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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex, by 
+William E. Gates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex
+       with a Concluding Note Upon the Linguistic Problem of the Maya Glyphs
+
+Author: William E. Gates
+
+Release Date: June 22, 2008 [EBook #25878]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAYA-TZENTAL PEREZ CODEX ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+Typographical errors in the original have been maintained in this
+version. They are marked with a [TN-#]. A list of the errors is found
+at the end of the present text.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not found in the
+character set used for this ebook:
+
+  ő  LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DOUBLE ACUTE
+  Ś  LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH ACUTE
+
+
+
+
+                             PAPERS
+                             OF THE
+
+           PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+                  ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                         VOL. VI.--No. 1
+
+
+
+                           COMMENTARY
+                      UPON THE MAYA-TZENTAL
+                           PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+                 WITH A CONCLUDING NOTE UPON THE
+              LINGUISTIC PROBLEM OF THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+                               BY
+
+                        WILLIAM E. GATES
+
+  PROFESSOR IN SCHOOL OF ANTIQUITY, INTERNATIONAL THEOSOPHICAL
+              HEADQUARTERS, POINT LOMA, CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                        CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+                     PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+                         NOVEMBER, 1910
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  THE ARYAN THEOSOPHICAL PRESS
+  Point Loma, California
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+In presenting this Commentary on the Codex Perez to students of American
+Archaeology, the Peabody Museum adds another paper to its series
+relating to the study of the hieroglyphic writing of the ancient peoples
+of Mexico and Central America.
+
+The Museum is fortunate in adding to its collaborators Mr. William E.
+Gates, of Point Loma, California, who for more than ten years has been
+an earnest student of American hieroglyphs. From his lifelong studies in
+linguistics in connection with his research in “the motifs of
+civilizations and cultures,” he comes well-equipped to take up the
+difficult and all-absorbing study of American hieroglyphic writing. Mr.
+Gates has materially advanced this study by his reproduction of the
+glyphs in type. These type-forms he has used first in his reproduction
+of the Codex Perez, and now in this Commentary they are used for the
+first time in printing. The method used in the construction of this font
+of type is explained by Mr. Gates in the following pages. This important
+aid to the study will be highly appreciated by all students of American
+hieroglyphs, as it will greatly facilitate the presentation of the
+results of future research.
+
+It will be seen that this Commentary is more in the line of suggestion
+to be expanded after further studies, than in the way of conclusions.
+
+At the close of the paper the author presents the general deductions he
+has drawn from his comparative study of languages and cultures. His
+concluding paragraph forcibly presents the hope that the understanding
+of the Maya glyphs will furnish new and important data in the life
+history of man.
+
+  F. W. PUTNAM
+
+  PEABODY MUSEUM
+
+  October, 1910
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 6]
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 17]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+The Perez Codex was discovered just fifty years ago by Prof. Léon de
+Rosny, while searching through the Bibliothèque Impériale, Paris, in the
+hope of bringing to light some documents of interest for the then newly
+awakened study of Pre-Columbian America. It was found by him in a basket
+among a lot of old papers, black with dust and practically abandoned in
+a chimney corner. From a few words with the name Perez, written on a
+torn scrap of paper then around it but since lost, it received its name.
+
+Being restored to its proper place in the Library, it was in 1864
+photographed by order of M. Victor Duruy, Minister of Instruction, and a
+few copies issued without further explanatory notes than the printed
+wrappers. The number of copies is stated by Prof. de Rosny to have been
+very small; in Leclerc’s _Bibl. Amér._ (1878, No. 2290) it is given as
+only 10, and in Brasseur’s _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._ (page 95), as 50. A copy
+is in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, and referred
+to in their publications as a most fortunate acquisition. I had the good
+fortune to secure a copy some ten years ago, and one other has recently
+appeared in a Leipzig catalog at a high price. Beyond these I have not
+traced any other copy.
+
+In 1872 Prof. de Rosny published a reproduction, drawn by hand, which,
+as stated by him later, may be disregarded for practical purposes.[7-*]
+
+In 1887 he issued a facsimile edition in colors, 85 copies, which up to
+the present time has remained the only attempt to show the Codex in its
+proper colors, and has become exceedingly difficult to procure; so much
+so that it was only after seven years search that I was able to secure
+my own copy.[8-*]
+
+In 1888 he reissued the Codex, uncolored, with the same letter-press,
+and in an edition of 100 copies. This has also become scarce.
+
+Each of these three editions has its advantages and disadvantages. The
+colored edition of 1887, having been worked over by hand, in
+lithography, is defective in various places, both as regards the black
+of the figures and glyphs, and in the colors. Coloring exists on the
+original codex which was not reproduced at all in the edition, and the
+colors given are in many cases not exact. Thus on pages 19 and 20 two
+different reds are used for the backgrounds, whereas but one is found in
+the original; on pages 15, 16 the figures are a turquoise green, and on
+pages 17, 18 an olive green, the correct color for all four being
+turquoise green.
+
+I have been able to find no inaccuracy in the 1888 edition, which is
+indeed stated in the introduction to be entirely by mechanical process,
+without hand intervention; but being reproduced by printer’s ink in
+black only, not only do the colors not appear, but the chromatic values
+are actually far inferior to the photographs of 1864. It was stated
+further by Prof. de Rosny that some features of the MS. had been lost by
+deterioration in the 25 years previous to his editions of 1887 and 1888,
+but this I have not been able to verify in any important point.
+
+The photographs and the edition of 1888 are to all general purposes
+identical; but, notwithstanding that the photographs are steadily
+yellowing by age, the chromatic values are so far superior that I have
+continually come to find them the court of final decision in doubtful
+matters. In a very considerable number of instances a close examination
+of the photographs has suggested the presence of faint lines of color
+on glyphs or figures, which was entirely indistinguishable in both of
+the printed editions, and which was yet in every case confirmed,
+although sometimes with difficulty, by the examination of the original
+MS.
+
+The proved value, as well as the scarcity, of these photographs was so
+great, that in 1905 I had my set photographed twice, by dry and wet
+plate processes, and a few copies printed after a careful comparison and
+selection of the two sets of plates. It is from these that the present
+edition has grown.[9-*]
+
+The present edition, save for the photographs thus reproduced, having
+been entirely redrawn, and partly restored, it is fitting to detail just
+what has been done in this respect.
+
+At the very beginning of my introduction to Maya studies the enormous
+burdens placed on research therein at every turn, bore upon me as upon
+every other student. The subject and its possibilities stimulate
+enthusiasm to the highest degree; the rewards of success are greater
+than those of any like problem today; and yet, fifty years since the
+present Codex was discovered, and thirty years since Dr. Förstemann’s
+unsurpassable edition of the Dresden Codex, the actual workers on the
+problem are the barest handful. A few scattered and obscure references
+amongst the volumes on volumes of Spanish writers, nearly all
+untranslated, most of them scarce or almost unprocurable, and many not
+even printed, make up the literature to be searched out. And a few
+points of decipherment won and safely fixed by the researchers, from
+Brasseur, de Rosny, Pousse, Brinton and others a generation ago, to
+Messrs. Bowditch, Seler, Goodman and a few others of today, are all we
+have--standing out in a wilderness of guesses by many writers, needless
+of naming.
+
+Of course the prime and absolute necessity of such a study is true
+facsimiles; but the task of using even these, taken as they must be from
+much defaced inscriptions and manuscripts, is too obvious for comment.
+So from the very first of my studies I began to cherish thoughts of the
+day when Maya could be printed with type, and classified indexes to the
+glyphs at hand. From one point of view such facilities can only be
+expected to come _after_ decipherment; from another, in absence of
+bilingual keys, they are a necessity _before_ that can be attained. So
+far as his work covers, a great deal has been done in this line by Mr.
+A. P. Maudslay in the field of the inscriptions.
+
+At the very outset therefore I must enter acknowledgment of the
+assistance that I owe to the courtesy at that time of Prof. F. W.
+Putnam, of Peabody Museum, and Mr. Chas. P. Bowditch, in placing, with a
+freedom by no means universal among curators and researchers, their
+material at my disposal, with privilege of copying. I am safe to say
+that while I have reclassified the glyphs for my own use as my studies
+went on, yet without the copy which by Mr. Bowditch’s courtesy I was
+allowed to make of his card index to the glyphs of the three codices, as
+a start, this edition of the Perez Codex would not yet have reached
+daylight through the many other occupations among which Maya studies
+have had to take their chances.
+
+At first it seemed possible to prepare a font of separate types for the
+various elements of the compound glyphs we find in the texts; but after
+having such a font made a number of years ago, and printing a couple of
+pages of the Dresden Codex, the result was unsatisfactory; it became
+evident that the proper Maya font of type must be both separate and
+composite, as is used in Chinese, and not separate only as we have for
+Egyptian. The type for the text cards of this edition have therefore
+been made this way.
+
+As to the colored plates of the Codex herewith, it is evident that
+nothing whatever is gained by preserving the irregularities of the
+defaced parts of the Codex, while everything is to be gained by making
+all as clear and distinct as possible. The first step therefore was to
+have a set of photographed enlargements of two diameters, made direct
+from the 1864 issue. From these I made careful tracings, myself, of the
+black figure and glyph lines of the original, making at the same time
+the separate enlarged drawings from which the type were afterwards made.
+At this first drawing only the evident, the indisputable parts were
+drawn. The type forms were then classified, arranged in parallel
+columns, and compared. All was then gone over, and new points settled on
+the basis of the familiarity thus gained. It is a fair estimate to say
+that this process of checking and verifying was gone through, first to
+last, down to the final proof-reading of the printed sheets, some fifty
+times.
+
+One most important fact was established by this process, and must be
+noted. In the Perez Codex at least, _nothing is to be taken for
+granted_, nothing charged to a careless scribe, and no variants regarded
+as being identical in value--with a very few exceptions, to which I
+shall advert later. Wherever there remains enough of any glyph to show
+its characteristic strokes, it can be regarded as safely indicated;
+whenever the strokes are not just those characteristic of any glyph, it
+cannot be inferred. Down to the very end of the various revisions I
+found myself able to add glyphs which at first seemed hopeless, and yet
+when once seen became clear and plain. Relying on the presence of the
+photographs to check the work, I have thus added a very considerable
+number to the glyphs at first apparent. In some cases, as in 6-b-11 and
+17, and especially in 8-b-7, 8, 10, where glyphs were only partially
+erased, but no other instances of perfect glyphs existed to compare them
+with, I have let them alone, without attempting restoration. In short, I
+may have made some errors of eye, but I have guessed nothing.
+
+In a very few places I have restored glyphs totally erased, relying on
+the parallelism of the passages. Such are some of the Ahau-numbers in
+the upper sections of pages 2 to 11, and in the central sections on
+those pages, the initial pairs of glyphs on pages 15 to 18-a, b, c, the
+first columns of pages 19 and 20, and a few day-signs on pages 21, 23
+and 24. These glyphs are all necessitated by their different series, and
+hence can cause no confusions; while it seemed advantageous to have them
+before the eye. A fair instance of the procedure is shown on page 3-b-1,
+3. The temptation was strong to put the usual [Hieroglyph] glyph here as
+on all the other pages, but the slight variation in the lines left of
+glyph 3-b-3 forbade it.
+
+The restoration will further be found a little bolder on the type-cards
+than in the colored plates, where I have in general only endeavored to
+reproduce what could be seen actually present. The glyphs restored on
+the upper part of page 7 would seem hopeless at first sight; but they
+are well-known and common forms, and the characteristic traces shown on
+the photographs belong to these and to no others known.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The cards of type-printed text, in parallel columns for convenience of
+study, are self-explanatory. Such an arrangement has from the first
+seemed to me indispensable for proper study and comparison. The paging
+of the de Rosny editions I have retained, except to change the
+practically blank page 1 to be page 25, since to number this as 1 is
+confusing. For the divisions and the numbering of the glyphs I have made
+my own arrangement. It is possible that section _b_ on pages 2 to 11
+should only go to the bottom line of the central figure, leaving section
+_d_ to read clear across the page, and another section to be made to the
+left of the nearly erased figures at the bottom; but the chances as
+shown by the lining and arrangement of the columns seemed to favor it as
+I have given it. Only final decipherment can decide definitely.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7-*] In _Archives paléographiques de l’Orient et de l’Amérique_, atlas,
+t. I, pl. 117-142.
+
+[8-*] In his _Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift_, Danzig, 1903, Dr.
+Förstemann does not know of the existence of this edition.
+
+[9-*] _Codex Perez_: Maya-Tzental. Redrawn and Slightly Restored, and
+with the Coloring as it originally stood, so far as possible, given on
+the basis of a new and minute examination of the Codex itself. Mounted
+in the form of the Original. Accompanied by a Reproduction of the 1864
+Photographs; also by the entire Text of the Glyphs, unemended but with
+some restorations, Printed from Type, and arranged in Parallel Columns
+for convenience of study and comparison. Drawn and edited by William E.
+Gates. (_Privately printed._) Point Loma, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLORS
+
+
+The colors of the Codex afforded a number of questions for solution,
+some of which I have cleared up and embodied in the plates; a few are I
+believe insoluble. I have also been able to add a few wholly new points,
+not indicated by any of the preceding editions.
+
+Being unable to make a personal examination of the original, I prepared
+from my enlarged black drawings, above mentioned, another full set
+including the figures and all glyphs or other parts showing any
+suggestions of color. Upon these I prepared a list of nearly 200
+questions covering every detail, together with certain general
+specifications, and had the whole made the subject of a careful and
+exhaustive comparison with the original at the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+This report, when duly returned with the various details set out, with
+the various colors shown in their exact tints by water-colors, and with
+a special analysis of the question of the fading of the colors, was
+again checked and verified by the evidence of the three editions.
+
+In doubtful questions arising from faded colors, I have sought to show
+the condition of the original as it exists today. In the solid red
+backgrounds and other places I have aimed to show as far as possible
+what the Codex looked like when fresh.
+
+This question as to what all the colors in detail were when fresh, I do
+not feel that I have quite solved. The following palette scheme seems to
+me about as near as the data permit us to formulate.
+
+A permanent black, being the parts reproduced in black in the present
+edition.
+
+A brick-red, tinged with crimson, used for backgrounds, red numerals,
+and probably elsewhere. This we may call unfading red.
+
+A genuine brown, as on the animals, pages 5-a, 8-a; perhaps also
+elsewhere as lining ornament.
+
+A pale pink as flesh color on the human figures.
+
+A blue, as on the possible katun number series on pages 23 and 24.
+
+A turquoise-green, with varying amounts of blue tinge, on the spotted
+figures and in the numeral columns of pages 15 to 18; also, with
+somewhat less of the blue, for the “water” bands on pages 21 to 24.
+
+The above colors are all definite and positive.
+
+Then next appears a brownish color used for lining or ornamenting
+various glyphs, and the clothing, headdress, etc., etc., of the figures.
+We find many shades from a pale neutral up to a darker clear brown, and
+also a definitely reddish, as on the tail of the bird on the right side
+of page 23. This brown may be a fading of the red of the backgrounds and
+numerals, but the permanence of the color in these latter places is so
+positive that I believe it is not so. I think it should be regarded as
+separate.
+
+We next come to a color question related directly to decipherment, that
+of the very difficult numeral columns on pages 15 to 18. There is no
+practical reason discernable for the use of alternating colors save the
+avoidance of confusion between bar combinations. Three bars together of
+different colors stand of course for three 5’s; of one color they would
+make a single number 15. We therefore find here our above black, red and
+blue-green alternating and clearly marked in places; but we also find
+many numerals of varying shades of brownish, bistre and grayish. I
+called for especial care in the examination of these points on the
+original Codex, and the water-color sheets and explanatory notes show in
+detail the facts of the present state of the Codex. Prior to the
+examination I supposed that these faded numerals were a faded red, but
+this is stated in the report to be certainly not the case; the
+suggestion is made that they are probably faded blacks.
+
+From the latter conclusion I am inclined in part to dissent, at least as
+to certain passages, for two reasons. These are, first the actual
+permanence of the above noted main colors, everywhere else; and second,
+passages in the second columns of pages 16 and 17. In each of these we
+find faded brown or gray bars, so placed between or next to plain black
+bars as would give, were they faded blacks, more than three black bars
+together.
+
+Another point on page 17 is to be noted. In the top section, first
+column, are five blue 3’s. Some of these blue dots, as shown in the 1887
+edition and in my water-colors, have faded to the same light brown seen
+elsewhere. The brown and the blue 5 in the second column of this page,
+middle division, as just mentioned, have also an identical chromatic
+value in the photographs.
+
+My whole conclusion therefore, so far as I can formulate one, is that in
+these columns we have:
+
+Red, black, and blue-green numerals, as shown. Some of the blue numerals
+seem to have been _outlined_ with black, of which traces still appear on
+the original, are seen in the photographs, and indicated in the present
+color plates.
+
+Several instances where the Codex has been rubbed so as to leave only
+the outlines of original black numerals. These are now gray in the
+original, and I have left them as black outlines, touched in with gray.
+
+Finally, a number of pale brown numerals which are either faded
+blue-greens, or else indicate a fourth color in the original. Which of
+these alternatives is the true one, I cannot say.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The original Codex is still in practically as good condition as when the
+three editions were taken from it. The material of which it is made is a
+maguey paper of grayish tinge, and not a yellowish brown as would be
+inferred from the 1887 edition. This is noteworthy, as the wearing away
+of the coating with which the paper was surfaced for the writing, does
+not leave a brownish place which, as in the 1887 edition, might be
+mistaken for traces of applied color. This coating is indeed better
+preserved in places than is shown by the 1887 edition; thus the
+headdress at the extreme left of page 20, just to the right of the
+restored 8 Ezanab on the present color plates, is shown with the coating
+all erased and the black writing as if left on the ground-paper--which
+is incorrect.
+
+
+
+
+THE PAGES IN DETAIL
+
+
+Coming then to the question of the subject-matter of the Codex, I feel
+that little is in order beyond a simple analytical description of the
+different pages, rather than any attempt at an interpretation. The road
+of general deductions from superficial resemblances between unknown
+elements and the details of other known things from other times and
+places, is strewn by the wrecks of too many theories to be attractive
+traveling. I am firmly convinced of the greatness and importance of the
+study we have before us, and the exalted civilization which produced it;
+but I do not know how to interpret these monuments. Indeed the very
+persistence with which the interpretation (which will certainly be
+self-evident and everywhere applicable when it does finally come) still
+eludes us, is a sufficient proof that we have not yet found the right
+road. When we do, great doorways to the past of mankind will open of
+themselves, and we will know more of human life and evolution than we
+now guess. Until then we can only describe, classify, and try to get rid
+of some of the mechanical impedimenta of the search.
+
+What we have of the Perez Codex is manifestly but a fragment; the extent
+of it originally we have no means of even guessing. It is fortunate
+however that what we have gives several practically complete chapters or
+portions of the work. Taking first the side of the MS. paged 2 to 12, we
+find the entire side covered by a series of pictures with text, all
+identical in arrangement. The few remaining traces on page 12 show its
+likeness to the others, for we see in their proper places parts of the
+Tun-glyph on which the figures on the upper section are seated; of the
+Cimi, Tun and Cauac glyphs just as in pages 11-c-2, 6 and 8; also of the
+columns of glyphs to the left, and traces of the headdress. As will
+appear further, at least two more pages are required to complete this
+series, and it is as good a supposition as any other that they were
+those which would be numbered 1 and 13--that is, one before page 2 and
+one after page 12. For convenience of reference the divisions of these
+pages may be lettered from _a_ to _e_; _a_ being given to the upper
+portion, _b_ to the left columns of glyphs, _e_ to the large middle
+picture, and _c_ and _d_ to the text divisions above and below this.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Taking up first the central figures, section _e_, we find in each a
+standing figure, with ceremonial headdress of varying character,
+offering a dragon’s head (a universal symbol of wisdom) to another
+figure, seated on a cushioned dais, the side of which bears various
+“constellation” signs. The latter in turn extends his hands, either
+holding some object, or else in a simple gesture. The standing figures
+are all almost completely preserved; the seated ones unfortunately
+largely or wholly obliterated. In front of the standing ministrant is a
+vase of offerings, usually a triple Kan figure, and in two cases with
+knives. In the upper part of the picture, facing in every case but one
+towards the ministrant, is a bird figure, different on each page, and
+having in two cases a human head. On each page is an Ahau sign with red
+numeral, all of them together forming a series which (starting on the
+supposed page 1 with 4 Ahau) gives the succession 4, 2, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5,
+3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6; in other words the numbers of thirteen consecutive
+katuns. The Ahau numerals 13, 11, 9, on pages 3, 4 and 5, are entirely
+distinct, and enough traces appear on other pages to establish this as a
+katun series beyond question. If this chapter includes just a round of
+numbers it would of course be complete in 13 pages. The chapter may be
+historical in contents, but the presence of this numeral Ahau-series
+clearly relates these pages to successive katuns in some way, whatever
+other bearings they may have. The ten pages thus in some way definitely
+have to do with the lapse of 72,000 days, or not quite 200 solar years,
+and the extension of the series to a full cycle of 20 katuns is quite
+likely. The background of this section _e_ is red on each alternate
+page.
+
+Returning now to section _a_, we find on each page three figures, nearly
+all of persons or animals, seated on a large base [Hieroglyph]
+practically identical with the tun-glyph. Fourteen of the backgrounds to
+these figures are red. Above each figure there seems to have been at
+least six glyphs, of which but very few are left. Above these is a space
+entirely erased. In the center of the section on each page is a column
+containing at least two Ahaus with red numerals. The numerals of the
+upper row exceed those of the lower by 6; each row decreases from page
+to page by 4. The erased margins of the MS. do not afford space for
+another picture besides the three, on either side, but they do just give
+room for another Ahau-column on the left of each page. If this second
+Ahau-column existed, we have again the katun-series repeated in each row
+across. If it did not exist, the series (reading from the supposed page
+1) of 13, 9, 5, etc., and 7, 3, 12, etc., decreasing by 4’s, give the
+numbers of successive tuns. Once again the question of whether a simple
+number-round of thirteen terms, or a full round of twenty terms, whether
+tuns or katuns, was originally displayed on the Codex, must be left
+undetermined. It is further to be noted that faint but exact traces of a
+third Ahau, on a higher line, appear on page 5, as well as some doubtful
+traces on page 8. No definite relationship between the pictures of this
+section _a_ and those of section _e_ is apparent.
+
+Section _b_ is made up of 45 or more glyphs in three columns. The first
+column is almost totally erased on every page, and I have disregarded it
+both in assigning reference numbers and in the type cards. The other two
+columns I have numbered in double column sequence downwards; but this
+can be regarded as solely for convenience’ sake. The glyph [Hieroglyph]
+which is three times repeated at the beginning of page 2, and recurs in
+parallel position repeated two to five times on each page, is the most
+common glyph in the whole Codex. It is identifiable probably 38 times,
+including twice at the top of the erased _first_ column on page 4. It
+heads the second column several times on every page, except 7, which is
+too erased for any determination, and page 3, where a slight variation
+in what is left of the postfix at b-3 forbade its insertion under the
+rules I have given limiting restorations. I suspect that this glyph
+should be repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9, for the following reason. In
+positions b-6, b-8 or b-10 of each page occurs a certain face-glyph
+[Hieroglyph] that is found nowhere else in either the Perez, Dresden or
+Tro.-Cort. codices. If the initial glyph is repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9
+as suggested, then (with a slight variation on page 4) this series of
+repetitions of the initial glyph will in each case be closed by the
+face-glyph in question.
+
+A marked feature of section _b_ is the occurrence, near the bottom of
+each page, of a Cauac-sign, with or without the [Hieroglyph]
+wing-postfix, and with prefixed and superfixed [Hieroglyph] numerals,
+exactly as is so common in connexion with the Chuen-sign on the
+Inscriptions. This Cauac-sign is usually accompanied by an Ahau and a
+Tun, each with numerals that are for the most part erased. This
+combination suggests distance-numbers and dates, somewhat as on the
+Inscriptions; in this case the double-numbered Cauacs would stand for so
+many uinals plus so many days. The following combinations, besides the
+one above, are also found:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+Section _c_ consists of 16 glyphs in two rows, above the central
+picture. Glyphs 15 and 16 on each page are erased. The chief general
+characteristic is the frequent repetition of the Cimi-compound,
+[Hieroglyph]; the repetition on each page of a Cauac-sign with single or
+double numerals as in section _b_; and of Tun-compounds, with
+[Hieroglyph] subfix and with varying prefixes (frequently faces), as
+especially see page 5.
+
+Section _d_ is a triple row of glyphs, originally 21 in some instances,
+but with many now erased. I am able to establish few general
+characteristics for this section, save again the frequency of the
+Cimi-compound as in section _c_, of various Tun-compounds, and of the
+two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph][TN-1] With the exception of
+10-b-4, the face with the tau-eye occurs only in this section _d_ and on
+pages 15 to 18. This glyph is exceedingly common both in Dres. and
+Tro.-Cort, the form in which it appears at 3-d-4, 6, [Hieroglyph]
+occurring (including its secondary compounds) no less than 126 times in
+Dres. and 33 times in Tro.-Cort.
+
+Beneath section _d_ are the remains of red numerals and of heads and
+headdresses of figures which are now too much erased to give any basis
+for comment.
+
+A most marked feature of the Codex is the very large number of
+Tun-compounds, a feature confined exclusively, with one exception, to
+the present pages 2 to 11, and pages 23, 24. A classified list shows 28
+compounds of this glyph, [Hieroglyph] 20 of these showing the subfix,
+and combined with a face or other prefix. The connexion of this fact
+with the Tun-bases of section _a_, and with the katun-rounds shown by
+the Ahau-series above referred to, is manifest.
+
+To sum up the general characteristics of this side of the MS., and
+without attempting to interpret any separate glyphs, we find the
+following data:
+
+The Cimi-compound [Hieroglyph] and its sub-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs
+25 times.
+
+The numeral-compounded Cauac occurs 20 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 13 times on this side and once on page 23.
+
+The Chuen-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs 19 times and probably
+oftener--once only on the other side of the MS.
+
+The various Tun-glyphs occur 45 times, on the two sides.
+
+The face-glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The Kan-Ymix glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 37 times on this side and, with a prefix
+and a changed postfix, once on page 24.
+
+With the exceptions noted, none of the above glyphs occur at all on the
+reverse side of the MS.
+
+There are finally 19 different Yax ([Hieroglyph]) compounds, occurring
+in all 25 times, 16 of them on this side of the MS.
+
+With three exceptions the above glyphs are the only ones that are
+repeated in the Codex with any marked frequency. The three exceptions
+are the face with tau-eye, already [Hieroglyph] mentioned, and the two
+glyphs occurring as an initial [Hieroglyphs] pair twelve times on pages
+15 to 18, sections _a_, _b_, _c_.
+
+Of month signs used as such I am only [Hieroglyphs] satisfied of 12
+Cumhu, at 18-b-4 and of 16 Zac, at 4-c-7. The glyph [Hieroglyph] at
+7-c-2 may also be 1 Yaxkin.
+
+The only cardinal point sign is that of the West, [Hieroglyph] occurring
+at 4-b-14 and again at 16-a-6.
+
+There are besides these numeral Cauacs, 15 other Cauac [Hieroglyph]
+compounds, occurring in all 17 times on this side, and twice on pages
+23, 24.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Upon turning over the Codex, we find that whereas on the side we have
+been considering the scribe limited himself to the conventional red
+numerals and backgrounds, with here and there a touch of brown, upon
+this other side we have a wealth of color united with a harmony of
+composition and structure that marks a very high degree of artistic
+skill. It is not alone the accuracy of the drawing and the writing, such
+as we have noted in connexion with the study of the glyphs, but the
+whole manuscript as it lies open before us shows that sense of
+proportion, that ability to unify without seeming effort a multitude of
+details into a perfectly balanced whole, which is the positive mark of
+developed and genuine culture. When we remember the exceeding difficulty
+of combining primary colors into a brilliancy that is not garish, and
+the equal difficulty of achieving artistic mastery in a conventional
+treatment of forms, we are simply forced to recognize that we have here
+the evidence of an advanced school of art with full rights of
+independent citizenship. If the figures look strange and sometimes
+distorted, we must remember that our whole training has been in the
+realistic school, by which we are prone to judge all others, but by
+which they must not be judged. We have no more right to weigh these
+compositions in the scales of our art motifs than we have to weigh Greek
+rhythm of quantity or Saxon of alliteration against our weights by which
+we measure rhythm of rhyme and stress. In fact it is impossible for us
+even to judge concerning the true harmonic effect of these other
+measures, and it may well be doubted whether the very soul itself of our
+meter is not empty and tinny as compared with these others--quality for
+quality.
+
+There is one great broad line that divides the nations and civilizations
+of the earth, past and present, in all their arts of expression. We may
+call it that of the ideographic as against the literal. It controls the
+inner form of language and of languages; it manifests in the passage of
+thought from man to man; it determines whether the writing of the people
+shall be hieroglyphic or alphabetic; it gives both life and form to the
+ideals of their art. It is a distinction that was clearly recognized by
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, when he laid down that the incorporative
+characteristic essential to all the American languages is the result of
+the exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative elements of
+mind.
+
+The time has passed when we think that the absence of our perspective
+drawing in Japanese pictures is due to the fact that these “children of
+nature” never happened to recognize that a thing looks smaller in
+proportion to its distance, so that they ought to come to us to learn.
+We have come, in some measure if not yet fully, to recognize that
+whereas we show a thing to the eye, these other peoples suggest a
+thought to the mind, by their pictures. And we should remember, and
+remember always, that while our modern art having won its technical and
+artistic skill within the past few hundred years, is now beginning to
+emancipate itself from the materialism of the eye by efforts towards the
+“impressionist” methods, these ancient peoples had long since arrived at
+the ability to convey “impressions” through the medium of harmonious
+compositions of the most rigid conventional elements--an artistic
+achievement which those who know its difficulties can alone begin to
+appreciate.
+
+It may be quite easily forgiven to one trained with Western, modern
+eyes, who at first sight of these monuments, in total ignorance of their
+meanings, sees them as strange or grotesque. But when, as their
+strangeness wears away, one comes to see the unfailing accuracy with
+which the glyphs are drawn, one’s opinion of their makers has to change.
+And when, with this familiarity gained, one advances to an appreciation
+of the work in its bearings as a whole, one has to acknowledge himself
+facing the production of craftsmen who had the inheritance of not only
+generations, but ages of training. Such a combination of complete
+mastery in composition, perfect control of definite and fixed forms, and
+hand technique, can grow up from barbarism in no few hundred years. I
+would hesitate to think it could even come in a few thousands, unless
+they were years of greater settledness and peaceful civilization than
+our two thousand years of disturbed and warring European Christendom
+have yet had an example of to show us. It is easy enough in the absence
+of definite historical records, and in our general ignorance of human
+evolution, to theorize and speculate about it all; but the commonly
+accepted picture in our minds of a few savage wandering tribes settling
+and growing up in this country some several hundred or a thousand years
+after the Christian era, simply will not fit in with the fact of their
+ability to produce such works a few hundred years later. Had we nothing
+but the Perez Codex and Stela P at Copan, the merits of their execution
+alone, weighed simply in comparison with observed history elsewhere,
+would prove that we have to do not with the traces of an ephemeral, but
+with the remains of a wide-spread, settled race and civilization, worthy
+to be ranked with or beyond even such as the Roman, in its endurance,
+development and influence in the world, and the beginnings of whose
+culture are still totally unknown. As to the Codex before us, we can
+only imagine what the beauty, especially of the pages we now come to
+discuss, must have been when the whole was fresh and perfect.
+
+The second side of the Codex has to be treated in four divisions or
+chapters, the first of which includes pages 15 to 18. For numerical
+reasons which will appear, this chapter must probably have begun,
+however, at least one page further to the left.
+
+These four pages are laid out with three main divisions, upper, middle
+and lower. Too much of the upper section is erased for any comment other
+than that its arrangement seems to have been parallel in all respects
+with the middle section. This latter shows three subsections, the
+backgrounds in some cases being red,[24-*] containing each a picture
+(probably of a god or a human figure in every instance), surmounted by a
+black and a red numeral and by six glyphs, in double column. This gives
+12 subsections for the four pages, which we may refer to respectively as
+15-_a_, _b_, _c_, etc. Of the initial pairs of glyphs in each subsection
+many are complete, and no section is left without the correct traces of
+the corresponding glyph for one or other of the positions; so that
+although 5 of the 24 glyphs are totally erased, we may safely restore
+them all. Other features of the comparative use and frequency of the
+glyphs on these pages have already been given.
+
+At the top of each picture is found a black and a red numeral. These
+form the consecutive black “counters” or interval numbers, and the
+corresponding red day numbers of subdivided tonalamatls, so common in
+Dres. and Tro.-Cort. It is customary to find these tonalamatls divided
+into fifths or fourths, 52 or 65 days respectively--four or five
+trecenas. At the 53rd or 66th day the initial red number is again
+reached, and the calculation is (by hypothesis) repeated, starting again
+at the left with a new day-sign below the first. Such a column is seen
+in the lower part of page 17, where we find 6 Oc, Ik, Ix; these are to
+be completed by restoring below an erased Cimi and Ezanab, completing
+the 260 days and bringing us around again to 6 Oc. The total of all the
+black “counters” in any series must always be some multiple of 13,
+usually 52 or 65, as stated. And since each “counter” is the interval
+between its adjoining red numbers, wherever a red and a black number are
+given, the other red number, whether before or after, can always be
+filled in.
+
+No traces of this initial column appear for the series in the middle
+division, and several of the numerals are also erased. Two obscurities
+must be cleared up before trying to fill out the series. On page 16
+right is a partly erased black numeral, which from the traces may be
+either 10 or 11. Taking it as 10, we have 13 plus 10 equals an erased
+red 10; plus 5 (on page 17) equals the red 2 below the 5. This verifies
+so far. But we next find--plus 5 equals 8, which is of course incorrect.
+An inspection of the MS. and the photographs reveals a reddish spot (or
+perhaps even _three_ such spots) in the extreme upper right corner of
+the picture space, 17-a, and also a dark spot _under_ the black 5 in
+17-b. It is possible that the separated red dots (one doubtful) are to
+be read together as 3; or that the red dots under the 5 are to be
+disregarded in the count (just as is the red 8 on the next page, 18-a),
+and the red number for 17-a found in the upper right, above the seated
+figure. If the red number in 17-a is 3, the two numbers in 16-c must be
+11. Or it may be assumed that the spot under the 5 in 17-b belongs to
+it, making 6 instead of 5, which figures out. The final result is the
+same, as we have either 10 and 6, or 11 and 5, in these two places, and
+either reaches properly the clear red 8 in 17-b.
+
+In 18-a we find black 26, with a small red 8 below, and a large red 13
+in the usual place at the side. The red 8 will have to be disregarded,
+as not part of the series, which requires 13, and nothing else.
+
+We may now possibly set down the series as follows, using small figures
+above the the[TN-2] line for the black counters, and putting in
+parentheses all numbers restored:
+
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{11}(11)^{5}3^{5}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10,
+  or else
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{10}(10)^{5}2^{6}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10
+
+This leaves us the black number at the beginning, in 15-a, and both
+numbers at the end, 18-c, still not filled in. Adding together all the
+counters we get 82, plus at least the two missing black numbers, one at
+each end. If the total were 104, we might expect it to have been
+comprised within the four subsections 15-a to 18-a. But 104 is not a
+tonalamatl fraction. 130 days, although a tonalamatl half, is an unknown
+division, and would hardly get into the space. If we begin the series in
+the upper division of the page (as occurs in Dres.) and come around to
+the middle division, the probabilities would require that it displayed a
+full series of 260 days, and again also that it began _to the left_ of
+page 15. The probabilities of this series as it is, therefore, indicate
+at least a page 14 to the left, arranged like the other four, and
+forming one chapter with them.
+
+We have now to deal with the puzzling numeral columns, in alternating
+colors, found to the left of each subsection of the upper and middle
+divisions--24 columns in all. These have been referred to at some length
+in the preliminary discussion of the colors, and there is little more
+that can be said. As there said, the entire reason for alternating the
+colors can not be certainly assumed. Alternation of color occurs not
+only where it is needed to distinguish bars, but also where we have only
+lines of dots, which are of course self-separating. And to say that it
+is only for artistic purposes is a mere begging of the question. Only
+four or five of these columns are complete, and a footing of the numbers
+in each gives us varying amounts from 113 to 153, and tells us nothing.
+On the parts that are left we six times have a Chuen [Hieroglyph] with a
+black number apparently belonging to it (perhaps a multiplier), and also
+once a double Chuen, as in Tro.-Cort. The use of the red _kal_-sign, or
+20, is frequent.
+
+The lower division of these pages was also subdivided, into four
+sections on each, which we may refer to as _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_. Each
+contains a picture, with black and red numerals as above, surmounted by
+four glyphs only. The pictures are all quite incomplete; neither is
+there anything to add to what has been already said of the glyphs.
+
+In the middle of page 17 one tonalamatl ends, with a red 6, and another
+begins, also with 6. The second starts with the day 6 Oc, is divided
+into fifths, and the initial column must have been in full: 6 Oc, Ik,
+Ix, Cimi, Ezanab. The restoration of the series gives: 6^{22}2^{(15 in
+two stages)}(4)^{10}1^{4}6. This however only gives a total of 51 for
+the black counters. There is space to the right for another section, but
+whatever may have been written there has entirely disappeared. The last
+three numbers 1^{4}6 seem unmistakable, the [Hieroglyph] especially so.
+If we regard the last 6 as an error for 5, and then restore ^{1}6 in
+section 18-g, it would give the necessary 52. This is the one passage in
+the Codex where I can see no way but to assume a mistake in the writing;
+for 1 plus 4 does not equal 6, and unless for some entirely unknown
+reason the error is clear.
+
+The preceding tonalamatl may have been divided either into 52- or 65-day
+periods. If the period was 52, it must have begun with an initial column
+on page 15, right side. In this event it would be restored as follows:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(19 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}12^{(12 in two stages)}
+  (11)^{8}6,
+
+giving 52. In this case a third tonalamatl must have begun somewhere to
+the left, and ended on the erased right side of page 15.
+
+A different restoration would carry the initial column back to the
+extreme edge of page 15, when we would have this:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(2)}(8)^{8}3^{11}(1)^{(11 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}
+  12^{(12 two stages)}(11)^{8}6
+
+giving 65.
+
+To choose between these two would be mere guessing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The well-known pages 19 and 20 come next. Together they make four
+compartments, up and down the full length of the pages, two with red and
+two with black backgrounds. Each is, or rather was, preceded by a column
+of 13 “year-bearers.” The left column on each page I have restored,
+although no traces of it are left. But apart from its manifest
+necessity, as part of the series, if the width of the red ground on page
+20 (see the photographs) is measured, it will be found to be just the
+correct proportion, and part of the straight left edge of the red can
+still be seen, just left of the rod in the hand of the mummy-figure, and
+leaving just room for the Ezanab column. In the colored plates I have
+only shown 12 instead of 13 day-signs in each column, but a measurement
+of the space above and below shows that the missing four are to be
+placed at the top and not at the bottom. These two pages therefore have
+application in some way to 52 solar years, beginning with 1 Lamat and
+ending with 13 Akbal (Votan).
+
+These “year-bearers” are those of the Tzental instead of the Yucatecan
+system, as described by Landa, and on these two pages rests, so far as
+regards known subject-matter, the assignment of the Codex Perez to the
+Palenque rather than to the northern Maya district. It is thus to be
+considered with the Inscriptions of that region, and with the Dresden
+Codex.[28-*] And in accord with what is known of the state of the
+different parts of the country at the time of the Conquest, and of the
+history of the break-up and extinction of the Maya empire, it must be
+assigned the greater antiquity on that account.
+
+It is probable that pages 19 and 20 had no text passages.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Pages 21 and 22 again, judging from the coloring and the arrangement,
+seem to form a pair. Each had on the upper part probably five rows of
+glyphs, some 70 in all, of which only 10 or 12 are at all recognizable.
+Contrary to all the pages hitherto discussed, it may be that these
+glyphs are to be _read from right to left_. The faces in these all look
+to the right, and the customary prefixes are all on the right. In
+classifying these glyphs, therefore, they must be all reversed.
+
+The greater part of page 21 is framed in and divided up by green bands,
+evidently for water, two branches of which, after crossing a
+constellation band near the bottom, end one in falling torrents, the
+other in a circle surrounding a _kin_-sign, [Hieroglyph], the sun, and
+itself surrounded by four dragon’s heads, all figured in the midst of
+the torrents. Below this symbol is the open mouth of a dragon, towards
+which is looking and pointing a black-faced figure, of the god D, the
+Ancient of Days, described by Schellhas as the moon and night god. To
+the left of the torrents is a figure, nearly erased, but with the
+wristlets characteristic of the god of death, and holding in the hand a
+torch. The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs written in the torrents, at the
+left side.
+
+The green bands divide the middle of the page into six compartments
+containing, so far as not totally erased, 65 day-signs, in columns of
+five. All my efforts to relate these signs either to each other or to
+any other series in the codices, have so far been fruitless. The upper
+seven columns have each a black numeral beneath, running from right to
+left, 1 2 3 3 5 6 and the dot of another 6.
+
+Each of the columns of five day-signs forms a closed circuit returning
+into itself. In the upper row the 1st and 6th columns show successive
+days 8 apart in order; columns 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 are 16 apart in order.
+The 1st in the lower row is at intervals of 8, the 2nd and 5th at
+intervals of 16. The 3rd column is, with the 4th, an exception, the
+intervals being successively 8, 4, 4, 8, 16. That this is probably not a
+scribal error is shown by the fact that the same series, though
+beginning with different days, occurs in both columns. The 6th and
+possible 7th columns of the lower part are indeterminable.
+
+We thus have three rounds of 5 times 8, or 40 days; seven rounds of 5
+times 16, or 80 days; two irregular rounds of 40 days. These are not
+such columns as could form the beginning of a series of tonalamatl
+fifths, in which the successive days come 12 apart. So that this section
+must be left unexplained.[29-*]
+
+At the right of page 21 begins a solid red background which probably
+extended right across page 22. Two standing spotted green figures appear
+on page 21; seven seated figures, one green spotted, on page 22.
+
+Page 22 is crossed by a winding dragon whose body is covered by the
+“constellation band.” A narrow green band also winds across the page,
+inclosing two of the upper figures. Below the dragon and this green band
+are seen, seated above the open mouths of two erect dragons, two figures
+in conversation, each bearing various insignia of the death god. A very
+curious cartouche outline, partly erased, at the lower right, incloses
+what seems to be 13 Ahau, 3, 6, the right hand dot of the 3 being
+erased.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On pages 23 and 24 the brilliant backgrounds of the preceding pages
+disappear, and we have two pages, to be read together, of glyphs,
+day-signs and small figures, finely and sparingly illuminated with the
+usual four colors. The body of the dragon is apparently continuous from
+page 21, and crosses these pages entirely with the constellation band,
+displayed along its full length.
+
+The upper part of these two pages contained originally 91 glyphs,
+perhaps to be read _from right to left_, the same as 21 and 22. The
+faces look to the right, the usual _pre_fixes and the few numerals are
+also on the right of their respective compounds. Many of the glyphs are
+the same as those on pages 2 to 11, reversed right for left. Glyph
+23-a-11 should be specially noted. At first sight the numeral prefix, 6,
+appears to belong, postfixed, to glyph 23-a-17. But on investigation we
+find the same compound, a _yax-chuen_ with [Hieroglyph] prefix, also at
+21-a-8 and 24-a-26, in each case with the 6 attached. The [Hieroglyph]
+affix just below this number 6 is also plainly a _pre_fix to glyph
+23-a-12; so that glyph 23-a-ll must be read [Hieroglyph] and include the
+6 as prefix. At 24-a-26, [Hieroglyph] the same glyph is written left to
+right.
+
+There are also a few other glyphs on these pages which cannot be
+regarded as right to left. Such for instance, as [Hieroglyph] at
+23-a-19 and 24-a-17. In this glyph the affix [Hieroglyph] at the side is
+properly a prefix (perhaps the possessive), and I do not recall any
+instance of its use as a postfix. In the affixes, the superfix and
+prefix positions may as a general rule be regarded as wholly identical;
+also the subfix and postfix positions. But also as a general rule the
+two pairs are I believe not to be interchanged, any more than we
+interchange prefixes and endings in English; this rule is not universal
+for all affixes, as some seem able to go anywhere, but it is one I have
+always regarded in my glyph classifying. As to [Hieroglyph] it is to be
+noted that this is a symmetrical glyph and as there can be no doubt that
+these glyphs were equally legible to the Maya reader written in either
+direction, it may well be regarded as unimportant, and not to be rated
+even as an error. [Hieroglyph] is a still stronger similar case. Here
+the wing [Hieroglyph] affix to the right is certainly a postfix, the
+superfix is in the usual left to right order, [Hieroglyph] and the main
+element written left to right, as in all its other instances. And
+[Hieroglyph] is again in point.
+
+The face-_tun_ compounds on these pages, and also on the opposite side
+of the manuscript, should be particularly noted.
+
+Below the constellation band, inscribed on a wavy green band (the waters
+of space?) are seven repetitions of [Hieroglyph] or the sun glyph
+[Hieroglyph] within the shields.[31-*] Between each appeared probably
+two black 8’s. The sun-shields are about to be seized by different
+animals, dragon, tortoise, bird, etc., a seeming evident suggestion of
+either an eclipse, or the passage of the sun into some zodiacal sign.
+Another series of seven sun-shields, on the green band, separated by
+numeral 8’s, and attacked by animals and a skeleton, crosses the lower
+part of the pages.
+
+Between these two bands we find a series of columns of five day-signs
+each preceded by red numerals. Allowing for the space erased I have
+restored the last column to the right, and part of the preceding. This
+gives 12 columns only, whereas at least 13 are required. There may have
+been a 12th column to the left of page 23, where there is just the
+proper space for this,[32-*] leaving the dragon’s body to curve above
+the column so as to pass to page 22. The series may have continued on
+across page 25; 13 columns on pages 23, 24, and 7 more filling page 25,
+would make a full cycle of 20 columns. And in this connexion it should
+be noted that the dragon’s body with constellation band goes almost to
+the edge of page 24 with no sign of ending or turning, such as might be
+expected if the chapter ends here. And if the constellation dragon
+continues over page 25, the column series may well have done the same.
+
+Before discussing this series it will be of advantage to review what the
+Codex gives us on the question of reading left to right or right to
+left.
+
+First, in both the Dresden and Tro.-Cort. the glyph faces look to the
+left; and, as shown by the calculations, reading is from left to right,
+with a very few possible exceptions, such as the tables on Dres. 24, 64,
+69, etc.
+
+In the Perez, as shown by the tonalamatls on 15 to 18, the 52
+year-bearers on 19 and 20, and the katun-series on 2 to 12, the general
+direction of the reading is also left to right.
+
+Above or below each of the red number columns of these pages 23, 24, is
+to be found a blue number. These numbers make a katun-series, starting
+with 4, decreasing by 2, if we read it left to right. It is not, to be
+sure, accompanied by the customary Ahau-sign, [Hieroglyph], but, taken
+in connexion with the marked parallelism of the glyphs, face-tun glyphs
+and also others, on these two pages with those on pages 2 to 11, already
+discussed, the possibility that a katun-series is a part of this
+subject-matter must be considered.
+
+On the other hand, the glyphs in the upper part of all four pages 21 to
+24 face to the right, and, as already set out in detail, are practically
+all written in _reverse position_ as regards their prefixes, etc. And so
+also does the Eb-glyph in the day-columns we are now considering face to
+the right. These columns, unlike those on page 21, which include all of
+the 20 day-signs, only include 5 of the day-signs: Kan, Lamat, Eb, Cib
+and Ahau; Eb being the only non-symmetrical one of these.
+
+We have thus quite strong evidence, especially as provided by the
+position of the prefixes, for a right to left reading, opposed by the
+direction of this katun-number series--if it be one. In Egyptian
+writing, of course, the direction of the reading changes with the facing
+of the figures.
+
+To return now to the columns themselves, all the day-signs in any one
+column have each the same red numeral, so that we have: 8 Cib, 8 Ahau, 8
+Kan, 8 Lamat, 8 Eb; and so on. The red numerals to each column also
+decrease by 2 towards the right, pari passu with the blue numerals. If
+we read each column downwards, it will form a closed circuit or round,
+returning into itself, with intervals of 104 days, from 8 Cib to 8 Ahau,
+etc., and again from 8 Eb back to 8 Cib. But if we next try to go to the
+next column, the series breaks, for from 8 Eb to 6 Lamat is only 76
+days. We get a like break whether we read upward or downward, or right
+to left. Taking the columns separately then, the entire series (whether
+made up of 13, 20 or any other number of columns) cannot be made to read
+in one regular series, with a constant interval between the successive
+days of the whole.
+
+But, if we restore two columns, making 13 columns, and then read
+horizontally _across_, either right to left, or left to right, one line
+after another, the first day of the second line follows the last of the
+first, and after going through the whole 65 terms, we return again from
+the last of the last line to the first of the first--always with a
+constant interval. In other words, this section could be written around
+a wheel. If we read left to right, the distance from (10 Kan) to 8 Cib,
+etc., is 232 days; 232×65=15,080. Or if from right to left,[33-*] the
+interval from (12 Lamat) to 1 Cib, etc., is 28 days; 28×13 = 364, ×5 =
+1820. That both of these products are multiples of 260 is a truism, and
+cannot in any way require us to see a tonalamatl reckoning as the basis
+of this passage. Nor is each separate day-column a tonalamatl in fifths,
+as so often found.
+
+Finally, if we should assume that the series went on across page 25, to
+a full katun-round of 20 terms, the circuit would be broken; line 2
+would not regularly follow line 1, and so on. The probabilities then, as
+derived from the succession of the days, seem almost conclusive that
+this is a section of 65 terms, to be read horizontally, in whichever
+direction. And then, since the subdivision of 15,080 days (or 1820, if
+read right to left) into 65 terms, _necessarily_ gives us successive
+day-_numbers_ decreasing (or increasing) by 2, the likeness to the
+katun-series may be only apparent--a simple truism. Or, on the other
+hand, in view of the glyph similarities (a point which I think should
+always be given close attention), there _may_ be some relation to the
+katun-series--all in spite of the right-left or left-right difficulties.
+
+What part the blue[34-*] number series plays, I cannot say. Dr.
+Seler,[34-†] suggests that they are “corrections,” to set each term
+ahead 20 days. This states a fact, but does not give any explanation.
+Each blue number is 6 less than its red column, and 7 Kan _is_ of course
+20 days later than 13 Kan.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24-*] Dr. Förstemann (_Comm. z. Par. Mayahds._) speaks of the
+background to the central figure on page 16 as black, instead of red; he
+also describes the number columns as made up of red and black numerals
+only. There are many similar errors in his Commentary, due to his
+ignorance of the colors, and to the obscurity of the photographic
+reproductions.
+
+[28-*] Where to place the Tro.-Cort., in view of the _apparent_ Kan,
+Muluc[TN-3] Ix, Cauac years indicated on pages 34-37, and the 13 Cumhu
+immediately next to 13 Ahau on page 73 (13 Ahau 13 Cumhu falling only
+possibly in a year 12 Lamat) I am not ready to say.
+
+[29-*] Mr. Bowditch suggests to me that the numbers 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 are to
+be read with each of the day signs in their respective columns, and,
+being placed in the middle, may apply both to the upper and lower sets.
+The strongest objection I can see to this is that the numbers are black,
+instead of the usual red. In this case, instead of intervals of 8 and
+16, giving rounds of 5×8=40 and 5×16=80 days, we would have intervals of
+156 and 208 (from 1 Ymix to 1 Muluc, etc.), giving rounds of 780 and
+1040 days respectively. Or, if read _upwards_, we would have 52 and 104
+day intervals (1 Ben to 1 Chicchan, etc.), and rounds of 260 and 520
+days. But whichever be the case, the page is _sui generis_, and its why
+is still beyond us.
+
+[31-*] I have retained the usual term “shields” for the flaring forms
+which embrace the sun glyph, though without accepting its
+appropriateness. They might with equal likelihood be conventionalized
+wings.
+
+[32-*] Dr. Förstemann ignores the space on the right of page 24, and
+restores two columns to the left of page 23 in order to make up the
+thirteen columns; but, as shown by the edges of the pages in the
+photographs, one column restored in each place will just fill the
+obliterated space.
+
+[33-*] Dr. Seler’s reading; _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515.
+
+[34-*] The blue is a true blue, quite distinct from the turquoise blue
+elsewhere, and is found in the case of these numbers only.
+
+[34-†] _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515; “Zur mexik. Chronologie.”
+
+
+
+
+THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+Up to date our knowledge of the meanings of the glyphs is still to all
+intents and purposes limited to the direct tradition we have through
+Landa, and the deductions immediately involved in these. We know the day
+and month signs, the numbers, including 0 and 20, four units of the
+archaic calendar count (the day, tun, katun and cycle), the cardinal
+point signs, the negative particle. We have not fully solved the uinal
+or month sign, which seems to be _chuen_ on the monuments and a _cauac_,
+or _chuen_, in the manuscripts. We are able to identify what must be
+regarded as metaphysical or esoteric applications of certain glyphs in
+certain places, such as the face numerals.[35-*] But every one of these
+points is either deducible directly by necessary mathematical
+calculation, or else from the names of certain signs given by Landa in
+his day and month list, and then found in other combinations, such as
+_yax_, _kin_, etc. That we have as many of the points as we have, and
+still cannot form from them the key--that we cannot _read_ the
+glyphs--is a constant wonder; but a fact nevertheless.
+
+The innumerable efforts to identify the glyphs by their superficial
+appearance, calling the banded headdress a “pottery decoration,” and
+explaining the face-glyph of the North thereby, because in Maya _xaman_
+is north and _xamach_ a tortilla dish (to say nothing of others still
+more fanciful, by a host of writers), have broken down, as was to be
+expected. I mention this instance because it illustrates fully the
+results of superficial analysis, united with a seeming ineradicable
+tendency even among those most able students who have added the most to
+our stock of Maya knowledge (among whom Dr. Brinton was certainly one of
+the foremost), to treat these glyphs as carelessly done, to disregard
+the differences between manifest variants, or else to talk freely,
+whenever a passage does not fit the explanation which is being worked
+out, of scribal errors.
+
+In the first place, _if_ these glyphs are to be interpreted primarily by
+the Yucatecan Maya dialect (one in which we have most ample printed and
+MS. lexicographic material), and if in that dialect no other words at
+all resembling _xaman_ and _xamach_ are found, as we are told, then
+(_if_ the Mayas named the north star, or the North, by a pun on a
+tortilla dish) wherever this banded headdress is found, we must assume
+the text to be treating either of the North, or of tortillas. That might
+safely be left to break down of its own weight; but we shall also see
+that the explanation is given in total disregard of manifest, important
+variants. This banded headdress appears ornamenting at least
+[Hieroglyphs] five separate and distinct faces; one a wholly human face,
+the others with various other definite characteristics, the most
+frequent and prominent of which are the monkey-like face and mouth we
+see in the [Hieroglyph] glyph for the north, and a sort of bird’s
+plumage covering the back of the head. These two are separate, are never
+combined, and must be classified rigidly apart. We have therefore three
+elements, the monkey face, the plumage covering (if we may call it so),
+and the banded headdress. It is obvious that while the monkey face may
+be specific of the North, the bands are not specific at all, but
+general.
+
+It is with the greatest diffidence that I suggest any interpretations on
+my own part as yet, but it is of course certain that the distinction of
+masculine and feminine existed in the spoken language, and it must exist
+somewhere in the glyphs. And it will have to be a prefix, not a postfix;
+for what I may call the syntax of glyph formation must follow that of
+the speech. At the bottom of Dres. 61 and 62 are seven identical
+Oc-glyphs with subfix, and with prefixes. Five of these prefixes are
+faces with the woman’s curl, recognized on the figured illustrations.
+One is a face with the banded headdress. Remembering that this headdress
+occurs not infrequently on a plain human face with no other
+characteristic, it is not a far guess that it may have denoted a
+freeman, a lord, entitled to such a headdress. In this event it may on
+the one hand serve as a simple masculine definitive, the prefix _ah-_,
+and on the other, to attach the idea of lordship to other glyphs with
+which it is incorporated, as: the North Star, or region, the Lord of the
+Firmament.
