+heightening of aisles. The east end of an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+aisle, as has been said, provided a convenient place for one of the side
+altars of the church. This was the case even in the narrow aisles of the
+twelfth and thirteenth century, many of which, like the north aisle of
+Great Easton church in Leicestershire, provided with a drain, aumbry, or
+a corbel for a statue, bear witness to the existence of a contemporary
+altar. At Harringworth in Northamptonshire there had been an aisleless
+church, to which a tower had been added at the end of the twelfth, and
+aisles early in the thirteenth century. On 24 October 1305 Edward I
+granted letters patent to William la Zouche, by which he had licence to
+assign a certain amount of land to two chantry chaplains in the chapel
+of All Saints. This may have been his private chapel, but was possibly
+in the church. A little earlier than this, to judge by the character of
+the architecture, a new north aisle had been built, with a new altar at
+the east end. Very soon after the granting of the licence, it would
+appear that the whole of the south arcade was taken down, and a new
+south aisle and arcade built. The work was done in a very conservative
+spirit, for the old thirteenth century porch and inner doorway were
+rebuilt on the new site, and an old string-course was re-used
+internally, beneath the new windows. The piscina and the three sedilia,
+which belonged to the altar at the end of the aisle, remain in the
+south wall, and there are corbels for statues on either side of the east
+window. However, rebuilding did not stop here; for it seems that, during
+the next few years, the north arcade was entirely rebuilt so as nearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+to match that on the south. Thus the work, beginning with the north
+aisle, and extending over some thirty or forty years, finished on the
+side on which it began. Numerous examples of a closely parallel kind,
+fortified by documentary evidence, might be given.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&sect; 51. The rebuilding of the south aisle, about 1313, at Newark, was the
+prelude to an entire rebuilding of the church, which extended over many
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+years. The builders began by setting out their aisles as usual, and by
+the middle of the fourteenth century the south aisle was finished, and
+the lower courses of the north aisle and the new aisled chancel were
+built. However, in 1349, the Black Death interrupted the work. The north
+aisle and chancel were not completed, and the new arcades of nave and
+chancel were not built until the fifteenth century. In this case there
+were certainly older, and almost certainly narrower aisles. The
+rebuilding included aisles on a larger scale, and new internal arcades
+whose spacing corresponded to the spacing of the aisle walls. All
+systematic rebuilding, in the full development of Gothic art, began with
+the planning of the aisles. The naves of Cirencester and Northleach
+churches, rebuilt at the end of the middle ages, are examples of this
+method. The arcades at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> Cirencester are known to have been built about
+1514-5; but the aisles were obviously completed first, and their
+remodelling may have been begun in the second quarter of the fifteenth
+century. At Northleach the nave was finished about 1458; and there seems
+to have been a break of some years between the building of the aisles
+and the destruction of the older church which, no doubt, lay within
+them. But it did not always happen that the full intention of the
+builders was carried out. One of the most splendid schemes which we
+possess for the enlargement of a parish church was the great enterprise
+begun at Grantham soon after the middle of the thirteenth century. An
+aisleless Norman church had been enlarged at the end of the twelfth
+century by the addition of aisles to the nave, the connexion being
+formed by arcades of rounded arches springing from very elegant
+clustered columns. Above the arcades were low clerestories, lighted by
+round-headed windows. About 1230, the neighbouring church of Newark was
+taken in hand by masons, who built a new west tower up to a certain
+height, and, as an afterthought, planned aisles to engage the tower
+completely. As we have seen, the building of the aisles at Newark upon
+their present scale did not begin till much later. The work of
+rebuilding at Grantham was clearly inspired by that already begun at
+Newark. A tower was planned on a site much to the west of the nave,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> and
+was engaged within very broad aisles. The tower and north aisle were set
+out first. The north aisle was divided into seven bays, with a large
+traceried window in each bay, the western bay being much wider between
+the buttresses than the rest, owing to the greater space taken up by the
+tower and its piers internally. The remaining six bays were set out with
+equal widths between the buttresses, the middle bay of the aisle being
+covered by a porch. The eastern bay overlapped the western part of the
+aisleless chancel, its western buttress being in a line with the
+division between chancel and nave. The western bay of the south aisle
+was set out about the same time, and there was, no doubt, an intention
+of proceeding with the rest on the same lines as in the north aisle.
+There can also be little doubt that the builders intended to take down
+the old arcades, and build new arcades, with spacing corresponding to
+that of their aisles, and to lengthen the chancel eastwards, while
+bringing its western portion into the nave. The tower and north aisle
+were built on the intended scale; and, when the tower had risen to a
+certain height, the ambition of the builders was fired to add to it an
+extra stage, hitherto uncontemplated, below the spire with which it was
+to be crowned. This project of giving their church a tower and stone
+spire, which remained, for many years, the loftiest in England,
+evidently curtailed the full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> accomplishment of their earlier plan. The
+columns of the old arcades were kept, and the tower was connected by
+arcades of two bays with the angles of the west wall of the old church;
+while an arch was pierced through the north wall of the chancel, to give
+access to the east bay of the new aisle. The new arches were pointed: in
+order to match them, the older round-headed arches were taken down, and
+pointed arches built, which cut into and blocked the clerestory windows.
+This change was made with great economy of material, the springing
+stones of some of the old arches being kept to afford footing for the
+new. When the south aisle was seriously begun, about 1300, similar
+economy was shown. Four bays, in addition to the western bay, were
+spaced out, without regard to the plan of the north aisle. The fourth
+bay from the west was covered by a porch, smaller than that on the north
+side; and the east wall of the aisle was probably built on a line with
+the division between nave and chancel. Half a century later, the east
+wall was taken down, and the south aisle was extended to the full length
+of the chancel; but this later development was not contemplated by the
+thirteenth century builders. These hesitations and changes, consequent
+upon the expense entailed by the north aisle and by the alteration in
+the elevation of the tower and spire, make Grantham second to no English
+church in interest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i102.png" width="542" height="600" alt="fig15" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 12. Plans of Grantham church: (1) probable
+arrangement about 1190; (2) at beginning of 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 52. Grantham also provides us with a lengthened nave. The position of
+its earlier west wall is clearly shown by the masses of masonry which
+occur between the eastern bay of the new, and western bay of the old,
+arcade on either side. The responds on the eastern side of these pieces
+of wall are twelfth century work: on the west side, they belong to the
+later part of the thirteenth century. Such lengthening was probably very
+common in later Gothic times, and we may surmise that it took place in
+many instances where arcades were entirely rebuilt, and no visible trace
+of the process was left. However, there are many churches in which one
+or more extra bays have been added to the nave, and the join of the old
+and new work is marked as at Grantham. Whaplode church in south
+Lincolnshire had its early twelfth century nave lengthened by three bays
+about 1180. At Colsterworth, near Grantham, a western bay was added to
+the nave about the same time, and an earlier north aisle lengthened.
+Above the piece of wall which occurs between the older and newer work,
+the quoins of the aisleless church remain entire. Usually, as at
+Grantham, the lengthening of the nave was undertaken in connexion with a
+new western tower, which was built up outside the church, and then
+connected with it by one or two bays of arcading. Almost contemporary
+with the tower and spire of Grantham are those of Tilney All Saints,
+near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> Lynn. Here a single bay was added west of the late twelfth century
+nave; and, as no new aisles were contemplated, the old arcades, with
+their rounded arches, were left intact. Bubwith in Yorkshire, and
+Caunton in Nottinghamshire, are later examples of churches where the
+tower was built west of the end of an earlier nave, and a bay was built
+to connect it with the older work. Sometimes, as at Gretton in
+Northamptonshire, where the slope of a steep hill forbade extension far
+to the west, a new tower was built only a few feet beyond the limit of
+the old nave. In such a case, the side walls of the nave might be
+carried solid westwards to meet the tower, or, as happened at Gretton,
+narrow arches might be made between the tower and the west end of the
+older wall. The beautiful tower and spire at Oundle were built just
+outside the west wall of the thirteenth century nave; and were doubtless
+intended to be followed by a complete rebuilding of the arcades&mdash;such a
+rebuilding as took place at Lavenham in Suffolk, towards the end of the
+fifteenth century. The idea, however, was abandoned, and the space
+between the arcades and the tower filled in solid with rather rough
+masonry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i107.png" width="400" height="398" alt="fig16" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 13. Gretton, Northants: extension of 12th century
+arcade to meet 15th century tower.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+<p>&sect; 53. The position of the western tower in the plan is normally at the
+west end of the nave, with which it is connected by an arch, low at
+first, but loftier as time goes on, until, in later Gothic churches, its
+height frequently is nearly that of the whole nave. The remaining three
+walls are usually external, and clear of the aisles. But sometimes,
+owing to a freak of planning, or, more frequently, owing to the
+conditions of the site, the tower is, as at Bibury, at the west end of
+one of the aisles. At Gedling in Nottinghamshire the tower and spire are
+at the end of the north aisle. The tower of St Michael's,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> Cambridge, is
+at the west end of the south aisle: probably the western extension of
+the church was prevented by the neighbourhood of the street, a
+circumstance which often accounts for the irregularity of plan in some
+town churches. At St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, built on the edge of the
+"red cliff" from which it takes its name, the tower and spire are at the
+end of the north aisle: had they been planned in the usual place, a full
+bay of the nave would have been sacrificed. The tower at Spalding was
+planned, in the first instance, to stand against the south wall of the
+west bay of the south aisle: subsequently a new south aisle was built
+east of it. One of the most curious instances is that of St Mary's at
+Leicester, where the tower, subsequently, as at Spalding, heightened by
+a spire, was planned in the thirteenth century, outside a very narrow
+south aisle. A tower at the west end of the nave would have encroached
+upon the inner ward of the adjacent castle. The chancel of St Mary's was
+used for collegiate services, and parochial accommodation was limited.
+Towards the end of the thirteenth century, a very wide south aisle, a
+parish church in itself, was built the full length of the nave, and
+overlapping the chancel at the east end. The tower was left standing on
+piers entirely within the west end of the new aisle. It may be added
+that, where towers occur at the end of aisles, they seldom project
+beyond the west wall of the nave,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> but open into the nave by an arch in
+the north or south wall, as the case may be. Plans with two western
+towers, as at Melbourne or St Margaret's at Lynn, are of very rare
+occurrence; and, where they are found, the plan was probably designed on
+more ambitious lines than those of the ordinary parish church.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 54. The plan in which the western tower is engaged within the
+aisles&mdash;that is, where the aisles are brought up flush with the west end
+of the church&mdash;is not very common. Still, instances occur in all parts
+of England. At Grantham, the plan is deliberate. It was imitated, as has
+been said, from Newark, where the side walls of the tower had been
+pierced with arches as an after-thought. Newark, in turn, may have taken
+the design from Tickhill in south Yorkshire; and the design at Tickhill
+may have been taken from the early and unpretentious example at
+Sherburn-in-Elmet. Grantham probably suggested other similar designs,
+such as Ewerby, near Sleaford. Several of our finest late Gothic
+churches, like St Nicholas at Newcastle, have plans in which the aisles
+are continued up to the west face of the tower. The method affords full
+development to the aisles, and, as at Sileby in Leicestershire, has an
+imposing interior effect. Outside, however, the aisles crowd the base of
+the tower too much, and the fine effect of a lofty, free standing tower
+is lost. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>times aisles were extended westwards, so as to engage an
+earlier tower, as at Sleaford, where the low tower and spire are almost
+overwhelmed by a pair of wide fourteenth century aisles. At Brigstock
+and Winterton, late Saxon towers have been left without alteration
+inside aisles which have been brought westward in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. The nave of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, was much
+widened in the fourteenth century, and a small tower and spire of
+earlier date were brought entirely within the new nave, as happened in
+the south aisle at St Mary's, Leicester, and were left without
+sufficient abutment. As a consequence, the arches of the ground story
+had to be strengthened about a century later with additional masonry.
+Cases occur, as at Coln Rogers in Gloucestershire, where a tower has
+been built within the west end of an earlier church. In most of such
+instances, the churchyard boundary probably allowed of no further
+building westward. The nearness of the churchyard boundary also seems to
+have given cause to a peculiarity which may be seen at Wollaton, near
+Nottingham, Dedham in Essex, and in a few other places, where the west
+tower is in its usual position, but is pierced from north to south by an
+archway. It is possible that this gave facility to processions, which
+could thus pass round the church without leaving consecrated ground. The
+tower of old All Saints, Cambridge, now destroyed, projected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> over the
+public foot-way of the street, which passed through its ground story;
+while St John's, Bristol, is built on the city wall, and the tower and
+spire, which it shared with the adjoining church of St Lawrence, are
+over the south gate of the city.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 55. Sometimes, as at Oundle, the tower was rebuilt with a view to the
+reconstruction of the whole church. But, as also at Oundle, the design
+was often abandoned, or was altered. The magnificent tower of St
+Michael's, Coventry, was built, between 1373 and 1394, at the west end
+of an older nave: its spire was not begun till 1430. Whether the
+rebuilding of the nave was contemplated when the tower was begun, it is
+impossible to say. A new nave was actually begun in 1432, and finished
+in 1450. A thoroughfare immediately south of the church prevented
+extension on that side. The old south porch was retained in place as the
+principal entrance, so that the line of the wall of the south aisle
+follows closely that of the original church. The new south arcade was
+set out, not in a line with the south-east buttress of the tower, but
+somewhat to the north of it, so that the buttress is external; while,
+for the width of the nave, a space approximating to twice the internal
+breadth of the tower was taken. The tower is thus placed almost wholly
+south of the central axis of the nave produced westward. Here, once
+more, we may note the influence of site on the plan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 56. The people's entrance to the church was ordinarily through a
+porch, covering the north or south doorway of the nave. The south
+doorway is usually covered by a porch. Frequently, as at Hallaton in
+Leicestershire, or Henbury in Gloucestershire, there is a north as well
+as a south porch. At Warmington, near Oundle, where there is a beautiful
+doorway in the west tower, the vaulted south porch is the principal
+entrance; but there is also a somewhat smaller north porch, also
+vaulted. The chief porch at Grantham is on the north side; but there is
+also a large porch on the south. At Newark, there is only a south porch,
+on the side of the church next the market place. The south porch of St
+Mary Redcliffe, at Bristol, is the ordinary entrance of the church; but
+the chief entrance of the building, until the fifteenth century, was on
+the north side, at the head of the abrupt slope towards the city. In the
+fourteenth century, this entrance was covered by a large and lofty
+octagonal porch, approached by a flight of steps. There is an octagonal
+south porch at Chipping Norton, and a hexagonal south porch at Ludlow.
+The magnificent porches of the fifteenth century, as at Burford in
+Oxfordshire, Northleach in Gloucestershire, Worstead in Norfolk,
+Walberswick in Suffolk, St Mary Magdalene's at Taunton, or Yatton in
+Somerset, are usually on the south side of the church.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 57. The positions of the porch and doorway in the wall of the aisle
+vary. At St Nicholas, Newcastle, where the west tower is engaged within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+the aisles, there is a porch in the western bay of each aisle. Usually,
+however, the porch will be found in the second bay of one of the aisles,
+counting from the west end. Sometimes, especially in larger churches,
+the porch occurs a bay further east. At Warmington and at Grantham, the
+two porches of either church are nearly opposite each other, and project
+approximately from the centre of the walls of the aisles. Where the
+porch has been pushed eastward in this way, the west end of the aisle
+seems to have been occupied by one or more chapels. There are
+indications of this at Warmington; while, in the neighbouring church of
+Tansor, where the porch is in the usual place, but the aisle has been
+lengthened somewhat to the west, there was certainly an altar west, as
+well as east, of the porch. There was at least one chantry chapel west
+of the south porch at Grantham. The south porch at Ludlow covers the
+wall of the third bay of the aisle from the west: here there were two
+chapels in the western part of the aisle. There was another chapel at
+the west end of the north aisle. It can hardly be proved that the
+position of porches was actually planned with this use of the aisles in
+view; but there can be no doubt that advantage was frequently taken of
+the space thus added to the aisle.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<h3>THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH</h3>
+<h3>II. <span class="smcap">Transepts and Chancel</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>&sect; 58. The aisled nave, with its usual appendages of porch and tower, has
+now been described at length. Before we proceed to the development of
+the chancel, the transepts or transeptal chapels of the parish church
+invite discussion. The distinction between true transepts, in churches
+with central towers, and the transeptal chapels which are nothing more
+than northern and southern extensions of the aisles, has been made
+already; and it has been seen that the cruciform plan with central tower
+reached a very full state of perfection during the twelfth century.
+Further dignity was given to some cruciform churches by the addition of
+aisles to the transepts. St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, the plan of which
+is that of a large collegiate or cathedral rather than a parish church,
+has transepts with eastern and western aisles: there is no central
+tower, but the transepts form a definite cross-arm to the church, which
+was designed with regard to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> central point formed by the crossing of
+a longitudinal and a transverse axis. There are few churches in England
+as beautiful as that of Melton Mowbray, with its aisled transepts and
+tower above the crossing: had the chancel only been planned on a larger
+scale and with aisles, the unrivalled beauty and dignity of St Mary
+Redcliffe might have been approached here. The cruciform plan with
+central tower is the most noble of all church plans, when carried out by
+builders with large ideas. Churches like Ludlow, Nantwich, Holy Trinity
+and St John's at Coventry, St Mary's at Beverley, excite an admiration
+which is the natural result of the fact that the plan, instead of
+straggling in the ordinary way from east to west, is brought to a focus
+beneath the central tower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i117.png" width="667" height="376" alt="fig17" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 14. Plan of 13th century church: west tower, south
+porch, unequal transeptal chapels.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 59. Apart, however, from the tower above the crossing, the transept
+had a value of its own. It gave additional room for the side altars of
+the church. The transeptal chapels at Worth allowed of greater width for
+the chancel arch: the altars, which naturally would have stood against
+the wall on either side of the chancel arch, could be placed within
+these excrescences from the north and south walls of the church, and the
+central space was thus left clear. This method of extension of the
+church by adding north and south chapels to the nave was pursued
+throughout the middle ages. The thirteenth century plan of Acton Burnell
+is virtually identical with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> tenth or eleventh century plan of
+Worth. In aisled churches, such transeptal additions are simply
+outgrowths of the aisle walls, and were not necessarily planned with any
+regard to the spacing of the arcades of the nave. They may, of course,
+be placed symmetrically at the east end of the aisles, the width of each
+chapel corresponding to the width of the arch of the arcade which is
+opposite its opening. Thus Exton church in Rutland, rebuilt about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, has north and south transeptal
+chapels whose width is that of the eastern bay of each arcade. A
+transverse arch was thrown across each aisle at its junction with the
+adjacent chapel. Here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> the chapels form quasi-transepts in perfect union
+with the design of nave and aisles. Symmetrical plans in which it is
+clear at a glance that the transeptal chapels are developments of the
+aisles, and have no necessary relation to the nave, are those of
+Kegworth in Leicestershire, rebuilt in the fourteenth century, and
+Aylsham, Cawston, and Sall in Norfolk, which belong to the fifteenth
+century. But even more obvious than these are the plans in which
+transeptal chapels have been thrown out at different periods, or even at
+one and the same period, without the least regard to symmetry. A small
+aisleless nave at Stretton in Rutland received a north aisle about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century. Soon after, the eastern part of the
+side walls was taken down, and chapels built out to north and south. The
+width of the south chapel was determined by that of the old chancel
+arch, which was rebuilt between the chapel and the nave, there being no
+aisle on that side. The north chapel, on the other hand, was formed
+simply by returning the wall of the aisle northward, and throwing a
+transverse arch across the aisle from the wall above the arcade. Its
+width corresponds roughly with that of the south chapel, but has no
+correspondence with that of the adjacent bay of the arcade. Examples of
+this form of growth of plan, dictated by convenience and the necessity
+of the moment, are common in every part of England.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 60. It is quite clear that the transeptal chapel, being nothing more
+than an excrescence from the wall of a nave or aisle, is a feature which
+may be treated with some freedom. Its width and length are dependent
+upon the convenience and will of the builders. The north chapel of the
+aisleless church of Clapton-in-Gordano, Somerset, is entered by an arch
+in the east part of the north wall: the chapel itself, however, extends
+some distance westward, so that its longer axis is parallel to the
+longer axis of the nave. The south chapel, again, at Lowick in
+Northamptonshire has its longer axis from east to west, although its
+roof is at right angles to that of the adjacent aisle. Externally, its
+transeptal character is apparent; internally, it has the appearance of
+an additional south aisle. A chantry was founded in this chapel in 1498.
+Very often, where special chantry chapels were built, they took the
+position of transeptal chapels. Cases in point are the late Gothic
+chantry chapels in All Saints and St Lawrence's at Evesham. Such chapels
+may obviously be lengthened westward, like the chapel at
+Clapton-in-Gordano, so that they become additional aisles. The Milcombe
+chapel at Bloxham in Oxfordshire, the Greenway aisle at Tiverton in
+Devonshire, and the side chapels of the north and south aisles at St
+Andrew's, Plymouth, and Plympton St Mary are the logical outcome of the
+habit of adding transeptal chapels to the plan. Two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> transeptal chapels
+of the ordinary type are found in other Devonshire churches rebuilt in
+the fifteenth century, as at East Portlemouth: the Kirkham chapel at
+Paignton, famous for its carved stone-work, is transeptal. From this it
+is but a step to the chapels at Plymouth and Plympton, with their longer
+axes from east to west: while the aisle at Tiverton (1517) develops
+naturally, in the churches of Cullompton (1526) and Ottery St Mary
+(before 1530), into a vaulted aisle the full length of the nave. At
+Bloxham, on the other hand, the Milcombe chapel, which extends from the
+east wall of the south aisle as far as the porch, was probably grafted
+upon an earlier and smaller transeptal chapel. A comparison with the
+neighbouring church of Adderbury shows that the fabric of the transeptal
+chapels at Adderbury is largely of the twelfth century. The north chapel
+at Bloxham is, in its present state, much later; but the similarity of
+plan to that of Adderbury leads to the justifiable conclusion that it
+was rebuilt on old foundations, and that there was a similar south
+chapel. About 1290 the aisles at Bloxham were widened, and a beautiful
+arcade of two bays was built at the east end of the north aisle, between
+it and the north chapel. Within the next few years, the aisles at
+Adderbury were also widened, and arcades similar to that at Bloxham,
+though coarser in detail, were built at the east end of either aisle.
+The projection of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> transeptal chapels from the side walls was now
+very slight; and, in the fifteenth century, the projection of the south
+chapel at Bloxham was absorbed by the building of the Milcombe chapel,
+between which and the south aisle an arcade of two bays was made. There
+is more intrinsic interest in this gradual development of plan than in
+the Devonshire plans we have noticed, which are all due to fifteenth
+century rebuildings; and the mutual influence exercised throughout the
+middle ages by two neighbouring churches like Bloxham and Adderbury
+gives us an insight into the progress of local art which the energy of
+fifteenth century masons in certain districts has somewhat obscured.
+From the arrangement of the south transept at Adderbury, there appear to
+have been two altars in each of the chapels.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 61. Transeptal chapels occasionally appear in unusual positions. For
+example, at Branscombe in south Devon, there is a tower between nave and
+chancel. There are, however, no transepts; but transeptal chapels are
+built out from the walls of the aisleless nave, west of the tower. These
+chapels appear to be enlargements of earlier transeptal chapels; while
+the tower seems to have been built over the chancel of the earlier
+church. Heckington church in south Lincolnshire was rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century. The nave has aisles with transeptal chapels, very
+regular and symmetrical in plan, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> is continued beyond the opening of
+the transeptal projections by an aisleless bay, east of which comes the
+chancel arch. At Bottesford in north Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding
+was done in the thirteenth century, the transeptal chapels open from the
+bay east of the chancel arch. In the case of Heckington, the earlier
+church was probably cruciform: when the rebuilding came to pass, the
+ground plan of the western portion of the church was kept, while the
+chancel was built on an extended plan, and the site of the western part
+of the old chancel thrown into the nave. The case of Bottesford is
+probably accounted for in the opposite way: the site was not enlarged
+eastwards, but the chancel was lengthened by the absorption of the
+eastern part of the old nave.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 62. There are a number of cases in which transeptal chapels have been
+kept from an earlier cruciform plan, in which they may have formed true
+transepts. The fine church of Oundle, whose western tower and spire
+already have been mentioned as built about 1400, has very fully
+developed transeptal chapels. The nave and aisles, and the greater part
+of the chapels, are, in their present state, work of the thirteenth
+century; but the eastern bay of the present nave was entirely remodelled
+about 1350, when a clerestory was added. This bay had evidently been
+designed to carry a central tower: the nave arcades stop west of it, and
+there is a thick piece of wall between them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> and the arches opening from
+it into the chapels. These arches and the chancel arch were entirely
+reconstructed at the time just mentioned. The western arch, however, was
+removed, and an original crossing was thus converted into a bay of the
+nave. Whether there ever was a central tower is, of course, an uncertain
+point; but the building of a west tower on a new site not many years
+after this reconstruction is a fact which makes the previous existence
+of a central tower probable. The removal of a central tower would be due
+to one of two causes. Either its supports were weak, or it blocked up
+the space between nave and chancel too much. The central tower of
+Petersfield in Hampshire was taken down; but its east wall still remains
+between nave and chancel. However, if there are cases in which a central
+tower was removed, and a west tower built, there are probably more in
+which a central tower was planned, and then abandoned. Campsall church,
+near Doncaster, has unmistakable signs of a projected cruciform plan
+with a central tower, and has a regular crossing with transepts. But it
+is probable that the builders changed their minds before the nave was
+finished; and, although they doubtless left the arches, which were
+intended to bear their tower, for a later generation to remove and
+rebuild, they went westward and built a tower at the other end of the
+nave. This tower was finished towards the end of the third quarter of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+the twelfth century. The builders of Newark church, who were peculiarly
+susceptible to after-thoughts, apparently planned a central tower in the
+later part of the twelfth century. It is difficult to explain otherwise
+the slender clusters of shafts which project into the nave from the
+first pier west of the chancel arch on either side. Such piers were
+hardly capable of bearing the weight of a tower; and so the builders
+must have thought. Early in the thirteenth century, they began the
+present west tower, the first stage of a rebuilding which, with long
+intervals, continued into the sixteenth century. The final step by which
+the church reached its present plan was the addition of a transeptal
+chapel to either aisle, opposite the site which, more than three
+centuries before, had been chosen for the piers of the abandoned central
+tower.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 63. Even in strictly cruciform churches, transepts were sometimes
+treated with a freedom which was more appropriate to the transeptal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+chapel. It is not unusual to find one transept longer than the other, as
+at Felmersham in Bedfordshire. Here, however, the transepts are not only
+of different lengths, but the south transept is loftier, as well as
+shorter, than the north, which is little more than a chapel-like
+excrescence from the tower. At Witney in Oxfordshire both transepts are
+of great projection, but the north transept is slightly longer than that
+on the south.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>Both have considerable traces of thirteenth century
+work; but, in the fourteenth century, the north transept was lengthened
+by an addition divided into two stories, the upper of which was a
+chapel, while the lower was probably a vaulted bone-hole. The south
+transept was also lengthened; and a chapel was built, projecting from
+its east wall near the south end. Both transepts have western aisles:
+that of the north transept, which stops short of the two-storied
+extension, contained an altar near the north end. There are traces of at
+least three other altars in the transepts, so that there was excellent
+reason for their somewhat unusual projection. At St Mary's, Beverley, an
+eastern aisle was added to the south transept in the fifteenth century,
+to provide more room for altars. The north transept already had a large
+chapel of two stages upon its eastern side, so that the plan was treated
+unsymmetrically. The tower of St Mary's at Stafford rests on heavy piers
+and narrow arches, and is flanked by north and south transepts. However,
+while the south transept, of good thirteenth century work, is rather
+small and short, the north transept was rebuilt with great magnificence
+in the fourteenth century, and its internal effect is that of a large
+side chapel rather than a transept. Aisled transepts are never common,
+even in large churches. Instances in which a transeptal chapel is aisled
+are even less common. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> aisled south chapel at Medbourne in
+Leicestershire has been mentioned in an earlier chapter. Oakham and
+Langham churches in Rutland have large transeptal chapels with western
+aisles: the north chapel at Langham was removed in the fifteenth
+century, when the aisles of the nave were widened.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i125.jpg" width="450" height="600" alt="fig18" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 15. St Mary's, Beverley: arcades of quire and S.
