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+Project Gutenberg's Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by Charles Morris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15)
+       The Romance of Reality
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2008 [EBook #25673]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC TALES, VOLUME 11 (OF 15) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Kline, Greg Bergquist and The Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: CASTLE S. ANGELO.]
+
+
+
+
+  Edition d'Élite
+
+  Historical Tales
+
+  The Romance of Reality
+
+  By
+
+  CHARLES MORRIS
+
+  _Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the
+  Dramatists," etc._
+
+  IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES
+
+  Volume XI
+
+  Roman
+
+
+  J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1896, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+  Copyright, 1904, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+  Copyright, 1908, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                              PAGE
+  HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED                           7
+
+  THE SABINE VIRGINS                            14
+
+  THE HORATII AND CURIATII                      22
+
+  THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS                   26
+
+  THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL                        32
+
+  THE STORY OF LUCRETIA                         36
+
+  HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE            43
+
+  THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS                   50
+
+  THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE                      54
+
+  THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS                     60
+
+  CINCINNATUS AND THE ÆQUIANS                   68
+
+  THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA                     75
+
+  CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII                 87
+
+  THE GAULS AT ROME                             94
+
+  THE CURTIAN GULF                             105
+
+  ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS      108
+
+  THE CAUDINE FORKS                            116
+
+  THE FATE OF REGULUS                          126
+
+  HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS                    135
+
+  HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED                 145
+
+  ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE          152
+
+  THE FATE OF CARTHAGE                         158
+
+  THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL                   165
+
+  JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME              173
+
+  THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS              180
+
+  THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA                    191
+
+  THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS                 198
+
+  CÆSAR AND THE PIRATES                        204
+
+  CÆSAR AND POMPEY                             208
+
+  THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR                   218
+
+  ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA                         227
+
+  AN IMPERIAL MONSTER                          236
+
+  THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS                     243
+
+  BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN             250
+
+  ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES                         255
+
+  THE DOOM OF NERO                             262
+
+  THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE               272
+
+  THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON                       280
+
+  THE FAITHFUL EPONINA                         289
+
+  THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM                       293
+
+  THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII                   301
+
+  AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE                           309
+
+  THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE                     319
+
+  THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE                   325
+
+  THE DOWNFALL OF ROME                         331
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ROMAN.
+
+                                              PAGE
+  THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO           _Frontispiece_.
+
+  ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S             18
+
+  THE FORUM OF ROME                             26
+
+  BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS     40
+
+  HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE                   46
+
+  THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA                     75
+
+  RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS                 106
+
+  HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS                   139
+
+  THE BATHS OF CARACALLA                       150
+
+  THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR                   218
+
+  ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CÆSAR                  224
+
+  THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA                      230
+
+  THE TOMB OF HADRIAN                          260
+
+  A ROMAN CHARIOT RACE                         275
+
+  THE COLISEUM AT ROME                         282
+
+  THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM           294
+
+  THE RUINS OF POMPEII                         306
+
+  EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS         309
+
+  ARCH OF TITUS, ROME                          320
+
+  THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS            333
+
+
+
+
+_HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED._
+
+
+Very far back in time, more than twenty-six hundred years ago, on the
+banks of a small Italian river, known as the Tiber, were laid the
+foundations of a city which was in time to become the conqueror of the
+civilized world. Of the early days of this renowned city of Rome we know
+very little. What is called its history is really only legend,--stories
+invented by poets, or ancient facts which became gradually changed into
+romances. The Romans believed them, but that is no reason why we should.
+They believed many things which we doubt. And yet these romantic stories
+are the only existing foundation-stones of actual Roman history, and we
+can do no better than give them for what little kernel of fact they may
+contain.
+
+In our tales from Greek history it has been told how the city of Troy
+was destroyed, and how Æneas, one of its warrior chiefs, escaped. After
+many adventures this fugitive Trojan prince reached Italy and founded
+there a new kingdom. His son Ascanius afterwards built the city of Alba
+Longa (the long white city) not far from the site of the later city of
+Rome. Three hundred years passed away, many kings came and went, and
+then Numitor, a descendant of Æneas, came to the throne. But Numitor
+had an ambitious brother, Amulius, who robbed him of his crown, and,
+while letting him live, killed his only son and shut up his daughter
+Silvia in the temple of the goddess Vesta, to guard the ever-burning
+fire of that deity.
+
+Here Silvia had twin sons, whose father was said, in the old
+superstitious fashion, to be Mars, the God of War. The usurper, fearing
+that these sons of Mars might grow up and deprive him of his throne,
+ordered that they and their mother should be flung into the Tiber, then
+swollen with recent rains. The mother was drowned, but destiny, or Mars,
+preserved the sons. Borne onward in their basket cradle, they were at
+length swept ashore where the river had overflown its banks at the foot
+of the afterwards famous Palatine Hill. Here the cradle was over-turned
+near the roots of a wild fig-tree, and the infants left at the edge of
+the shallow waters.
+
+What follows sounds still more like fable. A she-wolf that came to the
+water to drink chanced to see the helpless children, and carried them to
+her cave, where she fed them with her milk. As they grew older a
+woodpecker brought them food, flying in and out of the cave. At length
+Faustulus, a herdsman of the king, found these lusty infants in the
+wolf's den, took them home, and gave them to his wife Laurentia to bring
+up with her own children. He gave them the names of Romulus and Remus.
+
+Years went by, and the river waifs grew to be strong, handsome, and
+brave young men. They became leaders among the shepherds and herdsmen,
+and helped them to fight the wild animals that troubled their flocks.
+Their home was on the Palatine Hill, and the cattle and sheep for which
+they cared were those of the wicked king Amulius. Near by was another
+hill, called the Aventine, and on this the deposed king Numitor fed his
+flocks. In course of time a quarrel arose between the herdsmen on the
+two hills, and Numitor's men, having laid an ambush, took Remus prisoner
+and carried him to Alba, where their master dwelt. This no sooner became
+known to Romulus than he gathered the young men of the Palatine Hill,
+and set out in all haste to the rescue of his brother.
+
+Meanwhile, Remus had been taken before Numitor, who gazed on him with
+surprise. His face and bearing were rather those of a prince than of a
+shepherd, and there was something in his aspect familiar to the old
+king. Numitor questioned him closely, and Remus told him the story of
+the river, the wolf, and the herdsman. Numitor listened intently. The
+story took him back to the day, many years before, when his daughter
+Silvia and her twin sons had been thrown into the swollen stream. Could
+the children have escaped? Could this handsome youth be his grandson? It
+must be so, for his age and his story agreed.
+
+But while they talked, Romulus and his followers reached the city, and,
+being forbidden entrance, made an assault on the gates. In the conflict
+that ensued Amulius took part and was killed, and thus Numitor and his
+daughter were at last revenged. Seeking Remus, the victorious shepherd
+prince found him with Numitor, who now fully recognized in the twin
+youths his long-lost grandsons. Romulus, who was now master of the city,
+restored his royal grandfather to the throne.
+
+As for Romulus and Remus, their life as shepherds was at an end. It was
+not for youths of royal blood and warlike aspirations to spend their
+lives in keeping sheep. But Numitor had been restored to the throne of
+Alba, and they decided to build a city of their own on those hills where
+all their lives had been passed and on which they preferred to dwell.
+The land belonged to Numitor, but he willingly granted it to them, and
+they led their followers to the spot.
+
+Here a dispute arose between the brothers. The story goes that Romulus
+wished to have the city built on the Palatine Hill, Remus on the
+Aventine Hill; and that, as they could not agree, they referred the
+matter to their grandfather, who advised them to settle it by
+augury,--or by watching and forming conclusions from the flight of
+birds. This long continued the favorite Roman mode of settling difficult
+questions. It was easier than the Greek plan of going to Delphi to
+consult the oracle.
+
+The two brothers now stationed themselves on the opposite hills, each
+with a portion of their followers, and waited patiently for what the
+heavens might send. The day slowly waned, and they waited in vain. Night
+came and deepened, and still their vigil lasted. At length, just as the
+sun of a new day rose in the east, Remus saw a flight of vultures, six
+in all. He exulted at the sight, for the vulture, as a bird which was
+seldom seen and did no harm to cattle or crops, was looked upon as an
+excellent augury. Word of his success was sent to Romulus, but he capped
+the story with a better one, saying that twelve vultures had just passed
+over his hill.
+
+The dispute was still open. Remus had seen the birds first; Romulus had
+seen the most. Which had won? The question was offered to the decision
+of their followers, the majority of whom raised their voices in favor of
+Romulus. The Palatine Hill was therefore chosen as the city's site. This
+event took place, so Roman chronology tells us, in the year 753 B.C.
+
+The day fixed for the beginning of the work on the new city--the 21st of
+April--was a day of religious ceremony and festival among the shepherds.
+On this day they offered sacrifices of cakes and milk to their god
+Pales, asked for blessings on the flocks and herds, and implored pardon
+for all offences against the dryads of the woods, the nymphs of the
+streams, and other deities. They purified themselves by flame and their
+flocks by smoke, and afterwards indulged in rustic feasts and games.
+This day of religious consecration was deemed by Romulus the fittest one
+for the important ceremony of founding his projected city.
+
+Far back in time as it was when this took place, Italy seems to have
+already possessed numerous cities, many of which were to become enemies
+of Rome in later days. The most civilized of the Italian peoples were
+the Etruscans, a nation dwelling north of the Tiber, and whose many
+cities displayed a higher degree of civilization than those around
+them. From these the Romans in later days borrowed many of their
+religious customs, and to them Romulus sent to learn what were the
+proper ceremonies to use in founding a city.
+
+The ceremonies he used were the following. At the centre of the chosen
+area he dug a circular pit through the soil to the hard clay beneath,
+and cast into this, with solemn observances, some of the first fruits of
+the season. Each of his men also threw in a handful of earth brought
+from his native land. Then the pit was filled up, an altar erected upon
+it, and a fire kindled on the altar. In this way was the city
+consecrated to the gods.
+
+Then, having harnessed a cow and a bull of snow-white color to a plough
+whose share was made of brass, Romulus ploughed a furrow along the line
+of the future walls. He took care that the earth of the furrow should
+fall inward towards the city, and also to lift the plough and carry it
+over the places where gates were to be made. As he ploughed he uttered a
+prayer to Jupiter, Mars, Vesta, and other deities, invoking their favor,
+and praying that the new city should long endure and become an
+all-ruling power upon the earth.
+
+The Romans tell us that his prayer was answered by Jupiter, who sent
+thunder from one side of the heavens and lightning from the other. These
+omens encouraged the people, who went cheerfully to the work of building
+the walls. But the consecration of the city was not yet completed. Its
+walls were to be cemented by noble blood. There is reason to believe
+that in those days the line of a city's walls was held as sacred, and
+that it was desecration to enter the enclosure at any place except those
+left for the gates. This may be the reason that Romulus gave orders to a
+man named Celer, who had charge of the building of the walls, not to let
+any one pass over the furrow made by the plough. However this be, the
+story goes that Remus, who was still angry about his brother's victory,
+leaped scornfully over the furrow, exclaiming, "Shall such defences as
+these keep your city?"
+
+Celer, who stood by, stirred to sudden fury by this disdain, raised the
+spade with which he had been working, and struck Remus a blow that laid
+him dead upon the ground. Then, fearing vengeance for his hasty act, he
+rushed away with such speed that his name has since been a synonyme for
+quickness. Our word "celerity" is derived from it. But Romulus seems to
+have borne the infliction with much of that spirit of fortitude which
+distinguished the Romans in after-times. At least, the only effect the
+death of his brother had upon him, so far as we know, was in the remark,
+"So let it happen to all who pass over my walls!" Thus were consecrated
+in the blood of a brother the walls of that city which in later years
+was to be bathed in the blood of the brotherhood of mankind, and from
+which was destined to outflow a torrent of desolation over the earth.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SABINE VIRGINS._
+
+
+A tract of ground surrounded by walls does not make a city. Men are
+wanted, and of these the new city of Rome had but few. The band of
+shepherds who were sufficient to build a wall, or perhaps only a wooden
+palisade, were not enough to inhabit a city and defend it from its foes.
+The neighboring people had cities of their own, except bandits and
+fugitives, men who had shed blood, exiles driven from their homes by
+their enemies, or slaves who had fled from their lords and masters.
+These were the only people to be had, and Romulus invited them in by
+proclaiming that his city should be an asylum for all who were
+oppressed, a place of refuge to which any man might flee and be safe
+from his pursuers. He erected a temple to a god named Asylæus,--from
+whom comes the word asylum,--and in this he "received and protected all,
+delivering none back, neither the servant to his master, the debtor to
+his creditor, nor the murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying
+that it was a privileged place, and they could so maintain it by an
+order of the holy oracle, insomuch that the city grew presently very
+populous."
+
+It was a quick and easy way of peopling a city. Doubtless the country
+held many such fugitives,--men lurking in woods or caves, hiding in
+mountain clefts, abiding wherever a place of safety offered,--hundreds
+of whom, no doubt, were glad to find a shelter among men and behind
+walls of defence. But it was probably a sorry population, made up of the
+waifs of mankind, many of whom had been slaves or murderers. There were
+certainly no women among this desperate horde, and Romulus appealed in
+vain to the neighboring cities to let his people obtain wives from among
+their maidens. It was not safe for the citizens of Rome to go abroad to
+seek wives for themselves; the surrounding peoples rejected the appeal
+of Romulus with scorn and disdain; unless something was done Rome bade
+fair to remain a city of bachelors.
+
+In this dilemma Romulus conceived a plan to win wives for his people. He
+sent word abroad that he had discovered the altar of the god Consus, who
+presided over secret counsels, and he invited the citizens of the
+neighboring towns to come to Rome and take part in a feast with which he
+proposed to celebrate the festal day of the deity. This was the 21st of
+August, just four months after the founding of the city,--that is, if it
+was the same year.
+
+There were to be sacrifices to Consus, where libations would be poured
+into the flames that consumed the victims. These would be followed by
+horse-and chariot-races, banquets, and other festivities. The promise of
+merry-making brought numerous spectators from the nearer cities, some
+doubtless drawn by curiosity to see what sort of a commonwealth this
+was that had grown up so suddenly on the sheep pastures of the Palatine
+Hill; and they found their wives and daughters as curious and eager for
+enjoyment as themselves, and brought them along, ignoring the scorn with
+which they had lately rejected the Roman proposals for wives. It was a
+religious festival, and therefore safe; so visitors came from the cities
+of Coenina, Crustumerium, and Antemna, and a multitude from the
+neighboring country of the Sabines.
+
+The sacrifices over, the games began. The visitors, excited by the
+races, became scattered about among the Romans. But as the chariots,
+drawn by flying horses, sped swiftly over the ground, and the eyes of
+the visitors followed them in their flight, Romulus gave a preconcerted
+signal, and immediately each Roman seized a maiden whom he had managed
+to get near and carried her struggling and screaming from the ground. As
+they did so, each called out "Talasia," a word which means spinning, and
+which afterwards became the refrain of a Roman marriage song.
+
+The games at once broke up in rage and confusion. But the visitors were
+unarmed and helpless. Their anger could be displayed only in words, and
+Romulus told them boldly that they owed their misfortune to their pride.
+But all would go well with their daughters, he said, since their new
+husbands would take the place with them of home and family.
+
+This reasoning failed to satisfy the fathers who had been robbed so
+violently of their daughters, and they had no sooner reached home than
+many of them seized their arms and marched against their faithless
+hosts. First came the people of Coenina; but the Romans defeated them,
+and Romulus killed their king. Then came the people of Crustumerium and
+Antemna, but they too were defeated. The prisoners were taken into Rome
+and made citizens of the new commonwealth.
+
+But it was the Sabines who had most to deplore, for they had come in
+much the greatest number, and it was principally the Sabine virgins whom
+the Romans had borne off from the games. Titus Tatius, the king of the
+Sabines, therefore resolved upon a signal revenge, and took time to
+gather a large army, with which he marched against Rome.
+
+The war that followed was marked by two romantic incidents. Near the
+Tiber is a hill,--afterwards known as the Capitoline Hill,--which was
+divided from the Palatine Hill by a low and swampy valley. On this hill
+Romulus had built a fortress, as a sort of outwork of his new city. It
+happened that Tarpeius, the chief who held this fortress, had a daughter
+named Tarpeia, who was deeply affected by that love of finery which has
+caused abundant mischief since her day. When she saw the golden collars
+and bracelets which many of the Sabines wore, her soul was filled with
+longing, and she managed to let them know that she would betray the
+fortress into their hands if they would give her the bright things which
+they wore upon their arms.
+
+They consented, and she secretly opened to them a gate of the fortress.
+But as they marched through the gate, and the traitress waited to
+receive her reward, the Sabine soldiers threw on her the bright shields
+which they wore on their arms, and she was crushed to death beneath
+their weight. The steep rock of the Capitoline Hill from which traitors
+were afterwards thrown was called, after her, the Tarpeian Rock.
+
+[Illustration: ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S.]
+
+The fortress thus captured, the valley between the hill and the city
+became the scene of battle. Here the Sabines repulsed the Romans,
+driving them back to one of their gates, through which the fugitives
+rushed in confusion, shutting it hastily behind them. But--if we may
+trust the legend--the gate refused to stay shut. It opened again of its
+own accord. They closed it twice more, and twice more it swung open. The
+victorious Sabines, who had now reached it, began to rush in; but just
+then, from the Temple of Janus, near by, there burst forth a mighty
+stream of water, which swept the Sabines away and saved Rome from
+capture. Therefore, in after-days, the gates of the Temple of Janus
+stood always wide open in time of war, that the god might go out, if he
+would, to fight for the Romans.