+
+This illustration serves to show what seems to me an essential
+preliminary of the work we have in hand, and the part to which I have so
+far devoted most effort. The glyphs must be determined, compared and
+classified, and what I have called the “syntax” of their composition,
+studied. The particles and their positions, the various _incorporated_
+elements, are of the utmost importance, though they are very frequently
+ignored. _They are the written picture of the spirit of the spoken
+language._ The task I have most looked forward to in this connexion has
+of course been with the Dresden, but having started upon the Perez for
+the reasons I have given, it was a smaller task in itself, and could be
+brought to completion within less time, while serving as part of the
+larger work. As the determination and classification of the glyphs had
+to proceed all as one work, it has enabled me not only to complete my
+Index for this codex, but also to print the text in type, and to verify
+and bring out such facts regarding the color questions as was possible
+to do--both of them stages needed in the general work. In doing it I
+have studied with my hands as well as with eyes, and I have been well
+repaid. The actual labor has not been small, but it has been worth it
+all if only to see before the eyes something of what this Codex must
+have been when fresh and new. For as I have said, while in my colored
+restoration I may have made some mistakes of eye, for which the
+photographs will be a check, I have _guessed_ nothing.
+
+The classification of the glyphs meets of course with some difficulties
+in detail, but it can readily be cast into a quite simple general
+outline. Something over 2000 different compound forms are found in the
+three codices. The simple elements composing these are perhaps 350 in
+number, and may be divided broadly into main elements and affixes or
+particles. First of course come day and month signs, which, with _kin_,
+_tun_, _kal_, and a few marked variants, use up 50 numbers. Next will
+come the faces, about 75 simple elements. Next the animal and bird heads
+and figures, about 50 numbers. Next the hands, crosses, etc., and the
+list of conventional or geometric forms, another 75. Then some 75
+particles.
+
+The cards required for the first 50 numbers, including only compounds
+formed from day-signs and excluding day-signs used simply as such,
+amount to practically one half of the number required for the whole
+index. Certain elements, notably the _kin_, the _tun_, the monkey-face
+with banded headdress, already referred to, the face with tau-eye, the
+_yax_, the cross, produce a great number of compounds--a fact of note,
+as it is evident that the number of compounds, having due regard to our
+limited material, is an index to the relative position of the idea in
+the Mayan vocabularies. Some of the day-signs produce practically no
+compounds, others a great many. The compounds fall readily into a system
+of primary and secondary derivatives, by which their relations may be
+easily studied, and their proportions recognized.
+
+Coming to the distinguishing of variants, one first meets the fact that
+the three codices differ. The writing of the Dresden and Perez is
+regular and accurate, the Perez exceedingly so. Every different variant
+must here be accounted for. In Tro.-Cort. the writing is crude and
+careless, so that we have many evident abbreviations which are not
+genuine variants. In the next place, certain regular differences occur
+in this or that glyph or particle, between the forms of the different
+manuscripts. Thus the Perez uses [Hieroglyph] and the others
+[Hieroglyph] and so on. A comparison of the compounds shows that these
+must be the same. The regular variations between the three manuscripts
+and variations of abbreviation, when well evidenced, may be eliminated.
+
+The day-signs have many variants, mostly quite simple, and all checked
+positively by the use of the form in some day-series. Ix has many
+forms. There are at least three entirely different Cimi forms:
+[Hieroglyphs][TN-4] There are found two different forms of the closed
+eye, one of which certainly is Cimi, the other occurs regularly in
+such different compounds (and I think never as a simple day-sign), as
+to make it necessary to separate it; [Hieroglyph] it has probably a
+different meaning entirely--perhaps that of sleep.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A noteworthy technical line is to be found in the drawing of the glyphs.
+Whereas in the case of the day-signs, faces, and conventional forms in
+general, certain variations of handwriting, etc., are evidently
+permitted, but only within certain definite lines, in some few animal
+glyphs no two instances are just alike. In other words, the glyphs in
+general are conventions with established meanings--actual writing;[39-*]
+but we also have _pictures_ of birds or animal forms, where the writer
+is not following convention, but nature. The freedom of style used in
+the latter case only serves to emphasize the conventionality of the
+former, and to separate the entire system from either picture or rebus
+writing. See the following fish-glyph forms:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+These pictures are almost exclusively in uncompounded forms, whereas the
+conventional glyphs, whether human, animal or otherwise, are subject to
+the general rules of incorporation.
+
+Writing is a system of conventional forms with established meanings,
+corresponding to and reflecting the structure of the spoken language;
+some picture elements whose value as such has remained either wholly or
+partly present in the minds of those who use them, are not inconsistent
+with genuine writing; when present they add vividness to the writing,
+and emphasize its ideographic character. A combination of picture forms
+only, may be used as means of communication to a certain degree, but can
+never constitute _writing_; that, like speech, must provide for the
+expression of the relationships and categories that make up the
+structure of language.
+
+Egyptian writing, which is of course _true writing_, contains elements
+of every class. It has symbols and also pictures, not only of things or
+creatures, but of actions as well, “contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive”; these pictures, although still ranking as such, stand for
+_words_--they can be _pronounced_, and have syntax, which is the crucial
+test. Egyptian next has unrecognizable forms, whose meaning has become a
+simple convention, but which still stand for _words_, or particles. It
+has elements which are not pronounced for themselves, but only serve as
+determinatives. (Such a use of determinatives is not limited to
+hieroglyphic writing, but is possessed also by alphabetic; the second
+_o_ in the word _too_ is strictly a determinative, to distinguish the
+adverb _too_ from the preposition _to_, both pronounced alike. Tibetan
+has an elaborate system of silent letters used as grammatical
+determinatives.) And then Egyptian writing finally has pure alphabetic
+elements.
+
+As to Maya, I think it far more than likely that, when at last
+deciphered, it will be found to contain most if not all of these
+classes--_mutatis mutandis_. There seems every evidence that it is made
+up of pictures with probably both concrete and abstract meanings;
+word-conventions; and grammatical particles. It is at least probable
+that there are also silent determinatives and not unlikely that there is
+also a pure phonetic or alphabetic element. That the latter element is
+not the basic one may I think be now regarded as established.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35-*] The Tibetan use of symbolical words in place of numerals is worth
+noting here, even though we do not know the Maya face numerals well
+enough as yet for any comparison. See Csoma de Kőrös, _Tibetan grammar_,
+Calcutta, 1824, pp. 155 _et seq._; also Ph. Éd. Foucaux, _Grammaire
+Tibétaine_, Paris, 1858, pp. 157 _et seq._
+
+[39-*] “These [the Maya glyphs] do not represent a real script, as is so
+often maintained, but are only pictures which have been reduced to the
+appearance of letters, contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive.”!--Dr. Eduard Seler, _Codex Vaticanus No. 3773_, page
+65.--Well?
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+_Introite, nam et hic dii sunt._
+
+
+It is not my desire to add, as a conclusion to a comment bearing on the
+restoration and interpretation of Mayan hieroglyphic texts, any general
+discussion of the data which tradition and the early Spanish writers
+have left us of the mythology, rites and customs of the American races;
+and still less to run out a line of attractive analogies between
+isolated instances of their words, symbols or works, with those of any
+of the various nations of the other hemisphere; nor to build up any
+theory of descent or intercourse with any of these latter as today known
+to history. The subject before us is on its very face too vast; the
+written and traditional data are entirely too scanty and too little
+understood; and while we are still obliged to designate the various gods
+and personages of the Codices as god A, B, etc., and are unable to fix
+definitely[41-*] a single inscribed date in terms of our chronology, or
+tell the event attached to it, fancied comparisons amount to little. And
+the favorite “linguistic” method is more fragile yet, especially when
+the uncertainties of spelling and transliteration are considered, and
+above all the frequent total ignorance of the past history and changes
+the different words compared must have gone through since the time when
+by any possibility a physical transmission from one locality to the
+other could have taken place. These ought to be commonplaces of
+research, but it is to be feared that they have not quite yet become
+so.[42-*] There is no need to give instances of such false analogies
+which have served as the bases for a multitude of filiation theories,
+all equally well “supported” by details, and all mutually exclusive. Nor
+on the other hand can we deny the existence actually of a very great
+number of resemblances and identities which cannot be ignored, but must
+imply connexions of some kind. The English nation is not a Hebrew people
+because it had a prime minister Disraeli, nor Greeks because they have a
+Queen Alexandra, nor Romans because of certain local names. Such facts
+even when real, and established as such, may only be evidence of a
+single continental culture or transcontinental intercourse.
+
+It has been the dictum of a certain school of archaeology, still very
+much in general favor, that all these identities are to be explained as
+the natural result of the innate tendencies of untutored men, on their
+evolutionary rise, at certain cultural stages, to imagine the same myths
+and invent the same rites. From this as a principle I wholly dissent; it
+simply does not meet the facts. There are of course many facts to which
+it does apply, such as those that both Chinese and Americans made paper,
+tanned leather, made feather ornaments, used star and flower names for
+their children, and so on: facts which had been used to prove Chinese
+and American identity, and to which Dr. Brinton justly added in retort
+that they also slept at night, wore clothes when it was cold, and so on.
+But there is a very great number of facts, a number constantly growing
+with research, which cannot be so dismissed. Such are the employment of
+abstract symbolism, the erection of great structures all having a
+definite and identical astronomical bearing and evident use, the common
+possession of so-called myths all telling the one story, and only
+slightly modified locally, such as the birth-stories of Huitzilopochtli
+and of Herakles, and the stories of the travail of Latona pursued by the
+Python and of the Woman clothed with the Sun in _Revelation_; or the
+universal tradition of seven ancestral caves or cities in America,
+compared with the Tibetan and Purânic stories of the seven lotus-leaves
+of Śveta-dvîpa, the first continental home of the race; the _Hacha de
+cobre_ of the Miztecs and the ever-turning spear of jade of the Japanese
+story of the place where the gods first descended on earth; or the whole
+question of the origin of the Zodiac. These things, and a host of
+others, need a different explanation--all the more since the more we are
+learning of them the more we find that they enclose facts of which the
+hypothetical “savage children” could not, _ex hypothesi_, have been
+aware--some facts indeed which our very latest modern science is only
+now learning.[43-*]
+
+But while dissenting now wholly from this theory (of “coincidentalism”)
+one cannot but hold in all respect those who in their time held it. It
+is the duty of the savant to make the best logical use he can of what he
+has, and he cannot be criticised for not using finer scales than the
+time affords. And this theory was needed as an answer to the
+absurdities, brought out in utter disregard of physical possibilities,
+postulating off-hand migrations and filiations and evolutionary advances
+totally impossible within the periods allowed for their completion, and
+utterly without parallel in any known part of the world or page of
+history. And yet, when this theory had its birth, the most of
+Christendom was still enthralled by the Ussherian chronology of the
+creation and history of the whole divine universe, which simply did not
+have room in it for all these things to happen naturally and
+connectedly.
+
+And if it is urged that present science had already say a generation
+ago, a second’s time we might say in the life of humanity, begun to
+emancipate our ideas of time and evolution, still it is the fact that
+that increase in breadth of vision has so far applied to every known
+thing but man himself. The old belief that gave the world 6000 years of
+life, at least put thinking man at its beginning; the modern nightmare
+gives us a world for hundreds of millions of years without _thought_,
+and makes human civilization an ephemeral episode of a few seconds of
+universal duration. Disregarding, one is forced to say wilfully, the
+fact that every single one of their own arguments in favor of anthropoid
+descent for man would equally support a theory that the anthropoids are
+debased offshoots of human stocks,[45-*] biology still demands such a
+lapse of time for its physical evolution that its adherents oppose and
+belittle to the utmost every bit of evidence of any antiquity even for
+the physical frame of man. We have, to say nothing of the rest of the
+world, Egyptian civilization now pushed back 10,000 years, and (together
+with others as we slowly uncover them) as far removed as ever from
+barbarism, if not indeed growing greater as we go back; but we are not
+allowed anything but apelike, half arboreal savages 50,000 years ago.
+And yet every observed _fact_ shows us savage or worn-out races
+everywhere throughout the world deteriorating and dying out, and nowhere
+any savages progressing or, unaided by outside influence, developing
+what we know as civilization. We see everywhere the rise and fall of
+nations, races and civilizations, and their utter blotting out; and we
+refuse to accept that process as a universal law through which the
+destiny of the human race is working itself out. In fact, we do not seem
+to believe that the human race has any destiny; it may have beginning
+and an end, but no destiny.
+
+And so although this modern scientific school began as a reaction
+against the narrowness of theological limitations, both of time and
+greatness, so hampered and hypnotized has our thought been by both, that
+man is of nearly as little universal account with one as with the
+other, and we find a seemingly ineradicable repugnance to admit that any
+people had “developed” writing before the least possible time ago we can
+fix it, usually this side of the year 1 of the Christian era. And thus
+we have M. Terrien de Lacouperie’s “450 _embryo_ scripts and
+writings”--which another fifty years may show to be nearly as many
+fragments of one or a few great stocks of ancient hieroglyphs. Of course
+it is impossible to derive the American races or civilizations from the
+Chinese, Phoenicians, Hittites, or any of the cultures of the other
+hemisphere, if we limit the latter to what we know of their history
+within the past two or three thousand odd years, and American
+civilization to the past fifteen hundred years. The matter is somewhat
+greater than that--just as man is somewhat greater than a fool of
+natural caprice.
+
+There is one point from which this question of American origins, at
+least of American place in human society and civilization, can be
+studied in its broader lines, even with what materials we have. It is
+that of language in general. All these other matters we have touched
+upon are necessary factors in the question of human evolution, and the
+position of America cannot be considered apart from them, and all of
+them. But Language touches both the glyphs directly and also all these
+other things, and is itself of surpassing interest and importance as a
+human study.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From one point of view Language is man himself, and it certainly is
+civilization. Without it man is not man, a Self-expressing and social
+being. It is, as von Humboldt laid down, not an act but an activity, or
+energy, not a thing done, but a doing. It is the constant effort of the
+conscious self to formulate thought. It is the use of the energy of
+creation, of objectivation, a veritable many-colored rainbow bridge
+between the inner or higher man and the outer or lower worlds. And it is
+not only the expression of Man as man, but in its varied forms it is the
+inevitable and living expression of each man or body of men at any and
+every point of time. Itself boundless as an ocean, it is in its infinite
+forms and streams and colors and sounds, the faithful and exact exponent
+both of the sources and channels by which it has come, and of the banks
+in which it is held, racial, national or individual. It is living or
+dead, forceful or weak, pure or foul, refreshing or flat, healing or
+poisonous. It limits us, but yields to our force. Every word or form
+comes to us with the thought impress of every man or nation that has
+used or molded it before us. We must take it as it comes, but we give it
+something of ourselves as we pass it on. If our intellectual and
+spiritual thought is aflame, whether as nation or individual, we may
+purify it, energize it, give it power to form and arrange the atoms
+around it--and we have a new literature, a new and beneficent, creative
+social vehicle of intercourse, mutual understanding, and human
+unification. Or if our mental or spiritual life is stale, and petty, or
+egoistic, or seeking for enjoyment only rather than action; if we have
+nothing in us to give the words and forms we use, but only some national
+force left to use and play with them, we for a while refine, and paint,
+and pettify, and elaborate into meaningless subtleties of form, every
+one of which in turn reacts upon our mental and spiritual life,
+distracting and enchaining us, until at last the nation and its
+language--die out; for neither can live without the other.
+
+Now it is evident that the criterion of the perfectness of any language
+is not to be found in a comparison of its forms or methods with those of
+any other, but in its fitness as a vehicle for the expression of deeper
+life, of the best and the greatest that is in those who use it, and
+above all in its ability to react and stimulate newer and yet greater
+mental and spiritual activity and expression. The force behind man,
+demanding expression through him, and him only, into the human life of
+all, is infinite--of necessity infinite. There is no limit, nor ever has
+been any limit, to what man may bring down into the dignifying,
+broadening and enriching of human life and evolution, save in his own
+ability to comprehend, express, and _live_ it. And the brightness and
+cleanness of the tools whereby he formulates his thought, as well as the
+worthiness and fitness of the substance and the forms into which he
+shapes it for others to see, are the essentials of his craft. For such
+is the economy of nature, which wastes nothing in reality, that a fit
+vehicle will be taken possession of by its own tenant; and the unfit
+left to and be taken by those who can use no better.
+
+Before, then, taking up the great formal classes into which language at
+large is usually divided, it will be necessary to say a few words as to
+the foundations of form itself in language, that we may then proceed to
+consider these classes from the standpoint of their inner meaning rather
+than solely of the outer form; and by seeking to understand the mental
+and spiritual equipment and life of those that used them, may perhaps in
+turn be better fitted finally to enter into the genius of their written
+and spoken languages, and to interpret through them in the detail more
+of the ideas which those forms were both fitted and used to express.
+Such a method is essential for the understanding of any language or
+culture, but it is absolutely necessary in the case of these non-Aryan
+tongues, so great is the distance both of time and thought which
+separates us from them. If we set out to compare the forms by which they
+expressed their thought with those within which we develop ours, or
+approach these cultures and peoples in the attitude of alien criticism,
+study their “interesting ways” through a mental lorgnette and impale
+their dead forms on the needles of our collection, we shall not only
+show ourselves less broad in culture than many of them, but we shall
+simply close and lock the doors of discrimination and understanding
+before us. The question is not, How do their forms and ways appeal to
+us? but, How did those forms, and ways, achieve their underlying
+objects, and what was the _thought_ behind them?
+
+Life is action, and without activity whatever powers lie within any
+conscious being are only potential. Activity is the bridge between the
+inner man and the outer world, by which he impresses his thought, in
+forms, on chaos or the atoms about him, receiving in return increased
+knowledge and experience of all he touches, and knowledge of himself
+through the results of his own actions; and it is the bridge between man
+and man. For this reason the verb, the word of action, is the most
+important and most developed part of speech. The three hypostases of
+life, as of language, are the self, activity, and the world; and it is
+for the expression of all the possible varied relations between these
+three, that all the forms of any language come into being. And from the
+way in which these forms are developed, and the relative importance
+which is given to this or that form of thought or activity, the
+character of the people, their grasp of nature, and their own conception
+of themselves and their relation to the world, can be seen.[49-*] Some
+languages have the strong impress of impersonality, without any loss of
+virility; others are strongly egotistic and self-assertive, with perhaps
+the braggart’s lack of genuine strength. Each spoken language that we
+know has its own color and tone, to which our thought must respond, if
+we would know and use it well. To speak good Swedish, for instance,
+requires clear thinking to an exceptional degree. To show this, the form
+“come here,” which is the ordinary English expression, is simply _bad
+grammar_ in Swedish; the use of “come _hither_” (_kom hit_, instead of
+_kom här_) is imperative. We have the “hither” in English, but it has
+become stilted, and the linguistic distinction lost. Compare also the
+use of _få_, as a common auxiliary; nor are these exceptions, but, on
+the contrary, characteristic examples. Also to enunciate the language
+rightly one must hold the back and neck erect and the muscles firm.
+
+In some languages the speaker thinks of himself and his completed action
+as inseparable, as a single idea, as the Latin _edi_ for I have eaten;
+in others he thinks of himself subconsciously as possessing the results
+of his action, as our _I have eaten_; and in others, as among the Irish
+peasantry, he separates himself and his action entirely, as _I am after
+eating_. In some grammars, as in Maya, the verbal concept starts with
+the past; in others, as our own, we live in the present; in the Welsh,
+the future is the chief tense. The mere choice of _shall_ or _will_ as
+the first person future auxiliary denotes a specific mental quality.
+
+Now the expression of all these infinite shades of
+relationtionship[TN-5] between the self, the activity and the world, is
+achieved in two ways: position or placement--syntax; and form. The
+customary division of languages is into Monosyllabic, Agglutinative,
+Incorporating, and Inflectional, and this division will suit our
+purpose, though it must be used with care. It is held in the ordinary
+theory that these classes must represent successive stages of linguistic
+perfection, each in turn being higher in the scale than the other, they
+having grown one from the other as the race advanced. By the theory the
+monosyllabic is lower than the agglutinative, and inherently less
+useful. But the theory does not work out in practical application to the
+facts we have to deal with, for while we cannot find still left in the
+world any agglutinative languages representative of sufficient culture
+to bring into our present consideration, we do find a monosyllabic in
+the highest rank, and meeting the highest cultural requirements. In
+short, the latter may be theoretically the inferior tool, but the genius
+of thought behind is greater than the form. One man can draw a
+masterpiece with a burnt stick, another only paint a daub with all the
+brushes made. Once again we must not judge by our preconceived
+preferences of form.
+
+Omitting therefore the modern remnants of agglutinating languages,
+outside of America, as affording us no literary material of value for
+our study, we shall find at once drawn across all the other great
+classes a single broad line of division, between the ideographic and the
+literal--the same as already mentioned. And the moment we draw this line
+as an exponent of the mental and spiritual thought-life of the different
+peoples, we shall find it not only molding their language forms, both
+written and spoken, but manifest as well in their art, philosophy, and
+even their social polity. And of course we must be fair in our
+comparisons, and not set a Chinese coolie in the concrete against an
+English statesman, nor any concrete example of another kind of culture
+in its decay with the highest bloom to which we believe our own type to
+be able to carry us.
+
+It would be absurd to say that the ratiocinative, literal mind is higher
+than the ideal. One man sees directly the meaning of the things, the
+events and situations before him; another reasons it all out. And
+contrary to many of our current beliefs, the former is often the man of
+action; he sees at a flash to the heart of the matter, and gets things
+done. His thought, his activity, is vivid; and his words are likely to
+be so as well. The idealist, if he be broadminded, and not merely
+sentimental, is indeed likely to be the practical man. And the type of
+mind that is made manifest to us by these great non-Aryan languages and
+their forms, is the former. Of course idealism in its decadence becomes
+negative, inactive, self-consuming and no longer creative. But in its
+bloom the direct vision may be even more active, more practical, than
+are the reasoned processes.
+
+Much ink and paper has been spent over the question whether the Chinese
+hieroglyphs are ideograms or phonograms, whether the character
+[Illustration: Chinese character], for instance, conveys to those using it
+primarily the idea of Heaven, or the spoken word _T’ien_. It is
+necessarily both, in a sense; it would not be written language
+otherwise. And it is equally true that the letter-combination _Heaven_
+is in a way as much to us a picture of the idea as of the sound; but the
+difference of procedure is radical. The glyph is related to the idea
+directly, the spelled word only through the formal combination of
+symbols for single vocal speech-elements, meaningless when separate. The
+relation of spoken sound to glyph is wholly adventitious; the relation
+of the idea to the spelled word is equally adventitious. The ascent, if
+we so call it, of written speech from the ideographic to the alphabetic,
+is the descent of the thought further into material forms.[53-*] And
+while it may be (and in the course of universal evolution rightly so)
+necessary for our thought to descend into the bondage of matter and
+form, for its knowledge and experience, and for the development of
+matter and form into fitter vehicles of thought, nevertheless the
+process is a binding and for a time an enchaining one, and the thought
+is, for a time at least, likely to be lost in the confusion of forms.
+
+Thus we may lay down as our fundamental proposition that a hieroglyphic
+form of writing is better fitted to, and must properly, in the period of
+its natural development, accompany the imaginative processes of mind.
+Or, since imagination to our literal thought implies in some degree the
+fanciful (though wrongly so in essence), we might perhaps better say
+that that form of writing is the fit attendant and exponent of those
+functions of mind which cognize the inner meanings of the facts of life
+directly, rather than those which study them through the correlation of
+their phenomena. And also, that the development by any people of an
+alphabetic out of a hieroglyphic system, does not imply a greater
+advance in linguistic perfection on their part, but indicates a
+corresponding mental and inner change of attitude towards ideas and
+things, and a different conception of the self as related to them all.
+
+It is not at all necessary to assume that the knowledge gained by one
+method is deeper or more exact than the other. True science may exist as
+fully under one set of circumstances as the other. If we will take the
+type of the so-called most primitive form, the monosyllabic--the
+Chinese, we shall find all this evidenced in the clearest manner. To
+note but one illustration, a study of the scientific and philosophical
+ideas involved in and conveyed by the word _k’ung_, for Space, ether,
+the fundamental substratum of sound or vibration, as well as the
+“interetheric” central point of balance and power, will disclose an
+understanding that has nothing to fear from modern comparisons.
+
+And the very fact that Chinese has had to depend on placement of its
+monosyllables to express all the relations for which speech is called
+upon, instead of relying on changes of form, seems to have, and indeed
+has so stimulated the development of pure linguistic power that the
+language is actually as perfect and clear a medium of cultured and
+learned intercourse, as is the Sanskrit, the supreme type of the
+so-called most developed form, the inflectional. And by reason of its
+possession of the ideographic element it has a vividness which the
+Sanskrit has not. No language can be a highly developed one which does
+not provide in some way for the expression of all possible needed
+relations between the three fundamental postulates of life and
+activity--the self, the action and the world; and Chinese does this in
+spite of its monosyllabic structure by the development of its syntax of
+position. And it should be remembered further that Chinese syntax, in
+strict correspondence to the genius of the language, is not the same
+formal thing that syntax is with our inflectional tongues, but includes,
+or rather is primarily based on the _harmonic adjustment of the inherent
+basic ideas of or within the words_. The Chinese monosyllables are then
+not the naked separate things they are in the dictionary, but the whole
+phrase or sentence is on the contrary as much a unit as one of ours; and
+often more so.
+
+This integral unity of the whole sentence or expression, dominated by a
+perspective of ideas rather than of forms, which is achieved in Chinese
+by the elaboration of placement, is also characteristic of the structure
+of the languages of the American continent; but, these languages being
+polysyllabic, the vividness and unity are attained by a method described
+as Incorporation, whereby the accessories of relation are so included in
+or attached to the leading word that the whole expression assumes the
+form and sound of a single word. And a similar process takes place with
+the various elements of a compound sentence. So that although this one
+of the divisions of language approaches very closely to the Inflectional
+in its external forms, it yet has held to the vividness and essential
+characteristics of the ideographic method. And it is a point of the
+utmost importance for the decipherment of the Maya glyphs, to note as
+has been stated before, that their syntax of combination must follow
+that of the spoken language, which we know.
+
+There is one broad line of division marking all the languages and
+civilizations of the world--the line between the ideographic and the
+literal; it marks the use of hieroglyphic or of alphabetic writing, and
+it denotes a culture so widely different from ours, modes of thought so
+distinct, views of life and man’s relation to it one might almost say so
+opposite to ours, as to point unmistakably to a most distant past, and a
+former world-culture probably as wide-spread in its day as is now
+ours--or more so. And it is one of the strangest and most remarkable of
+the phenomena we are considering, that the two divisions have overlapped
+each other in time to such a degree that whereas we have in Sanskrit,
+the most perfect type of Aryan, or inflectional languages, the oldest of
+them all; on the other hand we have in Chinese an equally perfect
+linguistic medium of the other type, kept alive into our own times.
+
+When we consider the development and status of the American
+civilizations which have been revealed to us, and especially when we
+have once opened our minds to the possibility that world-civilizations
+different in their time from ours in ours, may for all we know have
+existed and been blotted out ages ago, leaving linguistic traces, and
+perhaps perpetuating cultural remnants in a few parts of the earth, it
+is impossible not to recognize the breadth of the problem we are
+considering. All over the American continent at the time of the
+Discovery we see cultures and systems whose time had come. Back of most
+of the North and South American tribes we find the remains of mighty and
+utterly extinct civilizations--only their dim memory left. In the
+centers of higher culture from Mexico to Peru we see the ancient
+civilization brought further down to our own times; but there also, in
+process, all the incidents of break-up and an expiring greatness.
+Internecine strife, invasion from outside, changes of center, are all
+going on, and all marked by a _steady decrease_ in everything that means
+civilization. Of the ancient mathematical and astronomical knowledge a
+corner of which is revealed to us by the Maya glyph remains, only a
+distorted fragment appears in the Mexican, where also hieroglyphs have
+yielded to a cruder rebus-writing. The stately and incomparable
+compositions and architecture of Palenque, Copan and Quiriguá have
+yielded to the ball courts and local strifes of Chichen Itza--all this
+following the very course of changing historical succession preserved in
+the Chronicles. The later the date, the lower in every case the culture;
+this is impossible not to recognize, nor have we traces of any different
+course of events. Of course we see the rise of the Aztec nation, a small
+cycle, but like the Gothic upon the Roman, it comes at the end of the
+general American break-up--an incursion of barbarians settling on and
+preserving for us fragments of the culture that preceded them, just as
+has happened over and over again all over the world. And the same with
+the Incas in Peru. And yet even the Mexican culture demands our high
+respect, comparing favorably with European of the same period. Indeed it
+was actually far ahead of the latter in matters of education and many
+points of polity.
+
+But in spite of its seeming greatness, its heart and energy were gone,
+just as with Peru, and both yielded to what on the face seems a miracle,
+but was only the expression of that force which was preparing the
+American continent for a new race and civilization, still now only in
+its beginnings. The Mayan empire had already broken up. And even as we
+write, the archaeological history of the other hemisphere is being
+repeated here; on the heels of Manabi comes the Chimu Valley, and soon
+it will be with America as with Egypt--one will not be able to print an
+up-to-date work on its early history, for new discoveries will carry it
+back further, and to greater scope, before the previous ones can be
+edited and gotten to press. Compare the few pages of earliest Egypt in
+Sharpe’s history, with Flinders Petrie’s work of a decade or so ago, and
+that with the situation today.
+
+It is a simple fact that decipherment and publication all over the world
+can no longer keep pace with discovery; and the time has come for
+archaeology to begin to survey these remnants, engineering works that
+would tax any modern nation with all our appliances, vast ruined
+cities, one above the other, innumerable languages and writings, the
+traces of peoples whose very names are lost to history--as a whole, and
+to ask itself how long it must have taken for all these works to be
+accomplished, let alone for the birth and decay of the civilizations
+that supported them, and gave environment for the development of such
+technical skill as could finish the enormous bulk of the Great Pyramid
+with an accuracy beyond the fineness of our best instruments to measure.
+For not only mere bulk is to be considered--though there is enough of
+that scattered over the earth to keep all the possible available
+craftsmen of the world a wholly incommensurate time achieving them, but
+the ability to conceive and carry out such works. What _sort_ of people
+leveled Monte Alban for its crown of pyramids, dreamed and executed the
+stucco modelings of Palenque, built the temple of Boro Budur in Java,
+cut the Bamian statues of the Hindû Kush, and so on, and so on, for page
+after page? If they had such appliances as we have, they must be ranked
+at least in our class for having them; if they did them without our
+great engines, what sort of men were they? And if they could do these
+things without our appliances, is it not a fair inference that they
+could easily have made the tools, or others better perhaps?
+
+One fact is becoming more prominent with every advance of archaeology
+over the world, a fact of the greatest linguistic interest, namely that
+ancient civilizations and empires, as a whole, _lasted longer_ than ours
+of today. Consider how many different and successive empires Europe has
+had in the last 2000 odd years, _our_ history; and how long each of our
+cultures has lasted. All of them put together would go into one of these
+older periods, and have plenty to spare. Passing over what may be the
+real meaning and bearing of this fact on the problem of universal
+history and human evolution, and the position of our race today, the
+linguistic considerations which follow are most interesting.
+
+If the fundamental thesis of language as a human activity is its direct
+correspondence to and expression of all the inner motives and forces of
+the users, we have here a key to the survival to our day, an unknown
+period past its own time, of the Chinese type.
+
+Of the development, modification and decay of languages we have ample
+material in our own times for study, the periods over which the
+modifying forces operate being an equal measure of the periods of
+national activity and change. And, what is perhaps not always
+sufficiently recognized, we have an elaboration of the formal elements
+going on under very different impulses, at different periods of the life
+of the language. The time has come in the history of a people for it to
+play a greater part on the world’s stage: some danger has threatened the
+national life and aroused its energies, or other causes have worked to
+quicken the mental and spiritual life; an Elizabethan era is ushered in,
+frequently by a forerunner, a Chaucer, and the language responds, its
+forms develop and are perfected. Or else some fitting or amalgamating
+force comes in from outside, the life of the people is widened, new
+blood enters in every sense, and the forms of the language respond. Or
+perhaps, when they may seem to have come to the tether end of things,
+and men’s minds turn back to older, even prehistoric times, seeds long
+buried and forgotten in the nature spring up, and a true national
+Renaissance follows. In these cases the change and elaboration of forms
+is a symptom of new life; the vehicle is being molded and expanded to
+fit the growing thought.
+
+But it is not always so. There comes a time when the outgoing force, the
+activity of life, wanes and, after a greater or less period of settled
+conditions, a period of proper use and government of the regions
+occupied, a change sets in. And then we may have again the wholly
+deceptive phenomenon of linguistic amplification; but it is the false
+activity of decay. The energy has turned in and begun to feed upon
+itself. The national impulse has changed from achievement to
+gratification, more and more sources are drawn upon to minister to its
+enjoyment, and that enjoyment becomes an art; forms of every kind are
+subtly refined in its service, and linguistic forms with them. And this
+is then the very period when all these material, formal elements are
+pointed to with pride as the evidence of culture and progress. The
+thought-life of the nation has lost itself in the conflict and
+confusion, in the distractions of the forms into which it has molded the
+matter its creative force had entered.
+
+We have thus in nations and languages, as in individuals, the phenomena
+of birth, growth, use, and a quick or a slow death, all marked by
+various degrees and signs of health or disease, and _every one at root a
+moral question_. These are the facts of general average, quite
+corresponding to those that form the bases for life insurance tables.
+But, as with these latter, not only are there variations for
+inheritance, class, locality, and so on, but there are here and there
+cases of out and out exception--which from all we can see must be
+assigned to some external force in operation on the individual. We call
+them “freak” occurrences, only because we cannot see the wider law or
+causes at work. When we meet them in sufficient numbers, we make new
+tables to cover them as far as we can, again in general only. Other
+causes still elude us, though they must have a fountain somewhere.
+
+We have, as great exceptions to our general averages, two opposite
+phenomena. One is the sudden inexplicable and dazzling rise on the
+world’s stage of a totally insignificant people, the other the seeming
+arrest for long periods of time of the normal processes of even
+incipient decay. And touching the latter point, it is strange indeed
+that in two such widely different cultures as those of Iceland and China
+we should find the same law apparently at work; the periods are vastly
+unlike in actual, but not so in relative duration. We have no way of
+properly placing the maintenance of Icelandic and Chinese as they have
+been other than by simply laying down the existence of what we may call
+a Law of Retardation, whose ultimate causes we cannot fathom or
+classify, but which will stand as an opposite phase of the Law of
+Stimulation, which is more frequent in operation, but is equally
+unexplained.
+
+If we will now regard the languages and cultures of the world, we will
+find all the phases of linguistic and cultural activity, operative with
+about the same degree of rapidity, all over both hemispheres, save in
+places protected by our Law of Retardation. We will find the rate of
+changes and successions generally far less rapid the farther back in
+time we go; and finally we will find a special and marked acceleration
+on both sides of the Atlantic during the last thousand years, all
+incident to the placing of a new race in America.
+
+So for the facts as we find them. They point to the descent of past
+American civilizations from a past period of continental, or far more
+probably, of world-wide extent. For who can imagine that people great
+enough to build as these did, should not also have navigated? Why should
+we assume in the face of other experiences, that Maya dates and
+calculations mean nothing, except on the general principle that they did
+not know as much as we do, and were doubtless liars? Bailly proved over
+a hundred years ago that Hindû exact astronomical observations must date
+back at least 5000 years, and that they were in possession of minutely
+accurate tables[61-*] long before Europe was. And the rotundity of the
+earth was certainly known both to them and the other great nations of
+antiquity.
+
+Archaeology is today pushing back the dates of fixed and acknowledged
+history almost to the date given by the Egyptians to Solon for the
+submersion of the great Atlantean island; and if we can but read the
+Maya glyphs, and open _that_ door, another twenty years from now may
+show us beyond all possible dispute evidences in every part of the earth
+belt of a contemporaneous culture, different from and precedent to the
+Aryan.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have so far in this monograph, based upon and having to do as it has
+with the Maya glyphs, their interpretation and their place in the
+linguistic field, limited myself to an analysis and consideration of the
+facts presented to us by those linguistic and cultural data we have
+actually before us. But there is one further problem which is suggested
+by it all. It is this: Where, in point of time and place, is the change
+in the world’s linguistic and cultural life from ideographic to literal
+to be sought for, and what is its rationale? Separated from us by such
+an enormous period of time as it is, I still cannot believe that some
+view of it cannot be had. There are various facts of Old World history
+and language, partly of prehistoric Europe, partly of Asia, an analysis
+of which would extend this paper too far into other fields; but apart
+entirely from the question of myths or traditions, there are various
+actual observed phenomena both of language and writing, especially in
+Central Asia, which do not fit into any of the ordinary theories, and
+which do suggest this, as a simple linguistic conclusion. In point of
+locality, at least, the conclusion agrees with the usual “Aryan home”
+theory; but as far as concerns this latter it must be remembered that
+however fully it demonstrates the unity of the Aryan race, beyond that
+fact all questions of dates and even of the state of civilization at the
+time, are not matters of history as yet for us, but only of theory--as
+to which our present “perspective” may be once more as faulty as it has
+often been heretofore.[62-*]
+
+I believe that this center of transition lay somewhere in Central Asia,
+to the north of the great Himâlayan range. That this region was a sort
+of alembic, a melting-pot (as America is today) for various peoples of
+an ancient world-wide culture, as broad at least in its scope as the
+term Aryan is today. That this culture displayed the ideographic traits
+we have discussed, and that it has left more or less definite traces at
+different places in the world. That it covered the two Americas, in
+whatever continental form they may then have existed, leaving us there
+“les débris échappés à un naufrage commun.” That coincident with a new
+and universal world-epoch, as wide in its cultural scope as the
+difference between the ideographic and literal, there was finally formed
+a totally new vehicle for the use of human thought, the inflectional,
+literal, alphabetic. That this vehicle was perfected into some great
+speech, the direct ancestor of Sanskrit, into the _forms_ of which were
+concentrated all the old power of the ancient hieroglyphs and their
+underlying concepts. For Sanskrit, while the oldest is also the
+mightiest of Aryan grammars; and no one who has studied its forms, or
+heard its speech from educated native mouths, can call it anything but
+concentrated spiritual power. That the force which went on the one hand
+into the Sanskrit forms, was on the other perpetuated on into the
+special genius of Chinese, in which, as we know it, we have a retarded
+survival, not of course of outer form so much as of method and essence.
+And in Tibetan, in spite of all that is said to the contrary, I suspect
+that we have a derivative, not from either Chinese or Sanskrit as we
+know them, but by a medial line from a common point.[63-*] Of course
+the time for such changes must have been enormous; but whatever it was,
+it was no greater in its realm as time, than were the mental differences
+in theirs. And they both are equally human data.
+
+Certain other facts point to the American or Atlantic source and center
+of this ancient epoch. They are briefly that all around the
+Mediterranean basin we find traces of a vanished culture, unknown to our
+history, and living only in tradition and some archaeological remains.
+And of this culture various investigators, each approaching it from his
+particular favorite locality, have constructed for us as many different
+“Empires,” by theories each supported by various details of analogies.
+One calls them Tartars, another Hittites, another Pelasgians, and so on.
+And all of them, in each of the theories, have as a fact a great many
+unexplained characteristics, different from those of our historical
+nations. Some of these characteristics, most markedly the Basque, but
+also not a few at greater distance, have definite American similarities.
+It might not be a far guess that these fragments represent an eastward
+movement, which later in the history of the Aryan development met and
+was pushed back westward again by the fully formed and dominant Aryan
+race from its Central Asian center. This is the future province of
+Archaeology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And I am convinced that the widest door there is to be opened to this
+past of the human race, is that of the Maya glyphs. The narrow
+limitations of our mental horizon as to the greatness and dignity of
+man, of his past, and of human evolution, were set back widely by Egypt
+and what she has had to show, and again by the Sanskrit; but the walls
+are still there, and advances, however rapid, are but gradual. With the
+reading of America I believe the walls themselves will fall, and a new
+conception of past history will come.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41-*] See _Memoranda on the Chilam Balam Calendars_, C. P. Bowditch,
+1901. The obscurities of the Chronicles render the questions connected
+with Ahpula’s death exceedingly difficult. For instance, the immediate
+context in the books of Mani and Tizimin make the date 1536, as given in
+numerals, an impossible one. But, if the date as given in _Maya terms_
+is to be accepted at all (and it certainly is too specific to be
+rejected), then by the long count such a date _must_ have been either
+1502, 5350, or 12,786 years after the date of Stela 9, Copan. Mr.
+Bowditch favors the lower figure, chiefly because it is the lower, and
+thus puts Stela 9 at A. D. 34. To get this date the longest possible
+distance from Ahpula’s death to the end of the katun must be used--that
+is, “6 tuns short” must be taken to mean “almost 7 tuns short.” I can
+only say here that if, in correcting the figures 1536, as demanded by
+the immediate context, we make the simplest possible correction, and put
+them one katun earlier, 1516, and then take as the unexpired time to the
+end of the katun the shortest of the three terms given as possible, or 5
+tuns 139 days, bringing the end of Katun 13-Ahau on Jan. 28, 1522, we
+not only bring the end of Katun 11-Ahau within the year 1541, as is most
+positively stated by the practically contemporary Pech Chronicle, but we
+also bring in line nearly all the important events of the Chronicles,
+from the fall of Mayapan, ca. 1450, the coming of the Spaniards, and the
+smallpox, in 11-Ahau (1521 to 1541), the conversion to Christianity in
+9-Ahau, down to Landa’s death (1579) in 7-Ahau; as well as many outside
+references. Any other combination requires harsher emendations somewhere
+else. But the above choice of the term of 5 tuns 139 days, thus
+seemingly called for, means that Stela 9 at Copan is dated, by the long
+count, 5350 years before Ahpula’s death, or B. C. 3824. Whether this is
+right, is a question for the future.
+
+[42-*] “In ethnology however one troubles oneself little with the detail
+of linguistic structure. It is held quite sufficient to gather from
+different peoples and collate a couple of hundred vocables, into whose
+actual nature all insight is lacking, and then upon dubious, often
+purely superficial and apparent similarities, to deduce linguistic
+affinities. Or else, as is now most in fashion, the claims of linguistic
+research towards the solution of ethnological questions are reduced to a
+‘most modest share’ in comparison with other fields ‘somewhat more in
+line with natural sciences’--meanwhile pointing for justification to the
+absurdities set forth as the results of too far-fetched linguistic
+deductions.... The errors and sophistries charged against ethnological
+linguistics are rather an accidental result of the individuality of
+single investigators, than essential to the subject. They are at least
+scarcely greater than those to the credit of recent Anthropometry. A
+brief glance at the strange changes of opinion in the latter field
+during the last three decades, in spite of all its boasted figures,
+shows how little ground it has to throw stones. Serious students, such
+as Wallace and Dall, whose critical ability in Zoomorphology no one can
+deny, and who do not rest content with a few skulls of doubtful
+_provenance_, gathered à la Hagenbeck, have come to a wholly negative
+view of the value of Craniometry.”--Dr. Otto Stoll, _Maya-Sprachen der
+Pokom-Gruppe_, I, vii, ix.
+
+[43-*] Our present day speculators never seem to think for a moment that
+these things may conceal, _and thereby preserve_, some real meaning, or
+be more than nonsense. The theory of mythological interpretation pushed
+to such extremes as in the “animistic” _explanations_ of Weber,
+Keightley, and others, and not absent from the writings of some
+Americanists (namely, that it was all nothing but ridiculous or
+concocted fancy, taken soberly) is bad enough, and argues little breadth
+or insight, when applied to the myths of a single people, considered
+alone. Applied to comparative mythology, in the state of things today,
+it is simply impossible. The plain fact is, that such identities as
+these must indicate one of two things: a common tradition, locally
+modified by circumstances; or a _fact in nature_ or _history_,
+symbolically expressed in different ways according to the times and
+modes. And it most probably indicates both of these. It is indeed hard
+to account for the extent, and the weight given to some of these
+“myths,” now that we are coming to a better appreciation of the scope
+and greatness of ancient civilizations--everywhere--except they do
+correspond to actual _facts_ in nature and history. And it might be
+worth our while to get at some of these.
+
+[45-*] We might just as well acknowledge, once for all, that in spite of
+its present-day currency in England and America, and its pre-emption of
+the field of “science for the people,” the theory of man’s physical and
+mental descent from the anthropoids, is not only _not proved_, but is
+vehemently denied by an equally able and scientific, and withal more
+logical, body of researchers than those who form its supporters. To
+_fabricate_ a missing link in a chain (or even, as with Haeckel, several
+links), whose only authority is acknowledged to be its necessity in
+order to complete the evidence for the theory, and then to declare the
+theory proved because the fabricated link fits perfectly the gap it was
+created for, is equally vicious scientifically whether the fabrication
+be the work of a physicist of renown or a linguistic theorizer. Let it
+simply be agreed, as it now is by all science, that the _evolution of
+form_ is a universal and well evidenced principle, working out through
+the various well established and comprehensible incidents, such as
+natural selection, adaptation to environment, and so on--yet this
+statement of the fact is not an explanation of its cause. And every
+scientific and logical requirement will be equally, and better, met by
+regarding all forms, whether physical, linguistic, or of any kind, as
+coming, or rather brought, into being by the force of a consciousness
+which needs them as the vehicles of its expanding activity. That this is
+absolutely true in language, anybody can see. That it is true in every
+department of daily life about us, everybody _does_ see. That it should
+be equally true in biology and physics, would not affect the standing or
+verity of a single _observed_ fact.
+
+There was, along about the beginning of the Christian era, and for some
+time before and after, a very curious movement, which seemed to spread
+itself over nearly the entire world, east and west. It is told of the
+early Aztecs that “they destroyed the records of their predecessors, in
+order to increase their own prestige.” It is related that writing once
+existed in Peru, but was entirely wiped out, and the Inca records
+committed to quipus alone. The “burning of the books” under Tsin Chi
+Hwangti in B. C. 213 sought to do the same for China. The times of Akbar
+witnessed much of the same in India. And in Europe almost nothing was
+left to tell the tale of the great pre-Christian eastern empires and
+systems of thought; so that from the establishment of State Christianity
+under Constantine, and the final settlement of the Canon at the Council
+of Nicaea, an impenetrable veil was drawn over the achievements and
+greatness of the Past, and all connexion therewith broken off. It was
+some time after this that we find the heliocentric theory, as well as
+that of other habitable worlds, denied (in Europe), because “it would
+deprive the Earth of its unique and central eminence.” Just as we also
+today are served up with prehistoric savage and animal ancestors, to the
+greater glory of our own present-day magnificence. But it really is in
+sober truth only a question of mental perspective which does not affect
+the facts of history, biology, archaeology or language in the least. It
+is only a question of which end of the telescope we look through.
+
+[49-*] It is exceedingly interesting to trace the course of criticism
+since the appearance of Wilhelm von Humboldt’s great work, _Ueber die
+Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die
+geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts_ (Berlin, 1836). Dr.
+Brinton gave it most unqualified approval; (see especially his monograph
+read before the American Philosophical Society in 1885, and printed the
+same year). Prof. H. Steinthal (_Grammatik, Logik und Psychologie_,
+1855) calls the subject of “inner form” the most important one in
+linguistic science, and von Humboldt’s treatment of it his greatest
+contribution to that science. And so on. But the work has nevertheless
+received little attention from a large number of writers, most of them
+declaring it “unclear.” These two views, when one studies the various
+writers, seem to follow closely upon the standpoints from which each
+approaches the study. Those who study language (perhaps one should here
+say, languages) as a phenomenon, a set of external forms, an act, a
+thing done, get little use out of von Humboldt’s work. Those who see it
+as a human “activity,” an energy, get much. This is quite apparent in
+one of the clearest and ablest linguistic works which has recently
+appeared, Dr. Adolf Noreen’s _Vårt Språk_ (in 9 vols., still in course
+of publication, Lund, 1903 and later), a work of far wider linguistic
+value than appears from its title. Dr. Noreen, however, dismisses von
+Humboldt’s work, and the subject of “inner form,” with a few pages, and
+the results are apparent in several interesting points. In the first
+place, in the course of an acute and critical analysis, wherein he shows
+that the purpose of speech is not simply _expression_ of thoughts or
+ideas, but the communication to some other person of the _knowledge_ of
+the ideas so held by the speaker, he goes on to say: “the same knowledge
+of A’s wishes could be as well communicated by his saying ‘I want you to
+come’ as by his saying just ‘Come.’” This is quite true; but the
+_energic_ effect is quite different. Language is the bridge from man to
+man, and it is also a _creative activity_ of man. Of course Dr. Noreen,
+in a later volume, where he most lucidly analyses the terms ‘words,’
+‘forms,’ and ‘concepts,’ etc. (_ord_, _morfem_, _semem_, etc.), and
+corrects many errors of definition made by his predecessors,
+acknowledges the difference between the two forms; still his whole
+admirable work, analytical and critical as it is, is devoted to this
+phase of language as a mere phenomenon, a set of forms which serve as a
+medium of communication. From this standpoint, we know all there is to
+know about language when we have classified its forms. But from the
+other, the study is ever leading us into the regions and depths of man’s
+consciousness, his creative activity as it goes out to the world; and
+the true definition of language, from this position, “can hence only be
+a genetic one.” (von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, VI, 42)
+
+It is further not unworthy of note that, except where directly required
+in treating of verbal categories, nearly all of the enormous number of
+illustrations which Dr. Noreen chooses for his points, are _nouns_,
+names of _things_, and vary rarely verbal forms, words of action and
+_doing_. But it is simply a fact that all the _potency_ of language is
+in the verb, and almost all there is of language, in a philosophic
+sense, lies there. The verb is the bridge of communication and action
+_upon_ external things, just as is language itself, going out of man.
+And it is also noteworthy that the recognition of this position of the
+verb, together with these other matters of which we are speaking, seems
+nearer at hand and clearer to those students who are led beyond Aryan
+languages to the study of American and Asiatic, especially Central and
+Northern Asiatic. For instance, G. v. d. Gabelentz, _Die
+Sprachwissenschaft_, and other works.
+
+[53-*] It was not until after this paper was already in type that my
+attention was directed to the complete agreement of this and the
+succeeding sentences with the following passage in _The Secret Doctrine_,
+by H. P. Blavatsky, London, 1888, vol. II, page 199. After saying that
+some of the Atlantean races spoke the agglutinative languages, the
+passage continues: “While the ‘cream’ of the Fourth Race _gravitated_
+more and more toward the apex of physical and intellectual evolution,
+_thus_ leaving as an heirloom to the nascent Fifth (the Aryan) Race the
+inflectional, highly developed languages, the agglutinative decayed and
+remained as a fragmentary fossil idiom, scattered now, and nearly limited
+to the aboriginal tribes of America.” Note the words I have italicized,
+marking the evolution of the “inflectional” languages as an attendant
+phenomenon on physico-intellectual evolution, compare the passage with
+von Humboldt’s thesis, already quoted, that the incorporative quality
+denotes an exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative processes
+of mind in its users, and further with the surviving genius of Chinese,
+the type of monosyllabic languages, and the agreement is evident. Von
+Humboldt, however, did not carry out so fully the archaeological results,
+for which indeed the materials were in his day still lacking. See also
+other passages in _The Secret Doctrine_.
+
+[61-*] _Traité de l’Astronomie Indienne et Orientale_, Disc. Prél. et
+seq.
+
+[62-*] The suggestion above is linguistic, and in that phase is given as
+a corollary to the foregoing discussion; but, as stated, it is at the
+same time in accord with the “Aryan” theory in its essentials (though
+not in its hypothetical and ultra-historical speculations), and it also
+finds confirmation by various passages in _The Secret Doctrine_, by H.
+P. Blavatsky, as already quoted. “The traces of an immense civilization,
+even in Central Asia, are still to be found. This civilization is
+undeniably _prehistoric_.... The Eastern and Central portions of those
+regions--the Nan-Shan and the Altyn-Tagh--were once upon a time covered
+with cities that could well vie with Babylon. A whole geological period
+has swept over the land, since those cities breathed their last, as the
+mounds of shifting sand, and the sterile and now dead soil of the
+immense central plains of the basin of Tarim testify.... In the oasis of
+Cherchen some 300 human beings represent the relics of about a hundred
+extinct nations and races--the very names of which are now unknown to
+our ethnologists.” (Vol. I, page xxxii et seq.) See also Col.
+Prjevalsky’s _Travels_. Why should it not be so? The above was written
+in 1888, but the evidences are growing every day, and it will be against
+all archaeological precedent if far-reaching results do not follow from
+Dr. Stein’s _small_ find, and from Capt. d’Ollone’s recent researches
+among the Lolos, and the securing by him, as we are informed, of the
+long-sought knowledge of their hieroglyphic system.
+
+[63-*] The study of Tibetan has so far been approached almost
+exclusively from the south, that is by those already familiar with
+Sanskrit and Pâli. To this fact, as well as to the overwhelming
+influence exercised on literary Tibetan by the Buddhist propaganda, is
+due the difficulty one meets in any study of its origins. The traces,
+however, do nevertheless exist. Some interesting facts concerning both
+Chinese and Tibetan, which seem to be entirely omitted in such later
+standard works as those of Summers, Wade, and Giles, are to be found in
+the almost forgotten _Chinese Grammar_ of Dr. Marshman, Serampore, 1814.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+
+       Page Error
+  TN-1  20  two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph] should  have a . at
+            the end
+  TN-2  25  above the the should read above the
+  TN-3  34  Muluc Ix, Cauac should read Muluc, Ix, Cauac
+  TN-4  38  Cimi forms: [Hieroglyphs] should have a . at the end
+  TN-5  51  relationtionship should read relationship
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez
+Codex, by William E. Gates
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex, by 
+William E. Gates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex
+       with a Concluding Note Upon the Linguistic Problem of the Maya Glyphs
+
+Author: William E. Gates
+
+Release Date: June 22, 2008 [EBook #25878]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAYA-TZENTAL PEREZ CODEX ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Typographical errors in the original have been maintained in this
+version. They are marked with a [TN-#]. A list of the errors is found
+at the end of the present text.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not found in the
+character set used for this ebook:
+
+  ["o]  LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DOUBLE ACUTE
+  ['S]  LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH ACUTE
+
+
+
+
+                             PAPERS
+                             OF THE
+
+           PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+                  ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                         VOL. VI.--No. 1
+
+
+
+                           COMMENTARY
+                      UPON THE MAYA-TZENTAL
+                           PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+                 WITH A CONCLUDING NOTE UPON THE
+              LINGUISTIC PROBLEM OF THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+                               BY
+
+                        WILLIAM E. GATES
+
+  PROFESSOR IN SCHOOL OF ANTIQUITY, INTERNATIONAL THEOSOPHICAL
+              HEADQUARTERS, POINT LOMA, CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                        CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+                     PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+                         NOVEMBER, 1910
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  THE ARYAN THEOSOPHICAL PRESS
+  Point Loma, California
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+In presenting this Commentary on the Codex Perez to students of American
+Archaeology, the Peabody Museum adds another paper to its series
+relating to the study of the hieroglyphic writing of the ancient peoples
+of Mexico and Central America.
+
+The Museum is fortunate in adding to its collaborators Mr. William E.
+Gates, of Point Loma, California, who for more than ten years has been
+an earnest student of American hieroglyphs. From his lifelong studies in
+linguistics in connection with his research in "the motifs of
+civilizations and cultures," he comes well-equipped to take up the
+difficult and all-absorbing study of American hieroglyphic writing. Mr.
+Gates has materially advanced this study by his reproduction of the
+glyphs in type. These type-forms he has used first in his reproduction
+of the Codex Perez, and now in this Commentary they are used for the
+first time in printing. The method used in the construction of this font
+of type is explained by Mr. Gates in the following pages. This important
+aid to the study will be highly appreciated by all students of American
+hieroglyphs, as it will greatly facilitate the presentation of the
+results of future research.
+
+It will be seen that this Commentary is more in the line of suggestion
+to be expanded after further studies, than in the way of conclusions.
+
+At the close of the paper the author presents the general deductions he
+has drawn from his comparative study of languages and cultures. His
+concluding paragraph forcibly presents the hope that the understanding
+of the Maya glyphs will furnish new and important data in the life
+history of man.
+
+  F. W. PUTNAM
+
+  PEABODY MUSEUM
+
+  October, 1910
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 6]
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 17]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+The Perez Codex was discovered just fifty years ago by Prof. L�on de
+Rosny, while searching through the Biblioth�que Imp�riale, Paris, in the
+hope of bringing to light some documents of interest for the then newly
+awakened study of Pre-Columbian America. It was found by him in a basket
+among a lot of old papers, black with dust and practically abandoned in
+a chimney corner. From a few words with the name Perez, written on a
+torn scrap of paper then around it but since lost, it received its name.