+transept, from S.W.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 64. Reference has also been made to those plans in which the side
+walls of a tower between chancel and nave have been pierced with arches,
+and quasi-transepts have been constructed. This is very noticeable at
+Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, where the transeptal chapels, turned at
+a later date into burial-places for two local families, are very large
+and roomy. The cross-plan of Burford church in Oxfordshire was formed in
+this way, early in the thirteenth century. Plans like this, in which the
+chapels grow out of the central space, instead of being planned from the
+first in relation to it, are imperfectly cruciform; but are highly
+characteristic of the irregular methods of development pursued by the
+builders of medieval parish churches.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 65. Towers above transeptal chapels are not uncommon. The two
+transeptal towers at Ottery St Mary in Devon were doubtless copied from
+the arrangement at Exeter cathedral: there was an altar against the east
+wall of each chapel. The tower at Coln St Aldwyn, Gloucestershire, rises
+above a south chapel projecting from an aisleless nave. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> addition
+was made in the fifteenth century. At Duddington in Northamptonshire the
+ground floor of the tower virtually forms, in its present state, an
+eastward extension of the south aisle parallel to the western part of
+the chancel: the original plan was probably similar to the present plan
+of Coln St Aldwyn. The noble church of Whaplode had transeptal chapels
+projecting from the east end of either aisle: the thirteenth century
+tower is above the south chapel. At Clymping in Sussex the arrangement
+is very peculiar. The church, which is almost entirely of the thirteenth
+century, has north and south transeptal chapels, and only a south aisle
+to the nave. The tower, which is at the end of the south chapel, is
+earlier than the rest of the building, but is clearly in its original
+position.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 66. The early progress of Gothic art in parish churches was marked by
+a general lengthening of chancels, analogous to that elongation of the
+eastern arm which is characteristic of cathedrals and monastic churches.
+This may be seen very clearly at Iffley, near Oxford, and Avening in
+Gloucestershire, where vaulted chancels of the twelfth century were
+lengthened in the thirteenth century by an eastern bay. Sometimes, as at
+St Mary's, Shrewsbury, where successive generations of builders were
+very faithful to the remains of earlier work, the old sedilia of a
+twelfth century chancel have been left in place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> But, as a rule, the
+enlargement of the chancel implied an entire reconstruction, or the
+entire transformation of old work by the insertion of new windows or
+buttresses. From the end of the twelfth century onwards, the normal
+chancel of the parish church has a length which is from a half to
+two-thirds of the length of the nave, the nave being slightly broader
+than the chancel. This is the case with most of those Norfolk churches,
+which may be regarded as the ideal examples of parish church planning.
+Room was in this way secured both for the altar and the quire stalls,
+for which the ordinary rectangular chancel offered a very restricted
+space.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 67. Sometimes a new chancel encroached upon the nave. This happened at
+Skipwith in Yorkshire, where the church underwent some alteration about
+the middle of the fourteenth century. The new chancel was made of the
+same width as the nave; and apparently the old chancel arch was entirely
+removed, and its site, with the part of the nave immediately west of it,
+made into an extra bay of the chancel. No new chancel arch was built.
+One of the most curious and perplexing instances, in which additional
+westward room has been given to the chancel, and there is no structural
+division between chancel and nave, is at Tansor in Northants. The
+perplexity which arises here is due to the plentiful re-use of old work
+by the builders, the presence of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> which in unexpected places makes the
+history of the building a nearly insoluble puzzle. The church reached
+its present length about 1140, when probably the Saxon nave was left as
+the west part of a church, which was now of the same width the whole way
+through, and had no chancel arch. Some forty years later, narrow aisles
+of three bays were added to the nave; and, about the same time, a
+transeptal chapel may have been thrown out from the south wall,
+immediately east of the south aisle. As the church stands on southward
+sloping ground, there seems to have been no room for another chapel on
+the north side. In the thirteenth century, the aisles were lengthened
+eastwards, to flank the western part of the chancel. The builders moved
+back the eastern responds of the old arcades to the points from which
+the lengthened arcades were to start. They set themselves, however, a
+difficult problem when they reserved a space at the end of the north
+aisle for a sacristy, and set the respond on the west side of this
+narrow bay. Their north aisle thus consisted of five bays and a very
+narrow eastern bay for the sacristy. On the south side no space
+corresponding to the sacristy was marked out, although the eastern
+respond was placed in a line with the east side of the opening of the
+sacristy. The number of bays on the south side had to be five, as there
+was no room for six. The result is that the pillars of the arcades,
+with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> the exception of those of the two bays furthest west, which were
+left unaltered, are not opposite each other. In the meantime, the old
+transeptal chapel was left standing between a south aisle and a short
+south chapel of the chancel. About 1300, the aisle and chapel seem to
+have been widened to the full length of the transeptal chapel, and thus
+a broad south aisle was formed. In this plan, the chancel proper
+projects for some distance east of the aisles; but, for ritual purposes,
+the eastern part of the nave, corresponding to the eastern bay of the
+north aisle and the sacristy bay beyond, forms, and has formed since the
+twelfth century, a western extension of the chancel.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 68. The addition of aisles to chancels was an even more gradual
+process than the addition of aisles to naves; and, as a rule, the aisles
+were at first mere chapels. Chancel aisles or chapels of twelfth century
+date are not very common in smaller churches. But a plan like that at
+Melbourne, where the apsidal chapels east of the transepts flank the
+chancel very closely, leads naturally to the provision of chapels
+communicating directly with the chancel. The logical consequence of such
+a plan is seen at Oundle, at the close of the twelfth century, where
+rectangular chapels were built along the north and south walls of the
+western part of the chancel. The walls were pierced with broad, low
+arches, and arches were built between the chapels and the transepts. The
+chapels,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> in this instance, are at the back of the quire stalls; and a
+long projecting piece of aisleless chancel was left beyond them, to
+which, in the fifteenth century, a large northern vestry was added. This
+plan, where both chancel chapels were added at much the same time and on
+the same scale, is symmetrical. But, as a rule, chancel chapels were
+built just when they were needed. At Arksey, near Doncaster, where, as
+at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, the walls of late twelfth century transepts
+have been largely preserved inside the church in spite of many
+alterations, the chancel is a long aisleless twelfth century building
+east of a central tower. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the
+north chancel wall was pierced, and a narrow chapel built, which was one
+bay shorter than the chancel itself. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the nave was enlarged, and the south aisle was widened to the
+full length of the south transept. A south chapel was added to the
+chancel: its outer wall was continued from the south wall of the
+transept, and carried eastwards for a little distance beyond the east
+wall of the chancel. Thus chancel, south chapel, and north chapel, are
+all of three different lengths and breadths, the south chapel being the
+longest and widest. When the south chapel was built, a considerable
+portion of the old chancel wall was left untouched on its north side. It
+is obvious that the methods of building employed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> in such additions were
+those which have been described in connexion with the addition of aisles
+to a nave. It is no uncommon thing to enter, as at Tamworth, a chancel
+aisle or chantry chapel, and find substantial remains of the old outer
+wall of the chancel, which has been pierced with one or more arches of
+communication.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 69. As the relative dates and proportions of chancel chapels vary so
+greatly, it is obvious that in many cases only one will be found. We
+frequently meet with churches which have only one aisle to the nave; but
+these are for the most part small buildings, and one aisle usually, in
+larger buildings, presupposes another, although symmetry of proportion
+need not be expected. However, many important churches have one chancel
+chapel, and no more. Raunds in Northamptonshire, and Leverington in
+Cambridgeshire, have south, but not north, chapels. Stanion in
+Northamptonshire, and Hullavington in Wiltshire, have north, but not
+south chapels. In both these last cases, the chapels are simply
+continuations of the aisles, without a break or intermediate arch; and
+the chapel at Stanion is neither more nor less than a second chancel. As
+the dedication of Stanion church is to St Peter and St Paul, it is not
+unlikely that the prominence given to the north chapel may be due to the
+provision of altars for both saints. The same consideration may have
+influenced the building of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> the church at Wisbech, which is also
+dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. Here, the twelfth century chancel had
+a south chapel; but when, at the end of the thirteenth century, the
+chancel was lengthened, the south chapel was also enlarged into what is
+practically a second chancel. Not only this, but the south aisle of the
+church was rebuilt on the scale of a second nave, a second south aisle
+was built out beyond it, and the whole church, which afterwards was
+enlarged towards the north and otherwise altered, was more than doubled
+in size.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 70. Where chantry chapels are attached to one side or other of a
+chancel, their variations in size and plan are almost infinite. In the
+smallest examples, they are mere projections from the wall of the
+chancel, and little more than tomb recesses, such as the Cresacre chapel
+at Barnburgh, near Rotherham, or the Booth chapel on the south side of
+the chancel at Sawley in Derbyshire. The little north chapel of the
+chancel at Clapton-in-Gordano in Somerset may have served as a vestry.
+At Brancepeth, near Durham, where there is a long chancel and an aisled
+nave with transeptal chapels, a south chantry chapel adjoins the east
+side of the south transeptal chapel, while a north chantry chapel forms
+an independent excrescence from the north wall, and is shut off from the
+chancel by a doorway. Brigstock in Northamptonshire has a very large
+north chancel chapel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> which is virtually the eastern portion of a
+widened aisle: the south chapel, on the other hand, is of much later
+date, and is so small that there must have been room in it for an altar
+and little more. These smaller chantry chapels, like the beautiful south
+chapel at Aldwinkle All Saints, Northants, have often great
+architectural beauty of their own, and give great variety to the plan of
+the church. But chancel chapels are often larger and more important,
+like the fourteenth century south chapel at Leverton, near Boston, which
+is practically a separate building, separated from the chancel by a wall
+without an arcade, or like the very spacious north chapel of the priory
+church at Brecon. The south chapel of the chancel at Berkeley in
+Gloucestershire, and the Clopton chapel at Long Melford in Suffolk, are
+shut off from the adjacent parts of the church, and belong to that class
+of chantry chapel of which our cathedrals furnish many examples. In this
+case, the chapel is a small separate building, attached to the fabric of
+the church, but hardly forming an integral part of it.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 71. One very important consequence of the addition of aisles and
+chantry chapels to chancels, at any rate on a large scale, is seen where
+they are applied to plans originally cruciform. We have already seen
+that at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, and at Arksey, although much of the
+fabric of the old transepts was left, broad chancel chapels tended to
+obliterate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> the cruciform character of the building. The transepts at
+Spalding almost escape notice, owing to the double aisle on the south
+side of the nave, the aisle and north chapel on the opposite side, and
+the large chapel east of the south transept. Moreover, when, in the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, aisles were rebuilt or widened,
+there was always, as at Tansor, a tendency to decide the width of the
+aisle by the length of an existing transept or transeptal chapel, and to
+build the new outer wall flush with its gable wall. In this case, the
+aisle would be planned to communicate with the transept, and the west
+wall of the transept would have to be cut through. Where, as at Arksey,
+there was a central tower, the old transept was structurally necessary,
+and only as much of its masonry would be removed as was absolutely
+necessary. But we have seen that there were cases in which it was
+thought advisable to take down the central tower altogether, and build a
+new one at the west end, in which case the transepts were of no
+structural use; and there were far more cases in which the transeptal
+excrescences were merely projecting chapels. In these instances, the
+transept was felt to intervene awkwardly between the aisles of nave and
+chancel. Accordingly, its side walls and gabled roof were taken down,
+its end wall was remodelled, and it was placed under one roof with the
+adjacent aisles, in which it became merged.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> The cruciform plan was thus
+lost in certain churches, becoming absorbed in the ordinary elongated
+plan, with aisles to nave and chancel. Tamworth church in Staffordshire,
+and Marshfield in Gloucestershire, had twelfth century central towers.
+These were removed or destroyed, at Tamworth in the fourteenth, at
+Marshfield in the fifteenth century, and the aisles and chancel chapels
+were widened to the original length, approximately, of the transepts.
+The north and south arches of the crossing, however, remain in a blocked
+condition, and tell the tale of what has happened. Wakefield cathedral
+is another instance of a large parish church whose aisleless cruciform
+plan has gradually disappeared within the aisles, until the plan is&mdash;or
+was till the additions of a few years ago&mdash;an aisled rectangle, the
+origin of which is certainly not obvious at first sight. The
+transformations here described must clearly be understood not to apply
+to cruciform churches generally, but merely to churches which, with an
+originally cruciform plan, needed enlargement. Many handsome late Gothic
+buildings, like the churches of Rotherham and Chesterfield, or St Mary's
+at Nottingham, are regular cruciform churches with central towers; and
+sometimes, as at Newark, transeptal chapels were the latest of all
+additions to a church. But, where the transeptal chapel cramped
+necessary space, it had to disappear. At St Margaret's, Leicester, the
+arches into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> transeptal chapels remain; but the chapels themselves
+have entirely disappeared, and the arches merely form part of the arcade
+between the nave and its broad aisles.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 72. The aim of restorers and rebuilders from the middle of the
+fourteenth century onwards was to convert the church into a rectangle
+with aisles. As we have seen, the chancel was constantly, in late Gothic
+churches, an aisleless projection from the main fabric; but, where it
+was aisled, the old haphazard methods were often abandoned, and the
+aisles were made of approximately equal size. The old distinction
+between nave and chancel, marked by the chancel arch, and the arches
+between chapels and aisles, begin to vanish. Where the chancel arch was
+kept, as at Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, new chancel chapels were
+prolonged westward on each side of the nave, in place of the old nave
+aisles. Fairford church in Gloucestershire was rebuilt towards the end
+of the fifteenth century, to contain the splendid stained glass which
+had just been acquired for it. A central tower was built on strong
+piers, as a concession to the old plan; but the aisles of the nave were
+continued on either side of the tower and along the sides of the chancel
+till within a bay of the east end. But, in a great many churches, not
+merely the aisles, but the nave and chancel also became continuous,
+without a structural division. This feature, common in East<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> Anglia and
+the south-west of England, was the result of the importance of carved
+and painted wood-work in late Gothic churches. The rood screen,
+stretching across nave and aisles, appeared to full advantage, when
+unbroken by the chancel arch. The splendid timber roofs of nave and
+aisles gained in effect, if they formed, as at Southwold, or in the
+churches of Norwich, an unbroken covering to the church from end to end.
+In Norfolk and Suffolk, where the work of rebuilding began in the
+fourteenth century, as at Cawston, Worstead, or Tunstead, the chancel
+arch was often kept. At Worstead and other Norfolk churches the method
+pursued by the builders was precisely opposite to that which we have
+seen employed by Gloucestershire masons at Cirencester and other places,
+and may see in most of the fifteenth century churches of Somerset. The
+arcades were rebuilt first, and the aisles followed. Many of these
+churches were doubtless enlarged from much smaller buildings. The south
+aisle at Ingham was probably the nave of the earlier church, to which
+the present nave, north aisle, chancel, and west tower, were added. The
+aisles in most cases continued at a uniform width eastward as chancel
+chapels. The north aisle at Worstead was continued by a two-storied
+sacristy to the level of the east wall of the chancel. The south aisle
+stops at a bay short of the east wall, leaving the end of the chancel
+projecting as an altar space. Whether the chancel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> arch was retained or
+not, the projection of this aisleless eastern bay became a very general
+feature of the larger churches of East Anglia, and, in churches like
+Trunch, Southwold, and Clare, its tall side windows flood the space with
+light The most striking example of this plan is at Long Melford in
+Suffolk, where there is no chancel arch, and the actual chancel projects
+beyond the aisles. Here, however, it is flanked on the north by the
+Clopton chapel, and on the south by the vestry, which forms a covered
+way to the detached lady chapel further east. The Long Melford plan,
+with a projecting altar space, and without a chancel arch, is nearly
+universal in Cornwall, and is common in south Devon, where, as at
+Totnes, the aisles of the chancel are usually little more than
+comparatively short chapels, and sometimes, as at West Alvington, near
+Kingsbridge, extend only a bay beyond the screen. Its great advantages,
+apart from the display of wood-work which it permits, are the gain of
+internal space permitted by the reduction of the solid portions of the
+building to a minimum, the additional light admitted by the same means,
+and the long uninterrupted clerestory which forms a wall of glass, with
+thin stone divisions, on each side of the upper part of the church.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 73. The tendency to give the whole church aisles of equal width
+throughout, and extending along its whole length, was irresistible,
+especially in East<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> Anglia. The church of North Walsham, rebuilt towards
+the end of the fourteenth century, is a great rectangle of three
+parallel divisions, with axes from east to west, and of nearly equal
+breadth. The chapel of St Nicholas at Lynn, rebuilt in 1419, is an even
+more striking example of the same design: in both cases the simple and
+somewhat monotonous plan is varied by the projection of a handsome south
+porch. At Lynn, the thirteenth century west tower, with a spire, was
+kept at the south-west corner of the aisled building. But the aisled
+rectangular plan, if it attained its highest development in East Anglia,
+had been reached already in other parts of England by gradual methods.
+It has sometimes been fathered upon aisled naves of friary churches,
+which, like the great nave of the Black friars at Norwich, afforded
+space for large congregations who came to hear sermons. But it is
+probable that the first churches which followed the course of expansion
+into the aisled rectangle were directly influenced by the example of the
+larger churches, like Lincoln, or, at a later date, York, which, in
+extending their eastern arms, aisled their quires, presbyteries, and
+eastern chapels, right up to the east wall. Thus the whole quire and
+chancel of Newark, with aisles extending their whole length, were
+planned in the early part of the fourteenth century, when the great
+eastern chapel, the "Angel Quire," of Lincoln, was little more than a
+generation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> old; and, although the progress of the work was long
+delayed, the eventual arrangement, in which the high altar was brought
+two bays forward from the east wall, and a spacious chapel was left at
+the back, exactly recalls the arrangements of Lincoln and York.
+Similarly the quire and chancel of the cruciform church of Holy Trinity
+at Hull are aisled to their full length: the arrangement, again, is that
+of a cathedral rather than a parish church. The influence of cathedral
+plans is clearly visible in St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, and in the
+collegiate churches of Ottery St Mary and Crediton: but here the type
+followed is not that of Lincoln and York, but that more usual in the
+west and south of England at Hereford, Wells, Salisbury, Exeter, and
+elsewhere, where the aisles of the chancel are returned at the back of
+the east wall, and form a vestibule to a projecting aisleless lady
+chapel. This type of plan occurs outside its regular district at
+Tickhill, on the borders of Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire. But it is
+naturally exceptional, and would be used only where there was plenty of
+money and space to spare: it demands for its full effect a considerable
+elevation, involving a large clerestory, and a church could seldom, if
+ever, be found whose original plan invited expansion on these lines. On
+the other hand, the aisling of the chancel throughout was simply the
+logical development of the ordinary church plan: if the plans of
+cathedrals may have suggested the later<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> developments at churches like
+Newark or Hull, the simple aisled rectangle, with its three parallel
+divisions, and without any clerestory to distinguish the nave from the
+aisles&mdash;a plan remarkably characteristic of Cornwall&mdash;came into
+existence in the ordinary course of things, by an extension of the wings
+of the building until they flanked the whole of the nave and chancel.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; 74. The work done at Grantham in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries illustrates the purely natural development of the ordinary
+aisled church into the aisled rectangle. We have seen, in an earlier
+chapter, that, soon after 1300, the church consisted of an aisleless
+chancel, which was, however, overlapped at the west end by the north
+aisle of the nave; a nave, the north and south aisles of which followed
+different systems of spacing; a western tower and spire, engaged within
+the aisles; and north and south porches. Several chantries were founded
+in the church during the fourteenth century. Not long after the Black
+Death of 1349, the south aisle was extended eastward to the whole length
+of the chancel. The south wall of the chancel was pierced by an arcade;
+and the lady chapel thus formed was raised upon a double crypt. It was
+not until more than a century later that the east wall of the north
+aisle was taken down, and the "Corpus Christi chancel" built out,
+continuing the north aisle without a break, and completely flanking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+the north wall of the chancel, through which an arcade was made. Here
+the reason of expansion was obviously the growth of chantry chapels; and
+the expansion follows the simplest course. The last addition to the
+fabric was the present vestry, in which was a chantry founded by the
+Hall family. This was built out at right angles to the north aisle, at
+the point where the old work was met by the later extension. Not until
+the church had been fully aisled, and afforded no further room for new
+altars, were chantry chapels usually added in the shape of excrescences
+from the fabric.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i144.png" width="512" height="700" alt="fig19" title=""></img>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">
+Fig. 16. Plans of Grantham church: (3) about 1350; (4)
+present day.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&sect; 75. One interesting feature in the planning of chancels, which has
+been much discussed, is worth a note. This is the fact that the axis of
+the chancel is frequently out of line with the axis of the nave, and
+generally has a slight northward inclination. Sometimes, as at Henbury
+in Gloucestershire, the inclination is very considerable, so that, from
+the west end of the church, nearly a quarter of the east wall is out of
+sight. Usually, the inclination is very slight; and there are many cases
+in which it is not northward, but southward&mdash;Sidbury and Salcombe Regis,
+near Sidmouth, Eastbourne in Sussex and Aldwinkle St Peter in Northants,
+are cases in point. The popular explanation is that it symbolises the
+leaning of our Saviour's head upon the cross. Like most symbolical
+explanations, this is founded entirely upon fancy: the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> inclination is
+by no means confined to churches with cross plans, and, if it were, the
+theorists who argue from this standpoint confound the symbolism of the
+cross-plan between the cross itself and the Body which it bore. Others
+have sought to explain the phenomenon by suggesting that the orientation
+of the chancel followed the direction in which the sun rose on the
+morning of the patronal feast. A succession of visits at sunrise to
+churches on appropriate dates has not hitherto been attempted upon a
+comprehensive scale: if it were undertaken, it probably would be found
+that the sun, instead of rising obediently opposite the middle light of
+every east window, as the theory requires, would have many puzzling
+exceptions in reserve. The marked divergence of axis at Henbury is
+explained by the site of the building, which is on a gentle slope, with
+the axis of the nave distinctly from south-east to north-west. When the
+chancel was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, the masons kept as high
+upon the slope as they could, and so twisted the axis of the chancel a
+little further east. But we must also remember that, when chancels were
+lengthened and rebuilt, the work was done while the old chancels were
+still standing. The axis of the old chancel might be out of line with
+that of the nave. Unless very careful measurements were taken, the new
+east wall would probably be not quite parallel with the old east wall of
+the chancel. The side walls would be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> set out at right angles to the new
+east wall; and thus, when the new chancel was joined to the church, the
+divergence of axis would be more palpable than before. Or, for the same
+reason, a divergence of axis might be created for the first time. This
+seems to be the common sense explanation of a very common feature. But
+it must be added that there are instances in which the inclination is so
+decided that one is tempted to conclude either that the masons had very
+crooked sight, or that they were playing tricks with their perspective.