+
+Another battle took place in the valley, and the Romans again began to
+flee. Romulus now prayed to Jupiter, and vowed to erect to him a temple
+as Jupiter Stator,--that is, the "stayer,"--if he would stay the Romans
+in their flight. Jupiter did so, or, at any rate, the Romans turned
+again to the fight, which now waxed furious. What would have been its
+result we cannot tell, for it was brought to an end by the other
+romantic incident of which we have spoken.
+
+In fact, while the fathers of the Sabine virgins retained their anger
+against the Romans, the virgins themselves, who had now long been
+brides, had become comforted, most of them being as attached to their
+husbands as they had been to their parents before; and in the midst of
+the furious battle between their nearest relatives the lately abducted
+damsels were seen rushing down the Palatine Hill, and forcing their way,
+with appealing eyes and dishevelled hair, in between the combatants.
+
+"Make us not twice captives!" they earnestly exclaimed, saying
+pathetically that if the war went on they would be widowed or
+fatherless, both of which sad alternatives they deplored.
+
+The result of this appeal was a happy one. Both sides let fall their
+arms, and peace was declared upon the spot, it being recognized that
+there could be no closer bond of unity than that made by the daughters
+of the Sabines and wives of the Romans. The two people agreed to become
+one, the Sabines making their new home on the Capitoline and Quirinal
+Hills, and the Romans continuing to occupy the Palatine. As for the
+women, there was established in their honor the feast called Matronalia,
+in which husbands gave presents to their wives and lovers to their
+betrothed. Romulus and Tatius were to rule jointly, and afterwards the
+king of Rome should be alternately of Roman and Sabine birth.
+
+After five years Tatius was killed in a quarrel, and Romulus became sole
+king. Under him Rome grew rapidly. He was successful in his wars, and
+enriched his people with the spoils of his enemies In rule he was just
+and gentle, and punished those guilty of crime not by death, but by
+fines of sheep or oxen. It is said, though, that he grew somewhat
+arrogant, and was accustomed to receive his people dressed in scarlet
+and lying on a couch of state, where he was surrounded by a body of
+young men called _Celeres_, from the speed with which they flew to
+execute his orders.
+
+For nearly forty years his reign continued, and then his end came
+strangely. One day he called the people together in the Field of Mars.
+But suddenly there arose a frightful storm, with such terrible thunder
+and lightning and such midnight darkness that the people fled homeward
+in affright through the drenching rain. That was the last of Romulus. He
+was never seen in life again. He may have been slain by enemies, but the
+popular belief was that Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven
+in his chariot. All that the people knew was that one night, when
+Proculus Julius, a friend of the king, was on his way from Alba to Rome,
+he met Romulus by the way, his stature beyond that of man, and his face
+showing the beauty of the gods.
+
+Proculus asked him why he had left the people to sorrow and wicked
+surmises, for some said that the senators had made away with him.
+Romulus replied that it was the wish of the gods that, after building a
+city that was destined to the greatest empire and glory, he should go to
+heaven and dwell with the gods.
+
+"Go and tell my people that they must not weep for me any more," he
+said; "but bid them to be brave and warlike, and so shall they make my
+city the greatest on the earth."
+
+This story satisfied the people that their king had been made a god; so
+they built a temple to him, and always afterwards worshipped him under
+the name of the god Quirinus. A festival called the Quirinalia was
+celebrated each year on the 17th of February, the day on which he had
+vanished from the eyes of men.
+
+
+
+
+_THE HORATII AND CURIATII._
+
+
+Romulus was succeeded by a king named Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin,
+who so loved peace that during his reign Rome had no wars and no
+enemies, so that the doors of the Temple of Janus were never once opened
+while he was on the throne. He built a temple to Faith, that men might
+learn to avoid falsehood and to act honestly. He taught the people to
+sacrifice nothing but the fruits of the earth, cakes of flour, and
+roasted corn, and to shed no blood upon the altars. And so Home was
+peaceful and prosperous throughout his long reign, and grew rapidly in
+wealth and population. He died at length when eighty years of age, and
+was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, a king of Roman birth.
+
+The new king loved war as much as the gentle Numa had loved peace. Under
+his rule the gates of the Temple of Janus were soon thrown open again,
+long to remain so. His first war was with the city of Alba Longa, the
+foster-parent of Rome. Some border troubles brought on hostilities, war
+broke out, and an Alban army marched until within fifteen miles of Rome.
+And here took place a celebrated incident. The two armies were drawn out
+on the field, and were about to plunge into the dreadful work of
+battle, when the Alban king, to whom the war seemed a foolish and
+useless one, stood out between the two armies and spoke in the hearing
+of both.
+
+He reminded them that the Romans and Albans were of the same origin, and
+that they were surrounded by nations who would like to see both of them
+weakened. He proposed, therefore, that the dispute between them should
+be decided not by battle, but by a duel between a few soldiers, and that
+the side which won should rule the other. This proposal seemed to Tullus
+a sensible one, and he accepted it, offering as the combatants on his
+side three brothers known as the Horatii.
+
+The Alban army had also three brave brothers, of about the same age as
+the Roman champions, known as the Curiatii, and these were chosen to
+uphold the honor and dominion of Alba against Rome. So, with the two
+armies as spectators, and a broad space between for the deadly duel, the
+six champions, fully armed, faced each other in the field.
+
+The onset was fierce, and set every heart in the two armies throbbing in
+hope or dread. But after a short time a shout of triumph went up from
+the Alban host. Two of the Horatii lay stretched in death on the field.
+The Curiatii were all wounded, but they were now three to one, so the
+remaining Horatius turned and fled, though he was still unhurt. Dismay
+fell on the Romans as they saw their single champion in full flight,
+pursued by his opponents. The glad shouts of the Albans redoubled.
+
+Suddenly a change came. The fugitive, whose flight had been a feint, to
+separate his foes, now turned and saw that the wounded men were lagging
+in pursuit and were widely separated. Running quickly back, he met the
+nearest, and killed him with a blow. The other two were met and slain in
+succession before they could aid each other. Then, holding up his bloody
+sword in triumph, the victor invited the plaudits of his friends, while
+shedding dismay on Alban hearts.
+
+The Romans, now lords of the Albans, returned to Rome in triumph, their
+advent to the city being marked by the first of those pompous
+processions which in after-years became known as Roman Triumphs, and
+were celebrated with the utmost splendor and costliness of display.
+
+But the affair of the Horatii and Curiatii was not yet at an end. It was
+to be finished in blood and crime. A sister of the Horatii was the
+affianced bride of one of the Curiatii, and as she saw her victorious
+brother enter the city, bearing on his shoulders the military cloak
+which she had wrought for her lover with her own hands, she broke into
+wild invectives, tearing her hair, and upbraiding her brother with
+bitter words. Roused to fury by this accusation, the victor, in a
+paroxysm of rage, struck his sister to the heart with the sword which
+had slain her lover, crying out, "So perish the Roman maiden who shall
+weep for her country's enemy."
+
+This dreadful deed filled with horror the hearts of all who beheld it.
+Men cried that it was a crime against the law and the gods, too great to
+be atoned for by the victor's services. He was seized and dragged to the
+tribunal of the two judges who dealt with crimes of bloodshed. These
+heard the evidence of the crime, and condemned him to death, in despite
+of what he had done for Rome.
+
+But the Roman law permitted an appeal from the judges to the people.
+This appeal Horatius made, and it was tried before the assembly of
+Romans. Here his father spoke in his favor, saying that in his opinion
+the maiden deserved her fate. Remembrance of the great service performed
+by Horatius was also strong with the people, and the voice of the
+assembly freed him from the sentence of death. But blood had been shed,
+and blood required atonement, so a sum of money was set aside to pay for
+sacrifices to atone for this dreadful deed. Ever afterwards these
+sacrifices were performed by members of the Horatian clan.
+
+In a later war the Albans failed to aid the Romans, as they were
+required to do by the terms of alliance. As a result the city of Alba
+was destroyed, and the Albans forced to come and live in Rome, the
+Cælial Hill being given them for a dwelling-place.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS._
+
+
+The tale we have now to tell forces us to pass rapidly over years of
+history. After several kings of Roman and Sabine birth had reigned, a
+foreigner, of Greek descent, came to the throne of Rome. This was one
+Lucomo, the son of a native of Corinth, who had settled at Tarquinii in
+Italy. Growing weary of Tarquinii, Lucomo left that city, with his
+family and wealth, and made his way to Rome. As he came near the gates
+of the city an eagle swooped down, lifted the cap from his head, and,
+bearing it high into the air, descended and placed it on his head again.
+His wife Tanaquil, who was skilled in augury, told him this was a happy
+omen, and that he was destined to become great.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORUM OF ROME.]
+
+And so he did. His riches, courage, and wisdom brought him great favor
+in Rome, and on the death of their king Ancus the people chose Lucius
+Tarquinius--as they called him, from his native city--to reign over them
+in his stead. He proved a valiant and successful warrior, and in times
+of peace did noble work. He built great sewers to drain the city,
+constructed a large circus or race-course, and a forum or market-place,
+and built a wall of stone around the city in place of the old wooden
+wall. He also began to build a great temple on the Capitoline Hill,
+which was designed to be the temple of the gods of Rome. In the end
+Lucius was murdered by the sons of King Ancus, who declared that he had
+robbed them of the throne.
+
+There is a story of the deed of an augur in his reign which is worth
+repeating, whether we believe it or not. Lucius had little trust in the
+augur, and said to him, "Come, tell me by your auguries whether the
+thing I have in my mind may be done or not." "It may," said Attus, the
+augur. "It is this," said the king, laughing: "it was in my mind that
+you should cut this whetstone in two with this razor. Take them and see
+if you can do it."
+
+Attus took the razor and whetstone, and with a bold stroke cut the
+latter in two. From that time on Lucius did nothing without first
+consulting the augurs, and testing the purposes of the gods by the
+flight of birds, and--so say the legends--he prospered accordingly.
+
+The cause of the death of Lucius was this. One day a boy who dwelt in
+the palace fell asleep in its portico, and as he lay there some
+attendants who passed by saw a flame playing lambently around his head.
+Alarmed at the sight, they were about to throw water upon him to
+extinguish the flame, when Tanaquil, the queen, who had also seen it,
+forbade them. She told the king of what had happened, and said that the
+boy whom they were bringing up so meanly was destined to become great
+and noble. She bade him, therefore, to rear the child in a way befitting
+his destiny.
+
+The boy, whose name was Servius Tullius, was thereupon brought up as a
+prince, and when old enough married the king's daughter. Lucius reigned
+forty years, and then the sons of Ancus, fearing to be robbed of their
+claim to the throne by young Servius, who had become very popular,
+managed to get an audience with and kill the king.
+
+The murderers gained nothing by their deed of blood. Queen Tanaquil
+shrewdly told the people that Lucius was only stunned by the blow, and
+that he wished them to obey the orders of Servius. To the young man she
+said, "The kingdom is yours; if you have no plans of your own, then
+follow mine." For several days Servius acted as king, and then, the
+people and senate having grown used to seeing him on the throne, the
+death of Lucius was declared and Servius proclaimed king. He had the
+consent of the senate, but had not asked that of the people, being the
+first king of Rome who reigned without the votes of the assembly of the
+Roman people.
+
+Servius Tullius reigned long and won victories, but his greatest
+triumphs were those of peace. He formed a league with the thirty cities
+of Latium, and is said to have taken a census of the people of the city,
+which was found to have eighty-three thousand inhabitants. To strengthen
+his power he married his two daughters to two sons of Lucius Tarquinius,
+a well-intended act which led to a tragic and dreadful deed.
+
+The daughters of Servius were very unlike in nature, and the same may be
+said of their husbands, and they became unequally mated. Lucius
+Tarquinius was proud and full of evil, while his wife, the elder Tullia,
+was good and gentle. Aruns Tarquinius was of a mild and kindly nature,
+while his wife, the younger Tullia, was cruel and ambitious. They were
+thus sadly mismated. But the evil pair saw in each other kindred
+spirits, and in the end Lucius secretly killed his wife, and the younger
+Tullia her husband. The wicked pair then married, and proceeded to carry
+out the purposes of their base hearts.
+
+Servius, being himself of humble birth, had favored the people at the
+expense of the nobles. He even made a law that no king should rule after
+him, but that two men chosen by the people should govern them year by
+year. Thus it was that the commons came to love him and the nobles to
+hate him, and when he asked for a vote of the people on his king-ship
+there was not a voice raised against him.
+
+Lucius, whom his wicked wife steadily goaded to ambitious aims,
+conspired with the nobles against the king. There were brotherhoods of
+the young nobles, pledged to support each other in deeds of oppression.
+These he joined, and gained their aid. Then he waited till the harvest
+season, when the commons were in the fields, gathering the ripened corn.
+
+This absence of the king's friends gave him the opportunity he wished.
+Gathering a band of armed men, he suddenly entered the Forum, and took
+his seat on the king's throne, before the door of the senate-chamber,
+from which Servius was accustomed to judge the people. Word of this act
+of treason was borne to the old king, who at once hastened to the Forum
+and sternly asked the usurper why he had dared to take that seat.
+
+Lucius insolently answered that it was his father's throne, and that he
+had the best right to it. Then, as the aged and unguarded king mounted
+the steps of the senate-house, his ambitious son-in-law sprang up,
+caught him by the middle, and flung him headlong down the steps to the
+ground. Then he went into the senate-chamber and called the senators
+together, as though he were already king.
+
+The old monarch, sadly shaken by his fall, rose to his feet and made his
+way slowly towards his home on the Esquiline Hill. But when he came near
+it he was overtaken by some bravos whom Lucius had sent in pursuit.
+These killed the unprotected old man, and left him lying in his blood in
+the middle of the street.
+
+And now was done a deed which has aroused the execrations of mankind in
+all later ages. Tullia, who had instigated her husband to the murder of
+her father, waited with impatience until it was performed. Then,
+mounting her chariot, she bade the coachman to drive to the Forum,
+where, heedless of the crowd of men who had assembled, she called Lucius
+from the senate-house, and cried to him, in accents of triumph, "Hail to
+thee, King Tarquinius!"
+
+Wicked as Lucius was, he was not as shameless as his wife, and sternly
+bade her to go home. She obeyed, taking the same street as her father
+had followed. Soon reaching the spot where the bleeding body of the old
+king lay stretched across the way, the coachman drew up his horses and
+pointed out to Tullia the dreadful spectacle.
+
+"Drive on," she harshly commanded. "I cannot," he replied. "The street
+is too narrow to pass without crushing the king's body." "Drive on," she
+again fiercely ordered, and the coachman did so. Tullia went to her home
+with her father's blood upon the wheels of her chariot, and with the
+execration of all good men upon her head. And thus it was that Lucius
+Tarquinius and his wicked wife succeeded the good king Servius upon the
+throne.
+
+We may tell here briefly the end of this evil pair. Tarquin the Proud,
+as he is known in history, reigned as a tyrant and oppressor, while his
+wife was viewed with horror by all virtuous matrons. At length the
+people rose against a base deed of the tyrant's son, and the wicked
+Tullia fled in terror from her house. No one sought to stop her in her
+flight; but all, men and women alike, cursed her as she passed, and
+prayed that the furies of her father's blood might take revenge for her
+dreadful deed.
+
+She never saw Rome again. Tarquin sought long to regain his crown, but
+in vain, and the wicked usurpers died in exile. No king ever again ruled
+over the Romans. Tarquin's tyranny had given the people enough of kings,
+and the law of good Servius Tullius was at last carried out.
+
+
+
+
+_THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL._
+
+
+While Tarquin the Proud was king a strange thing happened at Rome. One
+day an unknown woman came to the king, bearing in her arms nine books,
+which she offered to sell to him at a certain price. She told him that
+they contained the prophecies of the Sibyl of Cumæ, and that from them
+might be learned the destiny of Rome and the way to carry out this
+destiny.
+
+But the price she asked for her books seemed to the king exorbitant, and
+he refused to buy them, whereupon the woman went away from the palace
+and burned three of the volumes. She then returned with six only and
+offered them to the king, but demanded the same price for the six as she
+had before done for the nine. King Tarquin heard this demand with
+laughter and mockery, and again refused to buy. The woman once more left
+the palace, and burned three more of the books.
+
+To the king's astonishment his strange visitor soon returned, bearing
+the three books that remained. On being asked their price, she named the
+same sum as she had demanded for the six and the nine. This was ceasing
+to be matter for mockery. There might be some important mystery
+concealed behind this strange demand. The king sent for the augurs of
+the court, told them what had happened, and asked what he should do.
+They told him that he had done very wrong. In refusing the books he had
+refused a gift of the gods. By all means he must buy the books that were
+left. He bought them, therefore, at the Sibyl's price. As for the woman,
+she was never seen again.
+
+The books were placed in a chest of stone, and kept underground in the
+great temple which his father had begun on the Capitoline Hill, and
+which he had completed. Two men were appointed to guard them, who were
+called the two men of the sacred books; and no treasure could have been
+kept with more care and devotion than these mysterious rolls.
+
+The temple in which these books were kept was the grandest edifice Rome
+had yet known. When Tarquin proposed to build it he found the chosen
+site already occupied by many holy places, sacred to the gods of the
+Sabines, the first dwellers on the Capitoline Hill. The augurs consulted
+the gods to see if these holy places could safely be removed, to make
+room for the new temple. The answer came that they might take away all
+except the holy places of the god of Youth and of Terminus, the god of
+boundaries. This was accounted a happy augury, for it seemed to mean
+that the city should always retain its youth and that no enemy should
+remove its boundaries. And when the foundations of the temple were dug a
+human head was found, which was held to be a sign that the Capitoline
+Hill should be the head of all the earth. So a great temple was built,
+and consecrated to Jupiter and to Juno and to Minerva, the greatest of
+the Etruscan gods. This edifice, afterwards known as the Capitol, was
+the most sacred and revered edifice of later Rome.