+
+Being restored to its proper place in the Library, it was in 1864
+photographed by order of M. Victor Duruy, Minister of Instruction, and a
+few copies issued without further explanatory notes than the printed
+wrappers. The number of copies is stated by Prof. de Rosny to have been
+very small; in Leclerc's _Bibl. Am�r._ (1878, No. 2290) it is given as
+only 10, and in Brasseur's _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._ (page 95), as 50. A copy
+is in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, and referred
+to in their publications as a most fortunate acquisition. I had the good
+fortune to secure a copy some ten years ago, and one other has recently
+appeared in a Leipzig catalog at a high price. Beyond these I have not
+traced any other copy.
+
+In 1872 Prof. de Rosny published a reproduction, drawn by hand, which,
+as stated by him later, may be disregarded for practical purposes.[7-*]
+
+In 1887 he issued a facsimile edition in colors, 85 copies, which up to
+the present time has remained the only attempt to show the Codex in its
+proper colors, and has become exceedingly difficult to procure; so much
+so that it was only after seven years search that I was able to secure
+my own copy.[8-*]
+
+In 1888 he reissued the Codex, uncolored, with the same letter-press,
+and in an edition of 100 copies. This has also become scarce.
+
+Each of these three editions has its advantages and disadvantages. The
+colored edition of 1887, having been worked over by hand, in
+lithography, is defective in various places, both as regards the black
+of the figures and glyphs, and in the colors. Coloring exists on the
+original codex which was not reproduced at all in the edition, and the
+colors given are in many cases not exact. Thus on pages 19 and 20 two
+different reds are used for the backgrounds, whereas but one is found in
+the original; on pages 15, 16 the figures are a turquoise green, and on
+pages 17, 18 an olive green, the correct color for all four being
+turquoise green.
+
+I have been able to find no inaccuracy in the 1888 edition, which is
+indeed stated in the introduction to be entirely by mechanical process,
+without hand intervention; but being reproduced by printer's ink in
+black only, not only do the colors not appear, but the chromatic values
+are actually far inferior to the photographs of 1864. It was stated
+further by Prof. de Rosny that some features of the MS. had been lost by
+deterioration in the 25 years previous to his editions of 1887 and 1888,
+but this I have not been able to verify in any important point.
+
+The photographs and the edition of 1888 are to all general purposes
+identical; but, notwithstanding that the photographs are steadily
+yellowing by age, the chromatic values are so far superior that I have
+continually come to find them the court of final decision in doubtful
+matters. In a very considerable number of instances a close examination
+of the photographs has suggested the presence of faint lines of color
+on glyphs or figures, which was entirely indistinguishable in both of
+the printed editions, and which was yet in every case confirmed,
+although sometimes with difficulty, by the examination of the original
+MS.
+
+The proved value, as well as the scarcity, of these photographs was so
+great, that in 1905 I had my set photographed twice, by dry and wet
+plate processes, and a few copies printed after a careful comparison and
+selection of the two sets of plates. It is from these that the present
+edition has grown.[9-*]
+
+The present edition, save for the photographs thus reproduced, having
+been entirely redrawn, and partly restored, it is fitting to detail just
+what has been done in this respect.
+
+At the very beginning of my introduction to Maya studies the enormous
+burdens placed on research therein at every turn, bore upon me as upon
+every other student. The subject and its possibilities stimulate
+enthusiasm to the highest degree; the rewards of success are greater
+than those of any like problem today; and yet, fifty years since the
+present Codex was discovered, and thirty years since Dr. F�rstemann's
+unsurpassable edition of the Dresden Codex, the actual workers on the
+problem are the barest handful. A few scattered and obscure references
+amongst the volumes on volumes of Spanish writers, nearly all
+untranslated, most of them scarce or almost unprocurable, and many not
+even printed, make up the literature to be searched out. And a few
+points of decipherment won and safely fixed by the researchers, from
+Brasseur, de Rosny, Pousse, Brinton and others a generation ago, to
+Messrs. Bowditch, Seler, Goodman and a few others of today, are all we
+have--standing out in a wilderness of guesses by many writers, needless
+of naming.
+
+Of course the prime and absolute necessity of such a study is true
+facsimiles; but the task of using even these, taken as they must be from
+much defaced inscriptions and manuscripts, is too obvious for comment.
+So from the very first of my studies I began to cherish thoughts of the
+day when Maya could be printed with type, and classified indexes to the
+glyphs at hand. From one point of view such facilities can only be
+expected to come _after_ decipherment; from another, in absence of
+bilingual keys, they are a necessity _before_ that can be attained. So
+far as his work covers, a great deal has been done in this line by Mr.
+A. P. Maudslay in the field of the inscriptions.
+
+At the very outset therefore I must enter acknowledgment of the
+assistance that I owe to the courtesy at that time of Prof. F. W.
+Putnam, of Peabody Museum, and Mr. Chas. P. Bowditch, in placing, with a
+freedom by no means universal among curators and researchers, their
+material at my disposal, with privilege of copying. I am safe to say
+that while I have reclassified the glyphs for my own use as my studies
+went on, yet without the copy which by Mr. Bowditch's courtesy I was
+allowed to make of his card index to the glyphs of the three codices, as
+a start, this edition of the Perez Codex would not yet have reached
+daylight through the many other occupations among which Maya studies
+have had to take their chances.
+
+At first it seemed possible to prepare a font of separate types for the
+various elements of the compound glyphs we find in the texts; but after
+having such a font made a number of years ago, and printing a couple of
+pages of the Dresden Codex, the result was unsatisfactory; it became
+evident that the proper Maya font of type must be both separate and
+composite, as is used in Chinese, and not separate only as we have for
+Egyptian. The type for the text cards of this edition have therefore
+been made this way.
+
+As to the colored plates of the Codex herewith, it is evident that
+nothing whatever is gained by preserving the irregularities of the
+defaced parts of the Codex, while everything is to be gained by making
+all as clear and distinct as possible. The first step therefore was to
+have a set of photographed enlargements of two diameters, made direct
+from the 1864 issue. From these I made careful tracings, myself, of the
+black figure and glyph lines of the original, making at the same time
+the separate enlarged drawings from which the type were afterwards made.
+At this first drawing only the evident, the indisputable parts were
+drawn. The type forms were then classified, arranged in parallel
+columns, and compared. All was then gone over, and new points settled on
+the basis of the familiarity thus gained. It is a fair estimate to say
+that this process of checking and verifying was gone through, first to
+last, down to the final proof-reading of the printed sheets, some fifty
+times.
+
+One most important fact was established by this process, and must be
+noted. In the Perez Codex at least, _nothing is to be taken for
+granted_, nothing charged to a careless scribe, and no variants regarded
+as being identical in value--with a very few exceptions, to which I
+shall advert later. Wherever there remains enough of any glyph to show
+its characteristic strokes, it can be regarded as safely indicated;
+whenever the strokes are not just those characteristic of any glyph, it
+cannot be inferred. Down to the very end of the various revisions I
+found myself able to add glyphs which at first seemed hopeless, and yet
+when once seen became clear and plain. Relying on the presence of the
+photographs to check the work, I have thus added a very considerable
+number to the glyphs at first apparent. In some cases, as in 6-b-11 and
+17, and especially in 8-b-7, 8, 10, where glyphs were only partially
+erased, but no other instances of perfect glyphs existed to compare them
+with, I have let them alone, without attempting restoration. In short, I
+may have made some errors of eye, but I have guessed nothing.
+
+In a very few places I have restored glyphs totally erased, relying on
+the parallelism of the passages. Such are some of the Ahau-numbers in
+the upper sections of pages 2 to 11, and in the central sections on
+those pages, the initial pairs of glyphs on pages 15 to 18-a, b, c, the
+first columns of pages 19 and 20, and a few day-signs on pages 21, 23
+and 24. These glyphs are all necessitated by their different series, and
+hence can cause no confusions; while it seemed advantageous to have them
+before the eye. A fair instance of the procedure is shown on page 3-b-1,
+3. The temptation was strong to put the usual [Hieroglyph] glyph here as
+on all the other pages, but the slight variation in the lines left of
+glyph 3-b-3 forbade it.
+
+The restoration will further be found a little bolder on the type-cards
+than in the colored plates, where I have in general only endeavored to
+reproduce what could be seen actually present. The glyphs restored on
+the upper part of page 7 would seem hopeless at first sight; but they
+are well-known and common forms, and the characteristic traces shown on
+the photographs belong to these and to no others known.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The cards of type-printed text, in parallel columns for convenience of
+study, are self-explanatory. Such an arrangement has from the first
+seemed to me indispensable for proper study and comparison. The paging
+of the de Rosny editions I have retained, except to change the
+practically blank page 1 to be page 25, since to number this as 1 is
+confusing. For the divisions and the numbering of the glyphs I have made
+my own arrangement. It is possible that section _b_ on pages 2 to 11
+should only go to the bottom line of the central figure, leaving section
+_d_ to read clear across the page, and another section to be made to the
+left of the nearly erased figures at the bottom; but the chances as
+shown by the lining and arrangement of the columns seemed to favor it as
+I have given it. Only final decipherment can decide definitely.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7-*] In _Archives pal�ographiques de l'Orient et de l'Am�rique_, atlas,
+t. I, pl. 117-142.
+
+[8-*] In his _Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift_, Danzig, 1903, Dr.
+F�rstemann does not know of the existence of this edition.
+
+[9-*] _Codex Perez_: Maya-Tzental. Redrawn and Slightly Restored, and
+with the Coloring as it originally stood, so far as possible, given on
+the basis of a new and minute examination of the Codex itself. Mounted
+in the form of the Original. Accompanied by a Reproduction of the 1864
+Photographs; also by the entire Text of the Glyphs, unemended but with
+some restorations, Printed from Type, and arranged in Parallel Columns
+for convenience of study and comparison. Drawn and edited by William E.
+Gates. (_Privately printed._) Point Loma, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLORS
+
+
+The colors of the Codex afforded a number of questions for solution,
+some of which I have cleared up and embodied in the plates; a few are I
+believe insoluble. I have also been able to add a few wholly new points,
+not indicated by any of the preceding editions.
+
+Being unable to make a personal examination of the original, I prepared
+from my enlarged black drawings, above mentioned, another full set
+including the figures and all glyphs or other parts showing any
+suggestions of color. Upon these I prepared a list of nearly 200
+questions covering every detail, together with certain general
+specifications, and had the whole made the subject of a careful and
+exhaustive comparison with the original at the Biblioth�que Nationale.
+This report, when duly returned with the various details set out, with
+the various colors shown in their exact tints by water-colors, and with a
+special analysis of the question of the fading of the colors, was again
+checked and verified by the evidence of the three editions.
+
+In doubtful questions arising from faded colors, I have sought to show
+the condition of the original as it exists today. In the solid red
+backgrounds and other places I have aimed to show as far as possible
+what the Codex looked like when fresh.
+
+This question as to what all the colors in detail were when fresh, I do
+not feel that I have quite solved. The following palette scheme seems to
+me about as near as the data permit us to formulate.
+
+A permanent black, being the parts reproduced in black in the present
+edition.
+
+A brick-red, tinged with crimson, used for backgrounds, red numerals,
+and probably elsewhere. This we may call unfading red.
+
+A genuine brown, as on the animals, pages 5-a, 8-a; perhaps also
+elsewhere as lining ornament.
+
+A pale pink as flesh color on the human figures.
+
+A blue, as on the possible katun number series on pages 23 and 24.
+
+A turquoise-green, with varying amounts of blue tinge, on the spotted
+figures and in the numeral columns of pages 15 to 18; also, with
+somewhat less of the blue, for the "water" bands on pages 21 to 24.
+
+The above colors are all definite and positive.
+
+Then next appears a brownish color used for lining or ornamenting
+various glyphs, and the clothing, headdress, etc., etc., of the figures.
+We find many shades from a pale neutral up to a darker clear brown, and
+also a definitely reddish, as on the tail of the bird on the right side
+of page 23. This brown may be a fading of the red of the backgrounds and
+numerals, but the permanence of the color in these latter places is so
+positive that I believe it is not so. I think it should be regarded as
+separate.
+
+We next come to a color question related directly to decipherment, that
+of the very difficult numeral columns on pages 15 to 18. There is no
+practical reason discernable for the use of alternating colors save the
+avoidance of confusion between bar combinations. Three bars together of
+different colors stand of course for three 5's; of one color they would
+make a single number 15. We therefore find here our above black, red and
+blue-green alternating and clearly marked in places; but we also find
+many numerals of varying shades of brownish, bistre and grayish. I
+called for especial care in the examination of these points on the
+original Codex, and the water-color sheets and explanatory notes show in
+detail the facts of the present state of the Codex. Prior to the
+examination I supposed that these faded numerals were a faded red, but
+this is stated in the report to be certainly not the case; the
+suggestion is made that they are probably faded blacks.
+
+From the latter conclusion I am inclined in part to dissent, at least as
+to certain passages, for two reasons. These are, first the actual
+permanence of the above noted main colors, everywhere else; and second,
+passages in the second columns of pages 16 and 17. In each of these we
+find faded brown or gray bars, so placed between or next to plain black
+bars as would give, were they faded blacks, more than three black bars
+together.
+
+Another point on page 17 is to be noted. In the top section, first
+column, are five blue 3's. Some of these blue dots, as shown in the 1887
+edition and in my water-colors, have faded to the same light brown seen
+elsewhere. The brown and the blue 5 in the second column of this page,
+middle division, as just mentioned, have also an identical chromatic
+value in the photographs.
+
+My whole conclusion therefore, so far as I can formulate one, is that in
+these columns we have:
+
+Red, black, and blue-green numerals, as shown. Some of the blue numerals
+seem to have been _outlined_ with black, of which traces still appear on
+the original, are seen in the photographs, and indicated in the present
+color plates.
+
+Several instances where the Codex has been rubbed so as to leave only
+the outlines of original black numerals. These are now gray in the
+original, and I have left them as black outlines, touched in with gray.
+
+Finally, a number of pale brown numerals which are either faded
+blue-greens, or else indicate a fourth color in the original. Which of
+these alternatives is the true one, I cannot say.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The original Codex is still in practically as good condition as when the
+three editions were taken from it. The material of which it is made is a
+maguey paper of grayish tinge, and not a yellowish brown as would be
+inferred from the 1887 edition. This is noteworthy, as the wearing away
+of the coating with which the paper was surfaced for the writing, does
+not leave a brownish place which, as in the 1887 edition, might be
+mistaken for traces of applied color. This coating is indeed better
+preserved in places than is shown by the 1887 edition; thus the
+headdress at the extreme left of page 20, just to the right of the
+restored 8 Ezanab on the present color plates, is shown with the coating
+all erased and the black writing as if left on the ground-paper--which
+is incorrect.
+
+
+
+
+THE PAGES IN DETAIL
+
+
+Coming then to the question of the subject-matter of the Codex, I feel
+that little is in order beyond a simple analytical description of the
+different pages, rather than any attempt at an interpretation. The road
+of general deductions from superficial resemblances between unknown
+elements and the details of other known things from other times and
+places, is strewn by the wrecks of too many theories to be attractive
+traveling. I am firmly convinced of the greatness and importance of the
+study we have before us, and the exalted civilization which produced it;
+but I do not know how to interpret these monuments. Indeed the very
+persistence with which the interpretation (which will certainly be
+self-evident and everywhere applicable when it does finally come) still
+eludes us, is a sufficient proof that we have not yet found the right
+road. When we do, great doorways to the past of mankind will open of
+themselves, and we will know more of human life and evolution than we
+now guess. Until then we can only describe, classify, and try to get rid
+of some of the mechanical impedimenta of the search.
+
+What we have of the Perez Codex is manifestly but a fragment; the extent
+of it originally we have no means of even guessing. It is fortunate
+however that what we have gives several practically complete chapters or
+portions of the work. Taking first the side of the MS. paged 2 to 12, we
+find the entire side covered by a series of pictures with text, all
+identical in arrangement. The few remaining traces on page 12 show its
+likeness to the others, for we see in their proper places parts of the
+Tun-glyph on which the figures on the upper section are seated; of the
+Cimi, Tun and Cauac glyphs just as in pages 11-c-2, 6 and 8; also of the
+columns of glyphs to the left, and traces of the headdress. As will
+appear further, at least two more pages are required to complete this
+series, and it is as good a supposition as any other that they were
+those which would be numbered 1 and 13--that is, one before page 2 and
+one after page 12. For convenience of reference the divisions of these
+pages may be lettered from _a_ to _e_; _a_ being given to the upper
+portion, _b_ to the left columns of glyphs, _e_ to the large middle
+picture, and _c_ and _d_ to the text divisions above and below this.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Taking up first the central figures, section _e_, we find in each a
+standing figure, with ceremonial headdress of varying character,
+offering a dragon's head (a universal symbol of wisdom) to another
+figure, seated on a cushioned dais, the side of which bears various
+"constellation" signs. The latter in turn extends his hands, either
+holding some object, or else in a simple gesture. The standing figures
+are all almost completely preserved; the seated ones unfortunately
+largely or wholly obliterated. In front of the standing ministrant is a
+vase of offerings, usually a triple Kan figure, and in two cases with
+knives. In the upper part of the picture, facing in every case but one
+towards the ministrant, is a bird figure, different on each page, and
+having in two cases a human head. On each page is an Ahau sign with red
+numeral, all of them together forming a series which (starting on the
+supposed page 1 with 4 Ahau) gives the succession 4, 2, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5,
+3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6; in other words the numbers of thirteen consecutive
+katuns. The Ahau numerals 13, 11, 9, on pages 3, 4 and 5, are entirely
+distinct, and enough traces appear on other pages to establish this as a
+katun series beyond question. If this chapter includes just a round of
+numbers it would of course be complete in 13 pages. The chapter may be
+historical in contents, but the presence of this numeral Ahau-series
+clearly relates these pages to successive katuns in some way, whatever
+other bearings they may have. The ten pages thus in some way definitely
+have to do with the lapse of 72,000 days, or not quite 200 solar years,
+and the extension of the series to a full cycle of 20 katuns is quite
+likely. The background of this section _e_ is red on each alternate
+page.
+
+Returning now to section _a_, we find on each page three figures, nearly
+all of persons or animals, seated on a large base [Hieroglyph]
+practically identical with the tun-glyph. Fourteen of the backgrounds to
+these figures are red. Above each figure there seems to have been at
+least six glyphs, of which but very few are left. Above these is a space
+entirely erased. In the center of the section on each page is a column
+containing at least two Ahaus with red numerals. The numerals of the
+upper row exceed those of the lower by 6; each row decreases from page
+to page by 4. The erased margins of the MS. do not afford space for
+another picture besides the three, on either side, but they do just give
+room for another Ahau-column on the left of each page. If this second
+Ahau-column existed, we have again the katun-series repeated in each row
+across. If it did not exist, the series (reading from the supposed page
+1) of 13, 9, 5, etc., and 7, 3, 12, etc., decreasing by 4's, give the
+numbers of successive tuns. Once again the question of whether a simple
+number-round of thirteen terms, or a full round of twenty terms, whether
+tuns or katuns, was originally displayed on the Codex, must be left
+undetermined. It is further to be noted that faint but exact traces of a
+third Ahau, on a higher line, appear on page 5, as well as some doubtful
+traces on page 8. No definite relationship between the pictures of this
+section _a_ and those of section _e_ is apparent.
+
+Section _b_ is made up of 45 or more glyphs in three columns. The first
+column is almost totally erased on every page, and I have disregarded it
+both in assigning reference numbers and in the type cards. The other two
+columns I have numbered in double column sequence downwards; but this
+can be regarded as solely for convenience' sake. The glyph [Hieroglyph]
+which is three times repeated at the beginning of page 2, and recurs in
+parallel position repeated two to five times on each page, is the most
+common glyph in the whole Codex. It is identifiable probably 38 times,
+including twice at the top of the erased _first_ column on page 4. It
+heads the second column several times on every page, except 7, which is
+too erased for any determination, and page 3, where a slight variation
+in what is left of the postfix at b-3 forbade its insertion under the
+rules I have given limiting restorations. I suspect that this glyph
+should be repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9, for the following reason. In
+positions b-6, b-8 or b-10 of each page occurs a certain face-glyph
+[Hieroglyph] that is found nowhere else in either the Perez, Dresden or
+Tro.-Cort. codices. If the initial glyph is repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9
+as suggested, then (with a slight variation on page 4) this series of
+repetitions of the initial glyph will in each case be closed by the
+face-glyph in question.
+
+A marked feature of section _b_ is the occurrence, near the bottom of
+each page, of a Cauac-sign, with or without the [Hieroglyph]
+wing-postfix, and with prefixed and superfixed [Hieroglyph] numerals,
+exactly as is so common in connexion with the Chuen-sign on the
+Inscriptions. This Cauac-sign is usually accompanied by an Ahau and a
+Tun, each with numerals that are for the most part erased. This
+combination suggests distance-numbers and dates, somewhat as on the
+Inscriptions; in this case the double-numbered Cauacs would stand for so
+many uinals plus so many days. The following combinations, besides the
+one above, are also found:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+Section _c_ consists of 16 glyphs in two rows, above the central
+picture. Glyphs 15 and 16 on each page are erased. The chief general
+characteristic is the frequent repetition of the Cimi-compound,
+[Hieroglyph]; the repetition on each page of a Cauac-sign with single or
+double numerals as in section _b_; and of Tun-compounds, with
+[Hieroglyph] subfix and with varying prefixes (frequently faces), as
+especially see page 5.
+
+Section _d_ is a triple row of glyphs, originally 21 in some instances,
+but with many now erased. I am able to establish few general
+characteristics for this section, save again the frequency of the
+Cimi-compound as in section _c_, of various Tun-compounds, and of the
+two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph][TN-1] With the exception of
+10-b-4, the face with the tau-eye occurs only in this section _d_ and on
+pages 15 to 18. This glyph is exceedingly common both in Dres. and
+Tro.-Cort, the form in which it appears at 3-d-4, 6, [Hieroglyph]
+occurring (including its secondary compounds) no less than 126 times in
+Dres. and 33 times in Tro.-Cort.
+
+Beneath section _d_ are the remains of red numerals and of heads and
+headdresses of figures which are now too much erased to give any basis
+for comment.
+
+A most marked feature of the Codex is the very large number of
+Tun-compounds, a feature confined exclusively, with one exception, to
+the present pages 2 to 11, and pages 23, 24. A classified list shows 28
+compounds of this glyph, [Hieroglyph] 20 of these showing the subfix,
+and combined with a face or other prefix. The connexion of this fact
+with the Tun-bases of section _a_, and with the katun-rounds shown by
+the Ahau-series above referred to, is manifest.
+
+To sum up the general characteristics of this side of the MS., and
+without attempting to interpret any separate glyphs, we find the
+following data:
+
+The Cimi-compound [Hieroglyph] and its sub-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs
+25 times.
+
+The numeral-compounded Cauac occurs 20 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 13 times on this side and once on page 23.
+
+The Chuen-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs 19 times and probably
+oftener--once only on the other side of the MS.
+
+The various Tun-glyphs occur 45 times, on the two sides.
+
+The face-glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The Kan-Ymix glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 37 times on this side and, with a prefix
+and a changed postfix, once on page 24.
+
+With the exceptions noted, none of the above glyphs occur at all on the
+reverse side of the MS.
+
+There are finally 19 different Yax ([Hieroglyph]) compounds, occurring
+in all 25 times, 16 of them on this side of the MS.
+
+With three exceptions the above glyphs are the only ones that are
+repeated in the Codex with any marked frequency. The three exceptions
+are the face with tau-eye, already [Hieroglyph] mentioned, and the two
+glyphs occurring as an initial [Hieroglyphs] pair twelve times on pages
+15 to 18, sections _a_, _b_, _c_.
+
+Of month signs used as such I am only [Hieroglyphs] satisfied of 12
+Cumhu, at 18-b-4 and of 16 Zac, at 4-c-7. The glyph [Hieroglyph] at
+7-c-2 may also be 1 Yaxkin.
+
+The only cardinal point sign is that of the West, [Hieroglyph] occurring
+at 4-b-14 and again at 16-a-6.
+
+There are besides these numeral Cauacs, 15 other Cauac [Hieroglyph]
+compounds, occurring in all 17 times on this side, and twice on pages
+23, 24.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Upon turning over the Codex, we find that whereas on the side we have
+been considering the scribe limited himself to the conventional red
+numerals and backgrounds, with here and there a touch of brown, upon
+this other side we have a wealth of color united with a harmony of
+composition and structure that marks a very high degree of artistic
+skill. It is not alone the accuracy of the drawing and the writing, such
+as we have noted in connexion with the study of the glyphs, but the
+whole manuscript as it lies open before us shows that sense of
+proportion, that ability to unify without seeming effort a multitude of
+details into a perfectly balanced whole, which is the positive mark of
+developed and genuine culture. When we remember the exceeding difficulty
+of combining primary colors into a brilliancy that is not garish, and
+the equal difficulty of achieving artistic mastery in a conventional
+treatment of forms, we are simply forced to recognize that we have here
+the evidence of an advanced school of art with full rights of
+independent citizenship. If the figures look strange and sometimes
+distorted, we must remember that our whole training has been in the
+realistic school, by which we are prone to judge all others, but by
+which they must not be judged. We have no more right to weigh these
+compositions in the scales of our art motifs than we have to weigh Greek
+rhythm of quantity or Saxon of alliteration against our weights by which
+we measure rhythm of rhyme and stress. In fact it is impossible for us
+even to judge concerning the true harmonic effect of these other
+measures, and it may well be doubted whether the very soul itself of our
+meter is not empty and tinny as compared with these others--quality for
+quality.
+
+There is one great broad line that divides the nations and civilizations
+of the earth, past and present, in all their arts of expression. We may
+call it that of the ideographic as against the literal. It controls the
+inner form of language and of languages; it manifests in the passage of
+thought from man to man; it determines whether the writing of the people
+shall be hieroglyphic or alphabetic; it gives both life and form to the
+ideals of their art. It is a distinction that was clearly recognized by
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, when he laid down that the incorporative
+characteristic essential to all the American languages is the result of
+the exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative elements of
+mind.
+
+The time has passed when we think that the absence of our perspective
+drawing in Japanese pictures is due to the fact that these "children of
+nature" never happened to recognize that a thing looks smaller in
+proportion to its distance, so that they ought to come to us to learn.
+We have come, in some measure if not yet fully, to recognize that
+whereas we show a thing to the eye, these other peoples suggest a
+thought to the mind, by their pictures. And we should remember, and
+remember always, that while our modern art having won its technical and
+artistic skill within the past few hundred years, is now beginning to
+emancipate itself from the materialism of the eye by efforts towards the
+"impressionist" methods, these ancient peoples had long since arrived at
+the ability to convey "impressions" through the medium of harmonious
+compositions of the most rigid conventional elements--an artistic
+achievement which those who know its difficulties can alone begin to
+appreciate.
+
+It may be quite easily forgiven to one trained with Western, modern
+eyes, who at first sight of these monuments, in total ignorance of their
+meanings, sees them as strange or grotesque. But when, as their
+strangeness wears away, one comes to see the unfailing accuracy with
+which the glyphs are drawn, one's opinion of their makers has to change.
+And when, with this familiarity gained, one advances to an appreciation
+of the work in its bearings as a whole, one has to acknowledge himself
+facing the production of craftsmen who had the inheritance of not only
+generations, but ages of training. Such a combination of complete
+mastery in composition, perfect control of definite and fixed forms, and
+hand technique, can grow up from barbarism in no few hundred years. I
+would hesitate to think it could even come in a few thousands, unless
+they were years of greater settledness and peaceful civilization than
+our two thousand years of disturbed and warring European Christendom
+have yet had an example of to show us. It is easy enough in the absence
+of definite historical records, and in our general ignorance of human
+evolution, to theorize and speculate about it all; but the commonly
+accepted picture in our minds of a few savage wandering tribes settling
+and growing up in this country some several hundred or a thousand years
+after the Christian era, simply will not fit in with the fact of their
+ability to produce such works a few hundred years later. Had we nothing
+but the Perez Codex and Stela P at Copan, the merits of their execution
+alone, weighed simply in comparison with observed history elsewhere,
+would prove that we have to do not with the traces of an ephemeral, but
+with the remains of a wide-spread, settled race and civilization, worthy
+to be ranked with or beyond even such as the Roman, in its endurance,
+development and influence in the world, and the beginnings of whose
+culture are still totally unknown. As to the Codex before us, we can
+only imagine what the beauty, especially of the pages we now come to
+discuss, must have been when the whole was fresh and perfect.
+
+The second side of the Codex has to be treated in four divisions or
+chapters, the first of which includes pages 15 to 18. For numerical
+reasons which will appear, this chapter must probably have begun,
+however, at least one page further to the left.
+
+These four pages are laid out with three main divisions, upper, middle
+and lower. Too much of the upper section is erased for any comment other
+than that its arrangement seems to have been parallel in all respects
+with the middle section. This latter shows three subsections, the
+backgrounds in some cases being red,[24-*] containing each a picture
+(probably of a god or a human figure in every instance), surmounted by a
+black and a red numeral and by six glyphs, in double column. This gives
+12 subsections for the four pages, which we may refer to respectively as
+15-_a_, _b_, _c_, etc. Of the initial pairs of glyphs in each subsection
+many are complete, and no section is left without the correct traces of
+the corresponding glyph for one or other of the positions; so that
+although 5 of the 24 glyphs are totally erased, we may safely restore
+them all. Other features of the comparative use and frequency of the
+glyphs on these pages have already been given.
+
+At the top of each picture is found a black and a red numeral. These
+form the consecutive black "counters" or interval numbers, and the
+corresponding red day numbers of subdivided tonalamatls, so common in
+Dres. and Tro.-Cort. It is customary to find these tonalamatls divided
+into fifths or fourths, 52 or 65 days respectively--four or five
+trecenas. At the 53rd or 66th day the initial red number is again
+reached, and the calculation is (by hypothesis) repeated, starting again
+at the left with a new day-sign below the first. Such a column is seen
+in the lower part of page 17, where we find 6 Oc, Ik, Ix; these are to
+be completed by restoring below an erased Cimi and Ezanab, completing
+the 260 days and bringing us around again to 6 Oc. The total of all the
+black "counters" in any series must always be some multiple of 13,
+usually 52 or 65, as stated. And since each "counter" is the interval
+between its adjoining red numbers, wherever a red and a black number are
+given, the other red number, whether before or after, can always be
+filled in.
+
+No traces of this initial column appear for the series in the middle
+division, and several of the numerals are also erased. Two obscurities
+must be cleared up before trying to fill out the series. On page 16
+right is a partly erased black numeral, which from the traces may be
+either 10 or 11. Taking it as 10, we have 13 plus 10 equals an erased
+red 10; plus 5 (on page 17) equals the red 2 below the 5. This verifies
+so far. But we next find--plus 5 equals 8, which is of course incorrect.
+An inspection of the MS. and the photographs reveals a reddish spot (or
+perhaps even _three_ such spots) in the extreme upper right corner of
+the picture space, 17-a, and also a dark spot _under_ the black 5 in
+17-b. It is possible that the separated red dots (one doubtful) are to
+be read together as 3; or that the red dots under the 5 are to be
+disregarded in the count (just as is the red 8 on the next page, 18-a),
+and the red number for 17-a found in the upper right, above the seated
+figure. If the red number in 17-a is 3, the two numbers in 16-c must be
+11. Or it may be assumed that the spot under the 5 in 17-b belongs to
+it, making 6 instead of 5, which figures out. The final result is the
+same, as we have either 10 and 6, or 11 and 5, in these two places, and
+either reaches properly the clear red 8 in 17-b.
+
+In 18-a we find black 26, with a small red 8 below, and a large red 13
+in the usual place at the side. The red 8 will have to be disregarded,
+as not part of the series, which requires 13, and nothing else.
+
+We may now possibly set down the series as follows, using small figures
+above the the[TN-2] line for the black counters, and putting in
+parentheses all numbers restored:
+
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{11}(11)^{5}3^{5}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10,
+  or else
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{10}(10)^{5}2^{6}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10
+
+This leaves us the black number at the beginning, in 15-a, and both
+numbers at the end, 18-c, still not filled in. Adding together all the
+counters we get 82, plus at least the two missing black numbers, one at
+each end. If the total were 104, we might expect it to have been
+comprised within the four subsections 15-a to 18-a. But 104 is not a
+tonalamatl fraction. 130 days, although a tonalamatl half, is an unknown
+division, and would hardly get into the space. If we begin the series in
+the upper division of the page (as occurs in Dres.) and come around to
+the middle division, the probabilities would require that it displayed a
+full series of 260 days, and again also that it began _to the left_ of
+page 15. The probabilities of this series as it is, therefore, indicate
+at least a page 14 to the left, arranged like the other four, and
+forming one chapter with them.
+
+We have now to deal with the puzzling numeral columns, in alternating
+colors, found to the left of each subsection of the upper and middle
+divisions--24 columns in all. These have been referred to at some length
+in the preliminary discussion of the colors, and there is little more
+that can be said. As there said, the entire reason for alternating the
+colors can not be certainly assumed. Alternation of color occurs not
+only where it is needed to distinguish bars, but also where we have only
+lines of dots, which are of course self-separating. And to say that it
+is only for artistic purposes is a mere begging of the question. Only
+four or five of these columns are complete, and a footing of the numbers
+in each gives us varying amounts from 113 to 153, and tells us nothing.
+On the parts that are left we six times have a Chuen [Hieroglyph] with a
+black number apparently belonging to it (perhaps a multiplier), and also
+once a double Chuen, as in Tro.-Cort. The use of the red _kal_-sign, or
+20, is frequent.
+
+The lower division of these pages was also subdivided, into four
+sections on each, which we may refer to as _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_. Each
+contains a picture, with black and red numerals as above, surmounted by
+four glyphs only. The pictures are all quite incomplete; neither is
+there anything to add to what has been already said of the glyphs.
+
+In the middle of page 17 one tonalamatl ends, with a red 6, and another
+begins, also with 6. The second starts with the day 6 Oc, is divided
+into fifths, and the initial column must have been in full: 6 Oc, Ik,
+Ix, Cimi, Ezanab. The restoration of the series gives: 6^{22}2^{(15 in
+two stages)}(4)^{10}1^{4}6. This however only gives a total of 51 for
+the black counters. There is space to the right for another section, but
+whatever may have been written there has entirely disappeared. The last
+three numbers 1^{4}6 seem unmistakable, the [Hieroglyph] especially so.
+If we regard the last 6 as an error for 5, and then restore ^{1}6 in
+section 18-g, it would give the necessary 52. This is the one passage in
+the Codex where I can see no way but to assume a mistake in the writing;
+for 1 plus 4 does not equal 6, and unless for some entirely unknown
+reason the error is clear.
+
+The preceding tonalamatl may have been divided either into 52- or 65-day
+periods. If the period was 52, it must have begun with an initial column
+on page 15, right side. In this event it would be restored as follows:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(19 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}12^{(12 in two stages)}
+  (11)^{8}6,
+
+giving 52. In this case a third tonalamatl must have begun somewhere to
+the left, and ended on the erased right side of page 15.
+
+A different restoration would carry the initial column back to the
+extreme edge of page 15, when we would have this:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(2)}(8)^{8}3^{11}(1)^{(11 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}
+  12^{(12 two stages)}(11)^{8}6
+
+giving 65.
+
+To choose between these two would be mere guessing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The well-known pages 19 and 20 come next. Together they make four
+compartments, up and down the full length of the pages, two with red and
+two with black backgrounds. Each is, or rather was, preceded by a column
+of 13 "year-bearers." The left column on each page I have restored,
+although no traces of it are left. But apart from its manifest
+necessity, as part of the series, if the width of the red ground on page
+20 (see the photographs) is measured, it will be found to be just the
+correct proportion, and part of the straight left edge of the red can
+still be seen, just left of the rod in the hand of the mummy-figure, and
+leaving just room for the Ezanab column. In the colored plates I have
+only shown 12 instead of 13 day-signs in each column, but a measurement
+of the space above and below shows that the missing four are to be
+placed at the top and not at the bottom. These two pages therefore have
+application in some way to 52 solar years, beginning with 1 Lamat and
+ending with 13 Akbal (Votan).
+
+These "year-bearers" are those of the Tzental instead of the Yucatecan
+system, as described by Landa, and on these two pages rests, so far as
+regards known subject-matter, the assignment of the Codex Perez to the
+Palenque rather than to the northern Maya district. It is thus to be
+considered with the Inscriptions of that region, and with the Dresden
+Codex.[28-*] And in accord with what is known of the state of the
+different parts of the country at the time of the Conquest, and of the
+history of the break-up and extinction of the Maya empire, it must be
+assigned the greater antiquity on that account.
+
+It is probable that pages 19 and 20 had no text passages.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Pages 21 and 22 again, judging from the coloring and the arrangement,
+seem to form a pair. Each had on the upper part probably five rows of
+glyphs, some 70 in all, of which only 10 or 12 are at all recognizable.
+Contrary to all the pages hitherto discussed, it may be that these
+glyphs are to be _read from right to left_. The faces in these all look
+to the right, and the customary prefixes are all on the right. In
+classifying these glyphs, therefore, they must be all reversed.
+
+The greater part of page 21 is framed in and divided up by green bands,
+evidently for water, two branches of which, after crossing a
+constellation band near the bottom, end one in falling torrents, the
+other in a circle surrounding a _kin_-sign, [Hieroglyph], the sun, and
+itself surrounded by four dragon's heads, all figured in the midst of
+the torrents. Below this symbol is the open mouth of a dragon, towards
+which is looking and pointing a black-faced figure, of the god D, the
+Ancient of Days, described by Schellhas as the moon and night god. To
+the left of the torrents is a figure, nearly erased, but with the
+wristlets characteristic of the god of death, and holding in the hand a
+torch. The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs written in the torrents, at the
+left side.
+
+The green bands divide the middle of the page into six compartments
+containing, so far as not totally erased, 65 day-signs, in columns of
+five. All my efforts to relate these signs either to each other or to
+any other series in the codices, have so far been fruitless. The upper
+seven columns have each a black numeral beneath, running from right to
+left, 1 2 3 3 5 6 and the dot of another 6.
+
+Each of the columns of five day-signs forms a closed circuit returning
+into itself. In the upper row the 1st and 6th columns show successive
+days 8 apart in order; columns 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 are 16 apart in order.
+The 1st in the lower row is at intervals of 8, the 2nd and 5th at
+intervals of 16. The 3rd column is, with the 4th, an exception, the
+intervals being successively 8, 4, 4, 8, 16. That this is probably not a
+scribal error is shown by the fact that the same series, though
+beginning with different days, occurs in both columns. The 6th and
+possible 7th columns of the lower part are indeterminable.
+
+We thus have three rounds of 5 times 8, or 40 days; seven rounds of 5
+times 16, or 80 days; two irregular rounds of 40 days. These are not
+such columns as could form the beginning of a series of tonalamatl
+fifths, in which the successive days come 12 apart. So that this section
+must be left unexplained.[29-*]
+
+At the right of page 21 begins a solid red background which probably
+extended right across page 22. Two standing spotted green figures appear
+on page 21; seven seated figures, one green spotted, on page 22.
+
+Page 22 is crossed by a winding dragon whose body is covered by the
+"constellation band." A narrow green band also winds across the page,
+inclosing two of the upper figures. Below the dragon and this green band
+are seen, seated above the open mouths of two erect dragons, two figures
+in conversation, each bearing various insignia of the death god. A very
+curious cartouche outline, partly erased, at the lower right, incloses
+what seems to be 13 Ahau, 3, 6, the right hand dot of the 3 being
+erased.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On pages 23 and 24 the brilliant backgrounds of the preceding pages
+disappear, and we have two pages, to be read together, of glyphs,
+day-signs and small figures, finely and sparingly illuminated with the
+usual four colors. The body of the dragon is apparently continuous from
+page 21, and crosses these pages entirely with the constellation band,
+displayed along its full length.
+
+The upper part of these two pages contained originally 91 glyphs,
+perhaps to be read _from right to left_, the same as 21 and 22. The
+faces look to the right, the usual _pre_fixes and the few numerals are
+also on the right of their respective compounds. Many of the glyphs are
+the same as those on pages 2 to 11, reversed right for left. Glyph
+23-a-11 should be specially noted. At first sight the numeral prefix, 6,
+appears to belong, postfixed, to glyph 23-a-17. But on investigation we
+find the same compound, a _yax-chuen_ with [Hieroglyph] prefix, also at
+21-a-8 and 24-a-26, in each case with the 6 attached. The [Hieroglyph]
+affix just below this number 6 is also plainly a _pre_fix to glyph
+23-a-12; so that glyph 23-a-ll must be read [Hieroglyph] and include the
+6 as prefix. At 24-a-26, [Hieroglyph] the same glyph is written left to
+right.
+
+There are also a few other glyphs on these pages which cannot be
+regarded as right to left. Such for instance, as [Hieroglyph] at
+23-a-19 and 24-a-17. In this glyph the affix [Hieroglyph] at the side is
+properly a prefix (perhaps the possessive), and I do not recall any
+instance of its use as a postfix. In the affixes, the superfix and
+prefix positions may as a general rule be regarded as wholly identical;
+also the subfix and postfix positions. But also as a general rule the
+two pairs are I believe not to be interchanged, any more than we
+interchange prefixes and endings in English; this rule is not universal
+for all affixes, as some seem able to go anywhere, but it is one I have
+always regarded in my glyph classifying. As to [Hieroglyph] it is to be
+noted that this is a symmetrical glyph and as there can be no doubt that
+these glyphs were equally legible to the Maya reader written in either
+direction, it may well be regarded as unimportant, and not to be rated
+even as an error. [Hieroglyph] is a still stronger similar case. Here
+the wing [Hieroglyph] affix to the right is certainly a postfix, the
+superfix is in the usual left to right order, [Hieroglyph] and the main
+element written left to right, as in all its other instances. And
+[Hieroglyph] is again in point.
+
+The face-_tun_ compounds on these pages, and also on the opposite side
+of the manuscript, should be particularly noted.
+
+Below the constellation band, inscribed on a wavy green band (the waters
+of space?) are seven repetitions of [Hieroglyph] or the sun glyph
+[Hieroglyph] within the shields.[31-*] Between each appeared probably
+two black 8's. The sun-shields are about to be seized by different
+animals, dragon, tortoise, bird, etc., a seeming evident suggestion of
+either an eclipse, or the passage of the sun into some zodiacal sign.
+Another series of seven sun-shields, on the green band, separated by
+numeral 8's, and attacked by animals and a skeleton, crosses the lower
+part of the pages.
+
+Between these two bands we find a series of columns of five day-signs
+each preceded by red numerals. Allowing for the space erased I have
+restored the last column to the right, and part of the preceding. This
+gives 12 columns only, whereas at least 13 are required. There may have
+been a 12th column to the left of page 23, where there is just the
+proper space for this,[32-*] leaving the dragon's body to curve above
+the column so as to pass to page 22. The series may have continued on
+across page 25; 13 columns on pages 23, 24, and 7 more filling page 25,
+would make a full cycle of 20 columns. And in this connexion it should
+be noted that the dragon's body with constellation band goes almost to
+the edge of page 24 with no sign of ending or turning, such as might be
+expected if the chapter ends here. And if the constellation dragon
+continues over page 25, the column series may well have done the same.
+
+Before discussing this series it will be of advantage to review what the
+Codex gives us on the question of reading left to right or right to
+left.
+
+First, in both the Dresden and Tro.-Cort. the glyph faces look to the
+left; and, as shown by the calculations, reading is from left to right,
+with a very few possible exceptions, such as the tables on Dres. 24, 64,
+69, etc.
+
+In the Perez, as shown by the tonalamatls on 15 to 18, the 52
+year-bearers on 19 and 20, and the katun-series on 2 to 12, the general
+direction of the reading is also left to right.
+
+Above or below each of the red number columns of these pages 23, 24, is
+to be found a blue number. These numbers make a katun-series, starting
+with 4, decreasing by 2, if we read it left to right. It is not, to be
+sure, accompanied by the customary Ahau-sign, [Hieroglyph], but, taken
+in connexion with the marked parallelism of the glyphs, face-tun glyphs
+and also others, on these two pages with those on pages 2 to 11, already
+discussed, the possibility that a katun-series is a part of this
+subject-matter must be considered.
+
+On the other hand, the glyphs in the upper part of all four pages 21 to
+24 face to the right, and, as already set out in detail, are practically
+all written in _reverse position_ as regards their prefixes, etc. And so
+also does the Eb-glyph in the day-columns we are now considering face to
+the right. These columns, unlike those on page 21, which include all of
+the 20 day-signs, only include 5 of the day-signs: Kan, Lamat, Eb, Cib
+and Ahau; Eb being the only non-symmetrical one of these.
+
+We have thus quite strong evidence, especially as provided by the
+position of the prefixes, for a right to left reading, opposed by the
+direction of this katun-number series--if it be one. In Egyptian
+writing, of course, the direction of the reading changes with the facing
+of the figures.
+
+To return now to the columns themselves, all the day-signs in any one
+column have each the same red numeral, so that we have: 8 Cib, 8 Ahau, 8
+Kan, 8 Lamat, 8 Eb; and so on. The red numerals to each column also
+decrease by 2 towards the right, pari passu with the blue numerals. If
+we read each column downwards, it will form a closed circuit or round,
+returning into itself, with intervals of 104 days, from 8 Cib to 8 Ahau,
+etc., and again from 8 Eb back to 8 Cib. But if we next try to go to the
+next column, the series breaks, for from 8 Eb to 6 Lamat is only 76
+days. We get a like break whether we read upward or downward, or right
+to left. Taking the columns separately then, the entire series (whether
+made up of 13, 20 or any other number of columns) cannot be made to read
+in one regular series, with a constant interval between the successive
+days of the whole.
+
+But, if we restore two columns, making 13 columns, and then read
+horizontally _across_, either right to left, or left to right, one line
+after another, the first day of the second line follows the last of the
+first, and after going through the whole 65 terms, we return again from
+the last of the last line to the first of the first--always with a
+constant interval. In other words, this section could be written around
+a wheel. If we read left to right, the distance from (10 Kan) to 8 Cib,
+etc., is 232 days; 232�65=15,080. Or if from right to left,[33-*] the
+interval from (12 Lamat) to 1 Cib, etc., is 28 days; 28�13 = 364, �5 =
+1820. That both of these products are multiples of 260 is a truism, and
+cannot in any way require us to see a tonalamatl reckoning as the basis
+of this passage. Nor is each separate day-column a tonalamatl in fifths,
+as so often found.
+
+Finally, if we should assume that the series went on across page 25, to
+a full katun-round of 20 terms, the circuit would be broken; line 2
+would not regularly follow line 1, and so on. The probabilities then, as
+derived from the succession of the days, seem almost conclusive that
+this is a section of 65 terms, to be read horizontally, in whichever
+direction. And then, since the subdivision of 15,080 days (or 1820, if
+read right to left) into 65 terms, _necessarily_ gives us successive
+day-_numbers_ decreasing (or increasing) by 2, the likeness to the
+katun-series may be only apparent--a simple truism. Or, on the other
+hand, in view of the glyph similarities (a point which I think should
+always be given close attention), there _may_ be some relation to the
+katun-series--all in spite of the right-left or left-right difficulties.
+
+What part the blue[34-*] number series plays, I cannot say. Dr.
+Seler,[34-[+]] suggests that they are "corrections," to set each term
+ahead 20 days. This states a fact, but does not give any explanation.
+Each blue number is 6 less than its red column, and 7 Kan _is_ of course
+20 days later than 13 Kan.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24-*] Dr. F�rstemann (_Comm. z. Par. Mayahds._) speaks of the background
+to the central figure on page 16 as black, instead of red; he also
+describes the number columns as made up of red and black numerals only.
+There are many similar errors in his Commentary, due to his ignorance of
+the colors, and to the obscurity of the photographic reproductions.
+
+[28-*] Where to place the Tro.-Cort., in view of the _apparent_ Kan,
+Muluc[TN-3] Ix, Cauac years indicated on pages 34-37, and the 13 Cumhu
+immediately next to 13 Ahau on page 73 (13 Ahau 13 Cumhu falling only
+possibly in a year 12 Lamat) I am not ready to say.
+
+[29-*] Mr. Bowditch suggests to me that the numbers 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 are to
+be read with each of the day signs in their respective columns, and,
+being placed in the middle, may apply both to the upper and lower sets.
+The strongest objection I can see to this is that the numbers are black,
+instead of the usual red. In this case, instead of intervals of 8 and
+16, giving rounds of 5�8=40 and 5�16=80 days, we would have intervals of
+156 and 208 (from 1 Ymix to 1 Muluc, etc.), giving rounds of 780 and
+1040 days respectively. Or, if read _upwards_, we would have 52 and 104
+day intervals (1 Ben to 1 Chicchan, etc.), and rounds of 260 and 520
+days. But whichever be the case, the page is _sui generis_, and its why
+is still beyond us.
+
+[31-*] I have retained the usual term "shields" for the flaring forms
+which embrace the sun glyph, though without accepting its
+appropriateness. They might with equal likelihood be conventionalized
+wings.
+
+[32-*] Dr. F�rstemann ignores the space on the right of page 24, and
+restores two columns to the left of page 23 in order to make up the
+thirteen columns; but, as shown by the edges of the pages in the
+photographs, one column restored in each place will just fill the
+obliterated space.
+
+[33-*] Dr. Seler's reading; _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515.
+
+[34-*] The blue is a true blue, quite distinct from the turquoise blue
+elsewhere, and is found in the case of these numbers only.
+
+[34-[+]] _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515; "Zur mexik. Chronologie."
+
+
+
+
+THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+Up to date our knowledge of the meanings of the glyphs is still to all
+intents and purposes limited to the direct tradition we have through
+Landa, and the deductions immediately involved in these. We know the day
+and month signs, the numbers, including 0 and 20, four units of the
+archaic calendar count (the day, tun, katun and cycle), the cardinal
+point signs, the negative particle. We have not fully solved the uinal
+or month sign, which seems to be _chuen_ on the monuments and a _cauac_,
+or _chuen_, in the manuscripts. We are able to identify what must be
+regarded as metaphysical or esoteric applications of certain glyphs in
+certain places, such as the face numerals.[35-*] But every one of these
+points is either deducible directly by necessary mathematical
+calculation, or else from the names of certain signs given by Landa in
+his day and month list, and then found in other combinations, such as
+_yax_, _kin_, etc. That we have as many of the points as we have, and
+still cannot form from them the key--that we cannot _read_ the
+glyphs--is a constant wonder; but a fact nevertheless.
+
+The innumerable efforts to identify the glyphs by their superficial
+appearance, calling the banded headdress a "pottery decoration," and
+explaining the face-glyph of the North thereby, because in Maya _xaman_
+is north and _xamach_ a tortilla dish (to say nothing of others still
+more fanciful, by a host of writers), have broken down, as was to be
+expected. I mention this instance because it illustrates fully the
+results of superficial analysis, united with a seeming ineradicable
+tendency even among those most able students who have added the most to
+our stock of Maya knowledge (among whom Dr. Brinton was certainly one of
+the foremost), to treat these glyphs as carelessly done, to disregard
+the differences between manifest variants, or else to talk freely,
+whenever a passage does not fit the explanation which is being worked
+out, of scribal errors.
+
+In the first place, _if_ these glyphs are to be interpreted primarily by
+the Yucatecan Maya dialect (one in which we have most ample printed and
+MS. lexicographic material), and if in that dialect no other words at
+all resembling _xaman_ and _xamach_ are found, as we are told, then
+(_if_ the Mayas named the north star, or the North, by a pun on a
+tortilla dish) wherever this banded headdress is found, we must assume
+the text to be treating either of the North, or of tortillas. That might
+safely be left to break down of its own weight; but we shall also see
+that the explanation is given in total disregard of manifest, important
+variants. This banded headdress appears ornamenting at least
+[Hieroglyphs] five separate and distinct faces; one a wholly human face,
+the others with various other definite characteristics, the most
+frequent and prominent of which are the monkey-like face and mouth we
+see in the [Hieroglyph] glyph for the north, and a sort of bird's
+plumage covering the back of the head. These two are separate, are never
+combined, and must be classified rigidly apart. We have therefore three
+elements, the monkey face, the plumage covering (if we may call it so),
+and the banded headdress. It is obvious that while the monkey face may
+be specific of the North, the bands are not specific at all, but
+general.
+
+It is with the greatest diffidence that I suggest any interpretations on
+my own part as yet, but it is of course certain that the distinction of
+masculine and feminine existed in the spoken language, and it must exist
+somewhere in the glyphs. And it will have to be a prefix, not a postfix;
+for what I may call the syntax of glyph formation must follow that of
+the speech. At the bottom of Dres. 61 and 62 are seven identical
+Oc-glyphs with subfix, and with prefixes. Five of these prefixes are
+faces with the woman's curl, recognized on the figured illustrations.
+One is a face with the banded headdress. Remembering that this headdress
+occurs not infrequently on a plain human face with no other
+characteristic, it is not a far guess that it may have denoted a
+freeman, a lord, entitled to such a headdress. In this event it may on
+the one hand serve as a simple masculine definitive, the prefix _ah-_,
+and on the other, to attach the idea of lordship to other glyphs with
+which it is incorporated, as: the North Star, or region, the Lord of the
+Firmament.
+
+This illustration serves to show what seems to me an essential
+preliminary of the work we have in hand, and the part to which I have so
+far devoted most effort. The glyphs must be determined, compared and
+classified, and what I have called the "syntax" of their composition,
+studied. The particles and their positions, the various _incorporated_
+elements, are of the utmost importance, though they are very frequently
+ignored. _They are the written picture of the spirit of the spoken
+language._ The task I have most looked forward to in this connexion has
+of course been with the Dresden, but having started upon the Perez for
+the reasons I have given, it was a smaller task in itself, and could be
+brought to completion within less time, while serving as part of the
+larger work. As the determination and classification of the glyphs had
+to proceed all as one work, it has enabled me not only to complete my
+Index for this codex, but also to print the text in type, and to verify
+and bring out such facts regarding the color questions as was possible
+to do--both of them stages needed in the general work. In doing it I
+have studied with my hands as well as with eyes, and I have been well
+repaid. The actual labor has not been small, but it has been worth it
+all if only to see before the eyes something of what this Codex must
+have been when fresh and new. For as I have said, while in my colored
+restoration I may have made some mistakes of eye, for which the
+photographs will be a check, I have _guessed_ nothing.
+
+The classification of the glyphs meets of course with some difficulties
+in detail, but it can readily be cast into a quite simple general
+outline. Something over 2000 different compound forms are found in the
+three codices. The simple elements composing these are perhaps 350 in
+number, and may be divided broadly into main elements and affixes or
+particles. First of course come day and month signs, which, with _kin_,
+_tun_, _kal_, and a few marked variants, use up 50 numbers. Next will
+come the faces, about 75 simple elements. Next the animal and bird heads
+and figures, about 50 numbers. Next the hands, crosses, etc., and the
+list of conventional or geometric forms, another 75. Then some 75
+particles.
+
+The cards required for the first 50 numbers, including only compounds
+formed from day-signs and excluding day-signs used simply as such,
+amount to practically one half of the number required for the whole
+index. Certain elements, notably the _kin_, the _tun_, the monkey-face
+with banded headdress, already referred to, the face with tau-eye, the
+_yax_, the cross, produce a great number of compounds--a fact of note,
+as it is evident that the number of compounds, having due regard to our
+limited material, is an index to the relative position of the idea in
+the Mayan vocabularies. Some of the day-signs produce practically no
+compounds, others a great many. The compounds fall readily into a system
+of primary and secondary derivatives, by which their relations may be
+easily studied, and their proportions recognized.
+
+Coming to the distinguishing of variants, one first meets the fact that
+the three codices differ. The writing of the Dresden and Perez is
+regular and accurate, the Perez exceedingly so. Every different variant
+must here be accounted for. In Tro.-Cort. the writing is crude and
+careless, so that we have many evident abbreviations which are not
+genuine variants. In the next place, certain regular differences occur
+in this or that glyph or particle, between the forms of the different
+manuscripts. Thus the Perez uses [Hieroglyph] and the others
+[Hieroglyph] and so on. A comparison of the compounds shows that these
+must be the same. The regular variations between the three manuscripts
+and variations of abbreviation, when well evidenced, may be eliminated.
+
+The day-signs have many variants, mostly quite simple, and all
+checked positively by the use of the form in some day-series. Ix has
+many forms. There are at least three entirely different Cimi forms:
+[Hieroglyphs][TN-4] There are found two different forms of the closed
+eye, one of which certainly is Cimi, the other occurs regularly in
+such different compounds (and I think never as a simple day-sign), as
+to make it necessary to separate it; [Hieroglyph] it has probably a
+different meaning entirely--perhaps that of sleep.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A noteworthy technical line is to be found in the drawing of the glyphs.