+The feature, where it is at all marked, is something of a deformity. In
+our own day it has been introduced, apparently by design, into the plan
+of Truro cathedral. In medieval work, however, it will seldom be found
+in a chancel where no enlargement upon an early site has taken place;
+and it seems safe to conclude that, like so much else in medieval
+building which is irregular, it generally arises from the rebuilding of
+a fabric upon an encumbered site.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX OF PLACES</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+Aachen, Rhenish Prussia, palace church, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a><br />
+<br />
+Acaster Malbis, Yorks., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Achurch, Northants., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br />
+<br />
+Acton Burnell, Salop., <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br />
+<br />
+Adderbury, Oxon., <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Adel, Yorks., <a href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+Africa, basilicas in north, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a><br />
+<br />
+Aldwinkle, Northants., All Saints, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Peter, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Almondsbury, Glouces., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a><br />
+<br />
+Alvington, West, Devon, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Amiens, France (Somme), cathedral, <a  href='#Page_68'>68</a><br />
+<br />
+Appleton-le-Street, Yorks., <a href='#Page_84'>84</a><br />
+<br />
+Arksey, Yorks., <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br />
+<br />
+Askham Bryan, Yorks., <a href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+Avening, Glouces., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Aylsham, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_104'>104</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bakewell, Derby, <a  href='#Page_70'>70</a><br />
+<br />
+Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a><br />
+<br />
+Barnack, Northants., <a  href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a><br />
+<br />
+Barnburgh, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Barton-on-Humber, Lincs., St<br />
+<br />
+Peter, <a  href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br />
+<br />
+Berkeley, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Beverley, Yorks., minster, <a  href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Mary, <a  href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a><br />
+<br />
+Bewick, Old, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a><br />
+<br />
+Bibury, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+Billingborough, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_82'>82</a><br />
+<br />
+Billingham, Durham, <a  href='#Page_73'>73</a><br />
+<br />
+Birkin, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a><br />
+<br />
+Bishopstone, Sussex, <a  href='#Page_36'>36</a><br />
+<br />
+Blatherwycke, Northants., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Bloxham, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Bottesford, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_108'>108</a><br />
+<br />
+Bracebridge, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<br />
+Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts., <a  href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a><br />
+<br />
+Bradwell-juxta-Mare, Essex, St Peter's on the Wall, <a  href='#Page_16'>16</a><br />
+<br />
+Brampton Ash, Northants., <a  href='#Page_76'>76</a><br />
+<br />
+Brancepeth, Durham, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Branscombe, Devon, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a><br />
+<br />
+Brayton, Yorks., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Breamore, Hants., <a  href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br />
+<br />
+Brecon, priory church, <a  href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Brigstock, Northants., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Bristol, St John Baptist, <a  href='#Page_98'>98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Lawrence, <a  href='#Page_98'>98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Mary Redcliffe, <a  href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Britford, Wilts., <a  href='#Page_36'>36</a><br />
+<br />
+Brixworth, Northants., <a  href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Broughton, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_32'>32</a><br />
+<br />
+Bubwith, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Burford, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a><br />
+<br />
+Caistor, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Cambridge, All Saints, <a  href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Benedict, <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Holy Trinity, <a  href='#Page_97'>97</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Michael, <a  href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a><br />
+<br />
+Campsall, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a><br />
+<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canterbury, Kent, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Pancras, <a  href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Caunton, Notts., <a  href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Cawston, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a><br />
+<br />
+Chesterfield, Derby, <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+Chichester, Sussex, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_68'>68</a><br />
+<br />
+Childs Wickham, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br />
+<br />
+Chipping Norton, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+Christon, Som., <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Cirencester, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a><br />
+<br />
+Clapton-in-Gordano, Som., <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Clare, Suffolk, <a  href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Clymping, Sussex, <a  href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Coln Rogers, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Coln St Aldwyn, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Coln St Denis, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Cologne, Rhenish Prussia, St Gereon, <a  href='#Page_34'>34</a><br />
+<br />
+Colsterworth, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a><br />
+<br />
+Constantinople, Sta Sophia, <a  href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a><br />
+<br />
+Copford, Essex, <a  href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a><br />
+<br />
+Copmanthorpe, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+Corbridge-on-Tyne, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a><br />
+<br />
+Corstopitum, <i>see</i> Corbridge-on-Tyne<br />
+<br />
+Coventry, Warwicks., Holy Trinity, <a  href='#Page_102'>102</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St John Baptist, <a  href='#Page_102'>102</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Michael, <a  href='#Page_98'>98</a><br />
+<br />
+Crediton, Devon, <a  href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Cullompton, Devon, <a  href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dedham, Essex, <a  href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Deerhurst, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a><br />
+<br />
+Dover, Kent, St Mary in the Castle, <a  href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br />
+<br />
+Duddington, Northants., <a  href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Dunham Magna, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_38'>38</a><br />
+<br />
+Durham, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Earl's Barton, Northants., <a  href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Eastbourne, Sussex, <a  href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Easton, Great, Leices., <a  href='#Page_86'>86</a><br />
+<br />
+Ely, Cambs., cathedral, <a  href='#Page_50'>50</a><br />
+<br />
+Escomb, Durham, <a  href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br />
+<br />
+Evesham, Worces., All Saints, <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Lawrence, <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a><br />
+<br />
+Ewerby, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_96'>96</a><br />
+<br />
+Exeter, Devon, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Exton, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fairford, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_124'>124</a><br />
+<br />
+Felmersham, Beds., <a  href='#Page_110'>110</a><br />
+<br />
+Felton, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_83'>83</a><br />
+<br />
+Finchingfield, Essex, <a  href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Fountains abbey, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Garton-on-the-Wolds, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Geddington, Northants., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a><br />
+<br />
+Gedling, Notts., <a  href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+Gloucester, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a><br />
+<br />
+Grantham, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Greenstead, Essex, <a  href='#Page_43'>43</a><br />
+<br />
+Gretton, Northants., <a  href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hallaton, Leices., <a  href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+Harringworth, Northants., <a  href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a><br />
+<br />
+Heapham, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br /><br />
+Heckington, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a><br />
+<br />
+Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Henbury, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a><br />
+<br />
+Hereford, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Heslerton, West, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_64'>64</a><br />
+<br />
+Hexham, Northumb., priory church, <a  href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Mary, <a  href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a><br />
+<br />
+Heysham, Lancs., <a  href='#Page_25'>25</a><br />
+<br />
+Hooton Pagnell, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Hough-on-the-Hill, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_32'>32</a><br />
+<br />
+Hull, Yorks., Holy Trinity, <a  href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a><br />
+<br />
+Hullavington, Wilts., <a  href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Iffley, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Islip, Northants., <a  href='#Page_76'>76</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jarrow-on-Tyne, Durham, St Paul, <a  href='#Page_19'>19</a><br />
+<br />
+Jerusalem, Holy Sepulchre, <a  href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kegworth, Leices., <a  href='#Page_104'>104</a><br />
+<br />
+Kirkburn, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Kirk Hammerton, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Laceby, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<br />
+Langford, Essex, <a  href='#Page_52'>52</a><br />
+<br />
+Langham, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_113'>113</a><br />
+<br />
+Lavenham, Suffolk, <a  href='#Page_94'>94</a><br />
+<br />
+Leckhampton, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_54'>54</a><br />
+<br />
+Leicester, St Margaret, <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Mary in the Castle, <a  href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Leverington, Cambs., <a  href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+Leverton, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Lincoln, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Mary-le-Wigford, <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>; St<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Peter-at-Gowts, <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<br />
+Lowick, Northants., <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a><br />
+<br />
+Ludlow, Salop., <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a><br />
+<br />
+Lydd, Kent, <a  href='#Page_24'>24</a><br />
+<br />
+Lynn, King's, Norfolk, St Margaret, <a  href='#Page_96'>96</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Nicholas, <a  href='#Page_127'>127</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Marshfield, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+Medbourne, Leices., <a  href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a><br />
+<br />
+Melbourne, Derby, <a  href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a><br />
+<br />
+Melford, Long, Suffolk, <a  href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Melton Mowbray, Leices., <a  href='#Page_102'>102</a><br />
+<br />
+Middleton Tyas, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a><br />
+<br />
+Minster Lovell, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_61'>61</a><br />
+<br />
+Monkwearmouth, Durham, <a  href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a><br />
+<br />
+Montacute, Som., <a  href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a><br />
+<br />
+Moor Monkton, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nantwich, Cheshire, <a  href='#Page_102'>102</a><br />
+<br />
+Newark-on-Trent, Notts., <a  href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a><br />
+<br />
+Newbald, North, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a><br />
+<br />
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northumb., St Nicholas, <a  href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a><br />
+<br />
+Newhaven, Sussex, <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Norham-on-Tweed, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a><br />
+<br />
+Northallerton, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_78'>78</a><br />
+<br />
+Northampton, St Giles, <a  href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;St Peter, <a  href='#Page_49'>49</a><br />
+<br />
+Northleach, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+Norton-on-Tees, Durham, <a  href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br />
+<br />
+Norwich, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;church of Black friars, <a  href='#Page_127'>127</a><br />
+<br />
+Nottingham, St Mary, <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Oakham, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_113'>113</a><br />
+<br />
+Othery, Som., <a  href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Othona, <i>see</i> Bradwell-juxta-Mare<br />
+<br />
+Ottery St Mary, Devon, <a  href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Oundle, Northants., <a  href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paignton, Devon, <a  href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Patricio, Brecon, <a  href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a><br />
+<br />
+Peterborough, Northants., Saxon abbey church, <a  href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a><br />
+<br />
+Petersfield, Hants., <a  href='#Page_109'>109</a><br />
+<br />
+Plymouth, Devon, St Andrew, <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Plympton St Mary, Devon, <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Portlemouth, East, Devon, <a  href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Potterne, Wilts., <a  href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ramsey, Hunts., Saxon abbey church, <a  href='#Page_39'>39</a><br />
+<br />
+Ranworth, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a><br />
+<br />
+Raunds, Northants., <a  href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+Ravenna, Italy, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, <a  href='#Page_10'>10</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;of Theodoric, <a  href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sant' Apollinare in Classe, <a  href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, <a  href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;San Giovanni in Fonte, <a  href='#Page_10'>10</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sta Maria in Cosmedin, <a  href='#Page_10'>10</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;San Vitale, <a  href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a><br />
+<br />
+Reculver, Kent, <a  href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a><br />
+<br />
+Repton, Derby, <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a><br />
+<br />
+Riccall, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_46'>46</a><br />
+<br />
+Ripon, Yorks, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a><br />
+<br />
+Rochester, Kent, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_15'>15</a><br />
+<br />
+Rome, Basilica of Maxentius, <a  href='#Page_3'>3</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Basilica Ulpia, <a  href='#Page_2'>2</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Baths of Caracalla, <a  href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Castle of Sant' Angelo, <a  href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;San Clemente, <a  href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sta Costanza, <a  href='#Page_9'>9</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, <a  href='#Page_8'>8</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;San Paolo, <a  href='#Page_8'>8</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;old St Peter's, <a  href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>scholae</i>, <a  href='#Page_5'>5</a><br />
+<br />
+Rotherham, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+St-Georges-de-Boscherville, France (Seine-Inf.), <a  href='#Page_60'>60</a><br />
+<br />
+St Peter's on the Wall, <i>see</i> Bradwell-juxta-Mare<br />
+<br />
+Salcombe Regis, Devon, <a  href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Salisbury, Wilts., cathedral, <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Sall, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_104'>104</a><br />
+<br />
+Sawley, Derby, <a  href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Seamer, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_73'>73</a><br />
+<br />
+Sherburn-in-Elmet, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a><br />
+<br />
+Shrewsbury, Salop., St Mary, <a  href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a><br />
+<br />
+Sidbury, Devon, <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a><br />
+<br />
+Silchester, Hants., <a  href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br />
+<br />
+Sileby, Leices., <a  href='#Page_96'>96</a><br />
+<br />
+Skipwith, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_115'>115</a><br />
+<br />
+Skirlaugh, South, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Sleaford, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Southwell, Notts., cathedral, <a  href='#Page_70'>70</a><br />
+<br />
+Southwold, Suffolk, <a  href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Spalding, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br />
+<br />
+Stafford, St Mary, <a  href='#Page_112'>112</a><br />
+<br />
+Stanion, Northants., <a  href='#Page_119'>119</a><br />
+<br />
+Stanton Lacy, Salop., <a  href='#Page_38'>38</a><br />
+<br />
+Stow, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a><br />
+<br />
+Stretton-in-the-Street, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_104'>104</a><br />
+<br />
+Studland, Dorset, <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Sutton, Long, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a><br />
+<br />
+Swaton, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_82'>82</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tamworth, Staffs., <a  href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+Tansor, Northants., <a  href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a><br />
+<br />
+Taunton, Som., St Mary Magdalene, <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+Temple Balsall, Warwicks., <a  href='#Page_65'>65</a><br />
+<br />
+Theddingworth, Leices., <a  href='#Page_79'>79</a><br />
+<br />
+Tickencote, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Tickhill, Yorks., <a  href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Tilney All Saints, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a><br />
+<br />
+Tiverton, Devon, <a  href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a><br />
+<br />
+Totnes, Devon, <a  href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Trier, Rhenish Prussia, basilica, <a  href='#Page_3'>3</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Liebfrauenkirche, <a  href='#Page_34'>34</a><br />
+<br />
+Trunch, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_126'>126</a><br />
+<br />
+Truro, Cornwall, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_133'>133</a><br />
+<br />
+Tunstead, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_125'>125</a><br />
+<br />
+Tytherington, Glouces., <a  href='#Page_73'>73</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Vinovium, <i>see</i> Escomb.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Waith, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a><br />
+<br />
+Wakefield, Yorks., cathedral, <a  href='#Page_123'>123</a><br />
+<br />
+Walberswick, Suffolk, <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+Walsham, North, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_127'>127</a><br />
+<br />
+Walsoken, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_70'>70</a><br />
+<br />
+Warkworth, Northumb., <a  href='#Page_48'>48</a><br />
+<br />
+Warmington, Northants., <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a><br />
+<br />
+Wells, Som., cathedral, <a  href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Whaplode, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a><br />
+<br />
+Whitwell, Rutland, <a  href='#Page_78'>78</a><br />
+<br />
+Winchester, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_50'>50</a><br />
+<br />
+Wing, Bucks., <a  href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a><br />
+<br />
+Winterton, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Wisbech, Cambs., <a  href='#Page_120'>120</a><br />
+<br />
+Witham, North, Lincs., <a  href='#Page_47'>47</a><br />
+<br />
+Witney, Oxon., <a  href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a><br />
+<br />
+Wittering, Northants., <a  href='#Page_28'>28</a><br />
+<br />
+Wollaton, Notts., <a  href='#Page_97'>97</a><br />
+<br />
+Worstead, Norfolk, <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a><br />
+<br />
+Worth, Sussex, <a  href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yainville, France (Seine-Inf.), <a  href='#Page_53'>53</a><br />
+<br />
+Yatton, Som., <a  href='#Page_99'>99</a><br />
+<br />
+York, cathedral, <a  href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a><br />
+<br />
+Ythanceaster, <i>see</i> Bradwell-juxta-Mare<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p class="fm3">CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<div class="transnote"><a name="tnotes" id="tnotes"></a>
+<h3>Transcriber's note</h3>
+
+<p>In the HTML version some of the illustrations
+have been moved beside the relevant section of the text.
+Page numbers in the List of Illustrations reflect the position of the illustration
+in the original text, but links link to current position of illustrations.
+<br /><br />
+Minor
+punctuation errors have been corrected without notice.
+<br /><br />
+An obvious
+printer error has been corrected, and it is listed below.
+<br /><br />
+All
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.<br /><br />
+
+Page 36: "a Saxon ex-example" changed to "a Saxon
+<a name="cn1" id="cn1"></a><a href="#corr1">example</a>".</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish
+Church, by A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church, by
+A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ground Plan of the English Parish Church
+
+Author: A. Hamilton Thompson
+
+Release Date: October 30, 2008 [EBook #27102]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carla Foust and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been corrected without notice. An obvious
+printer error has been corrected, and it is listed at the end. All
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+
+
+
+     The Cambridge Manuals of Science and
+     Literature
+
+     THE GROUND PLAN OF THE
+     ENGLISH PARISH CHURCH
+
+
+
+
+
+     LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+
+     C. F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+     EDINBURGH: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+     BERLIN: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+     LEIPZIG: F. A. BROCKHAUS
+
+     NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+     BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.
+
+     _All rights reserved_
+
+
+     [Illustration: Hedon, Yorkshire: nave from N.W.]
+
+
+
+
+     [Illustration]
+
+
+     THE GROUND PLAN
+     OF THE ENGLISH
+     PARISH CHURCH
+
+     BY
+
+     A. HAMILTON THOMPSON
+     M.A., F.S.A.
+
+     Cambridge:
+     at the University Press
+     1911
+
+
+
+
+     CAMBRIDGE:
+
+     PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
+     AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+_With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design on the
+title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest known Cambridge
+printer, John Siberch, 1521_.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+There is as yet no book entirely devoted to the development of the plan
+of the parish church in England, and the body of literature which bears
+upon the subject is not very accessible to the ordinary student. The
+present volume is an attempt to indicate the main lines on which that
+development proceeded. It is obvious that, from necessary considerations
+of space, much has been omitted. The elevation of the building, and the
+treatment of its decorative features, window-tracery, sculpture, etc.,
+belong to another and wider branch of architectural study, in which the
+parish church pursues the same line of structural development as the
+cathedral or monastic church, and the architectural forms of the
+timber-roofed building follow the example set by the larger churches
+with their roofs of stone. To this side of the question much attention
+has been devoted, and of late years increasing emphasis has been laid on
+the importance of the vaulted construction of our greater churches,
+which is the very foundation of medieval architecture and the secret of
+its progress through its various "styles." It is expected that the
+reader of this book, in which a less familiar but none the less
+important topic is handled, will already have some acquaintance with the
+general progress of medieval architectural forms, with which the
+development of the ground plan keeps pace.
+
+Some historical and architectural questions, which arise out of the
+consideration of the ground plan, and have an important bearing upon it,
+are treated in another volume of this series, which is intended to be
+complementary to the present one.
+
+The writer is grateful to his wife, for the plans and sketches which she
+has drawn for him, and for much help: to Mr C. C. Hodges and Mr J. P.
+Gibson, for the permission to make use of their photographs; and to the
+Rev. J. C. Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., and the Rev. R. M. Serjeantson, M.A.,
+F.S.A., for their kindness in reading through the proofs and supplying
+suggestions of the greatest value.
+
+                                                        A. H. T.
+
+     GRETTON, NORTHANTS
+
+     _26 January 1911_
+
+
+
+
+     CONTENTS
+
+
+     CHAPTER I
+
+     THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+      1. The basilican church plan                                     1
+
+      2. Problem of its derivation                                     2
+
+      3. Rival theories of its origin                                  3
+
+      4. The Roman basilica: old St Peter's                            6
+
+      5. Basilicas at Ravenna                                          8
+
+      6. Tomb-churches and baptisteries                                9
+
+      7. Centralised plans at Ravenna                                 10
+
+      8. Relative advantages of the basilican and the centralised
+         plan                                                         12
+
+      9. The basilican church at Silchester                           13
+
+     10. Early churches in Kent and Essex                             14
+
+     11. Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.                                     16
+
+     12. Escomb church, Durham                                        16
+
+     13. Early Northumbrian churches                                  18
+
+     14. Wilfrid's churches at Hexham and Ripon                       20
+
+     15, 16. Brixworth, Northants: other basilican plans              21
+
+     17. Exceptional occurrence of the basilican plan in
+         England                                                      24
+
+
+     CHAPTER II
+
+     PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     18. The normal pre-Conquest plan                                 27
+
+     19. The western bell-tower                                       29
+
+     20. Plans in which the ground floor of the tower forms the
+         body of the church                                           30
+
+     21. Barton-on-Humber and the centralised plan                    33
+
+     22. Centralised planning in England                              34
+
+     23. The Saxon lateral porch                                      35
+
+     24. Development of the transeptal chapel                         36
+
+     25. Towers between nave and chancel                              37
+
+     26, 27. Development of the cruciform plan                        38
+
+     28. Influence of local material upon the aisleless church
+         plan                                                         42
+
+
+     CHAPTER III
+
+     THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD
+
+     29. Survival and development of the aisleless plan after the
+         Conquest                                                     44
+
+     30. The nave of the aisleless church                             46
+
+     31. Rectangular chancels                                         47
+
+     32. Churches with no structural division between nave
+         and chancel                                                  49
+
+     33. Churches with apsidal chancels                               49
+
+     34. The quire                                                    53
+
+     35. The transeptal chapel                                        54
+
+     36. Cruciform plans: North Newbald and Melbourne                 58
+
+     37. Later developments of the cruciform plan                     60
+
+     38. Symbolism in planning                                        62
+
+
+     CHAPTER IV
+
+     THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+     I. NAVE, TOWER, AND PORCHES
+
+     SECTION                                                        PAGE
+
+     39. Survival of the aisleless plan                               64
+
+     40. The addition of aisles                                       66
+
+     41. Use of aisles for side altars                                66
+
+     42. Twelfth century aisled plans                                 69
+
+     43. Ordinary method of adding aisles                             70
+
+     44, 45. Consequent irregularities of plan                        74
+
+     46. Gradual addition of aisles                                   77
+
+     47. Raunds church, Northants                                     79
+
+     48. Conservative feeling of the builders for old work            81
+
+     49. Aisles widened and rebuilt                                   83
+
+     50. Rebuilding of aisles as chantry chapels: Harringworth,
+         Northants                                                    84
+
+     51. Newark, Cirencester, Northleach, and Grantham                87
+
+     52. Naves lengthened westward                                    92
+
+     53. The western tower in relation to the plan                    94
+
+     54. Engaged western towers, etc.                                 96
+
+     55. Rebuilding of towers                                         98
+
+     56. Porches                                                      99
+
+     57. Position of the porch in the plan                            99
+
+
+     CHAPTER V
+
+     THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+     II. TRANSEPTS AND CHANCEL
+
+     58. Cruciform churches with aisled transepts                    101
+
+     59. Addition of transeptal chapels                              102
+
+     60. Variety of treatment of transeptal chapels                  105
+
+     61. Transeptal chapels as a key to original ground plans        107
+
+     62. Incomplete cruciform plans                                  108
+
+     63. Irregular cruciform plans                                   110
+
+     64. Central towers with transeptal chapels                      113
+
+     65. Transeptal towers                                           113
+
+     66. Lengthening of chancels                                     114
+
+     67. Encroachment of the chancel on the nave: Tansor             115
+
+     68. Chancel chapels                                             117
+
+     69. Churches with one chancel chapel                            119
+
+     70. Chantry chapels attached to chancels                        120
+
+     71. Effect of the addition of chapels on the cruciform plan     121
+
+     72. The aisled rectangular plan                                 124
+
+     73. Variations of the plan with aisled nave and chancel         126
+
+     74. Development of the aisled rectangle at Grantham             129
+
+     75. Deviation of the axis of the chancel                        131
+
+     INDEX OF PLACES                                                 134
+
+
+
+
+     LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+     Hedon. Interior of nave                              _Frontispiece_
+
+     FIGS.                                                          PAGE
+
+      1 Plan of old St Peter's                                         6
+
+      2 Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna                                   11
+
+      3 Plan of Escomb--typical Saxon church                          17
+
+      4 St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber                                  31
+
+      5 Aisleless plan, 12th cent.                                    45
+
+      6 Birkin, Yorkshire: interior                                   51
+
+      7 Two aisleless plans with central tower                        55
+
+      8 North Newbald                                                 57
+
+      9 Sketch of older wall above nave arcade, Gretton               72
+
+     10 Plan of Raunds church                                         80
+
+     11 Plan of Harringworth church                                   85
+
+     12 Two plans, nos. 1 and 2, of Grantham church                   88
+
+     13 Sketch of arch joining arcade to tower, Gretton               93
+
+     14 Plan of 13th cent. church: W. tower, S. Porch, transeptal
+        chapels                                                      103
+
+     15 St Mary's, Beverley. Interior of transept.                   111
+
+     16 Plans of Grantham church, nos. 3 and 4                       130
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE CHURCH PLAN IN ENGLAND
+
+
+Sec. 1. Side by side with the establishment of Christianity as the religion
+of the Roman empire, there appeared a fully developed plan for places of
+Christian worship. The normal Christian church of the fourth century of
+our era was an aisled building with the entrance at one end, and a
+semi-circular projection known as the apse at the other. The body of the
+building, the nave with its aisles, was used by the congregation, the
+quire of singers occupying a space, enclosed within low walls, at the
+end nearest the apse. In the apse, raised above the level of the nave,
+was the altar, behind which, ranged round the wall, were the seats for
+the bishop and assistant clergy. This type of church, of which the
+aisled nave and the apse are the essential parts, is known as the
+_basilica_. The name, employed to designate a "royal" or magnificent
+building, had long been applied to large buildings, whether open to the
+sky or roofed, which were used, partly as commercial exchanges, partly
+as halls of justice. It is still often said that the Christian basilicas
+were merely adaptations of such buildings to sacred purposes. Some of
+the features of the Christian plan are akin to those of the secular
+basilica. The apse with its semi-circular range of seats and its altar
+reproduces the judicial tribune, with its seats for the praetor and his
+assistant judges, and its altar on which oaths were taken. The open
+galleries, which in some of the earliest Christian basilicas at Rome
+form an upper story to the aisles, recall the galleries above the
+colonnades which surrounded the central hall of some of the larger
+secular basilicas. Again, the _atrium_ or forecourt through which the
+Christian basilica was often approached has been supposed to be derived
+from the _forum_ in connexion with which the secular basilica was
+frequently built.
+
+Sec. 2. However, while the _atrium_ of the Christian basilica is merely an
+outer court, the secular basilica, when planned, like the Basilica Ulpia
+at Rome, with direct relation to a _forum_, was a principal building in
+connexion with the _forum_, but not a building of which the _forum_ was
+a mere annexe. Further, when we begin to seek for a complete
+identification of the Christian with the secular basilica, we are met by
+the obstacle that the secular basilica had no fixed plan. If we try to
+trace any principle of development in its plan, we find that this
+development is directly inverse to that of the Christian basilica. The
+secular basilica, in earlier examples a colonnaded building with its
+central space open to the sky, became at a later time a roofed hall,
+either, as in the case of the basilica at Trier, without aisles, or,
+like the basilica of Maxentius or Constantine in the Roman forum, with a
+series of deep recesses at the side, the vaulted roofs of which served
+to counteract the outward pressure of the main vault. The Christian
+basilica, if it were a mere imitation of this type of building, would
+follow the same line of development; but, as a matter of fact, the
+highest type of Christian church is always a colonnaded or aisled
+building. And, even if the Christian apse derived its arrangement from
+the apse or apses which projected from the ends or sides of the secular
+basilicas, there is again a difference. The apse with its altar was the
+main feature of the interior of the Christian church: it was the place
+in which the chief rite of Christian worship was performed before the
+eyes of all. In the secular basilica the apse was devoted to special
+purposes which set it apart from the main business of the body of the
+building: it was an appendage to the central hall, not necessarily
+within view of every part of it. In fact, the relation of the apse to
+the main building was totally different in the two cases.
+
+Sec. 3. It seems probable, then, that the identity between the two
+buildings is mainly an identity of name, and that Christian builders,
+in seeking for suitable arrangements for public worship, may have
+borrowed some details from the arrangements of the secular basilica. It
+is natural, however, to look for the origin of a religious plan in
+buildings devoted to religious purposes. The Roman temple supplied no
+help for the plan of buildings which were required for public worship.
+Of recent years, it has been customary to assume that the Christian
+basilica took its form from the inner halls of the private houses of
+those wealthy citizens who embraced Christianity in its early days. Such
+halls may have been used for Christian services; and if their plan was
+adopted for the Christian basilica, the mature state of the basilican
+plan at its first appearance can be explained. The _atrium_ or entrance
+hall of the house is represented on this hypothesis by the forecourt of
+the basilica; the peristyle, or colonnade round the inner room, becomes
+the aisles and the space screened off at the entrance for those not
+entitled to take full part in the service; the colonnade at the further
+end survives in the arcaded screen which existed, for example, in old St
+Peter's at Rome; the apse takes the place of the _tablinum_, where the
+most sacred relics of family life were preserved; and the transept,
+which is found in some of the early Roman basilican plans, represents
+the _alae_, or transverse space, which existed between the _tablinum_
+and the main body of the hall. But these close analogies are the result
+of an assumption by no means certain. It is always probable that the
+basilican plan had its origin in a plan originally aisleless. Some,
+intent on its religious source, explain it as a development of the plan
+of the Jewish synagogue. Others, regarding assemblies of Christians for
+public worship as, in their essence, meetings of persons associated in
+common brotherhood, have derived the basilica directly from the
+aisleless _scholae_ which were the meeting-places of the various
+confraternities or _collegia_ of ancient Rome. In these there is an apse
+at one end of the building; and, if we imagine aisles added by the
+piercing of the walls with rows of arches and columns, we have at once
+the essential features of the basilican plan. Each theory has its
+attractions and its difficulties; and to none is it possible to give
+unqualified adherence. It may be stated, as a tentative conclusion, that
+the basilican plan probably had its origin in an aisleless form of
+building, and thus pursued a course directly opposite to the development
+of the secular basilica. But it seems clear that, in many details of the
+plan, especially as we see it in Rome, the peristyled hall was kept in
+mind; while in two features, the arrangement of the apse and the
+occasional appearance of galleries above the aisles, the secular
+basilica was taken into consideration. The policy of the early Christian
+Church, when its services were sanctioned by the state, was to adapt
+existing and familiar forms where they could be suitably reproduced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Plan of old St Peter's: (1) _atrium_ or
+fore-court; (2) nave with double aisles; (3) site of screen-colonnade;
+(4, 4) transepts; (5) apse with crypt below.]
+
+Sec. 4. The plan of the old basilica of St Peter at Rome, founded by
+Constantine the Great, and destroyed early in the sixteenth century to
+make way for the present church, explains the principal features of the
+basilican plan in its developed state. (1) In common with other early
+basilicas in Rome, and in other parts of western Europe, the entrance
+was at the east, and the altar at the west end, so that the celebrant
+faced the congregation during the divine office. (2) The church was
+approached through a cloistered _atrium_ or fore-court, in the middle of
+which was a fountain, the place of purification for those intending to
+enter the church. (3) At the west end of the cloister three doorways
+opened into the nave of the church, and one on either side into the
+side aisles. (4) The nave communicated with the aisles by a row of
+columns beneath an entablature: there were also outer aisles,
+communicating with the inner by columns bearing rounded arches. (5) The
+side walls of the nave, above the entablature, were not pierced for
+galleries, but were covered by two rows of mosaic pictures, one above
+the other, on each side, the upper row corresponding to the height of
+the space between the outer and inner roofs of the aisle. Above this,
+the walls rose into a clerestory, pierced with round-headed windows at
+regular intervals; and a high entablature supported the great tie-beams
+of the wooden roof. (6) The quire of singers, divided from the rest of
+the church by low screen walls, probably occupied the centre of the
+western portion of the nave. (7) A tall open arch divided the nave from
+the transept, which was of equal height with the nave, and projected
+south and north as far as the walls of the outer aisles. Here probably
+were places reserved for distinguished persons, near the platform of the
+altar. (8) West of the transept, entered by a tall and wide arch, was
+the apse. Beneath the arch was a screen, formed by a row of columns,
+under an entablature which bore statues of our Lord and the apostles:
+this crossed the arch at the foot of the steps leading to the altar and
+seats of the clergy. (9) Beneath the altar platform, and entered by
+doorways on each side of the flight of steps, was the crypt or
+_confessio_, the traditional place of martyrdom of St Peter, and the
+resort of pilgrims to the tomb of the apostles. The hallowed place was
+immediately beneath the altar.
+
+Sec. 5. The sixth century basilicas of Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare in Classe
+and Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, differ in plan from the Roman basilicas (1)
+in the fact that they have always had the altar at the east, and the
+entrance at the west end; (2) by substituting, for a colonnaded atrium,
+a closed porch or _narthex_ in front of the entrance of the building. In
+process of time, two of the greater Roman basilicas, San Paolo and San
+Lorenzo fuori le Mura, were enlarged in a westward direction, so that
+the positions of the altar and entrance were reversed; and, in several
+of the early basilicas at Rome, a space near the entrance of the nave
+was screened off, from which penitents and catechumens might watch the
+service. But, in the first instance, the eastern chancel and the
+structural _narthex_ appear to have been introduced from the eastern
+empire. Neither at Ravenna nor at Rome did bell-towers originally form
+part of the plan of the basilica: the round _campanili_ of both churches
+at Ravenna are certainly later additions. It may also be noted (1) that
+ordinarily the aisles were single, not double as at old St Peter's. (2)
+The columned screen of the apse at old St Peter's appears to have been
+exceptional. The ordinary screen or _cancelli_, from which is derived
+our word "chancel" for the space thus enclosed, was a low wall. This is
+the arrangement at the basilica of San Clemente, in which the enclosed
+quire also remains. (3) The transept, even in Rome, was an exceptional
+arrangement, and does not appear in the basilicas of Ravenna.
+
+Sec. 6. Another type of plan, however, was used in Rome for churches
+devoted to the special purposes of burial and baptism. In this case the
+buildings were planned round a central point, and at Rome were uniformly
+circular. Recesses round the walls of the mausoleum-church contained
+sarcophagi: in the centre of the baptistery was the great font. The
+church of Santa Costanza, outside the north-eastern walls of Rome,
+circular in plan, with a vaulted aisle surrounding the central space,
+was built by Constantine the Great as a tomb-church for his family, and
+was also used as a baptistery. Both these uses were direct adaptations
+of pagan customs. The baptistery, with its central font for total
+immersion, was simply a large bath-room, like the great rotunda of the
+baths of Caracalla. The mausoleum preserved the form of which the finest
+example is the tomb of Hadrian, now known as the castle of Sant' Angelo.
+In the course of the middle ages, certain tomb-churches in Rome, with a
+centralised plan, were turned into places of public worship. But, for
+the plan of the ordinary church, the basilica, with its longitudinal
+axis, was general. In the eastern empire, on the other hand, the
+centralised plan was employed from an early date for large churches; and
+in this way was evolved the magnificent style of architecture which
+culminated in Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Here the centralised plan
+was triumphantly adapted to the internal arrangements of the basilica.