+
+In the vaults of this temple the sacred books of the Sibyl were
+sedulously kept, and here they were consulted from time to time, as
+occasions arose in the history of the city when divine guidance seemed
+necessary. None of the people were permitted to gaze within the sacred
+cell in which they lay. Only the augurs consulted them, and the word of
+the augurs had to be taken for what they revealed. It may be that the
+augurs themselves invented all that they told, for the books at length
+perished in the flames, and no man knows what secret lore they really
+contained.
+
+It was during the wars of Sulla and Marius (83 B.C.) that this disaster
+occurred. The Capitol was burned, and with it those famous oracles,
+which had so long directed the counsels of the nation. Their loss threw
+Rome into the deepest consternation, the loss of the Capitol itself
+seeming small beside that of these famous scrolls.
+
+To replace them as far as possible, the senate sent ambassadors to the
+various temples of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, within which were
+Sibyls, or oracle-speaking priestesses. These collected such oracles
+referring to Rome as they could find, about one thousand lines in all,
+and brought them to Rome, where they were placed in the same locality in
+the new Capitol that they had occupied in the old.
+
+These oracles do not appear to have predicted future events, but were
+consulted to discover the religious observances necessary to avert great
+calamities and to expiate prodigies. During the reign of Augustus they
+were removed to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and all the
+false Sibylline leaves which were extant were collected and burned. They
+remained here until shortly after the year 400 A.D., when they were
+publicly burned by Stilicho, a famous general of Christian Rome, as
+impious documents of heathen times.
+
+
+
+
+_THE STORY OF LUCRETIA._
+
+
+We have next to tell how Tarquin the Proud lost his throne, through his
+own tyranny and the criminal action of his son. Once upon a time, when
+this king was at the height of his power, he, as was usual, offered
+sacrifices to the gods on the altar in the palace court-yard. But from
+the altar there crawled out a snake, which devoured the offerings before
+the flames could reach them.
+
+This was an alarming omen. The augurs were consulted, but none of them
+could explain it. So Tarquin sent two of his sons to the Temple of
+Delphi, in Greece, whose oracle was famous in all lands, to ask counsel
+of Apollo concerning this prodigy. With these two princes, Titus and
+Aruns by name, went their cousin, Lucius Junius, a youth who seemed so
+lacking in wit that men called him Brutus,--that is, the "Dullard." One
+evidence of his lack of wit was that he would eat wild figs with honey.
+Just in what way this was an evidence of want of good sense we do not
+know, though doubtless the Romans did.
+
+But Brutus was by no means the fool that men fancied him. He was shrewd
+instead of stupid. His father had left him abundant wealth, to which
+his uncle, King Tarquin, might at any time take a fancy, and sweep him
+away to enjoy it. The king had killed his brother for his wealth, and
+would be likely to serve him in the same way if he deemed him wise
+enough to fight for his inheritance. So, preferring life to money,
+Brutus feigned to be wanting in sense.
+
+When he went to Delphi he took with him a hollow staff of horn, which he
+had filled with gold, and offered this staff to the oracle as a likeness
+of himself,--perhaps as one empty of wit and whose whole merit lay in
+his gold. When the three young men had performed the bidding of the
+king, and asked the oracle the meaning of the prodigy, they were told
+that it portended the fall of Tarquin. Then they said, "O Lord Apollo,
+tell us which of us shall be king of Rome." From the depth of the
+sanctuary there came a voice in reply, "The one among you who shall
+first kiss his mother."
+
+This was one of those enigmas in which the Delphian oracle usually
+spoke, saying things with a double meaning, and which men were apt to
+take amiss. It was so now. The two princes drew lots which of them
+should first kiss their mother on his return; and they agreed to keep
+the oracle secret from their brother Sextus, lest he should be king
+rather than they. But Brutus was wiser than them both. As they left the
+temple together, he pretended to stumble and fell with his face to the
+ground. He then kissed the earth, saying, "The earth is the true mother
+of us all."
+
+On their return to Rome the princes found that their father was at war.
+He was besieging the city of Ardea, which lay south of Rome; and as this
+city was strong and well defended the king and his army were kept a long
+while before it, waiting until famine, their ally, should force the
+inhabitants to surrender. While the army was thus waiting in idleness
+its officers had leisure for feasts and diversions, and one of the
+king's sons found time to indulge in fatal mischief. This arose from a
+supper in the tent of Prince Sextus, at which his brothers Titus and
+Aruns, and his cousin Tarquin of Collatia, were present.
+
+While they feasted a dispute arose between them, as to which had the
+worthiest wife. It ended in a proposition of Tarquin, "Let us go and see
+with our own eyes what our wives are doing, and we can then best decide
+which is the worthiest." This proposition hit with their humor, and,
+mounting their horses, they rode to Rome. Here they found the wives of
+the three princes merrily engaged at a banquet. They then rode on to
+Collatia. It was now late at night, but they found Lucretia, the wife of
+their cousin, neither sleeping nor feasting, but working at the loom,
+with her handmaids busily engaged around her.
+
+On seeing this, they all cried, "Lucretia is the worthiest lady." She
+ceased her work to entertain them, after which they took to their horses
+again, and rode back to the camp before Ardea.
+
+But Sextus was seized with a vile passion for his cousin's wife, and a
+few days afterwards went alone to Collatia, where Lucretia received him
+with much hospitality, as her husband's kinsman. He treated her
+shamefully in return, forcing her, with wicked threats, to accept him as
+her lover and husband, in defiance of the laws of God and man.
+
+As soon as Sextus had left her and returned to the camp, Lucretia sent
+to Rome for her father and to Ardea for her husband. Tarquin brought
+with him his cousin Lucius Junius, or Brutus the Dullard. When they
+arrived the lady, with bitter tears, told them of the wickedness of
+Sextus, and said, "If you are men, avenge it!" They heard her tale in
+horror, and swore to deeply revenge her wrong.
+
+"I am not guilty," she now said; "yet I too must share in the punishment
+of this deed, lest any should think that they may be false to their
+husbands and live." As she spoke she drew a knife from her bosom and
+stabbed herself to the heart.
+
+As they saw her fall, a cry of horror arose from her husband and father.
+But Brutus, who saw that the time had come for him to throw off his
+pretence of stupidity and act the man, drew the knife from the bleeding
+wound and held it up, saying, in solemn accents, "By this blood, I swear
+that I will visit this deed upon King Tarquin and all his accursed race!
+And no man hereafter shall reign as king in Rome, lest he may do the
+like wickedness."
+
+He then handed the knife to the others, and bade them to take the same
+oath. This they did, wondering at the sudden transformation in Brutus.
+They then took up the body of the slain woman and carried it into the
+forum of the town, crying to the gathering people, "Behold the deeds of
+the wicked family of Tarquin, the tyrant of Rome!"
+
+The people, maddened by the sight, hastily sought their arms, and while
+some guarded the gates, that none might carry the news to the king, the
+others followed Brutus to Rome. Here the story of the wickedness of
+Sextus and the self-sacrifice of Lucretia ran through the city like
+wildfire, and a multitude gathered in the Forum, where Brutus addressed
+them in fervent words. He recalled to them all the tyranny of Tarquin
+and the vices of his sons, reminding them of the murder of Servius, the
+impious act of Tullia, and ending with an earnest recital of the wrongs
+of the virtuous Lucretia, whose bleeding corpse still lay in evidence in
+the forum of Collatia.
+
+[Illustration: BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS.]
+
+His words went to the souls of his hearers. An assembly of the people
+being quickly called, it was voted that the Tarquins should be banished,
+and the office of king should be forever abolished in Rome. Tullia,
+learning of the cause of the tumult, hastily left the palace, and fled
+from Rome in her chariot through throngs that followed her with threats
+and curses. Brutus, perhaps with the crimsoned knife still in his hand,
+bade the young men to follow him, and set off in haste to Ardea, to
+spread through the army the story of the deed of crime and blood.
+
+Meanwhile, Tarquin had been told of the revolt, and was hurrying to Rome
+to put it down. Brutus turned aside from the road that he might not meet
+him, and hastened on to the camp, where the story of the revolt and its
+cause was told the soldiers. On hearing the story the whole army broke
+into a tumult of indignation, drove the king's sons from the camp, and
+demanded to be led to Rome. The siege of Ardea was at once abandoned and
+the backward march began.
+
+Meanwhile, Tarquin had reached the city, but only to find the gates
+closed against him and stern men on the walls. "You cannot enter here,"
+they cried. "You are banished from Rome, you and all of yours, and shall
+never set foot within its walls again. And you are the last of our
+kings. No man after you shall ever call himself king of Rome."
+
+Just in what threats, promises, and persuasions Tarquin indulged we do
+not know. But the men on the walls were not to be moved by threats or
+promises, and he was obliged to take himself away, a crownless wanderer.
+As for Sextus, to whom all the trouble was due, some say that he was
+killed in a town whose people he had betrayed, while others say that he
+was slain in battle while his father was fighting to regain his throne.
+
+But this is certain, no king ever reigned in Rome again. The people,
+talking among each other, said, "Let us follow the wise laws of good
+King Servius. He bade us to meet in our centuries (or hundreds) and to
+choose two men year by year to govern us, instead of a king. This let us
+do, as Servius would have done himself had he not been basely murdered."
+
+So the centuries of the people met in the Campus Martius (Field of
+Mars), and there chose two men,--Brutus, the leader in the revolution,
+and Lucius Tarquin, the husband of the fated Lucretia. These officials
+were afterwards called Consuls, and were given ruling power in Rome.
+But they had to lay down their office at the end of the year and be
+succeeded by two others elected in their stead. The people, however,
+were afraid of the very name of Tarquin, and in electing Lucius to the
+consulate it seemed as if they had put a new Tarquin on the throne. So
+they prayed him to leave the city; and, taking all his goods, he went
+away and settled at Lavinium, a new consul being elected in his place. A
+law was now passed that all the house of the Tarquins should be
+banished, whether they were of the king's family or not.
+
+Thus ended the kingly period in Rome, after six kings had followed
+Romulus. With the consuls many of the laws of King Servius, which
+Tarquin had set aside, were restored, and a much greater degree of
+freedom came to the people of Rome. But that there might not now seem to
+be two kings instead of one, it was decreed that only one of the consuls
+should rule at a time, each of them acting as ruler for a month, and
+then giving over the power to his associate.
+
+
+
+
+_HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE._
+
+
+The banished King Tarquin did not lightly yield his realm. He roused the
+neighboring cities against Rome and fought fiercely for his throne. Soon
+after he was exiled from Rome he sent messengers there for his goods.
+These the senate decreed should be given him. But his messengers had
+more secret work to do. They formed a plot with many of the young nobles
+to bring back the king, and among these traitors were Titus and
+Tiberius, the sons of Brutus.
+
+A slave overheard the conspirators and betrayed them to the consuls, and
+they were seized and brought to the judgment-seat in the Forum. Here
+Brutus, sitting in judgment, beheld his two sons among the culprits. He
+loved them, but he loved justice more, and though he grieved deeply
+inwardly, his face was grave and stern as he gave judgment that the law
+must take its course. So the sons of this stern old Roman were scourged
+with rods before his eyes, and then, with the other conspirators, were
+beheaded by the lictors, while he looked steadily on, never turning his
+eyes from the dreadful sight. But men could see that his heart bled for
+his sons.
+
+Soon afterwards Tarquin led an army of Etruscans against Rome, and the
+two consuls marched against them at the head of the Roman army. In the
+battle that followed Brutus met Aruns, the king's son, in advance of the
+lines of battle. Aruns, seeing Brutus dressed in royal robes and
+attended by the lictors of a king, was filled with anger, and levelled
+his spear and spurred his horse against him. Brutus met him in
+mid-career with levelled spear. Both were run through, and together fell
+dead upon the field.
+
+The day ended with neither party victors. But during the night a
+woodland deity was heard speaking from a forest near by. "One man more
+has fallen of the Etruscans than of the Romans," it said; "the Romans
+are to conquer." This strange oracle ended the war. It was a reason,
+surely, for which war was never ended before or since. The Etruscans,
+affrighted, marched hastily home; while the Romans carried home their
+slain patriot, for whom their women mourned a whole year, in honor of
+his noble service in avenging Lucretia.
+
+The banished king still craved his lost kingdom, and made other efforts
+to regain it. Having failed in his first attempt, he went to another
+city, named Clusium, in the distant part of Etruria, and here besought
+Lars Porsenna, the king of that city, to aid him recover his throne.
+Lars Porsenna, with a fellow-feeling for his dethroned brother king,
+raised a large army and marched with Tarquin and his fellow-exiles
+against defiant Rome.
+
+The Romans now awaited him at home, and the two armies met on the hill
+called Janiculum, beyond the river from the city. Here came the crash of
+battle, but the men of Clusium proved the stronger, and after a sharp
+struggle the Romans gave way and were driven pell-mell down the hill and
+across the bridge which spanned the Tiber at this point. This was a
+wooden bridge on which the Romans set great store, as it was their only
+means of crossing the stream. But it now was likely to serve as a means
+of the loss of their city. Their flying army was pouring in panic across
+it, with the Etruscans in hot pursuit, seeking strenuously to win the
+bridge.
+
+The bridge must be speedily destroyed or the city would be lost, but it
+seemed too late for this; unless the enemy could in some way be kept
+back till the bridge was cut down, Tarquin and his allies would be in
+the streets of Rome.
+
+At this juncture a brave and stalwart son of Rome, Horatius Cocles by
+name, stepped forward and offered his life in his city's defence. "Cut
+away with all haste," he said; "I will keep the bridge until it falls."
+Two others, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius, sprang to his side, and
+the three, fully armed and stout of heart, ranged themselves across the
+narrow causeway, while behind them the axes of the Romans played
+ringingly upon the supports of the bridge.
+
+On came the Etruscans in force. But the bridge was so narrow that only a
+few could advance at once, and these found in the way the sharp spears
+and keen-edged blades of the patriot three. Down went the leading
+Etruscans, and others pressed on, only to fall, till the defenders of
+the bridge had a bulwark of the slain in their front.
+
+[Illustration: HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE.]
+
+And now the bridge creaked and groaned as the axes kept up their lively
+play, the ring of steel finding its chorus in the cheering shouts of the
+Romans on the bank.
+
+"Back! back!" cried the axemen. "It will be down in a minute more; back
+for your lives!"
+
+"Back!" cried Horatius to his comrades, and they hastily retreated; but
+he stood unmoving, still boldly facing the foe.
+
+"Fly! It is about to fall!" was the shout.
+
+"Let it," cried Horatius, without yielding a step.
+
+And there he stood alone, defying the whole army of the Etruscans. From
+a distance they showered their javelins on him, but he caught them on
+his shield and stood unhurt. Furious that they should be kept from their
+prey by a single man, they gathered to rush upon him and drive him from
+his post by main force; but just then the creaking beams gave way, and
+the half of the bridge behind him fell with a mighty crash into the
+stream below.
+
+The Etruscans paused in their course at this crashing fall, and gazed,
+not without admiration, at the stalwart champion who had stayed an army
+in its victorious career. He was theirs now; he could not escape; his
+life should pay the penalty for their failure.
+
+But Horatius had no such thought. He looked down on the stream, and
+prayed to the god of the river, "O Father Tiber, I pray thee to receive
+these arms and me who bear them, and to let thy waters befriend and
+save me."
+
+Then, with a quick spring, he plunged, heavy with armor, into the
+swift-flowing stream, and struck out boldly for the shore. The foemen
+rushed upon the bridge and poured their darts thick about him; yet none
+struck him, and he swam safely to the shore, where his waiting friends
+drew him in triumph from the stream.
+
+For this grand deed of heroism the Romans set up a statue to Horatius in
+the comitium, and gave him in reward as much land as he could drive his
+plough round in the space of a whole day. Such deeds cannot be fitly
+told in halting prose, and Lord Macaulay, in his "Lays of Ancient Rome,"
+has most ably and picturesquely told
+
+  "How well Horatius kept the bridge
+    In the brave days of old."
+
+But though Rome was saved from capture by assault, the war was not
+ended, and other deeds of Roman heroism were to be done. Porsenna
+pressed the siege of the city so closely that hunger became his ally,
+and the Romans suffered greatly. Then another patriot devoted his life
+to his city's good. This man, a young noble named Caius Mucius, went to
+the senate and offered to go to the Etruscan camp and slay Lars Porsenna
+in the midst of his men.
+
+His proposal acceded to, he crossed the stream by stealth and slipped
+covertly into the camp, through which he made his way, seeking the king.
+At length he saw a man dressed in a scarlet robe and seated on a lofty
+seat, while many were about him, coming and going. "This must be King
+Porsenna," he said to himself, and he glided stealthily through the
+crowd until he came near by, when, drawing a concealed dagger from
+beneath his cloak, he sprang upon the man and stabbed him to the heart.
+
+But the bold assassin had made a sad mistake. The man he had slain was
+not the king, but his scribe, the king's chief officer. Being instantly
+seized, he was brought before Porsenna, where the guards threatened him
+with sharp torments unless he would truly answer all their questions.
+
+"Torments!" he said. "You shall see how little I care for them."
+
+And he thrust his right hand into the fire that was burning on the
+altar, and held it there till it was completely consumed.
+
+King Porsenna looked at him with an admiration that subdued all anger.
+Never had he seen a man of such fortitude.
+
+"Go your way," he cried, "for you have harmed yourself more than me. You
+are a brave man, and I send you back to Rome free and unhurt."
+
+"And you are a generous king," said Caius, "and shall learn more from me
+for your kindness than tortures could have wrung from my lips. Know,
+then, that three hundred noble youths of Rome have bound themselves by
+oath to take your life. I am but the first; the others will in turn lie
+in wait for you. I warn you to look well to yourself."