+Whereas in the case of the day-signs, faces, and conventional forms in
+general, certain variations of handwriting, etc., are evidently
+permitted, but only within certain definite lines, in some few animal
+glyphs no two instances are just alike. In other words, the glyphs in
+general are conventions with established meanings--actual writing;[39-*]
+but we also have _pictures_ of birds or animal forms, where the writer
+is not following convention, but nature. The freedom of style used in
+the latter case only serves to emphasize the conventionality of the
+former, and to separate the entire system from either picture or rebus
+writing. See the following fish-glyph forms:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+These pictures are almost exclusively in uncompounded forms, whereas the
+conventional glyphs, whether human, animal or otherwise, are subject to
+the general rules of incorporation.
+
+Writing is a system of conventional forms with established meanings,
+corresponding to and reflecting the structure of the spoken language;
+some picture elements whose value as such has remained either wholly or
+partly present in the minds of those who use them, are not inconsistent
+with genuine writing; when present they add vividness to the writing,
+and emphasize its ideographic character. A combination of picture forms
+only, may be used as means of communication to a certain degree, but can
+never constitute _writing_; that, like speech, must provide for the
+expression of the relationships and categories that make up the
+structure of language.
+
+Egyptian writing, which is of course _true writing_, contains elements
+of every class. It has symbols and also pictures, not only of things or
+creatures, but of actions as well, "contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive"; these pictures, although still ranking as such, stand for
+_words_--they can be _pronounced_, and have syntax, which is the crucial
+test. Egyptian next has unrecognizable forms, whose meaning has become a
+simple convention, but which still stand for _words_, or particles. It
+has elements which are not pronounced for themselves, but only serve as
+determinatives. (Such a use of determinatives is not limited to
+hieroglyphic writing, but is possessed also by alphabetic; the second
+_o_ in the word _too_ is strictly a determinative, to distinguish the
+adverb _too_ from the preposition _to_, both pronounced alike. Tibetan
+has an elaborate system of silent letters used as grammatical
+determinatives.) And then Egyptian writing finally has pure alphabetic
+elements.
+
+As to Maya, I think it far more than likely that, when at last
+deciphered, it will be found to contain most if not all of these
+classes--_mutatis mutandis_. There seems every evidence that it is made
+up of pictures with probably both concrete and abstract meanings;
+word-conventions; and grammatical particles. It is at least probable
+that there are also silent determinatives and not unlikely that there is
+also a pure phonetic or alphabetic element. That the latter element is
+not the basic one may I think be now regarded as established.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35-*] The Tibetan use of symbolical words in place of numerals is worth
+noting here, even though we do not know the Maya face numerals well
+enough as yet for any comparison. See Csoma de K["o]r�s, _Tibetan
+grammar_, Calcutta, 1824, pp. 155 _et seq._; also Ph. �d. Foucaux,
+_Grammaire Tib�taine_, Paris, 1858, pp. 157 _et seq._
+
+[39-*] "These [the Maya glyphs] do not represent a real script, as is so
+often maintained, but are only pictures which have been reduced to the
+appearance of letters, contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive."!--Dr. Eduard Seler, _Codex Vaticanus No. 3773_, page
+65.--Well?
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+_Introite, nam et hic dii sunt._
+
+
+It is not my desire to add, as a conclusion to a comment bearing on the
+restoration and interpretation of Mayan hieroglyphic texts, any general
+discussion of the data which tradition and the early Spanish writers
+have left us of the mythology, rites and customs of the American races;
+and still less to run out a line of attractive analogies between
+isolated instances of their words, symbols or works, with those of any
+of the various nations of the other hemisphere; nor to build up any
+theory of descent or intercourse with any of these latter as today known
+to history. The subject before us is on its very face too vast; the
+written and traditional data are entirely too scanty and too little
+understood; and while we are still obliged to designate the various gods
+and personages of the Codices as god A, B, etc., and are unable to fix
+definitely[41-*] a single inscribed date in terms of our chronology, or
+tell the event attached to it, fancied comparisons amount to little. And
+the favorite "linguistic" method is more fragile yet, especially when
+the uncertainties of spelling and transliteration are considered, and
+above all the frequent total ignorance of the past history and changes
+the different words compared must have gone through since the time when
+by any possibility a physical transmission from one locality to the
+other could have taken place. These ought to be commonplaces of
+research, but it is to be feared that they have not quite yet become
+so.[42-*] There is no need to give instances of such false analogies
+which have served as the bases for a multitude of filiation theories,
+all equally well "supported" by details, and all mutually exclusive. Nor
+on the other hand can we deny the existence actually of a very great
+number of resemblances and identities which cannot be ignored, but must
+imply connexions of some kind. The English nation is not a Hebrew people
+because it had a prime minister Disraeli, nor Greeks because they have a
+Queen Alexandra, nor Romans because of certain local names. Such facts
+even when real, and established as such, may only be evidence of a
+single continental culture or transcontinental intercourse.
+
+It has been the dictum of a certain school of archaeology, still very
+much in general favor, that all these identities are to be explained as
+the natural result of the innate tendencies of untutored men, on their
+evolutionary rise, at certain cultural stages, to imagine the same myths
+and invent the same rites. From this as a principle I wholly dissent; it
+simply does not meet the facts. There are of course many facts to which
+it does apply, such as those that both Chinese and Americans made paper,
+tanned leather, made feather ornaments, used star and flower names for
+their children, and so on: facts which had been used to prove Chinese
+and American identity, and to which Dr. Brinton justly added in retort
+that they also slept at night, wore clothes when it was cold, and so on.
+But there is a very great number of facts, a number constantly growing
+with research, which cannot be so dismissed. Such are the employment of
+abstract symbolism, the erection of great structures all having a
+definite and identical astronomical bearing and evident use, the common
+possession of so-called myths all telling the one story, and only
+slightly modified locally, such as the birth-stories of Huitzilopochtli
+and of Herakles, and the stories of the travail of Latona pursued by the
+Python and of the Woman clothed with the Sun in _Revelation_; or the
+universal tradition of seven ancestral caves or cities in America,
+compared with the Tibetan and Pur�nic stories of the seven lotus-leaves
+of ['S]veta-dv�pa, the first continental home of the race; the _Hacha de
+cobre_ of the Miztecs and the ever-turning spear of jade of the Japanese
+story of the place where the gods first descended on earth; or the whole
+question of the origin of the Zodiac. These things, and a host of
+others, need a different explanation--all the more since the more we are
+learning of them the more we find that they enclose facts of which the
+hypothetical "savage children" could not, _ex hypothesi_, have been
+aware--some facts indeed which our very latest modern science is only
+now learning.[43-*]
+
+But while dissenting now wholly from this theory (of "coincidentalism")
+one cannot but hold in all respect those who in their time held it. It
+is the duty of the savant to make the best logical use he can of what he
+has, and he cannot be criticised for not using finer scales than the
+time affords. And this theory was needed as an answer to the
+absurdities, brought out in utter disregard of physical possibilities,
+postulating off-hand migrations and filiations and evolutionary advances
+totally impossible within the periods allowed for their completion, and
+utterly without parallel in any known part of the world or page of
+history. And yet, when this theory had its birth, the most of
+Christendom was still enthralled by the Ussherian chronology of the
+creation and history of the whole divine universe, which simply did not
+have room in it for all these things to happen naturally and
+connectedly.
+
+And if it is urged that present science had already say a generation
+ago, a second's time we might say in the life of humanity, begun to
+emancipate our ideas of time and evolution, still it is the fact that
+that increase in breadth of vision has so far applied to every known
+thing but man himself. The old belief that gave the world 6000 years of
+life, at least put thinking man at its beginning; the modern nightmare
+gives us a world for hundreds of millions of years without _thought_,
+and makes human civilization an ephemeral episode of a few seconds of
+universal duration. Disregarding, one is forced to say wilfully, the
+fact that every single one of their own arguments in favor of anthropoid
+descent for man would equally support a theory that the anthropoids are
+debased offshoots of human stocks,[45-*] biology still demands such a
+lapse of time for its physical evolution that its adherents oppose and
+belittle to the utmost every bit of evidence of any antiquity even for
+the physical frame of man. We have, to say nothing of the rest of the
+world, Egyptian civilization now pushed back 10,000 years, and (together
+with others as we slowly uncover them) as far removed as ever from
+barbarism, if not indeed growing greater as we go back; but we are not
+allowed anything but apelike, half arboreal savages 50,000 years ago.
+And yet every observed _fact_ shows us savage or worn-out races
+everywhere throughout the world deteriorating and dying out, and nowhere
+any savages progressing or, unaided by outside influence, developing
+what we know as civilization. We see everywhere the rise and fall of
+nations, races and civilizations, and their utter blotting out; and we
+refuse to accept that process as a universal law through which the
+destiny of the human race is working itself out. In fact, we do not seem
+to believe that the human race has any destiny; it may have beginning
+and an end, but no destiny.
+
+And so although this modern scientific school began as a reaction
+against the narrowness of theological limitations, both of time and
+greatness, so hampered and hypnotized has our thought been by both, that
+man is of nearly as little universal account with one as with the
+other, and we find a seemingly ineradicable repugnance to admit that any
+people had "developed" writing before the least possible time ago we can
+fix it, usually this side of the year 1 of the Christian era. And thus
+we have M. Terrien de Lacouperie's "450 _embryo_ scripts and
+writings"--which another fifty years may show to be nearly as many
+fragments of one or a few great stocks of ancient hieroglyphs. Of course
+it is impossible to derive the American races or civilizations from the
+Chinese, Phoenicians, Hittites, or any of the cultures of the other
+hemisphere, if we limit the latter to what we know of their history
+within the past two or three thousand odd years, and American
+civilization to the past fifteen hundred years. The matter is somewhat
+greater than that--just as man is somewhat greater than a fool of
+natural caprice.
+
+There is one point from which this question of American origins, at
+least of American place in human society and civilization, can be
+studied in its broader lines, even with what materials we have. It is
+that of language in general. All these other matters we have touched
+upon are necessary factors in the question of human evolution, and the
+position of America cannot be considered apart from them, and all of
+them. But Language touches both the glyphs directly and also all these
+other things, and is itself of surpassing interest and importance as a
+human study.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From one point of view Language is man himself, and it certainly is
+civilization. Without it man is not man, a Self-expressing and social
+being. It is, as von Humboldt laid down, not an act but an activity, or
+energy, not a thing done, but a doing. It is the constant effort of the
+conscious self to formulate thought. It is the use of the energy of
+creation, of objectivation, a veritable many-colored rainbow bridge
+between the inner or higher man and the outer or lower worlds. And it is
+not only the expression of Man as man, but in its varied forms it is the
+inevitable and living expression of each man or body of men at any and
+every point of time. Itself boundless as an ocean, it is in its infinite
+forms and streams and colors and sounds, the faithful and exact exponent
+both of the sources and channels by which it has come, and of the banks
+in which it is held, racial, national or individual. It is living or
+dead, forceful or weak, pure or foul, refreshing or flat, healing or
+poisonous. It limits us, but yields to our force. Every word or form
+comes to us with the thought impress of every man or nation that has
+used or molded it before us. We must take it as it comes, but we give it
+something of ourselves as we pass it on. If our intellectual and
+spiritual thought is aflame, whether as nation or individual, we may
+purify it, energize it, give it power to form and arrange the atoms
+around it--and we have a new literature, a new and beneficent, creative
+social vehicle of intercourse, mutual understanding, and human
+unification. Or if our mental or spiritual life is stale, and petty, or
+egoistic, or seeking for enjoyment only rather than action; if we have
+nothing in us to give the words and forms we use, but only some national
+force left to use and play with them, we for a while refine, and paint,
+and pettify, and elaborate into meaningless subtleties of form, every
+one of which in turn reacts upon our mental and spiritual life,
+distracting and enchaining us, until at last the nation and its
+language--die out; for neither can live without the other.
+
+Now it is evident that the criterion of the perfectness of any language
+is not to be found in a comparison of its forms or methods with those of
+any other, but in its fitness as a vehicle for the expression of deeper
+life, of the best and the greatest that is in those who use it, and
+above all in its ability to react and stimulate newer and yet greater
+mental and spiritual activity and expression. The force behind man,
+demanding expression through him, and him only, into the human life of
+all, is infinite--of necessity infinite. There is no limit, nor ever has
+been any limit, to what man may bring down into the dignifying,
+broadening and enriching of human life and evolution, save in his own
+ability to comprehend, express, and _live_ it. And the brightness and
+cleanness of the tools whereby he formulates his thought, as well as the
+worthiness and fitness of the substance and the forms into which he
+shapes it for others to see, are the essentials of his craft. For such
+is the economy of nature, which wastes nothing in reality, that a fit
+vehicle will be taken possession of by its own tenant; and the unfit
+left to and be taken by those who can use no better.
+
+Before, then, taking up the great formal classes into which language at
+large is usually divided, it will be necessary to say a few words as to
+the foundations of form itself in language, that we may then proceed to
+consider these classes from the standpoint of their inner meaning rather
+than solely of the outer form; and by seeking to understand the mental
+and spiritual equipment and life of those that used them, may perhaps in
+turn be better fitted finally to enter into the genius of their written
+and spoken languages, and to interpret through them in the detail more
+of the ideas which those forms were both fitted and used to express.
+Such a method is essential for the understanding of any language or
+culture, but it is absolutely necessary in the case of these non-Aryan
+tongues, so great is the distance both of time and thought which
+separates us from them. If we set out to compare the forms by which they
+expressed their thought with those within which we develop ours, or
+approach these cultures and peoples in the attitude of alien criticism,
+study their "interesting ways" through a mental lorgnette and impale
+their dead forms on the needles of our collection, we shall not only
+show ourselves less broad in culture than many of them, but we shall
+simply close and lock the doors of discrimination and understanding
+before us. The question is not, How do their forms and ways appeal to
+us? but, How did those forms, and ways, achieve their underlying
+objects, and what was the _thought_ behind them?
+
+Life is action, and without activity whatever powers lie within any
+conscious being are only potential. Activity is the bridge between the
+inner man and the outer world, by which he impresses his thought, in
+forms, on chaos or the atoms about him, receiving in return increased
+knowledge and experience of all he touches, and knowledge of himself
+through the results of his own actions; and it is the bridge between man
+and man. For this reason the verb, the word of action, is the most
+important and most developed part of speech. The three hypostases of
+life, as of language, are the self, activity, and the world; and it is
+for the expression of all the possible varied relations between these
+three, that all the forms of any language come into being. And from the
+way in which these forms are developed, and the relative importance
+which is given to this or that form of thought or activity, the
+character of the people, their grasp of nature, and their own conception
+of themselves and their relation to the world, can be seen.[49-*] Some
+languages have the strong impress of impersonality, without any loss of
+virility; others are strongly egotistic and self-assertive, with perhaps
+the braggart's lack of genuine strength. Each spoken language that we
+know has its own color and tone, to which our thought must respond, if
+we would know and use it well. To speak good Swedish, for instance,
+requires clear thinking to an exceptional degree. To show this, the form
+"come here," which is the ordinary English expression, is simply _bad
+grammar_ in Swedish; the use of "come _hither_" (_kom hit_, instead of
+_kom h�r_) is imperative. We have the "hither" in English, but it has
+become stilted, and the linguistic distinction lost. Compare also the
+use of _f�_, as a common auxiliary; nor are these exceptions, but, on
+the contrary, characteristic examples. Also to enunciate the language
+rightly one must hold the back and neck erect and the muscles firm.
+
+In some languages the speaker thinks of himself and his completed action
+as inseparable, as a single idea, as the Latin _edi_ for I have eaten;
+in others he thinks of himself subconsciously as possessing the results
+of his action, as our _I have eaten_; and in others, as among the Irish
+peasantry, he separates himself and his action entirely, as _I am after
+eating_. In some grammars, as in Maya, the verbal concept starts with
+the past; in others, as our own, we live in the present; in the Welsh,
+the future is the chief tense. The mere choice of _shall_ or _will_ as
+the first person future auxiliary denotes a specific mental quality.
+
+Now the expression of all these infinite shades of relationtionship[TN-5]
+between the self, the activity and the world, is achieved in two ways:
+position or placement--syntax; and form. The customary division of
+languages is into Monosyllabic, Agglutinative, Incorporating, and
+Inflectional, and this division will suit our purpose, though it must be
+used with care. It is held in the ordinary theory that these classes must
+represent successive stages of linguistic perfection, each in turn being
+higher in the scale than the other, they having grown one from the other
+as the race advanced. By the theory the monosyllabic is lower than the
+agglutinative, and inherently less useful. But the theory does not work
+out in practical application to the facts we have to deal with, for while
+we cannot find still left in the world any agglutinative languages
+representative of sufficient culture to bring into our present
+consideration, we do find a monosyllabic in the highest rank, and meeting
+the highest cultural requirements. In short, the latter may be
+theoretically the inferior tool, but the genius of thought behind is
+greater than the form. One man can draw a masterpiece with a burnt stick,
+another only paint a daub with all the brushes made. Once again we must
+not judge by our preconceived preferences of form.
+
+Omitting therefore the modern remnants of agglutinating languages,
+outside of America, as affording us no literary material of value for
+our study, we shall find at once drawn across all the other great
+classes a single broad line of division, between the ideographic and the
+literal--the same as already mentioned. And the moment we draw this line
+as an exponent of the mental and spiritual thought-life of the different
+peoples, we shall find it not only molding their language forms, both
+written and spoken, but manifest as well in their art, philosophy, and
+even their social polity. And of course we must be fair in our
+comparisons, and not set a Chinese coolie in the concrete against an
+English statesman, nor any concrete example of another kind of culture
+in its decay with the highest bloom to which we believe our own type to
+be able to carry us.
+
+It would be absurd to say that the ratiocinative, literal mind is higher
+than the ideal. One man sees directly the meaning of the things, the
+events and situations before him; another reasons it all out. And
+contrary to many of our current beliefs, the former is often the man of
+action; he sees at a flash to the heart of the matter, and gets things
+done. His thought, his activity, is vivid; and his words are likely to
+be so as well. The idealist, if he be broadminded, and not merely
+sentimental, is indeed likely to be the practical man. And the type of
+mind that is made manifest to us by these great non-Aryan languages and
+their forms, is the former. Of course idealism in its decadence becomes
+negative, inactive, self-consuming and no longer creative. But in its
+bloom the direct vision may be even more active, more practical, than
+are the reasoned processes.
+
+Much ink and paper has been spent over the question whether the Chinese
+hieroglyphs are ideograms or phonograms, whether the character
+[Illustration: Chinese character], for instance, conveys to those using it
+primarily the idea of Heaven, or the spoken word _T'ien_. It is
+necessarily both, in a sense; it would not be written language
+otherwise. And it is equally true that the letter-combination _Heaven_
+is in a way as much to us a picture of the idea as of the sound; but the
+difference of procedure is radical. The glyph is related to the idea
+directly, the spelled word only through the formal combination of
+symbols for single vocal speech-elements, meaningless when separate. The
+relation of spoken sound to glyph is wholly adventitious; the relation
+of the idea to the spelled word is equally adventitious. The ascent, if
+we so call it, of written speech from the ideographic to the alphabetic,
+is the descent of the thought further into material forms.[53-*] And
+while it may be (and in the course of universal evolution rightly so)
+necessary for our thought to descend into the bondage of matter and
+form, for its knowledge and experience, and for the development of
+matter and form into fitter vehicles of thought, nevertheless the
+process is a binding and for a time an enchaining one, and the thought
+is, for a time at least, likely to be lost in the confusion of forms.
+
+Thus we may lay down as our fundamental proposition that a hieroglyphic
+form of writing is better fitted to, and must properly, in the period of
+its natural development, accompany the imaginative processes of mind.
+Or, since imagination to our literal thought implies in some degree the
+fanciful (though wrongly so in essence), we might perhaps better say
+that that form of writing is the fit attendant and exponent of those
+functions of mind which cognize the inner meanings of the facts of life
+directly, rather than those which study them through the correlation of
+their phenomena. And also, that the development by any people of an
+alphabetic out of a hieroglyphic system, does not imply a greater
+advance in linguistic perfection on their part, but indicates a
+corresponding mental and inner change of attitude towards ideas and
+things, and a different conception of the self as related to them all.
+
+It is not at all necessary to assume that the knowledge gained by one
+method is deeper or more exact than the other. True science may exist as
+fully under one set of circumstances as the other. If we will take the
+type of the so-called most primitive form, the monosyllabic--the
+Chinese, we shall find all this evidenced in the clearest manner. To
+note but one illustration, a study of the scientific and philosophical
+ideas involved in and conveyed by the word _k'ung_, for Space, ether,
+the fundamental substratum of sound or vibration, as well as the
+"interetheric" central point of balance and power, will disclose an
+understanding that has nothing to fear from modern comparisons.
+
+And the very fact that Chinese has had to depend on placement of its
+monosyllables to express all the relations for which speech is called
+upon, instead of relying on changes of form, seems to have, and indeed
+has so stimulated the development of pure linguistic power that the
+language is actually as perfect and clear a medium of cultured and
+learned intercourse, as is the Sanskrit, the supreme type of the
+so-called most developed form, the inflectional. And by reason of its
+possession of the ideographic element it has a vividness which the
+Sanskrit has not. No language can be a highly developed one which does
+not provide in some way for the expression of all possible needed
+relations between the three fundamental postulates of life and
+activity--the self, the action and the world; and Chinese does this in
+spite of its monosyllabic structure by the development of its syntax of
+position. And it should be remembered further that Chinese syntax, in
+strict correspondence to the genius of the language, is not the same
+formal thing that syntax is with our inflectional tongues, but includes,
+or rather is primarily based on the _harmonic adjustment of the inherent
+basic ideas of or within the words_. The Chinese monosyllables are then
+not the naked separate things they are in the dictionary, but the whole
+phrase or sentence is on the contrary as much a unit as one of ours; and
+often more so.
+
+This integral unity of the whole sentence or expression, dominated by a
+perspective of ideas rather than of forms, which is achieved in Chinese
+by the elaboration of placement, is also characteristic of the structure
+of the languages of the American continent; but, these languages being
+polysyllabic, the vividness and unity are attained by a method described
+as Incorporation, whereby the accessories of relation are so included in
+or attached to the leading word that the whole expression assumes the
+form and sound of a single word. And a similar process takes place with
+the various elements of a compound sentence. So that although this one
+of the divisions of language approaches very closely to the Inflectional
+in its external forms, it yet has held to the vividness and essential
+characteristics of the ideographic method. And it is a point of the
+utmost importance for the decipherment of the Maya glyphs, to note as
+has been stated before, that their syntax of combination must follow
+that of the spoken language, which we know.
+
+There is one broad line of division marking all the languages and
+civilizations of the world--the line between the ideographic and the
+literal; it marks the use of hieroglyphic or of alphabetic writing, and
+it denotes a culture so widely different from ours, modes of thought so
+distinct, views of life and man's relation to it one might almost say so
+opposite to ours, as to point unmistakably to a most distant past, and a
+former world-culture probably as wide-spread in its day as is now
+ours--or more so. And it is one of the strangest and most remarkable of
+the phenomena we are considering, that the two divisions have overlapped
+each other in time to such a degree that whereas we have in Sanskrit,
+the most perfect type of Aryan, or inflectional languages, the oldest of
+them all; on the other hand we have in Chinese an equally perfect
+linguistic medium of the other type, kept alive into our own times.
+
+When we consider the development and status of the American
+civilizations which have been revealed to us, and especially when we
+have once opened our minds to the possibility that world-civilizations
+different in their time from ours in ours, may for all we know have
+existed and been blotted out ages ago, leaving linguistic traces, and
+perhaps perpetuating cultural remnants in a few parts of the earth, it
+is impossible not to recognize the breadth of the problem we are
+considering. All over the American continent at the time of the
+Discovery we see cultures and systems whose time had come. Back of most
+of the North and South American tribes we find the remains of mighty and
+utterly extinct civilizations--only their dim memory left. In the
+centers of higher culture from Mexico to Peru we see the ancient
+civilization brought further down to our own times; but there also, in
+process, all the incidents of break-up and an expiring greatness.
+Internecine strife, invasion from outside, changes of center, are all
+going on, and all marked by a _steady decrease_ in everything that means
+civilization. Of the ancient mathematical and astronomical knowledge a
+corner of which is revealed to us by the Maya glyph remains, only a
+distorted fragment appears in the Mexican, where also hieroglyphs have
+yielded to a cruder rebus-writing. The stately and incomparable
+compositions and architecture of Palenque, Copan and Quirigu� have
+yielded to the ball courts and local strifes of Chichen Itza--all this
+following the very course of changing historical succession preserved in
+the Chronicles. The later the date, the lower in every case the culture;
+this is impossible not to recognize, nor have we traces of any different
+course of events. Of course we see the rise of the Aztec nation, a small
+cycle, but like the Gothic upon the Roman, it comes at the end of the
+general American break-up--an incursion of barbarians settling on and
+preserving for us fragments of the culture that preceded them, just as
+has happened over and over again all over the world. And the same with
+the Incas in Peru. And yet even the Mexican culture demands our high
+respect, comparing favorably with European of the same period. Indeed it
+was actually far ahead of the latter in matters of education and many
+points of polity.
+
+But in spite of its seeming greatness, its heart and energy were gone,
+just as with Peru, and both yielded to what on the face seems a miracle,
+but was only the expression of that force which was preparing the
+American continent for a new race and civilization, still now only in
+its beginnings. The Mayan empire had already broken up. And even as we
+write, the archaeological history of the other hemisphere is being
+repeated here; on the heels of Manabi comes the Chimu Valley, and soon
+it will be with America as with Egypt--one will not be able to print an
+up-to-date work on its early history, for new discoveries will carry it
+back further, and to greater scope, before the previous ones can be
+edited and gotten to press. Compare the few pages of earliest Egypt in
+Sharpe's history, with Flinders Petrie's work of a decade or so ago, and
+that with the situation today.
+
+It is a simple fact that decipherment and publication all over the world
+can no longer keep pace with discovery; and the time has come for
+archaeology to begin to survey these remnants, engineering works that
+would tax any modern nation with all our appliances, vast ruined
+cities, one above the other, innumerable languages and writings, the
+traces of peoples whose very names are lost to history--as a whole, and
+to ask itself how long it must have taken for all these works to be
+accomplished, let alone for the birth and decay of the civilizations
+that supported them, and gave environment for the development of such
+technical skill as could finish the enormous bulk of the Great Pyramid
+with an accuracy beyond the fineness of our best instruments to measure.
+For not only mere bulk is to be considered--though there is enough of
+that scattered over the earth to keep all the possible available
+craftsmen of the world a wholly incommensurate time achieving them, but
+the ability to conceive and carry out such works. What _sort_ of people
+leveled Monte Alban for its crown of pyramids, dreamed and executed the
+stucco modelings of Palenque, built the temple of Boro Budur in Java,
+cut the Bamian statues of the Hind� Kush, and so on, and so on, for page
+after page? If they had such appliances as we have, they must be ranked
+at least in our class for having them; if they did them without our
+great engines, what sort of men were they? And if they could do these
+things without our appliances, is it not a fair inference that they
+could easily have made the tools, or others better perhaps?
+
+One fact is becoming more prominent with every advance of archaeology
+over the world, a fact of the greatest linguistic interest, namely that
+ancient civilizations and empires, as a whole, _lasted longer_ than ours
+of today. Consider how many different and successive empires Europe has
+had in the last 2000 odd years, _our_ history; and how long each of our
+cultures has lasted. All of them put together would go into one of these
+older periods, and have plenty to spare. Passing over what may be the
+real meaning and bearing of this fact on the problem of universal
+history and human evolution, and the position of our race today, the
+linguistic considerations which follow are most interesting.
+
+If the fundamental thesis of language as a human activity is its direct
+correspondence to and expression of all the inner motives and forces of
+the users, we have here a key to the survival to our day, an unknown
+period past its own time, of the Chinese type.
+
+Of the development, modification and decay of languages we have ample
+material in our own times for study, the periods over which the
+modifying forces operate being an equal measure of the periods of
+national activity and change. And, what is perhaps not always
+sufficiently recognized, we have an elaboration of the formal elements
+going on under very different impulses, at different periods of the life
+of the language. The time has come in the history of a people for it to
+play a greater part on the world's stage: some danger has threatened the
+national life and aroused its energies, or other causes have worked to
+quicken the mental and spiritual life; an Elizabethan era is ushered in,
+frequently by a forerunner, a Chaucer, and the language responds, its
+forms develop and are perfected. Or else some fitting or amalgamating
+force comes in from outside, the life of the people is widened, new
+blood enters in every sense, and the forms of the language respond. Or
+perhaps, when they may seem to have come to the tether end of things,
+and men's minds turn back to older, even prehistoric times, seeds long
+buried and forgotten in the nature spring up, and a true national
+Renaissance follows. In these cases the change and elaboration of forms
+is a symptom of new life; the vehicle is being molded and expanded to
+fit the growing thought.
+
+But it is not always so. There comes a time when the outgoing force, the
+activity of life, wanes and, after a greater or less period of settled
+conditions, a period of proper use and government of the regions
+occupied, a change sets in. And then we may have again the wholly
+deceptive phenomenon of linguistic amplification; but it is the false
+activity of decay. The energy has turned in and begun to feed upon
+itself. The national impulse has changed from achievement to
+gratification, more and more sources are drawn upon to minister to its
+enjoyment, and that enjoyment becomes an art; forms of every kind are
+subtly refined in its service, and linguistic forms with them. And this
+is then the very period when all these material, formal elements are
+pointed to with pride as the evidence of culture and progress. The
+thought-life of the nation has lost itself in the conflict and
+confusion, in the distractions of the forms into which it has molded the
+matter its creative force had entered.
+
+We have thus in nations and languages, as in individuals, the phenomena
+of birth, growth, use, and a quick or a slow death, all marked by
+various degrees and signs of health or disease, and _every one at root a
+moral question_. These are the facts of general average, quite
+corresponding to those that form the bases for life insurance tables.
+But, as with these latter, not only are there variations for
+inheritance, class, locality, and so on, but there are here and there
+cases of out and out exception--which from all we can see must be
+assigned to some external force in operation on the individual. We call
+them "freak" occurrences, only because we cannot see the wider law or
+causes at work. When we meet them in sufficient numbers, we make new
+tables to cover them as far as we can, again in general only. Other
+causes still elude us, though they must have a fountain somewhere.
+
+We have, as great exceptions to our general averages, two opposite
+phenomena. One is the sudden inexplicable and dazzling rise on the
+world's stage of a totally insignificant people, the other the seeming
+arrest for long periods of time of the normal processes of even
+incipient decay. And touching the latter point, it is strange indeed
+that in two such widely different cultures as those of Iceland and China
+we should find the same law apparently at work; the periods are vastly
+unlike in actual, but not so in relative duration. We have no way of
+properly placing the maintenance of Icelandic and Chinese as they have
+been other than by simply laying down the existence of what we may call
+a Law of Retardation, whose ultimate causes we cannot fathom or
+classify, but which will stand as an opposite phase of the Law of
+Stimulation, which is more frequent in operation, but is equally
+unexplained.
+
+If we will now regard the languages and cultures of the world, we will
+find all the phases of linguistic and cultural activity, operative with
+about the same degree of rapidity, all over both hemispheres, save in
+places protected by our Law of Retardation. We will find the rate of
+changes and successions generally far less rapid the farther back in
+time we go; and finally we will find a special and marked acceleration
+on both sides of the Atlantic during the last thousand years, all
+incident to the placing of a new race in America.
+
+So for the facts as we find them. They point to the descent of past
+American civilizations from a past period of continental, or far more
+probably, of world-wide extent. For who can imagine that people great
+enough to build as these did, should not also have navigated? Why should
+we assume in the face of other experiences, that Maya dates and
+calculations mean nothing, except on the general principle that they did
+not know as much as we do, and were doubtless liars? Bailly proved over
+a hundred years ago that Hind� exact astronomical observations must date
+back at least 5000 years, and that they were in possession of minutely
+accurate tables[61-*] long before Europe was. And the rotundity of the
+earth was certainly known both to them and the other great nations of
+antiquity.
+
+Archaeology is today pushing back the dates of fixed and acknowledged
+history almost to the date given by the Egyptians to Solon for the
+submersion of the great Atlantean island; and if we can but read the
+Maya glyphs, and open _that_ door, another twenty years from now may
+show us beyond all possible dispute evidences in every part of the earth
+belt of a contemporaneous culture, different from and precedent to the
+Aryan.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have so far in this monograph, based upon and having to do as it has
+with the Maya glyphs, their interpretation and their place in the
+linguistic field, limited myself to an analysis and consideration of the
+facts presented to us by those linguistic and cultural data we have
+actually before us. But there is one further problem which is suggested
+by it all. It is this: Where, in point of time and place, is the change
+in the world's linguistic and cultural life from ideographic to literal
+to be sought for, and what is its rationale? Separated from us by such
+an enormous period of time as it is, I still cannot believe that some
+view of it cannot be had. There are various facts of Old World history
+and language, partly of prehistoric Europe, partly of Asia, an analysis
+of which would extend this paper too far into other fields; but apart
+entirely from the question of myths or traditions, there are various
+actual observed phenomena both of language and writing, especially in
+Central Asia, which do not fit into any of the ordinary theories, and
+which do suggest this, as a simple linguistic conclusion. In point of
+locality, at least, the conclusion agrees with the usual "Aryan home"
+theory; but as far as concerns this latter it must be remembered that
+however fully it demonstrates the unity of the Aryan race, beyond that
+fact all questions of dates and even of the state of civilization at the
+time, are not matters of history as yet for us, but only of theory--as
+to which our present "perspective" may be once more as faulty as it has
+often been heretofore.[62-*]
+
+I believe that this center of transition lay somewhere in Central Asia,
+to the north of the great Him�layan range. That this region was a sort
+of alembic, a melting-pot (as America is today) for various peoples of
+an ancient world-wide culture, as broad at least in its scope as the
+term Aryan is today. That this culture displayed the ideographic traits
+we have discussed, and that it has left more or less definite traces at
+different places in the world. That it covered the two Americas, in
+whatever continental form they may then have existed, leaving us there
+"les d�bris �chapp�s � un naufrage commun." That coincident with a new
+and universal world-epoch, as wide in its cultural scope as the
+difference between the ideographic and literal, there was finally formed
+a totally new vehicle for the use of human thought, the inflectional,
+literal, alphabetic. That this vehicle was perfected into some great
+speech, the direct ancestor of Sanskrit, into the _forms_ of which were
+concentrated all the old power of the ancient hieroglyphs and their
+underlying concepts. For Sanskrit, while the oldest is also the
+mightiest of Aryan grammars; and no one who has studied its forms, or
+heard its speech from educated native mouths, can call it anything but
+concentrated spiritual power. That the force which went on the one hand
+into the Sanskrit forms, was on the other perpetuated on into the
+special genius of Chinese, in which, as we know it, we have a retarded
+survival, not of course of outer form so much as of method and essence.
+And in Tibetan, in spite of all that is said to the contrary, I suspect
+that we have a derivative, not from either Chinese or Sanskrit as we
+know them, but by a medial line from a common point.[63-*] Of course
+the time for such changes must have been enormous; but whatever it was,
+it was no greater in its realm as time, than were the mental differences
+in theirs. And they both are equally human data.
+
+Certain other facts point to the American or Atlantic source and center
+of this ancient epoch. They are briefly that all around the
+Mediterranean basin we find traces of a vanished culture, unknown to our
+history, and living only in tradition and some archaeological remains.
+And of this culture various investigators, each approaching it from his
+particular favorite locality, have constructed for us as many different
+"Empires," by theories each supported by various details of analogies.
+One calls them Tartars, another Hittites, another Pelasgians, and so on.
+And all of them, in each of the theories, have as a fact a great many
+unexplained characteristics, different from those of our historical
+nations. Some of these characteristics, most markedly the Basque, but
+also not a few at greater distance, have definite American similarities.
+It might not be a far guess that these fragments represent an eastward
+movement, which later in the history of the Aryan development met and
+was pushed back westward again by the fully formed and dominant Aryan
+race from its Central Asian center. This is the future province of
+Archaeology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And I am convinced that the widest door there is to be opened to this
+past of the human race, is that of the Maya glyphs. The narrow
+limitations of our mental horizon as to the greatness and dignity of
+man, of his past, and of human evolution, were set back widely by Egypt
+and what she has had to show, and again by the Sanskrit; but the walls
+are still there, and advances, however rapid, are but gradual. With the
+reading of America I believe the walls themselves will fall, and a new
+conception of past history will come.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41-*] See _Memoranda on the Chilam Balam Calendars_, C. P. Bowditch,
+1901. The obscurities of the Chronicles render the questions connected
+with Ahpula's death exceedingly difficult. For instance, the immediate
+context in the books of Mani and Tizimin make the date 1536, as given in
+numerals, an impossible one. But, if the date as given in _Maya terms_
+is to be accepted at all (and it certainly is too specific to be
+rejected), then by the long count such a date _must_ have been either
+1502, 5350, or 12,786 years after the date of Stela 9, Copan. Mr.
+Bowditch favors the lower figure, chiefly because it is the lower, and
+thus puts Stela 9 at A. D. 34. To get this date the longest possible
+distance from Ahpula's death to the end of the katun must be used--that
+is, "6 tuns short" must be taken to mean "almost 7 tuns short." I can
+only say here that if, in correcting the figures 1536, as demanded by
+the immediate context, we make the simplest possible correction, and put
+them one katun earlier, 1516, and then take as the unexpired time to the
+end of the katun the shortest of the three terms given as possible, or 5
+tuns 139 days, bringing the end of Katun 13-Ahau on Jan. 28, 1522, we
+not only bring the end of Katun 11-Ahau within the year 1541, as is most
+positively stated by the practically contemporary Pech Chronicle, but we
+also bring in line nearly all the important events of the Chronicles,
+from the fall of Mayapan, ca. 1450, the coming of the Spaniards, and the
+smallpox, in 11-Ahau (1521 to 1541), the conversion to Christianity in
+9-Ahau, down to Landa's death (1579) in 7-Ahau; as well as many outside
+references. Any other combination requires harsher emendations somewhere
+else. But the above choice of the term of 5 tuns 139 days, thus
+seemingly called for, means that Stela 9 at Copan is dated, by the long
+count, 5350 years before Ahpula's death, or B. C. 3824. Whether this is
+right, is a question for the future.
+
+[42-*] "In ethnology however one troubles oneself little with the detail
+of linguistic structure. It is held quite sufficient to gather from
+different peoples and collate a couple of hundred vocables, into whose
+actual nature all insight is lacking, and then upon dubious, often
+purely superficial and apparent similarities, to deduce linguistic
+affinities. Or else, as is now most in fashion, the claims of linguistic
+research towards the solution of ethnological questions are reduced to a
+'most modest share' in comparison with other fields 'somewhat more in
+line with natural sciences'--meanwhile pointing for justification to the
+absurdities set forth as the results of too far-fetched linguistic
+deductions.... The errors and sophistries charged against ethnological
+linguistics are rather an accidental result of the individuality of
+single investigators, than essential to the subject. They are at least
+scarcely greater than those to the credit of recent Anthropometry. A
+brief glance at the strange changes of opinion in the latter field
+during the last three decades, in spite of all its boasted figures,
+shows how little ground it has to throw stones. Serious students, such
+as Wallace and Dall, whose critical ability in Zoomorphology no one can
+deny, and who do not rest content with a few skulls of doubtful
+_provenance_, gathered � la Hagenbeck, have come to a wholly negative
+view of the value of Craniometry."--Dr. Otto Stoll, _Maya-Sprachen der
+Pokom-Gruppe_, I, vii, ix.
+
+[43-*] Our present day speculators never seem to think for a moment that
+these things may conceal, _and thereby preserve_, some real meaning, or
+be more than nonsense. The theory of mythological interpretation pushed
+to such extremes as in the "animistic" _explanations_ of Weber,
+Keightley, and others, and not absent from the writings of some
+Americanists (namely, that it was all nothing but ridiculous or
+concocted fancy, taken soberly) is bad enough, and argues little breadth
+or insight, when applied to the myths of a single people, considered
+alone. Applied to comparative mythology, in the state of things today,
+it is simply impossible. The plain fact is, that such identities as
+these must indicate one of two things: a common tradition, locally
+modified by circumstances; or a _fact in nature_ or _history_,
+symbolically expressed in different ways according to the times and
+modes. And it most probably indicates both of these. It is indeed hard
+to account for the extent, and the weight given to some of these
+"myths," now that we are coming to a better appreciation of the scope
+and greatness of ancient civilizations--everywhere--except they do
+correspond to actual _facts_ in nature and history. And it might be
+worth our while to get at some of these.
+
+[45-*] We might just as well acknowledge, once for all, that in spite of
+its present-day currency in England and America, and its pre-emption of
+the field of "science for the people," the theory of man's physical and
+mental descent from the anthropoids, is not only _not proved_, but is
+vehemently denied by an equally able and scientific, and withal more
+logical, body of researchers than those who form its supporters. To
+_fabricate_ a missing link in a chain (or even, as with Haeckel, several
+links), whose only authority is acknowledged to be its necessity in
+order to complete the evidence for the theory, and then to declare the
+theory proved because the fabricated link fits perfectly the gap it was
+created for, is equally vicious scientifically whether the fabrication
+be the work of a physicist of renown or a linguistic theorizer. Let it
+simply be agreed, as it now is by all science, that the _evolution of
+form_ is a universal and well evidenced principle, working out through
+the various well established and comprehensible incidents, such as
+natural selection, adaptation to environment, and so on--yet this
+statement of the fact is not an explanation of its cause. And every
+scientific and logical requirement will be equally, and better, met by
+regarding all forms, whether physical, linguistic, or of any kind, as
+coming, or rather brought, into being by the force of a consciousness
+which needs them as the vehicles of its expanding activity. That this is
+absolutely true in language, anybody can see. That it is true in every
+department of daily life about us, everybody _does_ see. That it should
+be equally true in biology and physics, would not affect the standing or
+verity of a single _observed_ fact.
+
+There was, along about the beginning of the Christian era, and for some
+time before and after, a very curious movement, which seemed to spread
+itself over nearly the entire world, east and west. It is told of the
+early Aztecs that "they destroyed the records of their predecessors, in
+order to increase their own prestige." It is related that writing once
+existed in Peru, but was entirely wiped out, and the Inca records
+committed to quipus alone. The "burning of the books" under Tsin Chi
+Hwangti in B. C. 213 sought to do the same for China. The times of Akbar
+witnessed much of the same in India. And in Europe almost nothing was
+left to tell the tale of the great pre-Christian eastern empires and
+systems of thought; so that from the establishment of State Christianity
+under Constantine, and the final settlement of the Canon at the Council
+of Nicaea, an impenetrable veil was drawn over the achievements and
+greatness of the Past, and all connexion therewith broken off. It was
+some time after this that we find the heliocentric theory, as well as
+that of other habitable worlds, denied (in Europe), because "it would
+deprive the Earth of its unique and central eminence." Just as we also
+today are served up with prehistoric savage and animal ancestors, to the
+greater glory of our own present-day magnificence. But it really is in
+sober truth only a question of mental perspective which does not affect
+the facts of history, biology, archaeology or language in the least. It
+is only a question of which end of the telescope we look through.
+
+[49-*] It is exceedingly interesting to trace the course of criticism
+since the appearance of Wilhelm von Humboldt's great work, _Ueber die
+Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die
+geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts_ (Berlin, 1836). Dr.
+Brinton gave it most unqualified approval; (see especially his monograph
+read before the American Philosophical Society in 1885, and printed the
+same year). Prof. H. Steinthal (_Grammatik, Logik und Psychologie_,
+1855) calls the subject of "inner form" the most important one in
+linguistic science, and von Humboldt's treatment of it his greatest
+contribution to that science. And so on. But the work has nevertheless
+received little attention from a large number of writers, most of them
+declaring it "unclear." These two views, when one studies the various
+writers, seem to follow closely upon the standpoints from which each
+approaches the study. Those who study language (perhaps one should here
+say, languages) as a phenomenon, a set of external forms, an act, a
+thing done, get little use out of von Humboldt's work. Those who see it
+as a human "activity," an energy, get much. This is quite apparent in
+one of the clearest and ablest linguistic works which has recently
+appeared, Dr. Adolf Noreen's _V�rt Spr�k_ (in 9 vols., still in course
+of publication, Lund, 1903 and later), a work of far wider linguistic
+value than appears from its title. Dr. Noreen, however, dismisses von
+Humboldt's work, and the subject of "inner form," with a few pages, and
+the results are apparent in several interesting points. In the first
+place, in the course of an acute and critical analysis, wherein he shows
+that the purpose of speech is not simply _expression_ of thoughts or
+ideas, but the communication to some other person of the _knowledge_ of
+the ideas so held by the speaker, he goes on to say: "the same knowledge
+of A's wishes could be as well communicated by his saying 'I want you to
+come' as by his saying just 'Come.'" This is quite true; but the
+_energic_ effect is quite different. Language is the bridge from man to
+man, and it is also a _creative activity_ of man. Of course Dr. Noreen,
+in a later volume, where he most lucidly analyses the terms 'words,'
+'forms,' and 'concepts,' etc. (_ord_, _morfem_, _semem_, etc.), and
+corrects many errors of definition made by his predecessors,
+acknowledges the difference between the two forms; still his whole
+admirable work, analytical and critical as it is, is devoted to this
+phase of language as a mere phenomenon, a set of forms which serve as a
+medium of communication. From this standpoint, we know all there is to
+know about language when we have classified its forms. But from the
+other, the study is ever leading us into the regions and depths of man's
+consciousness, his creative activity as it goes out to the world; and
+the true definition of language, from this position, "can hence only be
+a genetic one." (von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, VI, 42)
+
+It is further not unworthy of note that, except where directly required
+in treating of verbal categories, nearly all of the enormous number of
+illustrations which Dr. Noreen chooses for his points, are _nouns_,
+names of _things_, and vary rarely verbal forms, words of action and
+_doing_. But it is simply a fact that all the _potency_ of language is
+in the verb, and almost all there is of language, in a philosophic
+sense, lies there. The verb is the bridge of communication and action
+_upon_ external things, just as is language itself, going out of man.
+And it is also noteworthy that the recognition of this position of the
+verb, together with these other matters of which we are speaking, seems
+nearer at hand and clearer to those students who are led beyond Aryan
+languages to the study of American and Asiatic, especially Central and
+Northern Asiatic. For instance, G. v. d. Gabelentz, _Die
+Sprachwissenschaft_, and other works.
+
+[53-*] It was not until after this paper was already in type that my
+attention was directed to the complete agreement of this and the
+succeeding sentences with the following passage in _The Secret Doctrine_,
+by H. P. Blavatsky, London, 1888, vol. II, page 199. After saying that
+some of the Atlantean races spoke the agglutinative languages, the
+passage continues: "While the 'cream' of the Fourth Race _gravitated_
+more and more toward the apex of physical and intellectual evolution,
+_thus_ leaving as an heirloom to the nascent Fifth (the Aryan) Race the
+inflectional, highly developed languages, the agglutinative decayed and
+remained as a fragmentary fossil idiom, scattered now, and nearly limited
+to the aboriginal tribes of America." Note the words I have italicized,
+marking the evolution of the "inflectional" languages as an attendant
+phenomenon on physico-intellectual evolution, compare the passage with
+von Humboldt's thesis, already quoted, that the incorporative quality
+denotes an exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative processes
+of mind in its users, and further with the surviving genius of Chinese,
+the type of monosyllabic languages, and the agreement is evident. Von
+Humboldt, however, did not carry out so fully the archaeological results,
+for which indeed the materials were in his day still lacking. See also
+other passages in _The Secret Doctrine_.
+
+[61-*] _Trait� de l'Astronomie Indienne et Orientale_, Disc. Pr�l. et
+seq.
+
+[62-*] The suggestion above is linguistic, and in that phase is given as
+a corollary to the foregoing discussion; but, as stated, it is at the
+same time in accord with the "Aryan" theory in its essentials (though
+not in its hypothetical and ultra-historical speculations), and it also
+finds confirmation by various passages in _The Secret Doctrine_, by H.
+P. Blavatsky, as already quoted. "The traces of an immense civilization,
+even in Central Asia, are still to be found. This civilization is
+undeniably _prehistoric_.... The Eastern and Central portions of those
+regions--the Nan-Shan and the Altyn-Tagh--were once upon a time covered
+with cities that could well vie with Babylon. A whole geological period
+has swept over the land, since those cities breathed their last, as the
+mounds of shifting sand, and the sterile and now dead soil of the
+immense central plains of the basin of Tarim testify.... In the oasis of
+Cherchen some 300 human beings represent the relics of about a hundred
+extinct nations and races--the very names of which are now unknown to
+our ethnologists." (Vol. I, page xxxii et seq.) See also Col.
+Prjevalsky's _Travels_. Why should it not be so? The above was written
+in 1888, but the evidences are growing every day, and it will be against
+all archaeological precedent if far-reaching results do not follow from
+Dr. Stein's _small_ find, and from Capt. d'Ollone's recent researches
+among the Lolos, and the securing by him, as we are informed, of the
+long-sought knowledge of their hieroglyphic system.
+
+[63-*] The study of Tibetan has so far been approached almost
+exclusively from the south, that is by those already familiar with
+Sanskrit and P�li. To this fact, as well as to the overwhelming
+influence exercised on literary Tibetan by the Buddhist propaganda, is
+due the difficulty one meets in any study of its origins. The traces,
+however, do nevertheless exist. Some interesting facts concerning both
+Chinese and Tibetan, which seem to be entirely omitted in such later
+standard works as those of Summers, Wade, and Giles, are to be found in
+the almost forgotten _Chinese Grammar_ of Dr. Marshman, Serampore, 1814.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+       Page Error
+  TN-1  20  two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph] should  have a . at
+            the end
+  TN-2  25  above the the should read above the
+  TN-3  34  Muluc Ix, Cauac should read Muluc, Ix, Cauac
+  TN-4  38  Cimi forms: [Hieroglyphs] should have a . at the end
+  TN-5  51  relationtionship should read relationship
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez
+Codex, by William E. Gates
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex, by William E. Gates.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex, by 
+William E. Gates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex
+       with a Concluding Note Upon the Linguistic Problem of the Maya Glyphs
+
+Author: William E. Gates
+
+Release Date: June 22, 2008 [EBook #25878]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAYA-TZENTAL PEREZ CODEX ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber&#8217;s Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained
+in the current version of this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins>
+and the corrected text is shown in the popup. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of these
+errors is found at the end of this book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following less-common characters are used in this ebook. If they do not
+display properly, please try changing your font.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">&#337;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DOUBLE ACUTE<br />
+&#346;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH ACUTE</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tpbig"><b>PAPERS</b></p>
+
+<p class="tpsm">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed">PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
+AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed"><span class="smcap">VOL. VI.&mdash;No. 1</span></p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p class="tpbig">COMMENTARY<br />
+
+<span class="tpmed">UPON THE MAYA-TZENTAL</span><br />
+
+<span class="tpbig">PEREZ CODEX</span></p>
+
+<p class="tpsm">WITH A CONCLUDING NOTE UPON THE<br />
+LINGUISTIC PROBLEM OF THE MAYA GLYPHS</p>
+
+<p class="tpsm" style="margin-top: 2em;">BY</p>
+
+<p class="tpmed">WILLIAM E. GATES</p>
+
+<p class="tpsm">PROFESSOR IN SCHOOL OF ANTIQUITY, INTERNATIONAL THEOSOPHICAL<br />
+HEADQUARTERS, POINT LOMA, CALIFORNIA</p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p class="tpsm"><span class="smcap">Cambridge, Mass.<br />
+Published by the Museum<br />
+November, 1910</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/illus-p02.png" width="150" height="110" alt="" title="Decorative" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="tpsm"><span class="smcap">The Aryan Theosophical Press<br />
+Point Loma, California</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="NOTE" id="NOTE"></a>NOTE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> presenting this Commentary on the Codex Perez to students of American
+Archaeology, the Peabody Museum adds another paper to its series
+relating to the study of the hieroglyphic writing of the ancient peoples
+of Mexico and Central America.</p>
+
+<p>The Museum is fortunate in adding to its collaborators Mr. William E.
+Gates, of Point Loma, California, who for more than ten years has been
+an earnest student of American hieroglyphs. From his lifelong studies in
+linguistics in connection with his research in &#8220;the motifs of
+civilizations and cultures,&#8221; he comes well-equipped to take up the
+difficult and all-absorbing study of American hieroglyphic writing. Mr.
+Gates has materially advanced this study by his reproduction of the
+glyphs in type. These type-forms he has used first in his reproduction
+of the Codex Perez, and now in this Commentary they are used for the
+first time in printing. The method used in the construction of this font
+of type is explained by Mr. Gates in the following pages. This important
+aid to the study will be highly appreciated by all students of American
+hieroglyphs, as it will greatly facilitate the presentation of the
+results of future research.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that this Commentary is more in the line of suggestion
+to be expanded after further studies, than in the way of conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the paper the author presents the general deductions he
+has drawn from his comparative study of languages and cultures. His
+concluding paragraph forcibly presents the hope that the understanding
+of the Maya glyphs will furnish new and important data in the life
+history of man.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">F. W. Putnam</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Peabody Museum</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">October, 1910</span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;">
+<a href="images/fig01-full.png"><img src="images/fig01.png" width="218" height="400" alt="A page from the codex" title="PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 6" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 6</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 219px;">
+<a href="images/fig02-full.png"><img src="images/fig02.png" width="219" height="377" alt="A page from the codex" title="PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 17" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 17</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="THE_PEREZ_CODEX" id="THE_PEREZ_CODEX"></a>THE PEREZ CODEX</h2>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Perez Codex</span> was discovered just fifty years ago by Prof. L&eacute;on de
+Rosny, while searching through the Biblioth&egrave;que Imp&eacute;riale, Paris, in the
+hope of bringing to light some documents of interest for the then newly
+awakened study of Pre-Columbian America. It was found by him in a basket
+among a lot of old papers, black with dust and practically abandoned in
+a chimney corner. From a few words with the name Perez, written on a
+torn scrap of paper then around it but since lost, it received its name.</p>
+
+<p>Being restored to its proper place in the Library, it was in 1864
+photographed by order of M. Victor Duruy, Minister of Instruction, and a
+few copies issued without further explanatory notes than the printed
+wrappers. The number of copies is stated by Prof. de Rosny to have been
+very small; in Leclerc&#8217;s <i>Bibl. Am&eacute;r.</i> (1878, No. 2290) it is given as
+only 10, and in Brasseur&#8217;s <i>Bibl. Mex.-Guat.</i> (page 95), as 50. A copy
+is in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, and referred
+to in their publications as a most fortunate acquisition. I had the good
+fortune to secure a copy some ten years ago, and one other has recently
+appeared in a Leipzig catalog at a high price. Beyond these I have not
+traced any other copy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 Prof. de Rosny published a reproduction, drawn by hand, which,
+as stated by him later, may be disregarded for practical purposes.<a name="FNanchor_7-1_1" id="FNanchor_7-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-1_1" class="fnanchor">7-*</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>In 1887 he issued a facsimile edition in colors, 85 copies, which up to
+the present time has remained the only attempt to show the Codex in its
+proper colors, and has become exceedingly difficult to procure; so much
+so that it was only after seven years search that I was able to secure
+my own copy.<a name="FNanchor_8-1_2" id="FNanchor_8-1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-1_2" class="fnanchor">8-*</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1888 he reissued the Codex, uncolored, with the same letter-press,
+and in an edition of 100 copies. This has also become scarce.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these three editions has its advantages and disadvantages. The
+colored edition of 1887, having been worked over by hand, in
+lithography, is defective in various places, both as regards the black
+of the figures and glyphs, and in the colors. Coloring exists on the
+original codex which was not reproduced at all in the edition, and the
+colors given are in many cases not exact. Thus on pages 19 and 20 two
+different reds are used for the backgrounds, whereas but one is found in
+the original; on pages 15, 16 the figures are a turquoise green, and on
+pages 17, 18 an olive green, the correct color for all four being
+turquoise green.</p>
+
+<p>I have been able to find no inaccuracy in the 1888 edition, which is
+indeed stated in the introduction to be entirely by mechanical process,
+without hand intervention; but being reproduced by printer&#8217;s ink in
+black only, not only do the colors not appear, but the chromatic values
+are actually far inferior to the photographs of 1864. It was stated
+further by Prof. de Rosny that some features of the MS. had been lost by
+deterioration in the 25 years previous to his editions of 1887 and 1888,
+but this I have not been able to verify in any important point.</p>
+
+<p>The photographs and the edition of 1888 are to all general purposes
+identical; but, notwithstanding that the photographs are steadily
+yellowing by age, the chromatic values are so far superior that I have
+continually come to find them the court of final decision in doubtful
+matters. In a very considerable number of instances a close examination
+of the photographs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>has suggested the presence of faint lines of color
+on glyphs or figures, which was entirely indistinguishable in both of
+the printed editions, and which was yet in every case confirmed,
+although sometimes with difficulty, by the examination of the original
+MS.</p>
+
+<p>The proved value, as well as the scarcity, of these photographs was so
+great, that in 1905 I had my set photographed twice, by dry and wet
+plate processes, and a few copies printed after a careful comparison and
+selection of the two sets of plates. It is from these that the present
+edition has grown.<a name="FNanchor_9-1_3" id="FNanchor_9-1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_9-1_3" class="fnanchor">9-*</a></p>
+
+<p>The present edition, save for the photographs thus reproduced, having
+been entirely redrawn, and partly restored, it is fitting to detail just
+what has been done in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>At the very beginning of my introduction to Maya studies the enormous
+burdens placed on research therein at every turn, bore upon me as upon
+every other student. The subject and its possibilities stimulate
+enthusiasm to the highest degree; the rewards of success are greater
+than those of any like problem today; and yet, fifty years since the
+present Codex was discovered, and thirty years since Dr. F&ouml;rstemann&#8217;s
+unsurpassable edition of the Dresden Codex, the actual workers on the
+problem are the barest handful. A few scattered and obscure references
+amongst the volumes on volumes of Spanish writers, nearly all
+untranslated, most of them scarce or almost unprocurable, and many not
+even printed, make up the literature to be searched out. And a few
+points of decipherment won and safely fixed by the researchers, from
+Brasseur, de Rosny, Pousse, Brinton and others a generation ago, to
+Messrs. Bowditch, Seler, Goodman and a few others of today, are all we
+have&mdash;standing out in a wilderness of guesses by many writers, needless
+of naming.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>Of course the prime and absolute necessity of such a study is true
+facsimiles; but the task of using even these, taken as they must be from
+much defaced inscriptions and manuscripts, is too obvious for comment.