+
+Sec. 7. The city of Ravenna, closely connected historically both with Rome
+and Constantinople, contains a series of monuments which is of
+unequalled interest in the history of the centralised plan. (1) The
+mausoleum of the empress Galla Placidia, sister of the emperor Honorius,
+who died in 450 A.D., is a building of cruciform shape, consisting of a
+square central space covered by a dome, with rectangular projections on
+all four sides. The projection through which the building is entered is
+longer than the others, and the plan thus forms the Latin cross so
+common in the churches of the middle ages. (2) To the same period
+belongs the octagonal baptistery, known as San Giovanni in Fonte. (3) In
+493 A.D. Theodoric the Ostrogoth obtained possession of Ravenna. To the
+period of his rule belongs the Arian baptistery, also octagonal, known
+as Santa Maria in Cosmedin. (4) Theodoric died in 526 A.D. His mausoleum
+is formed by a polygon of ten equal sides, with a smaller decagonal
+upper stage, a circular attic above which bears the great monolithic
+dome. In the lower story was the tomb: the internal plan is a Greek
+cross, _i.e._ there is a central space with recesses of equal depth on
+all four sides. (5) In the year of the death of Theodoric, the octagonal
+church of San Vitale was begun. It was consecrated in 547, when Ravenna
+had become the capital of the Italian province of Justinian's empire.
+Its somewhat complicated plan was clearly derived from an eastern
+source, but not from Santa Sophia, which was not begun till 532 A.D. The
+central space is almost circular. Between each of the piers which
+support the octagonal clerestory at the base of the cupola is an apsidal
+recess, with three arches on the ground floor opening into the
+encircling aisle, and three upper arches opening into the gallery above
+the aisle. On the east side of the central space this arrangement is
+broken, and one tall arch opens into the chancel, which ends in a
+projecting apse, semi-circular inside, but a half octagon outside. The
+aisle with the gallery above thus occupies seven sides of the outer
+octagon, the eighth side being occupied by the western part of the
+chancel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Plan of San Vitale, Ravenna: (1) _narthex_ with
+flanking turrets, as originally arranged; (2) central nave; (3) chancel
+and altar.]
+
+Sec. 8. Of the two types of plan, which can be studied so satisfactorily at
+Ravenna, the ordinary basilican type is the more convenient. The long
+nave provides the necessary accommodation for worshippers, the raised
+apse gives a theatre for the performance of service within view of
+everybody, the aisles facilitate the going and coming of the
+congregation, and prevent over-crowding. The centralised plan provides,
+it is true, a large central area conveniently near the altar; but the
+provision of a chancel or altar-space necessitates the grafting on the
+plan of a feature borrowed from the ordinary basilica, which, as at San
+Vitale, breaks the symmetry of the design. At Santa Sophia, the
+basilican chancel forms an indissoluble part of a centralised plan; but
+this feat is beyond the reach of an ordinary architect. Even at San
+Vitale the planning is highly complicated, and must be due to an
+architect of some genius. In addition to complications of design, the
+centralised plan raised questions of roofing which did not trouble the
+builders of the long wooden-roofed basilicas. The vaulted half-dome of
+the basilican apse was a simple matter, compared with the mighty dome of
+Santa Sophia and its cluster of abutting half-domes. It was in the
+centralised churches, with their domed vaults and the groined vaults of
+their aisles, that the history of medieval vaulting began. But, even
+when medieval masons had learned to regard the vaulting of their
+churches as the controlling principle of their art, they left the
+centralised plan almost entirely alone, and applied what it had taught
+them to the work of roofing basilicas with vaults of stone. We shall
+trace the influence of the centralised church as we proceed; but the
+influence of the basilica will be found to predominate in the history of
+medieval planning.
+
+Sec. 9. In England, as in other portions of the Roman empire, we might
+naturally expect to find the basilican plan applied to the earliest
+Christian churches. The foundations of a small Romano-British basilican
+church have been discovered at Silchester in Hampshire. The apse, as in
+the Roman basilicas, was at the west end. The nave had aisles, which, at
+the end nearest the apse, broadened out into two transept-like
+projections. The entrance front of the church was covered by a
+_narthex_, the whole width of nave and aisles. This feature, as has been
+shown, is of eastern rather than of Roman origin; while the projections
+at the end of the aisles appear to have been, not transepts like those
+at old St Peter's, but separate chambers corresponding to those which,
+in eastern churches, flank the chancel, and are used for special ritual
+purposes. In fact, the basilica at Silchester recalls the plans of the
+early basilicas of north Africa more closely than those of the basilicas
+of Rome; while it has, unlike them, the Roman feature of the western
+apse. This, however, gives rise to questions which, in our present state
+of knowledge, are beyond solution.
+
+Sec. 10. Of the seven churches which are usually connected with the
+missionary activity of St Augustine and his companions, five, of which
+we have ruins or foundations, certainly ended in apses; and the apse in
+each case was divided from the nave, not by a single arch, but by an
+arcade with three openings, which recalls the screen-colonnade at old
+St Peter's. But only one church in the group, the ruined church of
+Reculver, followed the plan of the aisled nave of the basilica. From the
+description which remains of the early cathedral of Canterbury,
+destroyed by fire in 1067, we can see that it, too, was an aisled
+basilica, with its original apse at the west end. But the first
+cathedral of Rochester, the plan and extent of which may be gathered
+from existing foundations, was an aisleless building with an eastern
+apse. The church of St Pancras at Canterbury, the lower courses of the
+walls of which in great part remain, had an aisleless nave, divided from
+an apsidal chancel by a screen-wall with three openings, that in the
+middle being wider than the others. The foundations of two of the four
+columns which flanked these openings can still be traced. The walls of
+the chancel, which was slightly narrower than the nave, were continued
+straight for a little way beyond the screen-wall; and then the curve of
+the apse began. St Pancras also possessed a square entrance porch, much
+narrower than the nave, at its west end, and two chapels projecting from
+the nave on either side, half-way up its length. The church is thus
+cruciform in plan. The western porch and the chapels seem to have been
+added as the work proceeded, and not to have been contemplated in the
+original design. The material of the building is Roman brick, and
+buttress projections occur at the western angles of the nave and porch,
+in the fragment which remains of the south wall of the chancel, and at
+the outer angles of the side chapels. Small buttresses are also found at
+the angles and on the sides of St Peter's on the Wall in Essex.
+
+Sec. 11. In one respect the plan of St Pancras at Canterbury is allied to
+that of the church at Bradford-on-Avon in Wiltshire. At Bradford there
+remains one of the two porches, which also were probably side chapels,
+projecting from the sides of the nave. But at Bradford the remaining
+porch is larger in proportion to the nave than is the case at St
+Pancras. There is no entrance porch on the west side. Further, the
+chancel at Bradford is rectangular, not apsidal. Instead of a
+screen-wall with a central opening nine feet wide, the wall dividing
+nave from chancel is pierced by a small arch only 3 ft. 6 in. wide. The
+date of this little church is a matter of great difficulty; and the
+character of its masonry seems to demand for it a later date than the
+early one popularly claimed for it. The contrast with St Pancras is
+accentuated further by the fact that the internal measurements of the
+nave show a different scheme of proportion. The nave of St Pancras is
+some three feet broader in proportion to its length than the much
+shorter nave at Bradford.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plan of Escomb--typical Saxon church.]
+
+Sec. 12. A closer parallel to Bradford-on-Avon is found in the little
+church of Escomb, near Bishop Auckland. No record of the early history
+of this building is known; but its masonry is almost entirely composed
+of re-used Roman dressed stone-work. In this respect it presents a
+contrast to Bradford. In another respect the two churches are unlike.
+Both have their entrances in the side walls; but at Escomb there were no
+original porches covering the doorways, while there are traces of what
+may have been an entrance porch, like that of St Pancras, at the west
+end. But they have these points in common: (1) the nave at Escomb is
+long in proportion to its width; (2) the chancel is a rectangular
+eastern projection, narrower and much shorter than the nave; (3) there
+is a solid wall of division between nave and chancel, pierced by a
+narrow arch, broader than that of Bradford, but very much higher in
+proportion to its width. It may be added that the walls of both churches
+are high in proportion to their length and breadth, and that at Escomb
+the original windows are small openings with rounded and flat
+lintel-heads, and with internal splays.
+
+Sec. 13. It is, however, with the plan that we are concerned. We now have
+met with three separate forms in England, viz. (1) the rare basilican
+plan; (2) the "Kentish" plan of aisleless nave with apsidal chancel; (3)
+the plan of aisleless nave with rectangular chancel. We also have seen
+that the screen-wall is common to (1) and (2), while the single chancel
+arch belongs to (3); and that side chapels and western porches are found
+incidentally in (2) and (3). Now, the early date of Escomb, apart from
+the evidence supplied by its masonry, can be suspected only by its
+analogy to the plan of other churches of which the date is practically
+certain. Two such churches remain in the same county of Durham. One is
+at Monkwearmouth, now a part of Sunderland. Its nave and the lowest
+stage of its western tower represent, and in great part actually are,
+the nave and western porch of an early Saxon church, which is generally
+identified with the church built here by Benedict Biscop for the
+monastery which he founded in 672 A.D. The nave was originally
+aisleless, long, narrow and lofty: the entrance porch had an upper story
+finished with a gabled roof, and a vaulted ground-floor with entrances
+on three sides. There was evidently a chancel arch, and probably the
+chancel was rectangular. The material of the building was not Roman;
+but, in the decoration applied to it, Roman work was imitated. Only a
+few miles further north, Benedict founded, in 680 A.D., the sister
+monastery of Jarrow. The long and narrow chancel of the present church
+of St Paul was the body of a church somewhat similar to that of
+Monkwearmouth. Stone-work which may represent the jambs of a broad
+chancel arch can be traced in the east wall; but this cannot be stated
+with positive certainty. The lower part of the tower, now between the
+present chancel and nave, may represent an original western porch; but,
+in its present state, it is of much later date than the work east of it,
+and its site must have been broadened when the tower was first planned.
+At Jarrow there is no Roman stone-work; but one type of Roman masonry
+has been imitated by the builders in the walls of the chancel, and small
+decorative shafts, turned in a lathe after the Roman fashion, such as
+exist at Monkwearmouth, have been found in the building. The inscribed
+stone, recording the dedication of the church, is preserved in the wall
+above the western tower-arch: the date given is 23 April, 684 A.D. In
+this inscription the building, though aisleless, is called a basilica.
+The word was now probably used to signify a Christian church,
+irrespective of its plan. A third early church in this district is that
+of Corbridge, near Hexham. Here, as at Monkwearmouth, the ground story
+of the tower was originally a western porch; while the lofty arch
+between tower and nave is, like the chancel arch at Escomb, entirely
+composed of dressed Roman masonry, and seems to have been removed from
+one of the buildings of the Roman station of Corstopitum, as the arch at
+Escomb was probably removed from the not far distant station of
+Vinovium.
+
+Sec. 14. The date to which these four northern churches may be assigned is
+the half century of the activity of St Wilfrid in England (664-709
+A.D.). Bede's account of the architectural work of Wilfrid's friend,
+Benedict Biscop, shows that he procured, for the building of the church
+at Monkwearmouth, stonemasons and glaziers from Gaul, who were
+acquainted with "the manner of the Romans." The account which another
+contemporary, Eddius, gives of Wilfrid's church at Hexham, is clear
+proof that this important building was a reproduction, in plan and
+elevation, of the aisled basilicas of the continent--a fact in keeping
+with Wilfrid's life-long aim of bringing English Christianity into
+closer touch with the main current of historic Christianity in Rome and
+Gaul. The foundations of the outer walls of most of Wilfrid's church
+were uncovered when, lately, the new nave of Hexham priory church was
+begun; but one of its features has been long known, and is of the
+highest interest. The crypt for relics below the apse and high altar
+consists of an oblong chamber, with a western vestibule, approached by a
+straight stairway from the nave. In addition to the western stair, there
+are two stairs which communicated with the apse. That on the south side
+remains perfect, and ends in a passage and vestibule, through which the
+relic-chamber is entered. The northern stairway leads through a passage
+to the western vestibule, at the foot of the stair from the nave. The
+crypt of Wilfrid's contemporary basilica at Ripon also remains: here the
+arrangement is less complicated; but the arrangement of the main
+relic-chamber is equally the chief feature of the plan.
+
+Sec. 15. The foundations of the Saxon church at Peterborough present many
+difficulties, and may be of a later date than the foundation of the
+monastery in 655 A.D. But no such difficulties of date or plan exist
+with regard to the large Saxon church at Brixworth, between Northampton
+and Market Harborough. Its size and the fact that Roman material has
+been much re-used in its building have given rise to the tradition that
+it is a secular basilica applied to the purposes of a Christian church.
+As a matter of fact, the Roman brick-work has been re-used in obvious
+ignorance of Roman methods; so that this circumstance alone would make
+the legend improbable. The date of the building can hardly be earlier
+than about 680 A.D., when a monastery was founded here by a colony of
+monks from Peterborough. The plan originally consisted of (1) a western
+entrance porch, with a lofty western doorway, and smaller doorways on
+north and south; (2) a broad nave, divided from the aisles by arches,
+which spring from large square piers of plain brick-work; (3) a
+rectangular presbytery, divided from the nave by a screen-wall pierced
+with three arches; (4) an apsidal chancel, entered from the presbytery
+by a single arch. On each side of the chancel arch, a doorway entered
+into a narrow vaulted passage below the ground level, which probably
+formed an aisle round a crypt below the apse. At a later date, probably
+in the period of quiet following the later Danish invasions, the apse
+seems to have been rebuilt, polygonal externally, semi-circular on the
+inside, and the central crypt-chamber was then possibly filled up. The
+western porch was also used as the foundation for a tower, and the
+western arch blocked up with a filling containing a lower doorway,
+through which the circular turret for the tower-stair was entered. The
+aisles, either then or at a somewhat later date, having probably fallen
+into ruin, were removed. The clerestory of the nave remains, with
+unusually broad round-headed windows.
+
+Sec. 16. The original plan of Brixworth has points in common with some of
+the other plans which have been noted. In its triple arched screen-wall
+it recalls the Kentish type of church; its rectangular presbytery
+between nave and apse is a development of the chancel space which
+existed west of the spring of the apse at St Pancras. It shares its
+western porch with St Pancras and two, if not four, of the northern
+group of churches. In the north and south doorways of this porch it has
+kinship with Monkwearmouth, and at Brixworth there are definite signs
+that these doorways led into passages which may have been connected with
+other buildings of the monastery, or possibly even with an _atrium_ or
+fore-court. The aisled nave and the traces of a crypt bring it into
+relation, not merely with Hexham or Ripon, but with the historical
+church plan of western Europe generally. At the same time, the plan,
+regarded as that of an English church, is exceptional. The aisled plan
+of the parish church was arrived at in spite, not in consequence, of the
+few early aisled churches which might have supplied it with a model.
+During the epoch which followed the Danish invasions the aisleless plan
+was deliberately preferred: the rectangular chancel entirely superseded
+the apse. No further example of the structural screen-wall occurs. In
+addition to those mentioned, only three more pre-Conquest examples of
+crypts are known, and such crypts as occur in parish churches after the
+Conquest are exceptional, and are usually due to exigencies of site.
+Only three more aisled churches of unquestionably pre-Conquest date
+exist above ground. Reculver has been mentioned. The others are Lydd in
+Kent, where only indications of an arcade remain, and the complete
+basilican church of Wing, near Leighton Buzzard, which has a polygonal
+apse with a crypt below. Wing is probably much later in date than most
+of Brixworth, but one cannot but be struck by a certain resemblance in
+construction between the two naves, and in plan between the crypt at
+Wing and the remains of the crypt at Brixworth.
+
+Sec. 17. These early churches have been treated at some length, because
+they contain certain essential elements of planning in a state of
+probation. The basilican plan was doubtless the ideal of English
+builders during the sixth and early seventh centuries, but an ideal
+which was hard to compass where good building material was not
+plentiful. Thus Augustine and his companions contented themselves in
+most instances with a plan which recalled the aisled basilica, without
+following out its more elaborate details. It is remarkable that they
+should have departed from the usual Roman custom, and made their
+chancels at the east end of their churches: it is also remarkable to
+find at St Pancras the western porch, the origin of which appears to be
+the non-Roman _narthex_. Models existed, no doubt in the ruins of the
+Romano-British churches, which they repaired; and we have seen that at
+Silchester there is a regular _narthex_, while, on the other hand,
+there is a western apse. These models, however, were probably all of one
+general type, in which the chancel end was formed by an apsidal
+projection. When Roman Christianity reached the north, it had to contend
+with the efforts of Celtic missionaries; and those efforts were not met
+by it effectively until, in 664, the energetic leadership of Wilfrid
+secured a triumph for his party at the council of Whitby. Of the Celtic
+churches of the north we know but little: it seems likely that they were
+for the most part plain oratories of stone or wood, with or without a
+separate chancel. The simplest form, obviously, which a church can
+assume is a plain rectangle with an altar at one end. As the
+desirability of a special enclosure for the altar is recognised, a
+smaller rectangle will be added at the altar end of the main building,
+and so the distinction between nave and chancel will be formed. There
+are indications of this natural growth of plan in some of the early
+religious buildings in Ireland. In remote districts, as in Wales, the
+simple nave and chancel plan is general all through the middle ages; and
+the smaller country churches often follow the common Celtic plan of a
+single rectangle with no structural division. The ruined chapel at
+Heysham in Lancashire, a work of early date, is an undivided rectangle
+in plan. This is the form which would suggest itself naturally to the
+unskilled builder: the division of nave and chancel into a larger and
+smaller rectangle is the next step which would occur to his intelligence
+in the ordinary course of things. It is possible that Wilfrid and
+Benedict Biscop found that their aims would be best served by adhering
+in certain instances to the familiar Celtic plan, and so, while they
+hired foreign masons and craftsmen to build and furnish their earlier
+churches, and to set the example of building stone churches after the
+manner of the Romans, they were careful to avoid the prejudice which
+insistence on a new plan would have excited. The simplicity, moreover,
+of a plan like that at Escomb, which requires little architectural skill
+to work upon, may have been a recommendation; and the fact that the
+construction of an apse is more difficult than that of a rectangular
+chancel must have weighed powerfully with English masons, both at this
+time and later. The fact remains that, in the early age of our church
+architecture in stone, the aisled basilica was a rare exception, and the
+rectangular chancel was, in the north, at least as common as the apse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PARISH CHURCHES OF THE LATER SAXON PERIOD
+
+
+Sec. 18. In later Saxon churches the aisleless plan and the rectangular
+chancel were normal. Instances of an aisled plan after the seventh
+century have been noted already: it has been seen that there are only
+two definite examples, and, although there may be indications of others,
+these are few and far between and uncertain. The apsidal chancel again
+is exceedingly rare. We have noted it in combination with other
+basilican features at Wing: the instances in which it occurs again are
+very few, and in these, as in the important monastic church of
+Deerhurst, there are other variations from the aisleless plan. In by far
+the largest number of examples, the plan adhered to was that simple one
+of which we have a complete prototype at Escomb. Late Saxon fabrics
+which remain free of later additions are few; but there is a
+considerable number of churches which still keep the quoins of an
+aisleless Saxon nave _in situ_, although aisles have been added during
+the twelfth or thirteenth centuries. Such are St Mary-le-Wigford and St
+Peter-at-Gowts at Lincoln, Bracebridge in the western suburb of Lincoln,
+St Benet's at Cambridge, and Wittering, near Stamford. At Winterton in
+Lincolnshire large pieces of the western part of both walls of the nave
+were kept as an abutment to the tower, when aisles were added.
+Sometimes, as at Geddington and Brigstock in Northamptonshire, the whole
+wall above the nave arcades is the upper part of the wall of the
+aisleless building; and instances in which blocked window openings, of a
+not improbably pre-Conquest date, remain in walls that have subsequently
+been pierced with arcades, are exceedingly common. If an untouched Saxon
+nave is a rare thing, an unaltered Saxon chancel is obviously rarer. The
+small rectangular chancel of the large medieval church at Repton, in
+Derbyshire, is practically unique; it was probably preserved for the
+sake of the crypt beneath, which, at first a plain rectangular chamber,
+was subsequently, but still in pre-Conquest times, vaulted in
+compartments supported by columns. But at Sidbury in Devon, where there
+is a small rectangular crypt, the chancel above was rebuilt in the
+twelfth, and lengthened in the thirteenth century, without any reference
+to the line of the walls of the crypt below it. A good example of an
+unaltered late Saxon fabric is the church of Coln Rogers in
+Gloucestershire. Here the western tower, built up inside the nave, is a
+later addition, but the nave, rectangular chancel, and arch between
+them, are still intact. The chancel arch, though by no means broad, is
+yet much wider than those at Escomb and Bradford-on-Avon; and its width
+probably represents the normal width of a chancel arch of this period.
+
+Sec. 19. An addition occurs in most of these late Saxon plans, which had a
+great influence on the subsequent, and even on the contemporary,
+development of the church plan. We have noted that at Rome and Ravenna
+towers formed no part of the original basilican plan, but were added
+later as _campanili_. In England it appears that the tower formed no
+part of the plan until, at any rate, the epoch of the Danish wars.
+
+Western bell-towers were very general by the beginning of the eleventh
+century. In most of these towers, the ground floor forms an entrance
+porch; but it does not follow that the western tower in England was
+generated by the heightening of the western porch. The porches of
+Brixworth and Monkwearmouth were probably not heightened until the
+western tower had come into existence elsewhere. An origin for the
+western tower has been sought in the fore-buildings which occur in some
+of the early German churches, and contain separate upper chambers. It
+may be that, derived from this source, the western tower superseded the
+porch, and, where porches existed, they were adapted to the new
+fashion.
+
+Sec. 20. The towers of Earl's Barton, Barnack, and St Peter's at
+Barton-on-Humber, are perhaps the most obviously interesting relics of
+Saxon architecture which we possess. All are much larger in area than
+the normal western tower of the later Saxon period. Earl's Barton is a
+western tower, and its ground floor has probably always served as a
+porch: the rest of the church, however, is a medieval building of
+various periods. At Barnack, again, the complete plan of the Saxon
+church has been lost. Here, however, the western tower was something
+more than a porch. The doorway is not in the west, but in the south
+wall; and in the west wall, inside the church, is a niche with a
+triangular head, which was certainly neither doorway nor window, but a
+seat. Whether this implies that the ground floor of the tower was used
+for special religious functions, or for some purpose connected with the
+common life of the parish, is not clear; but it shows, at any rate, that
+there was some good reason for the unusually roomy planning of the
+tower. We stand on firmer ground at Barton-on-Humber. Here, again, a
+large medieval church exists to the east of the tower. But upon its
+western side is a small rectangular building of contemporary date, which
+was not a porch in front of the tower, but a westward extension of the
+body of the church, the main entrances being on either side of the
+tower. The foundations of a similar projecting building have been
+discovered to the east of the tower, beneath the floor of the later
+nave. It is therefore clear that the ground floor of the tower, or
+rather of a high tower-like building, formed the body of the church, and
+that the eastern projection was the chancel. There are clear indications
+at Broughton, also in north Lincolnshire, that this plan was used, at
+any rate, once again. The tower at Broughton is obviously later than
+that at Barton: the doorway, whose details are of a post-Conquest
+character, is in the south wall; and a large circular stair-turret, like
+that at Brixworth, projects from the west wall. Probably there was only
+a chancel here, and no western annexe to correspond. A similar
+stair-turret occurs at Hough-on-the-Hill, between Grantham and Lincoln:
+the tower, now western, has a doorway in the south wall, and probably
+stands mid-way in date between Barton and Broughton. It is planned on a
+very ample scale, with thin walls and a large floor-space. The main
+fabric of the church is altogether of a later date; and there are no
+indications, at any rate above ground, of an earlier building east of
+the tower. The size of the tower, the provision of a stair-turret, as at
+Broughton, to leave the ground floor clear, suggest that here we may
+have a third example of the plan in which the tower covered the main
+body of the church. The arrangement at Barnack gives grounds for a
+suspicion of something of the same kind there. In all these cases the
+tower has been a tower from the beginning; but at Barton-on-Humber the
+uppermost stage was added towards the end of the Saxon period.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. St Peter's, Barton-on-Humber: from S.W.]
+
+Sec. 21. In these buildings we seem to discover the influence of the
+centralised plan, acting through the channel of German art. It would be
+absurd to say that the plan of Barton-on-Humber was inspired by the plan
+of the palace-church at Aachen, which was an adaptation, with some
+improvement, of the plan of San Vitale at Ravenna. No masterly
+intellectual effort, such as the Aachen plan shows, was necessary to
+plan a rectangle with two smaller rectangles at either end. But the
+church at Aachen had made the centralised plan familiar to the builders
+of western Europe. In Germany and in France there are traces of its
+influence; and we may reasonably suppose that the builders of
+Barton-on-Humber were acquainted with the existence of an alternative to
+the usual plan of the church with a longitudinal axis, and did not
+arrive by haphazard at their concentration of the plan upon a central
+point. One earlier example of the centralised plan is known to have
+existed in England. In addition to his basilica at Hexham, Wilfrid had
+built another church there in the shape of a Greek cross. The
+description of it which we possess shows that the central space was the
+actual church, that it was tower-like in form, and nearly circular in
+shape, and that the arms were simply porch-like projections. Probably it
+was a combination of baptistery with tomb-church. It is not likely that
+the simple plan of Barton was derived from that at Hexham. Both were
+probably the result of continental influence; but, while the church at
+Hexham may have been the work of Gallo-Roman masons in direct
+communication with the general current of architectural progress, the
+church at Barton was probably built by Englishmen, who adapted the
+centralised plan to methods natural to their comparative want of skill.
+
+Sec. 22. Neither at this time nor later did the centralised plan in England
+develop along the lines suggested by Barton-on-Humber. No real
+development on such lines was possible. In Germany, the achievement at
+Aachen made possible the polygonal nave of St Gereon at Cologne and the
+centralised plan of the Liebfrauenkirche at Trier, as well as many
+twelfth and thirteenth century churches whose complicated parts are
+planned and massed together with relation to a central tower space. In
+England, however, the habit of dealing with circular or polygonal forms
+made little progress; and our few "round churches," the plan of the
+naves of which was a devout imitation of the church of the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and our polygonal chapter houses, are almost all
+that we have to show in the way of attempts at a definitely centralised
+plan. Our church plan develops as the result of an effort to combine a
+series of rectangles effectively; and, while this combination can be
+attempted in several different ways, it is obvious that the rigid lines
+of the rectangle do not admit of that free scope in centralised planning
+which is given by the circle or polygon.
+
+Sec. 23. We have seen, however, that, even in the earliest days, there was
+a tendency to admit additions to the simple longitudinal plan, which, in
+process of time, were bound to give birth, if not to a definitely
+centralised plan, to something, at any rate, in which a central point
+counted for much. A feature of the early cathedral and of St Pancras at
+Canterbury, was the projection of _porticus_, porches or side chapels,
+from the nave. These were entered by archways pierced in the centre of
+the lateral walls. In the cathedral they had outer doorways, and formed
+the main entrances of the church, on the north from the monastery, on
+the south from the city. The south porch contained the altar of St
+Gregory, and, as Eadmer tells us, was used as a court of justice to
+which litigants, in process of time, resorted from every part of
+England. In the north porch, dedicated to St Martin, was held the school
+of the monastery. Upon both porches towers were built at a date which
+cannot be ascertained, but was probably later than the time of
+Augustine. Of the use of the porches at St Pancras, which did not
+contain outer doorways, it is impossible to say anything definitely.
+Entrance porches, of which one remains, projected from the sides of the
+church at Bradford-on-Avon: the outer and inner doorways of the north
+porch are extremely narrow, and are placed west of the centre of its
+north and south walls. It is possible, therefore, that there was an
+altar in this porch, so that it served the double purpose of entrance
+porch and side chapel.
+
+Sec. 24. As time went on, the western porch beneath the tower was disused
+as a public entrance. The principal entrance of most churches is on the
+south side, west of the centre of the aisle wall, and is usually covered
+by a porch. There is a Saxon example of this at Bishopstone in Sussex,
+where, as at Bradford, room seems to have been left for an altar on the
+east side. However, the main entrance of the ordinary Saxon church was
+at the west end, through the ground floor of the tower. The porch in the
+lateral wall seems to have been regarded primarily as a side chapel; and
+in some later Saxon churches the porches were dissociated from lateral
+doorways, and were planned as closed projections from the eastern part
+of the north and south walls of the nave. This seems to have happened at
+Britford, near Salisbury, where archways remain on both sides near the
+east end of the nave. At Deerhurst square projections were entered from
+both sides of the nave, immediately west of the chancel arch; and it is
+probable that there were somewhat similar projections at Repton. At
+Worth in Sussex, where the north and south doorways of the nave are
+Saxon, and there is no western entrance or original tower, there are
+large Saxon chapels projecting from the eastern part of the nave, and
+entered by wide arches. The cruciform plan is sufficiently marked in the
+conjectural restorations of Deerhurst and Repton. At Worth it is quite
+unmistakable.