+
+He was then set free, and went back to the city, where he was
+afterwards known as Scævola, the left-handed.
+
+The warning of Caius moved King Porsenna to offer the Romans terms of
+peace, which they gladly accepted. They were forced to give up all the
+land they had conquered on the west bank of the Tiber, and to agree not
+to use iron except to cultivate the earth. They were also to give as
+hostages ten noble youths and as many maidens. These were sent; but one
+of the maidens, Cloelia by name, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and,
+bidding the other maidens to follow, fled to the river, into which they
+all plunged and swam safely across to Rome.
+
+They were sent back by the Romans, whose way it was to keep their
+pledges; but King Porsenna, admiring the courage of Cloelia, set her
+free, and bade her choose such of the youths as she wished to go with
+her. She chose those of tenderest age, and the king set them free.
+
+The Romans rewarded Caius by a gift of land, and had a statue made of
+Cloelia, which was set up in the highest part of the Sacred Way. And
+King Porsenna led his army home, with Tarquin still dethroned.
+
+
+
+
+_THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS._
+
+
+A third time Tarquin the Proud marched against Rome, this time in
+alliance with the Latins, whose thirty cities had joined together and
+declared war against the Romans. But as many of the Romans had married
+Latin wives, and many of the Latins had got their wives from Rome, it
+was resolved that the women on both sides, who preferred their native
+land to their husbands, might leave their new homes and take with them
+their virgin daughters. And, as the legend tells, all the Latin women
+but two remained in Rome, while all the Roman women returned with their
+daughters to their fathers' homes.
+
+The two armies met by the side of Lake Regillus, and there was fought a
+battle the story of which reads like a tale from the Iliad of Homer; for
+we are told not of how the armies fought, but of how their champions met
+and fought in single combats upon the field. King Tarquin was there, now
+hoary with years, yet sitting his horse and bearing his lance with the
+grace and strength of a young man. And there was Titus his son, leading
+into battle all the banished band of the Tarquins. And with them was
+Octavius Mamilius, the leader of the Latins, who swore to seat Tarquin
+again on his throne and to make the Romans subjects of the Latins.
+
+On the Roman side were many true and tried warriors, among them Titus
+Herminius, one of those who fought on the bridge by the side of Horatius
+Cocles, when that champion fought so well for Rome.
+
+It is too long to tell how warrior rode against warrior with levelled
+lances, and how this one was struck through the breast and that one
+through the arm, and so on in true Homeric style. The battle was a
+series of duels, like those fought on the plain of Troy. But at length
+the Tarquin band, under the lead of Titus, charged so fiercely that the
+Romans began to give way, many of their bravest having been slain.
+
+At this juncture Aulus, the leader of the Romans, rode up with his own
+chosen band, and bade them level their lances and slay all, friend or
+foe, whose faces were turned towards them. There was to be no mercy for
+a Roman whose face was turned from the field. This onset stopped the
+flight, and Aulus charged fiercely upon the Tarquins, praying, as he did
+so, to the divine warriors Castor and Pollux, to whom he vowed to
+dedicate a temple if they would aid him in the fight. And he promised
+the soldiers that the two who should first break into the camp of the
+enemy should receive a rich reward.
+
+Then suddenly, at the head of the chosen band, appeared two unknown
+horsemen, in the first bloom of youth and taller and fairer than mortal
+men, while the horses they rode were white as the driven snow. On went
+the charge, led by these two noble strangers, before whom the enemy fled
+in mortal terror, while Titus, the last of the sons of King Tarquin,
+fell dead from his steed. The camp of the Latins being reached, these
+two horsemen were the first to break into it, and soon the whole army of
+the enemy was in disorderly flight and the battle won.
+
+Aulus now sought the two strange horsemen, to give them the reward he
+had promised; but he sought in vain; they were not to be found, among
+either the living or the dead, and no man had set eyes upon them since
+the camp was won. They had vanished as suddenly as they had appeared.
+But on the hard black rock which surrounds the lake was visible the mark
+of a horse's hoof, such as no earthly steed could ever have made. For
+ages afterwards this mark remained.
+
+But the strangers appeared once again. It was known in Rome that the
+armies were joined in battle, and the longing for tidings from the field
+grew intense. Suddenly, as the sun went down behind the city walls,
+there were seen in the Forum two horsemen on milk-white steeds, taller
+and fairer than the tallest and fairest of men. Their horses were bathed
+in foam, and they looked like men fresh from battle.
+
+Alighting near the Temple of Vesta, where a spring of water bubbles from
+the ground, these men, whom no Romans had ever seen before, washed from
+their persons the battle-stains. As they did so men crowded round and
+eagerly questioned them. In reply, they told them how the battle had
+been fought and won,--though in truth the battle ended only as the sun
+went down over Lake Regillus. They then mounted their horses and rode
+from the Forum, and were seen no more. Men sought them far and wide, but
+no one set eyes on them again.
+
+Then Aulus told the Romans how he had prayed to Castor and Pollux, the
+divine twins, and said that it could be none but they who had broken so
+fiercely into the enemy's camp, and had borne the news of victory with
+more than mortal speed to Rome. So he built the temple he had vowed to
+the hero gods, and gave there rich offerings as the rewards he had
+promised to the two who should first enter the camp of the foe.
+
+Thus ended the hopes of King Tarquin, against whom the gods had taken
+arms. His sons and all his family slain, he was left ruined and
+hopeless, and retired to the city of Cumæ, whence formerly the Sibyl had
+come to his court. Here he died, and thus passed away the last of the
+Roman kings.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE._
+
+
+The overthrow of the kings of Rome did not relieve the people from all
+their oppression. The inhabitants of that city had long been divided
+into two great classes, the Patricians, or nobles, and the Plebeians, or
+common people, and the former held in their hand nearly all the wealth
+and power of the state. The senate, the law-making body, were all
+Patricians; the consuls, the executors of the law, were chosen from
+their ranks; and the Plebeians were left with few rights and little
+protection.
+
+It was through the avarice of money-lending nobles that the people were
+chiefly oppressed. There were no laws limiting the rate of interest, and
+the rich lent to the poor at extravagant rates of usury. The interest,
+when not paid, was added to the debt, so that in time it became
+impossible for many debtors to pay.
+
+And the laws against debtors had become terribly severe. They might,
+with all their families, be held as slaves. Or if the debtor refused to
+sell himself to his creditor, and still could not pay his debt, he might
+be imprisoned in fetters for sixty days. At the end of that time, if no
+friend had paid his debt, he could be put to death, or sold as a slave
+into a foreign state. If there were several creditors, they could
+actually cut his body to pieces, each taking a piece proportional in
+size to his claim.
+
+This cruel severity was more than any people could long endure. It led
+to a revolution in Rome. In the year 495 B.C., fifteen years after the
+Tarquins had been expelled, a poor debtor, who had fought valiantly in
+the wars, broke from his prison, and--with his clothes in tatters and
+chains clanking upon his limbs--appealed eloquently to the people in the
+Forum, and showed them on his emaciated body the scars of the many
+battles in which he had fought.
+
+His tale was a sad one. While he served in the Sabine war, the enemy had
+pillaged and burned his house; and when he returned home, it was to find
+his cattle stolen and his farm heavily taxed. Forced to borrow money,
+the interest had brought him deeply into debt. Finally he had been
+attacked by pestilence, and being unable to work for his creditor, he
+had been thrown into prison and cruelly scourged, the marks of the lash
+being still evident upon his bleeding back.
+
+This piteous story roused its hearers to fury. The whole city broke into
+tumult, as the woful tale passed from lip to lip. Many debtors escaped
+from their prisons and begged protection from the incensed multitude.
+The consuls found themselves powerless to restore order; and in the
+midst of the uproar horsemen came riding hotly through the gates, crying
+out that a hostile army was near at hand, marching to besiege the city.
+
+Here was a splendid opportunity for the Plebeians. When called upon to
+enroll their names and take arms for the city's defence, they refused.
+The Patricians, they said, might fight their own battles. As for them,
+they had rather die together at home than perish separate upon the
+battle-field.
+
+This refusal left the Patricians in a quandary. With riot in the streets
+and war beyond the walls they were at the mercy of the commons. They
+were forced to promise a mitigation of the laws, declaring that no one
+should henceforth seize the goods of a soldier while he was in camp, or
+hinder a citizen from enlisting by keeping him in prison. This promise
+satisfied the people. The debtors' prisons were emptied, and their late
+tenants crowded with enthusiasm into the ranks. Through the gates the
+army marched, met the foe, and drove him in defeat from the soil of the
+Roman state.
+
+Victory gained, the Plebeians looked for laws to sustain the promises
+under which they had fought. They looked in vain; the senate took no
+action for their redress. But they had learned their power, and were not
+again to be enslaved. Their action was deliberate but decided. Taking
+measures to protect their homes on the Aventine Hill, they left the city
+the next year in a body, and sought a hill beyond the Anio, about three
+miles beyond the walls of Rome. Here they encamped, built
+fortifications, and sent word to their lordly rulers that they were done
+with empty promises, and would fight no more for the state until the
+state kept its faith. All the good of their fighting came to the
+Patricians, they said, and these might now defend themselves and their
+wealth.
+
+The senate was thrown into a panic by this decided action. When the
+hostile cities without should learn of it, they might send armies in
+haste to undefended Rome. The people left in the city feared the
+Patricians, and the Patricians feared them. All was doubt and anxiety.
+At length the senate, driven to desperation, sent an embassy to the
+rebels to treat for peace, being in deadly fear that some enemy might
+assail and capture the city in the absence of the bulk of its
+inhabitants.
+
+The messenger sent, Menenius Agrippa Lanatus, was a man famed for
+eloquence, and a popular favorite. In his address to the people in their
+camp he repeated to them the following significant fable:
+
+"At a time when all the parts of the body did not agree together, as
+they do now, but each had its own method and language, the other parts
+rebelled against the belly. They said that it lay quietly enjoying
+itself in the centre, while they, by care, labor, and service, kept it
+in luxury. They therefore conspired that the hands should not convey
+food to the mouth, the mouth receive it, nor the teeth chew it. They
+thus hoped to subdue the belly by famine; but they found that they and
+all the other parts of the body suffered as much. Then they saw that the
+belly by no means rested in sloth; that it supplied instead of receiving
+nourishment, sending to all parts of the body the blood that gave life
+and strength to the whole system."
+
+It was the same, he said, with the body of the state. All must work in
+unity, if all would prosper. This homely argument hit the popular fancy.
+The people consented to treat for their return if their liberties could
+be properly secured. But they must now have deeds instead of words. It
+was not political power they sought, but protection, and protection they
+would have.
+
+Their demands were as follows: All debts should be cancelled, and all
+debtors held by their creditors should be released. And hereafter the
+Plebeians should have as their protectors two officials, who should have
+power to veto all oppressive laws, while their persons should be held as
+sacred and inviolable as those of the messengers of the gods. These
+officials were to be called Tribunes, and to be the chief officers of
+the commons as the consuls were of the nobles.
+
+This proposition was accepted by the senate, and a treaty signed between
+the contesting parties, as solemnly as if they had been two separate
+nations. It was an occasion as important to the liberties of Romans as
+the treaty signed many centuries afterwards on the field of Runnymede,
+between King John and his barons, was to the liberties of Englishmen,
+and was held by the Romans in like high regard. The hill on which the
+treaty had been made was ever after known as the Sacred Mount. Its top
+was consecrated and an altar built upon it, on which sacrifices were
+made to Jupiter, the god who strikes men with terror and then delivers
+them from fear; for the people had fled thither in dread, and were now
+to return home in safety.
+
+Thus ended the great revolt of the people, who had gained in the
+Tribunes defenders of more power and importance than they or the senate
+knew. They were never again to suffer from the bitter oppression to
+which they had been subjected in preceding years. As for Lanatus, to
+whose pleadings they had yielded, he died before the year ended, and was
+found to have not left enough to pay for his funeral. Therefore the
+Plebeians collected funds to give him a splendid burial; but the senate
+having decreed that the state should bear this expense, the money raised
+by the grateful people was formed into a fund for the benefit of his
+children.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS._
+
+
+Caius Marcius, a noble Roman youth, descended from the worthy king Ancus
+Marcius, fought valiantly when but seventeen years of age in the battle
+of Lake Regillus, and was there crowned with an oaken wreath, the Roman
+reward for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. This he showed with the
+greatest joy to his mother, Volumnia, whom he loved exceedingly, it
+being his greatest pleasure to receive praise from her lips for his
+exploits. He afterwards won many more crowns in battle, and became one
+of the most famous of Roman soldiers.
+
+One of his memorable exploits took place during a war with the
+Volscians, in which the Romans attacked the city of Corioli. The
+citizens made a sally, and drove the Romans back to their camp. But
+Caius, with a few followers, stopped them and turned the tide of battle,
+driving the Volscians back. As they fled into the city through the open
+gates, he cried, "Those gates are set open for us rather than for the
+Volscians. Why are we afraid to rush in?" And suiting his act to his
+words, the daring soldier pursued the enemy into the town.
+
+Here he found himself almost alone, for very few had followed him. The
+enemy turned on the bold invaders, but Caius proved so strong of hand
+and stout of heart that he drove them all before him, keeping a way
+clear for the Romans, who soon thronged in through the open gate and
+took the city. The army gave Caius the sole credit for the victory,
+saying that he alone had taken Corioli; and the general said, "Let him
+be called after the name of the city." He was, therefore, afterwards
+known by the name of Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
+
+Courage was not the only marked quality of Coriolanus. His pride was
+equally great. He was a noble of the nobles, so haughty in demeanor and
+so disdainful of the commons that they grew to hate him bitterly. At
+length came a time of great scarcity of food. The people were on the
+verge of famine, to relieve which shiploads of corn were sent from
+Sicily to Rome. The senate resolved to distribute this corn among the
+suffering people, but Coriolanus opposed this, saying, "If they want
+corn let them show their obedience to the Patricians, as their fathers
+did, and give up their tribunes. If they do this we will let them have
+corn, and take care of them."
+
+When the people heard of what the proud noble had said they broke into
+such fury that a mob gathered around the doors of the senate house,
+prepared to seize and tear him to pieces when he came out. They were
+checked in this by the tribunes, who said, "Let us not have violence. We
+will accuse him of treason before the assembly, and you shall be his
+judges."
+
+The tribunes, therefore, as the law gave them the right, summoned
+Coriolanus to appear before the popular tribunal and answer to the
+charges against him. But he, knowing how deeply he had offended them,
+and that they would show him no mercy, stayed not for the trial, but
+fled from Rome, exiled from his native land by his pride and disdain of
+the people.
+
+The exile made his way to the land of the Volscians, and seating himself
+by the hearth-fire of Attius Tullius, their chief, waited there with
+covered head till his late bitter foe should come in. How Attius would
+receive him he knew not; but he was homeless, and had now only his
+enemies to trust. But when the chieftain entered, and learned that the
+man who sat crouched beside his hearth, subject to his will, was the
+great warrior who by his own hands had taken a Volscian city, but was
+now banished and a fugitive, he was filled with compassion. He greeted
+him kindly and offered him a home, saying to himself, "Caius, our worst
+foe, is now our friend and a foe to Rome; we will make war against that
+proud city, and by his aid will conquer it."
+
+But the Volscians were not eager for war. They were afraid of the
+Romans, who had so often defeated them, and Attius sought in vain to
+stir them to hostility. Failing to rouse them by eloquence, he practised
+craft. There was a great festival at Rome, to which had come the people
+of various cities, among them many of the Volscians. Attius now went
+privately to the Roman consuls and bade them beware of the Volscians,
+lest they should stir up a riot and make trouble in the city, hinting
+that mischief was intended. In consequence of this warning proclamation
+was made that every Volscian should leave Rome before the setting of the
+sun.
+
+This produced the effect which Attius had hoped. He met the Volscians on
+their way home, and found them fired with indignation against Rome. He
+pretended similar indignation. "You have been made a show of before all
+the nations," he cried. "You and your wives and children have been
+basely insulted. They have made war on us while their guests; if you are
+men you will make them rue this deed."
+
+His words inflamed his countrymen. The story of the insult spread widely
+through the country, all the tribes of the Volscians took up the
+quarrel, and a great army was raised and set in march towards Rome, with
+Attius and Coriolanus at its head.
+
+The Volscian force was greater than the Romans were prepared to meet,
+and the army marched victoriously onward, taking city after city, and
+finally encamping within five miles of Rome. When the Volscians entered
+Roman territory they laid waste, by order of Coriolanus, the lands of
+the commons, but spared those of the nobles, the exiled patrician
+deeming the former his foes and the latter his friends. The approach of
+this powerful army threw the Romans into dismay. They had been assailed
+so suddenly that they had made no preparations for defence, and the city
+seemed to lie at the mercy of its foes. The women ran to the temples to
+pray for the favor of the gods. The people demanded that the senate
+should send deputies to the invading army to treat for peace. The
+senate, apparently no less frightened than the people, obeyed, sending
+five leading Patricians to the Volscian camp.
+
+These deputies were haughtily received by Coriolanus, who offered them
+the following severe terms: "We will give you no peace till you restore
+to the Volscians all the land and cities which Rome has ever taken from
+them, and till you make them citizens of Rome, and give them all the
+rights in your city which you have yourselves."
+
+These conditions the deputies had no power to accept, and they threw the
+senate into dismay. The deputies were sent again, instructed to ask for
+gentler terms, but now, Coriolanus refused even to let them enter his
+camp.
+
+This harsh repulse plunged Rome into mortal terror. The senate, helpless
+to resist, now sent the priests of the gods and the augurs, all clothed
+in their sacred garments, and bearing the sacred emblems from the
+temples. But even this solemn delegation Coriolanus refused to receive,
+and sent them back to Rome unheard.