+So from the very first of my studies I began to cherish thoughts of the
+day when Maya could be printed with type, and classified indexes to the
+glyphs at hand. From one point of view such facilities can only be
+expected to come <i>after</i> decipherment; from another, in absence of
+bilingual keys, they are a necessity <i>before</i> that can be attained. So
+far as his work covers, a great deal has been done in this line by Mr.
+A. P. Maudslay in the field of the inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>At the very outset therefore I must enter acknowledgment of the
+assistance that I owe to the courtesy at that time of Prof. F. W.
+Putnam, of Peabody Museum, and Mr. Chas. P. Bowditch, in placing, with a
+freedom by no means universal among curators and researchers, their
+material at my disposal, with privilege of copying. I am safe to say
+that while I have reclassified the glyphs for my own use as my studies
+went on, yet without the copy which by Mr. Bowditch&#8217;s courtesy I was
+allowed to make of his card index to the glyphs of the three codices, as
+a start, this edition of the Perez Codex would not yet have reached
+daylight through the many other occupations among which Maya studies
+have had to take their chances.</p>
+
+<p>At first it seemed possible to prepare a font of separate types for the
+various elements of the compound glyphs we find in the texts; but after
+having such a font made a number of years ago, and printing a couple of
+pages of the Dresden Codex, the result was unsatisfactory; it became
+evident that the proper Maya font of type must be both separate and
+composite, as is used in Chinese, and not separate only as we have for
+Egyptian. The type for the text cards of this edition have therefore
+been made this way.</p>
+
+<p>As to the colored plates of the Codex herewith, it is evident that
+nothing whatever is gained by preserving the irregularities of the
+defaced parts of the Codex, while everything is to be gained by making
+all as clear and distinct as possible. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>first step therefore was to
+have a set of photographed enlargements of two diameters, made direct
+from the 1864 issue. From these I made careful tracings, myself, of the
+black figure and glyph lines of the original, making at the same time
+the separate enlarged drawings from which the type were afterwards made.
+At this first drawing only the evident, the indisputable parts were
+drawn. The type forms were then classified, arranged in parallel
+columns, and compared. All was then gone over, and new points settled on
+the basis of the familiarity thus gained. It is a fair estimate to say
+that this process of checking and verifying was gone through, first to
+last, down to the final proof-reading of the printed sheets, some fifty
+times.</p>
+
+<p>One most important fact was established by this process, and must be
+noted. In the Perez Codex at least, <i>nothing is to be taken for
+granted</i>, nothing charged to a careless scribe, and no variants regarded
+as being identical in value&mdash;with a very few exceptions, to which I
+shall advert later. Wherever there remains enough of any glyph to show
+its characteristic strokes, it can be regarded as safely indicated;
+whenever the strokes are not just those characteristic of any glyph, it
+cannot be inferred. Down to the very end of the various revisions I
+found myself able to add glyphs which at first seemed hopeless, and yet
+when once seen became clear and plain. Relying on the presence of the
+photographs to check the work, I have thus added a very considerable
+number to the glyphs at first apparent. In some cases, as in 6-b-11 and
+17, and especially in 8-b-7, 8, 10, where glyphs were only partially
+erased, but no other instances of perfect glyphs existed to compare them
+with, I have let them alone, without attempting restoration. In short, I
+may have made some errors of eye, but I have guessed nothing.</p>
+
+<p>In a very few places I have restored glyphs totally erased, relying on
+the parallelism of the passages. Such are some of the Ahau-numbers in
+the upper sections of pages 2 to 11, and in the central sections on
+those pages, the initial pairs of glyphs on pages 15 to 18-a, b, c, the
+first columns of pages 19 and 20, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>and a few day-signs on pages 21, 23
+and 24. These glyphs are all necessitated by their different series, and
+hence can cause no confusions; while it seemed advantageous to have them
+before the eye. A fair instance of the procedure is shown on page 3-b-1,
+3. The temptation was strong to put the usual <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p12.png" width="76" height="53" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> glyph here as
+on all the other pages, but the slight variation in the lines left of
+glyph 3-b-3 forbade it.</p>
+
+<p>The restoration will further be found a little bolder on the type-cards
+than in the colored plates, where I have in general only endeavored to
+reproduce what could be seen actually present. The glyphs restored on
+the upper part of page 7 would seem hopeless at first sight; but they
+are well-known and common forms, and the characteristic traces shown on
+the photographs belong to these and to no others known.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">The cards of type-printed text, in parallel columns for convenience of
+study, are self-explanatory. Such an arrangement has from the first
+seemed to me indispensable for proper study and comparison. The paging
+of the de Rosny editions I have retained, except to change the
+practically blank page 1 to be page 25, since to number this as 1 is
+confusing. For the divisions and the numbering of the glyphs I have made
+my own arrangement. It is possible that section <i>b</i> on pages 2 to 11
+should only go to the bottom line of the central figure, leaving section
+<i>d</i> to read clear across the page, and another section to be made to the
+left of the nearly erased figures at the bottom; but the chances as
+shown by the lining and arrangement of the columns seemed to favor it as
+I have given it. Only final decipherment can decide definitely.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_7-1_1" id="Footnote_7-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-1_1"><span class="label">7-*</span></a> In <i>Archives pal&eacute;ographiques de l&#8217;Orient et de
+l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique</i>, atlas, t. I, pl. 117-142.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_8-1_2" id="Footnote_8-1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-1_2"><span class="label">8-*</span></a> In his <i>Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift</i>, Danzig,
+1903, Dr. F&ouml;rstemann does not know of the existence of this edition.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_9-1_3" id="Footnote_9-1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9-1_3"><span class="label">9-*</span></a> <i>Codex Perez</i>: Maya-Tzental. Redrawn and Slightly
+Restored, and with the Coloring as it originally stood, so far as
+possible, given on the basis of a new and minute examination of the
+Codex itself. Mounted in the form of the Original. Accompanied by a
+Reproduction of the 1864 Photographs; also by the entire Text of the
+Glyphs, unemended but with some restorations, Printed from Type, and
+arranged in Parallel Columns for convenience of study and comparison.
+Drawn and edited by William E. Gates. (<i>Privately printed.</i>) Point Loma,
+1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="THE_COLORS" id="THE_COLORS"></a>THE COLORS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The colors of the Codex afforded a number of questions for solution,
+some of which I have cleared up and embodied in the plates; a few are I
+believe insoluble. I have also been able to add a few wholly new points,
+not indicated by any of the preceding editions.</p>
+
+<p>Being unable to make a personal examination of the original, I prepared
+from my enlarged black drawings, above mentioned, another full set
+including the figures and all glyphs or other parts showing any
+suggestions of color. Upon these I prepared a list of nearly 200
+questions covering every detail, together with certain general
+specifications, and had the whole made the subject of a careful and
+exhaustive comparison with the original at the Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale.
+This report, when duly returned with the various details set out, with
+the various colors shown in their exact tints by water-colors, and with
+a special analysis of the question of the fading of the colors, was
+again checked and verified by the evidence of the three editions.</p>
+
+<p>In doubtful questions arising from faded colors, I have sought to show
+the condition of the original as it exists today. In the solid red
+backgrounds and other places I have aimed to show as far as possible
+what the Codex looked like when fresh.</p>
+
+<p>This question as to what all the colors in detail were when fresh, I do
+not feel that I have quite solved. The following palette scheme seems to
+me about as near as the data permit us to formulate.</p>
+
+<p>A permanent black, being the parts reproduced in black in the present
+edition.</p>
+
+<p>A brick-red, tinged with crimson, used for backgrounds, red numerals,
+and probably elsewhere. This we may call unfading red.</p>
+
+<p>A genuine brown, as on the animals, pages 5-a, 8-a; perhaps also
+elsewhere as lining ornament.</p>
+
+<p>A pale pink as flesh color on the human figures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>A blue, as on the possible katun number series on pages 23 and 24.</p>
+
+<p>A turquoise-green, with varying amounts of blue tinge, on the spotted
+figures and in the numeral columns of pages 15 to 18; also, with
+somewhat less of the blue, for the &#8220;water&#8221; bands on pages 21 to 24.</p>
+
+<p>The above colors are all definite and positive.</p>
+
+<p>Then next appears a brownish color used for lining or ornamenting
+various glyphs, and the clothing, headdress, etc., etc., of the figures.
+We find many shades from a pale neutral up to a darker clear brown, and
+also a definitely reddish, as on the tail of the bird on the right side
+of page 23. This brown may be a fading of the red of the backgrounds and
+numerals, but the permanence of the color in these latter places is so
+positive that I believe it is not so. I think it should be regarded as
+separate.</p>
+
+<p>We next come to a color question related directly to decipherment, that
+of the very difficult numeral columns on pages 15 to 18. There is no
+practical reason discernable for the use of alternating colors save the
+avoidance of confusion between bar combinations. Three bars together of
+different colors stand of course for three 5&#8217;s; of one color they would
+make a single number 15. We therefore find here our above black, red and
+blue-green alternating and clearly marked in places; but we also find
+many numerals of varying shades of brownish, bistre and grayish. I
+called for especial care in the examination of these points on the
+original Codex, and the water-color sheets and explanatory notes show in
+detail the facts of the present state of the Codex. Prior to the
+examination I supposed that these faded numerals were a faded red, but
+this is stated in the report to be certainly not the case; the
+suggestion is made that they are probably faded blacks.</p>
+
+<p>From the latter conclusion I am inclined in part to dissent, at least as
+to certain passages, for two reasons. These are, first the actual
+permanence of the above noted main colors, everywhere else; and second,
+passages in the second columns of pages 16 and 17. In each of these we
+find faded brown or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>gray bars, so placed between or next to plain black
+bars as would give, were they faded blacks, more than three black bars
+together.</p>
+
+<p>Another point on page 17 is to be noted. In the top section, first
+column, are five blue 3&#8217;s. Some of these blue dots, as shown in the 1887
+edition and in my water-colors, have faded to the same light brown seen
+elsewhere. The brown and the blue 5 in the second column of this page,
+middle division, as just mentioned, have also an identical chromatic
+value in the photographs.</p>
+
+<p>My whole conclusion therefore, so far as I can formulate one, is that in
+these columns we have:</p>
+
+<p>Red, black, and blue-green numerals, as shown. Some of the blue numerals
+seem to have been <i>outlined</i> with black, of which traces still appear on
+the original, are seen in the photographs, and indicated in the present
+color plates.</p>
+
+<p>Several instances where the Codex has been rubbed so as to leave only
+the outlines of original black numerals. These are now gray in the
+original, and I have left them as black outlines, touched in with gray.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, a number of pale brown numerals which are either faded
+blue-greens, or else indicate a fourth color in the original. Which of
+these alternatives is the true one, I cannot say.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">The original Codex is still in practically as good condition as when the
+three editions were taken from it. The material of which it is made is a
+maguey paper of grayish tinge, and not a yellowish brown as would be
+inferred from the 1887 edition. This is noteworthy, as the wearing away
+of the coating with which the paper was surfaced for the writing, does
+not leave a brownish place which, as in the 1887 edition, might be
+mistaken for traces of applied color. This coating is indeed better
+preserved in places than is shown by the 1887 edition; thus the
+headdress at the extreme left of page 20, just to the right of the
+restored 8 Ezanab on the present color plates, is shown with the coating
+all erased and the black writing as if left on the ground-paper&mdash;which
+is incorrect.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="THE_PAGES_IN_DETAIL" id="THE_PAGES_IN_DETAIL"></a>THE PAGES IN DETAIL</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Coming</span> then to the question of the subject-matter of the Codex, I feel
+that little is in order beyond a simple analytical description of the
+different pages, rather than any attempt at an interpretation. The road
+of general deductions from superficial resemblances between unknown
+elements and the details of other known things from other times and
+places, is strewn by the wrecks of too many theories to be attractive
+traveling. I am firmly convinced of the greatness and importance of the
+study we have before us, and the exalted civilization which produced it;
+but I do not know how to interpret these monuments. Indeed the very
+persistence with which the interpretation (which will certainly be
+self-evident and everywhere applicable when it does finally come) still
+eludes us, is a sufficient proof that we have not yet found the right
+road. When we do, great doorways to the past of mankind will open of
+themselves, and we will know more of human life and evolution than we
+now guess. Until then we can only describe, classify, and try to get rid
+of some of the mechanical impedimenta of the search.</p>
+
+<p>What we have of the Perez Codex is manifestly but a fragment; the extent
+of it originally we have no means of even guessing. It is fortunate
+however that what we have gives several practically complete chapters or
+portions of the work. Taking first the side of the MS. paged 2 to 12, we
+find the entire side covered by a series of pictures with text, all
+identical in arrangement. The few remaining traces on page 12 show its
+likeness to the others, for we see in their proper places parts of the
+Tun-glyph on which the figures on the upper section are seated; of the
+Cimi, Tun and Cauac glyphs just as in pages 11-c-2, 6 and 8; also of the
+columns of glyphs to the left, and traces of the headdress. As will
+appear further, at least two more pages are required to complete this
+series, and it is as good a supposition as any other that they were
+those which would be numbered 1 and 13&mdash;that is, one before page 2 and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>one after page 12. For convenience of reference the divisions of these
+pages may be lettered from <i>a</i> to <i>e</i>; <i>a</i> being given to the upper
+portion, <i>b</i> to the left columns of glyphs, <i>e</i> to the large middle
+picture, and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> to the text divisions above and below this.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">Taking up first the central figures, section <i>e</i>, we find in each a
+standing figure, with ceremonial headdress of varying character,
+offering a dragon&#8217;s head (a universal symbol of wisdom) to another
+figure, seated on a cushioned dais, the side of which bears various
+&#8220;constellation&#8221; signs. The latter in turn extends his hands, either
+holding some object, or else in a simple gesture. The standing figures
+are all almost completely preserved; the seated ones unfortunately
+largely or wholly obliterated. In front of the standing ministrant is a
+vase of offerings, usually a triple Kan figure, and in two cases with
+knives. In the upper part of the picture, facing in every case but one
+towards the ministrant, is a bird figure, different on each page, and
+having in two cases a human head. On each page is an Ahau sign with red
+numeral, all of them together forming a series which (starting on the
+supposed page 1 with 4 Ahau) gives the succession 4, 2, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5,
+3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6; in other words the numbers of thirteen consecutive
+katuns. The Ahau numerals 13, 11, 9, on pages 3, 4 and 5, are entirely
+distinct, and enough traces appear on other pages to establish this as a
+katun series beyond question. If this chapter includes just a round of
+numbers it would of course be complete in 13 pages. The chapter may be
+historical in contents, but the presence of this numeral Ahau-series
+clearly relates these pages to successive katuns in some way, whatever
+other bearings they may have. The ten pages thus in some way definitely
+have to do with the lapse of 72,000 days, or not quite 200 solar years,
+and the extension of the series to a full cycle of 20 katuns is quite
+likely. The background of this section <i>e</i> is red on each alternate
+page.</p>
+
+<p>Returning now to section <i>a</i>, we find on each page three figures, nearly
+all of persons or animals, seated on a large base<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p18-1.png" width="53" height="50" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+practically identical with the tun-glyph. Fourteen of the backgrounds to
+these figures are red. Above each figure there seems to have been at
+least six glyphs, of which but very few are left. Above these is a space
+entirely erased. In the center of the section on each page is a column
+containing at least two Ahaus with red numerals. The numerals of the
+upper row exceed those of the lower by 6; each row decreases from page
+to page by 4. The erased margins of the MS. do not afford space for
+another picture besides the three, on either side, but they do just give
+room for another Ahau-column on the left of each page. If this second
+Ahau-column existed, we have again the katun-series repeated in each row
+across. If it did not exist, the series (reading from the supposed page
+1) of 13, 9, 5, etc., and 7, 3, 12, etc., decreasing by 4&#8217;s, give the
+numbers of successive tuns. Once again the question of whether a simple
+number-round of thirteen terms, or a full round of twenty terms, whether
+tuns or katuns, was originally displayed on the Codex, must be left
+undetermined. It is further to be noted that faint but exact traces of a
+third Ahau, on a higher line, appear on page 5, as well as some doubtful
+traces on page 8. No definite relationship between the pictures of this
+section <i>a</i> and those of section <i>e</i> is apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Section <i>b</i> is made up of 45 or more glyphs in three columns. The first
+column is almost totally erased on every page, and I have disregarded it
+both in assigning reference numbers and in the type cards. The other two
+columns I have numbered in double column sequence downwards; but this
+can be regarded as solely for convenience&#8217; sake. The glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p18-2.png" width="79" height="55" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+which is three times repeated at the beginning of page 2, and recurs in
+parallel position repeated two to five times on each page, is the most
+common glyph in the whole Codex. It is identifiable probably 38 times,
+including twice at the top of the erased <i>first</i> column on page 4. It
+heads the second column several times on every page, except 7, which is
+too erased for any determination, and page 3, where a slight variation
+in what is left of the postfix at b-3 forbade its insertion under the
+rules I have given limiting restorations. I suspect that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>this glyph
+should be repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9, for the following reason. In
+positions b-6, b-8 or b-10 of each page occurs a certain face-glyph
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p19-1.png" width="78" height="55" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> that is found nowhere else in either the Perez, Dresden or
+Tro.-Cort. codices. If the initial glyph is repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9
+as suggested, then (with a slight variation on page 4) this series of
+repetitions of the initial glyph will in each case be closed by the
+face-glyph in question.</p>
+
+<p>A marked feature of section <i>b</i> is the occurrence, near the bottom of
+each page, of a Cauac-sign, with or without the <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p19-2.png" width="54" height="52" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+wing-postfix, and with prefixed and superfixed <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p19-3.png" width="80" height="55" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> numerals,
+exactly as is so common in connexion with the Chuen-sign on the
+Inscriptions. This Cauac-sign is usually accompanied by an Ahau and a
+Tun, each with numerals that are for the most part erased. This
+combination suggests distance-numbers and dates, somewhat as on the
+Inscriptions; in this case the double-numbered Cauacs would stand for so
+many uinals plus so many days. The following combinations, besides the
+one above, are also found:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
+<a href="images/glyph-p19-4-full.png"><img src="images/glyph-p19-4.png" width="424" height="144" alt="examples of hieroglyphs" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Section <i>c</i> consists of 16 glyphs in two rows, above the central
+picture. Glyphs 15 and 16 on each page are erased. The chief general
+characteristic is the frequent repetition of the Cimi-compound,
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p19-5.png" width="63" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />; the repetition on each page of a Cauac-sign with single or
+double numerals as in section <i>b</i>; and of Tun-compounds, with
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p19-6.png" width="42" height="23" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> subfix and with varying prefixes (frequently faces), as
+especially see page 5.</p>
+
+<p>Section <i>d</i> is a triple row of glyphs, originally 21 in some instances,
+but with many now erased. I am able to establish few general
+characteristics for this section, save again the frequency of the
+Cimi-compound as in section <i>c</i>, of various Tun-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>compounds, and of the
+two glyphs <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-1.png" width="66" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-2.png" width="64" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /><ins class="correction" title=". "> </ins><a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a>With the exception of
+10-b-4, the face with the tau-eye occurs only in this section <i>d</i> and on
+pages 15 to 18. This glyph is exceedingly common both in Dres. and
+Tro.-Cort, the form in which it appears at 3-d-4, 6, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-3.png" width="63" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+occurring (including its secondary compounds) no less than 126 times in
+Dres. and 33 times in Tro.-Cort.</p>
+
+<p>Beneath section <i>d</i> are the remains of red numerals and of heads and
+headdresses of figures which are now too much erased to give any basis
+for comment.</p>
+
+<p>A most marked feature of the Codex is the very large number of
+Tun-compounds, a feature confined exclusively, with one exception, to
+the present pages 2 to 11, and pages 23, 24. A classified list shows 28
+compounds of this glyph, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-4.png" width="46" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> 20 of these showing the subfix,
+and combined with a face or other prefix. The connexion of this fact
+with the Tun-bases of section <i>a</i>, and with the katun-rounds shown by
+the Ahau-series above referred to, is manifest.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up the general characteristics of this side of the MS., and
+without attempting to interpret any separate glyphs, we find the
+following data:</p>
+
+<p>The Cimi-compound <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-5.png" width="63" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and its sub-compound <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-6.png" width="64" height="47" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs
+25 times.</p>
+
+<p>The numeral-compounded Cauac occurs 20 times.</p>
+
+<p>The glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-7.png" width="63" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs 13 times on this side and once on page 23.</p>
+
+<p>The Chuen-compound <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-8.png" width="66" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs 19 times and probably
+oftener&mdash;once only on the other side of the MS.</p>
+
+<p>The various Tun-glyphs occur 45 times, on the two sides.</p>
+
+<p>The face-glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-9.png" width="62" height="49" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs 10 times.</p>
+
+<p>The Kan-Ymix glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-10.png" width="63" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs 10 times.</p>
+
+<p>The glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-11.png" width="65" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs 37 times on this side and, with a prefix
+and a changed postfix, once on page 24.</p>
+
+<p>With the exceptions noted, none of the above glyphs occur at all on the
+reverse side of the MS.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>There are finally 19 different Yax (<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-1.png" width="43" height="25" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />) compounds, occurring
+in all 25 times, 16 of them on this side of the MS.</p>
+
+<p>With three exceptions the above glyphs are the only ones that are
+repeated in the Codex with any marked frequency. The three exceptions
+are the face with tau-eye, already <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-2.png" width="63" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> mentioned, and the two
+glyphs occurring as an initial <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-3.png" width="65" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-4.png" width="66" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> pair twelve times on pages
+15 to 18, sections <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of month signs used as such I am only <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-5.png" width="62" height="47" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-6.png" width="64" height="48" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> satisfied of 12
+Cumhu, at 18-b-4 and of 16 Zac, at 4-c-7. The glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-7.png" width="45" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> at
+7-c-2 may also be 1 Yaxkin.</p>
+
+<p>The only cardinal point sign is that of the West, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-8.png" width="65" height="48" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurring
+at 4-b-14 and again at 16-a-6.</p>
+
+<p>There are besides these numeral Cauacs, 15 other Cauac <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p21-9.png" width="40" height="23" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+compounds, occurring in all 17 times on this side, and twice on pages
+23, 24.</p>
+
+<p class="margin-top: 2em;">Upon turning over the Codex, we find that whereas on the side we have
+been considering the scribe limited himself to the conventional red
+numerals and backgrounds, with here and there a touch of brown, upon
+this other side we have a wealth of color united with a harmony of
+composition and structure that marks a very high degree of artistic
+skill. It is not alone the accuracy of the drawing and the writing, such
+as we have noted in connexion with the study of the glyphs, but the
+whole manuscript as it lies open before us shows that sense of
+proportion, that ability to unify without seeming effort a multitude of
+details into a perfectly balanced whole, which is the positive mark of
+developed and genuine culture. When we remember the exceeding difficulty
+of combining primary colors into a brilliancy that is not garish, and
+the equal difficulty of achieving artistic mastery in a conventional
+treatment of forms, we are simply forced to recognize that we have here
+the evidence of an advanced school of art with full rights of
+independent citizenship. If the figures look strange and sometimes
+distorted, we must remember that our whole training has been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>in the
+realistic school, by which we are prone to judge all others, but by
+which they must not be judged. We have no more right to weigh these
+compositions in the scales of our art motifs than we have to weigh Greek
+rhythm of quantity or Saxon of alliteration against our weights by which
+we measure rhythm of rhyme and stress. In fact it is impossible for us
+even to judge concerning the true harmonic effect of these other
+measures, and it may well be doubted whether the very soul itself of our
+meter is not empty and tinny as compared with these others&mdash;quality for
+quality.</p>
+
+<p>There is one great broad line that divides the nations and civilizations
+of the earth, past and present, in all their arts of expression. We may
+call it that of the ideographic as against the literal. It controls the
+inner form of language and of languages; it manifests in the passage of
+thought from man to man; it determines whether the writing of the people
+shall be hieroglyphic or alphabetic; it gives both life and form to the
+ideals of their art. It is a distinction that was clearly recognized by
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, when he laid down that the incorporative
+characteristic essential to all the American languages is the result of
+the exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative elements of
+mind.</p>
+
+<p>The time has passed when we think that the absence of our perspective
+drawing in Japanese pictures is due to the fact that these &#8220;children of
+nature&#8221; never happened to recognize that a thing looks smaller in
+proportion to its distance, so that they ought to come to us to learn.
+We have come, in some measure if not yet fully, to recognize that
+whereas we show a thing to the eye, these other peoples suggest a
+thought to the mind, by their pictures. And we should remember, and
+remember always, that while our modern art having won its technical and
+artistic skill within the past few hundred years, is now beginning to
+emancipate itself from the materialism of the eye by efforts towards the
+&#8220;impressionist&#8221; methods, these ancient peoples had long since arrived at
+the ability to convey &#8220;impressions&#8221; through the medium of harmonious
+compositions of the most rigid conventional elements&mdash;an artistic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>achievement which those who know its difficulties can alone begin to
+appreciate.</p>
+
+<p>It may be quite easily forgiven to one trained with Western, modern
+eyes, who at first sight of these monuments, in total ignorance of their
+meanings, sees them as strange or grotesque. But when, as their
+strangeness wears away, one comes to see the unfailing accuracy with
+which the glyphs are drawn, one&#8217;s opinion of their makers has to change.
+And when, with this familiarity gained, one advances to an appreciation
+of the work in its bearings as a whole, one has to acknowledge himself
+facing the production of craftsmen who had the inheritance of not only
+generations, but ages of training. Such a combination of complete
+mastery in composition, perfect control of definite and fixed forms, and
+hand technique, can grow up from barbarism in no few hundred years. I
+would hesitate to think it could even come in a few thousands, unless
+they were years of greater settledness and peaceful civilization than
+our two thousand years of disturbed and warring European Christendom
+have yet had an example of to show us. It is easy enough in the absence
+of definite historical records, and in our general ignorance of human
+evolution, to theorize and speculate about it all; but the commonly
+accepted picture in our minds of a few savage wandering tribes settling
+and growing up in this country some several hundred or a thousand years
+after the Christian era, simply will not fit in with the fact of their
+ability to produce such works a few hundred years later. Had we nothing
+but the Perez Codex and Stela P at Copan, the merits of their execution
+alone, weighed simply in comparison with observed history elsewhere,
+would prove that we have to do not with the traces of an ephemeral, but
+with the remains of a wide-spread, settled race and civilization, worthy
+to be ranked with or beyond even such as the Roman, in its endurance,
+development and influence in the world, and the beginnings of whose
+culture are still totally unknown. As to the Codex before us, we can
+only imagine what the beauty, especially of the pages we now come to
+discuss, must have been when the whole was fresh and perfect.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>The second side of the Codex has to be treated in four divisions or
+chapters, the first of which includes pages 15 to 18. For numerical
+reasons which will appear, this chapter must probably have begun,
+however, at least one page further to the left.</p>
+
+<p>These four pages are laid out with three main divisions, upper, middle
+and lower. Too much of the upper section is erased for any comment other
+than that its arrangement seems to have been parallel in all respects
+with the middle section. This latter shows three subsections, the
+backgrounds in some cases being red,<a name="FNanchor_24-1_4" id="FNanchor_24-1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_24-1_4" class="fnanchor">24-*</a> containing each a picture
+(probably of a god or a human figure in every instance), surmounted by a
+black and a red numeral and by six glyphs, in double column. This gives
+12 subsections for the four pages, which we may refer to respectively as
+15-<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, etc. Of the initial pairs of glyphs in each subsection
+many are complete, and no section is left without the correct traces of
+the corresponding glyph for one or other of the positions; so that
+although 5 of the 24 glyphs are totally erased, we may safely restore
+them all. Other features of the comparative use and frequency of the
+glyphs on these pages have already been given.</p>
+
+<p>At the top of each picture is found a black and a red numeral. These
+form the consecutive black &#8220;counters&#8221; or interval numbers, and the
+corresponding red day numbers of subdivided tonalamatls, so common in
+Dres. and Tro.-Cort. It is customary to find these tonalamatls divided
+into fifths or fourths, 52 or 65 days respectively&mdash;four or five
+trecenas. At the 53rd or 66th day the initial red number is again
+reached, and the calculation is (by hypothesis) repeated, starting again
+at the left with a new day-sign below the first. Such a column is seen
+in the lower part of page 17, where we find 6 Oc, Ik, Ix; these are to
+be completed by restoring below an erased Cimi <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>and Ezanab, completing
+the 260 days and bringing us around again to 6 Oc. The total of all the
+black &#8220;counters&#8221; in any series must always be some multiple of 13,
+usually 52 or 65, as stated. And since each &#8220;counter&#8221; is the interval
+between its adjoining red numbers, wherever a red and a black number are
+given, the other red number, whether before or after, can always be
+filled in.</p>
+
+<p>No traces of this initial column appear for the series in the middle
+division, and several of the numerals are also erased. Two obscurities
+must be cleared up before trying to fill out the series. On page 16
+right is a partly erased black numeral, which from the traces may be
+either 10 or 11. Taking it as 10, we have 13 plus 10 equals an erased
+red 10; plus 5 (on page 17) equals the red 2 below the 5. This verifies
+so far. But we next find&mdash;plus 5 equals 8, which is of course incorrect.
+An inspection of the MS. and the photographs reveals a reddish spot (or
+perhaps even <i>three</i> such spots) in the extreme upper right corner of
+the picture space, 17-a, and also a dark spot <i>under</i> the black 5 in
+17-b. It is possible that the separated red dots (one doubtful) are to
+be read together as 3; or that the red dots under the 5 are to be
+disregarded in the count (just as is the red 8 on the next page, 18-a),
+and the red number for 17-a found in the upper right, above the seated
+figure. If the red number in 17-a is 3, the two numbers in 16-c must be
+11. Or it may be assumed that the spot under the 5 in 17-b belongs to
+it, making 6 instead of 5, which figures out. The final result is the
+same, as we have either 10 and 6, or 11 and 5, in these two places, and
+either reaches properly the clear red 8 in 17-b.</p>
+
+<p>In 18-a we find black 26, with a small red 8 below, and a large red 13
+in the usual place at the side. The red 8 will have to be disregarded,
+as not part of the series, which requires 13, and nothing else.</p>
+
+<p>We may now possibly set down the series as follows, using small figures
+above <a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="the">the the</ins> line for the black counters, and putting in
+parentheses all numbers restored:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">(6)<sup>3</sup>9<sup>(6)</sup>(2)<sup>5</sup>7<sup>6</sup>13<sup>11</sup>(11)<sup>5</sup>3<sup>5</sup>8<sup>5</sup>(13)<sup>26</sup>13<sup>10</sup>10, or else<br />
+(6)<sup>3</sup>9<sup>(6)</sup>(2)<sup>5</sup>7<sup>6</sup>13<sup>10</sup>(10)<sup>5</sup>2<sup>6</sup>8<sup>5</sup>(13)<sup>26</sup>13<sup>10</sup>10</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>This leaves us the black number at the beginning, in 15-a, and both
+numbers at the end, 18-c, still not filled in. Adding together all the
+counters we get 82, plus at least the two missing black numbers, one at
+each end. If the total were 104, we might expect it to have been
+comprised within the four subsections 15-a to 18-a. But 104 is not a
+tonalamatl fraction. 130 days, although a tonalamatl half, is an unknown
+division, and would hardly get into the space. If we begin the series in
+the upper division of the page (as occurs in Dres.) and come around to
+the middle division, the probabilities would require that it displayed a
+full series of 260 days, and again also that it began <i>to the left</i> of
+page 15. The probabilities of this series as it is, therefore, indicate
+at least a page 14 to the left, arranged like the other four, and
+forming one chapter with them.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to deal with the puzzling numeral columns, in alternating
+colors, found to the left of each subsection of the upper and middle
+divisions&mdash;24 columns in all. These have been referred to at some length
+in the preliminary discussion of the colors, and there is little more
+that can be said. As there said, the entire reason for alternating the
+colors can not be certainly assumed. Alternation of color occurs not
+only where it is needed to distinguish bars, but also where we have only
+lines of dots, which are of course self-separating. And to say that it
+is only for artistic purposes is a mere begging of the question. Only
+four or five of these columns are complete, and a footing of the numbers
+in each gives us varying amounts from 113 to 153, and tells us nothing.
+On the parts that are left we six times have a Chuen <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p26.png" width="41" height="24" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> with a
+black number apparently belonging to it (perhaps a multiplier), and also
+once a double Chuen, as in Tro.-Cort. The use of the red <i>kal</i>-sign, or
+20, is frequent.</p>
+
+<p>The lower division of these pages was also subdivided, into four
+sections on each, which we may refer to as <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>. Each
+contains a picture, with black and red numerals as above, surmounted by
+four glyphs only. The pictures are all quite incomplete; neither is
+there anything to add to what has been already said of the glyphs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>In the middle of page 17 one tonalamatl ends, with a red 6, and another
+begins, also with 6. The second starts with the day 6 Oc, is divided
+into fifths, and the initial column must have been in full: 6 Oc, Ik,
+Ix, Cimi, Ezanab. The restoration of the series gives: 6<sup>22</sup>2<sup>(15 in
+two stages)</sup>(4)<sup>10</sup>1<sup>4</sup>6. This however only gives a total of 51 for
+the black counters. There is space to the right for another section, but
+whatever may have been written there has entirely disappeared. The last
+three numbers 1<sup>4</sup>6 seem unmistakable, the <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p27.png" width="41" height="17" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> especially so.
+If we regard the last 6 as an error for 5, and then restore <sup>1</sup>6 in
+section 18-g, it would give the necessary 52. This is the one passage in
+the Codex where I can see no way but to assume a mistake in the writing;
+for 1 plus 4 does not equal 6, and unless for some entirely unknown
+reason the error is clear.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding tonalamatl may have been divided either into 52- or 65-day
+periods. If the period was 52, it must have begun with an initial column
+on page 15, right side. In this event it would be restored as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">(initial 6)<sup>(19 in two stages)</sup>(12)<sup>6</sup>5<sup>7</sup>12<sup>(12 in two stages)</sup>(11)<sup>8</sup>6,</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">giving 52. In this case a third tonalamatl must have begun somewhere to
+the left, and ended on the erased right side of page 15.</p>
+
+<p>A different restoration would carry the initial column back to the
+extreme edge of page 15, when we would have this:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">(initial 6)<sup>(2)</sup>(8)<sup>8</sup>3<sup>11</sup>(1)<sup>(11 in two stages)</sup>(12)<sup>6</sup>5<sup>7</sup>12<sup>(12 two stages)</sup>(11)<sup>8</sup>6</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">giving 65.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">To choose between these two would be mere guessing.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">The well-known pages 19 and 20 come next. Together they make four
+compartments, up and down the full length of the pages, two with red and
+two with black backgrounds. Each is, or rather was, preceded by a column
+of 13 &#8220;year-bearers.&#8221; The left column on each page I have restored,
+although no traces of it are left. But apart from its manifest
+necessity, as part of the series, if the width of the red ground on page
+20 (see the photographs) is measured, it will be found to be just the
+correct proportion, and part of the straight left <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>edge of the red can
+still be seen, just left of the rod in the hand of the mummy-figure, and
+leaving just room for the Ezanab column. In the colored plates I have
+only shown 12 instead of 13 day-signs in each column, but a measurement
+of the space above and below shows that the missing four are to be
+placed at the top and not at the bottom. These two pages therefore have
+application in some way to 52 solar years, beginning with 1 Lamat and
+ending with 13 Akbal (Votan).</p>
+
+<p>These &#8220;year-bearers&#8221; are those of the Tzental instead of the Yucatecan
+system, as described by Landa, and on these two pages rests, so far as
+regards known subject-matter, the assignment of the Codex Perez to the
+Palenque rather than to the northern Maya district. It is thus to be
+considered with the Inscriptions of that region, and with the Dresden
+Codex.<a name="FNanchor_28-1_5" id="FNanchor_28-1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-1_5" class="fnanchor">28-*</a> And in accord with what is known of the state of the
+different parts of the country at the time of the Conquest, and of the
+history of the break-up and extinction of the Maya empire, it must be
+assigned the greater antiquity on that account.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that pages 19 and 20 had no text passages.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">Pages 21 and 22 again, judging from the coloring and the arrangement,
+seem to form a pair. Each had on the upper part probably five rows of
+glyphs, some 70 in all, of which only 10 or 12 are at all recognizable.
+Contrary to all the pages hitherto discussed, it may be that these
+glyphs are to be <i>read from right to left</i>. The faces in these all look
+to the right, and the customary prefixes are all on the right. In
+classifying these glyphs, therefore, they must be all reversed.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of page 21 is framed in and divided up by green bands,
+evidently for water, two branches of which, after crossing a
+constellation band near the bottom, end one in falling torrents, the
+other in a circle surrounding a <i>kin</i>-sign, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p28.png" width="41" height="24" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />, the sun, and
+itself surrounded by four dragon&#8217;s heads, all figured in the midst of
+the torrents. Below this symbol <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>is the open mouth of a dragon, towards
+which is looking and pointing a black-faced figure, of the god D, the
+Ancient of Days, described by Schellhas as the moon and night god. To
+the left of the torrents is a figure, nearly erased, but with the
+wristlets characteristic of the god of death, and holding in the hand a
+torch. The glyph <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p29.png" width="45" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> occurs written in the torrents, at the
+left side.</p>
+
+<p>The green bands divide the middle of the page into six compartments
+containing, so far as not totally erased, 65 day-signs, in columns of
+five. All my efforts to relate these signs either to each other or to
+any other series in the codices, have so far been fruitless. The upper
+seven columns have each a black numeral beneath, running from right to
+left, 1 2 3 3 5 6 and the dot of another 6.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the columns of five day-signs forms a closed circuit returning
+into itself. In the upper row the 1st and 6th columns show successive
+days 8 apart in order; columns 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 are 16 apart in order.
+The 1st in the lower row is at intervals of 8, the 2nd and 5th at
+intervals of 16. The 3rd column is, with the 4th, an exception, the
+intervals being successively 8, 4, 4, 8, 16. That this is probably not a
+scribal error is shown by the fact that the same series, though
+beginning with different days, occurs in both columns. The 6th and
+possible 7th columns of the lower part are indeterminable.</p>
+
+<p>We thus have three rounds of 5 times 8, or 40 days; seven rounds of 5
+times 16, or 80 days; two irregular rounds of 40 days. These are not
+such columns as could form the beginning of a series of tonalamatl
+fifths, in which the successive days come 12 apart. So that this section
+must be left unexplained.<a name="FNanchor_29-1_6" id="FNanchor_29-1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-1_6" class="fnanchor">29-*</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>At the right of page 21 begins a solid red background which probably
+extended right across page 22. Two standing spotted green figures appear
+on page 21; seven seated figures, one green spotted, on page 22.</p>
+
+<p>Page 22 is crossed by a winding dragon whose body is covered by the
+&#8220;constellation band.&#8221; A narrow green band also winds across the page,
+inclosing two of the upper figures. Below the dragon and this green band
+are seen, seated above the open mouths of two erect dragons, two figures
+in conversation, each bearing various insignia of the death god. A very
+curious cartouche outline, partly erased, at the lower right, incloses
+what seems to be 13 Ahau, 3, 6, the right hand dot of the 3 being
+erased.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">On pages 23 and 24 the brilliant backgrounds of the preceding pages
+disappear, and we have two pages, to be read together, of glyphs,
+day-signs and small figures, finely and sparingly illuminated with the
+usual four colors. The body of the dragon is apparently continuous from
+page 21, and crosses these pages entirely with the constellation band,
+displayed along its full length.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of these two pages contained originally 91 glyphs,
+perhaps to be read <i>from right to left</i>, the same as 21 and 22. The
+faces look to the right, the usual <i>pre</i>fixes and the few numerals are
+also on the right of their respective compounds. Many of the glyphs are
+the same as those on pages 2 to 11, reversed right for left. Glyph
+23-a-11 should be specially noted. At first sight the numeral prefix, 6,
+appears to belong, postfixed, to glyph 23-a-17. But on investigation we
+find the same compound, a <i>yax-chuen</i> with <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p30-1.png" width="40" height="23" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> prefix, also at
+21-a-8 and 24-a-26, in each case with the 6 attached. The <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p30-2.png" width="42" height="24" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />
+affix just below this number 6 is also plainly a <i>pre</i>fix to glyph
+23-a-12; so that glyph 23-a-ll must be read <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p30-3.png" width="62" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and include the
+6 as prefix. At 24-a-26, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p30-4.png" width="65" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> the same glyph is written left to
+right.</p>
+
+<p>There are also a few other glyphs on these pages which cannot be
+regarded as right to left. Such for instance, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-1.png" width="63" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> at
+23-a-19 and 24-a-17. In this glyph the affix <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-2.png" width="44" height="26" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> at the side is
+properly a prefix (perhaps the possessive), and I do not recall any
+instance of its use as a postfix. In the affixes, the superfix and
+prefix positions may as a general rule be regarded as wholly identical;
+also the subfix and postfix positions. But also as a general rule the
+two pairs are I believe not to be interchanged, any more than we
+interchange prefixes and endings in English; this rule is not universal
+for all affixes, as some seem able to go anywhere, but it is one I have
+always regarded in my glyph classifying. As to <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-3.png" width="62" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> it is to be
+noted that this is a symmetrical glyph and as there can be no doubt that
+these glyphs were equally legible to the Maya reader written in either
+direction, it may well be regarded as unimportant, and not to be rated
+even as an error. <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-4.png" width="62" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> is a still stronger similar case. Here
+the wing <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-5.png" width="43" height="25" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> affix to the right is certainly a postfix, the
+superfix is in the usual left to right order, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-6.png" width="38" height="22" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and the main
+element written left to right, as in all its other instances. And
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-7.png" width="64" height="42" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> is again in point.</p>
+
+<p>The face-<i>tun</i> compounds on these pages, and also on the opposite side
+of the manuscript, should be particularly noted.</p>
+
+<p>Below the constellation band, inscribed on a wavy green band (the waters
+of space?) are seven repetitions of <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-8.png" width="63" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> or the sun glyph
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p31-9.png" width="46" height="25" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> within the shields.<a name="FNanchor_31-1_7" id="FNanchor_31-1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_31-1_7" class="fnanchor">31-*</a> Between each appeared probably
+two black 8&#8217;s. The sun-shields are about to be seized by different
+animals, dragon, tortoise, bird, etc., a seeming evident suggestion of
+either an eclipse, or the passage of the sun into some zodiacal sign.
+Another series of seven sun-shields, on the green band, separated by
+numeral 8&#8217;s, and attacked by animals and a skeleton, crosses the lower
+part of the pages.</p>
+
+<p>Between these two bands we find a series of columns of five day-signs
+each preceded by red numerals. Allowing for the space erased I have
+restored the last column to the right, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>and part of the preceding. This
+gives 12 columns only, whereas at least 13 are required. There may have
+been a 12th column to the left of page 23, where there is just the
+proper space for this,<a name="FNanchor_32-1_8" id="FNanchor_32-1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-1_8" class="fnanchor">32-*</a> leaving the dragon&#8217;s body to curve above
+the column so as to pass to page 22. The series may have continued on
+across page 25; 13 columns on pages 23, 24, and 7 more filling page 25,
+would make a full cycle of 20 columns. And in this connexion it should
+be noted that the dragon&#8217;s body with constellation band goes almost to
+the edge of page 24 with no sign of ending or turning, such as might be
+expected if the chapter ends here. And if the constellation dragon
+continues over page 25, the column series may well have done the same.</p>
+
+<p>Before discussing this series it will be of advantage to review what the
+Codex gives us on the question of reading left to right or right to
+left.</p>
+
+<p>First, in both the Dresden and Tro.-Cort. the glyph faces look to the
+left; and, as shown by the calculations, reading is from left to right,
+with a very few possible exceptions, such as the tables on Dres. 24, 64,
+69, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the Perez, as shown by the tonalamatls on 15 to 18, the 52
+year-bearers on 19 and 20, and the katun-series on 2 to 12, the general
+direction of the reading is also left to right.</p>
+
+<p>Above or below each of the red number columns of these pages 23, 24, is
+to be found a blue number. These numbers make a katun-series, starting
+with 4, decreasing by 2, if we read it left to right. It is not, to be
+sure, accompanied by the customary Ahau-sign, <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p32.png" width="41" height="24" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />, but, taken
+in connexion with the marked parallelism of the glyphs, face-tun glyphs
+and also others, on these two pages with those on pages 2 to 11, already
+discussed, the possibility that a katun-series is a part of this
+subject-matter must be considered.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the glyphs in the upper part of all four <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>pages 21 to
+24 face to the right, and, as already set out in detail, are practically
+all written in <i>reverse position</i> as regards their prefixes, etc. And so
+also does the Eb-glyph in the day-columns we are now considering face to
+the right. These columns, unlike those on page 21, which include all of
+the 20 day-signs, only include 5 of the day-signs: Kan, Lamat, Eb, Cib
+and Ahau; Eb being the only non-symmetrical one of these.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus quite strong evidence, especially as provided by the
+position of the prefixes, for a right to left reading, opposed by the
+direction of this katun-number series&mdash;if it be one. In Egyptian
+writing, of course, the direction of the reading changes with the facing
+of the figures.</p>
+
+<p>To return now to the columns themselves, all the day-signs in any one
+column have each the same red numeral, so that we have: 8 Cib, 8 Ahau, 8
+Kan, 8 Lamat, 8 Eb; and so on. The red numerals to each column also
+decrease by 2 towards the right, pari passu with the blue numerals. If
+we read each column downwards, it will form a closed circuit or round,
+returning into itself, with intervals of 104 days, from 8 Cib to 8 Ahau,
+etc., and again from 8 Eb back to 8 Cib. But if we next try to go to the
+next column, the series breaks, for from 8 Eb to 6 Lamat is only 76
+days. We get a like break whether we read upward or downward, or right
+to left. Taking the columns separately then, the entire series (whether
+made up of 13, 20 or any other number of columns) cannot be made to read
+in one regular series, with a constant interval between the successive
+days of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>But, if we restore two columns, making 13 columns, and then read
+horizontally <i>across</i>, either right to left, or left to right, one line
+after another, the first day of the second line follows the last of the
+first, and after going through the whole 65 terms, we return again from
+the last of the last line to the first of the first&mdash;always with a
+constant interval. In other words, this section could be written around
+a wheel. If we read left to right, the distance from (10 Kan) to 8 Cib,
+etc., is 232 days; 232&times;65=15,080. Or if from right to left,<a name="FNanchor_33-1_9" id="FNanchor_33-1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-1_9" class="fnanchor">33-*</a> the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>interval from (12 Lamat) to 1 Cib, etc., is 28 days; 28&times;13 = 364, &times;5 =
+1820. That both of these products are multiples of 260 is a truism, and
+cannot in any way require us to see a tonalamatl reckoning as the basis
+of this passage. Nor is each separate day-column a tonalamatl in fifths,
+as so often found.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, if we should assume that the series went on across page 25, to
+a full katun-round of 20 terms, the circuit would be broken; line 2
+would not regularly follow line 1, and so on. The probabilities then, as
+derived from the succession of the days, seem almost conclusive that
+this is a section of 65 terms, to be read horizontally, in whichever
+direction. And then, since the subdivision of 15,080 days (or 1820, if
+read right to left) into 65 terms, <i>necessarily</i> gives us successive
+day-<i>numbers</i> decreasing (or increasing) by 2, the likeness to the
+katun-series may be only apparent&mdash;a simple truism. Or, on the other
+hand, in view of the glyph similarities (a point which I think should
+always be given close attention), there <i>may</i> be some relation to the
+katun-series&mdash;all in spite of the right-left or left-right difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>What part the blue<a name="FNanchor_34-1_10" id="FNanchor_34-1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-1_10" class="fnanchor">34-*</a> number series plays, I cannot say. Dr.
+Seler,<a name="FNanchor_34-2_11" id="FNanchor_34-2_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-2_11" class="fnanchor">34-&#8224;</a> suggests that they are &#8220;corrections,&#8221; to set each term
+ahead 20 days. This states a fact, but does not give any explanation.
+Each blue number is 6 less than its red column, and 7 Kan <i>is</i> of course
+20 days later than 13 Kan.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_24-1_4" id="Footnote_24-1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24-1_4"><span class="label">24-*</span></a> Dr. F&ouml;rstemann (<i>Comm. z. Par. Mayahds.</i>) speaks of the
+background to the central figure on page 16 as black, instead of red; he
+also describes the number columns as made up of red and black numerals
+only. There are many similar errors in his Commentary, due to his
+ignorance of the colors, and to the obscurity of the photographic
+reproductions.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_28-1_5" id="Footnote_28-1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-1_5"><span class="label">28-*</span></a> Where to place the Tro.-Cort., in view of the <i>apparent</i>
+Kan, <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="Muluc,">Muluc</ins> Ix, Cauac years indicated on pages 34-37, and the 13
+Cumhu immediately next to 13 Ahau on page 73 (13 Ahau 13 Cumhu falling
+only possibly in a year 12 Lamat) I am not ready to say.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_29-1_6" id="Footnote_29-1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-1_6"><span class="label">29-*</span></a> Mr. Bowditch suggests to me that the numbers 1 2 3 3 5 6
+6 are to be read with each of the day signs in their respective columns,
+and, being placed in the middle, may apply both to the upper and lower
+sets. The strongest objection I can see to this is that the numbers are
+black, instead of the usual red. In this case, instead of intervals of 8
+and 16, giving rounds of 5&times;8=40 and 5&times;16=80 days, we would have
+intervals of 156 and 208 (from 1 Ymix to 1 Muluc, etc.), giving rounds
+of 780 and 1040 days respectively. Or, if read <i>upwards</i>, we would have
+52 and 104 day intervals (1 Ben to 1 Chicchan, etc.), and rounds of 260
+and 520 days. But whichever be the case, the page is <i>sui generis</i>, and
+its why is still beyond us.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_31-1_7" id="Footnote_31-1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31-1_7"><span class="label">31-*</span></a> I have retained the usual term &#8220;shields&#8221; for the flaring
+forms which embrace the sun glyph, though without accepting its
+appropriateness. They might with equal likelihood be conventionalized
+wings.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_32-1_8" id="Footnote_32-1_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-1_8"><span class="label">32-*</span></a> Dr. F&ouml;rstemann ignores the space on the right of page
+24, and restores two columns to the left of page 23 in order to make up
+the thirteen columns; but, as shown by the edges of the pages in the
+photographs, one column restored in each place will just fill the
+obliterated space.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_33-1_9" id="Footnote_33-1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-1_9"><span class="label">33-*</span></a> Dr. Seler&#8217;s reading; <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i>, I, 515.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_34-1_10" id="Footnote_34-1_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-1_10"><span class="label">34-*</span></a> The blue is a true blue, quite distinct from the
+turquoise blue elsewhere, and is found in the case of these numbers
+only.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_34-2_11" id="Footnote_34-2_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-2_11"><span class="label">34-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i>, I, 515; &#8220;Zur mexik.
+Chronologie.&#8221;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="THE_MAYA_GLYPHS" id="THE_MAYA_GLYPHS"></a>THE MAYA GLYPHS</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Up</span> to date our knowledge of the meanings of the glyphs is still to all
+intents and purposes limited to the direct tradition we have through
+Landa, and the deductions immediately involved in these. We know the day
+and month signs, the numbers, including 0 and 20, four units of the
+archaic calendar count (the day, tun, katun and cycle), the cardinal
+point signs, the negative particle. We have not fully solved the uinal
+or month sign, which seems to be <i>chuen</i> on the monuments and a <i>cauac</i>,
+or <i>chuen</i>, in the manuscripts. We are able to identify what must be
+regarded as metaphysical or esoteric applications of certain glyphs in
+certain places, such as the face numerals.<a name="FNanchor_35-1_12" id="FNanchor_35-1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-1_12" class="fnanchor">35-*</a> But every one of these
+points is either deducible directly by necessary mathematical
+calculation, or else from the names of certain signs given by Landa in
+his day and month list, and then found in other combinations, such as
+<i>yax</i>, <i>kin</i>, etc. That we have as many of the points as we have, and
+still cannot form from them the key&mdash;that we cannot <i>read</i> the
+glyphs&mdash;is a constant wonder; but a fact nevertheless.</p>
+
+<p>The innumerable efforts to identify the glyphs by their superficial
+appearance, calling the banded headdress a &#8220;pottery decoration,&#8221; and
+explaining the face-glyph of the North thereby, because in Maya <i>xaman</i>
+is north and <i>xamach</i> a tortilla dish (to say nothing of others still
+more fanciful, by a host of writers), have broken down, as was to be
+expected. I mention this instance because it illustrates fully the
+results of superficial analysis, united with a seeming ineradicable
+tendency even among those most able students who have added the most to
+our stock of Maya knowledge (among whom Dr. Brinton was certainly one of
+the foremost), to treat these glyphs as carelessly done, to disregard
+the differences between manifest variants, or else to talk freely,
+whenever a passage <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>does not fit the explanation which is being worked
+out, of scribal errors.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, <i>if</i> these glyphs are to be interpreted primarily by
+the Yucatecan Maya dialect (one in which we have most ample printed and
+MS. lexicographic material), and if in that dialect no other words at
+all resembling <i>xaman</i> and <i>xamach</i> are found, as we are told, then
+(<i>if</i> the Mayas named the north star, or the North, by a pun on a
+tortilla dish) wherever this banded headdress is found, we must assume
+the text to be treating either of the North, or of tortillas. That might
+safely be left to break down of its own weight; but we shall also see
+that the explanation is given in total disregard of manifest, important
+variants. This banded headdress appears ornamenting at least
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-1.png" width="41" height="42" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-2.png" width="42" height="40" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-3.png" width="43" height="42" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-4.png" width="43" height="41" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-5.png" width="44" height="40" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> five separate and distinct faces; one a wholly human face,
+the others with various other definite characteristics, the most
+frequent and prominent of which are the monkey-like face and mouth we
+see in the <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p36-6.png" width="65" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> glyph for the north, and a sort of bird&#8217;s
+plumage covering the back of the head. These two are separate, are never
+combined, and must be classified rigidly apart. We have therefore three
+elements, the monkey face, the plumage covering (if we may call it so),
+and the banded headdress. It is obvious that while the monkey face may
+be specific of the North, the bands are not specific at all, but
+general.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the greatest diffidence that I suggest any interpretations on
+my own part as yet, but it is of course certain that the distinction of
+masculine and feminine existed in the spoken language, and it must exist
+somewhere in the glyphs. And it will have to be a prefix, not a postfix;
+for what I may call the syntax of glyph formation must follow that of
+the speech. At the bottom of Dres. 61 and 62 are seven identical
+Oc-glyphs with subfix, and with prefixes. Five of these prefixes are
+faces with the woman&#8217;s curl, recognized on the figured illustrations.