+
+Sec. 25. At Worth, however, in spite of the dignity of the lateral arches,
+the chapels are still porch-like excrescences, larger in scale than
+usual, but lower in elevation than the nave. In elevation their
+transept-like appearance is less noticeable than on plan. Moreover, the
+length of the nave remains unbroken from west wall to chancel arch: no
+central space is marked off to which these transeptal projections give
+emphasis. Nevertheless, a suggestion of an intermediate space between
+nave and chancel is given; and this space is definitely marked in the
+plans of churches which may be quite as early in date as Worth--_i.e._
+about the first half of the eleventh century--by the admission of a
+tower between nave and chancel. The eastern part of the walls of the
+nave at St Mary's in Dover Castle are continued upwards as a tower, with
+small rectangular chapels projecting from the sides of the ground
+floor. Externally, no division between the tower and nave is noticeable;
+but, inside the church, in addition to the chancel arch and the arches
+into the chapels, a fourth arch is pierced in the western wall of the
+tower, and so an intermediate space between tower and nave is
+effectually created. At Breamore in Hants, a further step is taken. The
+tower space, between nave and chancel, is of the same width as the nave;
+but, in addition to the necessary internal division, an external
+division is also marked by the quoins of the tower, which are complete
+to the ground. Only one chapel remains at Breamore, on the south of the
+tower, entered by a narrow Saxon archway; but there was originally
+another on the north.
+
+Sec. 26. The chapels which project from these early "central" towers are,
+it is to be noted, not true transepts. They are narrower than the tower,
+which is built up from the ground, and not upon a system of piers and
+arches which require lateral abutments in the form of transepts. The
+western tower is transferred, as it were, to a point near the centre of
+the church, assumes the width of the nave, and is provided with
+transeptal excrescences, to communicate with which its side walls are
+pierced. Such excrescences are not necessary. At Stanton Lacy, in
+Shropshire, there is only one. At Dunham Magna, in Norfolk, and other
+places, such as Waith in Lincolnshire, there are, or were originally,
+none at all. The construction of the "central" tower upon piers
+connected by arches was beyond the skill of the ordinary Saxon builder;
+and its natural consequence, the development of the full cruciform plan,
+with transepts of the height and width of nave and chancel, was thus out
+of his reach. We know, from contemporary evidence, that one important
+abbey church, that of Ramsey, had a central tower which was built upon
+piers and arches as early as 974 A.D.; and perhaps this was the case in
+other large churches. But, even in the large church of Stow in
+Lincolnshire, which is commonly taken on trust, without sufficient
+historical evidence, as the cathedral church of the Saxon diocese of
+Lindsey, although an advance in transeptal construction was made, the
+main principle was imperfectly grasped. This church was made the home of
+a community of clergy about the beginning of the reign of Edward the
+Confessor, by Leofric, earl of Mercia, and his wife Godiva. It was
+restored after the Conquest by Remi, the first Norman bishop of Lincoln.
+The aisleless nave and chancel are Norman work of two periods: probably
+the nave was rebuilt upon Saxon foundations. The transepts, however, of
+considerable length and equal height with nave and chancel, were
+retained from the pre-Conquest building. The tall jambs of the arches of
+the central tower also remain on all four sides. The arches which they
+bear are of early Norman character; and the present tower is a late
+Gothic structure, the arches and piers of which are built up on the
+inner side of the older masonry. But the Saxon tower space, including
+the area of the arch-jambs, is rather wider than the arms of the cross
+which project from it. The tower formed a separate building, with quoins
+complete from the ground, and nave, chancel, and transepts, instead of
+combining to support it, were mere excrescences from it, entered by
+arches in its walls. Possibly the example of Barton-on-Humber may have
+had to do with this treatment of the tower as a separate central
+pavilion, which may have been deliberately preferred to the arch and
+pier treatment. In other respects the plan is an advance upon the plans
+of Dover and Breamore. And the necessary advance upon Stow is found in
+the church of Norton-on-Tees in south Durham. Here the tower, between
+nave and chancel, rests on piers connected by arches. The arches have
+been widened; two have been entirely rebuilt at a later date; and the
+rest of the church has been subjected at different times to enlargement
+and rebuilding. In spite of this, we have at Norton our earliest
+surviving example of a plan in which the various portions of the
+church--nave, chancel, and transepts--are gathered together in one
+structural connexion. The tower is to the east of the centre of the
+longitudinal axis of the church; but structurally, it is the central
+point with regard to which the building is planned, and the unity of the
+composition depends upon it.
+
+Sec. 27. We have arrived thus at a centralised plan of cruciform shape, of
+which the component parts are rectangular, the central space being
+approximately a square. The examples which have been given cannot be
+proved to follow one another in chronological order, but they represent
+successive steps in planning and construction, of which Norton-on-Tees
+is the highest. The importance of the inclusion of the tower in the plan
+is obvious. In its early appearances, its position is unsettled, but the
+natural tendency is to place it above a main entrance; and this is
+usually at the west end of the building. Where the builders aim at a
+simple centralised plan, the high central rectangle will form, like the
+round or octagonal central space of Wilfrid's church of St Mary at
+Hexham, _ecclesia ... in modum turris erecta_, and, as at
+Barton-on-Humber, will possibly be heightened by a later generation into
+a real tower. The distinction of the side chapel from the entrance
+porches, becoming more fully recognised, will lead to the building of
+transeptal chapels at the east end of the nave; and thus an important
+addition will be made to the ordinary longitudinal plan. The need of
+some central building, against which these additions may abut, will be
+felt. The tower will thus be introduced between nave and chancel, either
+as an independent structure, or as an upward extension of part of the
+side walls. The transepts thus, as at Stow, can be raised to an equal
+height with nave and chancel. From this to a plan in which the component
+parts are recognised as interdependent, and are closely knit together in
+structural unity, is an obvious step. At this point, architectural
+skill, as distinct from mere building ingenuity, comes into play.
+
+Sec. 28. As we proceed, we shall find survivals of old plans, even at an
+advanced period in the middle ages, which prove that progress in
+architecture was by no means of an uniform kind. Builders in remote, and
+especially in hilly, districts, from Saxon times to the present day,
+have naturally restricted themselves to plans which require as little
+cost as possible to carry out. Local building material is also an
+important consideration. In districts where good building stone is to be
+obtained on the spot, or where money is plentiful and water carriage is
+possible, the development of plan is naturally rapid, and every fifty
+years or so, additions to churches will be made in which the old plan
+will become entirely transformed. In woodland districts, the plan will
+be controlled to no small extent by the requirements of timber
+construction. In such regions, Saxon churches were probably built of
+wood. The only wooden church of Saxon times which remains is that of
+Greenstead in south Essex, with a rectangular chancel and aisleless nave
+constructed of vertical logs placed side by side, and framed originally
+into a timber plinth. However, it may be stated as a general rule, that,
+whatever may be the helps or hindrances to development provided by local
+materials, the real starting-point of the parish church plan of the
+middle ages is in every part of the country an aisleless plan; and that
+this plan consists either of a nave and chancel with a longitudinal
+axis, or of a nave and chancel whose longitudinal axis is intersected by
+a transverse axis across transepts. Variations, no doubt, occur; but
+these will never carry us far from one or other of these fundamental
+plans. The aisled basilica of the continent found no scope for itself in
+Saxon England; and it was through an interval of aisleless building that
+the aisled plan eventually became acclimatised, and then in a form which
+bears only a superficial kinship to the basilican plan.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AISLELESS CHURCH OF THE NORMAN PERIOD
+
+
+Sec. 29. During the century after the Norman Conquest, the great abbey
+churches and cathedrals represent the work of a foreign architectural
+school, gradually acclimatising itself in England; while, on the other
+hand, the parish church continued to be planned by local men, open to
+receive the improvements which more skilled foreign masons had
+introduced. Consequently, while local art received a continually
+increasing refinement, the plan of the church developed upon traditional
+lines, and not upon those novel lines which foreign masons would have
+laid down for it. The chief proof of this is seen in the persistence of
+the aisleless plan with rectangular chancel and western tower. The
+tendency of a Norman builder would be to design his church with an
+apsidal chancel, transepts, and a central tower; his practice would
+vary, but this would be his favourite plan. On the other hand, the
+rectangular chancel and western tower remained the favourite
+terminations of the parish church in England. But, while a large number
+of rubble-built, unbuttressed Norman towers, usually heightened or
+otherwise altered in the later middle ages, remain in many parts of
+England, their relation to the plan suffers some change. The ground
+floor of the Saxon tower was, as we have noticed, the main entrance to
+the church. The Norman western tower either contained no western doorway
+at all, or provided merely an entrance, which was used only on special
+occasions. At Caistor the ground floor was probably the main porch of
+the aisleless church; and there are exceptional instances, as at
+Finchingfield in Essex, where, in fairly advanced Norman work, the same
+arrangement was clearly contemplated. On the other hand, at Laceby,
+between Caistor and Grimsby, a south doorway, coeval with the western
+tower, has always been the main entrance to the church. Similarly, at
+Hooton Pagnell, and at Blatherwycke in Northamptonshire, south doorways,
+of the same age as the tower, form the chief entrance. These last three
+are early Norman examples; but we may go back even further, to find the
+same thing in churches which are usually reckoned as late Saxon work, at
+Heapham in Lincolnshire, and Kirk Hammerton, between York and
+Boroughbridge. In south Yorkshire there are a few churches of the middle
+of the twelfth century whose western towers are noticeably derived, in
+their plan and general construction, from the Saxon type--Birkin,
+Brayton, and Riccall. But in all three, the main entrance to the church
+was made through a south doorway, the arch of which is covered with
+elaborate late Norman ornaments. The western tower was thus reduced to
+the state of a bell-tower at one end of the church, and, while
+increasing in size and in magnificence, was actually a less
+indispensable part of the plan than before.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Aisleless plan: 12th century.]
+
+Sec. 30. The nave of the Norman aisleless church was usually short, and,
+where the church was entirely rebuilt, rather wide in proportion to its
+length. The naves of churches like Garton-on-the-Wolds or Kirkburn in
+Yorkshire, give the effect of spacious halls, of no great length, but
+wide and lofty. It cannot be doubted, however, that the fabric of the
+Saxon church was frequently kept, or that the church was rebuilt upon
+Saxon foundations. It is not unusual, as already stated, to find Saxon
+quoins still existing at the angles of naves to which aisles have
+subsequently been added. Evidences, on the other hand, of the westward
+lengthening of a Saxon nave in the Norman period appear to be rare. At
+North Witham in south Lincolnshire, the south and (blocked) north
+doorways are Norman work, in the usual position near the west end of the
+nave. East of them, however, in the centre of the nave walls, there are
+distinct traces of the inner openings of a north and south doorway,
+which may belong to the late Saxon period. That we have here a case of
+the twelfth century lengthening of an earlier nave may be inferred. The
+probability is increased by the fact that, in the neighbouring church of
+Colsterworth, where aisles were added during the early Norman period to
+a late Saxon fabric, the nave and aisles, towards the end of the twelfth
+century, were certainly extended a bay westward. As little architectural
+work is done without a precedent, we may assume that the builders at
+Colsterworth were following the example of North Witham.
+
+Sec. 31. The great majority of Norman rectangular chancels have been
+lengthened and enlarged; for the plain "altar-house" at the east end of
+the nave was too small for the purposes of the ritual of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries, and afforded no intermediate space between
+nave and chancel. However, short and approximately square chancels were
+by no means invariable; and, before the middle of the twelfth century,
+oblong chancels of considerable length in proportion to their width were
+being built. There is a good early twelfth century example at Moor
+Monkton, in the Ainsty of York; and the chancel of the middle of the
+twelfth century at Earl's Barton, Northants, is of considerable depth,
+and was of ample size for all later purposes. At Earl's Barton the
+eastern portion was the chancel proper; while the western portion
+supplied that space for a quire which was not provided in less elongated
+plans. In by far the larger number of cases, the rectangular chancel had
+a wooden roof. There is, however, a fair number of churches in which the
+system of ribbed vaulting, as employed in larger buildings, was used.
+Thus at Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumberland, there is a small square
+chancel with a ribbed vault. At Warkworth, there is a long vaulted
+chancel of two bays, built during the first quarter of the twelfth
+century; and at Tickencote, Rutland, two bays are combined in one by the
+use of sexpartite vaulting. In these cases the chancel arches are wide,
+forming the western transverse arches of the vaulting: that at
+Tickencote is of remarkable magnificence.
+
+Sec. 32. There are certain cases in which the chancel was of the same width
+as the nave, and no structural division existed between them. At Askham
+Bryan and at the chapel of Copmanthorpe, near York, the plan, externally
+and internally, is a plain undivided oblong. At Tansor, Northants, the
+chancel was rebuilt about 1140, when the side walls were set back in a
+line with those of the nave. In St Mary's in the Castle at Leicester,
+the long and very narrow nave was, as may still be clearly seen,
+continued eastward without a break into the long and narrow quire and
+chancel. Here the eastern half was used, no doubt, by the college of
+dean and canons, while the western half was the parish church. The
+beautiful church of St Peter, Northampton, built towards the end of the
+third quarter of the twelfth century, gives us a complete example of an
+undivided plan, aisled throughout save in the eastern bay, which forms a
+projecting chancel east of the aisles of the choir.
+
+Sec. 33. Hitherto we have dealt merely with the rectangular chancel. But
+there are also churches which end in an eastern apse. These are
+comparatively few and exceptional. In Yorkshire, where the number of
+Norman rectangular chancels is large, and buildings such as Adel exhibit
+the aisleless church in its highest state of architectural development,
+the number of apsidal chancels can be counted on the fingers of one
+hand. In Sussex, where Caen stone was largely used, and we should expect
+foreign influence to be noticeable, the proportion of apsidal chancels
+is small. In Gloucestershire, the Cotswold district contains several
+small Norman churches, which have been little altered: the rectangular
+chancel is universal. These are typical districts; and, to state a
+general rule, we may say that, while the apsidal chancel is foreign to
+no part of England, and occurs in unexpected places, as in the chapel of
+Old Bewick, Northumberland, it is never general in any single region.
+Its rarity is an important fact. Were our parish churches the work of
+masons sent out from the larger churches and monasteries, we should
+expect to find it a common feature; for in those buildings the apsidal
+plan prevailed. But, in the hands of local masons, its sparing
+employment is easily explained. To build an apse needs skill, not only
+in planning, but in stone-cutting. The question of vaulting the apse
+increases the difficulty and the expense. These difficulties would not
+trouble masons who had worked at the building of Durham or Ely or
+Winchester; nor would expense trouble the monasteries, which, according
+to the popular idea, were so ready to lavish money on the fabrics of
+parish churches. Many apsidal chancels have disappeared, no doubt; but,
+if we take the bulk of those which remain into account, we shall find
+that they have a habit of occurring in small groups, as in Berkshire,
+where three occur together within a single old rural deanery, and that
+the large majority of the churches in which they are found were not
+monastic property. A few belonged to preceptories of Knights Templars in
+their neighbourhood; and perhaps we may see in their apses a reference
+to the circular form of the Holy Sepulchre. But, as a rule, we may say
+that a band of masons in certain neighbourhoods developed some skill in
+building apses, that money was forthcoming, and that so a few examples
+came into existence. In one curious instance, Langford in Essex, which
+is within easy distance of four or five other apsed churches, there is
+an apse at the west, and there are foundations of another at the east
+end of the building. For this church a Saxon origin has been claimed:
+the plan, at any rate, indicates a survival of a plan once common in
+western Christendom, and especially in the German provinces. In apsed
+churches, like Birkin in Yorkshire, the apse does not spring from points
+directly east of the chancel arch. The arch is wide and lofty; behind it
+is a nearly square rectangular space, which is divided from the apse by
+another arch. At Birkin the apse has ribbed vaulting, which allows the
+walls to be pierced freely for windows. At Copford in Essex, Old
+Bewick, and other places, the roof is a half-dome without ribs: this
+allows for the display of mural painting, but admits of less light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Birkin, Yorkshire: interior.]
+
+Sec. 34. The most important feature in the apsidal plan is the provision of
+the distinctly marked quire space between the nave and chancel. This
+space also occurs in plans where the chancel is rectangular; but in such
+cases it becomes the ground story of a tower. There are famous examples
+of this at Iffley, near Oxford, and Studland in Dorset, where the
+chancels are vaulted. Coln St Denis in Gloucestershire, where the tower
+is of very wide area, and projects noticeably north and south of nave
+and chancel; and Christon in Somerset, are further instances of the
+plan. The tower between nave and chancel, without transepts, is seldom
+found in an apsidal plan. It occurs at Newhaven in Sussex, where there
+is a small apse. Here the plan is virtually that of some small parish
+churches in Normandy, such as Yainville, near Jumieges. The majority of
+such plans in England, however, end in a rectangular chancel. Precedent
+for the plan is, as we have seen, to be found in Saxon churches. At St
+Pancras, Canterbury, we have noticed the westward prolongation of the
+apse: at Brixworth a definite presbytery or quire space was planned, on
+a large scale, between apse and nave. In later Saxon churches, where the
+chancel was rectangular, a tower, with or without transeptal chapels,
+was sometimes built between nave and chancel; and here, although
+externally the division was not always clearly marked, an internal quire
+space was divided off from the nave by the western arch of the tower.
+The aisleless plan, therefore, with a tower above the quire, and a
+rectangular chancel, points to a development along old-fashioned lines,
+even in churches in which, as at Iffley, the builders have acquired
+great skill in expressing themselves in Norman terms. In certain
+districts, as in Gloucestershire, this plan was a favourite one. Even in
+the fourteenth century, Leckhampton church, near Cheltenham, was rebuilt
+in faithful adherence to this tradition. Here the tower is narrower than
+the small chancel, and the nave has a south aisle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Two aisleless plans with central tower: (1) tower
+between nave and chancel; (2) tower over crossing of transepts with nave
+and chancel.]
+
+Sec. 35. In the cases of Dover, Breamore, Stow, and Norton, we have watched
+the gradual evolution of the cruciform plan with central tower. It must
+be noted once more that to the cruciform plan the central tower built on
+piers and arches is essential. It is possible, as in the Gloucestershire
+churches of Almondsbury and Avening, to pierce the north and south walls
+of a tower and add transeptal chapels: the plan will have a cruciform
+appearance, but will still be only an elongated plan with lateral
+additions. It is possible, in a church where there is no central tower
+at all, to extend the side walls at right angles north and south, and
+so form transepts; but here again the transepts have no structural
+reference to a central point in the plan, but are mere widenings of the
+nave or aisles. The thirteenth century aisleless churches of Potterne,
+in Wiltshire, and Acton Burnell, in Shropshire, are both cruciform in
+plan. The church at Potterne was planned throughout with reference to
+the crossing of transepts, nave, and quire, above which its central
+tower rose: the tower space is the central point of the whole. But, at
+Acton Burnell, there is no central tower or space: the body of the
+church consists of a long aisleless nave and an aisleless chancel
+beyond; and the transeptal chapels are simply stuck on, as it were, to
+the eastern part of either wall of the nave. This is at once noticeable
+in elevation, when the chapels are seen to be mere excrescences, with
+roofs lower than the nave. Moreover, where there is a true central
+crossing, with a tower above, such as we find in almost all our
+cathedrals, a transept on either side is necessary for the support of
+the tower. The transepts need not be wholly symmetrical, although in
+most cases they are; but they must be there. On the other hand, where
+there is no central tower, and the crossing is merely apparent, symmetry
+of treatment is quite unnecessary. While there are two transeptal
+chapels of similar size at Acton Burnell, or at Achurch in
+Northamptonshire, there are far more instances in which a less regular
+treatment was adopted. Thus, at Childs Wickham in Gloucestershire, and
+Montacute in Somerset, there is only one transeptal chapel, in each case
+on the north side. At Corbridge in Northumberland, transeptal chapels,
+extended outwards from the aisle walls, are of different lengths. At
+Medbourne in Leicestershire, a long aisleless transeptal chapel was
+built out from the north side of the nave in the thirteenth century.
+Within the next fifty years a south chapel was built, but, instead of
+copying the proportions of the northern chapel symmetrically, the
+builders gave their new chapel a much greater width, and placed its
+altars in an eastern aisle. The plan is thus accidentally cruciform. At
+Acton Burnell and Achurch it is, no doubt, designedly cruciform; at
+Montacute and Childs Wickham, imperfectly cruciform. But all three
+varieties belong to one class, the longitudinal plan with transeptal
+extensions. The structural feature which makes the truly cruciform plan,
+the central tower upon arches and piers, is wanting. And this
+distinction between churches planned from a centre, and churches whose
+plan follows a longitudinal axis, although often overlooked, is
+essential.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. North Newbald, Yorkshire: tower arches, chancel
+and S. transept, from N.W.]
+
+Sec. 36. A noble example of a Norman cruciform church, whose plan has
+suffered little alteration, exists at North Newbald in the east Riding
+of Yorkshire. At each angle of the crossing are masses of shafted piers,
+connected by wide and lofty rounded arches. The nave, as is usual, is
+the longest arm of the four, so that the plan is a Latin cross. It has
+north and south doorways: there are also doorways in the end walls of
+the transepts, placed in the western part of each wall. In the east
+wall of each transept is an arch, now blocked up, the filling being
+pierced with fifteenth century windows. These arches are the openings of
+original apses, which contained the transept altars. The chancel,
+probably always rectangular, was rebuilt in the fifteenth century. As a
+corollary of the true cruciform plan, the four arms are all of equal
+width. At Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon, where the plan of the church was
+greatly altered in the thirteenth century by the addition of aisles, the
+Norman plan was very similar to that of North Newbald. The cruciform
+plan of Melbourne, Derbyshire, with its aisled nave, was probably
+inspired more directly by continental examples. The aisleless chancel
+was vaulted, and ended in an apse, which was squared in later times by
+the addition of a rectangular piece east of its springing points. Out of
+the east walls of the short transepts opened wide apses, the walls of
+which joined the western ends of the walls of the chancel. Thus,
+externally, the plan of the eastern part of the church was closely
+allied to the plan with three apses which, in some of our larger
+churches, was derived from Normandy. At Melbourne, however, there are
+important variations from this plan. The chancel is short, there are no
+quire aisles, and the transept apses were rounded externally. In the
+larger churches of Normandy, the side apses were at the end of
+the quire aisles, and were usually squared externally, while the
+apses projecting from the east walls of the transepts, as at
+Saint-Georges-de-Boscherville, were left rounded. At Newbald and Bampton
+there seems to have been no attempt to give complete unity of design, as
+at Melbourne, to the rectangular chancel and transeptal apses. In any
+case, transeptal apses were the exception in the plans of our Norman
+cruciform churches, although their convenience for holding altars is
+obvious.
+
+Sec. 37. The cruciform plan, beautiful as it is, was never generally
+adopted. It was inconvenient for purposes of public worship, as long as
+the rounded arch remained fashionable. In our own day, even in churches
+where the central tower is carried on high pointed arches, and the view
+of the altar is practically unhindered, the chancel is cut off from the
+nave by the crossing, and the acoustic problem, which in modern church
+planning is so necessary a consideration, is almost insurmountable. In
+the middle ages, this problem was not so acute; but it was undesirable
+that the interior of the chancel should be nearly invisible from the
+nave. At Newbald the tower arches are planned upon a liberal scale: at
+Bampton, on the other hand, where the eastern tower arch is left, the
+others having been rebuilt in the thirteenth century, it is very low.
+The low tower arches at Burford, Oxon, and the narrow arches at St
+Giles, Northampton, are examples of the way in which the supports of
+the Norman central tower interfered with the internal convenience of
+churches. It was not until much later that this difficulty was solved,
+and then only in one or two cases, when the cruciform plan had become
+exceptional. The plans of Bampton, Burford, and Witney, show how the
+builders of west Oxfordshire experimented in cruciform planning. The
+division between chancel and nave is felt much less at Witney than in
+the other two churches; for the great thirteenth century tower and
+spire, resting upon massive piers joined by pointed arches, throw a
+considerable portion of their weight upon nave and transept arcades,
+whose exceptional massiveness gives unity to the whole design. In the
+fifteenth century, however, the rebuilders of the aisleless church of
+Minster Lovell, between Witney and Burford, solved the problem by
+removing the supports of their square central tower from the angles of
+the crossing to points entirely within the church, and building arches
+from the piers thus formed to the angles of the crossing. The
+comparatively light piers, instead of hindering the view, allow of easy
+access from the nave to the transepts, and there is hardly a point in
+the body of the church from which seeing and hearing alike are in any
+way impeded. With the earlier builders, however, the natural course was
+to leave the piers where they were, and endeavour to lighten them as
+far as possible; and, in aisled churches, the difficulties involved
+often led to the abandonment of the complete cruciform plan.
+
+Sec. 38. The cruciform church gives occasion for a brief remark on one
+aspect of medieval building which is often exaggerated. The revival of
+interest in medieval architecture, in the early part of the nineteenth
+century, was accompanied by an insistence on symbolism in the plan and
+design of churches. A minute symbolism, which often was the fruit of
+pious imagination, or was derived from the fancies of post-medieval
+writers on ritual, was read into every detail of the medieval church
+fabric. It is true that, as has been said, some builders worked
+imaginatively, imitating in the round naves of a few churches the
+rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre. Other instances of devout imitation might
+be found, if we looked for them. But the imitation of a concrete model
+is a different thing from translating abstract mysteries into the plan
+and elevation of a building. And, although the ground plan with nave,
+transepts, and chancel, certainly forms a cross; and, although, as time
+went on, the resemblance to the chief symbol of the Christian faith was
+no doubt recognised and valued, the plan itself, as we have shown, came
+into being from entirely natural causes. Where the central tower was
+introduced, the plan was dictated by structural necessity. Where there
+was no central tower, transeptal chapels provided accommodation for
+altars, for which the body of the church afforded no convenience. In
+this and in other cases, medieval builders were impelled by practical
+common sense and the requirements of the services of the church; and
+symbolism, if it was a consideration at all, was purely secondary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+
+I. NAVE, TOWER, AND PORCHES
+
+Sec. 39. The variations of the aisleless plan, which have been indicated,
+are all of which it is capable. Naturally, after the twelfth century,
+many aisleless churches were still built, and are common in country
+districts. In their humblest form we find them in the small churches of
+highland regions, the masonry of which is so rough that their date is
+often a matter of doubt. Sometimes they have been rebuilt, with a
+lengthened chancel, as at West Heslerton, near Scarborough. In many
+instances, we have aisleless country churches rebuilt in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, with western towers. This, uncommon in no part
+of England, is especially common in Norfolk and Suffolk; and some of
+these churches, like Ranworth in Norfolk, have much dignity and
+spaciousness of proportion. In some late Gothic churches the structural
+division between nave and chancel is left out, and the building has been
+deliberately planned as a spacious aisleless rectangle, of which the
+eastern bay is allotted to the chancel. This happens at Temple Balsall
+in Warwickshire and the chapel of South Skirlaugh in Yorkshire.
+Aisleless plans with one or two transeptal chapels are to be found all
+through the middle ages: Acton Burnell represents a thoroughly
+symmetrical employment of this type. On the other hand, aisleless
+cruciform plans with central towers are by no means common after the
+twelfth century. Potterne is a perfect development of this plan in the
+thirteenth century. There is a complete aisleless cruciform plan at
+Othery, near Bridgwater, where the tall central tower is quite out of
+proportion to the humble church above which it rises, and has
+necessitated substantial outer buttressing. Here probably the church was
+rebuilt on earlier foundations, transepts being possibly added. In many
+instances an aisleless cruciform church seems to have been rebuilt on
+the lines of a complete Norman plan. This was with little doubt the case
+at Acaster Malbis, near York, where the church is planned with direct
+relation to the central space, but without a tower; and the foundations
+of earlier walls can be traced all round the building, at the foot of
+the walls built in the fourteenth century. The absence of the tower is
+an anomaly, but is one method of solving the problem of the connexion
+between nave and chancel in the cruciform plan.