+
+Where all this time was the Roman army, which always before and after
+made itself heard and felt? This we are not told. We are in the land of
+legend, and cannot look for too much consistency. For once in its
+history Rome seems to have forgotten that its mission was not to plead,
+but to fight. Perhaps its armies had been beaten and demoralized in
+previous battles. At any rate we can but tell the story as it is told to
+us.
+
+The help of delegates, priests, and augurs having proved unavailing,
+that of women was next sought. A noble lady, Valeria by name, who with
+other suppliants had sought the Temple of Jupiter, was inspired by a
+sudden thought, which seemed sent by the god himself. Rising, and
+bidding the other noble ladies to accompany her, she proceeded to the
+house of Volumnia, the mother of Coriolanus, whom she found with
+Virgilia, his wife, and his little children.
+
+"We have come to ask you to join us," she said, "in order that we women,
+without aid from man, may deliver our country, and win for ourselves a
+name more glorious even than that of the Sabine wives of old, who
+stopped the battle between their husbands and fathers. Come with us to
+the camp of Caius, and let us pray him to show us mercy."
+
+"It is well thought of; we shall go with you," said Volumnia, and, with
+Virgilia and her children, the noble matron prepared to seek the camp
+and tent of her exiled son.
+
+It was a sad and solemn spectacle, as this train of noble ladies, clad
+in their habiliments of woe, and with bent heads and sorrowful faces,
+wound through the hostile camp, from which they were not excluded, like
+the men. Even the Volscian soldiers watched them with pitying eyes, and
+spoke no word as they moved slowly past. On reaching the midst of the
+camp, they saw Coriolanus on the general's seat, with the Volscian
+chiefs gathered around him.
+
+At first he wondered who these women could be. But when they came near,
+and he saw his mother at the head of the train, his deep love for her
+welled up so strongly in his heart that he could not restrain himself,
+but sprang up and ran to meet and kiss her. The Roman matron stopped him
+with a dignified gesture, saying,--
+
+"Ere you kiss me, let me know whether I am speaking to an enemy or to my
+son; whether I stand here as your prisoner or your mother."
+
+He stood before her in silence, with bent head, and unable to speak.
+
+"Must it then be that if I had never borne a son, Rome would have never
+seen the camp of an enemy?" said Volumnia, in sorrowful tones. "But I am
+too old to bear much longer your shame and my misery. Think not of me,
+but of your wife and children, whom you would doom to death or to life
+in bondage."
+
+Then Virgilia and the children came up and kissed him, and all the noble
+ladies in the train burst into tears and bemoaned the peril of their
+country. Coriolanus still stood silent, his face working with contending
+thoughts. At length he cried out, in heart-rending accents, "O mother,
+what have you done to me?"
+
+Clasping her hand, he wrung it vehemently, saying, "Mother, the victory
+is yours! A happy victory for you and Rome, but shame and ruin to your
+son."
+
+Then he embraced her with yearning heart, and afterwards clasped his
+wife and children to his breast, bidding them return with their tale of
+conquest to Rome. As for himself, he said, only exile and shame
+remained.
+
+Before the women reached home the army of the Volscians was on its
+homeward march. Coriolanus never led them against Rome again. He lived
+and died in exile, far from his wife and children. When very old, he
+sadly remarked, "That now in his old age he knew the full bitterness of
+banishment."
+
+The Romans, to honor Volumnia and those who had gone with her to the
+Volscian camp, built a temple to "Woman's Fortune" on the spot where
+Coriolanus had yielded to his mother's entreaties; and the first
+priestess of this temple was Valeria, who had been inspired in the
+temple of Jupiter with the thought that saved Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_CINCINNATUS AND THE ÆQUIANS._
+
+
+In the old days of Rome, not far from the time when Coriolanus yielded
+up his revenge at his mother's entreaty, the Roman state possessed a
+citizen as patriotic as Coriolanus was proud, and who did as much good
+as the other did evil to his native land. This citizen, Lucius Quinctius
+by name, was usually called Cincinnatus, or the "crisp-haired," from the
+fact that he let his hair grow long, and curled and crisped it so
+carefully as to gain as much fame for his hair as for his wisdom and
+valor.
+
+Cincinnatus was the simplest and least ambitious of men. He cared
+nothing for wealth, and had no craving for city life, but dwelt on his
+small farm beyond the Tiber, which he worked with his own hands,
+content, so his crops grew well, to let the lovers of power and wealth
+pursue their own devices within the city walls. But he was soon to be
+drawn from the plough to the sword.
+
+While Cincinnatus was busy ploughing his land, Rome kept at its old work
+of ploughing the nations. War at this time broke out with the Æquians, a
+neighboring people; but for this war the Æquians were to blame. They had
+plundered the lands of some of the allies of Rome, and when deputies
+were sent to complain of this wrong, Gracchus, their chief, received
+them with insulting mockery.
+
+He was sitting in his tent, which was pitched in the shade of a great
+evergreen oak, when the deputies arrived.
+
+"I am busy with other matters," he answered them; "I cannot hear you;
+you had better tell your message to the oak yonder."
+
+"Yes," said one of the deputies, "let this sacred oak hear, and let all
+the gods hear also, how treacherously you have broken the peace. They
+shall hear it now, and shall soon avenge it; for you have scorned alike
+the laws of the gods and of men."
+
+The deputies returned to Rome, and reported how they had been insulted.
+The senate at once declared war, and an army was sent towards Algidus,
+where the enemy lay. But Gracchus, who was a skilled soldier, cunningly
+pretended to be afraid of the Romans, and retreated before them, drawing
+them gradually into a narrow valley, on each side of which rose high,
+steep, and barren hills.
+
+When he had lured them fairly into this trap, he sent a force to close
+up the entrance of the valley. The Romans suddenly found that they had
+been entrapped into a _cul-de-sac_, with impassable hills in front and
+on each side, and a strong body of Æquians guarding the entrance to the
+ravine. There was neither grass for the horses nor food for the men.
+Gracchus held not only the entrance, but the hill-tops all round, so
+that escape in any direction was impossible. But before the road in the
+rear was quite closed up five horsemen had managed to break out; and
+these rode with all speed to Rome, where they told the senate of the
+imminent danger of the consul and his army.
+
+These tidings threw the senate into dismay. What was to be done? The
+other consul was with his army in the country of the Sabines. He was at
+once sent for, and hastened with all speed to Rome. Here a consultation
+took place, which ended in the leading senators saying, "There is only
+one man who can deliver us. We must make Lucius Quinctius Master of the
+People." Master of the People meant in Rome what we now mean by
+Dictator,--that is, a man above the law, an autocrat supreme. What
+service this unambitious tiller of the ground had previously done for
+Rome to make him worthy of this distinction we are not told, but it is
+evident that he was looked upon as the man of highest wisdom and
+soldiership in Rome.
+
+Caius Nautius, the consul, appointed Cincinnatus to this high office, as
+he alone was privileged to do, and then hastened back to his army. Early
+the next morning deputies from the senate sought the farm of the new
+dictator, to apprise him of the honor conferred on him. Early as it was,
+Cincinnatus was already at work in his fields. He was without his toga,
+or cloak, and vigorously digging in the ground with his spade, never
+dreaming that he, a simple husbandman, had been chosen to save a state.
+
+"We bring you a message from the senate," said the deputies. "You must
+put on your cloak to receive it with the fitting respect."
+
+"Has evil befallen the state?" asked the farmer, as he bade his wife to
+bring him his cloak. When he had put it on he returned to the deputies.
+
+"Hail to you, Lucius Quinctius!" they now said. "The senate has declared
+you Master of the People, and have sent us to call you to the city; for
+the consul and the army in the country of the Æquians are in imminent
+danger."
+
+Without further words, Cincinnatus accompanied them to the boat in which
+they had crossed the Tiber, and was rowed in it to the city. As he left
+the boat he was met by a deputation consisting of his three sons, his
+kinsmen and friends, and many of the senators of Rome. They received him
+with the highest honor, and led him in great state to his city
+residence, the twenty-four lictors walking before him, with their rods
+and axes, while a great multitude of the people crowded round with
+shouts of welcome. The presence of the lictors signified that this plain
+farmer had been invested with all the power of the former kings.
+
+The new dictator quickly proved himself worthy of the trust that had
+been placed in him. He chose at once as his Master of the Horse Lucius
+Tarquinius, a brave man, of noble descent, but so poor that he had been
+forced to serve among the foot-soldiers instead of the horse. Then the
+two entered the Forum, where orders were given that all booths should be
+closed and all lawsuits stopped. All men were forbidden to look after
+their own affairs while a Roman army lay in peril of destruction.
+
+Orders were next given that every man old enough to go to battle should
+appear before sunset with his arms and with five days' food in the
+Field of Mars, and should bring with him twelve stakes. These they were
+to cut where they chose, without hinderance from any person. While the
+soldiers occupied themselves in cutting these stakes, the women and
+older men dressed their food. Such haste was made, under the energetic
+orders of the dictator, that an army was ready, equipped as commanded,
+in the Field of Mars before the sun had set. The march was at once
+begun, and was continued with such rapidity that by midnight the
+vicinity of Algidus was reached. On the enemy being perceived, a halt
+was called.
+
+Cincinnatus now rode forward and inspected the camp of the enemy, so far
+as it could be seen by night. He then ordered the soldiers to throw down
+their baggage, and to keep only their arms and stakes. Marching
+stealthily forward, they now extended their lines until they had
+completely surrounded the hostile camp. Then, upon a given signal, a
+simultaneous shout was raised, and each soldier began to dig a ditch
+where he stood and to plant his stakes in the ground.
+
+The shout rang like a thunder-clap through the camp of the Æquians,
+waking them suddenly and filling them with dismay. It also reached the
+ears of the Romans who lay in the valley, and inspired them with hope,
+for they recognized the Roman war-cry. They raised their own
+battle-shout in response, and, seizing their arms, sallied out and made
+a fierce attack upon the foe, fighting so desperately that the Æquians
+were prevented from interrupting the work of the outer army. All the
+remainder of the night the battle went on, and when day broke the
+Æquians found that a ditch and a palisade of stakes had been made around
+their entire camp.
+
+This work accomplished, Cincinnatus ordered his men to attack the foe,
+and thus aid their entrapped countrymen. The Æquians, finding themselves
+between two armies, and as closely walled in as the Romans in the valley
+had before been, fell into a panic of hopelessness, threw down their
+arms, and begged their foes for mercy. Cincinnatus now signalled for the
+fighting to cease, and, meeting those who came to ask on what terms he
+would spare their lives, said,--
+
+"Give me Gracchus and your other chiefs bound. As for you, you can have
+your lives on one condition. I will set two spears upright in the
+ground, and put a third spear across, and every man of you, giving up
+your arms and your cloaks, shall pass under this yoke, and may then go
+away free."
+
+To go under the yoke was accounted the greatest dishonor to a soldier.
+But the Æquians had no alternative and were obliged to submit. They
+delivered up to the Romans their king and their chiefs, left their camp
+with all its spoil to the foe, and passed without cloaks or arms under
+the crossed spears, their heads bowed with shame. They then went home,
+leaving their chiefs as Roman prisoners. Thus was Gracchus punished for
+his pride.
+
+In less than a day's time Cincinnatus had saved a Roman army and
+humiliated the Æquian foe. As for the battle-spoils, he distributed them
+among his own men, giving none to the consul's army, and degraded the
+consul, making him his under-officer. He then marched the two armies
+back to Rome, which he reached that same evening, and where he was
+received with as much astonishment as joy. The rescued army were too
+full of thankfulness at their escape to feel chagrin at their loss of
+spoil, and voted to give Cincinnatus a golden crown, calling him their
+protector and father.
+
+The senate decreed that Cincinnatus should enter the city in triumph. He
+rode in his chariot through the gates, Gracchus and the chiefs of the
+Æquians being led in fetters before him. In front of all the standards
+were borne, while in the rear marched the soldiers, laden with their
+spoil. At the door of every house tables were set, with meat and drink
+for the soldiers, while the people, singing and rejoicing, danced with
+joy as they followed the conqueror's chariot, and all Rome was given up
+to feasting and merry-making.
+
+As for Cincinnatus, he laid down his power and returned to his farm,
+glad to have rescued a Roman army, but caring nothing for the pomp and
+authority he might have gained. And for all we know, he lived and died
+thereafter a simple tiller of the ground.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA._
+
+
+In the year 504 B.C. a citizen of Regillum, of much wealth and
+importance, finding himself at odds with his fellow-citizens, left that
+city and proceeded to Rome, with a long train of followers, much as the
+elder Tarquin had come from Tarquinii. His name was Atta Clausus, but in
+Rome he became known as Appius Claudius. He was received as a patrician,
+was given ample lands, and he and his descendants in later years became
+among the chief of those who hated and oppressed the plebeians.
+
+[Illustration: THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA.]
+
+About half a century after this date, one of these descendants, also
+named Appius Claudius, was a principal actor in one of the most dramatic
+events of ancient Rome. The trouble which had long existed between the
+patricians and the plebeians now grew so pronounced, and the demand for
+a reform in the laws so great, that in the year 451 B.C. a commission
+was sent to the city of Athens, to report on the system of government
+they found there and elsewhere in Greece. After this commission had
+returned and given its report, a body of ten patricians was appointed,
+under the title of Decemvirs (or ten men), to prepare a new code of laws
+for Rome. They were chosen for one year, and took the place of the
+consuls, tribunes, and all the chief officials of Rome.
+
+At the head of this body was Appius Claudius. The laws of Rome had
+previously been only partly written, the remainder being held in memory
+or transmitted as traditions. A complete code of written laws was
+desired, and to this work the decemvirs set themselves diligently. After
+a few months they prepared a code of laws, which was accepted by nobles
+and people alike as fair and satisfactory, and it was ordered that these
+laws should be engraved upon ten tables of brass and hung up in the
+comitium, or place of assembly of the people, where all might read them
+and learn under what laws they lived. It is probable that the plebeian
+demand for reform was so great that the decemvirs did not dare to
+disregard it.
+
+At the end of the year of office of these officials it was felt that
+they had done so well that it was thought wise to continue them in power
+for another year. But when the time for election came round, Appius
+Claudius managed to have his nine associates defeated, he alone being
+re-elected. The other nine chosen were men whom he felt sure he could
+control. And now, having a year's rule assured him, he threw off the
+cloak of moderation he had worn, and began a career of oppression of the
+plebeians, aided by his subservient associates. The first step taken was
+to add two new laws to the code, which became known, therefore, as the
+"Twelve Tables." These new laws proved so distasteful to the people that
+they almost broke into open rebellion. It was evident that the haughty
+decemvirs were seeking to increase the power of their class.
+
+The decemvirs did not confine themselves to passing oppressive laws.
+They began a career of outrage and oppression that filled Rome with woe.
+The youthful patricians followed their lead, and insult and murder
+became common incidents in Rome. When the second year of the decemvirate
+expired, Appius and his colleagues, knowing that they could not be
+elected again, showed no intention of yielding up their authority. They
+were supported by the senate and the patricians, and had gained such
+power that they defied the plebeians. Those of the people who were
+active in opposition were quietly disposed of, and so intolerable became
+the tyranny that numbers of the plebeian party fled from Rome.
+
+While this was going on war broke out with the Sabines and the Æquians.
+Of the armies sent against these nations, one was commanded by Lucius
+Sicinius Dentatus, among the bravest of the Romans, and who had fought
+in one hundred and twenty battles and was covered with the scars of old
+wounds. On his way to his post this veteran was murdered by bravos sent
+by Appius Claudius. Decemvirs were now appointed to command the armies,
+Appius and one of his colleagues remaining in Rome to look after the
+safety of the city.
+
+The story goes that both armies were beaten by their foes, and forced to
+retreat within Roman territory. While they lay encamped, not many miles
+from Rome, an event occurred in the city which gave them new work to do,
+and proved that the worst enemies of Rome were not without, but within,
+her walls.
+
+In the army sent against the Æquians was a centurion named Lucius
+Virginius, who had a beautiful daughter named Virginia, whom he had
+betrothed to Lucius Icilius, recently one of the tribunes of Rome. But
+the tyranny of the decemvirs was directed against the wives and
+daughters as well as the men of the plebeians, as was now to be
+strikingly shown.
+
+One day, as the beautiful maiden was on her way, attended by her nurse,
+to school in the Forum (around which the schools were placed), she was
+seen by Appius Claudius, who was so struck by her beauty that he
+determined to gain possession of her, and sought to win her by insidious
+words. The innocent girl repelled his advances, but this only increased
+his desire to possess her, and he determined, as she was not to be had
+by fair means, to have her by foul. He therefore laid a wicked plot for
+her capture.
+
+Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, instigated by him, seized the girl
+as she entered the Forum, claiming that she was his slave. The nurse
+screamed for help, and a crowd quickly gathered. Many of these well knew
+the maiden, her father, and her betrothed, and vowed to protect her from
+wrong. But the villain declared that he meant no harm, and that he only
+claimed his own, and was quite willing to submit his claim to the
+decision of the law.
+
+Followed by the crowd, he led the weeping maiden to where Appius
+Claudius occupied the judgment-seat, and demanded justice at his hands.
+He declared that the wife of Virginius, being childless, had got this
+child from its mother and presented it to Virginius as her own, and said
+that the real mother had been his slave, and that, therefore, the
+daughter was his slave also. This he would prove to Virginius on his
+return to Rome. Meanwhile it was but just that the master should keep
+possession of his slave.
+
+This specious appeal was earnestly combated by the friends of the
+maiden, many of whom were present in the throng. Virginius, they said,
+was absent from Rome in the service of the commonwealth. To take such
+action in his absence was unjust. They would send him word at once, and
+in two days he would be in the city.