+One is a face with the banded headdress. Remembering that this headdress
+occurs not infrequently on a plain human face with no other
+characteristic, it is not a far guess that it may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>have denoted a
+freeman, a lord, entitled to such a headdress. In this event it may on
+the one hand serve as a simple masculine definitive, the prefix <i>ah-</i>,
+and on the other, to attach the idea of lordship to other glyphs with
+which it is incorporated, as: the North Star, or region, the Lord of the
+Firmament.</p>
+
+<p>This illustration serves to show what seems to me an essential
+preliminary of the work we have in hand, and the part to which I have so
+far devoted most effort. The glyphs must be determined, compared and
+classified, and what I have called the &#8220;syntax&#8221; of their composition,
+studied. The particles and their positions, the various <i>incorporated</i>
+elements, are of the utmost importance, though they are very frequently
+ignored. <i>They are the written picture of the spirit of the spoken
+language.</i> The task I have most looked forward to in this connexion has
+of course been with the Dresden, but having started upon the Perez for
+the reasons I have given, it was a smaller task in itself, and could be
+brought to completion within less time, while serving as part of the
+larger work. As the determination and classification of the glyphs had
+to proceed all as one work, it has enabled me not only to complete my
+Index for this codex, but also to print the text in type, and to verify
+and bring out such facts regarding the color questions as was possible
+to do&mdash;both of them stages needed in the general work. In doing it I
+have studied with my hands as well as with eyes, and I have been well
+repaid. The actual labor has not been small, but it has been worth it
+all if only to see before the eyes something of what this Codex must
+have been when fresh and new. For as I have said, while in my colored
+restoration I may have made some mistakes of eye, for which the
+photographs will be a check, I have <i>guessed</i> nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The classification of the glyphs meets of course with some difficulties
+in detail, but it can readily be cast into a quite simple general
+outline. Something over 2000 different compound forms are found in the
+three codices. The simple elements composing these are perhaps 350 in
+number, and may be divided broadly into main elements and affixes or
+particles. First of course come day and month signs, which, with <i>kin</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+<i>tun</i>, <i>kal</i>, and a few marked variants, use up 50 numbers. Next will
+come the faces, about 75 simple elements. Next the animal and bird heads
+and figures, about 50 numbers. Next the hands, crosses, etc., and the
+list of conventional or geometric forms, another 75. Then some 75
+particles.</p>
+
+<p>The cards required for the first 50 numbers, including only compounds
+formed from day-signs and excluding day-signs used simply as such,
+amount to practically one half of the number required for the whole
+index. Certain elements, notably the <i>kin</i>, the <i>tun</i>, the monkey-face
+with banded headdress, already referred to, the face with tau-eye, the
+<i>yax</i>, the cross, produce a great number of compounds&mdash;a fact of note,
+as it is evident that the number of compounds, having due regard to our
+limited material, is an index to the relative position of the idea in
+the Mayan vocabularies. Some of the day-signs produce practically no
+compounds, others a great many. The compounds fall readily into a system
+of primary and secondary derivatives, by which their relations may be
+easily studied, and their proportions recognized.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the distinguishing of variants, one first meets the fact that
+the three codices differ. The writing of the Dresden and Perez is
+regular and accurate, the Perez exceedingly so. Every different variant
+must here be accounted for. In Tro.-Cort. the writing is crude and
+careless, so that we have many evident abbreviations which are not
+genuine variants. In the next place, certain regular differences occur
+in this or that glyph or particle, between the forms of the different
+manuscripts. Thus the Perez uses <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-1.png" width="43" height="25" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and the others
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-2.png" width="42" height="24" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and so on. A comparison of the compounds shows that these
+must be the same. The regular variations between the three manuscripts
+and variations of abbreviation, when well evidenced, may be eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>The day-signs have many variants, mostly quite simple, and all checked
+positively by the use of the form in some day-series. Ix has many forms.
+There are at least three entirely different Cimi forms:
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-3.png" width="40" height="42" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-4.png" width="41" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /><img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-5.png" width="41" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /><a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title=". "> </ins>There are found two different forms of the closed
+eye, one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>of which certainly is Cimi, the other occurs regularly in such
+different compounds (and I think never as a simple day-sign), as to make
+it necessary to separate it; <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p39-1.png" width="42" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> it has probably a different
+meaning entirely&mdash;perhaps that of sleep.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">A noteworthy technical line is to be found in the drawing of the glyphs.
+Whereas in the case of the day-signs, faces, and conventional forms in
+general, certain variations of handwriting, etc., are evidently
+permitted, but only within certain definite lines, in some few animal
+glyphs no two instances are just alike. In other words, the glyphs in
+general are conventions with established meanings&mdash;actual writing;<a name="FNanchor_39-1_13" id="FNanchor_39-1_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-1_13" class="fnanchor">39-*</a>
+but we also have <i>pictures</i> of birds or animal forms, where the writer
+is not following convention, but nature. The freedom of style used in
+the latter case only serves to emphasize the conventionality of the
+former, and to separate the entire system from either picture or rebus
+writing. See the following fish-glyph forms:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p39-2.png" width="459" height="46" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">These pictures are almost exclusively in uncompounded forms, whereas the
+conventional glyphs, whether human, animal or otherwise, are subject to
+the general rules of incorporation.</p>
+
+<p>Writing is a system of conventional forms with established meanings,
+corresponding to and reflecting the structure of the spoken language;
+some picture elements whose value as such has remained either wholly or
+partly present in the minds of those who use them, are not inconsistent
+with genuine writing; when present they add vividness to the writing,
+and emphasize its ideographic character. A combination of picture forms
+only, may be used as means of communication to a certain degree, but can
+never constitute <i>writing</i>; that, like speech, must provide for the
+expression of the relationships and categories that make up the
+structure of language.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>Egyptian writing, which is of course <i>true writing</i>, contains elements
+of every class. It has symbols and also pictures, not only of things or
+creatures, but of actions as well, &#8220;contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive&#8221;; these pictures, although still ranking as such, stand for
+<i>words</i>&mdash;they can be <i>pronounced</i>, and have syntax, which is the crucial
+test. Egyptian next has unrecognizable forms, whose meaning has become a
+simple convention, but which still stand for <i>words</i>, or particles. It
+has elements which are not pronounced for themselves, but only serve as
+determinatives. (Such a use of determinatives is not limited to
+hieroglyphic writing, but is possessed also by alphabetic; the second
+<i>o</i> in the word <i>too</i> is strictly a determinative, to distinguish the
+adverb <i>too</i> from the preposition <i>to</i>, both pronounced alike. Tibetan
+has an elaborate system of silent letters used as grammatical
+determinatives.) And then Egyptian writing finally has pure alphabetic
+elements.</p>
+
+<p>As to Maya, I think it far more than likely that, when at last
+deciphered, it will be found to contain most if not all of these
+classes&mdash;<i>mutatis mutandis</i>. There seems every evidence that it is made
+up of pictures with probably both concrete and abstract meanings;
+word-conventions; and grammatical particles. It is at least probable
+that there are also silent determinatives and not unlikely that there is
+also a pure phonetic or alphabetic element. That the latter element is
+not the basic one may I think be now regarded as established.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_35-1_12" id="Footnote_35-1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-1_12"><span class="label">35-*</span></a> The Tibetan use of symbolical words in place of numerals
+is worth noting here, even though we do not know the Maya face numerals
+well enough as yet for any comparison. See Csoma de K&#337;r&ouml;s, <i>Tibetan
+grammar</i>, Calcutta, 1824, pp. 155 <i>et seq.</i>; also Ph. &Eacute;d. Foucaux,
+<i>Grammaire Tib&eacute;taine</i>, Paris, 1858, pp. 157 <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_39-1_13" id="Footnote_39-1_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-1_13"><span class="label">39-*</span></a> &#8220;These [the Maya glyphs] do not represent a real script,
+as is so often maintained, but are only pictures which have been reduced
+to the appearance of letters, contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive.&#8221;!&mdash;Dr. Eduard Seler, <i>Codex Vaticanus No. 3773</i>, page
+65.&mdash;Well?</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Introite, nam et hic dii sunt.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>It is not my desire to add, as a conclusion to a comment bearing on the
+restoration and interpretation of Mayan hieroglyphic texts, any general
+discussion of the data which tradition and the early Spanish writers
+have left us of the mythology, rites and customs of the American races;
+and still less to run out a line of attractive analogies between
+isolated instances of their words, symbols or works, with those of any
+of the various nations of the other hemisphere; nor to build up any
+theory of descent or intercourse with any of these latter as today known
+to history. The subject before us is on its very face too vast; the
+written and traditional data are entirely too scanty and too little
+understood; and while we are still obliged to designate the various gods
+and personages of the Codices as god A, B, etc., and are unable to fix
+definitely<a name="FNanchor_41-1_14" id="FNanchor_41-1_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-1_14" class="fnanchor">41-*</a> a single inscribed date in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>terms of our chronology, or
+tell the event attached to it, fancied comparisons amount to little. And
+the favorite &#8220;linguistic&#8221; method is more fragile yet, especially when
+the uncertainties of spelling and transliteration are considered, and
+above all the frequent total ignorance of the past history and changes
+the different words compared must have gone through since the time when
+by any possibility a physical transmission from one locality to the
+other could have taken place. These ought to be commonplaces of
+research, but it is to be feared that they have not quite yet become
+so.<a name="FNanchor_42-1_15" id="FNanchor_42-1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-1_15" class="fnanchor">42-*</a> There is no need to give instances of such false analogies
+which have served as the bases for a multitude of filiation theories,
+all equally well &#8220;supported&#8221; by details, and all mutually exclusive. Nor
+on the other hand can we deny the existence actually of a very great
+number of resemblances and identities which cannot be ignored, but must
+imply connexions of some kind. The English nation is not a Hebrew people
+because it had a prime minister Disraeli, nor Greeks because they have a
+Queen Alexandra, nor Romans because of certain local names. Such facts
+even when real, and established as such, may only be evidence of a
+single continental culture or transcontinental intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>It has been the dictum of a certain school of archaeology, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>still very
+much in general favor, that all these identities are to be explained as
+the natural result of the innate tendencies of untutored men, on their
+evolutionary rise, at certain cultural stages, to imagine the same myths
+and invent the same rites. From this as a principle I wholly dissent; it
+simply does not meet the facts. There are of course many facts to which
+it does apply, such as those that both Chinese and Americans made paper,
+tanned leather, made feather ornaments, used star and flower names for
+their children, and so on: facts which had been used to prove Chinese
+and American identity, and to which Dr. Brinton justly added in retort
+that they also slept at night, wore clothes when it was cold, and so on.
+But there is a very great number of facts, a number constantly growing
+with research, which cannot be so dismissed. Such are the employment of
+abstract symbolism, the erection of great structures all having a
+definite and identical astronomical bearing and evident use, the common
+possession of so-called myths all telling the one story, and only
+slightly modified locally, such as the birth-stories of Huitzilopochtli
+and of Herakles, and the stories of the travail of Latona pursued by the
+Python and of the Woman clothed with the Sun in <i>Revelation</i>; or the
+universal tradition of seven ancestral caves or cities in America,
+compared with the Tibetan and Pur&acirc;nic stories of the seven lotus-leaves
+of &#346;veta-dv&icirc;pa, the first continental home of
+the race; the <i>Hacha de cobre</i> of the Miztecs and the ever-turning spear
+of jade of the Japanese story of the place where the gods first
+descended on earth; or the whole question of the origin of the Zodiac.
+These things, and a host of others, need a different explanation&mdash;all
+the more since the more we are learning of them the more we find that
+they enclose facts of which the hypothetical &#8220;savage children&#8221; could
+not, <i>ex hypothesi</i>, have been aware&mdash;some facts indeed which our very
+latest modern science is only now learning.<a name="FNanchor_43-1_16" id="FNanchor_43-1_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-1_16" class="fnanchor">43-*</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>But while dissenting now wholly from this theory (of &#8220;coincidentalism&#8221;)
+one cannot but hold in all respect those who in their time held it. It
+is the duty of the savant to make the best logical use he can of what he
+has, and he cannot be criticised for not using finer scales than the
+time affords. And this theory was needed as an answer to the
+absurdities, brought out in utter disregard of physical possibilities,
+postulating off-hand migrations and filiations and evolutionary advances
+totally impossible within the periods allowed for their completion, and
+utterly without parallel in any known part of the world or page of
+history. And yet, when this theory had its birth, the most of
+Christendom was still enthralled by the Ussherian chronology of the
+creation and history of the whole divine universe, which simply did not
+have room in it for all these things to happen naturally and
+connectedly.</p>
+
+<p>And if it is urged that present science had already say a generation
+ago, a second&#8217;s time we might say in the life of humanity, begun to
+emancipate our ideas of time and evolution, still it is the fact that
+that increase in breadth of vision has so far applied to every known
+thing but man himself. The old belief that gave the world 6000 years of
+life, at least put thinking man at its beginning; the modern nightmare
+gives us a world for hundreds of millions of years without <i>thought</i>,
+and makes human civilization an ephemeral episode of a few seconds of
+universal duration. Disregarding, one is forced to say wilfully, the
+fact that every single one of their own arguments in favor of anthropoid
+descent for man would equally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>support a theory that the anthropoids are
+debased offshoots of human stocks,<a name="FNanchor_45-1_17" id="FNanchor_45-1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-1_17" class="fnanchor">45-*</a> biology still demands such a
+lapse of time for its physical evolution that its adherents oppose and
+belittle to the utmost every bit of evidence of any antiquity even for
+the physical frame of man. We have, to say nothing of the rest of the
+world, Egyptian civilization now pushed back 10,000 years, and (together
+with others as we slowly uncover them) as far removed as ever from
+barbarism, if not indeed growing greater as we go back; but we are not
+allowed anything but apelike, half arboreal savages 50,000 years ago.
+And yet every observed <i>fact</i> shows us savage or worn-out races
+everywhere throughout the world deteriorating and dying out, and nowhere
+any savages progressing or, unaided by outside influence, developing
+what we know as civilization. We see everywhere the rise and fall of
+nations, races and civilizations, and their utter blotting out; and we
+refuse to accept that process as a universal law through which the
+destiny of the human race is working itself out. In fact, we do not seem
+to believe that the human race has any destiny; it may have beginning
+and an end, but no destiny.</p>
+
+<p>And so although this modern scientific school began as a reaction
+against the narrowness of theological limitations, both of time and
+greatness, so hampered and hypnotized has our thought been by both, that
+man is of nearly as little universal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>account with one as with the
+other, and we find a seemingly ineradicable repugnance to admit that any
+people had &#8220;developed&#8221; writing before the least possible time ago we can
+fix it, usually this side of the year 1 of the Christian era. And thus
+we have M. Terrien de Lacouperie&#8217;s &#8220;450 <i>embryo</i> scripts and
+writings&#8221;&mdash;which another fifty years may show to be nearly as many
+fragments of one or a few great stocks of ancient hieroglyphs. Of course
+it is impossible to derive the American races or civilizations from the
+Chinese, Phoenicians, Hittites, or any of the cultures of the other
+hemisphere, if we limit the latter to what we know of their history
+within the past two or three thousand odd years, and American
+civilization to the past fifteen hundred years. The matter is somewhat
+greater than that&mdash;just as man is somewhat greater than a fool of
+natural caprice.</p>
+
+<p>There is one point from which this question of American <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>origins, at
+least of American place in human society and civilization, can be
+studied in its broader lines, even with what materials we have. It is
+that of language in general. All these other matters we have touched
+upon are necessary factors in the question of human evolution, and the
+position of America cannot be considered apart from them, and all of
+them. But Language touches both the glyphs directly and also all these
+other things, and is itself of surpassing interest and importance as a
+human study.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">From one point of view Language is man himself, and it certainly is
+civilization. Without it man is not man, a Self-expressing and social
+being. It is, as von Humboldt laid down, not an act but an activity, or
+energy, not a thing done, but a doing. It is the constant effort of the
+conscious self to formulate thought. It is the use of the energy of
+creation, of objectivation, a veritable many-colored rainbow bridge
+between the inner or higher man and the outer or lower worlds. And it is
+not only the expression of Man as man, but in its varied forms it is the
+inevitable and living expression of each man or body of men at any and
+every point of time. Itself boundless as an ocean, it is in its infinite
+forms and streams and colors and sounds, the faithful and exact exponent
+both of the sources and channels by which it has come, and of the banks
+in which it is held, racial, national or individual. It is living or
+dead, forceful or weak, pure or foul, refreshing or flat, healing or
+poisonous. It limits us, but yields to our force. Every word or form
+comes to us with the thought impress of every man or nation that has
+used or molded it before us. We must take it as it comes, but we give it
+something of ourselves as we pass it on. If our intellectual and
+spiritual thought is aflame, whether as nation or individual, we may
+purify it, energize it, give it power to form and arrange the atoms
+around it&mdash;and we have a new literature, a new and beneficent, creative
+social vehicle of intercourse, mutual understanding, and human
+unification. Or if our mental or spiritual life is stale, and petty, or
+egoistic, or seeking for enjoyment <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>only rather than action; if we have
+nothing in us to give the words and forms we use, but only some national
+force left to use and play with them, we for a while refine, and paint,
+and pettify, and elaborate into meaningless subtleties of form, every
+one of which in turn reacts upon our mental and spiritual life,
+distracting and enchaining us, until at last the nation and its
+language&mdash;die out; for neither can live without the other.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is evident that the criterion of the perfectness of any language
+is not to be found in a comparison of its forms or methods with those of
+any other, but in its fitness as a vehicle for the expression of deeper
+life, of the best and the greatest that is in those who use it, and
+above all in its ability to react and stimulate newer and yet greater
+mental and spiritual activity and expression. The force behind man,
+demanding expression through him, and him only, into the human life of
+all, is infinite&mdash;of necessity infinite. There is no limit, nor ever has
+been any limit, to what man may bring down into the dignifying,
+broadening and enriching of human life and evolution, save in his own
+ability to comprehend, express, and <i>live</i> it. And the brightness and
+cleanness of the tools whereby he formulates his thought, as well as the
+worthiness and fitness of the substance and the forms into which he
+shapes it for others to see, are the essentials of his craft. For such
+is the economy of nature, which wastes nothing in reality, that a fit
+vehicle will be taken possession of by its own tenant; and the unfit
+left to and be taken by those who can use no better.</p>
+
+<p>Before, then, taking up the great formal classes into which language at
+large is usually divided, it will be necessary to say a few words as to
+the foundations of form itself in language, that we may then proceed to
+consider these classes from the standpoint of their inner meaning rather
+than solely of the outer form; and by seeking to understand the mental
+and spiritual equipment and life of those that used them, may perhaps in
+turn be better fitted finally to enter into the genius of their written
+and spoken languages, and to interpret through them in the detail more
+of the ideas which those forms were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>both fitted and used to express.
+Such a method is essential for the understanding of any language or
+culture, but it is absolutely necessary in the case of these non-Aryan
+tongues, so great is the distance both of time and thought which
+separates us from them. If we set out to compare the forms by which they
+expressed their thought with those within which we develop ours, or
+approach these cultures and peoples in the attitude of alien criticism,
+study their &#8220;interesting ways&#8221; through a mental lorgnette and impale
+their dead forms on the needles of our collection, we shall not only
+show ourselves less broad in culture than many of them, but we shall
+simply close and lock the doors of discrimination and understanding
+before us. The question is not, How do their forms and ways appeal to
+us? but, How did those forms, and ways, achieve their underlying
+objects, and what was the <i>thought</i> behind them?</p>
+
+<p>Life is action, and without activity whatever powers lie within any
+conscious being are only potential. Activity is the bridge between the
+inner man and the outer world, by which he impresses his thought, in
+forms, on chaos or the atoms about him, receiving in return increased
+knowledge and experience of all he touches, and knowledge of himself
+through the results of his own actions; and it is the bridge between man
+and man. For this reason the verb, the word of action, is the most
+important and most developed part of speech. The three hypostases of
+life, as of language, are the self, activity, and the world; and it is
+for the expression of all the possible varied relations between these
+three, that all the forms of any language come into being. And from the
+way in which these forms are developed, and the relative importance
+which is given to this or that form of thought or activity, the
+character of the people, their grasp of nature, and their own conception
+of themselves and their relation to the world, can be seen.<a name="FNanchor_49-1_18" id="FNanchor_49-1_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-1_18" class="fnanchor">49-*</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>Some
+languages have the strong impress of impersonality, without any loss of
+virility; others are strongly egotistic and self-assertive, with perhaps
+the braggart&#8217;s lack of genuine strength. Each spoken language that we
+know has its own color and tone, to which our thought must respond, if
+we would know and use it well. To speak good Swedish, for instance,
+requires clear thinking to an exceptional degree. To show this, the form
+&#8220;come here,&#8221; which is the ordinary English expression, is simply <i>bad
+grammar</i> in Swedish; the use of &#8220;come <i>hither</i>&#8221; (<i>kom hit</i>, instead of
+<i>kom h&auml;r</i>) is imperative. We have the &#8220;hither&#8221; in English, but it has
+become stilted, and the linguistic distinction lost. Compare also the
+use of <i>f&aring;</i>, as a common auxiliary; nor are these exceptions, but, on
+the contrary, characteristic examples. Also to enunciate the language
+rightly one must hold the back and neck erect and the muscles firm.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>In some languages the speaker thinks of himself and his completed action
+as inseparable, as a single idea, as the Latin <i>edi</i> for I have eaten;
+in others he thinks of himself subconsciously as possessing the results
+of his action, as our <i>I have eaten</i>; and in others, as among the Irish
+peasantry, he separates himself and his action entirely, as <i>I am after
+eating</i>. In some grammars, as in Maya, the verbal concept starts with
+the past; in others, as our own, we live in the present; in the Welsh,
+the future is the chief tense. The mere choice of <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i> as
+the first person future auxiliary denotes a specific mental quality.</p>
+
+<p>Now the expression of all these infinite shades of
+<a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="relationship">relationtionship</ins> between the self, the activity and the world, is
+achieved in two ways: position or placement&mdash;syntax; and form. The
+customary division of languages is into Monosyllabic, Agglutinative,
+Incorporating, and Inflectional, and this division will suit our
+purpose, though it must be used with care. It is held in the ordinary
+theory that these classes must represent successive stages of linguistic
+perfection, each in turn being higher in the scale than the other, they
+having grown one from the other as the race advanced. By the theory the
+monosylla<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>bic is lower than the agglutinative, and inherently less
+useful. But the theory does not work out in practical application to the
+facts we have to deal with, for while we cannot find still left in the
+world any agglutinative languages representative of sufficient culture
+to bring into our present consideration, we do find a monosyllabic in
+the highest rank, and meeting the highest cultural requirements. In
+short, the latter may be theoretically the inferior tool, but the genius
+of thought behind is greater than the form. One man can draw a
+masterpiece with a burnt stick, another only paint a daub with all the
+brushes made. Once again we must not judge by our preconceived
+preferences of form.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting therefore the modern remnants of agglutinating languages,
+outside of America, as affording us no literary material of value for
+our study, we shall find at once drawn across all the other great
+classes a single broad line of division, between the ideographic and the
+literal&mdash;the same as already mentioned. And the moment we draw this line
+as an exponent of the mental and spiritual thought-life of the different
+peoples, we shall find it not only molding their language forms, both
+written and spoken, but manifest as well in their art, philosophy, and
+even their social polity. And of course we must be fair in our
+comparisons, and not set a Chinese coolie in the concrete against an
+English statesman, nor any concrete example of another kind of culture
+in its decay with the highest bloom to which we believe our own type to
+be able to carry us.</p>
+
+<p>It would be absurd to say that the ratiocinative, literal mind is higher
+than the ideal. One man sees directly the meaning of the things, the
+events and situations before him; another reasons it all out. And
+contrary to many of our current beliefs, the former is often the man of
+action; he sees at a flash to the heart of the matter, and gets things
+done. His thought, his activity, is vivid; and his words are likely to
+be so as well. The idealist, if he be broadminded, and not merely
+sentimental, is indeed likely to be the practical man. And the type of
+mind that is made manifest to us by these great non-Aryan lan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>guages and
+their forms, is the former. Of course idealism in its decadence becomes
+negative, inactive, self-consuming and no longer creative. But in its
+bloom the direct vision may be even more active, more practical, than
+are the reasoned processes.</p>
+
+<p>Much ink and paper has been spent over the question whether the Chinese
+hieroglyphs are ideograms or phonograms, whether the character
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p53.png" width="35" height="36" alt="hieroglyph" title="" />, for instance, conveys to those using it
+primarily the idea of Heaven, or the spoken word <i>T&#8217;ien</i>. It is
+necessarily both, in a sense; it would not be written language
+otherwise. And it is equally true that the letter-combination <i>Heaven</i>
+is in a way as much to us a picture of the idea as of the sound; but the
+difference of procedure is radical. The glyph is related to the idea
+directly, the spelled word only through the formal combination of
+symbols for single vocal speech-elements, meaningless when separate. The
+relation of spoken sound to glyph is wholly adventitious; the relation
+of the idea to the spelled word is equally adventitious. The ascent, if
+we so call it, of written speech from the ideographic to the alphabetic,
+is the descent of the thought further into material forms.<a name="FNanchor_53-1_19" id="FNanchor_53-1_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_53-1_19" class="fnanchor">53-*</a> And
+while it may be (and in the course of universal evolution rightly so)
+necessary for our thought to descend into the bondage of matter and
+form, for its know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>ledge and experience, and for the development of
+matter and form into fitter vehicles of thought, nevertheless the
+process is a binding and for a time an enchaining one, and the thought
+is, for a time at least, likely to be lost in the confusion of forms.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we may lay down as our fundamental proposition that a hieroglyphic
+form of writing is better fitted to, and must properly, in the period of
+its natural development, accompany the imaginative processes of mind.
+Or, since imagination to our literal thought implies in some degree the
+fanciful (though wrongly so in essence), we might perhaps better say
+that that form of writing is the fit attendant and exponent of those
+functions of mind which cognize the inner meanings of the facts of life
+directly, rather than those which study them through the correlation of
+their phenomena. And also, that the development by any people of an
+alphabetic out of a hieroglyphic system, does not imply a greater
+advance in linguistic perfection on their part, but indicates a
+corresponding mental and inner change of attitude towards ideas and
+things, and a different conception of the self as related to them all.</p>
+
+<p>It is not at all necessary to assume that the knowledge gained by one
+method is deeper or more exact than the other. True science may exist as
+fully under one set of circumstances as the other. If we will take the
+type of the so-called most primitive form, the monosyllabic&mdash;the
+Chinese, we shall find all this evidenced in the clearest manner. To
+note but one illustration, a study of the scientific and philosophical
+ideas involved in and conveyed by the word <i>k&#8217;ung</i>, for Space, ether,
+the fundamental substratum of sound or vibration, as well as the
+&#8220;interetheric&#8221; central point of balance and power, will disclose an
+understanding that has nothing to fear from modern comparisons.</p>
+
+<p>And the very fact that Chinese has had to depend on placement of its
+monosyllables to express all the relations for which speech is called
+upon, instead of relying on changes of form, seems to have, and indeed
+has so stimulated the development of pure linguistic power that the
+language is actually as per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>fect and clear a medium of cultured and
+learned intercourse, as is the Sanskrit, the supreme type of the
+so-called most developed form, the inflectional. And by reason of its
+possession of the ideographic element it has a vividness which the
+Sanskrit has not. No language can be a highly developed one which does
+not provide in some way for the expression of all possible needed
+relations between the three fundamental postulates of life and
+activity&mdash;the self, the action and the world; and Chinese does this in
+spite of its monosyllabic structure by the development of its syntax of
+position. And it should be remembered further that Chinese syntax, in
+strict correspondence to the genius of the language, is not the same
+formal thing that syntax is with our inflectional tongues, but includes,
+or rather is primarily based on the <i>harmonic adjustment of the inherent
+basic ideas of or within the words</i>. The Chinese monosyllables are then
+not the naked separate things they are in the dictionary, but the whole
+phrase or sentence is on the contrary as much a unit as one of ours; and
+often more so.</p>
+
+<p>This integral unity of the whole sentence or expression, dominated by a
+perspective of ideas rather than of forms, which is achieved in Chinese
+by the elaboration of placement, is also characteristic of the structure
+of the languages of the American continent; but, these languages being
+polysyllabic, the vividness and unity are attained by a method described
+as Incorporation, whereby the accessories of relation are so included in
+or attached to the leading word that the whole expression assumes the
+form and sound of a single word. And a similar process takes place with
+the various elements of a compound sentence. So that although this one
+of the divisions of language approaches very closely to the Inflectional
+in its external forms, it yet has held to the vividness and essential
+characteristics of the ideographic method. And it is a point of the
+utmost importance for the decipherment of the Maya glyphs, to note as
+has been stated before, that their syntax of combination must follow
+that of the spoken language, which we know.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>There is one broad line of division marking all the languages and
+civilizations of the world&mdash;the line between the ideographic and the
+literal; it marks the use of hieroglyphic or of alphabetic writing, and
+it denotes a culture so widely different from ours, modes of thought so
+distinct, views of life and man&#8217;s relation to it one might almost say so
+opposite to ours, as to point unmistakably to a most distant past, and a
+former world-culture probably as wide-spread in its day as is now
+ours&mdash;or more so. And it is one of the strangest and most remarkable of
+the phenomena we are considering, that the two divisions have overlapped
+each other in time to such a degree that whereas we have in Sanskrit,
+the most perfect type of Aryan, or inflectional languages, the oldest of
+them all; on the other hand we have in Chinese an equally perfect
+linguistic medium of the other type, kept alive into our own times.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider the development and status of the American
+civilizations which have been revealed to us, and especially when we
+have once opened our minds to the possibility that world-civilizations
+different in their time from ours in ours, may for all we know have
+existed and been blotted out ages ago, leaving linguistic traces, and
+perhaps perpetuating cultural remnants in a few parts of the earth, it
+is impossible not to recognize the breadth of the problem we are
+considering. All over the American continent at the time of the
+Discovery we see cultures and systems whose time had come. Back of most
+of the North and South American tribes we find the remains of mighty and
+utterly extinct civilizations&mdash;only their dim memory left. In the
+centers of higher culture from Mexico to Peru we see the ancient
+civilization brought further down to our own times; but there also, in
+process, all the incidents of break-up and an expiring greatness.
+Internecine strife, invasion from outside, changes of center, are all
+going on, and all marked by a <i>steady decrease</i> in everything that means
+civilization. Of the ancient mathematical and astronomical knowledge a
+corner of which is revealed to us by the Maya glyph remains, only a
+distorted fragment appears in the Mexican, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>where also hieroglyphs have
+yielded to a cruder rebus-writing. The stately and incomparable
+compositions and architecture of Palenque, Copan and Quirigu&aacute; have
+yielded to the ball courts and local strifes of Chichen Itza&mdash;all this
+following the very course of changing historical succession preserved in
+the Chronicles. The later the date, the lower in every case the culture;
+this is impossible not to recognize, nor have we traces of any different
+course of events. Of course we see the rise of the Aztec nation, a small
+cycle, but like the Gothic upon the Roman, it comes at the end of the
+general American break-up&mdash;an incursion of barbarians settling on and
+preserving for us fragments of the culture that preceded them, just as
+has happened over and over again all over the world. And the same with
+the Incas in Peru. And yet even the Mexican culture demands our high
+respect, comparing favorably with European of the same period. Indeed it
+was actually far ahead of the latter in matters of education and many
+points of polity.</p>
+
+<p>But in spite of its seeming greatness, its heart and energy were gone,
+just as with Peru, and both yielded to what on the face seems a miracle,
+but was only the expression of that force which was preparing the
+American continent for a new race and civilization, still now only in
+its beginnings. The Mayan empire had already broken up. And even as we
+write, the archaeological history of the other hemisphere is being
+repeated here; on the heels of Manabi comes the Chimu Valley, and soon
+it will be with America as with Egypt&mdash;one will not be able to print an
+up-to-date work on its early history, for new discoveries will carry it
+back further, and to greater scope, before the previous ones can be
+edited and gotten to press. Compare the few pages of earliest Egypt in
+Sharpe&#8217;s history, with Flinders Petrie&#8217;s work of a decade or so ago, and
+that with the situation today.</p>
+
+<p>It is a simple fact that decipherment and publication all over the world
+can no longer keep pace with discovery; and the time has come for
+archaeology to begin to survey these remnants, engineering works that
+would tax any modern na<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>tion with all our appliances, vast ruined
+cities, one above the other, innumerable languages and writings, the
+traces of peoples whose very names are lost to history&mdash;as a whole, and
+to ask itself how long it must have taken for all these works to be
+accomplished, let alone for the birth and decay of the civilizations
+that supported them, and gave environment for the development of such
+technical skill as could finish the enormous bulk of the Great Pyramid
+with an accuracy beyond the fineness of our best instruments to measure.
+For not only mere bulk is to be considered&mdash;though there is enough of
+that scattered over the earth to keep all the possible available
+craftsmen of the world a wholly incommensurate time achieving them, but
+the ability to conceive and carry out such works. What <i>sort</i> of people
+leveled Monte Alban for its crown of pyramids, dreamed and executed the
+stucco modelings of Palenque, built the temple of Boro Budur in Java,
+cut the Bamian statues of the Hind&ucirc; Kush, and so on, and so on, for page
+after page? If they had such appliances as we have, they must be ranked
+at least in our class for having them; if they did them without our
+great engines, what sort of men were they? And if they could do these
+things without our appliances, is it not a fair inference that they
+could easily have made the tools, or others better perhaps?</p>
+
+<p>One fact is becoming more prominent with every advance of archaeology
+over the world, a fact of the greatest linguistic interest, namely that
+ancient civilizations and empires, as a whole, <i>lasted longer</i> than ours
+of today. Consider how many different and successive empires Europe has
+had in the last 2000 odd years, <i>our</i> history; and how long each of our
+cultures has lasted. All of them put together would go into one of these
+older periods, and have plenty to spare. Passing over what may be the
+real meaning and bearing of this fact on the problem of universal
+history and human evolution, and the position of our race today, the
+linguistic considerations which follow are most interesting.</p>
+
+<p>If the fundamental thesis of language as a human activity is its direct
+correspondence to and expression of all the inner <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>motives and forces of
+the users, we have here a key to the survival to our day, an unknown
+period past its own time, of the Chinese type.</p>
+
+<p>Of the development, modification and decay of languages we have ample
+material in our own times for study, the periods over which the
+modifying forces operate being an equal measure of the periods of
+national activity and change. And, what is perhaps not always
+sufficiently recognized, we have an elaboration of the formal elements
+going on under very different impulses, at different periods of the life
+of the language. The time has come in the history of a people for it to
+play a greater part on the world&#8217;s stage: some danger has threatened the
+national life and aroused its energies, or other causes have worked to
+quicken the mental and spiritual life; an Elizabethan era is ushered in,
+frequently by a forerunner, a Chaucer, and the language responds, its
+forms develop and are perfected. Or else some fitting or amalgamating
+force comes in from outside, the life of the people is widened, new
+blood enters in every sense, and the forms of the language respond. Or
+perhaps, when they may seem to have come to the tether end of things,
+and men&#8217;s minds turn back to older, even prehistoric times, seeds long
+buried and forgotten in the nature spring up, and a true national
+Renaissance follows. In these cases the change and elaboration of forms
+is a symptom of new life; the vehicle is being molded and expanded to
+fit the growing thought.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not always so. There comes a time when the outgoing force, the
+activity of life, wanes and, after a greater or less period of settled
+conditions, a period of proper use and government of the regions
+occupied, a change sets in. And then we may have again the wholly
+deceptive phenomenon of linguistic amplification; but it is the false
+activity of decay. The energy has turned in and begun to feed upon
+itself. The national impulse has changed from achievement to
+gratification, more and more sources are drawn upon to minister to its
+enjoyment, and that enjoyment becomes an art; forms of every kind are
+subtly refined in its service, and linguistic forms <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>with them. And this
+is then the very period when all these material, formal elements are
+pointed to with pride as the evidence of culture and progress. The
+thought-life of the nation has lost itself in the conflict and
+confusion, in the distractions of the forms into which it has molded the
+matter its creative force had entered.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus in nations and languages, as in individuals, the phenomena
+of birth, growth, use, and a quick or a slow death, all marked by
+various degrees and signs of health or disease, and <i>every one at root a
+moral question</i>. These are the facts of general average, quite
+corresponding to those that form the bases for life insurance tables.
+But, as with these latter, not only are there variations for
+inheritance, class, locality, and so on, but there are here and there
+cases of out and out exception&mdash;which from all we can see must be
+assigned to some external force in operation on the individual. We call
+them &#8220;freak&#8221; occurrences, only because we cannot see the wider law or
+causes at work. When we meet them in sufficient numbers, we make new
+tables to cover them as far as we can, again in general only. Other
+causes still elude us, though they must have a fountain somewhere.</p>
+
+<p>We have, as great exceptions to our general averages, two opposite
+phenomena. One is the sudden inexplicable and dazzling rise on the
+world&#8217;s stage of a totally insignificant people, the other the seeming
+arrest for long periods of time of the normal processes of even
+incipient decay. And touching the latter point, it is strange indeed
+that in two such widely different cultures as those of Iceland and China
+we should find the same law apparently at work; the periods are vastly
+unlike in actual, but not so in relative duration. We have no way of
+properly placing the maintenance of Icelandic and Chinese as they have
+been other than by simply laying down the existence of what we may call
+a Law of Retardation, whose ultimate causes we cannot fathom or
+classify, but which will stand as an opposite phase of the Law of
+Stimulation, which is more frequent in operation, but is equally
+unexplained.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>If we will now regard the languages and cultures of the world, we will
+find all the phases of linguistic and cultural activity, operative with
+about the same degree of rapidity, all over both hemispheres, save in
+places protected by our Law of Retardation. We will find the rate of
+changes and successions generally far less rapid the farther back in
+time we go; and finally we will find a special and marked acceleration
+on both sides of the Atlantic during the last thousand years, all
+incident to the placing of a new race in America.</p>
+
+<p>So for the facts as we find them. They point to the descent of past
+American civilizations from a past period of continental, or far more
+probably, of world-wide extent. For who can imagine that people great
+enough to build as these did, should not also have navigated? Why should
+we assume in the face of other experiences, that Maya dates and
+calculations mean nothing, except on the general principle that they did
+not know as much as we do, and were doubtless liars? Bailly proved over
+a hundred years ago that Hind&ucirc; exact astronomical observations must date
+back at least 5000 years, and that they were in possession of minutely
+accurate tables<a name="FNanchor_61-1_20" id="FNanchor_61-1_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_61-1_20" class="fnanchor">61-*</a> long before Europe was. And the rotundity of the
+earth was certainly known both to them and the other great nations of
+antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>Archaeology is today pushing back the dates of fixed and acknowledged
+history almost to the date given by the Egyptians to Solon for the
+submersion of the great Atlantean island; and if we can but read the
+Maya glyphs, and open <i>that</i> door, another twenty years from now may
+show us beyond all possible dispute evidences in every part of the earth
+belt of a contemporaneous culture, different from and precedent to the
+Aryan.</p>
+
+<hr style="border: solid black 1px; width: 9em;" />
+
+<p>I have so far in this monograph, based upon and having to do as it has
+with the Maya glyphs, their interpretation and their place in the
+linguistic field, limited myself to an analysis and consideration of the
+facts presented to us by those linguis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>tic and cultural data we have
+actually before us. But there is one further problem which is suggested
+by it all. It is this: Where, in point of time and place, is the change
+in the world&#8217;s linguistic and cultural life from ideographic to literal
+to be sought for, and what is its rationale? Separated from us by such
+an enormous period of time as it is, I still cannot believe that some
+view of it cannot be had. There are various facts of Old World history
+and language, partly of prehistoric Europe, partly of Asia, an analysis
+of which would extend this paper too far into other fields; but apart
+entirely from the question of myths or traditions, there are various
+actual observed phenomena both of language and writing, especially in
+Central Asia, which do not fit into any of the ordinary theories, and
+which do suggest this, as a simple linguistic conclusion. In point of
+locality, at least, the conclusion agrees with the usual &#8220;Aryan home&#8221;
+theory; but as far as concerns this latter it must be remembered that
+however fully it demonstrates the unity of the Aryan race, beyond that
+fact all questions of dates and even of the state of civilization at the
+time, are not matters of history as yet for us, but only of theory&mdash;as
+to which our present &#8220;perspective&#8221; may be once more as faulty as it has
+often been heretofore.<a name="FNanchor_62-1_21" id="FNanchor_62-1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_62-1_21" class="fnanchor">62-*</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>I believe that this center of transition lay somewhere in Central Asia,
+to the north of the great Him&acirc;layan range. That this region was a sort
+of alembic, a melting-pot (as America is today) for various peoples of
+an ancient world-wide culture, as broad at least in its scope as the
+term Aryan is today. That this culture displayed the ideographic traits
+we have discussed, and that it has left more or less definite traces at
+different places in the world. That it covered the two Americas, in
+whatever continental form they may then have existed, leaving us there
+&#8220;les d&eacute;bris &eacute;chapp&eacute;s &agrave; un naufrage commun.&#8221; That coincident with a new
+and universal world-epoch, as wide in its cultural scope as the
+difference between the ideographic and literal, there was finally formed
+a totally new vehicle for the use of human thought, the inflectional,
+literal, alphabetic. That this vehicle was perfected into some great
+speech, the direct ancestor of Sanskrit, into the <i>forms</i> of which were
+concentrated all the old power of the ancient hieroglyphs and their
+underlying concepts. For Sanskrit, while the oldest is also the
+mightiest of Aryan grammars; and no one who has studied its forms, or
+heard its speech from educated native mouths, can call it anything but
+concentrated spiritual power. That the force which went on the one hand
+into the Sanskrit forms, was on the other perpetuated on into the
+special genius of Chinese, in which, as we know it, we have a retarded
+survival, not of course of outer form so much as of method and essence.
+And in Tibetan, in spite of all that is said to the contrary, I suspect
+that we have a derivative, not from either Chinese or Sanskrit as we
+know them, but by a medial line from a common point.<a name="FNanchor_63-1_22" id="FNanchor_63-1_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_63-1_22" class="fnanchor">63-*</a> Of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>course
+the time for such changes must have been enormous; but whatever it was,
+it was no greater in its realm as time, than were the mental differences
+in theirs. And they both are equally human data.</p>
+
+<p>Certain other facts point to the American or Atlantic source and center
+of this ancient epoch. They are briefly that all around the
+Mediterranean basin we find traces of a vanished culture, unknown to our
+history, and living only in tradition and some archaeological remains.
+And of this culture various investigators, each approaching it from his
+particular favorite locality, have constructed for us as many different
+&#8220;Empires,&#8221; by theories each supported by various details of analogies.
+One calls them Tartars, another Hittites, another Pelasgians, and so on.
+And all of them, in each of the theories, have as a fact a great many
+unexplained characteristics, different from those of our historical
+nations. Some of these characteristics, most markedly the Basque, but
+also not a few at greater distance, have definite American similarities.
+It might not be a far guess that these fragments represent an eastward
+movement, which later in the history of the Aryan development met and
+was pushed back westward again by the fully formed and dominant Aryan
+race from its Central Asian center. This is the future province of
+Archaeology.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 2em;">And I am convinced that the widest door there is to be opened to this
+past of the human race, is that of the Maya glyphs. The narrow
+limitations of our mental horizon as to the greatness and dignity of
+man, of his past, and of human evolution, were set back widely by Egypt
+and what she has had to show, and again by the Sanskrit; but the walls
+are still there, and advances, however rapid, are but gradual. With the
+reading of America I believe the walls themselves will fall, and a new
+conception of past history will come.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_41-1_14" id="Footnote_41-1_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-1_14"><span class="label">41-*</span></a> See <i>Memoranda on the Chilam Balam Calendars</i>, C. P.
+Bowditch, 1901. The obscurities of the Chronicles render the questions
+connected with Ahpula&#8217;s death exceedingly difficult. For instance, the
+immediate context in the books of Mani and Tizimin make the date 1536,
+as given in numerals, an impossible one. But, if the date as given in
+<i>Maya terms</i> is to be accepted at all (and it certainly is too specific
+to be rejected), then by the long count such a date <i>must</i> have been
+either 1502, 5350, or 12,786 years after the date of Stela 9, Copan. Mr.
+Bowditch favors the lower figure, chiefly because it is the lower, and
+thus puts Stela 9 at <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 34. To get this date the longest possible
+distance from Ahpula&#8217;s death to the end of the katun must be used&mdash;that
+is, &#8220;6 tuns short&#8221; must be taken to mean &#8220;almost 7 tuns short.&#8221; I can
+only say here that if, in correcting the figures 1536, as demanded by
+the immediate context, we make the simplest possible correction, and put
+them one katun earlier, 1516, and then take as the unexpired time to the
+end of the katun the shortest of the three terms given as possible, or 5
+tuns 139 days, bringing the end of Katun 13-Ahau on Jan. 28, 1522, we
+not only bring the end of Katun 11-Ahau within the year 1541, as is most
+positively stated by the practically contemporary Pech Chronicle, but we
+also bring in line nearly all the important events of the Chronicles,
+from the fall of Mayapan, ca. 1450, the coming of the Spaniards, and the
+smallpox, in 11-Ahau (1521 to 1541), the conversion to Christianity in
+9-Ahau, down to Landa&#8217;s death (1579) in 7-Ahau; as well as many outside
+references. Any other combination requires harsher emendations somewhere
+else. But the above choice of the term of 5 tuns 139 days, thus
+seemingly called for, means that Stela 9 at Copan is dated, by the long
+count, 5350 years before Ahpula&#8217;s death, or <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> 3824. Whether this is
+right, is a question for the future.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_42-1_15" id="Footnote_42-1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-1_15"><span class="label">42-*</span></a> &#8220;In ethnology however one troubles oneself little with
+the detail of linguistic structure. It is held quite sufficient to
+gather from different peoples and collate a couple of hundred vocables,
+into whose actual nature all insight is lacking, and then upon dubious,
+often purely superficial and apparent similarities, to deduce linguistic
+affinities. Or else, as is now most in fashion, the claims of linguistic
+research towards the solution of ethnological questions are reduced to a
+&#8216;most modest share&#8217; in comparison with other fields &#8216;somewhat more in
+line with natural sciences&#8217;&mdash;meanwhile pointing for justification to the
+absurdities set forth as the results of too far-fetched linguistic
+deductions.... The errors and sophistries charged against ethnological
+linguistics are rather an accidental result of the individuality of
+single investigators, than essential to the subject. They are at least
+scarcely greater than those to the credit of recent Anthropometry. A
+brief glance at the strange changes of opinion in the latter field
+during the last three decades, in spite of all its boasted figures,
+shows how little ground it has to throw stones. Serious students, such
+as Wallace and Dall, whose critical ability in Zoomorphology no one can
+deny, and who do not rest content with a few skulls of doubtful
+<i>provenance</i>, gathered &agrave; la Hagenbeck, have come to a wholly negative
+view of the value of Craniometry.&#8221;&mdash;Dr. Otto Stoll, <i>Maya-Sprachen der
+Pokom-Gruppe</i>, I, vii, ix.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_43-1_16" id="Footnote_43-1_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-1_16"><span class="label">43-*</span></a> Our present day speculators never seem to think for a
+moment that these things may conceal, <i>and thereby preserve</i>, some real
+meaning, or be more than nonsense. The theory of mythological
+interpretation pushed to such extremes as in the &#8220;animistic&#8221;
+<i>explanations</i> of Weber, Keightley, and others, and not absent from the
+writings of some Americanists (namely, that it was all nothing but
+ridiculous or concocted fancy, taken soberly) is bad enough, and argues
+little breadth or insight, when applied to the myths of a single people,
+considered alone. Applied to comparative mythology, in the state of
+things today, it is simply impossible. The plain fact is, that such
+identities as these must indicate one of two things: a common tradition,
+locally modified by circumstances; or a <i>fact in nature</i> or <i>history</i>,
+symbolically expressed in different ways according to the times and
+modes. And it most probably indicates both of these. It is indeed hard
+to account for the extent, and the weight given to some of these
+&#8220;myths,&#8221; now that we are coming to a better appreciation of the scope
+and greatness of ancient civilizations&mdash;everywhere&mdash;except they do
+correspond to actual <i>facts</i> in nature and history. And it might be
+worth our while to get at some of these.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_45-1_17" id="Footnote_45-1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-1_17"><span class="label">45-*</span></a> We might just as well acknowledge, once for all, that in
+spite of its present-day currency in England and America, and its
+pre-emption of the field of &#8220;science for the people,&#8221; the theory of
+man&#8217;s physical and mental descent from the anthropoids, is not only <i>not
+proved</i>, but is vehemently denied by an equally able and scientific, and
+withal more logical, body of researchers than those who form its
+supporters. To <i>fabricate</i> a missing link in a chain (or even, as with
+Haeckel, several links), whose only authority is acknowledged to be its
+necessity in order to complete the evidence for the theory, and then to
+declare the theory proved because the fabricated link fits perfectly the
+gap it was created for, is equally vicious scientifically whether the
+fabrication be the work of a physicist of renown or a linguistic
+theorizer. Let it simply be agreed, as it now is by all science, that
+the <i>evolution of form</i> is a universal and well evidenced principle,
+working out through the various well established and comprehensible
+incidents, such as natural selection, adaptation to environment, and so
+on&mdash;yet this statement of the fact is not an explanation of its cause.
+And every scientific and logical requirement will be equally, and
+better, met by regarding all forms, whether physical, linguistic, or of
+any kind, as coming, or rather brought, into being by the force of a
+consciousness which needs them as the vehicles of its expanding
+activity. That this is absolutely true in language, anybody can see.
+That it is true in every department of daily life about us, everybody
+<i>does</i> see. That it should be equally true in biology and physics, would
+not affect the standing or verity of a single <i>observed</i> fact.
+</p><p>
+There was, along about the beginning of the Christian era, and for some
+time before and after, a very curious movement, which seemed to spread
+itself over nearly the entire world, east and west. It is told of the
+early Aztecs that &#8220;they destroyed the records of their predecessors, in
+order to increase their own prestige.&#8221; It is related that writing once
+existed in Peru, but was entirely wiped out, and the Inca records
+committed to quipus alone. The &#8220;burning of the books&#8221; under Tsin Chi
+Hwangti in <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> 213 sought to do the same for China. The times of Akbar
+witnessed much of the same in India. And in Europe almost nothing was
+left to tell the tale of the great pre-Christian eastern empires and
+systems of thought; so that from the establishment of State Christianity
+under Constantine, and the final settlement of the Canon at the Council
+of Nicaea, an impenetrable veil was drawn over the achievements and
+greatness of the Past, and all connexion therewith broken off. It was
+some time after this that we find the heliocentric theory, as well as
+that of other habitable worlds, denied (in Europe), because &#8220;it would
+deprive the Earth of its unique and central eminence.&#8221; Just as we also
+today are served up with prehistoric savage and animal ancestors, to the
+greater glory of our own present-day magnificence. But it really is in
+sober truth only a question of mental perspective which does not affect
+the facts of history, biology, archaeology or language in the least. It
+is only a question of which end of the telescope we look through.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_49-1_18" id="Footnote_49-1_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-1_18"><span class="label">49-*</span></a> It is exceedingly interesting to trace the course of
+criticism since the appearance of Wilhelm von Humboldt&#8217;s great work,
+<i>Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren
+Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts</i> (Berlin,
+1836). Dr. Brinton gave it most unqualified approval; (see especially
+his monograph read before the American Philosophical Society in 1885,
+and printed the same year). Prof. H. Steinthal (<i>Grammatik, Logik und
+Psychologie</i>, 1855) calls the subject of &#8220;inner form&#8221; the most important
+one in linguistic science, and von Humboldt&#8217;s treatment of it his
+greatest contribution to that science. And so on. But the work has
+nevertheless received little attention from a large number of writers,
+most of them declaring it &#8220;unclear.&#8221; These two views, when one studies
+the various writers, seem to follow closely upon the standpoints from
+which each approaches the study. Those who study language (perhaps one
+should here say, languages) as a phenomenon, a set of external forms, an
+act, a thing done, get little use out of von Humboldt&#8217;s work. Those who
+see it as a human &#8220;activity,&#8221; an energy, get much. This is quite
+apparent in one of the clearest and ablest linguistic works which has
+recently appeared, Dr. Adolf Noreen&#8217;s <i>V&aring;rt Spr&aring;k</i> (in 9 vols., still in
+course of publication, Lund, 1903 and later), a work of far wider
+linguistic value than appears from its title. Dr. Noreen, however,
+dismisses von Humboldt&#8217;s work, and the subject of &#8220;inner form,&#8221; with a
+few pages, and the results are apparent in several interesting points.
+In the first place, in the course of an acute and critical analysis,
+wherein he shows that the purpose of speech is not simply <i>expression</i>
+of thoughts or ideas, but the communication to some other person of the
+<i>knowledge</i> of the ideas so held by the speaker, he goes on to say: &#8220;the
+same knowledge of A&#8217;s wishes could be as well communicated by his saying
+&#8216;I want you to come&#8217; as by his saying just &#8216;Come.&#8217;&#8221; This is quite true;
+but the <i>energic</i> effect is quite different. Language is the bridge from
+man to man, and it is also a <i>creative activity</i> of man. Of course Dr.
+Noreen, in a later volume, where he most lucidly analyses the terms
+&#8216;words,&#8217; &#8216;forms,&#8217; and &#8216;concepts,&#8217; etc. (<i>ord</i>, <i>morfem</i>, <i>semem</i>, etc.),
+and corrects many errors of definition made by his predecessors,
+acknowledges the difference between the two forms; still his whole
+admirable work, analytical and critical as it is, is devoted to this
+phase of language as a mere phenomenon, a set of forms which serve as a
+medium of communication. From this standpoint, we know all there is to
+know about language when we have classified its forms. But from the
+other, the study is ever leading us into the regions and depths of man&#8217;s
+consciousness, his creative activity as it goes out to the world; and
+the true definition of language, from this position, &#8220;can hence only be
+a genetic one.&#8221; (von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, VI, 42)
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">It is further not unworthy of note that, except where directly required
+in treating of verbal categories, nearly all of the enormous number of
+illustrations which Dr. Noreen chooses for his points, are <i>nouns</i>,
+names of <i>things</i>, and vary rarely verbal forms, words of action and
+<i>doing</i>. But it is simply a fact that all the <i>potency</i> of language is
+in the verb, and almost all there is of language, in a philosophic
+sense, lies there. The verb is the bridge of communication and action
+<i>upon</i> external things, just as is language itself, going out of man.
+And it is also noteworthy that the recognition of this position of the
+verb, together with these other matters of which we are speaking, seems
+nearer at hand and clearer to those students who are led beyond Aryan
+languages to the study of American and Asiatic, especially Central and
+Northern Asiatic. For instance, G. v. d. Gabelentz, <i>Die
+Sprachwissenschaft</i>, and other works.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_53-1_19" id="Footnote_53-1_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53-1_19"><span class="label">53-*</span></a> It was not until after this paper was already in type
+that my attention was directed to the complete agreement of this and the
+succeeding sentences with the following passage in <i>The Secret
+Doctrine</i>, by H. P. Blavatsky, London, 1888, vol. II, page 199. After
+saying that some of the Atlantean races spoke the agglutinative
+languages, the passage continues: &#8220;While the &#8216;cream&#8217; of the Fourth Race
+<i>gravitated</i> more and more toward the apex of physical and intellectual
+evolution, <i>thus</i> leaving as an heirloom to the nascent Fifth (the
+Aryan) Race the inflectional, highly developed languages, the
+agglutinative decayed and remained as a fragmentary fossil idiom,
+scattered now, and nearly limited to the aboriginal tribes of America.&#8221;
+Note the words I have italicized, marking the evolution of the
+&#8220;inflectional&#8221; languages as an attendant phenomenon on
+physico-intellectual evolution, compare the passage with von Humboldt&#8217;s
+thesis, already quoted, that the incorporative quality denotes an
+exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative processes of mind
+in its users, and further with the surviving genius of Chinese, the type
+of monosyllabic languages, and the agreement is evident. Von Humboldt,
+however, did not carry out so fully the archaeological results, for
+which indeed the materials were in his day still lacking. See also other
+passages in <i>The Secret Doctrine</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_61-1_20" id="Footnote_61-1_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61-1_20"><span class="label">61-*</span></a> <i>Trait&eacute; de l&#8217;Astronomie Indienne et Orientale</i>, Disc.