+
+Sec. 40. Thus, if here and there we can detect novelties which make for
+improvements upon the aisleless plan, the plan itself is subject to no
+general development upon its own unelastic lines. The real course of
+development is to be traced in the gradual addition of aisles to the
+church. Just as the basilica may have come into existence by the
+addition of aisles to an aisleless building, so the parish church was
+enlarged by the piercing of its walls for columns and arches, and the
+incorporation of aisles with the main building. The usefulness of aisles
+is at once apparent. They afford greater space for the distribution of
+the congregation. The aisleless church may be inconveniently crowded
+from wall to wall: on the other hand, where spaces are left between the
+nave and side walls, the congregation will mass itself in the nave, but
+the aisles will be left free until the nave is filled, and thus there
+will be free access through the side doorways for as long a time as
+possible. Aisles also afford a clear space for processions, and allow
+them to turn inside the church at a certain point and without
+difficulty. In addition to this, aisles form a convenient situation for
+the smaller altars of a church, and, from an early date, were added with
+this view.
+
+Sec. 41. A parish church usually contained more than one altar, even if
+served by a single priest. In the small aisleless church of Patricio in
+Breconshire, in addition to the altar in the chancel, there were two
+smaller altars, which still remain in place, on either side of the
+central doorway of the rood screen. Such altars were dedicated in honour
+of various saints; and mass would be said at them on the festivals of
+those saints and on other occasions. The various popular devotions which
+came into being in the middle ages, led to the multiplication of special
+altars and chapels. In cathedral and abbey churches, where there were
+many priests, the provision of a number of altars was, from the first, a
+necessity. To this is due the adoption, from the beginning, of the
+aisled plan in our larger churches, where it is a direct inheritance
+from the basilican plan. At Norwich and at Gloucester, for instance, the
+apse was provided with an encircling aisle, which gave access to small
+apsidal chapels. The transepts also had eastern chapels ending in apses.
+At Durham each transept had an eastern aisle, containing a row of such
+chapels; and the abnormal development of the transepts in thirteenth
+century churches, as at York, Lincoln, and Salisbury, and the occasional
+provision of an eastern transept, or of a great transverse eastern arm,
+like the Nine Altars at Fountains and Durham, was made with a view to
+the continually growing number of altars and daily masses. In Cistercian
+abbeys, the churches of which were wholly devoted to the uses of the
+monastery, the aisles of the nave were divided into chapels by
+transverse walls. In the secular cathedral of Chichester, where the
+aisles had to be left free, outer aisles, similarly divided, were made.
+Great French cathedrals, like Amiens, not only have a complicated series
+of chapels opening from the aisles of the apse, but have their naves
+lined with chapels, which were formed by removing the outer walls of the
+aisles to a level with the outer face of the buttresses. The ordinary
+parish church had no need of these elaborate arrangements, although in
+towns and in districts where money was plentiful and its possessors
+recognised its true source, plans hardly less spacious than those of the
+cathedral and monastery churches came into being. But it is obvious
+that, in a church where there were no more than two or three altars,
+space would be gained by removing them from the body of the church to
+the end of the aisles. In some twelfth century churches there were
+probably altars against the wall on either side of the narrow chancel
+arch; and, in later days, as at Ranworth and Patricio, when the rood
+screen filled the lower part of a broad arch, altars were placed against
+the screen. In the first case, the chancel arch might have been widened;
+in the second case, the sides of the screen would have been freed, by
+the addition of aisles into which the altars could have been removed.
+
+Sec. 42. The most common plan of the aisled church is formed by an aisled
+nave with a long aisleless chancel, western tower, and south porch. So
+common is this that it may be spoken of as the normal plan of the larger
+English parish church. There must have been, we already have said, a
+very large number of aisleless churches in England at the time of the
+Conquest. Where Norman builders reconstructed parish churches, they
+showed a distinct preference for the aisleless plan. But, in many
+churches, built about or soon after the beginning of the twelfth
+century, aisles were planned and executed. The walls of earlier churches
+were entirely taken down, and new arcades built in their place, not
+necessarily on the precise line of the old foundations. Aisled twelfth
+century naves on a magnificent scale may be seen, for example, at
+Melbourne in Derbyshire, and Sherburn-in-Elmet, between York and Leeds.
+Both places were important episcopal residences: Melbourne belonged to
+the bishops of Carlisle; the manor of Sherburn was the head of a barony
+of the archbishops of York, who, all through the middle ages, did much
+to promote architecture on their domains. Another twelfth century nave
+of great magnificence is that of Norham-on-Tweed, which belonged to the
+cathedral priory of Durham; and, although we must not assume that it was
+built at the expense of the monastery, it doubtless owes its stately
+proportions to the influence of the mother house. Less imposing in
+elevation, but richer in refined detail, are such aisled naves as those
+of Long Sutton in south Lincolnshire, and Walsoken in west Norfolk,
+which belong to the later part of the twelfth century. The plans in each
+case are very regular; and the new arcades were probably built, at any
+rate in part, on older foundations. These naves reach the extent,
+unusual in a parish church, of seven bays. The nave of Norham is of five
+bays. Melbourne has five bays, but the plan of the church was as
+exceptional at the west as at the east end. Western towers were planned,
+but not completed, at the end of either aisle: this feature, probably
+imitated from Southwell minster, was also contemplated at Bakewell in
+Derbyshire. Between the towers was an extra western bay of the nave,
+divided into two stories, the lower forming a vaulted return aisle, the
+upper forming a gallery. There are only four bays at Sherburn, but here
+the aisles were continued as far as the western face of the tower. The
+tower is thus engaged within the aisles, and its vaulted ground floor
+forms, like the western bay at Melbourne, a return to them.
+
+Sec. 43. But, when the question of adding aisles to a church arose, the
+builders were met by the difficulty that the church was wanted
+constantly for service. The taking down of the walls and the building of
+new arcades interfered with this necessary use of the fabric. In our
+own day a congregation, driven out by builders or restorers, can resort
+to a school room or mission room. In the middle ages, these alternatives
+were unknown; and the church was positively indispensable. With this in
+view, the builders were obliged to add their aisles without touching
+more of the main fabric than they could help. Usually, then, they took
+the length of the existing aisleless building for the length of their
+aisles. They then set out the aisles upon either side of the church,
+building the outer walls, and dividing them into bays by external
+buttresses. Then, opposite each buttress, they proceeded to break
+through the walls of the church. Leaving a piece of the old wall to
+serve as a footing for each column, they built up the columns in the
+thickness of the wall, the masonry being gradually removed as each rose
+in height. The arches were made in the same way, the wall being removed
+by degrees until the two sides of each arch met at the key-stone. The
+aisles were then roofed, and, finally, the masses of wall which still
+remained beneath each arch were broken down, and the nave and aisles
+thrown into one. The old masonry could be removed through the doorways
+of the aisles; and sometimes one of the end walls of either aisle was
+left unbuilt to the last, so that the masons could have free entrance
+for new, and exit for old, material. The old walls of the nave, above
+the columns and arches, were left untouched. In this way the upper parts
+of the walls of several Saxon naves--more, probably, than we have
+opportunity of discovering--remain to us. The north wall at Geddington
+in Northamptonshire is the most striking instance. The practice was so
+common as to be general. In hundreds of country churches the plinths on
+which the columns of the nave rest are probably pieces of the foundation
+of the older wall, refaced, or even left in the rough. Instances are
+nearly as common in which the heads of the new arches have blocked
+earlier windows; for, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when glass
+was rare and expensive, and the openings were usually closed by latticed
+shutters, the windows were set high in the wall. There is a remarkable
+example of the retention of old work at Seamer, near Scarborough. To
+this fine twelfth century aisleless church a north aisle was added in
+the fifteenth century. The builders, possibly wishing to avoid expense,
+employed the old method, which in those days of prosperity and general
+rebuilding had fallen into disuse. In order not to interfere with the
+older windows, they deliberately made their arches very low: the result
+is that, from the interior of the aisle, one can see that the old wall
+was almost entirely kept, the new columns being built up on the line of
+the flat pilaster buttresses, which were left unaltered above the
+capitals. Sometimes, the connexion between nave and aisles was made by
+cutting arches at intervals in the wall, without building columns. The
+north arcade at Billingham in Durham, and the thirteenth century arcades
+at Tytherington in Gloucestershire consist of arches with large masses
+of the earlier wall left between them. Such a method was economical, as
+much less dressed stone was required; and we find it employed at Copford
+in Essex, where good building stone was hard to get. Nevertheless, it
+prevented the free circulation of light from the windows of the aisles,
+and practically shut off the aisles from the church.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Gretton, Northants: arcade of nave showing
+blocked window head.]
+
+Sec. 44. There is one obvious consequence of the setting out of aisles on
+either side of an existing building which, although an imperfection in
+itself, contributes greatly to the variety of the parish church plan.
+The builders cannot see both their aisles at one and the same time: the
+older church comes in between. In fact, until the nave and aisles are
+actually joined, at the close of the work, by the breaking down of the
+walls beneath the arches, there can be no opportunity of appreciating
+the full effect of the work. There is a famous instance at Beverley
+minster of the mistakes to which the presence of the older building may
+lead. The aisles of the nave were set out in the fourteenth century on
+either side of an older and shorter nave. The south aisle was set out
+first, the width of the eastern bay being measured from a new buttress
+in the angle of nave and transept. On the north side there was a
+thirteenth century buttress in this position: the builders, in setting
+out their north aisle, overlooked the fact that this buttress was of
+less projection than the newly built one on the other side, with the
+result that their buttress measurements throughout varied on both sides,
+while the standard of width between the buttresses, which had been
+employed on the south side, was retained. Consequently, as the columns,
+in a vaulted church, have to be built in line with the buttresses of the
+corresponding aisle walls, the columns were not opposite one another,
+and the discrepancy increased as the church advanced westward. When the
+builders got clear of the intervening building, in the western bays of
+the nave, they were able to rectify their mistake slightly; but the
+effect is unpleasantly noticeable in the obliquity of the transverse
+arches of the vaulting.
+
+Sec. 45. If errors like this could take place in churches where the width
+of the bays of the aisles was calculated, they were much more likely to
+take place where builders worked with less accurate ideas of
+measurement. In an unvaulted church, where the pressure of the roof is
+not a serious factor in the construction, the exact correspondence of
+pier to buttress need not be taken into account; and there are many
+churches in which the spacing of the aisles is quite independent of that
+of the arcades. This happens at Melbourne, where the church was not
+planned for stone vaulting. The builders seem to have thought that they
+could get in six bays between the transept and the space planned for
+one of the western towers; but found that, on the measurements they had
+adopted, there was room only for five. They corrected their
+miscalculation by broadening the division of the wall between the fourth
+and fifth bay of the aisles. When they came to build the arcades, they
+were conscious of their previous error, and planned them in five equal
+bays irrespective of the plan of the aisles. In churches of the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, especially in districts like Norfolk
+or south Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding was done, the regularity of
+plan is often remarkable. The nave of the famous church of Heckington,
+near Sleaford, was planned with an exact correspondence between aisles
+and arcades: pier is opposite buttress, window opposite window. Islip
+and Brampton Ash in Northamptonshire show an equal accuracy. But, while
+such agreement is desirable, it is neither necessary nor general. And,
+where the arcades are broken through earlier walls, the correspondence
+is seldom very precise. The central line of the east walls of the
+aisles, as set out first, will usually correspond to a line drawn across
+the centre of the chancel arch: similarly, the line of the west walls
+will be an extension of the west wall of the nave, or of a line drawn
+across the tower arch. The aisles will be spaced into as many equal, or
+nearly equal bays, as can be got in between the buttresses at either
+end. When, however, the building of the arcade is taken in hand, the
+responds or half-piers at either end will seldom be built directly
+against the piers of the chancel arch, or against the west wall of the
+nave; but projecting pieces of the old walls will be left as a backing
+to them. It follows that, although the arcade may be divided into the
+same number of bays as the aisles, the standard of spacing will be
+different, and consequently, unless a very regular system of planning is
+adopted, the piers will not be exactly opposite the solid portions of
+the aisle walls, and consequently the centres of the arches will be out
+of line with the centres of the windows. Again, it may be that, by
+accident or design, the backing for the responds may project more on one
+side of the nave than on the other, at either or both ends. The result
+will be that the piers of one arcade will be out of line with those of
+the arcade opposite. That discrepancies of this kind were sometimes the
+result of intention cannot be denied; but there is generally some
+practical reason to be found for the intention, and the discrepancies
+themselves were a _pis aller_ which the builders would have avoided, if
+they could. That deliberate irregularity with which medieval masons are
+sometimes credited is a fancy, which careful consideration of the
+circumstances will dispel.
+
+Sec. 46. Hitherto we have spoken of the aisled nave as though both aisles
+were planned at one and the same time. This, however, was by no means
+always the case. At Gretton in Northamptonshire, the north aisle was
+built soon after the beginning of the twelfth century: the south aisle
+followed twenty or thirty years later. The north arcade at Northallerton
+is of massive twelfth century work, with rounded arches: the south
+arcade was added in the thirteenth century, and has slender columns with
+pointed arches. In such cases, the north aisle may have been built
+first, to avoid interference with the burial ground south of the church.
+Very often only one aisle was added. The little church of Whitwell,
+Rutland, has a south aisle, added in the fourteenth century, with a
+chapel at its east end. No north aisle was built: but a drain in the
+north wall of the nave shows that there was a third altar against the
+north side of the rood screen. Usually, when one aisle was built long
+after another, the spacing of the new arcade was made to correspond with
+that of the old. If the old arcade had heavy twelfth century columns,
+the new one, with its lighter columns, would have broader arches. But it
+sometimes happens that the old spacing was disregarded, for very good
+reasons. The north arcade of Middleton Tyas church, in north Yorkshire,
+consists of six bays: the columns are heavy, the arches low and round
+headed, and very narrow. The interior of the church must have been very
+dark; and the builders of the south aisle, in the fourteenth century,
+aimed at throwing more light upon it. They therefore planned their new
+arcade, with broad pointed arches springing from octagonal columns, in
+four instead of six bays, and so, from broad windows in the aisle,
+introduced the necessary light. Something of the same kind happened at
+Theddingworth in Leicestershire: the effect is, of course, one-sided,
+but in both cases the light admitted enhances the merits of the earlier
+arcade, which, until then, had to be taken on trust.
+
+Sec. 47. But there are further instances--and these, perhaps, are the most
+instructive--where aisles were not merely built at two different
+periods, but where the growth of one or both aisles was gradual. As an
+instance of this, may be cited the beautiful church of Raunds in
+Northamptonshire. Raunds seems to have been one of those cases in which
+the Norman chancel and nave were of the same width, and possibly were
+undivided by any chancel arch. In the thirteenth century the west tower
+and spire were built, and a broad south aisle was added to the nave.
+This aisle was of four bays, and the point at which it stopped probably
+marked the dividing line between the nave and chancel. However, the
+builders certainly intended to carry on the aisle eastward, as a south
+chapel to the chancel, which they now rebuilt and lengthened. Early in
+the fourteenth century, the south aisle was continued eastward, an
+arcade of five bays being added to the four bays already existing. The
+new bays were made rather narrower than those in the earlier part of
+the arcade. A strange feature of the new work was the insertion of a
+chancel arch, the south pier of which bisects one of the new arches.
+Thus, while three bays and a half of the new arcade belong to the
+chancel and quire, a bay and a half belong to the nave. The arch
+dividing the south aisle from the chancel chapel springs from the pier
+between the end of the old arcade and the inserted pier of the chancel
+arch. At the same time, the outer wall of the south aisle seems to have
+been practically rebuilt, although much of the older work was retained.
+There may have been a thirteenth century north aisle as well. Whether
+this was the case or no, a new north aisle and arcade were built during
+the fourteenth century. The aisle was set out in seven bays, six of
+which contained broad three-light windows, while a north doorway was
+made in the third bay from the west end. The east wall was built on
+foundations in a line with the chancel arch, while the west wall was in
+a line with the tower arch and west wall of the south aisle. It is
+obvious, therefore, that the planning of the new aisle was totally
+different from that of the older aisle and chapel. However, when the
+builders came to their arcade, instead of building it in seven bays, as
+the new aisle demanded, they built it in five, setting their new columns
+in a line with those on the opposite side. But while, on the south side,
+there was an awkward half-bay between the end of the arcade and the
+chancel arch, a solid piece of wall was left between the north pier of
+the chancel arch and the eastern respond of the new arcade. A compromise
+was thus effected between the aisles, and an appearance of regularity
+was ensured. Directly, however, one begins to examine the plan of the
+church, and to trace the transverse lines from window to window, and
+buttress to buttress, it will be found that only in one place can a line
+be drawn which will pass straight from the centre of one buttress to
+that of the buttress opposite, and will pass through the centre of the
+intervening columns on its way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Plan of Raunds church, Northants.]
+
+Sec. 48. It already has been shown that builders were very unwilling, in
+making their additions to churches, to destroy old work altogether. At
+times they displayed an extraordinary conservatism in their re-use of
+old material in their new work. This was not invariable. In the splendid
+churches of south Lincolnshire, during the fourteenth century, their aim
+seems to have been complete rebuilding; and such examples as the
+magnificent nave at Swaton, near Sleaford, or the neighbouring church of
+Billingborough, show how old work must have been swept away by the
+enthusiasm for lofty arcades, elaborately traceried windows, and walls
+of dressed stone-work. On the other hand, half the charm of the hardly
+less beautiful churches of Northamptonshire is the result of the clever
+way in which the masons dove-tailed all the old stone-work which was
+worth preserving into their new additions. Such churches as Tansor and
+Oundle are, for that reason, unexcelled in interest, offering, as they
+do, almost inexhaustible problems as to the development of their plan.
+In all parts of England we find that builders, whatever else they
+destroyed, carefully kept, as a general rule, the doorways, and
+especially the south doorway, of the buildings which they enlarged. This
+accounts for the large number of handsome Norman doorways which remain
+in the walls of aisles obviously later than the doorways themselves. At
+Birkin in Yorkshire, the south aisle was not built till the middle of
+the fourteenth century, but the doorway was removed to its new position
+from the wall of the aisleless church. One very exceptional case occurs
+at Felton in Northumberland. Towards the beginning of the thirteenth
+century, the west part of the south wall of the church was cut through,
+a chapel was added, and, east of the chapel, a porch was built. Rather
+more than fifty or sixty years later, it was determined to add a south
+aisle the full length of the nave. The width of the aisle was taken from
+that of the existing chapel and porch. To connect the chapel with the
+new work, the side walls of the porch were cut through. The outer
+doorway of the porch became the new south doorway, while the inner
+doorway was kept unaltered, as an arch in the new arcade.
+
+Sec. 49. Features which have been touched upon in connexion with Raunds
+bring us to two new features in the plan--the rebuilding of aisles and
+the lengthening of churches westward. In most parish churches, aisles,
+when they were added at first, were extremely narrow. The west wall of
+Hallaton church in Leicestershire, for example, shows that, in the
+fourteenth century, originally narrow aisles were heightened and
+widened. The roof lines of the earlier aisles remain; they were clearly
+under the same roof as the nave of the church, and had very low side
+walls. This was not always the case. At Raunds the thirteenth century
+south aisle was always broad and lofty, and must have had its own roof
+from the first. And, as the principles of Gothic construction became
+more familiar, and the larger churches began to exercise a more
+wide-spread influence upon the parish church, aisles began to increase
+in breadth and elevation. The small and narrow windows of churches of
+the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries gave way to the broad
+mullioned and traceried windows of fully developed Gothic work. For
+these, with their advantage of increased light, more headway was
+necessary. Aisle walls were consequently heightened or altogether
+rebuilt. The acutely pointed roof of the nave could no longer be
+continued downwards to cover these higher aisles. The aisle was
+consequently covered with a lean-to roof, or with a separate gabled roof
+of its own. A free increase in width was thus possible. The church of
+Appleton-le-Street in Yorkshire has a short nave with north and south
+aisles. The north aisle, added in the early part of the thirteenth
+century, is narrow, and the roof of the nave was continued over it. The
+south aisle, which was probably rebuilt a little before 1300, is broader
+and has a separate lean-to roof. The wide east window of this aisle
+could not have been introduced, had the south aisle been built to match
+the scale of the north aisle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Plan of Harringworth church, Northants.]
+
+Sec. 50. The introduction of more light, however, was not the only reason
+for the rebuilding and heightening of aisles. The east end of an
+aisle, as has been said, provided a convenient place for one of the side
+altars of the church. This was the case even in the narrow aisles of the
+twelfth and thirteenth century, many of which, like the north aisle of
+Great Easton church in Leicestershire, provided with a drain, aumbry, or
+a corbel for a statue, bear witness to the existence of a contemporary
+altar. At Harringworth in Northamptonshire there had been an aisleless
+church, to which a tower had been added at the end of the twelfth, and
+aisles early in the thirteenth century. On 24 October 1305 Edward I
+granted letters patent to William la Zouche, by which he had licence to
+assign a certain amount of land to two chantry chaplains in the chapel
+of All Saints. This may have been his private chapel, but was possibly
+in the church. A little earlier than this, to judge by the character of
+the architecture, a new north aisle had been built, with a new altar at
+the east end. Very soon after the granting of the licence, it would
+appear that the whole of the south arcade was taken down, and a new
+south aisle and arcade built. The work was done in a very conservative
+spirit, for the old thirteenth century porch and inner doorway were
+rebuilt on the new site, and an old string-course was re-used
+internally, beneath the new windows. The piscina and the three sedilia,
+which belonged to the altar at the end of the aisle, remain in the
+south wall, and there are corbels for statues on either side of the east
+window. However, rebuilding did not stop here; for it seems that, during
+the next few years, the north arcade was entirely rebuilt so as nearly
+to match that on the south. Thus the work, beginning with the north
+aisle, and extending over some thirty or forty years, finished on the
+side on which it began. Numerous examples of a closely parallel kind,
+fortified by documentary evidence, might be given.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Plans of Grantham church: (1) probable
+arrangement about 1190; (2) at beginning of 14th century.]
+
+Sec. 51. The rebuilding of the south aisle, about 1313, at Newark, was the
+prelude to an entire rebuilding of the church, which extended over many
+years. The builders began by setting out their aisles as usual, and by
+the middle of the fourteenth century the south aisle was finished, and
+the lower courses of the north aisle and the new aisled chancel were
+built. However, in 1349, the Black Death interrupted the work. The north
+aisle and chancel were not completed, and the new arcades of nave and
+chancel were not built until the fifteenth century. In this case there
+were certainly older, and almost certainly narrower aisles. The
+rebuilding included aisles on a larger scale, and new internal arcades
+whose spacing corresponded to the spacing of the aisle walls. All
+systematic rebuilding, in the full development of Gothic art, began with
+the planning of the aisles. The naves of Cirencester and Northleach
+churches, rebuilt at the end of the middle ages, are examples of this
+method. The arcades at Cirencester are known to have been built about
+1514-5; but the aisles were obviously completed first, and their
+remodelling may have been begun in the second quarter of the fifteenth
+century. At Northleach the nave was finished about 1458; and there seems
+to have been a break of some years between the building of the aisles
+and the destruction of the older church which, no doubt, lay within
+them. But it did not always happen that the full intention of the
+builders was carried out. One of the most splendid schemes which we
+possess for the enlargement of a parish church was the great enterprise
+begun at Grantham soon after the middle of the thirteenth century. An
+aisleless Norman church had been enlarged at the end of the twelfth
+century by the addition of aisles to the nave, the connexion being
+formed by arcades of rounded arches springing from very elegant
+clustered columns. Above the arcades were low clerestories, lighted by
+round-headed windows. About 1230, the neighbouring church of Newark was
+taken in hand by masons, who built a new west tower up to a certain
+height, and, as an afterthought, planned aisles to engage the tower
+completely. As we have seen, the building of the aisles at Newark upon
+their present scale did not begin till much later. The work of
+rebuilding at Grantham was clearly inspired by that already begun at
+Newark. A tower was planned on a site much to the west of the nave, and
+was engaged within very broad aisles. The tower and north aisle were set
+out first. The north aisle was divided into seven bays, with a large
+traceried window in each bay, the western bay being much wider between
+the buttresses than the rest, owing to the greater space taken up by the
+tower and its piers internally. The remaining six bays were set out with
+equal widths between the buttresses, the middle bay of the aisle being
+covered by a porch. The eastern bay overlapped the western part of the
+aisleless chancel, its western buttress being in a line with the
+division between chancel and nave. The western bay of the south aisle
+was set out about the same time, and there was, no doubt, an intention
+of proceeding with the rest on the same lines as in the north aisle.
+There can also be little doubt that the builders intended to take down
+the old arcades, and build new arcades, with spacing corresponding to
+that of their aisles, and to lengthen the chancel eastwards, while
+bringing its western portion into the nave. The tower and north aisle
+were built on the intended scale; and, when the tower had risen to a
+certain height, the ambition of the builders was fired to add to it an
+extra stage, hitherto uncontemplated, below the spire with which it was
+to be crowned. This project of giving their church a tower and stone
+spire, which remained, for many years, the loftiest in England,
+evidently curtailed the full accomplishment of their earlier plan. The
+columns of the old arcades were kept, and the tower was connected by
+arcades of two bays with the angles of the west wall of the old church;
+while an arch was pierced through the north wall of the chancel, to give
+access to the east bay of the new aisle. The new arches were pointed: in
+order to match them, the older round-headed arches were taken down, and
+pointed arches built, which cut into and blocked the clerestory windows.
+This change was made with great economy of material, the springing
+stones of some of the old arches being kept to afford footing for the
+new. When the south aisle was seriously begun, about 1300, similar
+economy was shown. Four bays, in addition to the western bay, were
+spaced out, without regard to the plan of the north aisle. The fourth
+bay from the west was covered by a porch, smaller than that on the north
+side; and the east wall of the aisle was probably built on a line with
+the division between nave and chancel. Half a century later, the east
+wall was taken down, and the south aisle was extended to the full length
+of the chancel; but this later development was not contemplated by the
+thirteenth century builders. These hesitations and changes, consequent
+upon the expense entailed by the north aisle and by the alteration in
+the elevation of the tower and spire, make Grantham second to no English
+church in interest.
+
+Sec. 52. Grantham also provides us with a lengthened nave. The position of
+its earlier west wall is clearly shown by the masses of masonry which
+occur between the eastern bay of the new, and western bay of the old,
+arcade on either side. The responds on the eastern side of these pieces
+of wall are twelfth century work: on the west side, they belong to the
+later part of the thirteenth century. Such lengthening was probably very
+common in later Gothic times, and we may surmise that it took place in
+many instances where arcades were entirely rebuilt, and no visible trace
+of the process was left. However, there are many churches in which one
+or more extra bays have been added to the nave, and the join of the old
+and new work is marked as at Grantham. Whaplode church in south
+Lincolnshire had its early twelfth century nave lengthened by three bays
+about 1180. At Colsterworth, near Grantham, a western bay was added to
+the nave about the same time, and an earlier north aisle lengthened.
+Above the piece of wall which occurs between the older and newer work,
+the quoins of the aisleless church remain entire. Usually, as at
+Grantham, the lengthening of the nave was undertaken in connexion with a
+new western tower, which was built up outside the church, and then
+connected with it by one or two bays of arcading. Almost contemporary
+with the tower and spire of Grantham are those of Tilney All Saints,
+near Lynn. Here a single bay was added west of the late twelfth century
+nave; and, as no new aisles were contemplated, the old arcades, with
+their rounded arches, were left intact. Bubwith in Yorkshire, and
+Caunton in Nottinghamshire, are later examples of churches where the
+tower was built west of the end of an earlier nave, and a bay was built
+to connect it with the older work. Sometimes, as at Gretton in
+Northamptonshire, where the slope of a steep hill forbade extension far
+to the west, a new tower was built only a few feet beyond the limit of
+the old nave. In such a case, the side walls of the nave might be
+carried solid westwards to meet the tower, or, as happened at Gretton,
+narrow arches might be made between the tower and the west end of the
+older wall. The beautiful tower and spire at Oundle were built just
+outside the west wall of the thirteenth century nave; and were doubtless
+intended to be followed by a complete rebuilding of the arcades--such a
+rebuilding as took place at Lavenham in Suffolk, towards the end of the
+fifteenth century. The idea, however, was abandoned, and the space
+between the arcades and the tower filled in solid with rather rough
+masonry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Gretton, Northants: extension of 12th century
+arcade to meet 15th century tower.]