+
+"Let the case stand until he can appear," they demanded. "The law
+expressly declares that in cases like this every one shall be considered
+free till proved a slave. The maiden, therefore, should legally be left
+with her friends till the day of trial. Put not her fair fame in peril
+by giving up a free-born maiden into the hands of a man whom she knows
+not."
+
+To this reasonable appeal Appius, with a show of judicial moderation,
+replied,--
+
+"Truly, I know the law you speak of, and hold it just and good, for it
+was enacted by myself. But this maiden cannot in any case be free; she
+belongs either to her father or to her master. And as her father is not
+here, who but her master can have any claim to her? I decide, therefore,
+that M. Claudius shall keep her till Virginius comes, and shall require
+him to give sureties to bring her before my judgment-seat when the day
+comes for hearing the case between them."
+
+This illegal decision was far from satisfying the multitude. The
+decemvirs and their adherents had gained an unholy reputation for
+dishonorable treatment of the wives and daughters of the people, and it
+was not safe to trust a maiden in their hands. Word had been hastily
+sent to Numitorius, the uncle of Virginia, and Icilius, her betrothed,
+and they now came up in great haste, and protested so vigorously against
+the sentence, that the surrounding people became roused to fury. Appius,
+seeing the temper of the throng, and fearing a riotous demonstration,
+felt forced to change his decision. He said, therefore, that, in view of
+the rights of fathers over their children, he would let the case rest
+till the next day.
+
+"If, then," he said, with a show of stern dignity, "Virginius does not
+appear, I plainly tell Icilius and his fellows that I will support the
+laws which I have made. Violence shall not prevail over justice at this
+tribunal."
+
+Obliged to be content with this, the friends of Virginia conducted her
+home, and Icilius sent messengers in all haste to the camp, to bid
+Virginius come without an hour's delay to Rome. Surety was given that
+the maiden should appear before Appius the next day.
+
+It was fortunate that the army in which Virginius was a centurion had
+been obliged to retreat, and then lay not many miles from Rome. The
+messengers sent reached the camp that same evening, and told Virginius
+of the peril of his daughter. Appius had also sent messengers to his
+colleagues in command of the army, secretly instructing them not to let
+Virginius leave the camp on any pretence. But the messengers of right
+outstripped those of wrong, and when word came from the decemvirs in
+command to restrain Virginius he had already been given leave of
+absence, and was speeding on the road to Rome, spurred by love and
+indignation.
+
+Morning came, and Appius resumed his judgment-seat, under the delusion
+that his vile scheme was safe. To his surprise and dismay, he saw
+Virginius, whom he supposed detained in camp, dressed in mean attire,
+like a suppliant, and leading his daughter into the Forum. With him came
+a body of Roman matrons and a great troop of friends, for the affair had
+roused the people almost to the point of revolt.
+
+"This is not my cause only, but the cause of all," said Virginius, in
+moving accents, to the people. "If my daughter shall be robbed from me,
+what father and mother among you all is safe?"
+
+Icilius earnestly seconded this appeal, and the mothers who stood by
+wept with pity, their tears moving the people even more than the words
+of the father and lover.
+
+But Appius was not to be moved by tears or appeals. Bent on gaining his
+unholy ends, he did not even give Virginius time to address the
+tribunal, but before Claudius had done speaking he hastened to give
+sentence. The maiden, he said, should be considered a slave until proved
+to be free-born. In the mean time she should remain in the custody of
+her master Claudius.
+
+This monstrous decision, a perversion of all law, natural and civil,
+filled the people with astonishment. Could the maker of the laws of Rome
+thus himself set them at defiance? They stood as if stunned, until
+Claudius approached to lay hands on the maiden, when the women and her
+friends gathered around her and kept him off, while Virginius broke out
+in passionate threats that he would not tamely submit to so great a
+wrong.
+
+Appius had prepared for this. He had brought with him a body of armed
+patricians, and, supported by them, he bade his lictors to drive back
+the crowd. Before their threatening axes the unarmed people fell back,
+and the weeping maiden was left standing alone. Virginius looked on in
+despair. Was he to be robbed of his daughter in the face of Rome, and in
+defiance of all justice and honor? There was one way still to save her,
+and only one.
+
+With an aspect of humility he asked Appius to let him speak one word to
+the nurse in the maiden's hearing, that he might learn whether she were
+really his child or not. "If I am not indeed her father, I shall bear
+her loss the lighter," he said.
+
+Appius, with a show of moderation, consented, and the distracted father
+drew the nurse and his daughter aside to a spot where stood some
+butchers' booths, for the Forum of Rome was then a place of trade as
+well as of justice. Here he snatched a knife from a butcher, and,
+holding the poor girl in his arm, he cried, "This is the only way, my
+child, to keep thee free," and plunged the weapon to her heart.
+
+Then, turning to Appius, he cried, in threatening accents, "On you and
+on your head be the curse of this blood!"
+
+"Seize the madman!" yelled Appius.
+
+But, brandishing the bloody knife, Virginius broke through the
+multitude, which readily made way for his passage, and flew to the city
+gates, where, seizing a horse, he rode with wild haste to the camp of
+Tusculum.
+
+Meanwhile Icilius and Numitorius held up the maiden's body, and bade the
+people see the bloody result of the decemvir's unholy purpose. A tumult
+instantly arose, the people rushing in such fury upon the tribunal that
+the lictors and armed patricians were driven back, and Appius, stricken
+with fear, covered his face with his robe and fled into a neighboring
+house.
+
+Never had Rome been so stirred to fury. The colleague of Appius rushed
+with his followers to the Forum, but the people were too strong for all
+the force he could gather. The senate met, but could do nothing in the
+excited state of public feeling. An attempt to support the decemvirs now
+might cause the commons once more to secede to the Sacred Hill.
+
+While this was going on in the city, Virginius, followed by many
+citizens, had reached the camp. Here the encrimsoned knife he held, the
+blood on his face and body, and the many unarmed citizens who followed
+him, brought the soldiers crowding round to learn what all this meant.
+
+The tale was told in moving accents. On hearing it the whole army burst
+into a storm of indignation. Heedless of the orders of their generals,
+they rushed excitedly to arms, pulled up their standards, and put
+themselves in hasty march for Rome. The only leader they recognized was
+Virginius, who, knife in hand, led the way in the van.
+
+Reaching the city, the soldiers called on the commons to assert their
+liberties and elect new tribunes, the decemvirs having deprived them of
+these officials. They then marched to the Aventine Hill, where they
+selected ten military tribunes. The senate sent to them to know what
+they wanted, but they replied that they had no answer to give except to
+their own friends.
+
+The other army had also heard of the outrage, and soon appeared at the
+Aventine, led by Icilius and Numitorius, who had hastened with the
+dreadful story to its camp. It, too, elected ten tribunes, and waited to
+hear what the senate had to propose. They waited in vain. No word came
+to them. The senate, distracted by the sudden occurrence, sought to
+temporize, but the people were in too deadly earnest to be thus dealt
+with. In the end the armies left the Aventine, marched through the city,
+and made their way to the Sacred Hill, where the seceding commoners had
+established themselves on a famous occasion long before. Men, women, and
+children followed them in multitudes. Once more the city was deserted by
+the plebeians, and the patricians were left to keep Rome together as
+they could.
+
+This brought the senate to terms. The decemvirs agreed to resign.
+Deputies were sent to ask what the people demanded. They replied that
+they wanted their tribunes and the right of appeal restored, full
+indemnity for all the leaders in the secession, and the punishment of
+their oppressors.
+
+"These decemvirs," said Icilius, "are public enemies, and we will have
+them die the death of such. Give them up to us, that they may be burnt
+with fire, as they have richly deserved."
+
+This blood-thirsty desire, however, was not insisted on. All their other
+requests were granted, and the people returned to Rome. The decemvirs
+had resigned. Ten tribunes were chosen, among them Virginius and
+Icilius. The people of Rome had regained the liberty of which they had
+been robbed by their late oppressors.
+
+But though the decemvirs had been spared from death by fire, they were
+not forgiven. Virginius, as a tribune, impeached Appius for having given
+a decision in defiance of the law. The proud patrician appeared in the
+Forum surrounded by a body of young nobles, but he gained nothing by
+this bravado. He refused to go before the judge, appealed to the people,
+and demanded to be released on bail. This Virginius refused. He could
+not be trusted at liberty. He was therefore thrown into prison, to await
+the judgment of the people.
+
+This judgment he did not live to hear. Whether he killed himself in
+prison, or was killed by order of his accusers, we do not know. We only
+know that he died. His colleague, who had come to his aid on that fatal
+day, was also thrown into prison, on the charge of having wantonly
+scourged an old and distinguished soldier. He also died there. The other
+decemvirs, with M. Claudius, who had claimed Virginia as his slave, were
+allowed to give bail, and all fled from Rome. The property of all of
+them was confiscated and sold.
+
+Rome had experienced enough of decemvirate rule. The tribunes of the
+people were restored, and thereafter they were both freely chosen by the
+people, which had not been the case before.
+
+And thus it was that Virginia was revenged and justice once more reigned
+in Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII._
+
+
+We have now to tell the story of another dictator of Rome. Like
+Cincinnatus, Camillus is largely a creature of legend, but he plays an
+active part in old Roman annals, and the tale of his doings is well
+worth repeating.
+
+Rome was at war with the city of Veii, a large and strong city beyond
+the Tiber, and not many miles away. In the year of Rome 350 (or 403
+B.C.) the siege of Veii began, and was continued for seven years. We are
+told that the Romans surrounded the city, five miles in circumference,
+with a double wall, but it could not have been complete, or the
+Veientians could not have held out against starvation so long. For the
+end of the siege and the taking of the city we must revert to the
+legendary tale.
+
+For seven years and more, so the legend says, the Romans had been
+besieging Veii. During the last year of the siege, in late summer, the
+springs and rivers all ran low; but of a sudden the waters of the Lake
+of Alba began to rise, and the flood continued until the banks were
+overflowed and the fields and houses by its side were drowned. Still
+higher and higher the waters swelled till they reached the tops of the
+hills which rose like a wall around the lake. In the end they
+overflowed these hills at their lowest points, and poured in a mighty
+torrent into the plain beyond.
+
+The prayers and sacrifices of the Romans had failed to check the flood,
+which threatened their city and fields, and despairing of any redress
+from their own gods they sent to Delphi, in Greece, and applied there to
+the famous oracle of Apollo. While the messengers were on their way, it
+chanced that a Roman centurion talked with an old Veientian on the walls
+whom he had known in times of peace, and knew to be skilled in the
+secrets of Fate. The Roman condoled with his friend, and hoped that no
+harm would come to him in the fall of Veii, sure to happen soon. The old
+man laughed in reply, and said,--
+
+"You think, then, to take Veii. You shall not take it till the waters of
+the Lake of Alba are all spent, and flow out into the sea no more."
+
+This remark troubled the Roman, who knew the prophetic foresight of his
+friend. The next day he talked with him again, and finally enticed him
+to leave the city, saying that he wished to meet him at a certain secret
+place and consult with him on a matter of his own. But on getting him in
+this way out of the city, he seized and carried him off to the camp,
+where he brought him before the generals. These, learning what the old
+man had said, sent him to the senate at Rome.
+
+The prisoner here spoke freely. "If the lake overflow," he said, "and
+its waters run out into the sea, woe unto Rome; but if it be drawn off,
+and the waters reach the sea no longer, then it is woe unto Veii."
+
+This he gave as the decree of the Fates; but the senate would not accept
+his words, and preferred to wait until the messengers should return from
+Delphi with the reply of the oracle.
+
+When they did come, they confirmed what the old prophet had said. "See
+that the waters be not confined within the basin of the lake," was the
+message of Apollo's priestess: "see that they take not their own course
+and run into the sea. Thou shalt take the water out of the lake, and
+thou shalt turn it to the watering of the fields, and thou shalt make
+courses for it till it be spent and come to nothing."
+
+What all this could possibly have to do with the siege of Veii the
+oracle did not say. But the people of the past were not given to ask
+such inconvenient questions. The oracle was supposed to know better than
+they, so workmen were sent with orders to bore through the sides of the
+hills and make a passage for the water. This tunnel was made, and the
+waters of the lake were drawn off, and divided into many courses, being
+given the duty of watering the fields of the Romans. In this way the
+water of the lake was all used up, and no drop of it flowed to the sea.
+Then the Romans knew that it was the will of the gods that Veii should
+be theirs.
+
+Despite all this, the army of Rome must have met with serious
+difficulties and dangers at Veii, for the senate chose a dictator to
+conduct the war. This was their ablest and most famous man, Marcus
+Furius Camillus, a leader among the aristocrats, and a statesman of
+distinguished ability.
+
+Under the command of Camillus the army hotly pressed the siege. So
+straitened became the Veientians that they sent envoys to Rome to beg
+for peace. The senate refused. In reply, one of the chief men of the
+embassy, who was a skilled prophet, rebuked the Romans for their
+arrogance, and predicted coming retribution.
+
+"You heed neither the wrath of the gods nor the vengeance of men," he
+said. "Yet the gods shall requite you for your pride; as you destroy our
+country, so shall you shortly after lose your own."
+
+This prediction was verified before many years in the invasion of the
+Gauls and the destruction of Rome,--a tale which we have next to tell.
+
+Camillus, finding that Veii was not to be taken by assault over its
+walls, began to approach it from below. Men were set to dig an
+underground tunnel, which should pass beneath the walls, and come to the
+surface again in the Temple of Juno, which stood in the citadel of Veii.
+Night and day they worked, and the tunnel was in course of time
+completed, though the ground was not opened at its inner extremity.
+
+Then many Romans came to the camp through desire to have a share in the
+spoil of Veii. A tenth part of this spoil was vowed by Camillus to
+Apollo, in reward for his oracle; and the dictator also prayed to Juno,
+the goddess of Veii, begging her to desert this city and follow the
+Romans home, where a temple worthy of her dignity should be built.
+
+All being ready, a fierce assault was made on the city from every side.
+The defenders ran to the walls to repel their foes, and the fight went
+vigorously on. While it continued the king of Veii repaired to the
+Temple of Juno, where he offered a sacrifice for the deliverance of the
+city. The prophet who stood by, on seeing the sacrifice, said, "This is
+an accepted offering. There is victory for him who offers the entrails
+of this victim upon the altar."
+
+The Romans who were in the secret passage below heard these words.
+Instantly the earth was heaved up above them, and they sprang, arms in
+hand, from the tunnel. The entrails were snatched from the hands of
+those who were sacrificing, and Camillus, the Roman dictator, not the
+Veientian king, offered them upon the altar. While he did so his
+followers rushed from the citadel into the streets, flung open the city
+gates, and let in their comrades. Thus both from within and without the
+army broke into the town, and Veii was taken and sacked.
+
+From the height of the citadel Camillus looked down upon the havoc in
+the city streets, and said in pride of heart, "What man's fortune was
+ever so great as mine?" But instantly the thought came to him how little
+a thing can bring the highest fortune down to the lowest, and he prayed
+that if some evil should befall him or his country it might be light.
+
+As he prayed he veiled his head, according to the Roman custom, and
+turned toward the right. In doing so his foot slipped, and he fell upon
+his back on the ground. "The gods have heard my prayer," he said. "For
+the great fortune of my victory over Veii they have sent me only this
+little evil."
+
+He then bade some young men, chosen from the whole army, to wash
+themselves in pure water, and clothe themselves in white, so that there
+would be about them no stain or sign of blood. This done, they entered
+the Temple of Juno, bowing low, and taking care not to touch the statue
+of the goddess, which only the priest could touch. They asked the
+goddess whether it was her pleasure to go with them to Rome.
+
+Then a wonder happened; from the mouth of the image came the words "I
+will go." And when they now touched it, it moved of its own accord. It
+was carried to Rome, where a temple was built and consecrated to Juno on
+the Aventine Hill.
+
+On his return to Rome Camillus entered the city in triumph, and rode to
+the Capitol in a chariot drawn by four white horses, like the horses of
+Jupiter or those of the sun. Such was his ostentation that wise men
+shook their heads. "Marcus Camillus makes himself equal to the blessed
+gods," they said. "See if vengeance come not on him, and he be not made
+lower than other men."
+
+There is one further legend about Camillus. After the fall of Veii he
+besieged Falerii. During this siege a school-master, who had charge of
+the sons of the principal citizens, while walking with his boys outside
+the walls, played the traitor and led them into the Roman camp.
+
+But the villain received an unexpected reward. Camillus, justly
+indignant at the act, put thongs in the boys' hands and bade them flog
+their master back into the town, saying that the Romans did not war on
+children. On this the people of Falerii, overcome by his magnanimity,
+surrendered themselves, their city, and their country into the hands of
+this generous foe, assured of just treatment from so noble a man.
+
+But trouble came upon Camillus, as the wise men had predicted. He was an
+enemy of the commons and was to feel their power. It was claimed that he
+had kept for himself part of the plunder of Veii, and on this charge he
+was banished from Rome. But the time was near at hand when his foes
+would have to pray for his return. The next year the Gauls were to come,
+and Camillus was to be revenged upon his ungrateful country. This story
+we have next to tell.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GAULS AT ROME._
+
+
+We have related in the preceding tale how a Veientian prophet predicted
+the ruin of Rome, in retribution for the cruelty of the Romans to the
+people of Veii. It is the story of this disaster which we have now to
+tell. While the Romans were assailing Veii and making other conquests
+among the neighboring cities, a new people had come into Central Italy,
+a fair-faced, light-haired, great-bodied tribe of barbarians, fierce in
+aspect, warlike in character, the first contingent of that great
+invasion from the north which, centuries afterwards, was to overthrow
+the empire of Rome.