+Pr&eacute;l. et seq.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_62-1_21" id="Footnote_62-1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62-1_21"><span class="label">62-*</span></a> The suggestion above is linguistic, and in that phase is
+given as a corollary to the foregoing discussion; but, as stated, it is
+at the same time in accord with the &#8220;Aryan&#8221; theory in its essentials
+(though not in its hypothetical and ultra-historical speculations), and
+it also finds confirmation by various passages in <i>The Secret Doctrine</i>,
+by H. P. Blavatsky, as already quoted. &#8220;The traces of an immense
+civilization, even in Central Asia, are still to be found. This
+civilization is undeniably <i>prehistoric</i>.... The Eastern and Central
+portions of those regions&mdash;the Nan-Shan and the Altyn-Tagh&mdash;were once
+upon a time covered with cities that could well vie with Babylon. A
+whole geological period has swept over the land, since those cities
+breathed their last, as the mounds of shifting sand, and the sterile and
+now dead soil of the immense central plains of the basin of Tarim
+testify.... In the oasis of Cherchen some 300 human beings represent the
+relics of about a hundred extinct nations and races&mdash;the very names of
+which are now unknown to our ethnologists.&#8221; (Vol. I, page xxxii et seq.)
+See also Col. Prjevalsky&#8217;s <i>Travels</i>. Why should it not be so? The above
+was written in 1888, but the evidences are growing every day, and it
+will be against all archaeological precedent if far-reaching results do
+not follow from Dr. Stein&#8217;s <i>small</i> find, and from Capt. d&#8217;Ollone&#8217;s
+recent researches among the Lolos, and the securing by him, as we are
+informed, of the long-sought knowledge of their hieroglyphic system.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_63-1_22" id="Footnote_63-1_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63-1_22"><span class="label">63-*</span></a> The study of Tibetan has so far been approached almost
+exclusively from the south, that is by those already familiar with
+Sanskrit and P&acirc;li. To this fact, as well as to the overwhelming
+influence exercised on literary Tibetan by the Buddhist propaganda, is
+due the difficulty one meets in any study of its origins. The traces,
+however, do nevertheless exist. Some interesting facts concerning both
+Chinese and Tibetan, which seem to be entirely omitted in such later
+standard works as those of Summers, Wade, and Giles, are to be found in
+the almost forgotten <i>Chinese Grammar</i> of Dr. Marshman, Serampore,
+1814.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div style="background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;">
+<p class="center noindent"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr1">20</a></td>
+  <td>two glyphs <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-1.png" width="66" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> and <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p20-2.png" width="64" height="44" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> should have a . at the end</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr2">25</a></td>
+  <td>above the the should read above the</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr3">34</a></td>
+  <td>Muluc Ix, Cauac should read Muluc, Ix, Cauac</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr4">38</a></td>
+  <td>Cimi forms:
+<img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-3.png" width="40" height="42" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> <img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-4.png" width="41" height="43" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /><img class="glyph" src="images/glyph-p38-5.png" width="41" height="45" alt="hieroglyph" title="" /> should have a . at the end</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdpadr"><a href="#corr5">51</a></td>
+  <td>relationtionship should read relationship</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez
+Codex, by William E. Gates
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@@ -0,0 +1,2692 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex, by
+William E. Gates
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez Codex
+       with a Concluding Note Upon the Linguistic Problem of the Maya Glyphs
+
+Author: William E. Gates
+
+Release Date: June 22, 2008 [EBook #25878]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAYA-TZENTAL PEREZ CODEX ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Typographical errors in the original have been maintained in this
+version. They are marked with a [TN-#]. A list of the errors is found
+at the end of the present text.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not found in the
+character set used for this ebook:
+
+  ["o]  LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DOUBLE ACUTE
+  ['S]  LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S WITH ACUTE
+
+
+
+
+                             PAPERS
+                             OF THE
+
+           PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
+                  ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
+
+                         VOL. VI.--No. 1
+
+
+
+                           COMMENTARY
+                      UPON THE MAYA-TZENTAL
+                           PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+                 WITH A CONCLUDING NOTE UPON THE
+              LINGUISTIC PROBLEM OF THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+                               BY
+
+                        WILLIAM E. GATES
+
+  PROFESSOR IN SCHOOL OF ANTIQUITY, INTERNATIONAL THEOSOPHICAL
+              HEADQUARTERS, POINT LOMA, CALIFORNIA
+
+
+                        CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
+                     PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
+                         NOVEMBER, 1910
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  THE ARYAN THEOSOPHICAL PRESS
+  Point Loma, California
+
+
+
+
+NOTE
+
+
+In presenting this Commentary on the Codex Perez to students of American
+Archaeology, the Peabody Museum adds another paper to its series
+relating to the study of the hieroglyphic writing of the ancient peoples
+of Mexico and Central America.
+
+The Museum is fortunate in adding to its collaborators Mr. William E.
+Gates, of Point Loma, California, who for more than ten years has been
+an earnest student of American hieroglyphs. From his lifelong studies in
+linguistics in connection with his research in "the motifs of
+civilizations and cultures," he comes well-equipped to take up the
+difficult and all-absorbing study of American hieroglyphic writing. Mr.
+Gates has materially advanced this study by his reproduction of the
+glyphs in type. These type-forms he has used first in his reproduction
+of the Codex Perez, and now in this Commentary they are used for the
+first time in printing. The method used in the construction of this font
+of type is explained by Mr. Gates in the following pages. This important
+aid to the study will be highly appreciated by all students of American
+hieroglyphs, as it will greatly facilitate the presentation of the
+results of future research.
+
+It will be seen that this Commentary is more in the line of suggestion
+to be expanded after further studies, than in the way of conclusions.
+
+At the close of the paper the author presents the general deductions he
+has drawn from his comparative study of languages and cultures. His
+concluding paragraph forcibly presents the hope that the understanding
+of the Maya glyphs will furnish new and important data in the life
+history of man.
+
+  F. W. PUTNAM
+
+  PEABODY MUSEUM
+
+  October, 1910
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 6]
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ CODEX: PAGE 17]
+
+
+
+
+THE PEREZ CODEX
+
+
+The Perez Codex was discovered just fifty years ago by Prof. Leon de
+Rosny, while searching through the Bibliotheque Imperiale, Paris, in the
+hope of bringing to light some documents of interest for the then newly
+awakened study of Pre-Columbian America. It was found by him in a basket
+among a lot of old papers, black with dust and practically abandoned in
+a chimney corner. From a few words with the name Perez, written on a
+torn scrap of paper then around it but since lost, it received its name.
+
+Being restored to its proper place in the Library, it was in 1864
+photographed by order of M. Victor Duruy, Minister of Instruction, and a
+few copies issued without further explanatory notes than the printed
+wrappers. The number of copies is stated by Prof. de Rosny to have been
+very small; in Leclerc's _Bibl. Amer._ (1878, No. 2290) it is given as
+only 10, and in Brasseur's _Bibl. Mex.-Guat._ (page 95), as 50. A copy
+is in the library of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, and referred
+to in their publications as a most fortunate acquisition. I had the good
+fortune to secure a copy some ten years ago, and one other has recently
+appeared in a Leipzig catalog at a high price. Beyond these I have not
+traced any other copy.
+
+In 1872 Prof. de Rosny published a reproduction, drawn by hand, which,
+as stated by him later, may be disregarded for practical purposes.[7-*]
+
+In 1887 he issued a facsimile edition in colors, 85 copies, which up to
+the present time has remained the only attempt to show the Codex in its
+proper colors, and has become exceedingly difficult to procure; so much
+so that it was only after seven years search that I was able to secure
+my own copy.[8-*]
+
+In 1888 he reissued the Codex, uncolored, with the same letter-press,
+and in an edition of 100 copies. This has also become scarce.
+
+Each of these three editions has its advantages and disadvantages. The
+colored edition of 1887, having been worked over by hand, in
+lithography, is defective in various places, both as regards the black
+of the figures and glyphs, and in the colors. Coloring exists on the
+original codex which was not reproduced at all in the edition, and the
+colors given are in many cases not exact. Thus on pages 19 and 20 two
+different reds are used for the backgrounds, whereas but one is found in
+the original; on pages 15, 16 the figures are a turquoise green, and on
+pages 17, 18 an olive green, the correct color for all four being
+turquoise green.
+
+I have been able to find no inaccuracy in the 1888 edition, which is
+indeed stated in the introduction to be entirely by mechanical process,
+without hand intervention; but being reproduced by printer's ink in
+black only, not only do the colors not appear, but the chromatic values
+are actually far inferior to the photographs of 1864. It was stated
+further by Prof. de Rosny that some features of the MS. had been lost by
+deterioration in the 25 years previous to his editions of 1887 and 1888,
+but this I have not been able to verify in any important point.
+
+The photographs and the edition of 1888 are to all general purposes
+identical; but, notwithstanding that the photographs are steadily
+yellowing by age, the chromatic values are so far superior that I have
+continually come to find them the court of final decision in doubtful
+matters. In a very considerable number of instances a close examination
+of the photographs has suggested the presence of faint lines of color
+on glyphs or figures, which was entirely indistinguishable in both of
+the printed editions, and which was yet in every case confirmed,
+although sometimes with difficulty, by the examination of the original
+MS.
+
+The proved value, as well as the scarcity, of these photographs was so
+great, that in 1905 I had my set photographed twice, by dry and wet
+plate processes, and a few copies printed after a careful comparison and
+selection of the two sets of plates. It is from these that the present
+edition has grown.[9-*]
+
+The present edition, save for the photographs thus reproduced, having
+been entirely redrawn, and partly restored, it is fitting to detail just
+what has been done in this respect.
+
+At the very beginning of my introduction to Maya studies the enormous
+burdens placed on research therein at every turn, bore upon me as upon
+every other student. The subject and its possibilities stimulate
+enthusiasm to the highest degree; the rewards of success are greater
+than those of any like problem today; and yet, fifty years since the
+present Codex was discovered, and thirty years since Dr. Foerstemann's
+unsurpassable edition of the Dresden Codex, the actual workers on the
+problem are the barest handful. A few scattered and obscure references
+amongst the volumes on volumes of Spanish writers, nearly all
+untranslated, most of them scarce or almost unprocurable, and many not
+even printed, make up the literature to be searched out. And a few
+points of decipherment won and safely fixed by the researchers, from
+Brasseur, de Rosny, Pousse, Brinton and others a generation ago, to
+Messrs. Bowditch, Seler, Goodman and a few others of today, are all we
+have--standing out in a wilderness of guesses by many writers, needless
+of naming.
+
+Of course the prime and absolute necessity of such a study is true
+facsimiles; but the task of using even these, taken as they must be from
+much defaced inscriptions and manuscripts, is too obvious for comment.
+So from the very first of my studies I began to cherish thoughts of the
+day when Maya could be printed with type, and classified indexes to the
+glyphs at hand. From one point of view such facilities can only be
+expected to come _after_ decipherment; from another, in absence of
+bilingual keys, they are a necessity _before_ that can be attained. So
+far as his work covers, a great deal has been done in this line by Mr.
+A. P. Maudslay in the field of the inscriptions.
+
+At the very outset therefore I must enter acknowledgment of the
+assistance that I owe to the courtesy at that time of Prof. F. W.
+Putnam, of Peabody Museum, and Mr. Chas. P. Bowditch, in placing, with a
+freedom by no means universal among curators and researchers, their
+material at my disposal, with privilege of copying. I am safe to say
+that while I have reclassified the glyphs for my own use as my studies
+went on, yet without the copy which by Mr. Bowditch's courtesy I was
+allowed to make of his card index to the glyphs of the three codices, as
+a start, this edition of the Perez Codex would not yet have reached
+daylight through the many other occupations among which Maya studies
+have had to take their chances.
+
+At first it seemed possible to prepare a font of separate types for the
+various elements of the compound glyphs we find in the texts; but after
+having such a font made a number of years ago, and printing a couple of
+pages of the Dresden Codex, the result was unsatisfactory; it became
+evident that the proper Maya font of type must be both separate and
+composite, as is used in Chinese, and not separate only as we have for
+Egyptian. The type for the text cards of this edition have therefore
+been made this way.
+
+As to the colored plates of the Codex herewith, it is evident that
+nothing whatever is gained by preserving the irregularities of the
+defaced parts of the Codex, while everything is to be gained by making
+all as clear and distinct as possible. The first step therefore was to
+have a set of photographed enlargements of two diameters, made direct
+from the 1864 issue. From these I made careful tracings, myself, of the
+black figure and glyph lines of the original, making at the same time
+the separate enlarged drawings from which the type were afterwards made.
+At this first drawing only the evident, the indisputable parts were
+drawn. The type forms were then classified, arranged in parallel
+columns, and compared. All was then gone over, and new points settled on
+the basis of the familiarity thus gained. It is a fair estimate to say
+that this process of checking and verifying was gone through, first to
+last, down to the final proof-reading of the printed sheets, some fifty
+times.
+
+One most important fact was established by this process, and must be
+noted. In the Perez Codex at least, _nothing is to be taken for
+granted_, nothing charged to a careless scribe, and no variants regarded
+as being identical in value--with a very few exceptions, to which I
+shall advert later. Wherever there remains enough of any glyph to show
+its characteristic strokes, it can be regarded as safely indicated;
+whenever the strokes are not just those characteristic of any glyph, it
+cannot be inferred. Down to the very end of the various revisions I
+found myself able to add glyphs which at first seemed hopeless, and yet
+when once seen became clear and plain. Relying on the presence of the
+photographs to check the work, I have thus added a very considerable
+number to the glyphs at first apparent. In some cases, as in 6-b-11 and
+17, and especially in 8-b-7, 8, 10, where glyphs were only partially
+erased, but no other instances of perfect glyphs existed to compare them
+with, I have let them alone, without attempting restoration. In short, I
+may have made some errors of eye, but I have guessed nothing.
+
+In a very few places I have restored glyphs totally erased, relying on
+the parallelism of the passages. Such are some of the Ahau-numbers in
+the upper sections of pages 2 to 11, and in the central sections on
+those pages, the initial pairs of glyphs on pages 15 to 18-a, b, c, the
+first columns of pages 19 and 20, and a few day-signs on pages 21, 23
+and 24. These glyphs are all necessitated by their different series, and
+hence can cause no confusions; while it seemed advantageous to have them
+before the eye. A fair instance of the procedure is shown on page 3-b-1,
+3. The temptation was strong to put the usual [Hieroglyph] glyph here as
+on all the other pages, but the slight variation in the lines left of
+glyph 3-b-3 forbade it.
+
+The restoration will further be found a little bolder on the type-cards
+than in the colored plates, where I have in general only endeavored to
+reproduce what could be seen actually present. The glyphs restored on
+the upper part of page 7 would seem hopeless at first sight; but they
+are well-known and common forms, and the characteristic traces shown on
+the photographs belong to these and to no others known.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The cards of type-printed text, in parallel columns for convenience of
+study, are self-explanatory. Such an arrangement has from the first
+seemed to me indispensable for proper study and comparison. The paging
+of the de Rosny editions I have retained, except to change the
+practically blank page 1 to be page 25, since to number this as 1 is
+confusing. For the divisions and the numbering of the glyphs I have made
+my own arrangement. It is possible that section _b_ on pages 2 to 11
+should only go to the bottom line of the central figure, leaving section
+_d_ to read clear across the page, and another section to be made to the
+left of the nearly erased figures at the bottom; but the chances as
+shown by the lining and arrangement of the columns seemed to favor it as
+I have given it. Only final decipherment can decide definitely.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7-*] In _Archives paleographiques de l'Orient et de l'Amerique_, atlas,
+t. I, pl. 117-142.
+
+[8-*] In his _Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift_, Danzig, 1903, Dr.
+Foerstemann does not know of the existence of this edition.
+
+[9-*] _Codex Perez_: Maya-Tzental. Redrawn and Slightly Restored, and
+with the Coloring as it originally stood, so far as possible, given on
+the basis of a new and minute examination of the Codex itself. Mounted
+in the form of the Original. Accompanied by a Reproduction of the 1864
+Photographs; also by the entire Text of the Glyphs, unemended but with
+some restorations, Printed from Type, and arranged in Parallel Columns
+for convenience of study and comparison. Drawn and edited by William E.
+Gates. (_Privately printed._) Point Loma, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLORS
+
+
+The colors of the Codex afforded a number of questions for solution,
+some of which I have cleared up and embodied in the plates; a few are I
+believe insoluble. I have also been able to add a few wholly new points,
+not indicated by any of the preceding editions.
+
+Being unable to make a personal examination of the original, I prepared
+from my enlarged black drawings, above mentioned, another full set
+including the figures and all glyphs or other parts showing any
+suggestions of color. Upon these I prepared a list of nearly 200
+questions covering every detail, together with certain general
+specifications, and had the whole made the subject of a careful and
+exhaustive comparison with the original at the Bibliotheque Nationale.
+This report, when duly returned with the various details set out, with
+the various colors shown in their exact tints by water-colors, and with a
+special analysis of the question of the fading of the colors, was again
+checked and verified by the evidence of the three editions.
+
+In doubtful questions arising from faded colors, I have sought to show
+the condition of the original as it exists today. In the solid red
+backgrounds and other places I have aimed to show as far as possible
+what the Codex looked like when fresh.
+
+This question as to what all the colors in detail were when fresh, I do
+not feel that I have quite solved. The following palette scheme seems to
+me about as near as the data permit us to formulate.
+
+A permanent black, being the parts reproduced in black in the present
+edition.
+
+A brick-red, tinged with crimson, used for backgrounds, red numerals,
+and probably elsewhere. This we may call unfading red.
+
+A genuine brown, as on the animals, pages 5-a, 8-a; perhaps also
+elsewhere as lining ornament.
+
+A pale pink as flesh color on the human figures.
+
+A blue, as on the possible katun number series on pages 23 and 24.
+
+A turquoise-green, with varying amounts of blue tinge, on the spotted
+figures and in the numeral columns of pages 15 to 18; also, with
+somewhat less of the blue, for the "water" bands on pages 21 to 24.
+
+The above colors are all definite and positive.
+
+Then next appears a brownish color used for lining or ornamenting
+various glyphs, and the clothing, headdress, etc., etc., of the figures.
+We find many shades from a pale neutral up to a darker clear brown, and
+also a definitely reddish, as on the tail of the bird on the right side
+of page 23. This brown may be a fading of the red of the backgrounds and
+numerals, but the permanence of the color in these latter places is so
+positive that I believe it is not so. I think it should be regarded as
+separate.
+
+We next come to a color question related directly to decipherment, that
+of the very difficult numeral columns on pages 15 to 18. There is no
+practical reason discernable for the use of alternating colors save the
+avoidance of confusion between bar combinations. Three bars together of
+different colors stand of course for three 5's; of one color they would
+make a single number 15. We therefore find here our above black, red and
+blue-green alternating and clearly marked in places; but we also find
+many numerals of varying shades of brownish, bistre and grayish. I
+called for especial care in the examination of these points on the
+original Codex, and the water-color sheets and explanatory notes show in
+detail the facts of the present state of the Codex. Prior to the
+examination I supposed that these faded numerals were a faded red, but
+this is stated in the report to be certainly not the case; the
+suggestion is made that they are probably faded blacks.
+
+From the latter conclusion I am inclined in part to dissent, at least as
+to certain passages, for two reasons. These are, first the actual
+permanence of the above noted main colors, everywhere else; and second,
+passages in the second columns of pages 16 and 17. In each of these we
+find faded brown or gray bars, so placed between or next to plain black
+bars as would give, were they faded blacks, more than three black bars
+together.
+
+Another point on page 17 is to be noted. In the top section, first
+column, are five blue 3's. Some of these blue dots, as shown in the 1887
+edition and in my water-colors, have faded to the same light brown seen
+elsewhere. The brown and the blue 5 in the second column of this page,
+middle division, as just mentioned, have also an identical chromatic
+value in the photographs.
+
+My whole conclusion therefore, so far as I can formulate one, is that in
+these columns we have:
+
+Red, black, and blue-green numerals, as shown. Some of the blue numerals
+seem to have been _outlined_ with black, of which traces still appear on
+the original, are seen in the photographs, and indicated in the present
+color plates.
+
+Several instances where the Codex has been rubbed so as to leave only
+the outlines of original black numerals. These are now gray in the
+original, and I have left them as black outlines, touched in with gray.
+
+Finally, a number of pale brown numerals which are either faded
+blue-greens, or else indicate a fourth color in the original. Which of
+these alternatives is the true one, I cannot say.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The original Codex is still in practically as good condition as when the
+three editions were taken from it. The material of which it is made is a
+maguey paper of grayish tinge, and not a yellowish brown as would be
+inferred from the 1887 edition. This is noteworthy, as the wearing away
+of the coating with which the paper was surfaced for the writing, does
+not leave a brownish place which, as in the 1887 edition, might be
+mistaken for traces of applied color. This coating is indeed better
+preserved in places than is shown by the 1887 edition; thus the
+headdress at the extreme left of page 20, just to the right of the
+restored 8 Ezanab on the present color plates, is shown with the coating
+all erased and the black writing as if left on the ground-paper--which
+is incorrect.
+
+
+
+
+THE PAGES IN DETAIL
+
+
+Coming then to the question of the subject-matter of the Codex, I feel
+that little is in order beyond a simple analytical description of the
+different pages, rather than any attempt at an interpretation. The road
+of general deductions from superficial resemblances between unknown
+elements and the details of other known things from other times and
+places, is strewn by the wrecks of too many theories to be attractive
+traveling. I am firmly convinced of the greatness and importance of the
+study we have before us, and the exalted civilization which produced it;
+but I do not know how to interpret these monuments. Indeed the very
+persistence with which the interpretation (which will certainly be
+self-evident and everywhere applicable when it does finally come) still
+eludes us, is a sufficient proof that we have not yet found the right
+road. When we do, great doorways to the past of mankind will open of
+themselves, and we will know more of human life and evolution than we
+now guess. Until then we can only describe, classify, and try to get rid
+of some of the mechanical impedimenta of the search.
+
+What we have of the Perez Codex is manifestly but a fragment; the extent
+of it originally we have no means of even guessing. It is fortunate
+however that what we have gives several practically complete chapters or
+portions of the work. Taking first the side of the MS. paged 2 to 12, we
+find the entire side covered by a series of pictures with text, all
+identical in arrangement. The few remaining traces on page 12 show its
+likeness to the others, for we see in their proper places parts of the
+Tun-glyph on which the figures on the upper section are seated; of the
+Cimi, Tun and Cauac glyphs just as in pages 11-c-2, 6 and 8; also of the
+columns of glyphs to the left, and traces of the headdress. As will
+appear further, at least two more pages are required to complete this
+series, and it is as good a supposition as any other that they were
+those which would be numbered 1 and 13--that is, one before page 2 and
+one after page 12. For convenience of reference the divisions of these
+pages may be lettered from _a_ to _e_; _a_ being given to the upper
+portion, _b_ to the left columns of glyphs, _e_ to the large middle
+picture, and _c_ and _d_ to the text divisions above and below this.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Taking up first the central figures, section _e_, we find in each a
+standing figure, with ceremonial headdress of varying character,
+offering a dragon's head (a universal symbol of wisdom) to another
+figure, seated on a cushioned dais, the side of which bears various
+"constellation" signs. The latter in turn extends his hands, either
+holding some object, or else in a simple gesture. The standing figures
+are all almost completely preserved; the seated ones unfortunately
+largely or wholly obliterated. In front of the standing ministrant is a
+vase of offerings, usually a triple Kan figure, and in two cases with
+knives. In the upper part of the picture, facing in every case but one
+towards the ministrant, is a bird figure, different on each page, and
+having in two cases a human head. On each page is an Ahau sign with red
+numeral, all of them together forming a series which (starting on the
+supposed page 1 with 4 Ahau) gives the succession 4, 2, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5,
+3, 1, 12, 10, 8, 6; in other words the numbers of thirteen consecutive
+katuns. The Ahau numerals 13, 11, 9, on pages 3, 4 and 5, are entirely
+distinct, and enough traces appear on other pages to establish this as a
+katun series beyond question. If this chapter includes just a round of
+numbers it would of course be complete in 13 pages. The chapter may be
+historical in contents, but the presence of this numeral Ahau-series
+clearly relates these pages to successive katuns in some way, whatever
+other bearings they may have. The ten pages thus in some way definitely
+have to do with the lapse of 72,000 days, or not quite 200 solar years,
+and the extension of the series to a full cycle of 20 katuns is quite
+likely. The background of this section _e_ is red on each alternate
+page.
+
+Returning now to section _a_, we find on each page three figures, nearly
+all of persons or animals, seated on a large base [Hieroglyph]
+practically identical with the tun-glyph. Fourteen of the backgrounds to
+these figures are red. Above each figure there seems to have been at
+least six glyphs, of which but very few are left. Above these is a space
+entirely erased. In the center of the section on each page is a column
+containing at least two Ahaus with red numerals. The numerals of the
+upper row exceed those of the lower by 6; each row decreases from page
+to page by 4. The erased margins of the MS. do not afford space for
+another picture besides the three, on either side, but they do just give
+room for another Ahau-column on the left of each page. If this second
+Ahau-column existed, we have again the katun-series repeated in each row
+across. If it did not exist, the series (reading from the supposed page
+1) of 13, 9, 5, etc., and 7, 3, 12, etc., decreasing by 4's, give the
+numbers of successive tuns. Once again the question of whether a simple
+number-round of thirteen terms, or a full round of twenty terms, whether
+tuns or katuns, was originally displayed on the Codex, must be left
+undetermined. It is further to be noted that faint but exact traces of a
+third Ahau, on a higher line, appear on page 5, as well as some doubtful
+traces on page 8. No definite relationship between the pictures of this
+section _a_ and those of section _e_ is apparent.
+
+Section _b_ is made up of 45 or more glyphs in three columns. The first
+column is almost totally erased on every page, and I have disregarded it
+both in assigning reference numbers and in the type cards. The other two
+columns I have numbered in double column sequence downwards; but this
+can be regarded as solely for convenience' sake. The glyph [Hieroglyph]
+which is three times repeated at the beginning of page 2, and recurs in
+parallel position repeated two to five times on each page, is the most
+common glyph in the whole Codex. It is identifiable probably 38 times,
+including twice at the top of the erased _first_ column on page 4. It
+heads the second column several times on every page, except 7, which is
+too erased for any determination, and page 3, where a slight variation
+in what is left of the postfix at b-3 forbade its insertion under the
+rules I have given limiting restorations. I suspect that this glyph
+should be repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9, for the following reason. In
+positions b-6, b-8 or b-10 of each page occurs a certain face-glyph
+[Hieroglyph] that is found nowhere else in either the Perez, Dresden or
+Tro.-Cort. codices. If the initial glyph is repeated at 3-b-9 and 11-b-9
+as suggested, then (with a slight variation on page 4) this series of
+repetitions of the initial glyph will in each case be closed by the
+face-glyph in question.
+
+A marked feature of section _b_ is the occurrence, near the bottom of
+each page, of a Cauac-sign, with or without the [Hieroglyph]
+wing-postfix, and with prefixed and superfixed [Hieroglyph] numerals,
+exactly as is so common in connexion with the Chuen-sign on the
+Inscriptions. This Cauac-sign is usually accompanied by an Ahau and a
+Tun, each with numerals that are for the most part erased. This
+combination suggests distance-numbers and dates, somewhat as on the
+Inscriptions; in this case the double-numbered Cauacs would stand for so
+many uinals plus so many days. The following combinations, besides the
+one above, are also found:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+Section _c_ consists of 16 glyphs in two rows, above the central
+picture. Glyphs 15 and 16 on each page are erased. The chief general
+characteristic is the frequent repetition of the Cimi-compound,
+[Hieroglyph]; the repetition on each page of a Cauac-sign with single or
+double numerals as in section _b_; and of Tun-compounds, with
+[Hieroglyph] subfix and with varying prefixes (frequently faces), as
+especially see page 5.
+
+Section _d_ is a triple row of glyphs, originally 21 in some instances,
+but with many now erased. I am able to establish few general
+characteristics for this section, save again the frequency of the
+Cimi-compound as in section _c_, of various Tun-compounds, and of the
+two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph][TN-1] With the exception of
+10-b-4, the face with the tau-eye occurs only in this section _d_ and on
+pages 15 to 18. This glyph is exceedingly common both in Dres. and
+Tro.-Cort, the form in which it appears at 3-d-4, 6, [Hieroglyph]
+occurring (including its secondary compounds) no less than 126 times in
+Dres. and 33 times in Tro.-Cort.
+
+Beneath section _d_ are the remains of red numerals and of heads and
+headdresses of figures which are now too much erased to give any basis
+for comment.
+
+A most marked feature of the Codex is the very large number of
+Tun-compounds, a feature confined exclusively, with one exception, to
+the present pages 2 to 11, and pages 23, 24. A classified list shows 28
+compounds of this glyph, [Hieroglyph] 20 of these showing the subfix,
+and combined with a face or other prefix. The connexion of this fact
+with the Tun-bases of section _a_, and with the katun-rounds shown by
+the Ahau-series above referred to, is manifest.
+
+To sum up the general characteristics of this side of the MS., and
+without attempting to interpret any separate glyphs, we find the
+following data:
+
+The Cimi-compound [Hieroglyph] and its sub-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs
+25 times.
+
+The numeral-compounded Cauac occurs 20 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 13 times on this side and once on page 23.
+
+The Chuen-compound [Hieroglyph] occurs 19 times and probably
+oftener--once only on the other side of the MS.
+
+The various Tun-glyphs occur 45 times, on the two sides.
+
+The face-glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The Kan-Ymix glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 10 times.
+
+The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs 37 times on this side and, with a prefix
+and a changed postfix, once on page 24.
+
+With the exceptions noted, none of the above glyphs occur at all on the
+reverse side of the MS.
+
+There are finally 19 different Yax ([Hieroglyph]) compounds, occurring
+in all 25 times, 16 of them on this side of the MS.
+
+With three exceptions the above glyphs are the only ones that are
+repeated in the Codex with any marked frequency. The three exceptions
+are the face with tau-eye, already [Hieroglyph] mentioned, and the two
+glyphs occurring as an initial [Hieroglyphs] pair twelve times on pages
+15 to 18, sections _a_, _b_, _c_.
+
+Of month signs used as such I am only [Hieroglyphs] satisfied of 12
+Cumhu, at 18-b-4 and of 16 Zac, at 4-c-7. The glyph [Hieroglyph] at
+7-c-2 may also be 1 Yaxkin.
+
+The only cardinal point sign is that of the West, [Hieroglyph] occurring
+at 4-b-14 and again at 16-a-6.
+
+There are besides these numeral Cauacs, 15 other Cauac [Hieroglyph]
+compounds, occurring in all 17 times on this side, and twice on pages
+23, 24.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Upon turning over the Codex, we find that whereas on the side we have
+been considering the scribe limited himself to the conventional red
+numerals and backgrounds, with here and there a touch of brown, upon
+this other side we have a wealth of color united with a harmony of
+composition and structure that marks a very high degree of artistic
+skill. It is not alone the accuracy of the drawing and the writing, such
+as we have noted in connexion with the study of the glyphs, but the
+whole manuscript as it lies open before us shows that sense of
+proportion, that ability to unify without seeming effort a multitude of
+details into a perfectly balanced whole, which is the positive mark of
+developed and genuine culture. When we remember the exceeding difficulty
+of combining primary colors into a brilliancy that is not garish, and
+the equal difficulty of achieving artistic mastery in a conventional
+treatment of forms, we are simply forced to recognize that we have here
+the evidence of an advanced school of art with full rights of
+independent citizenship. If the figures look strange and sometimes
+distorted, we must remember that our whole training has been in the
+realistic school, by which we are prone to judge all others, but by
+which they must not be judged. We have no more right to weigh these
+compositions in the scales of our art motifs than we have to weigh Greek
+rhythm of quantity or Saxon of alliteration against our weights by which
+we measure rhythm of rhyme and stress. In fact it is impossible for us
+even to judge concerning the true harmonic effect of these other
+measures, and it may well be doubted whether the very soul itself of our
+meter is not empty and tinny as compared with these others--quality for
+quality.
+
+There is one great broad line that divides the nations and civilizations
+of the earth, past and present, in all their arts of expression. We may
+call it that of the ideographic as against the literal. It controls the
+inner form of language and of languages; it manifests in the passage of
+thought from man to man; it determines whether the writing of the people
+shall be hieroglyphic or alphabetic; it gives both life and form to the
+ideals of their art. It is a distinction that was clearly recognized by
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, when he laid down that the incorporative
+characteristic essential to all the American languages is the result of
+the exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative elements of
+mind.
+
+The time has passed when we think that the absence of our perspective
+drawing in Japanese pictures is due to the fact that these "children of
+nature" never happened to recognize that a thing looks smaller in
+proportion to its distance, so that they ought to come to us to learn.
+We have come, in some measure if not yet fully, to recognize that
+whereas we show a thing to the eye, these other peoples suggest a
+thought to the mind, by their pictures. And we should remember, and
+remember always, that while our modern art having won its technical and
+artistic skill within the past few hundred years, is now beginning to
+emancipate itself from the materialism of the eye by efforts towards the
+"impressionist" methods, these ancient peoples had long since arrived at
+the ability to convey "impressions" through the medium of harmonious
+compositions of the most rigid conventional elements--an artistic
+achievement which those who know its difficulties can alone begin to
+appreciate.
+
+It may be quite easily forgiven to one trained with Western, modern
+eyes, who at first sight of these monuments, in total ignorance of their
+meanings, sees them as strange or grotesque. But when, as their
+strangeness wears away, one comes to see the unfailing accuracy with
+which the glyphs are drawn, one's opinion of their makers has to change.
+And when, with this familiarity gained, one advances to an appreciation
+of the work in its bearings as a whole, one has to acknowledge himself
+facing the production of craftsmen who had the inheritance of not only
+generations, but ages of training. Such a combination of complete
+mastery in composition, perfect control of definite and fixed forms, and
+hand technique, can grow up from barbarism in no few hundred years. I
+would hesitate to think it could even come in a few thousands, unless
+they were years of greater settledness and peaceful civilization than
+our two thousand years of disturbed and warring European Christendom
+have yet had an example of to show us. It is easy enough in the absence
+of definite historical records, and in our general ignorance of human
+evolution, to theorize and speculate about it all; but the commonly
+accepted picture in our minds of a few savage wandering tribes settling
+and growing up in this country some several hundred or a thousand years
+after the Christian era, simply will not fit in with the fact of their
+ability to produce such works a few hundred years later. Had we nothing
+but the Perez Codex and Stela P at Copan, the merits of their execution
+alone, weighed simply in comparison with observed history elsewhere,
+would prove that we have to do not with the traces of an ephemeral, but
+with the remains of a wide-spread, settled race and civilization, worthy
+to be ranked with or beyond even such as the Roman, in its endurance,
+development and influence in the world, and the beginnings of whose
+culture are still totally unknown. As to the Codex before us, we can
+only imagine what the beauty, especially of the pages we now come to
+discuss, must have been when the whole was fresh and perfect.
+
+The second side of the Codex has to be treated in four divisions or
+chapters, the first of which includes pages 15 to 18. For numerical
+reasons which will appear, this chapter must probably have begun,
+however, at least one page further to the left.
+
+These four pages are laid out with three main divisions, upper, middle
+and lower. Too much of the upper section is erased for any comment other
+than that its arrangement seems to have been parallel in all respects
+with the middle section. This latter shows three subsections, the
+backgrounds in some cases being red,[24-*] containing each a picture
+(probably of a god or a human figure in every instance), surmounted by a
+black and a red numeral and by six glyphs, in double column. This gives
+12 subsections for the four pages, which we may refer to respectively as
+15-_a_, _b_, _c_, etc. Of the initial pairs of glyphs in each subsection
+many are complete, and no section is left without the correct traces of
+the corresponding glyph for one or other of the positions; so that
+although 5 of the 24 glyphs are totally erased, we may safely restore
+them all. Other features of the comparative use and frequency of the
+glyphs on these pages have already been given.
+
+At the top of each picture is found a black and a red numeral. These
+form the consecutive black "counters" or interval numbers, and the
+corresponding red day numbers of subdivided tonalamatls, so common in
+Dres. and Tro.-Cort. It is customary to find these tonalamatls divided
+into fifths or fourths, 52 or 65 days respectively--four or five
+trecenas. At the 53rd or 66th day the initial red number is again
+reached, and the calculation is (by hypothesis) repeated, starting again
+at the left with a new day-sign below the first. Such a column is seen
+in the lower part of page 17, where we find 6 Oc, Ik, Ix; these are to
+be completed by restoring below an erased Cimi and Ezanab, completing
+the 260 days and bringing us around again to 6 Oc. The total of all the
+black "counters" in any series must always be some multiple of 13,
+usually 52 or 65, as stated. And since each "counter" is the interval
+between its adjoining red numbers, wherever a red and a black number are
+given, the other red number, whether before or after, can always be
+filled in.
+
+No traces of this initial column appear for the series in the middle
+division, and several of the numerals are also erased. Two obscurities
+must be cleared up before trying to fill out the series. On page 16
+right is a partly erased black numeral, which from the traces may be
+either 10 or 11. Taking it as 10, we have 13 plus 10 equals an erased
+red 10; plus 5 (on page 17) equals the red 2 below the 5. This verifies
+so far. But we next find--plus 5 equals 8, which is of course incorrect.
+An inspection of the MS. and the photographs reveals a reddish spot (or
+perhaps even _three_ such spots) in the extreme upper right corner of
+the picture space, 17-a, and also a dark spot _under_ the black 5 in
+17-b. It is possible that the separated red dots (one doubtful) are to
+be read together as 3; or that the red dots under the 5 are to be
+disregarded in the count (just as is the red 8 on the next page, 18-a),
+and the red number for 17-a found in the upper right, above the seated
+figure. If the red number in 17-a is 3, the two numbers in 16-c must be
+11. Or it may be assumed that the spot under the 5 in 17-b belongs to
+it, making 6 instead of 5, which figures out. The final result is the
+same, as we have either 10 and 6, or 11 and 5, in these two places, and
+either reaches properly the clear red 8 in 17-b.
+
+In 18-a we find black 26, with a small red 8 below, and a large red 13
+in the usual place at the side. The red 8 will have to be disregarded,
+as not part of the series, which requires 13, and nothing else.
+
+We may now possibly set down the series as follows, using small figures
+above the the[TN-2] line for the black counters, and putting in
+parentheses all numbers restored:
+
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{11}(11)^{5}3^{5}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10,
+  or else
+  (6)^{3}9^{(6)}(2)^{5}7^{6}13^{10}(10)^{5}2^{6}8^{5}(13)^{26}13^{10}10
+
+This leaves us the black number at the beginning, in 15-a, and both
+numbers at the end, 18-c, still not filled in. Adding together all the
+counters we get 82, plus at least the two missing black numbers, one at
+each end. If the total were 104, we might expect it to have been
+comprised within the four subsections 15-a to 18-a. But 104 is not a
+tonalamatl fraction. 130 days, although a tonalamatl half, is an unknown
+division, and would hardly get into the space. If we begin the series in
+the upper division of the page (as occurs in Dres.) and come around to
+the middle division, the probabilities would require that it displayed a
+full series of 260 days, and again also that it began _to the left_ of
+page 15. The probabilities of this series as it is, therefore, indicate
+at least a page 14 to the left, arranged like the other four, and
+forming one chapter with them.
+
+We have now to deal with the puzzling numeral columns, in alternating
+colors, found to the left of each subsection of the upper and middle
+divisions--24 columns in all. These have been referred to at some length
+in the preliminary discussion of the colors, and there is little more
+that can be said. As there said, the entire reason for alternating the
+colors can not be certainly assumed. Alternation of color occurs not
+only where it is needed to distinguish bars, but also where we have only
+lines of dots, which are of course self-separating. And to say that it
+is only for artistic purposes is a mere begging of the question. Only
+four or five of these columns are complete, and a footing of the numbers
+in each gives us varying amounts from 113 to 153, and tells us nothing.
+On the parts that are left we six times have a Chuen [Hieroglyph] with a
+black number apparently belonging to it (perhaps a multiplier), and also
+once a double Chuen, as in Tro.-Cort. The use of the red _kal_-sign, or
+20, is frequent.
+
+The lower division of these pages was also subdivided, into four
+sections on each, which we may refer to as _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_. Each
+contains a picture, with black and red numerals as above, surmounted by
+four glyphs only. The pictures are all quite incomplete; neither is
+there anything to add to what has been already said of the glyphs.
+
+In the middle of page 17 one tonalamatl ends, with a red 6, and another
+begins, also with 6. The second starts with the day 6 Oc, is divided
+into fifths, and the initial column must have been in full: 6 Oc, Ik,
+Ix, Cimi, Ezanab. The restoration of the series gives: 6^{22}2^{(15 in
+two stages)}(4)^{10}1^{4}6. This however only gives a total of 51 for
+the black counters. There is space to the right for another section, but
+whatever may have been written there has entirely disappeared. The last
+three numbers 1^{4}6 seem unmistakable, the [Hieroglyph] especially so.
+If we regard the last 6 as an error for 5, and then restore ^{1}6 in
+section 18-g, it would give the necessary 52. This is the one passage in
+the Codex where I can see no way but to assume a mistake in the writing;
+for 1 plus 4 does not equal 6, and unless for some entirely unknown
+reason the error is clear.
+
+The preceding tonalamatl may have been divided either into 52- or 65-day
+periods. If the period was 52, it must have begun with an initial column
+on page 15, right side. In this event it would be restored as follows:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(19 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}12^{(12 in two stages)}
+  (11)^{8}6,
+
+giving 52. In this case a third tonalamatl must have begun somewhere to
+the left, and ended on the erased right side of page 15.
+
+A different restoration would carry the initial column back to the
+extreme edge of page 15, when we would have this:
+
+  (initial 6)^{(2)}(8)^{8}3^{11}(1)^{(11 in two stages)}(12)^{6}5^{7}
+  12^{(12 two stages)}(11)^{8}6
+
+giving 65.
+
+To choose between these two would be mere guessing.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The well-known pages 19 and 20 come next. Together they make four
+compartments, up and down the full length of the pages, two with red and
+two with black backgrounds. Each is, or rather was, preceded by a column
+of 13 "year-bearers." The left column on each page I have restored,
+although no traces of it are left. But apart from its manifest
+necessity, as part of the series, if the width of the red ground on page
+20 (see the photographs) is measured, it will be found to be just the
+correct proportion, and part of the straight left edge of the red can
+still be seen, just left of the rod in the hand of the mummy-figure, and
+leaving just room for the Ezanab column. In the colored plates I have
+only shown 12 instead of 13 day-signs in each column, but a measurement
+of the space above and below shows that the missing four are to be
+placed at the top and not at the bottom. These two pages therefore have
+application in some way to 52 solar years, beginning with 1 Lamat and
+ending with 13 Akbal (Votan).
+
+These "year-bearers" are those of the Tzental instead of the Yucatecan
+system, as described by Landa, and on these two pages rests, so far as
+regards known subject-matter, the assignment of the Codex Perez to the
+Palenque rather than to the northern Maya district. It is thus to be
+considered with the Inscriptions of that region, and with the Dresden
+Codex.[28-*] And in accord with what is known of the state of the
+different parts of the country at the time of the Conquest, and of the
+history of the break-up and extinction of the Maya empire, it must be
+assigned the greater antiquity on that account.
+
+It is probable that pages 19 and 20 had no text passages.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Pages 21 and 22 again, judging from the coloring and the arrangement,
+seem to form a pair. Each had on the upper part probably five rows of
+glyphs, some 70 in all, of which only 10 or 12 are at all recognizable.
+Contrary to all the pages hitherto discussed, it may be that these
+glyphs are to be _read from right to left_. The faces in these all look
+to the right, and the customary prefixes are all on the right. In
+classifying these glyphs, therefore, they must be all reversed.
+
+The greater part of page 21 is framed in and divided up by green bands,
+evidently for water, two branches of which, after crossing a
+constellation band near the bottom, end one in falling torrents, the
+other in a circle surrounding a _kin_-sign, [Hieroglyph], the sun, and
+itself surrounded by four dragon's heads, all figured in the midst of
+the torrents. Below this symbol is the open mouth of a dragon, towards
+which is looking and pointing a black-faced figure, of the god D, the
+Ancient of Days, described by Schellhas as the moon and night god. To
+the left of the torrents is a figure, nearly erased, but with the
+wristlets characteristic of the god of death, and holding in the hand a
+torch. The glyph [Hieroglyph] occurs written in the torrents, at the
+left side.
+
+The green bands divide the middle of the page into six compartments
+containing, so far as not totally erased, 65 day-signs, in columns of
+five. All my efforts to relate these signs either to each other or to
+any other series in the codices, have so far been fruitless. The upper
+seven columns have each a black numeral beneath, running from right to
+left, 1 2 3 3 5 6 and the dot of another 6.
+
+Each of the columns of five day-signs forms a closed circuit returning
+into itself. In the upper row the 1st and 6th columns show successive
+days 8 apart in order; columns 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 are 16 apart in order.
+The 1st in the lower row is at intervals of 8, the 2nd and 5th at
+intervals of 16. The 3rd column is, with the 4th, an exception, the
+intervals being successively 8, 4, 4, 8, 16. That this is probably not a
+scribal error is shown by the fact that the same series, though
+beginning with different days, occurs in both columns. The 6th and
+possible 7th columns of the lower part are indeterminable.
+
+We thus have three rounds of 5 times 8, or 40 days; seven rounds of 5
+times 16, or 80 days; two irregular rounds of 40 days. These are not
+such columns as could form the beginning of a series of tonalamatl
+fifths, in which the successive days come 12 apart. So that this section
+must be left unexplained.[29-*]
+
+At the right of page 21 begins a solid red background which probably
+extended right across page 22. Two standing spotted green figures appear
+on page 21; seven seated figures, one green spotted, on page 22.
+
+Page 22 is crossed by a winding dragon whose body is covered by the
+"constellation band." A narrow green band also winds across the page,
+inclosing two of the upper figures. Below the dragon and this green band
+are seen, seated above the open mouths of two erect dragons, two figures
+in conversation, each bearing various insignia of the death god. A very
+curious cartouche outline, partly erased, at the lower right, incloses
+what seems to be 13 Ahau, 3, 6, the right hand dot of the 3 being
+erased.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On pages 23 and 24 the brilliant backgrounds of the preceding pages
+disappear, and we have two pages, to be read together, of glyphs,
+day-signs and small figures, finely and sparingly illuminated with the
+usual four colors. The body of the dragon is apparently continuous from
+page 21, and crosses these pages entirely with the constellation band,
+displayed along its full length.
+
+The upper part of these two pages contained originally 91 glyphs,
+perhaps to be read _from right to left_, the same as 21 and 22. The
+faces look to the right, the usual _pre_fixes and the few numerals are
+also on the right of their respective compounds. Many of the glyphs are
+the same as those on pages 2 to 11, reversed right for left. Glyph
+23-a-11 should be specially noted. At first sight the numeral prefix, 6,
+appears to belong, postfixed, to glyph 23-a-17. But on investigation we
+find the same compound, a _yax-chuen_ with [Hieroglyph] prefix, also at
+21-a-8 and 24-a-26, in each case with the 6 attached. The [Hieroglyph]
+affix just below this number 6 is also plainly a _pre_fix to glyph
+23-a-12; so that glyph 23-a-ll must be read [Hieroglyph] and include the
+6 as prefix. At 24-a-26, [Hieroglyph] the same glyph is written left to
+right.
+
+There are also a few other glyphs on these pages which cannot be
+regarded as right to left. Such for instance, as [Hieroglyph] at
+23-a-19 and 24-a-17. In this glyph the affix [Hieroglyph] at the side is
+properly a prefix (perhaps the possessive), and I do not recall any
+instance of its use as a postfix. In the affixes, the superfix and
+prefix positions may as a general rule be regarded as wholly identical;
+also the subfix and postfix positions. But also as a general rule the
+two pairs are I believe not to be interchanged, any more than we
+interchange prefixes and endings in English; this rule is not universal
+for all affixes, as some seem able to go anywhere, but it is one I have
+always regarded in my glyph classifying. As to [Hieroglyph] it is to be
+noted that this is a symmetrical glyph and as there can be no doubt that
+these glyphs were equally legible to the Maya reader written in either
+direction, it may well be regarded as unimportant, and not to be rated
+even as an error. [Hieroglyph] is a still stronger similar case. Here
+the wing [Hieroglyph] affix to the right is certainly a postfix, the
+superfix is in the usual left to right order, [Hieroglyph] and the main
+element written left to right, as in all its other instances. And
+[Hieroglyph] is again in point.
+
+The face-_tun_ compounds on these pages, and also on the opposite side
+of the manuscript, should be particularly noted.
+
+Below the constellation band, inscribed on a wavy green band (the waters
+of space?) are seven repetitions of [Hieroglyph] or the sun glyph
+[Hieroglyph] within the shields.[31-*] Between each appeared probably
+two black 8's. The sun-shields are about to be seized by different
+animals, dragon, tortoise, bird, etc., a seeming evident suggestion of
+either an eclipse, or the passage of the sun into some zodiacal sign.
+Another series of seven sun-shields, on the green band, separated by
+numeral 8's, and attacked by animals and a skeleton, crosses the lower
+part of the pages.
+
+Between these two bands we find a series of columns of five day-signs
+each preceded by red numerals. Allowing for the space erased I have
+restored the last column to the right, and part of the preceding. This
+gives 12 columns only, whereas at least 13 are required. There may have
+been a 12th column to the left of page 23, where there is just the
+proper space for this,[32-*] leaving the dragon's body to curve above
+the column so as to pass to page 22. The series may have continued on
+across page 25; 13 columns on pages 23, 24, and 7 more filling page 25,
+would make a full cycle of 20 columns. And in this connexion it should
+be noted that the dragon's body with constellation band goes almost to
+the edge of page 24 with no sign of ending or turning, such as might be
+expected if the chapter ends here. And if the constellation dragon
+continues over page 25, the column series may well have done the same.
+
+Before discussing this series it will be of advantage to review what the
+Codex gives us on the question of reading left to right or right to
+left.
+
+First, in both the Dresden and Tro.-Cort. the glyph faces look to the
+left; and, as shown by the calculations, reading is from left to right,
+with a very few possible exceptions, such as the tables on Dres. 24, 64,
+69, etc.
+
+In the Perez, as shown by the tonalamatls on 15 to 18, the 52
+year-bearers on 19 and 20, and the katun-series on 2 to 12, the general
+direction of the reading is also left to right.
+
+Above or below each of the red number columns of these pages 23, 24, is
+to be found a blue number. These numbers make a katun-series, starting
+with 4, decreasing by 2, if we read it left to right. It is not, to be
+sure, accompanied by the customary Ahau-sign, [Hieroglyph], but, taken
+in connexion with the marked parallelism of the glyphs, face-tun glyphs
+and also others, on these two pages with those on pages 2 to 11, already
+discussed, the possibility that a katun-series is a part of this
+subject-matter must be considered.
+
+On the other hand, the glyphs in the upper part of all four pages 21 to
+24 face to the right, and, as already set out in detail, are practically
+all written in _reverse position_ as regards their prefixes, etc. And so
+also does the Eb-glyph in the day-columns we are now considering face to
+the right. These columns, unlike those on page 21, which include all of
+the 20 day-signs, only include 5 of the day-signs: Kan, Lamat, Eb, Cib
+and Ahau; Eb being the only non-symmetrical one of these.
+
+We have thus quite strong evidence, especially as provided by the
+position of the prefixes, for a right to left reading, opposed by the
+direction of this katun-number series--if it be one. In Egyptian
+writing, of course, the direction of the reading changes with the facing
+of the figures.
+
+To return now to the columns themselves, all the day-signs in any one
+column have each the same red numeral, so that we have: 8 Cib, 8 Ahau, 8
+Kan, 8 Lamat, 8 Eb; and so on. The red numerals to each column also
+decrease by 2 towards the right, pari passu with the blue numerals. If
+we read each column downwards, it will form a closed circuit or round,
+returning into itself, with intervals of 104 days, from 8 Cib to 8 Ahau,
+etc., and again from 8 Eb back to 8 Cib. But if we next try to go to the
+next column, the series breaks, for from 8 Eb to 6 Lamat is only 76
+days. We get a like break whether we read upward or downward, or right
+to left. Taking the columns separately then, the entire series (whether
+made up of 13, 20 or any other number of columns) cannot be made to read
+in one regular series, with a constant interval between the successive
+days of the whole.
+
+But, if we restore two columns, making 13 columns, and then read
+horizontally _across_, either right to left, or left to right, one line
+after another, the first day of the second line follows the last of the
+first, and after going through the whole 65 terms, we return again from
+the last of the last line to the first of the first--always with a
+constant interval. In other words, this section could be written around
+a wheel. If we read left to right, the distance from (10 Kan) to 8 Cib,
+etc., is 232 days; 232x65=15,080. Or if from right to left,[33-*] the
+interval from (12 Lamat) to 1 Cib, etc., is 28 days; 28x13 = 364, x5 =
+1820. That both of these products are multiples of 260 is a truism, and
+cannot in any way require us to see a tonalamatl reckoning as the basis
+of this passage. Nor is each separate day-column a tonalamatl in fifths,
+as so often found.
+
+Finally, if we should assume that the series went on across page 25, to
+a full katun-round of 20 terms, the circuit would be broken; line 2
+would not regularly follow line 1, and so on. The probabilities then, as
+derived from the succession of the days, seem almost conclusive that
+this is a section of 65 terms, to be read horizontally, in whichever
+direction. And then, since the subdivision of 15,080 days (or 1820, if
+read right to left) into 65 terms, _necessarily_ gives us successive
+day-_numbers_ decreasing (or increasing) by 2, the likeness to the
+katun-series may be only apparent--a simple truism. Or, on the other
+hand, in view of the glyph similarities (a point which I think should
+always be given close attention), there _may_ be some relation to the
+katun-series--all in spite of the right-left or left-right difficulties.
+
+What part the blue[34-*] number series plays, I cannot say. Dr.
+Seler,[34-[+]] suggests that they are "corrections," to set each term
+ahead 20 days. This states a fact, but does not give any explanation.
+Each blue number is 6 less than its red column, and 7 Kan _is_ of course
+20 days later than 13 Kan.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24-*] Dr. Foerstemann (_Comm. z. Par. Mayahds._) speaks of the background
+to the central figure on page 16 as black, instead of red; he also
+describes the number columns as made up of red and black numerals only.
+There are many similar errors in his Commentary, due to his ignorance of
+the colors, and to the obscurity of the photographic reproductions.
+
+[28-*] Where to place the Tro.-Cort., in view of the _apparent_ Kan,
+Muluc[TN-3] Ix, Cauac years indicated on pages 34-37, and the 13 Cumhu
+immediately next to 13 Ahau on page 73 (13 Ahau 13 Cumhu falling only
+possibly in a year 12 Lamat) I am not ready to say.
+
+[29-*] Mr. Bowditch suggests to me that the numbers 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 are to
+be read with each of the day signs in their respective columns, and,
+being placed in the middle, may apply both to the upper and lower sets.
+The strongest objection I can see to this is that the numbers are black,
+instead of the usual red. In this case, instead of intervals of 8 and
+16, giving rounds of 5x8=40 and 5x16=80 days, we would have intervals of
+156 and 208 (from 1 Ymix to 1 Muluc, etc.), giving rounds of 780 and
+1040 days respectively. Or, if read _upwards_, we would have 52 and 104
+day intervals (1 Ben to 1 Chicchan, etc.), and rounds of 260 and 520
+days. But whichever be the case, the page is _sui generis_, and its why
+is still beyond us.
+
+[31-*] I have retained the usual term "shields" for the flaring forms
+which embrace the sun glyph, though without accepting its
+appropriateness. They might with equal likelihood be conventionalized
+wings.
+
+[32-*] Dr. Foerstemann ignores the space on the right of page 24, and
+restores two columns to the left of page 23 in order to make up the
+thirteen columns; but, as shown by the edges of the pages in the
+photographs, one column restored in each place will just fill the
+obliterated space.
+
+[33-*] Dr. Seler's reading; _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515.
+
+[34-*] The blue is a true blue, quite distinct from the turquoise blue
+elsewhere, and is found in the case of these numbers only.
+
+[34-[+]] _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, I, 515; "Zur mexik. Chronologie."
+
+
+
+
+THE MAYA GLYPHS
+
+
+Up to date our knowledge of the meanings of the glyphs is still to all
+intents and purposes limited to the direct tradition we have through
+Landa, and the deductions immediately involved in these. We know the day
+and month signs, the numbers, including 0 and 20, four units of the
+archaic calendar count (the day, tun, katun and cycle), the cardinal
+point signs, the negative particle. We have not fully solved the uinal
+or month sign, which seems to be _chuen_ on the monuments and a _cauac_,
+or _chuen_, in the manuscripts. We are able to identify what must be
+regarded as metaphysical or esoteric applications of certain glyphs in
+certain places, such as the face numerals.[35-*] But every one of these
+points is either deducible directly by necessary mathematical
+calculation, or else from the names of certain signs given by Landa in
+his day and month list, and then found in other combinations, such as
+_yax_, _kin_, etc. That we have as many of the points as we have, and
+still cannot form from them the key--that we cannot _read_ the
+glyphs--is a constant wonder; but a fact nevertheless.