+
+Sec. 53. The position of the western tower in the plan is normally at the
+west end of the nave, with which it is connected by an arch, low at
+first, but loftier as time goes on, until, in later Gothic churches, its
+height frequently is nearly that of the whole nave. The remaining three
+walls are usually external, and clear of the aisles. But sometimes,
+owing to a freak of planning, or, more frequently, owing to the
+conditions of the site, the tower is, as at Bibury, at the west end of
+one of the aisles. At Gedling in Nottinghamshire the tower and spire are
+at the end of the north aisle. The tower of St Michael's, Cambridge, is
+at the west end of the south aisle: probably the western extension of
+the church was prevented by the neighbourhood of the street, a
+circumstance which often accounts for the irregularity of plan in some
+town churches. At St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, built on the edge of the
+"red cliff" from which it takes its name, the tower and spire are at the
+end of the north aisle: had they been planned in the usual place, a full
+bay of the nave would have been sacrificed. The tower at Spalding was
+planned, in the first instance, to stand against the south wall of the
+west bay of the south aisle: subsequently a new south aisle was built
+east of it. One of the most curious instances is that of St Mary's at
+Leicester, where the tower, subsequently, as at Spalding, heightened by
+a spire, was planned in the thirteenth century, outside a very narrow
+south aisle. A tower at the west end of the nave would have encroached
+upon the inner ward of the adjacent castle. The chancel of St Mary's was
+used for collegiate services, and parochial accommodation was limited.
+Towards the end of the thirteenth century, a very wide south aisle, a
+parish church in itself, was built the full length of the nave, and
+overlapping the chancel at the east end. The tower was left standing on
+piers entirely within the west end of the new aisle. It may be added
+that, where towers occur at the end of aisles, they seldom project
+beyond the west wall of the nave, but open into the nave by an arch in
+the north or south wall, as the case may be. Plans with two western
+towers, as at Melbourne or St Margaret's at Lynn, are of very rare
+occurrence; and, where they are found, the plan was probably designed on
+more ambitious lines than those of the ordinary parish church.
+
+Sec. 54. The plan in which the western tower is engaged within the
+aisles--that is, where the aisles are brought up flush with the west end
+of the church--is not very common. Still, instances occur in all parts
+of England. At Grantham, the plan is deliberate. It was imitated, as has
+been said, from Newark, where the side walls of the tower had been
+pierced with arches as an after-thought. Newark, in turn, may have taken
+the design from Tickhill in south Yorkshire; and the design at Tickhill
+may have been taken from the early and unpretentious example at
+Sherburn-in-Elmet. Grantham probably suggested other similar designs,
+such as Ewerby, near Sleaford. Several of our finest late Gothic
+churches, like St Nicholas at Newcastle, have plans in which the aisles
+are continued up to the west face of the tower. The method affords full
+development to the aisles, and, as at Sileby in Leicestershire, has an
+imposing interior effect. Outside, however, the aisles crowd the base of
+the tower too much, and the fine effect of a lofty, free standing tower
+is lost. Sometimes aisles were extended westwards, so as to engage an
+earlier tower, as at Sleaford, where the low tower and spire are almost
+overwhelmed by a pair of wide fourteenth century aisles. At Brigstock
+and Winterton, late Saxon towers have been left without alteration
+inside aisles which have been brought westward in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. The nave of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, was much
+widened in the fourteenth century, and a small tower and spire of
+earlier date were brought entirely within the new nave, as happened in
+the south aisle at St Mary's, Leicester, and were left without
+sufficient abutment. As a consequence, the arches of the ground story
+had to be strengthened about a century later with additional masonry.
+Cases occur, as at Coln Rogers in Gloucestershire, where a tower has
+been built within the west end of an earlier church. In most of such
+instances, the churchyard boundary probably allowed of no further
+building westward. The nearness of the churchyard boundary also seems to
+have given cause to a peculiarity which may be seen at Wollaton, near
+Nottingham, Dedham in Essex, and in a few other places, where the west
+tower is in its usual position, but is pierced from north to south by an
+archway. It is possible that this gave facility to processions, which
+could thus pass round the church without leaving consecrated ground. The
+tower of old All Saints, Cambridge, now destroyed, projected over the
+public foot-way of the street, which passed through its ground story;
+while St John's, Bristol, is built on the city wall, and the tower and
+spire, which it shared with the adjoining church of St Lawrence, are
+over the south gate of the city.
+
+Sec. 55. Sometimes, as at Oundle, the tower was rebuilt with a view to the
+reconstruction of the whole church. But, as also at Oundle, the design
+was often abandoned, or was altered. The magnificent tower of St
+Michael's, Coventry, was built, between 1373 and 1394, at the west end
+of an older nave: its spire was not begun till 1430. Whether the
+rebuilding of the nave was contemplated when the tower was begun, it is
+impossible to say. A new nave was actually begun in 1432, and finished
+in 1450. A thoroughfare immediately south of the church prevented
+extension on that side. The old south porch was retained in place as the
+principal entrance, so that the line of the wall of the south aisle
+follows closely that of the original church. The new south arcade was
+set out, not in a line with the south-east buttress of the tower, but
+somewhat to the north of it, so that the buttress is external; while,
+for the width of the nave, a space approximating to twice the internal
+breadth of the tower was taken. The tower is thus placed almost wholly
+south of the central axis of the nave produced westward. Here, once
+more, we may note the influence of site on the plan.
+
+Sec. 56. The people's entrance to the church was ordinarily through a
+porch, covering the north or south doorway of the nave. The south
+doorway is usually covered by a porch. Frequently, as at Hallaton in
+Leicestershire, or Henbury in Gloucestershire, there is a north as well
+as a south porch. At Warmington, near Oundle, where there is a beautiful
+doorway in the west tower, the vaulted south porch is the principal
+entrance; but there is also a somewhat smaller north porch, also
+vaulted. The chief porch at Grantham is on the north side; but there is
+also a large porch on the south. At Newark, there is only a south porch,
+on the side of the church next the market place. The south porch of St
+Mary Redcliffe, at Bristol, is the ordinary entrance of the church; but
+the chief entrance of the building, until the fifteenth century, was on
+the north side, at the head of the abrupt slope towards the city. In the
+fourteenth century, this entrance was covered by a large and lofty
+octagonal porch, approached by a flight of steps. There is an octagonal
+south porch at Chipping Norton, and a hexagonal south porch at Ludlow.
+The magnificent porches of the fifteenth century, as at Burford in
+Oxfordshire, Northleach in Gloucestershire, Worstead in Norfolk,
+Walberswick in Suffolk, St Mary Magdalene's at Taunton, or Yatton in
+Somerset, are usually on the south side of the church.
+
+Sec. 57. The positions of the porch and doorway in the wall of the aisle
+vary. At St Nicholas, Newcastle, where the west tower is engaged within
+the aisles, there is a porch in the western bay of each aisle. Usually,
+however, the porch will be found in the second bay of one of the aisles,
+counting from the west end. Sometimes, especially in larger churches,
+the porch occurs a bay further east. At Warmington and at Grantham, the
+two porches of either church are nearly opposite each other, and project
+approximately from the centre of the walls of the aisles. Where the
+porch has been pushed eastward in this way, the west end of the aisle
+seems to have been occupied by one or more chapels. There are
+indications of this at Warmington; while, in the neighbouring church of
+Tansor, where the porch is in the usual place, but the aisle has been
+lengthened somewhat to the west, there was certainly an altar west, as
+well as east, of the porch. There was at least one chantry chapel west
+of the south porch at Grantham. The south porch at Ludlow covers the
+wall of the third bay of the aisle from the west: here there were two
+chapels in the western part of the aisle. There was another chapel at
+the west end of the north aisle. It can hardly be proved that the
+position of porches was actually planned with this use of the aisles in
+view; but there can be no doubt that advantage was frequently taken of
+the space thus added to the aisle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE AISLED PARISH CHURCH
+
+II. TRANSEPTS AND CHANCEL
+
+
+Sec. 58. The aisled nave, with its usual appendages of porch and tower, has
+now been described at length. Before we proceed to the development of
+the chancel, the transepts or transeptal chapels of the parish church
+invite discussion. The distinction between true transepts, in churches
+with central towers, and the transeptal chapels which are nothing more
+than northern and southern extensions of the aisles, has been made
+already; and it has been seen that the cruciform plan with central tower
+reached a very full state of perfection during the twelfth century.
+Further dignity was given to some cruciform churches by the addition of
+aisles to the transepts. St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, the plan of which
+is that of a large collegiate or cathedral rather than a parish church,
+has transepts with eastern and western aisles: there is no central
+tower, but the transepts form a definite cross-arm to the church, which
+was designed with regard to the central point formed by the crossing of
+a longitudinal and a transverse axis. There are few churches in England
+as beautiful as that of Melton Mowbray, with its aisled transepts and
+tower above the crossing: had the chancel only been planned on a larger
+scale and with aisles, the unrivalled beauty and dignity of St Mary
+Redcliffe might have been approached here. The cruciform plan with
+central tower is the most noble of all church plans, when carried out by
+builders with large ideas. Churches like Ludlow, Nantwich, Holy Trinity
+and St John's at Coventry, St Mary's at Beverley, excite an admiration
+which is the natural result of the fact that the plan, instead of
+straggling in the ordinary way from east to west, is brought to a focus
+beneath the central tower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Plan of 13th century church: west tower, south
+porch, unequal transeptal chapels.]
+
+Sec. 59. Apart, however, from the tower above the crossing, the transept
+had a value of its own. It gave additional room for the side altars of
+the church. The transeptal chapels at Worth allowed of greater width for
+the chancel arch: the altars, which naturally would have stood against
+the wall on either side of the chancel arch, could be placed within
+these excrescences from the north and south walls of the church, and the
+central space was thus left clear. This method of extension of the
+church by adding north and south chapels to the nave was pursued
+throughout the middle ages. The thirteenth century plan of Acton Burnell
+is virtually identical with the tenth or eleventh century plan of
+Worth. In aisled churches, such transeptal additions are simply
+outgrowths of the aisle walls, and were not necessarily planned with any
+regard to the spacing of the arcades of the nave. They may, of course,
+be placed symmetrically at the east end of the aisles, the width of each
+chapel corresponding to the width of the arch of the arcade which is
+opposite its opening. Thus Exton church in Rutland, rebuilt about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, has north and south transeptal
+chapels whose width is that of the eastern bay of each arcade. A
+transverse arch was thrown across each aisle at its junction with the
+adjacent chapel. Here the chapels form quasi-transepts in perfect union
+with the design of nave and aisles. Symmetrical plans in which it is
+clear at a glance that the transeptal chapels are developments of the
+aisles, and have no necessary relation to the nave, are those of
+Kegworth in Leicestershire, rebuilt in the fourteenth century, and
+Aylsham, Cawston, and Sall in Norfolk, which belong to the fifteenth
+century. But even more obvious than these are the plans in which
+transeptal chapels have been thrown out at different periods, or even at
+one and the same period, without the least regard to symmetry. A small
+aisleless nave at Stretton in Rutland received a north aisle about the
+beginning of the thirteenth century. Soon after, the eastern part of the
+side walls was taken down, and chapels built out to north and south. The
+width of the south chapel was determined by that of the old chancel
+arch, which was rebuilt between the chapel and the nave, there being no
+aisle on that side. The north chapel, on the other hand, was formed
+simply by returning the wall of the aisle northward, and throwing a
+transverse arch across the aisle from the wall above the arcade. Its
+width corresponds roughly with that of the south chapel, but has no
+correspondence with that of the adjacent bay of the arcade. Examples of
+this form of growth of plan, dictated by convenience and the necessity
+of the moment, are common in every part of England.
+
+Sec. 60. It is quite clear that the transeptal chapel, being nothing more
+than an excrescence from the wall of a nave or aisle, is a feature which
+may be treated with some freedom. Its width and length are dependent
+upon the convenience and will of the builders. The north chapel of the
+aisleless church of Clapton-in-Gordano, Somerset, is entered by an arch
+in the east part of the north wall: the chapel itself, however, extends
+some distance westward, so that its longer axis is parallel to the
+longer axis of the nave. The south chapel, again, at Lowick in
+Northamptonshire has its longer axis from east to west, although its
+roof is at right angles to that of the adjacent aisle. Externally, its
+transeptal character is apparent; internally, it has the appearance of
+an additional south aisle. A chantry was founded in this chapel in 1498.
+Very often, where special chantry chapels were built, they took the
+position of transeptal chapels. Cases in point are the late Gothic
+chantry chapels in All Saints and St Lawrence's at Evesham. Such chapels
+may obviously be lengthened westward, like the chapel at
+Clapton-in-Gordano, so that they become additional aisles. The Milcombe
+chapel at Bloxham in Oxfordshire, the Greenway aisle at Tiverton in
+Devonshire, and the side chapels of the north and south aisles at St
+Andrew's, Plymouth, and Plympton St Mary are the logical outcome of the
+habit of adding transeptal chapels to the plan. Two transeptal chapels
+of the ordinary type are found in other Devonshire churches rebuilt in
+the fifteenth century, as at East Portlemouth: the Kirkham chapel at
+Paignton, famous for its carved stone-work, is transeptal. From this it
+is but a step to the chapels at Plymouth and Plympton, with their longer
+axes from east to west: while the aisle at Tiverton (1517) develops
+naturally, in the churches of Cullompton (1526) and Ottery St Mary
+(before 1530), into a vaulted aisle the full length of the nave. At
+Bloxham, on the other hand, the Milcombe chapel, which extends from the
+east wall of the south aisle as far as the porch, was probably grafted
+upon an earlier and smaller transeptal chapel. A comparison with the
+neighbouring church of Adderbury shows that the fabric of the transeptal
+chapels at Adderbury is largely of the twelfth century. The north chapel
+at Bloxham is, in its present state, much later; but the similarity of
+plan to that of Adderbury leads to the justifiable conclusion that it
+was rebuilt on old foundations, and that there was a similar south
+chapel. About 1290 the aisles at Bloxham were widened, and a beautiful
+arcade of two bays was built at the east end of the north aisle, between
+it and the north chapel. Within the next few years, the aisles at
+Adderbury were also widened, and arcades similar to that at Bloxham,
+though coarser in detail, were built at the east end of either aisle.
+The projection of the transeptal chapels from the side walls was now
+very slight; and, in the fifteenth century, the projection of the south
+chapel at Bloxham was absorbed by the building of the Milcombe chapel,
+between which and the south aisle an arcade of two bays was made. There
+is more intrinsic interest in this gradual development of plan than in
+the Devonshire plans we have noticed, which are all due to fifteenth
+century rebuildings; and the mutual influence exercised throughout the
+middle ages by two neighbouring churches like Bloxham and Adderbury
+gives us an insight into the progress of local art which the energy of
+fifteenth century masons in certain districts has somewhat obscured.
+From the arrangement of the south transept at Adderbury, there appear to
+have been two altars in each of the chapels.
+
+Sec. 61. Transeptal chapels occasionally appear in unusual positions. For
+example, at Branscombe in south Devon, there is a tower between nave and
+chancel. There are, however, no transepts; but transeptal chapels are
+built out from the walls of the aisleless nave, west of the tower. These
+chapels appear to be enlargements of earlier transeptal chapels; while
+the tower seems to have been built over the chancel of the earlier
+church. Heckington church in south Lincolnshire was rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century. The nave has aisles with transeptal chapels, very
+regular and symmetrical in plan, but is continued beyond the opening of
+the transeptal projections by an aisleless bay, east of which comes the
+chancel arch. At Bottesford in north Lincolnshire, where much rebuilding
+was done in the thirteenth century, the transeptal chapels open from the
+bay east of the chancel arch. In the case of Heckington, the earlier
+church was probably cruciform: when the rebuilding came to pass, the
+ground plan of the western portion of the church was kept, while the
+chancel was built on an extended plan, and the site of the western part
+of the old chancel thrown into the nave. The case of Bottesford is
+probably accounted for in the opposite way: the site was not enlarged
+eastwards, but the chancel was lengthened by the absorption of the
+eastern part of the old nave.
+
+Sec. 62. There are a number of cases in which transeptal chapels have been
+kept from an earlier cruciform plan, in which they may have formed true
+transepts. The fine church of Oundle, whose western tower and spire
+already have been mentioned as built about 1400, has very fully
+developed transeptal chapels. The nave and aisles, and the greater part
+of the chapels, are, in their present state, work of the thirteenth
+century; but the eastern bay of the present nave was entirely remodelled
+about 1350, when a clerestory was added. This bay had evidently been
+designed to carry a central tower: the nave arcades stop west of it, and
+there is a thick piece of wall between them and the arches opening from
+it into the chapels. These arches and the chancel arch were entirely
+reconstructed at the time just mentioned. The western arch, however, was
+removed, and an original crossing was thus converted into a bay of the
+nave. Whether there ever was a central tower is, of course, an uncertain
+point; but the building of a west tower on a new site not many years
+after this reconstruction is a fact which makes the previous existence
+of a central tower probable. The removal of a central tower would be due
+to one of two causes. Either its supports were weak, or it blocked up
+the space between nave and chancel too much. The central tower of
+Petersfield in Hampshire was taken down; but its east wall still remains
+between nave and chancel. However, if there are cases in which a central
+tower was removed, and a west tower built, there are probably more in
+which a central tower was planned, and then abandoned. Campsall church,
+near Doncaster, has unmistakable signs of a projected cruciform plan
+with a central tower, and has a regular crossing with transepts. But it
+is probable that the builders changed their minds before the nave was
+finished; and, although they doubtless left the arches, which were
+intended to bear their tower, for a later generation to remove and
+rebuild, they went westward and built a tower at the other end of the
+nave. This tower was finished towards the end of the third quarter of
+the twelfth century. The builders of Newark church, who were peculiarly
+susceptible to after-thoughts, apparently planned a central tower in the
+later part of the twelfth century. It is difficult to explain otherwise
+the slender clusters of shafts which project into the nave from the
+first pier west of the chancel arch on either side. Such piers were
+hardly capable of bearing the weight of a tower; and so the builders
+must have thought. Early in the thirteenth century, they began the
+present west tower, the first stage of a rebuilding which, with long
+intervals, continued into the sixteenth century. The final step by which
+the church reached its present plan was the addition of a transeptal
+chapel to either aisle, opposite the site which, more than three
+centuries before, had been chosen for the piers of the abandoned central
+tower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. St Mary's, Beverley: arcades of quire and S.
+transept, from S.W.]
+
+Sec. 63. Even in strictly cruciform churches, transepts were sometimes
+treated with a freedom which was more appropriate to the transeptal
+chapel. It is not unusual to find one transept longer than the other, as
+at Felmersham in Bedfordshire. Here, however, the transepts are not only
+of different lengths, but the south transept is loftier, as well as
+shorter, than the north, which is little more than a chapel-like
+excrescence from the tower. At Witney in Oxfordshire both transepts are
+of great projection, but the north transept is slightly longer than that
+on the south. Both have considerable traces of thirteenth century
+work; but, in the fourteenth century, the north transept was lengthened
+by an addition divided into two stories, the upper of which was a
+chapel, while the lower was probably a vaulted bone-hole. The south
+transept was also lengthened; and a chapel was built, projecting from
+its east wall near the south end. Both transepts have western aisles:
+that of the north transept, which stops short of the two-storied
+extension, contained an altar near the north end. There are traces of at
+least three other altars in the transepts, so that there was excellent
+reason for their somewhat unusual projection. At St Mary's, Beverley, an
+eastern aisle was added to the south transept in the fifteenth century,
+to provide more room for altars. The north transept already had a large
+chapel of two stages upon its eastern side, so that the plan was treated
+unsymmetrically. The tower of St Mary's at Stafford rests on heavy piers
+and narrow arches, and is flanked by north and south transepts. However,
+while the south transept, of good thirteenth century work, is rather
+small and short, the north transept was rebuilt with great magnificence
+in the fourteenth century, and its internal effect is that of a large
+side chapel rather than a transept. Aisled transepts are never common,
+even in large churches. Instances in which a transeptal chapel is aisled
+are even less common. The aisled south chapel at Medbourne in
+Leicestershire has been mentioned in an earlier chapter. Oakham and
+Langham churches in Rutland have large transeptal chapels with western
+aisles: the north chapel at Langham was removed in the fifteenth
+century, when the aisles of the nave were widened.
+
+Sec. 64. Reference has also been made to those plans in which the side
+walls of a tower between chancel and nave have been pierced with arches,
+and quasi-transepts have been constructed. This is very noticeable at
+Almondsbury in Gloucestershire, where the transeptal chapels, turned at
+a later date into burial-places for two local families, are very large
+and roomy. The cross-plan of Burford church in Oxfordshire was formed in
+this way, early in the thirteenth century. Plans like this, in which the
+chapels grow out of the central space, instead of being planned from the
+first in relation to it, are imperfectly cruciform; but are highly
+characteristic of the irregular methods of development pursued by the
+builders of medieval parish churches.
+
+Sec. 65. Towers above transeptal chapels are not uncommon. The two
+transeptal towers at Ottery St Mary in Devon were doubtless copied from
+the arrangement at Exeter cathedral: there was an altar against the east
+wall of each chapel. The tower at Coln St Aldwyn, Gloucestershire, rises
+above a south chapel projecting from an aisleless nave. This addition
+was made in the fifteenth century. At Duddington in Northamptonshire the
+ground floor of the tower virtually forms, in its present state, an
+eastward extension of the south aisle parallel to the western part of
+the chancel: the original plan was probably similar to the present plan
+of Coln St Aldwyn. The noble church of Whaplode had transeptal chapels
+projecting from the east end of either aisle: the thirteenth century
+tower is above the south chapel. At Clymping in Sussex the arrangement
+is very peculiar. The church, which is almost entirely of the thirteenth
+century, has north and south transeptal chapels, and only a south aisle
+to the nave. The tower, which is at the end of the south chapel, is
+earlier than the rest of the building, but is clearly in its original
+position.
+
+Sec. 66. The early progress of Gothic art in parish churches was marked by
+a general lengthening of chancels, analogous to that elongation of the
+eastern arm which is characteristic of cathedrals and monastic churches.
+This may be seen very clearly at Iffley, near Oxford, and Avening in
+Gloucestershire, where vaulted chancels of the twelfth century were
+lengthened in the thirteenth century by an eastern bay. Sometimes, as at
+St Mary's, Shrewsbury, where successive generations of builders were
+very faithful to the remains of earlier work, the old sedilia of a
+twelfth century chancel have been left in place. But, as a rule, the
+enlargement of the chancel implied an entire reconstruction, or the
+entire transformation of old work by the insertion of new windows or
+buttresses. From the end of the twelfth century onwards, the normal
+chancel of the parish church has a length which is from a half to
+two-thirds of the length of the nave, the nave being slightly broader
+than the chancel. This is the case with most of those Norfolk churches,
+which may be regarded as the ideal examples of parish church planning.
+Room was in this way secured both for the altar and the quire stalls,
+for which the ordinary rectangular chancel offered a very restricted
+space.
+
+Sec. 67. Sometimes a new chancel encroached upon the nave. This happened at
+Skipwith in Yorkshire, where the church underwent some alteration about
+the middle of the fourteenth century. The new chancel was made of the
+same width as the nave; and apparently the old chancel arch was entirely
+removed, and its site, with the part of the nave immediately west of it,
+made into an extra bay of the chancel. No new chancel arch was built.
+One of the most curious and perplexing instances, in which additional
+westward room has been given to the chancel, and there is no structural
+division between chancel and nave, is at Tansor in Northants. The
+perplexity which arises here is due to the plentiful re-use of old work
+by the builders, the presence of which in unexpected places makes the
+history of the building a nearly insoluble puzzle. The church reached
+its present length about 1140, when probably the Saxon nave was left as
+the west part of a church, which was now of the same width the whole way
+through, and had no chancel arch. Some forty years later, narrow aisles
+of three bays were added to the nave; and, about the same time, a
+transeptal chapel may have been thrown out from the south wall,
+immediately east of the south aisle. As the church stands on southward
+sloping ground, there seems to have been no room for another chapel on
+the north side. In the thirteenth century, the aisles were lengthened
+eastwards, to flank the western part of the chancel. The builders moved
+back the eastern responds of the old arcades to the points from which
+the lengthened arcades were to start. They set themselves, however, a
+difficult problem when they reserved a space at the end of the north
+aisle for a sacristy, and set the respond on the west side of this
+narrow bay. Their north aisle thus consisted of five bays and a very
+narrow eastern bay for the sacristy. On the south side no space
+corresponding to the sacristy was marked out, although the eastern
+respond was placed in a line with the east side of the opening of the
+sacristy. The number of bays on the south side had to be five, as there
+was no room for six. The result is that the pillars of the arcades,
+with the exception of those of the two bays furthest west, which were
+left unaltered, are not opposite each other. In the meantime, the old
+transeptal chapel was left standing between a south aisle and a short
+south chapel of the chancel. About 1300, the aisle and chapel seem to
+have been widened to the full length of the transeptal chapel, and thus
+a broad south aisle was formed. In this plan, the chancel proper
+projects for some distance east of the aisles; but, for ritual purposes,
+the eastern part of the nave, corresponding to the eastern bay of the
+north aisle and the sacristy bay beyond, forms, and has formed since the
+twelfth century, a western extension of the chancel.
+
+Sec. 68. The addition of aisles to chancels was an even more gradual
+process than the addition of aisles to naves; and, as a rule, the aisles
+were at first mere chapels. Chancel aisles or chapels of twelfth century
+date are not very common in smaller churches. But a plan like that at
+Melbourne, where the apsidal chapels east of the transepts flank the
+chancel very closely, leads naturally to the provision of chapels
+communicating directly with the chancel. The logical consequence of such
+a plan is seen at Oundle, at the close of the twelfth century, where
+rectangular chapels were built along the north and south walls of the
+western part of the chancel. The walls were pierced with broad, low
+arches, and arches were built between the chapels and the transepts. The
+chapels, in this instance, are at the back of the quire stalls; and a
+long projecting piece of aisleless chancel was left beyond them, to
+which, in the fifteenth century, a large northern vestry was added. This
+plan, where both chancel chapels were added at much the same time and on
+the same scale, is symmetrical. But, as a rule, chancel chapels were
+built just when they were needed. At Arksey, near Doncaster, where, as
+at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, the walls of late twelfth century transepts
+have been largely preserved inside the church in spite of many
+alterations, the chancel is a long aisleless twelfth century building
+east of a central tower. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the
+north chancel wall was pierced, and a narrow chapel built, which was one
+bay shorter than the chancel itself. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the nave was enlarged, and the south aisle was widened to the
+full length of the south transept. A south chapel was added to the
+chancel: its outer wall was continued from the south wall of the
+transept, and carried eastwards for a little distance beyond the east
+wall of the chancel. Thus chancel, south chapel, and north chapel, are
+all of three different lengths and breadths, the south chapel being the
+longest and widest. When the south chapel was built, a considerable
+portion of the old chancel wall was left untouched on its north side. It
+is obvious that the methods of building employed in such additions were
+those which have been described in connexion with the addition of aisles
+to a nave. It is no uncommon thing to enter, as at Tamworth, a chancel
+aisle or chantry chapel, and find substantial remains of the old outer
+wall of the chancel, which has been pierced with one or more arches of
+communication.
+
+Sec. 69. As the relative dates and proportions of chancel chapels vary so
+greatly, it is obvious that in many cases only one will be found. We
+frequently meet with churches which have only one aisle to the nave; but
+these are for the most part small buildings, and one aisle usually, in
+larger buildings, presupposes another, although symmetry of proportion
+need not be expected. However, many important churches have one chancel
+chapel, and no more. Raunds in Northamptonshire, and Leverington in
+Cambridgeshire, have south, but not north, chapels. Stanion in
+Northamptonshire, and Hullavington in Wiltshire, have north, but not
+south chapels. In both these last cases, the chapels are simply
+continuations of the aisles, without a break or intermediate arch; and
+the chapel at Stanion is neither more nor less than a second chancel. As
+the dedication of Stanion church is to St Peter and St Paul, it is not
+unlikely that the prominence given to the north chapel may be due to the
+provision of altars for both saints. The same consideration may have
+influenced the building of the church at Wisbech, which is also
+dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. Here, the twelfth century chancel had
+a south chapel; but when, at the end of the thirteenth century, the
+chancel was lengthened, the south chapel was also enlarged into what is
+practically a second chancel. Not only this, but the south aisle of the
+church was rebuilt on the scale of a second nave, a second south aisle
+was built out beyond it, and the whole church, which afterwards was
+enlarged towards the north and otherwise altered, was more than doubled
+in size.
+
+Sec. 70. Where chantry chapels are attached to one side or other of a
+chancel, their variations in size and plan are almost infinite. In the
+smallest examples, they are mere projections from the wall of the
+chancel, and little more than tomb recesses, such as the Cresacre chapel
+at Barnburgh, near Rotherham, or the Booth chapel on the south side of
+the chancel at Sawley in Derbyshire. The little north chapel of the
+chancel at Clapton-in-Gordano in Somerset may have served as a vestry.