+
+These were the Gauls, barbarian tribes from the region now known as
+France, who had long before crossed the Alps and made themselves lords
+of much of Northern Italy. Just when this took place we do not know, but
+about the time with which we are now concerned they pushed farther
+south, overthrew the Etruscans, and in the year 389 B.C. crossed the
+Apennines and penetrated into Central Italy.
+
+And now the proud city of Rome was to come face to face with an enemy
+more powerful and courageous than any it had hitherto known. In the year
+named the Gauls besieged the city of Clusium, in Etruria, the city of
+Lars Porsenna, who in former years had aided Tarquin against Rome. The
+Roman senate, alarmed at their approach, sent three deputies to observe
+these barbarian bands. What follows is the story as told in Roman
+annals. It cannot be accepted as the exact truth, though no one
+questions the destruction of Rome by the Gauls.
+
+The story goes, then, that the deputies sent to the barbarians, and
+asked by what right they sought to take a part of the territory of
+Clusium, a city in alliance with Rome. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,
+who knew little and cared less about Rome, replied, with insolent pride,
+that all things belonged to the brave, and that their right lay in their
+swords.
+
+Soon after, in a sortie that was made from the city, one of the Roman
+deputies joined the soldiers, and killed a Gaulish champion of great
+size and stature. On this being reported to Brennus he sent messengers
+to Rome, demanding that the man who had slain one of his chiefs, when no
+war existed between the Gauls and Romans, should be delivered into his
+hands for punishment. The senate voted to do so, as the demand seemed
+reasonable; but an appeal was made to the people, and they declared that
+the culprit should not be given up. On this answer being taken to
+Brennus, he at once ordered that the siege of Clusium should be
+abandoned, and marched with his whole army upon Rome.
+
+A Roman army, forty thousand strong, was hastily raised, and crossed the
+Tiber, marching towards Veii, where they expected to meet the advancing
+enemy. But they reckoned wrongly: the Gauls came down the left bank of
+the river, plundering and burning as they marched. This threw the Romans
+into the greatest alarm. For many miles above Rome the Tiber could not
+be forded, there were no bridges, and boats could not be had to convey
+so large an army. The Romans were forced to march back with all speed to
+the city, cross the river there, and hasten to meet their foes before
+they got too near at hand. But when they came within sight of the Gauls
+the latter were already within twelve miles of Rome.
+
+The Roman army was drawn up behind the Alia, a little stream whose deep
+bed formed a line of defence. But the Gauls made their attack upon the
+weakest section of the Roman army, hewing them down with their great
+broadswords, and assailing their ears with frightful yells. The Roman
+right wing, formed of new recruits, gave way before this vigorous
+charge, and in its flight threw the regular legions of the left wing
+into disorder. The Gauls pursued so fiercely that in a short time the
+whole army was in total rout, and flying as Roman army had never fled
+before.
+
+Many plunged into the river, in hope of escaping by swimming across it.
+But of these the Gauls slew multitudes on the banks, and killed most of
+those in the stream with their javelins. Others took refuge in a dense
+wood near the road, where they lay hidden till nightfall. The remainder
+fled back to the city, where they brought the frightful tidings of the
+utter ruin of the Roman army.
+
+The news threw Rome into a panic. Of those who escaped from the battle,
+the majority had crossed the river and made their way to Veii. No other
+army could be raised. Most of the other inhabitants left the city, as
+the people of Athens had done when the army of Xerxes approached. It was
+resolved to abandon the city to the barbarians, but to maintain the
+citadel, the home of the gods of Rome. The holy articles in the temples
+were buried or removed, the Vestal Virgins sent away, and the flower of
+the patricians took refuge in the Capitol, determined to defend to the
+last that abiding-place of the guardian gods of Rome.
+
+But there were aged members of the senate, old patricians who had filled
+the highest offices in the state, and venerable ministers of the gods,
+who felt that they had a different duty to perform. They could not serve
+their country by their deeds; they might by their death. They devoted
+themselves and the army of the Gauls, in solemn invocations, to the
+spirits of the dead and to the earth, the common grave of man. Then,
+attiring themselves in their richest robes of office, each took his seat
+on his ivory chair of magistracy in the gate-way of his house.
+
+Meanwhile the Gauls had delayed for a day their attack on the city,
+fearing that the silence portended some snare. When they did enter, the
+people had escaped with such valuables as they could carry. The Capitol
+was provisioned and garrisoned, and the aged senators awaited death in
+solemn calm.
+
+On seeing these venerable men, sitting in motionless silence amid the
+confusion of the sack of the city, the Gauls viewed them with awe,
+regarding them at first as more than human. One of the soldiers
+approached M. Papirius, and began reverently to stroke his long white
+beard. Papirius was a minister of the gods, and looked on this touch of
+a barbarian hand as profanation. With an impulse of anger he struck the
+Gaul on the head with his ivory sceptre. Instantly the barbarian,
+breaking into rage, cut him down with his sword. This put an end to the
+feeling of awe. All the old men were attacked and slain, their vow being
+thus fulfilled.
+
+Rome, except its Capitol, was now in the hands of the Gauls. The sack
+and ruin of the city went mercilessly on. But the Capitol defied their
+efforts. It stood on a hill which, except at a single point, presented
+precipitous sides. The Gauls tried to storm it by this single approach,
+but were driven back with loss. They then blockaded the hill, and spent
+their time in devastating the city and neighboring country.
+
+While this was going on the fugitives from Rome had gathered at Veii,
+where they daily became more reorganized. And now they turned in their
+distress to a man whom they had injured in their prosperity. Camillus,
+the conqueror of Veii, had been exiled from Rome on a charge of having
+been dishonest in distributing the spoils of the conquered city. He was
+now living at Ardea, whither messengers were sent, begging him to come
+to the aid of Rome. He sent word back that he had been condemned for an
+offence of which he was not guilty, and would not return unless
+requested to do so by the senate.
+
+But the senate was shut up in the Capitol. How could it be reached? In
+this dilemma a young man, Pontius Cominius, volunteered for the
+adventure. He swam the Tiber at night, climbed the hill by the aid of
+shrubs and projecting stones, obtained for Camillus the appointment as
+dictator, and returned by the same route.
+
+The feat of Cominius, whatever its real purpose, came near being a fatal
+one to Rome. He had left his marks on the cliff. Here the soil had been
+trodden away and stones loosened; there bushes had been broken or torn
+from the soil. The sharp eyes of the Gauls saw, in the morning light,
+these proofs that some one had climbed or descended the hill. The cliff,
+then, could be climbed. Some Roman had climbed it; why not they? The
+spot, supposed to be inaccessible, was not guarded. There was no wall at
+its top. Here was an open route to that stubborn citadel. They resolved
+to attempt it as soon as night should fall.
+
+It was midnight when the Gauls began to make their way slowly and with
+difficulty up the steep cliff. The moon may have aided them with its
+rays, but, if so, it revealed them to no sentinel above. The very
+watch-dogs failed to scent and signal their approach. They reached the
+summit, and, to their gratification, no alarm had been given. The Romans
+slept on.
+
+The fate of Rome in that hour hung in the balance. Had the citadel been
+taken and its defenders slain, Rome might never have recovered from the
+blow. The whole course of history might have been changed. It was the
+merest chance that saved the city from this impending disaster.
+
+It chanced that on this part of the hill stood the temple of the
+guardian gods of Rome,--Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,--and in this temple
+were kept a number of geese, sacred to Juno. Though food was not
+abundant, the garrison had spared these sacred geese. They were now to
+be amply repaid, for the geese alone heard the noise of the ascending
+Gauls, and in alarm began a loud screaming and flapping of wings.
+
+The noise aroused Marcus Manlius, who slept near. Hastily seizing his
+sword and shield, he called to his comrades and ran to the edge of the
+cliff. He reached there just in time to see the head and shoulders of a
+burly Gaul, who had nearly attained the summit. Dashing the rim of his
+shield into the face of the barbarian, Manlius tumbled him down the
+rock, and with him those who followed in his track. The others,
+dismayed, dropped their arms to cling more closely to the rocks. Unable
+to ascend or descend, they were easily slaughtered by the guards who
+followed Manlius. The Capitol was saved. As for the captain of the
+watch, from whose neglect of duty this peril had come, he was punished
+the next morning by being hurled down the cliff upon the slaughtered
+Gauls.
+
+Manlius was rewarded, says the story, by each man giving him from his
+scanty store a day's allowance of food,--namely, half a pound of corn
+and five ounces in weight of wine. As for the real defenders of Rome,
+the geese of the Capitol, they were ever after held in the highest honor
+and veneration.
+
+As the Capitol could not be taken by assault or surprise, there
+remained only the slow process of siege. For six or eight months the
+Gauls blockaded the hill. So says the story, but it was probably not so
+long. However, in the end the Romans were brought to the point of
+famine, and offered to ransom their city by paying a large sum of gold.
+Brennus, the Gaulish king, was ready to accept the offer. His men were
+suffering from the Roman fever; food had grown scarce; he agreed, if
+paid a thousand pounds' weight of gold, to withdraw his army from Rome.
+
+Much gold had been brought by the fugitive patricians into the Capitol.
+From this the delegates brought down and placed in the scales a
+sufficient quantity. But while they found the gold, the Gauls found the
+weights, and it was soon discovered that the wily barbarians were
+cheating. Their weights were too heavy. Complaint of this fraud was made
+by the Roman tribune of the soldiers. In reply Brennus drew his heavy
+broadsword and threw it into the scale with the weights.
+
+"What does this mean?" asked the tribune.
+
+"It means," answered the barbarian, haughtily, "woe to the vanquished!"
+"_Væ victis esse!_"
+
+While this was going on, says the legend, Camillus, the dictator, was
+marching to Rome with the legions he had organized at Veii. He appeared
+at the right minute for the dramatic interest of the story, entered the
+Forum while the gold was being weighed, bade the Romans take back their
+gold, threw the weights to the Gauls, and told Brennus proudly that it
+was the Roman custom to pay their debts in iron, not in gold.
+
+A fight ensued, as might be expected. The Gauls were driven from the
+city. The next day Camillus attacked them in their camp, eight miles
+from Rome, and defeated them so utterly that not a man was left alive to
+carry home the tale of the slaughter.
+
+This story of the coming of Camillus is too much like the last act of a
+stage-play, or the dénouement of a novel, to be true. Most likely the
+Gauls marched off with their gold, though they may have been attacked on
+their retreat, and most or all of the gold regained.
+
+Camillus, however, is said to have saved Rome in still another way. The
+old city was in ashes. Most of the citizens were at Veii, where they had
+found or built new homes. They were loath to come back to rebuild a
+ruined city. This Camillus induced them to do. Every appeal was made to
+the local pride and the religious sentiments of the people. A centurion,
+marching with his company, and being obliged to halt in front of the
+senate-house, called to the standard-bearer, "Pitch your standard here,
+for this is the best place to stop at." This casual remark was looked
+upon as an omen from heaven, and by this and the like means the people
+were induced to return.
+
+Then the rebuilding of Rome began. The sites of the temples were
+retraced as far as could be done in the ruins. The laws of the twelve
+tables and some other records were recovered, but the mass of the
+historical annals of Rome had been destroyed. Some relics were said to
+have been miraculously preserved, among them the shepherd's crook of
+Romulus.
+
+But the bulk of the possessions of the Romans had vanished in the
+flames; the streets were mere heaps of ashes; the very walls had been in
+part pulled down; rubbish and ruin lay everywhere. Rome, like the
+phoenix, had to be born again from its ashes. Men built wherever they
+could find a clear spot. Stones and roofing-material were brought from
+Veii, and one city was dismantled that another might be restored. Stones
+and timber were supplied to any man from the public lands. The city
+rapidly rose again. But it was an irregular city; the streets ran
+anywhere; no effort was made at rule or system in the making of the new
+Rome.
+
+As for Camillus, he came to be honored as the second founder of Rome.
+While the Romans were at work on their new homes they were harassed by
+their foes, and he was kept busy with the army in the field. He lived
+for twenty-five years longer, and in the year 367 B.C., when some eighty
+years of age, he marched again to meet the Gauls in a new assault upon
+Rome, and defeated them with such slaughter that they left Rome alone
+for many years afterwards.
+
+Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, was not so fortunate. He
+came forward as the patron of the poor, who began to suffer again from
+the severe laws against debtors. Finally he began to use his large
+fortune to relieve suffering debtors, and is said to have paid the debts
+of four hundred debtors, thus saving them from bondage. This generosity
+won him the unbounded affection of the people, who called him the
+"Father of the Commons." But it aroused the suspicion of the patricians,
+and some of these, against whom he had used violent language, had him
+arrested on a charge of treason, perhaps with good reason. Though he
+showed the many honors he had received for services to his country, he
+was condemned to death and his house razed to the ground. Thus the
+patricians dealt with the benefactors of the poor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CURTIAN GULF._
+
+
+During three years--363 to 361 B.C.--Rome was ravaged by the plague,
+which was so violent and fatal as to carry off the citizens by hundreds.
+In its first year it found a noble victim in Camillus, the conqueror of
+Veii and the second founder of Rome, who four years before had a second
+time defeated the Gauls. He was the last of the old heroes of Rome,
+those whose glory belongs to romance rather than history. The Gauls had
+destroyed the records of old Rome, and left only legend and romance.
+With the new Rome history fairly began.
+
+But we have another romantic tale to tell before we bid adieu to the
+story of early Rome. In the second year of the pestilence a strange and
+portentous event occurred. The Tiber rose to an unusual height,
+overflowed with its waters the great circus (_Circus Maximus_), and put
+a stop to the games then going on, which were intended to propitiate the
+wrath of heaven, and induce the gods to relieve man from the evil of the
+plague.
+
+And now, in the midst of the Forum, there yawned open a fearful gulf, so
+wide and deep that the superstitious Romans viewed it with awe and
+affright. Whether it was due to an earthquake or the wrath of the gods
+is not for us to say. The Romans believed the latter; those who prefer
+may believe the former. But, so we are told, it seemed bottomless.
+Throw what they would in it, it stood unfilled, and the feeling grew
+that no power of man could ever fill its yawning depths.
+
+Man being powerless, the oracles of the gods were consulted. Must this
+gaping wound always stand open in the soil of Rome? or could it in any
+way be filled and the offended deities who had caused it be propitiated?
+From the oracle came the reply that it must stand open till that which
+constituted the best and true strength of the Roman commonwealth was
+cast as an offering into the gulf. Then only would it close, and
+thereafter forever would the state live and flourish.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS.]
+
+The true strength of Rome! In what did this consist? This question men
+asked each other anxiously and none seemed able to answer. But there was
+one man in Rome who interpreted rightly the meaning of the oracle. This
+was a noble youth, M. Curtius by name, who had played his part valiantly
+in war, and gained great fame by brave and manly deeds. The true
+strength of Rome? he said to the people. In what else could it lie but
+in the arms and valor of her children? This was the sacrifice the gods
+demanded.
+
+Going home, he put on his armor and mounted his horse. Riding to the
+brink of the gulf, he, before the eyes of the trembling and awe-struck
+multitude, devoted himself to death for the safety and glory of Rome,
+and plunged, with his horse, headlong into the gaping void. The people
+rushed after him to the brink, flung in their offerings, and with a
+surge the lips of the gap came together, and the gulf was forever
+closed. The place was afterwards known by the name of the Curtian Lake,
+in honor of this sacrifice.
+
+There are two other stories of this date worth repeating, as giving rise
+to two great names in Rome. T. Manlius, the future conqueror of the
+Latins, fought with a gigantic Gaul on the bridge over the Anio on the
+Salarian road. Slaying his enemy, he took from his neck a chain of gold
+(_torques_), which he afterwards wore upon his own. From this the
+soldiers called him Torquatus, which name his descendants ever
+afterwards bore.
+
+In a later battle Marcus Valerius fought with a second gigantic Gaul.
+During the combat a wonderful thing happened. A crow perched on the
+helmet of the Roman, and continued there as the combatants fought.
+Occasionally it flew up into the air, and darted down upon the Gaul,
+striking at his eyes with its beak and claws. The Gaul, confounded by
+this attack, soon fell by the sword of his foe, and then the crow flew
+up again, and vanished towards the east. The name of Corvus (crow) was
+added to that of Valerius, and was long afterwards borne by his
+descendants.
+
+These stories are rather to be enjoyed than believed. They probably
+contain more poetry than history, particularly that of Curtius and the
+gulf. Yet they were accepted as history by the Romans, and are given in
+all their detail in the fine old work of Livy, the rarest and raciest of
+the story-tellers of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS._
+
+
+The conquest of Italy by Rome was attended by many interesting events,
+of which we propose to relate here some of the more striking. The
+capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls, and the dispersal of her army
+and people, ruinous as it seemed, was but an event in her career of
+conquest. The city was no sooner rebuilt than the old régime of war was
+resumed, and it was no longer a struggle between neighboring cities, but
+of Rome against powerful confederacies and peoples, such as the
+Volscians, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Campanians, and the Samnites,
+the final conquest of which gave her the dominion of Italy.
+
+The war with the Latins was attended with some circumstances showing
+strongly the stern and indomitable spirit of the Romans. This war was
+carried into Campania, in Southern Italy; and here, on a celebrated
+occasion, when the two armies lay encamped in close vicinity on the
+plain of Capua, the Roman consuls issued a strict order against
+skirmishing or engaging in single encounters with the enemy. The two
+peoples were alike in arms and in language, and it was feared that such
+chance combats might lead to confusion and disaster.
+
+The only man to disobey this order was T. Manlius, the son of one of
+the consuls. A Latin warrior, Geminus Metius, of Tusculum, challenged
+young Manlius to meet him in single combat; and the youthful warrior,
+fired by ambition and warlike zeal, and eager to sustain the honor of
+Rome, accepted the challenge, despite his father's order. If killed, his
+fault would be atoned; if successful, victory over a noted warrior must
+win him pardon and praise.