+
+The innumerable efforts to identify the glyphs by their superficial
+appearance, calling the banded headdress a "pottery decoration," and
+explaining the face-glyph of the North thereby, because in Maya _xaman_
+is north and _xamach_ a tortilla dish (to say nothing of others still
+more fanciful, by a host of writers), have broken down, as was to be
+expected. I mention this instance because it illustrates fully the
+results of superficial analysis, united with a seeming ineradicable
+tendency even among those most able students who have added the most to
+our stock of Maya knowledge (among whom Dr. Brinton was certainly one of
+the foremost), to treat these glyphs as carelessly done, to disregard
+the differences between manifest variants, or else to talk freely,
+whenever a passage does not fit the explanation which is being worked
+out, of scribal errors.
+
+In the first place, _if_ these glyphs are to be interpreted primarily by
+the Yucatecan Maya dialect (one in which we have most ample printed and
+MS. lexicographic material), and if in that dialect no other words at
+all resembling _xaman_ and _xamach_ are found, as we are told, then
+(_if_ the Mayas named the north star, or the North, by a pun on a
+tortilla dish) wherever this banded headdress is found, we must assume
+the text to be treating either of the North, or of tortillas. That might
+safely be left to break down of its own weight; but we shall also see
+that the explanation is given in total disregard of manifest, important
+variants. This banded headdress appears ornamenting at least
+[Hieroglyphs] five separate and distinct faces; one a wholly human face,
+the others with various other definite characteristics, the most
+frequent and prominent of which are the monkey-like face and mouth we
+see in the [Hieroglyph] glyph for the north, and a sort of bird's
+plumage covering the back of the head. These two are separate, are never
+combined, and must be classified rigidly apart. We have therefore three
+elements, the monkey face, the plumage covering (if we may call it so),
+and the banded headdress. It is obvious that while the monkey face may
+be specific of the North, the bands are not specific at all, but
+general.
+
+It is with the greatest diffidence that I suggest any interpretations on
+my own part as yet, but it is of course certain that the distinction of
+masculine and feminine existed in the spoken language, and it must exist
+somewhere in the glyphs. And it will have to be a prefix, not a postfix;
+for what I may call the syntax of glyph formation must follow that of
+the speech. At the bottom of Dres. 61 and 62 are seven identical
+Oc-glyphs with subfix, and with prefixes. Five of these prefixes are
+faces with the woman's curl, recognized on the figured illustrations.
+One is a face with the banded headdress. Remembering that this headdress
+occurs not infrequently on a plain human face with no other
+characteristic, it is not a far guess that it may have denoted a
+freeman, a lord, entitled to such a headdress. In this event it may on
+the one hand serve as a simple masculine definitive, the prefix _ah-_,
+and on the other, to attach the idea of lordship to other glyphs with
+which it is incorporated, as: the North Star, or region, the Lord of the
+Firmament.
+
+This illustration serves to show what seems to me an essential
+preliminary of the work we have in hand, and the part to which I have so
+far devoted most effort. The glyphs must be determined, compared and
+classified, and what I have called the "syntax" of their composition,
+studied. The particles and their positions, the various _incorporated_
+elements, are of the utmost importance, though they are very frequently
+ignored. _They are the written picture of the spirit of the spoken
+language._ The task I have most looked forward to in this connexion has
+of course been with the Dresden, but having started upon the Perez for
+the reasons I have given, it was a smaller task in itself, and could be
+brought to completion within less time, while serving as part of the
+larger work. As the determination and classification of the glyphs had
+to proceed all as one work, it has enabled me not only to complete my
+Index for this codex, but also to print the text in type, and to verify
+and bring out such facts regarding the color questions as was possible
+to do--both of them stages needed in the general work. In doing it I
+have studied with my hands as well as with eyes, and I have been well
+repaid. The actual labor has not been small, but it has been worth it
+all if only to see before the eyes something of what this Codex must
+have been when fresh and new. For as I have said, while in my colored
+restoration I may have made some mistakes of eye, for which the
+photographs will be a check, I have _guessed_ nothing.
+
+The classification of the glyphs meets of course with some difficulties
+in detail, but it can readily be cast into a quite simple general
+outline. Something over 2000 different compound forms are found in the
+three codices. The simple elements composing these are perhaps 350 in
+number, and may be divided broadly into main elements and affixes or
+particles. First of course come day and month signs, which, with _kin_,
+_tun_, _kal_, and a few marked variants, use up 50 numbers. Next will
+come the faces, about 75 simple elements. Next the animal and bird heads
+and figures, about 50 numbers. Next the hands, crosses, etc., and the
+list of conventional or geometric forms, another 75. Then some 75
+particles.
+
+The cards required for the first 50 numbers, including only compounds
+formed from day-signs and excluding day-signs used simply as such,
+amount to practically one half of the number required for the whole
+index. Certain elements, notably the _kin_, the _tun_, the monkey-face
+with banded headdress, already referred to, the face with tau-eye, the
+_yax_, the cross, produce a great number of compounds--a fact of note,
+as it is evident that the number of compounds, having due regard to our
+limited material, is an index to the relative position of the idea in
+the Mayan vocabularies. Some of the day-signs produce practically no
+compounds, others a great many. The compounds fall readily into a system
+of primary and secondary derivatives, by which their relations may be
+easily studied, and their proportions recognized.
+
+Coming to the distinguishing of variants, one first meets the fact that
+the three codices differ. The writing of the Dresden and Perez is
+regular and accurate, the Perez exceedingly so. Every different variant
+must here be accounted for. In Tro.-Cort. the writing is crude and
+careless, so that we have many evident abbreviations which are not
+genuine variants. In the next place, certain regular differences occur
+in this or that glyph or particle, between the forms of the different
+manuscripts. Thus the Perez uses [Hieroglyph] and the others
+[Hieroglyph] and so on. A comparison of the compounds shows that these
+must be the same. The regular variations between the three manuscripts
+and variations of abbreviation, when well evidenced, may be eliminated.
+
+The day-signs have many variants, mostly quite simple, and all
+checked positively by the use of the form in some day-series. Ix has
+many forms. There are at least three entirely different Cimi forms:
+[Hieroglyphs][TN-4] There are found two different forms of the closed
+eye, one of which certainly is Cimi, the other occurs regularly in
+such different compounds (and I think never as a simple day-sign), as
+to make it necessary to separate it; [Hieroglyph] it has probably a
+different meaning entirely--perhaps that of sleep.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A noteworthy technical line is to be found in the drawing of the glyphs.
+Whereas in the case of the day-signs, faces, and conventional forms in
+general, certain variations of handwriting, etc., are evidently
+permitted, but only within certain definite lines, in some few animal
+glyphs no two instances are just alike. In other words, the glyphs in
+general are conventions with established meanings--actual writing;[39-*]
+but we also have _pictures_ of birds or animal forms, where the writer
+is not following convention, but nature. The freedom of style used in
+the latter case only serves to emphasize the conventionality of the
+former, and to separate the entire system from either picture or rebus
+writing. See the following fish-glyph forms:
+
+[Hieroglyphs]
+
+These pictures are almost exclusively in uncompounded forms, whereas the
+conventional glyphs, whether human, animal or otherwise, are subject to
+the general rules of incorporation.
+
+Writing is a system of conventional forms with established meanings,
+corresponding to and reflecting the structure of the spoken language;
+some picture elements whose value as such has remained either wholly or
+partly present in the minds of those who use them, are not inconsistent
+with genuine writing; when present they add vividness to the writing,
+and emphasize its ideographic character. A combination of picture forms
+only, may be used as means of communication to a certain degree, but can
+never constitute _writing_; that, like speech, must provide for the
+expression of the relationships and categories that make up the
+structure of language.
+
+Egyptian writing, which is of course _true writing_, contains elements
+of every class. It has symbols and also pictures, not only of things or
+creatures, but of actions as well, "contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive"; these pictures, although still ranking as such, stand for
+_words_--they can be _pronounced_, and have syntax, which is the crucial
+test. Egyptian next has unrecognizable forms, whose meaning has become a
+simple convention, but which still stand for _words_, or particles. It
+has elements which are not pronounced for themselves, but only serve as
+determinatives. (Such a use of determinatives is not limited to
+hieroglyphic writing, but is possessed also by alphabetic; the second
+_o_ in the word _too_ is strictly a determinative, to distinguish the
+adverb _too_ from the preposition _to_, both pronounced alike. Tibetan
+has an elaborate system of silent letters used as grammatical
+determinatives.) And then Egyptian writing finally has pure alphabetic
+elements.
+
+As to Maya, I think it far more than likely that, when at last
+deciphered, it will be found to contain most if not all of these
+classes--_mutatis mutandis_. There seems every evidence that it is made
+up of pictures with probably both concrete and abstract meanings;
+word-conventions; and grammatical particles. It is at least probable
+that there are also silent determinatives and not unlikely that there is
+also a pure phonetic or alphabetic element. That the latter element is
+not the basic one may I think be now regarded as established.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35-*] The Tibetan use of symbolical words in place of numerals is worth
+noting here, even though we do not know the Maya face numerals well
+enough as yet for any comparison. See Csoma de K["o]ros, _Tibetan
+grammar_, Calcutta, 1824, pp. 155 _et seq._; also Ph. Ed. Foucaux,
+_Grammaire Tibetaine_, Paris, 1858, pp. 157 _et seq._
+
+[39-*] "These [the Maya glyphs] do not represent a real script, as is so
+often maintained, but are only pictures which have been reduced to the
+appearance of letters, contracted to a narrow space, made
+cursive."!--Dr. Eduard Seler, _Codex Vaticanus No. 3773_, page
+65.--Well?
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+_Introite, nam et hic dii sunt._
+
+
+It is not my desire to add, as a conclusion to a comment bearing on the
+restoration and interpretation of Mayan hieroglyphic texts, any general
+discussion of the data which tradition and the early Spanish writers
+have left us of the mythology, rites and customs of the American races;
+and still less to run out a line of attractive analogies between
+isolated instances of their words, symbols or works, with those of any
+of the various nations of the other hemisphere; nor to build up any
+theory of descent or intercourse with any of these latter as today known
+to history. The subject before us is on its very face too vast; the
+written and traditional data are entirely too scanty and too little
+understood; and while we are still obliged to designate the various gods
+and personages of the Codices as god A, B, etc., and are unable to fix
+definitely[41-*] a single inscribed date in terms of our chronology, or
+tell the event attached to it, fancied comparisons amount to little. And
+the favorite "linguistic" method is more fragile yet, especially when
+the uncertainties of spelling and transliteration are considered, and
+above all the frequent total ignorance of the past history and changes
+the different words compared must have gone through since the time when
+by any possibility a physical transmission from one locality to the
+other could have taken place. These ought to be commonplaces of
+research, but it is to be feared that they have not quite yet become
+so.[42-*] There is no need to give instances of such false analogies
+which have served as the bases for a multitude of filiation theories,
+all equally well "supported" by details, and all mutually exclusive. Nor
+on the other hand can we deny the existence actually of a very great
+number of resemblances and identities which cannot be ignored, but must
+imply connexions of some kind. The English nation is not a Hebrew people
+because it had a prime minister Disraeli, nor Greeks because they have a
+Queen Alexandra, nor Romans because of certain local names. Such facts
+even when real, and established as such, may only be evidence of a
+single continental culture or transcontinental intercourse.
+
+It has been the dictum of a certain school of archaeology, still very
+much in general favor, that all these identities are to be explained as
+the natural result of the innate tendencies of untutored men, on their
+evolutionary rise, at certain cultural stages, to imagine the same myths
+and invent the same rites. From this as a principle I wholly dissent; it
+simply does not meet the facts. There are of course many facts to which
+it does apply, such as those that both Chinese and Americans made paper,
+tanned leather, made feather ornaments, used star and flower names for
+their children, and so on: facts which had been used to prove Chinese
+and American identity, and to which Dr. Brinton justly added in retort
+that they also slept at night, wore clothes when it was cold, and so on.
+But there is a very great number of facts, a number constantly growing
+with research, which cannot be so dismissed. Such are the employment of
+abstract symbolism, the erection of great structures all having a
+definite and identical astronomical bearing and evident use, the common
+possession of so-called myths all telling the one story, and only
+slightly modified locally, such as the birth-stories of Huitzilopochtli
+and of Herakles, and the stories of the travail of Latona pursued by the
+Python and of the Woman clothed with the Sun in _Revelation_; or the
+universal tradition of seven ancestral caves or cities in America,
+compared with the Tibetan and Puranic stories of the seven lotus-leaves
+of ['S]veta-dvipa, the first continental home of the race; the _Hacha de
+cobre_ of the Miztecs and the ever-turning spear of jade of the Japanese
+story of the place where the gods first descended on earth; or the whole
+question of the origin of the Zodiac. These things, and a host of
+others, need a different explanation--all the more since the more we are
+learning of them the more we find that they enclose facts of which the
+hypothetical "savage children" could not, _ex hypothesi_, have been
+aware--some facts indeed which our very latest modern science is only
+now learning.[43-*]
+
+But while dissenting now wholly from this theory (of "coincidentalism")
+one cannot but hold in all respect those who in their time held it. It
+is the duty of the savant to make the best logical use he can of what he
+has, and he cannot be criticised for not using finer scales than the
+time affords. And this theory was needed as an answer to the
+absurdities, brought out in utter disregard of physical possibilities,
+postulating off-hand migrations and filiations and evolutionary advances
+totally impossible within the periods allowed for their completion, and
+utterly without parallel in any known part of the world or page of
+history. And yet, when this theory had its birth, the most of
+Christendom was still enthralled by the Ussherian chronology of the
+creation and history of the whole divine universe, which simply did not
+have room in it for all these things to happen naturally and
+connectedly.
+
+And if it is urged that present science had already say a generation
+ago, a second's time we might say in the life of humanity, begun to
+emancipate our ideas of time and evolution, still it is the fact that
+that increase in breadth of vision has so far applied to every known
+thing but man himself. The old belief that gave the world 6000 years of
+life, at least put thinking man at its beginning; the modern nightmare
+gives us a world for hundreds of millions of years without _thought_,
+and makes human civilization an ephemeral episode of a few seconds of
+universal duration. Disregarding, one is forced to say wilfully, the
+fact that every single one of their own arguments in favor of anthropoid
+descent for man would equally support a theory that the anthropoids are
+debased offshoots of human stocks,[45-*] biology still demands such a
+lapse of time for its physical evolution that its adherents oppose and
+belittle to the utmost every bit of evidence of any antiquity even for
+the physical frame of man. We have, to say nothing of the rest of the
+world, Egyptian civilization now pushed back 10,000 years, and (together
+with others as we slowly uncover them) as far removed as ever from
+barbarism, if not indeed growing greater as we go back; but we are not
+allowed anything but apelike, half arboreal savages 50,000 years ago.
+And yet every observed _fact_ shows us savage or worn-out races
+everywhere throughout the world deteriorating and dying out, and nowhere
+any savages progressing or, unaided by outside influence, developing
+what we know as civilization. We see everywhere the rise and fall of
+nations, races and civilizations, and their utter blotting out; and we
+refuse to accept that process as a universal law through which the
+destiny of the human race is working itself out. In fact, we do not seem
+to believe that the human race has any destiny; it may have beginning
+and an end, but no destiny.
+
+And so although this modern scientific school began as a reaction
+against the narrowness of theological limitations, both of time and
+greatness, so hampered and hypnotized has our thought been by both, that
+man is of nearly as little universal account with one as with the
+other, and we find a seemingly ineradicable repugnance to admit that any
+people had "developed" writing before the least possible time ago we can
+fix it, usually this side of the year 1 of the Christian era. And thus
+we have M. Terrien de Lacouperie's "450 _embryo_ scripts and
+writings"--which another fifty years may show to be nearly as many
+fragments of one or a few great stocks of ancient hieroglyphs. Of course
+it is impossible to derive the American races or civilizations from the
+Chinese, Phoenicians, Hittites, or any of the cultures of the other
+hemisphere, if we limit the latter to what we know of their history
+within the past two or three thousand odd years, and American
+civilization to the past fifteen hundred years. The matter is somewhat
+greater than that--just as man is somewhat greater than a fool of
+natural caprice.
+
+There is one point from which this question of American origins, at
+least of American place in human society and civilization, can be
+studied in its broader lines, even with what materials we have. It is
+that of language in general. All these other matters we have touched
+upon are necessary factors in the question of human evolution, and the
+position of America cannot be considered apart from them, and all of
+them. But Language touches both the glyphs directly and also all these
+other things, and is itself of surpassing interest and importance as a
+human study.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From one point of view Language is man himself, and it certainly is
+civilization. Without it man is not man, a Self-expressing and social
+being. It is, as von Humboldt laid down, not an act but an activity, or
+energy, not a thing done, but a doing. It is the constant effort of the
+conscious self to formulate thought. It is the use of the energy of
+creation, of objectivation, a veritable many-colored rainbow bridge
+between the inner or higher man and the outer or lower worlds. And it is
+not only the expression of Man as man, but in its varied forms it is the
+inevitable and living expression of each man or body of men at any and
+every point of time. Itself boundless as an ocean, it is in its infinite
+forms and streams and colors and sounds, the faithful and exact exponent
+both of the sources and channels by which it has come, and of the banks
+in which it is held, racial, national or individual. It is living or
+dead, forceful or weak, pure or foul, refreshing or flat, healing or
+poisonous. It limits us, but yields to our force. Every word or form
+comes to us with the thought impress of every man or nation that has
+used or molded it before us. We must take it as it comes, but we give it
+something of ourselves as we pass it on. If our intellectual and
+spiritual thought is aflame, whether as nation or individual, we may
+purify it, energize it, give it power to form and arrange the atoms
+around it--and we have a new literature, a new and beneficent, creative
+social vehicle of intercourse, mutual understanding, and human
+unification. Or if our mental or spiritual life is stale, and petty, or
+egoistic, or seeking for enjoyment only rather than action; if we have
+nothing in us to give the words and forms we use, but only some national
+force left to use and play with them, we for a while refine, and paint,
+and pettify, and elaborate into meaningless subtleties of form, every
+one of which in turn reacts upon our mental and spiritual life,
+distracting and enchaining us, until at last the nation and its
+language--die out; for neither can live without the other.
+
+Now it is evident that the criterion of the perfectness of any language
+is not to be found in a comparison of its forms or methods with those of
+any other, but in its fitness as a vehicle for the expression of deeper
+life, of the best and the greatest that is in those who use it, and
+above all in its ability to react and stimulate newer and yet greater
+mental and spiritual activity and expression. The force behind man,
+demanding expression through him, and him only, into the human life of
+all, is infinite--of necessity infinite. There is no limit, nor ever has
+been any limit, to what man may bring down into the dignifying,
+broadening and enriching of human life and evolution, save in his own
+ability to comprehend, express, and _live_ it. And the brightness and
+cleanness of the tools whereby he formulates his thought, as well as the
+worthiness and fitness of the substance and the forms into which he
+shapes it for others to see, are the essentials of his craft. For such
+is the economy of nature, which wastes nothing in reality, that a fit
+vehicle will be taken possession of by its own tenant; and the unfit
+left to and be taken by those who can use no better.
+
+Before, then, taking up the great formal classes into which language at
+large is usually divided, it will be necessary to say a few words as to
+the foundations of form itself in language, that we may then proceed to
+consider these classes from the standpoint of their inner meaning rather
+than solely of the outer form; and by seeking to understand the mental
+and spiritual equipment and life of those that used them, may perhaps in
+turn be better fitted finally to enter into the genius of their written
+and spoken languages, and to interpret through them in the detail more
+of the ideas which those forms were both fitted and used to express.
+Such a method is essential for the understanding of any language or
+culture, but it is absolutely necessary in the case of these non-Aryan
+tongues, so great is the distance both of time and thought which
+separates us from them. If we set out to compare the forms by which they
+expressed their thought with those within which we develop ours, or
+approach these cultures and peoples in the attitude of alien criticism,
+study their "interesting ways" through a mental lorgnette and impale
+their dead forms on the needles of our collection, we shall not only
+show ourselves less broad in culture than many of them, but we shall
+simply close and lock the doors of discrimination and understanding
+before us. The question is not, How do their forms and ways appeal to
+us? but, How did those forms, and ways, achieve their underlying
+objects, and what was the _thought_ behind them?
+
+Life is action, and without activity whatever powers lie within any
+conscious being are only potential. Activity is the bridge between the
+inner man and the outer world, by which he impresses his thought, in
+forms, on chaos or the atoms about him, receiving in return increased
+knowledge and experience of all he touches, and knowledge of himself
+through the results of his own actions; and it is the bridge between man
+and man. For this reason the verb, the word of action, is the most
+important and most developed part of speech. The three hypostases of
+life, as of language, are the self, activity, and the world; and it is
+for the expression of all the possible varied relations between these
+three, that all the forms of any language come into being. And from the
+way in which these forms are developed, and the relative importance
+which is given to this or that form of thought or activity, the
+character of the people, their grasp of nature, and their own conception
+of themselves and their relation to the world, can be seen.[49-*] Some
+languages have the strong impress of impersonality, without any loss of
+virility; others are strongly egotistic and self-assertive, with perhaps
+the braggart's lack of genuine strength. Each spoken language that we
+know has its own color and tone, to which our thought must respond, if
+we would know and use it well. To speak good Swedish, for instance,
+requires clear thinking to an exceptional degree. To show this, the form
+"come here," which is the ordinary English expression, is simply _bad
+grammar_ in Swedish; the use of "come _hither_" (_kom hit_, instead of
+_kom haer_) is imperative. We have the "hither" in English, but it has
+become stilted, and the linguistic distinction lost. Compare also the
+use of _fa_, as a common auxiliary; nor are these exceptions, but, on
+the contrary, characteristic examples. Also to enunciate the language
+rightly one must hold the back and neck erect and the muscles firm.
+
+In some languages the speaker thinks of himself and his completed action
+as inseparable, as a single idea, as the Latin _edi_ for I have eaten;
+in others he thinks of himself subconsciously as possessing the results
+of his action, as our _I have eaten_; and in others, as among the Irish
+peasantry, he separates himself and his action entirely, as _I am after
+eating_. In some grammars, as in Maya, the verbal concept starts with
+the past; in others, as our own, we live in the present; in the Welsh,
+the future is the chief tense. The mere choice of _shall_ or _will_ as
+the first person future auxiliary denotes a specific mental quality.
+
+Now the expression of all these infinite shades of relationtionship[TN-5]
+between the self, the activity and the world, is achieved in two ways:
+position or placement--syntax; and form. The customary division of
+languages is into Monosyllabic, Agglutinative, Incorporating, and
+Inflectional, and this division will suit our purpose, though it must be
+used with care. It is held in the ordinary theory that these classes must
+represent successive stages of linguistic perfection, each in turn being
+higher in the scale than the other, they having grown one from the other
+as the race advanced. By the theory the monosyllabic is lower than the
+agglutinative, and inherently less useful. But the theory does not work
+out in practical application to the facts we have to deal with, for while
+we cannot find still left in the world any agglutinative languages
+representative of sufficient culture to bring into our present
+consideration, we do find a monosyllabic in the highest rank, and meeting
+the highest cultural requirements. In short, the latter may be
+theoretically the inferior tool, but the genius of thought behind is
+greater than the form. One man can draw a masterpiece with a burnt stick,
+another only paint a daub with all the brushes made. Once again we must
+not judge by our preconceived preferences of form.
+
+Omitting therefore the modern remnants of agglutinating languages,
+outside of America, as affording us no literary material of value for
+our study, we shall find at once drawn across all the other great
+classes a single broad line of division, between the ideographic and the
+literal--the same as already mentioned. And the moment we draw this line
+as an exponent of the mental and spiritual thought-life of the different
+peoples, we shall find it not only molding their language forms, both
+written and spoken, but manifest as well in their art, philosophy, and
+even their social polity. And of course we must be fair in our
+comparisons, and not set a Chinese coolie in the concrete against an
+English statesman, nor any concrete example of another kind of culture
+in its decay with the highest bloom to which we believe our own type to
+be able to carry us.
+
+It would be absurd to say that the ratiocinative, literal mind is higher
+than the ideal. One man sees directly the meaning of the things, the
+events and situations before him; another reasons it all out. And
+contrary to many of our current beliefs, the former is often the man of
+action; he sees at a flash to the heart of the matter, and gets things
+done. His thought, his activity, is vivid; and his words are likely to
+be so as well. The idealist, if he be broadminded, and not merely
+sentimental, is indeed likely to be the practical man. And the type of
+mind that is made manifest to us by these great non-Aryan languages and
+their forms, is the former. Of course idealism in its decadence becomes
+negative, inactive, self-consuming and no longer creative. But in its
+bloom the direct vision may be even more active, more practical, than
+are the reasoned processes.
+
+Much ink and paper has been spent over the question whether the Chinese
+hieroglyphs are ideograms or phonograms, whether the character
+[Illustration: Chinese character], for instance, conveys to those using it
+primarily the idea of Heaven, or the spoken word _T'ien_. It is
+necessarily both, in a sense; it would not be written language
+otherwise. And it is equally true that the letter-combination _Heaven_
+is in a way as much to us a picture of the idea as of the sound; but the
+difference of procedure is radical. The glyph is related to the idea
+directly, the spelled word only through the formal combination of
+symbols for single vocal speech-elements, meaningless when separate. The
+relation of spoken sound to glyph is wholly adventitious; the relation
+of the idea to the spelled word is equally adventitious. The ascent, if
+we so call it, of written speech from the ideographic to the alphabetic,
+is the descent of the thought further into material forms.[53-*] And
+while it may be (and in the course of universal evolution rightly so)
+necessary for our thought to descend into the bondage of matter and
+form, for its knowledge and experience, and for the development of
+matter and form into fitter vehicles of thought, nevertheless the
+process is a binding and for a time an enchaining one, and the thought
+is, for a time at least, likely to be lost in the confusion of forms.
+
+Thus we may lay down as our fundamental proposition that a hieroglyphic
+form of writing is better fitted to, and must properly, in the period of
+its natural development, accompany the imaginative processes of mind.
+Or, since imagination to our literal thought implies in some degree the
+fanciful (though wrongly so in essence), we might perhaps better say
+that that form of writing is the fit attendant and exponent of those
+functions of mind which cognize the inner meanings of the facts of life
+directly, rather than those which study them through the correlation of
+their phenomena. And also, that the development by any people of an
+alphabetic out of a hieroglyphic system, does not imply a greater
+advance in linguistic perfection on their part, but indicates a
+corresponding mental and inner change of attitude towards ideas and
+things, and a different conception of the self as related to them all.
+
+It is not at all necessary to assume that the knowledge gained by one
+method is deeper or more exact than the other. True science may exist as
+fully under one set of circumstances as the other. If we will take the
+type of the so-called most primitive form, the monosyllabic--the
+Chinese, we shall find all this evidenced in the clearest manner. To
+note but one illustration, a study of the scientific and philosophical
+ideas involved in and conveyed by the word _k'ung_, for Space, ether,
+the fundamental substratum of sound or vibration, as well as the
+"interetheric" central point of balance and power, will disclose an
+understanding that has nothing to fear from modern comparisons.
+
+And the very fact that Chinese has had to depend on placement of its
+monosyllables to express all the relations for which speech is called
+upon, instead of relying on changes of form, seems to have, and indeed
+has so stimulated the development of pure linguistic power that the
+language is actually as perfect and clear a medium of cultured and
+learned intercourse, as is the Sanskrit, the supreme type of the
+so-called most developed form, the inflectional. And by reason of its
+possession of the ideographic element it has a vividness which the
+Sanskrit has not. No language can be a highly developed one which does
+not provide in some way for the expression of all possible needed
+relations between the three fundamental postulates of life and
+activity--the self, the action and the world; and Chinese does this in
+spite of its monosyllabic structure by the development of its syntax of
+position. And it should be remembered further that Chinese syntax, in
+strict correspondence to the genius of the language, is not the same
+formal thing that syntax is with our inflectional tongues, but includes,
+or rather is primarily based on the _harmonic adjustment of the inherent
+basic ideas of or within the words_. The Chinese monosyllables are then
+not the naked separate things they are in the dictionary, but the whole
+phrase or sentence is on the contrary as much a unit as one of ours; and
+often more so.
+
+This integral unity of the whole sentence or expression, dominated by a
+perspective of ideas rather than of forms, which is achieved in Chinese
+by the elaboration of placement, is also characteristic of the structure
+of the languages of the American continent; but, these languages being
+polysyllabic, the vividness and unity are attained by a method described
+as Incorporation, whereby the accessories of relation are so included in
+or attached to the leading word that the whole expression assumes the
+form and sound of a single word. And a similar process takes place with
+the various elements of a compound sentence. So that although this one
+of the divisions of language approaches very closely to the Inflectional
+in its external forms, it yet has held to the vividness and essential
+characteristics of the ideographic method. And it is a point of the
+utmost importance for the decipherment of the Maya glyphs, to note as
+has been stated before, that their syntax of combination must follow
+that of the spoken language, which we know.
+
+There is one broad line of division marking all the languages and
+civilizations of the world--the line between the ideographic and the
+literal; it marks the use of hieroglyphic or of alphabetic writing, and
+it denotes a culture so widely different from ours, modes of thought so
+distinct, views of life and man's relation to it one might almost say so
+opposite to ours, as to point unmistakably to a most distant past, and a
+former world-culture probably as wide-spread in its day as is now
+ours--or more so. And it is one of the strangest and most remarkable of
+the phenomena we are considering, that the two divisions have overlapped
+each other in time to such a degree that whereas we have in Sanskrit,
+the most perfect type of Aryan, or inflectional languages, the oldest of
+them all; on the other hand we have in Chinese an equally perfect
+linguistic medium of the other type, kept alive into our own times.
+
+When we consider the development and status of the American
+civilizations which have been revealed to us, and especially when we
+have once opened our minds to the possibility that world-civilizations
+different in their time from ours in ours, may for all we know have
+existed and been blotted out ages ago, leaving linguistic traces, and
+perhaps perpetuating cultural remnants in a few parts of the earth, it
+is impossible not to recognize the breadth of the problem we are
+considering. All over the American continent at the time of the
+Discovery we see cultures and systems whose time had come. Back of most
+of the North and South American tribes we find the remains of mighty and
+utterly extinct civilizations--only their dim memory left. In the
+centers of higher culture from Mexico to Peru we see the ancient
+civilization brought further down to our own times; but there also, in
+process, all the incidents of break-up and an expiring greatness.
+Internecine strife, invasion from outside, changes of center, are all
+going on, and all marked by a _steady decrease_ in everything that means
+civilization. Of the ancient mathematical and astronomical knowledge a
+corner of which is revealed to us by the Maya glyph remains, only a
+distorted fragment appears in the Mexican, where also hieroglyphs have
+yielded to a cruder rebus-writing. The stately and incomparable
+compositions and architecture of Palenque, Copan and Quirigua have
+yielded to the ball courts and local strifes of Chichen Itza--all this
+following the very course of changing historical succession preserved in
+the Chronicles. The later the date, the lower in every case the culture;
+this is impossible not to recognize, nor have we traces of any different
+course of events. Of course we see the rise of the Aztec nation, a small
+cycle, but like the Gothic upon the Roman, it comes at the end of the
+general American break-up--an incursion of barbarians settling on and
+preserving for us fragments of the culture that preceded them, just as
+has happened over and over again all over the world. And the same with
+the Incas in Peru. And yet even the Mexican culture demands our high
+respect, comparing favorably with European of the same period. Indeed it
+was actually far ahead of the latter in matters of education and many
+points of polity.
+
+But in spite of its seeming greatness, its heart and energy were gone,
+just as with Peru, and both yielded to what on the face seems a miracle,
+but was only the expression of that force which was preparing the
+American continent for a new race and civilization, still now only in
+its beginnings. The Mayan empire had already broken up. And even as we
+write, the archaeological history of the other hemisphere is being
+repeated here; on the heels of Manabi comes the Chimu Valley, and soon
+it will be with America as with Egypt--one will not be able to print an
+up-to-date work on its early history, for new discoveries will carry it
+back further, and to greater scope, before the previous ones can be
+edited and gotten to press. Compare the few pages of earliest Egypt in
+Sharpe's history, with Flinders Petrie's work of a decade or so ago, and
+that with the situation today.
+
+It is a simple fact that decipherment and publication all over the world
+can no longer keep pace with discovery; and the time has come for
+archaeology to begin to survey these remnants, engineering works that
+would tax any modern nation with all our appliances, vast ruined
+cities, one above the other, innumerable languages and writings, the
+traces of peoples whose very names are lost to history--as a whole, and
+to ask itself how long it must have taken for all these works to be
+accomplished, let alone for the birth and decay of the civilizations
+that supported them, and gave environment for the development of such
+technical skill as could finish the enormous bulk of the Great Pyramid
+with an accuracy beyond the fineness of our best instruments to measure.
+For not only mere bulk is to be considered--though there is enough of
+that scattered over the earth to keep all the possible available
+craftsmen of the world a wholly incommensurate time achieving them, but
+the ability to conceive and carry out such works. What _sort_ of people
+leveled Monte Alban for its crown of pyramids, dreamed and executed the
+stucco modelings of Palenque, built the temple of Boro Budur in Java,
+cut the Bamian statues of the Hindu Kush, and so on, and so on, for page
+after page? If they had such appliances as we have, they must be ranked
+at least in our class for having them; if they did them without our
+great engines, what sort of men were they? And if they could do these
+things without our appliances, is it not a fair inference that they
+could easily have made the tools, or others better perhaps?
+
+One fact is becoming more prominent with every advance of archaeology
+over the world, a fact of the greatest linguistic interest, namely that
+ancient civilizations and empires, as a whole, _lasted longer_ than ours
+of today. Consider how many different and successive empires Europe has
+had in the last 2000 odd years, _our_ history; and how long each of our
+cultures has lasted. All of them put together would go into one of these
+older periods, and have plenty to spare. Passing over what may be the
+real meaning and bearing of this fact on the problem of universal
+history and human evolution, and the position of our race today, the
+linguistic considerations which follow are most interesting.
+
+If the fundamental thesis of language as a human activity is its direct
+correspondence to and expression of all the inner motives and forces of
+the users, we have here a key to the survival to our day, an unknown
+period past its own time, of the Chinese type.
+
+Of the development, modification and decay of languages we have ample
+material in our own times for study, the periods over which the
+modifying forces operate being an equal measure of the periods of
+national activity and change. And, what is perhaps not always
+sufficiently recognized, we have an elaboration of the formal elements
+going on under very different impulses, at different periods of the life
+of the language. The time has come in the history of a people for it to
+play a greater part on the world's stage: some danger has threatened the
+national life and aroused its energies, or other causes have worked to
+quicken the mental and spiritual life; an Elizabethan era is ushered in,
+frequently by a forerunner, a Chaucer, and the language responds, its
+forms develop and are perfected. Or else some fitting or amalgamating
+force comes in from outside, the life of the people is widened, new
+blood enters in every sense, and the forms of the language respond. Or
+perhaps, when they may seem to have come to the tether end of things,
+and men's minds turn back to older, even prehistoric times, seeds long
+buried and forgotten in the nature spring up, and a true national
+Renaissance follows. In these cases the change and elaboration of forms
+is a symptom of new life; the vehicle is being molded and expanded to
+fit the growing thought.
+
+But it is not always so. There comes a time when the outgoing force, the
+activity of life, wanes and, after a greater or less period of settled
+conditions, a period of proper use and government of the regions
+occupied, a change sets in. And then we may have again the wholly
+deceptive phenomenon of linguistic amplification; but it is the false
+activity of decay. The energy has turned in and begun to feed upon
+itself. The national impulse has changed from achievement to
+gratification, more and more sources are drawn upon to minister to its
+enjoyment, and that enjoyment becomes an art; forms of every kind are
+subtly refined in its service, and linguistic forms with them. And this
+is then the very period when all these material, formal elements are
+pointed to with pride as the evidence of culture and progress. The
+thought-life of the nation has lost itself in the conflict and
+confusion, in the distractions of the forms into which it has molded the
+matter its creative force had entered.
+
+We have thus in nations and languages, as in individuals, the phenomena
+of birth, growth, use, and a quick or a slow death, all marked by
+various degrees and signs of health or disease, and _every one at root a
+moral question_. These are the facts of general average, quite
+corresponding to those that form the bases for life insurance tables.
+But, as with these latter, not only are there variations for
+inheritance, class, locality, and so on, but there are here and there
+cases of out and out exception--which from all we can see must be
+assigned to some external force in operation on the individual. We call
+them "freak" occurrences, only because we cannot see the wider law or
+causes at work. When we meet them in sufficient numbers, we make new
+tables to cover them as far as we can, again in general only. Other
+causes still elude us, though they must have a fountain somewhere.
+
+We have, as great exceptions to our general averages, two opposite
+phenomena. One is the sudden inexplicable and dazzling rise on the
+world's stage of a totally insignificant people, the other the seeming
+arrest for long periods of time of the normal processes of even
+incipient decay. And touching the latter point, it is strange indeed
+that in two such widely different cultures as those of Iceland and China
+we should find the same law apparently at work; the periods are vastly
+unlike in actual, but not so in relative duration. We have no way of
+properly placing the maintenance of Icelandic and Chinese as they have
+been other than by simply laying down the existence of what we may call
+a Law of Retardation, whose ultimate causes we cannot fathom or
+classify, but which will stand as an opposite phase of the Law of
+Stimulation, which is more frequent in operation, but is equally
+unexplained.
+
+If we will now regard the languages and cultures of the world, we will
+find all the phases of linguistic and cultural activity, operative with
+about the same degree of rapidity, all over both hemispheres, save in
+places protected by our Law of Retardation. We will find the rate of
+changes and successions generally far less rapid the farther back in
+time we go; and finally we will find a special and marked acceleration
+on both sides of the Atlantic during the last thousand years, all
+incident to the placing of a new race in America.
+
+So for the facts as we find them. They point to the descent of past
+American civilizations from a past period of continental, or far more
+probably, of world-wide extent. For who can imagine that people great
+enough to build as these did, should not also have navigated? Why should
+we assume in the face of other experiences, that Maya dates and
+calculations mean nothing, except on the general principle that they did
+not know as much as we do, and were doubtless liars? Bailly proved over
+a hundred years ago that Hindu exact astronomical observations must date
+back at least 5000 years, and that they were in possession of minutely
+accurate tables[61-*] long before Europe was. And the rotundity of the
+earth was certainly known both to them and the other great nations of
+antiquity.
+
+Archaeology is today pushing back the dates of fixed and acknowledged
+history almost to the date given by the Egyptians to Solon for the
+submersion of the great Atlantean island; and if we can but read the
+Maya glyphs, and open _that_ door, another twenty years from now may
+show us beyond all possible dispute evidences in every part of the earth
+belt of a contemporaneous culture, different from and precedent to the
+Aryan.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have so far in this monograph, based upon and having to do as it has
+with the Maya glyphs, their interpretation and their place in the
+linguistic field, limited myself to an analysis and consideration of the
+facts presented to us by those linguistic and cultural data we have
+actually before us. But there is one further problem which is suggested
+by it all. It is this: Where, in point of time and place, is the change
+in the world's linguistic and cultural life from ideographic to literal
+to be sought for, and what is its rationale? Separated from us by such
+an enormous period of time as it is, I still cannot believe that some
+view of it cannot be had. There are various facts of Old World history
+and language, partly of prehistoric Europe, partly of Asia, an analysis
+of which would extend this paper too far into other fields; but apart
+entirely from the question of myths or traditions, there are various
+actual observed phenomena both of language and writing, especially in
+Central Asia, which do not fit into any of the ordinary theories, and
+which do suggest this, as a simple linguistic conclusion. In point of
+locality, at least, the conclusion agrees with the usual "Aryan home"
+theory; but as far as concerns this latter it must be remembered that
+however fully it demonstrates the unity of the Aryan race, beyond that
+fact all questions of dates and even of the state of civilization at the
+time, are not matters of history as yet for us, but only of theory--as
+to which our present "perspective" may be once more as faulty as it has
+often been heretofore.[62-*]
+
+I believe that this center of transition lay somewhere in Central Asia,
+to the north of the great Himalayan range. That this region was a sort
+of alembic, a melting-pot (as America is today) for various peoples of
+an ancient world-wide culture, as broad at least in its scope as the
+term Aryan is today. That this culture displayed the ideographic traits
+we have discussed, and that it has left more or less definite traces at
+different places in the world. That it covered the two Americas, in
+whatever continental form they may then have existed, leaving us there
+"les debris echappes a un naufrage commun." That coincident with a new
+and universal world-epoch, as wide in its cultural scope as the
+difference between the ideographic and literal, there was finally formed
+a totally new vehicle for the use of human thought, the inflectional,
+literal, alphabetic. That this vehicle was perfected into some great
+speech, the direct ancestor of Sanskrit, into the _forms_ of which were
+concentrated all the old power of the ancient hieroglyphs and their
+underlying concepts. For Sanskrit, while the oldest is also the
+mightiest of Aryan grammars; and no one who has studied its forms, or
+heard its speech from educated native mouths, can call it anything but
+concentrated spiritual power. That the force which went on the one hand
+into the Sanskrit forms, was on the other perpetuated on into the
+special genius of Chinese, in which, as we know it, we have a retarded
+survival, not of course of outer form so much as of method and essence.
+And in Tibetan, in spite of all that is said to the contrary, I suspect
+that we have a derivative, not from either Chinese or Sanskrit as we
+know them, but by a medial line from a common point.[63-*] Of course
+the time for such changes must have been enormous; but whatever it was,
+it was no greater in its realm as time, than were the mental differences
+in theirs. And they both are equally human data.
+
+Certain other facts point to the American or Atlantic source and center
+of this ancient epoch. They are briefly that all around the
+Mediterranean basin we find traces of a vanished culture, unknown to our
+history, and living only in tradition and some archaeological remains.
+And of this culture various investigators, each approaching it from his
+particular favorite locality, have constructed for us as many different
+"Empires," by theories each supported by various details of analogies.
+One calls them Tartars, another Hittites, another Pelasgians, and so on.
+And all of them, in each of the theories, have as a fact a great many
+unexplained characteristics, different from those of our historical
+nations. Some of these characteristics, most markedly the Basque, but
+also not a few at greater distance, have definite American similarities.
+It might not be a far guess that these fragments represent an eastward
+movement, which later in the history of the Aryan development met and
+was pushed back westward again by the fully formed and dominant Aryan
+race from its Central Asian center. This is the future province of
+Archaeology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And I am convinced that the widest door there is to be opened to this
+past of the human race, is that of the Maya glyphs. The narrow
+limitations of our mental horizon as to the greatness and dignity of
+man, of his past, and of human evolution, were set back widely by Egypt
+and what she has had to show, and again by the Sanskrit; but the walls
+are still there, and advances, however rapid, are but gradual. With the
+reading of America I believe the walls themselves will fall, and a new
+conception of past history will come.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41-*] See _Memoranda on the Chilam Balam Calendars_, C. P. Bowditch,
+1901. The obscurities of the Chronicles render the questions connected
+with Ahpula's death exceedingly difficult. For instance, the immediate
+context in the books of Mani and Tizimin make the date 1536, as given in
+numerals, an impossible one. But, if the date as given in _Maya terms_
+is to be accepted at all (and it certainly is too specific to be
+rejected), then by the long count such a date _must_ have been either
+1502, 5350, or 12,786 years after the date of Stela 9, Copan. Mr.
+Bowditch favors the lower figure, chiefly because it is the lower, and
+thus puts Stela 9 at A. D. 34. To get this date the longest possible
+distance from Ahpula's death to the end of the katun must be used--that
+is, "6 tuns short" must be taken to mean "almost 7 tuns short." I can
+only say here that if, in correcting the figures 1536, as demanded by
+the immediate context, we make the simplest possible correction, and put
+them one katun earlier, 1516, and then take as the unexpired time to the
+end of the katun the shortest of the three terms given as possible, or 5
+tuns 139 days, bringing the end of Katun 13-Ahau on Jan. 28, 1522, we
+not only bring the end of Katun 11-Ahau within the year 1541, as is most
+positively stated by the practically contemporary Pech Chronicle, but we
+also bring in line nearly all the important events of the Chronicles,
+from the fall of Mayapan, ca. 1450, the coming of the Spaniards, and the
+smallpox, in 11-Ahau (1521 to 1541), the conversion to Christianity in
+9-Ahau, down to Landa's death (1579) in 7-Ahau; as well as many outside
+references. Any other combination requires harsher emendations somewhere
+else. But the above choice of the term of 5 tuns 139 days, thus
+seemingly called for, means that Stela 9 at Copan is dated, by the long
+count, 5350 years before Ahpula's death, or B. C. 3824. Whether this is
+right, is a question for the future.
+
+[42-*] "In ethnology however one troubles oneself little with the detail
+of linguistic structure. It is held quite sufficient to gather from
+different peoples and collate a couple of hundred vocables, into whose
+actual nature all insight is lacking, and then upon dubious, often
+purely superficial and apparent similarities, to deduce linguistic
+affinities. Or else, as is now most in fashion, the claims of linguistic
+research towards the solution of ethnological questions are reduced to a
+'most modest share' in comparison with other fields 'somewhat more in
+line with natural sciences'--meanwhile pointing for justification to the
+absurdities set forth as the results of too far-fetched linguistic
+deductions.... The errors and sophistries charged against ethnological
+linguistics are rather an accidental result of the individuality of
+single investigators, than essential to the subject. They are at least
+scarcely greater than those to the credit of recent Anthropometry. A
+brief glance at the strange changes of opinion in the latter field
+during the last three decades, in spite of all its boasted figures,
+shows how little ground it has to throw stones. Serious students, such
+as Wallace and Dall, whose critical ability in Zoomorphology no one can
+deny, and who do not rest content with a few skulls of doubtful
+_provenance_, gathered a la Hagenbeck, have come to a wholly negative
+view of the value of Craniometry."--Dr. Otto Stoll, _Maya-Sprachen der
+Pokom-Gruppe_, I, vii, ix.
+
+[43-*] Our present day speculators never seem to think for a moment that
+these things may conceal, _and thereby preserve_, some real meaning, or
+be more than nonsense. The theory of mythological interpretation pushed
+to such extremes as in the "animistic" _explanations_ of Weber,
+Keightley, and others, and not absent from the writings of some
+Americanists (namely, that it was all nothing but ridiculous or
+concocted fancy, taken soberly) is bad enough, and argues little breadth
+or insight, when applied to the myths of a single people, considered
+alone. Applied to comparative mythology, in the state of things today,
+it is simply impossible. The plain fact is, that such identities as
+these must indicate one of two things: a common tradition, locally
+modified by circumstances; or a _fact in nature_ or _history_,
+symbolically expressed in different ways according to the times and
+modes. And it most probably indicates both of these. It is indeed hard
+to account for the extent, and the weight given to some of these
+"myths," now that we are coming to a better appreciation of the scope
+and greatness of ancient civilizations--everywhere--except they do
+correspond to actual _facts_ in nature and history. And it might be
+worth our while to get at some of these.
+
+[45-*] We might just as well acknowledge, once for all, that in spite of
+its present-day currency in England and America, and its pre-emption of
+the field of "science for the people," the theory of man's physical and
+mental descent from the anthropoids, is not only _not proved_, but is
+vehemently denied by an equally able and scientific, and withal more
+logical, body of researchers than those who form its supporters. To
+_fabricate_ a missing link in a chain (or even, as with Haeckel, several
+links), whose only authority is acknowledged to be its necessity in
+order to complete the evidence for the theory, and then to declare the
+theory proved because the fabricated link fits perfectly the gap it was
+created for, is equally vicious scientifically whether the fabrication
+be the work of a physicist of renown or a linguistic theorizer. Let it
+simply be agreed, as it now is by all science, that the _evolution of
+form_ is a universal and well evidenced principle, working out through
+the various well established and comprehensible incidents, such as
+natural selection, adaptation to environment, and so on--yet this
+statement of the fact is not an explanation of its cause. And every
+scientific and logical requirement will be equally, and better, met by
+regarding all forms, whether physical, linguistic, or of any kind, as
+coming, or rather brought, into being by the force of a consciousness
+which needs them as the vehicles of its expanding activity. That this is
+absolutely true in language, anybody can see. That it is true in every
+department of daily life about us, everybody _does_ see. That it should
+be equally true in biology and physics, would not affect the standing or
+verity of a single _observed_ fact.
+
+There was, along about the beginning of the Christian era, and for some
+time before and after, a very curious movement, which seemed to spread
+itself over nearly the entire world, east and west. It is told of the
+early Aztecs that "they destroyed the records of their predecessors, in
+order to increase their own prestige." It is related that writing once
+existed in Peru, but was entirely wiped out, and the Inca records
+committed to quipus alone. The "burning of the books" under Tsin Chi
+Hwangti in B. C. 213 sought to do the same for China. The times of Akbar
+witnessed much of the same in India. And in Europe almost nothing was
+left to tell the tale of the great pre-Christian eastern empires and
+systems of thought; so that from the establishment of State Christianity
+under Constantine, and the final settlement of the Canon at the Council
+of Nicaea, an impenetrable veil was drawn over the achievements and
+greatness of the Past, and all connexion therewith broken off. It was
+some time after this that we find the heliocentric theory, as well as
+that of other habitable worlds, denied (in Europe), because "it would
+deprive the Earth of its unique and central eminence." Just as we also
+today are served up with prehistoric savage and animal ancestors, to the
+greater glory of our own present-day magnificence. But it really is in
+sober truth only a question of mental perspective which does not affect
+the facts of history, biology, archaeology or language in the least. It
+is only a question of which end of the telescope we look through.
+
+[49-*] It is exceedingly interesting to trace the course of criticism
+since the appearance of Wilhelm von Humboldt's great work, _Ueber die
+Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die
+geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts_ (Berlin, 1836). Dr.
+Brinton gave it most unqualified approval; (see especially his monograph
+read before the American Philosophical Society in 1885, and printed the
+same year). Prof. H. Steinthal (_Grammatik, Logik und Psychologie_,
+1855) calls the subject of "inner form" the most important one in
+linguistic science, and von Humboldt's treatment of it his greatest
+contribution to that science. And so on. But the work has nevertheless
+received little attention from a large number of writers, most of them
+declaring it "unclear." These two views, when one studies the various
+writers, seem to follow closely upon the standpoints from which each
+approaches the study. Those who study language (perhaps one should here
+say, languages) as a phenomenon, a set of external forms, an act, a
+thing done, get little use out of von Humboldt's work. Those who see it
+as a human "activity," an energy, get much. This is quite apparent in
+one of the clearest and ablest linguistic works which has recently
+appeared, Dr. Adolf Noreen's _Vart Sprak_ (in 9 vols., still in course
+of publication, Lund, 1903 and later), a work of far wider linguistic
+value than appears from its title. Dr. Noreen, however, dismisses von
+Humboldt's work, and the subject of "inner form," with a few pages, and
+the results are apparent in several interesting points. In the first
+place, in the course of an acute and critical analysis, wherein he shows
+that the purpose of speech is not simply _expression_ of thoughts or
+ideas, but the communication to some other person of the _knowledge_ of
+the ideas so held by the speaker, he goes on to say: "the same knowledge
+of A's wishes could be as well communicated by his saying 'I want you to
+come' as by his saying just 'Come.'" This is quite true; but the
+_energic_ effect is quite different. Language is the bridge from man to
+man, and it is also a _creative activity_ of man. Of course Dr. Noreen,
+in a later volume, where he most lucidly analyses the terms 'words,'
+'forms,' and 'concepts,' etc. (_ord_, _morfem_, _semem_, etc.), and
+corrects many errors of definition made by his predecessors,
+acknowledges the difference between the two forms; still his whole
+admirable work, analytical and critical as it is, is devoted to this
+phase of language as a mere phenomenon, a set of forms which serve as a
+medium of communication. From this standpoint, we know all there is to
+know about language when we have classified its forms. But from the
+other, the study is ever leading us into the regions and depths of man's
+consciousness, his creative activity as it goes out to the world; and
+the true definition of language, from this position, "can hence only be
+a genetic one." (von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, VI, 42)
+
+It is further not unworthy of note that, except where directly required
+in treating of verbal categories, nearly all of the enormous number of
+illustrations which Dr. Noreen chooses for his points, are _nouns_,
+names of _things_, and vary rarely verbal forms, words of action and
+_doing_. But it is simply a fact that all the _potency_ of language is
+in the verb, and almost all there is of language, in a philosophic
+sense, lies there. The verb is the bridge of communication and action
+_upon_ external things, just as is language itself, going out of man.
+And it is also noteworthy that the recognition of this position of the
+verb, together with these other matters of which we are speaking, seems
+nearer at hand and clearer to those students who are led beyond Aryan
+languages to the study of American and Asiatic, especially Central and
+Northern Asiatic. For instance, G. v. d. Gabelentz, _Die
+Sprachwissenschaft_, and other works.
+
+[53-*] It was not until after this paper was already in type that my
+attention was directed to the complete agreement of this and the
+succeeding sentences with the following passage in _The Secret Doctrine_,
+by H. P. Blavatsky, London, 1888, vol. II, page 199. After saying that
+some of the Atlantean races spoke the agglutinative languages, the
+passage continues: "While the 'cream' of the Fourth Race _gravitated_
+more and more toward the apex of physical and intellectual evolution,
+_thus_ leaving as an heirloom to the nascent Fifth (the Aryan) Race the
+inflectional, highly developed languages, the agglutinative decayed and
+remained as a fragmentary fossil idiom, scattered now, and nearly limited
+to the aboriginal tribes of America." Note the words I have italicized,
+marking the evolution of the "inflectional" languages as an attendant
+phenomenon on physico-intellectual evolution, compare the passage with
+von Humboldt's thesis, already quoted, that the incorporative quality
+denotes an exaltation of the imaginative over the ratiocinative processes
+of mind in its users, and further with the surviving genius of Chinese,
+the type of monosyllabic languages, and the agreement is evident. Von
+Humboldt, however, did not carry out so fully the archaeological results,
+for which indeed the materials were in his day still lacking. See also
+other passages in _The Secret Doctrine_.
+
+[61-*] _Traite de l'Astronomie Indienne et Orientale_, Disc. Prel. et
+seq.
+
+[62-*] The suggestion above is linguistic, and in that phase is given as
+a corollary to the foregoing discussion; but, as stated, it is at the
+same time in accord with the "Aryan" theory in its essentials (though
+not in its hypothetical and ultra-historical speculations), and it also
+finds confirmation by various passages in _The Secret Doctrine_, by H.
+P. Blavatsky, as already quoted. "The traces of an immense civilization,
+even in Central Asia, are still to be found. This civilization is
+undeniably _prehistoric_.... The Eastern and Central portions of those
+regions--the Nan-Shan and the Altyn-Tagh--were once upon a time covered
+with cities that could well vie with Babylon. A whole geological period
+has swept over the land, since those cities breathed their last, as the
+mounds of shifting sand, and the sterile and now dead soil of the
+immense central plains of the basin of Tarim testify.... In the oasis of
+Cherchen some 300 human beings represent the relics of about a hundred
+extinct nations and races--the very names of which are now unknown to
+our ethnologists." (Vol. I, page xxxii et seq.) See also Col.
+Prjevalsky's _Travels_. Why should it not be so? The above was written
+in 1888, but the evidences are growing every day, and it will be against
+all archaeological precedent if far-reaching results do not follow from
+Dr. Stein's _small_ find, and from Capt. d'Ollone's recent researches
+among the Lolos, and the securing by him, as we are informed, of the
+long-sought knowledge of their hieroglyphic system.
+
+[63-*] The study of Tibetan has so far been approached almost
+exclusively from the south, that is by those already familiar with
+Sanskrit and Pali. To this fact, as well as to the overwhelming
+influence exercised on literary Tibetan by the Buddhist propaganda, is
+due the difficulty one meets in any study of its origins. The traces,
+however, do nevertheless exist. Some interesting facts concerning both
+Chinese and Tibetan, which seem to be entirely omitted in such later
+standard works as those of Summers, Wade, and Giles, are to be found in
+the almost forgotten _Chinese Grammar_ of Dr. Marshman, Serampore, 1814.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+       Page Error
+  TN-1  20  two glyphs [Hieroglyph] and [Hieroglyph] should  have a . at
+            the end
+  TN-2  25  above the the should read above the
+  TN-3  34  Muluc Ix, Cauac should read Muluc, Ix, Cauac
+  TN-4  38  Cimi forms: [Hieroglyphs] should have a . at the end
+  TN-5  51  relationtionship should read relationship
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Commentary Upon the Maya-Tzental Perez
+Codex, by William E. Gates
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+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAYA-TZENTAL PEREZ CODEX ***
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