+At Brancepeth, near Durham, where there is a long chancel and an aisled
+nave with transeptal chapels, a south chantry chapel adjoins the east
+side of the south transeptal chapel, while a north chantry chapel forms
+an independent excrescence from the north wall, and is shut off from the
+chancel by a doorway. Brigstock in Northamptonshire has a very large
+north chancel chapel, which is virtually the eastern portion of a
+widened aisle: the south chapel, on the other hand, is of much later
+date, and is so small that there must have been room in it for an altar
+and little more. These smaller chantry chapels, like the beautiful south
+chapel at Aldwinkle All Saints, Northants, have often great
+architectural beauty of their own, and give great variety to the plan of
+the church. But chancel chapels are often larger and more important,
+like the fourteenth century south chapel at Leverton, near Boston, which
+is practically a separate building, separated from the chancel by a wall
+without an arcade, or like the very spacious north chapel of the priory
+church at Brecon. The south chapel of the chancel at Berkeley in
+Gloucestershire, and the Clopton chapel at Long Melford in Suffolk, are
+shut off from the adjacent parts of the church, and belong to that class
+of chantry chapel of which our cathedrals furnish many examples. In this
+case, the chapel is a small separate building, attached to the fabric of
+the church, but hardly forming an integral part of it.
+
+Sec. 71. One very important consequence of the addition of aisles and
+chantry chapels to chancels, at any rate on a large scale, is seen where
+they are applied to plans originally cruciform. We have already seen
+that at St Mary's, Shrewsbury, and at Arksey, although much of the
+fabric of the old transepts was left, broad chancel chapels tended to
+obliterate the cruciform character of the building. The transepts at
+Spalding almost escape notice, owing to the double aisle on the south
+side of the nave, the aisle and north chapel on the opposite side, and
+the large chapel east of the south transept. Moreover, when, in the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, aisles were rebuilt or widened,
+there was always, as at Tansor, a tendency to decide the width of the
+aisle by the length of an existing transept or transeptal chapel, and to
+build the new outer wall flush with its gable wall. In this case, the
+aisle would be planned to communicate with the transept, and the west
+wall of the transept would have to be cut through. Where, as at Arksey,
+there was a central tower, the old transept was structurally necessary,
+and only as much of its masonry would be removed as was absolutely
+necessary. But we have seen that there were cases in which it was
+thought advisable to take down the central tower altogether, and build a
+new one at the west end, in which case the transepts were of no
+structural use; and there were far more cases in which the transeptal
+excrescences were merely projecting chapels. In these instances, the
+transept was felt to intervene awkwardly between the aisles of nave and
+chancel. Accordingly, its side walls and gabled roof were taken down,
+its end wall was remodelled, and it was placed under one roof with the
+adjacent aisles, in which it became merged. The cruciform plan was thus
+lost in certain churches, becoming absorbed in the ordinary elongated
+plan, with aisles to nave and chancel. Tamworth church in Staffordshire,
+and Marshfield in Gloucestershire, had twelfth century central towers.
+These were removed or destroyed, at Tamworth in the fourteenth, at
+Marshfield in the fifteenth century, and the aisles and chancel chapels
+were widened to the original length, approximately, of the transepts.
+The north and south arches of the crossing, however, remain in a blocked
+condition, and tell the tale of what has happened. Wakefield cathedral
+is another instance of a large parish church whose aisleless cruciform
+plan has gradually disappeared within the aisles, until the plan is--or
+was till the additions of a few years ago--an aisled rectangle, the
+origin of which is certainly not obvious at first sight. The
+transformations here described must clearly be understood not to apply
+to cruciform churches generally, but merely to churches which, with an
+originally cruciform plan, needed enlargement. Many handsome late Gothic
+buildings, like the churches of Rotherham and Chesterfield, or St Mary's
+at Nottingham, are regular cruciform churches with central towers; and
+sometimes, as at Newark, transeptal chapels were the latest of all
+additions to a church. But, where the transeptal chapel cramped
+necessary space, it had to disappear. At St Margaret's, Leicester, the
+arches into the transeptal chapels remain; but the chapels themselves
+have entirely disappeared, and the arches merely form part of the arcade
+between the nave and its broad aisles.
+
+Sec. 72. The aim of restorers and rebuilders from the middle of the
+fourteenth century onwards was to convert the church into a rectangle
+with aisles. As we have seen, the chancel was constantly, in late Gothic
+churches, an aisleless projection from the main fabric; but, where it
+was aisled, the old haphazard methods were often abandoned, and the
+aisles were made of approximately equal size. The old distinction
+between nave and chancel, marked by the chancel arch, and the arches
+between chapels and aisles, begin to vanish. Where the chancel arch was
+kept, as at Long Sutton in Lincolnshire, new chancel chapels were
+prolonged westward on each side of the nave, in place of the old nave
+aisles. Fairford church in Gloucestershire was rebuilt towards the end
+of the fifteenth century, to contain the splendid stained glass which
+had just been acquired for it. A central tower was built on strong
+piers, as a concession to the old plan; but the aisles of the nave were
+continued on either side of the tower and along the sides of the chancel
+till within a bay of the east end. But, in a great many churches, not
+merely the aisles, but the nave and chancel also became continuous,
+without a structural division. This feature, common in East Anglia and
+the south-west of England, was the result of the importance of carved
+and painted wood-work in late Gothic churches. The rood screen,
+stretching across nave and aisles, appeared to full advantage, when
+unbroken by the chancel arch. The splendid timber roofs of nave and
+aisles gained in effect, if they formed, as at Southwold, or in the
+churches of Norwich, an unbroken covering to the church from end to end.
+In Norfolk and Suffolk, where the work of rebuilding began in the
+fourteenth century, as at Cawston, Worstead, or Tunstead, the chancel
+arch was often kept. At Worstead and other Norfolk churches the method
+pursued by the builders was precisely opposite to that which we have
+seen employed by Gloucestershire masons at Cirencester and other places,
+and may see in most of the fifteenth century churches of Somerset. The
+arcades were rebuilt first, and the aisles followed. Many of these
+churches were doubtless enlarged from much smaller buildings. The south
+aisle at Ingham was probably the nave of the earlier church, to which
+the present nave, north aisle, chancel, and west tower, were added. The
+aisles in most cases continued at a uniform width eastward as chancel
+chapels. The north aisle at Worstead was continued by a two-storied
+sacristy to the level of the east wall of the chancel. The south aisle
+stops at a bay short of the east wall, leaving the end of the chancel
+projecting as an altar space. Whether the chancel arch was retained or
+not, the projection of this aisleless eastern bay became a very general
+feature of the larger churches of East Anglia, and, in churches like
+Trunch, Southwold, and Clare, its tall side windows flood the space with
+light The most striking example of this plan is at Long Melford in
+Suffolk, where there is no chancel arch, and the actual chancel projects
+beyond the aisles. Here, however, it is flanked on the north by the
+Clopton chapel, and on the south by the vestry, which forms a covered
+way to the detached lady chapel further east. The Long Melford plan,
+with a projecting altar space, and without a chancel arch, is nearly
+universal in Cornwall, and is common in south Devon, where, as at
+Totnes, the aisles of the chancel are usually little more than
+comparatively short chapels, and sometimes, as at West Alvington, near
+Kingsbridge, extend only a bay beyond the screen. Its great advantages,
+apart from the display of wood-work which it permits, are the gain of
+internal space permitted by the reduction of the solid portions of the
+building to a minimum, the additional light admitted by the same means,
+and the long uninterrupted clerestory which forms a wall of glass, with
+thin stone divisions, on each side of the upper part of the church.
+
+Sec. 73. The tendency to give the whole church aisles of equal width
+throughout, and extending along its whole length, was irresistible,
+especially in East Anglia. The church of North Walsham, rebuilt towards
+the end of the fourteenth century, is a great rectangle of three
+parallel divisions, with axes from east to west, and of nearly equal
+breadth. The chapel of St Nicholas at Lynn, rebuilt in 1419, is an even
+more striking example of the same design: in both cases the simple and
+somewhat monotonous plan is varied by the projection of a handsome south
+porch. At Lynn, the thirteenth century west tower, with a spire, was
+kept at the south-west corner of the aisled building. But the aisled
+rectangular plan, if it attained its highest development in East Anglia,
+had been reached already in other parts of England by gradual methods.
+It has sometimes been fathered upon aisled naves of friary churches,
+which, like the great nave of the Black friars at Norwich, afforded
+space for large congregations who came to hear sermons. But it is
+probable that the first churches which followed the course of expansion
+into the aisled rectangle were directly influenced by the example of the
+larger churches, like Lincoln, or, at a later date, York, which, in
+extending their eastern arms, aisled their quires, presbyteries, and
+eastern chapels, right up to the east wall. Thus the whole quire and
+chancel of Newark, with aisles extending their whole length, were
+planned in the early part of the fourteenth century, when the great
+eastern chapel, the "Angel Quire," of Lincoln, was little more than a
+generation old; and, although the progress of the work was long
+delayed, the eventual arrangement, in which the high altar was brought
+two bays forward from the east wall, and a spacious chapel was left at
+the back, exactly recalls the arrangements of Lincoln and York.
+Similarly the quire and chancel of the cruciform church of Holy Trinity
+at Hull are aisled to their full length: the arrangement, again, is that
+of a cathedral rather than a parish church. The influence of cathedral
+plans is clearly visible in St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol, and in the
+collegiate churches of Ottery St Mary and Crediton: but here the type
+followed is not that of Lincoln and York, but that more usual in the
+west and south of England at Hereford, Wells, Salisbury, Exeter, and
+elsewhere, where the aisles of the chancel are returned at the back of
+the east wall, and form a vestibule to a projecting aisleless lady
+chapel. This type of plan occurs outside its regular district at
+Tickhill, on the borders of Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire. But it is
+naturally exceptional, and would be used only where there was plenty of
+money and space to spare: it demands for its full effect a considerable
+elevation, involving a large clerestory, and a church could seldom, if
+ever, be found whose original plan invited expansion on these lines. On
+the other hand, the aisling of the chancel throughout was simply the
+logical development of the ordinary church plan: if the plans of
+cathedrals may have suggested the later developments at churches like
+Newark or Hull, the simple aisled rectangle, with its three parallel
+divisions, and without any clerestory to distinguish the nave from the
+aisles--a plan remarkably characteristic of Cornwall--came into
+existence in the ordinary course of things, by an extension of the wings
+of the building until they flanked the whole of the nave and chancel.
+
+Sec. 74. The work done at Grantham in the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries illustrates the purely natural development of the ordinary
+aisled church into the aisled rectangle. We have seen, in an earlier
+chapter, that, soon after 1300, the church consisted of an aisleless
+chancel, which was, however, overlapped at the west end by the north
+aisle of the nave; a nave, the north and south aisles of which followed
+different systems of spacing; a western tower and spire, engaged within
+the aisles; and north and south porches. Several chantries were founded
+in the church during the fourteenth century. Not long after the Black
+Death of 1349, the south aisle was extended eastward to the whole length
+of the chancel. The south wall of the chancel was pierced by an arcade;
+and the lady chapel thus formed was raised upon a double crypt. It was
+not until more than a century later that the east wall of the north
+aisle was taken down, and the "Corpus Christi chancel" built out,
+continuing the north aisle without a break, and completely flanking
+the north wall of the chancel, through which an arcade was made. Here
+the reason of expansion was obviously the growth of chantry chapels; and
+the expansion follows the simplest course. The last addition to the
+fabric was the present vestry, in which was a chantry founded by the
+Hall family. This was built out at right angles to the north aisle, at
+the point where the old work was met by the later extension. Not until
+the church had been fully aisled, and afforded no further room for new
+altars, were chantry chapels usually added in the shape of excrescences
+from the fabric.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Plans of Grantham church: (3) about 1350; (4)
+present day.]
+
+Sec. 75. One interesting feature in the planning of chancels, which has
+been much discussed, is worth a note. This is the fact that the axis of
+the chancel is frequently out of line with the axis of the nave, and
+generally has a slight northward inclination. Sometimes, as at Henbury
+in Gloucestershire, the inclination is very considerable, so that, from
+the west end of the church, nearly a quarter of the east wall is out of
+sight. Usually, the inclination is very slight; and there are many cases
+in which it is not northward, but southward--Sidbury and Salcombe Regis,
+near Sidmouth, Eastbourne in Sussex and Aldwinkle St Peter in Northants,
+are cases in point. The popular explanation is that it symbolises the
+leaning of our Saviour's head upon the cross. Like most symbolical
+explanations, this is founded entirely upon fancy: the inclination is
+by no means confined to churches with cross plans, and, if it were, the
+theorists who argue from this standpoint confound the symbolism of the
+cross-plan between the cross itself and the Body which it bore. Others
+have sought to explain the phenomenon by suggesting that the orientation
+of the chancel followed the direction in which the sun rose on the
+morning of the patronal feast. A succession of visits at sunrise to
+churches on appropriate dates has not hitherto been attempted upon a
+comprehensive scale: if it were undertaken, it probably would be found
+that the sun, instead of rising obediently opposite the middle light of
+every east window, as the theory requires, would have many puzzling
+exceptions in reserve. The marked divergence of axis at Henbury is
+explained by the site of the building, which is on a gentle slope, with
+the axis of the nave distinctly from south-east to north-west. When the
+chancel was rebuilt in the thirteenth century, the masons kept as high
+upon the slope as they could, and so twisted the axis of the chancel a
+little further east. But we must also remember that, when chancels were
+lengthened and rebuilt, the work was done while the old chancels were
+still standing. The axis of the old chancel might be out of line with
+that of the nave. Unless very careful measurements were taken, the new
+east wall would probably be not quite parallel with the old east wall of
+the chancel. The side walls would be set out at right angles to the new
+east wall; and thus, when the new chancel was joined to the church, the
+divergence of axis would be more palpable than before. Or, for the same
+reason, a divergence of axis might be created for the first time. This
+seems to be the common sense explanation of a very common feature. But
+it must be added that there are instances in which the inclination is so
+decided that one is tempted to conclude either that the masons had very
+crooked sight, or that they were playing tricks with their perspective.
+The feature, where it is at all marked, is something of a deformity. In
+our own day it has been introduced, apparently by design, into the plan
+of Truro cathedral. In medieval work, however, it will seldom be found
+in a chancel where no enlargement upon an early site has taken place;
+and it seems safe to conclude that, like so much else in medieval
+building which is irregular, it generally arises from the rebuilding of
+a fabric upon an encumbered site.
+
+
+
+
+     INDEX OF PLACES
+
+
+     Aachen, Rhenish Prussia, palace church, 33, 34
+
+     Acaster Malbis, Yorks., 65
+
+     Achurch, Northants., 56, 58
+
+     Acton Burnell, Salop., 55, 56, 58, 65, 102
+
+     Adderbury, Oxon., 106, 107
+
+     Adel, Yorks., 49
+
+     Africa, basilicas in north, 14
+
+     Aldwinkle, Northants., All Saints, 121;
+       St Peter, 131
+
+     Almondsbury, Glouces., 54, 113
+
+     Alvington, West, Devon, 126
+
+     Amiens, France (Somme), cathedral, 68
+
+     Appleton-le-Street, Yorks., 84
+
+     Arksey, Yorks., 118, 121, 122
+
+     Askham Bryan, Yorks., 49
+
+     Avening, Glouces., 54, 114
+
+     Aylsham, Norfolk, 104
+
+
+     Bakewell, Derby, 70
+
+     Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon., 59, 60, 61
+
+     Barnack, Northants., 30, 32
+
+     Barnburgh, Yorks., 120
+
+     Barton-on-Humber, Lincs., St
+
+     Peter, 30, 32, 33, 34, 40, 41
+
+     Berkeley, Glouces., 121
+
+     Beverley, Yorks., minster, 74, 75;
+       St Mary, 102, 111, 112
+
+     Bewick, Old, Northumb., 50, 52
+
+     Bibury, Glouces., 94
+
+     Billingborough, Lincs., 82
+
+     Billingham, Durham, 73
+
+     Birkin, Yorks., 46, 51, 52, 82, 83
+
+     Bishopstone, Sussex, 36
+
+     Blatherwycke, Northants., 46
+
+     Bloxham, Oxon., 105, 106, 107
+
+     Bottesford, Lincs., 108
+
+     Bracebridge, Lincs., 28
+
+     Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts., 16, 29, 36
+
+     Bradwell-juxta-Mare, Essex, St Peter's on the Wall, 16
+
+     Brampton Ash, Northants., 76
+
+     Brancepeth, Durham, 120
+
+     Branscombe, Devon, 107
+
+     Brayton, Yorks., 46
+
+     Breamore, Hants., 38, 40, 54
+
+     Brecon, priory church, 121
+
+     Brigstock, Northants., 28, 97, 120, 121
+
+     Bristol, St John Baptist, 98;
+       St Lawrence, 98;
+       St Mary Redcliffe, 95, 99, 101, 102, 128
+
+     Britford, Wilts., 36
+
+     Brixworth, Northants., 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 32, 53
+
+     Broughton, Lincs., 32
+
+     Bubwith, Yorks., 93
+
+     Burford, Oxon., 60, 61, 99, 113
+
+
+     Caistor, Lincs., 45
+
+     Cambridge, All Saints, 97, 98;
+       St Benedict, 28;
+       Holy Trinity, 97;
+       St Michael, 94, 95
+
+     Campsall, Yorks., 109, 110
+
+     Canterbury, Kent, cathedral, 15, 35;
+       St Pancras, 15, 16, 23, 24, 35, 36, 53
+
+     Caunton, Notts., 93
+
+     Cawston, Norfolk, 104, 125
+
+     Chesterfield, Derby, 123
+
+     Chichester, Sussex, cathedral, 68
+
+     Childs Wickham, Glouces., 56, 58
+
+     Chipping Norton, Oxon., 99
+
+     Christon, Som., 53
+
+     Cirencester, Glouces., 87, 88, 89, 125
+
+     Clapton-in-Gordano, Som., 105, 120
+
+     Clare, Suffolk, 126
+
+     Clymping, Sussex, 114
+
+     Coln Rogers, Glouces., 28, 29, 97
+
+     Coln St Aldwyn, Glouces., 113, 114
+
+     Coln St Denis, Glouces., 53
+
+     Cologne, Rhenish Prussia, St Gereon, 34
+
+     Colsterworth, Lincs., 47, 92
+
+     Constantinople, Sta Sophia, 10, 12, 13
+
+     Copford, Essex, 52, 74
+
+     Copmanthorpe, Yorks., 49
+
+     Corbridge-on-Tyne, Northumb., 19, 20, 56
+
+     Corstopitum, _see_ Corbridge-on-Tyne
+
+     Coventry, Warwicks., Holy Trinity, 102;
+       St John Baptist, 102;
+       St Michael, 98
+
+     Crediton, Devon, 128
+
+     Cullompton, Devon, 106
+
+
+     Dedham, Essex, 97
+
+     Deerhurst, Glouces., 27, 36, 37
+
+     Dover, Kent, St Mary in the Castle, 37, 38, 40, 54
+
+     Duddington, Northants., 114
+
+     Dunham Magna, Norfolk, 38
+
+     Durham, cathedral, 50, 67, 69
+
+
+     Earl's Barton, Northants., 30, 48
+
+     Eastbourne, Sussex, 131
+
+     Easton, Great, Leices., 86
+
+     Ely, Cambs., cathedral, 50
+
+     Escomb, Durham, 17, 18, 20, 26, 27, 29
+
+     Evesham, Worces., All Saints, 105;
+       St Lawrence, 105
+
+     Ewerby, Lincs., 96
+
+     Exeter, Devon, cathedral, 113, 128
+
+     Exton, Rutland, 103, 104
+
+
+     Fairford, Glouces., 124
+
+     Felmersham, Beds., 110
+
+     Felton, Northumb., 83
+
+     Finchingfield, Essex, 45
+
+     Fountains abbey, Yorks., 67
+
+
+     Garton-on-the-Wolds, Yorks., 46
+
+     Geddington, Northants., 28, 72
+
+     Gedling, Notts., 94
+
+     Gloucester, cathedral, 67
+
+     Grantham, Lincs., 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 99, 100, 129, 130, 131
+
+     Greenstead, Essex, 43
+
+     Gretton, Northants., 72, 78, 93, 94
+
+
+     Hallaton, Leices., 83, 99
+
+     Harringworth, Northants., 85, 86, 87
+
+     Heapham, Lincs., 46
+
+     Heckington, Lincs., 76, 107, 108
+
+     Heddon-on-the-Wall, Northumb., 48
+
+     Henbury, Glouces., 99, 131, 132
+
+     Hereford, cathedral, 128
+
+     Heslerton, West, Yorks., 64
+
+     Hexham, Northumb., priory church, 20, 21, 23;
+       St Mary, 33, 34, 41
+
+     Heysham, Lancs., 25
+
+     Hooton Pagnell, Yorks., 46
+
+     Hough-on-the-Hill, Lincs., 32
+
+     Hull, Yorks., Holy Trinity, 128, 129
+
+     Hullavington, Wilts., 119
+
+
+     Iffley, Oxon., 53, 54, 114
+
+     Islip, Northants., 76
+
+
+     Jarrow-on-Tyne, Durham, St Paul, 19
+
+     Jerusalem, Holy Sepulchre, 34, 52, 62
+
+
+     Kegworth, Leices., 104
+
+     Kirkburn, Yorks., 46
+
+     Kirk Hammerton, Yorks., 46
+
+
+     Laceby, Lincs., 45
+
+     Langford, Essex, 52
+
+     Langham, Rutland, 113
+
+     Lavenham, Suffolk, 94
+
+     Leckhampton, Glouces., 54
+
+     Leicester, St Margaret, 123, 124;
+       St Mary in the Castle, 49, 95, 97
+
+     Leverington, Cambs., 119
+
+     Leverton, Lincs., 121
+
+     Lincoln, cathedral, 67, 127, 128;
+       St Mary-le-Wigford, 28; St
+       Peter-at-Gowts, 28
+
+     Lowick, Northants., 105
+
+     Ludlow, Salop., 99, 100, 102
+
+     Lydd, Kent, 24
+
+     Lynn, King's, Norfolk, St Margaret, 96;
+       St Nicholas, 127
+
+
+     Marshfield, Glouces., 123
+
+     Medbourne, Leices., 56, 58, 113
+
+     Melbourne, Derby, 59, 60, 69, 70, 75, 76, 96, 117
+
+     Melford, Long, Suffolk, 121, 126
+
+     Melton Mowbray, Leices., 102
+
+     Middleton Tyas, Yorks., 78, 79
+
+     Minster Lovell, Oxon., 61
+
+     Monkwearmouth, Durham, 18, 19, 20, 23, 29
+
+     Montacute, Som., 56, 58
+
+     Moor Monkton, Yorks., 48
+
+
+     Nantwich, Cheshire, 102
+
+     Newark-on-Trent, Notts., 87, 89, 96, 99, 110, 123, 127, 128, 129
+
+     Newbald, North, Yorks., 57, 58, 59, 60
+
+     Newcastle-on-Tyne, Northumb., St Nicholas, 96, 100
+
+     Newhaven, Sussex, 53
+
+     Norham-on-Tweed, Northumb., 69, 70
+
+     Northallerton, Yorks., 78
+
+     Northampton, St Giles, 60, 61;
+       St Peter, 49
+
+     Northleach, Glouces., 87, 88, 89, 99
+
+     Norton-on-Tees, Durham, 40, 41, 54
+
+     Norwich, cathedral, 67;
+       church of Black friars, 127
+
+     Nottingham, St Mary, 123
+
+
+     Oakham, Rutland, 113
+
+     Othery, Som., 65
+
+     Othona, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+     Ottery St Mary, Devon, 106, 113, 128
+
+     Oundle, Northants., 82, 94, 98, 108, 109, 117, 118
+
+
+     Paignton, Devon, 106
+
+     Patricio, Brecon, 66, 67, 68
+
+     Peterborough, Northants., Saxon abbey church, 21, 22
+
+     Petersfield, Hants., 109
+
+     Plymouth, Devon, St Andrew, 105, 106
+
+     Plympton St Mary, Devon, 105, 106
+
+     Portlemouth, East, Devon, 106
+
+     Potterne, Wilts., 55, 56, 65
+
+
+     Ramsey, Hunts., Saxon abbey church, 39
+
+     Ranworth, Norfolk, 64, 68
+
+     Raunds, Northants., 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 119
+
+     Ravenna, Italy, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 10;
+       of Theodoric, 10, 11, 12;
+       Sant' Apollinare in Classe, 8, 9;
+       Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, 8, 9;
+       San Giovanni in Fonte, 10;
+       Sta Maria in Cosmedin, 10;
+       San Vitale, 11, 12, 13, 33
+
+     Reculver, Kent, 15, 24
+
+     Repton, Derby, 28, 37
+
+     Riccall, Yorks., 46
+
+     Ripon, Yorks, cathedral, 21, 23
+
+     Rochester, Kent, cathedral, 15
+
+     Rome, Basilica of Maxentius, 3;
+       Basilica Ulpia, 2;
+       Baths of Caracalla, 9;
+       Castle of Sant' Angelo, 9;
+       San Clemente, 9;
+       Sta Costanza, 9;
+       San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, 8;
+       San Paolo, 8;
+       old St Peter's, 4, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15;
+       _scholae_, 5
+
+     Rotherham, Yorks., 123
+
+
+     St-Georges-de-Boscherville, France (Seine-Inf.), 60
+
+     St Peter's on the Wall, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+     Salcombe Regis, Devon, 131
+
+     Salisbury, Wilts., cathedral, 67, 128
+
+     Sall, Norfolk, 104
+
+     Sawley, Derby, 120
+
+     Seamer, Yorks., 73
+
+     Sherburn-in-Elmet, Yorks., 69, 70, 96
+
+     Shrewsbury, Salop., St Mary, 114, 118, 121
+
+     Sidbury, Devon, 28, 131
+
+     Silchester, Hants., 14, 24, 25
+
+     Sileby, Leices., 96
+
+     Skipwith, Yorks., 115
+
+     Skirlaugh, South, Yorks., 65
+
+     Sleaford, Lincs., 82, 97
+
+     Southwell, Notts., cathedral, 70
+
+     Southwold, Suffolk, 125, 126
+
+     Spalding, Lincs., 95, 122
+
+     Stafford, St Mary, 112
+
+     Stanion, Northants., 119
+
+     Stanton Lacy, Salop., 38
+
+     Stow, Lincs., 39, 40, 42, 54
+
+     Stretton-in-the-Street, Rutland, 104
+
+     Studland, Dorset, 53
+
+     Sutton, Long, Lincs., 70, 124
+
+     Swaton, Lincs., 82
+
+
+     Tamworth, Staffs., 119, 123
+
+     Tansor, Northants., 49, 82, 100, 115, 116, 117, 122
+
+     Taunton, Som., St Mary Magdalene, 99
+
+     Temple Balsall, Warwicks., 65
+
+     Theddingworth, Leices., 79
+
+     Tickencote, Rutland, 48
+
+     Tickhill, Yorks., 96, 128
+
+     Tilney All Saints, Norfolk, 92, 93
+
+     Tiverton, Devon, 105, 106
+
+     Totnes, Devon, 126
+
+     Trier, Rhenish Prussia, basilica, 3;
+       Liebfrauenkirche, 34
+
+     Trunch, Norfolk, 126
+
+     Truro, Cornwall, cathedral, 133
+
+     Tunstead, Norfolk, 125
+
+     Tytherington, Glouces., 73
+
+
+     Vinovium, _see_ Escomb.
+
+
+     Waith, Lincs., 38, 39
+
+     Wakefield, Yorks., cathedral, 123
+
+     Walberswick, Suffolk, 99
+
+     Walsham, North, Norfolk, 127
+
+     Walsoken, Norfolk, 70
+
+     Warkworth, Northumb., 48
+
+     Warmington, Northants., 99, 100
+
+     Wells, Som., cathedral, 128
+
+     Whaplode, Lincs., 92, 114
+
+     Whitwell, Rutland, 78
+
+     Winchester, cathedral, 50
+
+     Wing, Bucks., 24, 27
+
+     Winterton, Lincs., 28, 97
+
+     Wisbech, Cambs., 120
+
+     Witham, North, Lincs., 47
+
+     Witney, Oxon., 61, 110, 112
+
+     Wittering, Northants., 28
+
+     Wollaton, Notts., 97
+
+     Worstead, Norfolk, 99, 125
+
+     Worth, Sussex, 37, 102, 103
+
+
+     Yainville, France (Seine-Inf.), 53
+
+     Yatton, Som., 99
+
+     York, cathedral, 67, 127, 128
+
+     Ythanceaster, _see_ Bradwell-juxta-Mare
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been corrected without notice. An obvious
+printer error has been corrected, and it is listed below. All
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.
+
+Page 36: "a Saxon ex-example" changed to "a Saxon example".
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ground Plan of the English Parish
+Church, by A. Hamilton Thompson
+
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