+
+The duel that ensued was a fierce and gallant one. It ended in the
+triumph of the young Roman, who laid his antagonist dead at his feet.
+Shouts of triumph from the Roman soldiers hailed his victory; and when
+he had despoiled his slain foe of his arms, and borne them triumphantly
+from the field, the exultation of the Romans was as unbounded as the
+chagrin of the Latins was deep. Towards his father's tent the young
+victor proudly went, through exulting lines of troops, and laid his
+spoils in triumph at the feet of the stern old man.
+
+The poor youth, the rejoicing soldiers, knew not the man with whom they
+had to deal. A military order had been disobeyed. To old Manlius the
+fact that the culprit was his son, and that he had added honor to the
+Roman arms, weighed nothing. Discipline stood above affection or
+victory. Turning coldly away, the iron-hearted old Roman ordered that
+the soldiers should be immediately summoned to the prætorium, or
+general's tent, and that his son should be beheaded before them.
+
+This cruel and inhuman order filled the whole army with horror. Yet none
+dared interfere, and the unnatural mandate was obeyed, in full view of
+an army whose late exultation was turned to deepest woe and indignation.
+The youngest soldiers never forgave the consul for his inhuman act, but
+regarded him with abhorrence to the end of his life. But their hatred
+was mingled with fear and respect, and the stern lesson taught was
+doubtless felt for years in the discipline of the armies of Rome.
+
+The next event worthy of record took place in the vicinity of Mount
+Vesuvius, under whose very shadow a fierce battle was fought between the
+Latin and Roman armies, with the then silent volcano as witness. Two
+centuries more were to pass before Rome would learn what fearful power
+lay sleeping in this long voiceless mountain.
+
+Before the battle joined, the gods, as usual, were appealed to. During
+the night both consuls had dreamed the same dream. A figure of more than
+human stature and majesty had appeared to them, and told them that the
+earth and the gods of the dead claimed as their victims the general of
+one party and the army of the other. When the sacrifices were made, the
+signs given by the entrails of the victims signified the same thing. It
+was resolved, therefore, that if the army of Rome anywhere gave way, the
+general commanding on that side should devote himself, and the army of
+the enemy with him, to the gods of death and the grave. "Fate," said the
+augurs, "requires the sacrifice of a general from one party and an army
+from the other. Let it be our general and the Latin army that shall
+perish."
+
+It was the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul Publius
+Decius, that first gave way. The consul at once accepted his fate. By
+the direction of the chief priest, he wrapped his consular toga around
+his head, holding it to his face with his hand, and then set his feet
+upon a javelin, and repeated after the priest the words devoting him to
+the gods of death. Then, arming himself at all points, and wrapping his
+toga around his body in the manner usual in sacrifices, he sprang upon
+his horse, and spurred headlong into the ranks of the enemy, where he
+soon fell dead.
+
+This sacrifice filled the Romans with hope, and the Latins, who
+understood its meaning, with dismay. Yet the latter, after being driven
+back, soon recovered, and, despite the self-devotion of Decius, would
+probably have won the victory had not the remaining consul brought up
+his reserve troops just in time. In the end the Latins were utterly
+defeated, and Vesuvius looked down on the massacre of one army by the
+swords of another, scarcely a fourth of the Latins escaping. Thus the
+gods seemed to keep their word, though probably the Roman reserve force
+had more to do with the victory than all the gods of Rome.
+
+The next event which we have to relate took place during the second
+Samnite war. Its hero was L. Papirius Cursor, one of the favorite heroes
+of Roman tradition, and the avenger of the disgrace of the Caudine
+Forks, the story of which we have next to tell. This famous soldier is
+said to have possessed marvellous swiftness of foot and gigantic
+strength, with extraordinary capacity for food, while his iron
+strictness of discipline was at times relieved by a rough humor. All
+this made his memory popular with the Romans, who boasted that Alexander
+the Great would have found in him a worthy champion, had that conqueror
+invaded Italy.
+
+The event we have now to narrate occurred early in the war. One of the
+consuls, being taken ill, was ordered to name a dictator to replace him,
+and chose Papirius Cursor. This champion appointed Q. Fabius Rullianus,
+another famous soldier, his master of the horse, and marched out to
+attack the Samnites.
+
+As it happened, the auspices taken by the dictator at Rome before
+marching to the seat of war were of no particular significance. Not
+satisfied with them, he decided to take them again, and returned to Rome
+for this purpose, the auspices being of a kind which could only be taken
+within the city walls. He ordered the master of the horse to remain
+strictly on the defensive during his absence.
+
+Fabius did not obey this order. He attacked the enemy and gained some
+advantage. The annals say that he won a great victory, defeating the
+Samnites with a loss of twenty thousand men; but the annals have a habit
+of magnifying small affairs into large ones where they have any object
+to gain.
+
+On hearing that his orders had been disobeyed, Papirius hurried back to
+the camp in a violent rage, and with the intention of making such an
+example of discipline as Manlius had made in the execution of his son.
+On reaching camp he ordered that Fabius should be immediately executed.
+His authority as dictator gave him power for this violent act; but he
+failed to reckon on the spirit of the soldiers, who supported Fabius to
+a man, and broke into a violent demonstration that was almost mutiny. So
+strong was their feeling that the furious dictator found himself obliged
+to halt in his purpose.
+
+But Fabius knew too well the iron nature of his antagonist to trust his
+life in his hands. That night he fled from the camp to Rome, and
+immediately appealed to the senate for protection. Papirius followed in
+hot haste, and while the senators were still assembling arrived in Rome,
+where, under his authority as dictator, he gave order for the arrest of
+the culprit. In this critical situation the prisoner's father, M.
+Fabius, appealed to the tribunes for the protection of his son, saying
+that he proposed to carry the case before the assembly of the people.
+
+The tribunes found themselves in a dilemma. Papirius warned them not to
+sanction so flagrant a breach of military discipline, nor to lessen the
+majesty of the office of dictator, and they found themselves hesitating
+between their duty to support the absolute power of the dictator and
+their abhorrence of an exercise of this power that must shock the
+feelings of the whole Roman people. The people themselves relieved their
+tribunes from this difficulty. They hastily met in assembly, and by a
+unanimous vote implored the dictator to be merciful, and for their sakes
+to forgive Fabius. His authority thus acknowledged, Papirius yielded,
+and declared that he pardoned the master of the horse. "And the
+authority of the Roman generals," says Livy, "was established no less
+firmly by the peril of Q. Fabius than by the actual death of the young
+T. Manlius."
+
+It was well for Rome that Fabius was spared, for he afterwards proved
+one of their ablest generals. The time came, also, when he was able to
+confer a benefit upon Papirius Cursor. This was during a subsequent war
+with the Etruscans, in which he commanded as consul and gained great
+victories. Meanwhile a Roman army was defeated by the Samnites, and on
+the news of this defeat reaching Rome the senate at once resolved to
+appoint Papirius once more as dictator.
+
+But this appointment must be made by a consul. One consul was with the
+defeated army, perhaps dead. It was necessary to apply to Fabius, the
+other consul, and the declared enemy of the proposed dictator. To
+overcome his personal feelings, a deputation of the highest senators was
+sent him, who read him the senate's decree and strongly urged him to
+support it. Fabius listened in dead silence, not answering by word or
+look. When they had ended, he abruptly withdrew from the room. But at
+dead of night he pronounced, in the usual form, the nomination of
+Papirius as dictator. When the deputies thanked him for his noble
+conquest over his feelings, he listened still in dead silence, and
+dismissed them without a word in answer.
+
+We must now pass over years of war, in which both Fabius and Papirius
+gained honor and fame, and come to an occasion in which the son of
+Fabius led a Roman army as consul, and met with a severe defeat by a
+Samnite army. He had been tricked by the Samnites, and great indignation
+was aroused against him in Rome. It was proposed to remove him from his
+office, a disgrace which no consul ever experienced in Roman history. It
+was also proposed that old Fabius should be appointed dictator. But the
+aged soldier, to preserve the honor of his son, offered to go with him
+as his lieutenant, and the offer was accepted by the senate.
+
+A second battle ensued, in the heat of which the consul became
+surrounded by the enemy, and his aged father led the charge to his
+rescue. His example animated the Romans, they followed him in a vigorous
+assault, and a complete victory was won. Twenty thousand Samnites were
+slain, four thousand taken prisoners, and with them their general, C.
+Pontius. After other victories the younger Fabius returned to Rome and
+was given a triumph, while behind him rode his old father on horseback,
+as one of his lieutenants, delighting in the honor conferred on his son.
+The Samnite general was made to walk in the procession, and at its end
+was taken to the prison under the Capitoline Hill and there beheaded. It
+was thus that Rome dealt with its captured foes.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CAUDINE FORKS._
+
+
+Westward from Rome rise the Apennine Mountains, the backbone of Italy;
+and amid their highest peaks, where the snow lies all the year long, and
+whence streams flow into the two seas, dwelt the Sabines, an important
+people, from whom came the mothers of the Roman state. There is a legend
+concerning this people which we have now to tell. For many years they
+had been at war with their neighbors, the Umbrians; and at length,
+failing to conquer their enemies by their own strength, they sought to
+obtain the help of the divinities. They made a vow that if victory was
+given to them, all the living creatures born that year in their land
+should be held as sacred to the gods.
+
+The victory came, and they sacrificed all the lambs, calves, kids, and
+pigs of that year's birth, while they redeemed from the gods such
+animals as were not suitable for sacrifice. But, as it appeared, the
+deities were not satisfied. The land refused to yield its fruits, and
+the Sabines were not long in deciding why their crops had failed. They
+had neither sacrificed nor redeemed the children born that year, and had
+thus failed in their duty to the gods.
+
+To atone for this fault, all their children of that year's birth were
+devoted to the god Mamers, and when they had grown up they were sent
+away to make themselves a home in a new land. As the young men started
+on their pilgrimage a bull went before them, and, as they fancied that
+Mamers had sent this animal for their guide, they piously followed him.
+He first lay down to rest when he had come to the land of the Opicans.
+This the Sabines took for a sign, and they fell on the Opicans, who
+dwelt in villages without walls, and drove them out from their country,
+of which the new-comers took possession. They then sacrificed the bull
+to Mamers; and in after-ages they bore the bull for their device. They
+also took a new name, and were afterwards known as Samnites.
+
+While the Romans were extending their dominion in Central Italy, the
+Samnites were conquering the peoples farther south. Their dominion
+became great, and at one time included the famous cities of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii and many others of the cities of the southern plains. In the
+centre of the Samnite country stood a remarkable mountain mass, an
+offshoot from the Apennines. This mountain, now called the Matese, is
+nearly eight miles in circumference, and rises abruptly in huge
+wall-like cliffs of limestone to the height of three thousand feet. Its
+surface is greatly varied in character, now sloping into deep valleys,
+now rising into elevated cliffs, of which the loftiest is six thousand
+feet high. It is rich in springs, which gush out in full flow, and
+disappear again in the caverns with which limestone rocks abound. Its
+valleys yield abundant pasture and magnificent beech forests, while on
+its highest summits the snow tarries till late summer, and in the
+hottest months of summer the upland pastures continue cool.
+
+This mountain fastness formed the citadel from which the Samnites issued
+in conquering excursions over the surrounding country, and enabled them
+in time to extend their dominion far and wide, and to rival Rome in the
+width and importance of their state. Thus Rome and Samnium approached
+each other step by step, and the time inevitably came when they were to
+join issue in war.
+
+Three wars took place between the Romans and the Samnites. In the first
+of these Valerius Corvus (the origin of whose name of Corvus we have
+already told) led the Roman army to victory. In honor of this victory
+Rome received from Carthage (with which city it was to engage in a
+desperate contest in later years) a golden crown, for the shrine of
+Jupiter in the Capitol.
+
+In 329 B.C. Rome finally overcame the Volscians, with whom they had been
+many years at war, and three years afterwards war with the Samnites was
+again declared. The latter were invading Campania, in which country lay
+the volcano of Vesuvius and the city of Naples. Rome came to the aid of
+the Campanians, and a war began which lasted for more than twenty years.
+
+Of this war we have but one event to tell, that in which Rome suffered
+the greatest humiliation it had met with in its entire career, the
+famous affair of the Caudine Forks. It was in the fifth campaign of the
+war that this event took place. Two Roman armies had marched into
+Campania and threatened the southern border of Samnium, which the
+Samnite general Pontius was prepared to defend. His force occupied the
+passes which led from the plain of Naples into the higher mountain
+valleys; but he deceived the Romans by spreading the report that the
+whole Samnite army had gone to Apulia, where they were besieging the
+city of Luceria. His purpose was to lure the Romans into these difficult
+defiles under the impression that the Samnites were trusting to the
+natural strength of their country for its defence.
+
+The trick succeeded. The Roman consuls believed the story, and, in their
+haste to go to the aid of their allies in Apulia, chose the shortest
+route, that which led through the Samnian hills. The absence of the
+Samnite army would enable them, they thought, to force their way through
+Samnium without difficulty; and, blinded by their false confidence, the
+consuls recklessly led their men into the fatal pass of Caudium.
+
+This pass was a narrow opening in the outer wall of the Apennines, which
+led from the plain of Campania to Maleventum. To-day it is traversed by
+the road from Naples to Benevento, and is called the valley of Arpaia.
+In the past it was famous as Caudium.
+
+Into this defile the Romans marched between the rugged mountain
+acclivities that bounded its sides, and through the deep silence that
+reigned around. The pass seemed utterly deserted, and they expected
+soon to emerge into a more open valley in the interior of the hills.
+
+But as they advanced the pass contracted, until it became but a narrow
+gorge, and this they found to be blocked up with great stones and felled
+trees. Brought to a halt, the troops stood gazing in dismay and dread on
+these obstacles, when suddenly the silence was broken, loud war-cries
+filled the air, and armed Samnites appeared as if by magic, covering the
+hills on both flanks, and crowding into the pass in the rear.
+
+The Romans were caught in such a trap as that from which Cincinnatus had
+rescued a Roman army many years before. But there was here no
+Cincinnatus with his stakes, and they were far from Rome. The entrapped
+army made a desperate effort to escape, attacking the Samnites in the
+rear, and seeking to force their way up the rugged surrounding hills.
+They fought in vain. Many of them fell. The Samnite foe pressed them
+still more closely into the rocky pass. Only the coming of night saved
+them from total destruction.
+
+But escape was impossible. The gorge in front was completely blocked up.
+The pass in the rear was held by the enemy in force. The flanking hills
+could hardly have been climbed by an army, even if they had not been
+occupied. No resource remained to the Romans but to encamp in the
+broader part of the narrow valley, and there wait in hopeless despair
+the outcome of their folly.
+
+The Samnites could well afford to let them wait. The rear was held by
+the bulk of their army. The obstacles in front were strongly guarded.
+Every possible track by which the Romans might try to scale the hills
+was held. Some desperate attempts to break out were made, but they were
+easily repulsed. Nothing remained but surrender, or death by famine.
+
+One or other of these alternatives had soon to be chosen. A large army,
+surprised on its march, and confined within a barren pass, could not
+have subsistence for any long period. Nothing was to be gained by delay,
+and they might as well yield themselves prisoners of war at once.
+
+So the Romans evidently thought, and without delay they put themselves
+at the mercy of their conquerors. "We yield ourselves your captives,"
+they said, "to do with as you will. Put us all to the sword, if such be
+your decision; sell us into slavery; or hold us as prisoners until we
+are ransomed: one thing only we ask, save our bodies, whether living or
+dead, from all unworthy insults."
+
+In this request they forgot the record that Rome had made; forgot how
+often noble captives had been forced to walk in Roman triumphs and been
+afterwards slain in cold blood in the common prison; forgot how they had
+recently refused the rites of burial to the body of a noble Samnite. But
+Pontius, the Samnite general, was much less of a barbarian than the
+Romans of that age. He was acquainted with Greek philosophy, had even
+held conversation, it is said, with Plato, and was not the man to
+indulge in cruel or insulting acts.
+
+"Restore to us," he said to the consuls, "the towns and territory you
+have taken from us, and withdraw the colonists whom you have unjustly
+placed on our soil. Conclude with us a treaty of peace, in which each
+nation shall be acknowledged to be independent of the other. Swear to do
+this, and I will grant you your lives and release you without ransom.
+Each man of you shall give up his arms, but may keep his clothes
+untouched; and you shall pass before our army as prisoners who have been
+in our power and whom we have set free of our own will, when we might
+have killed or sold them, or held them for ransom."
+
+These terms the consuls were glad enough to accept. They were far better
+than they would have granted the Samnites under similar circumstances.
+Pontius now called for the Roman fecialis, whose duty it was to conclude
+all treaties and take all oaths for the Roman people. But there was no
+fecialis with the army. The senate had sent none, having resolved to
+make no terms with the Samnites, and to accept only their absolute
+submission. They had never dreamed of such a turn of the tide as this.
+
+In the absence of the proper officer, the consuls and all the surviving
+officers took the oath, while it was agreed that six hundred knights
+should be held as hostages until the Roman people had ratified the
+treaty. Why Pontius did not insist on treating with the senate and
+people of Rome at once, instead of trusting to them to ratify a treaty
+made with prisoners of war, we are not told. He was soon to learn how
+weak a reed to lean upon was the Roman faith.
+
+The treaty made, the humiliating part of the affair came. The Roman
+army was obliged to march under the yoke, which consisted of two spears
+set upright and a third fastened across their tops. Under this the
+soldiers of the legions without their arms, and wearing but a single
+article of clothing,--the campestre or kilt, which reached from the
+waist to the knees,--passed in gloomy succession. Even the consuls were
+obliged to appear in this humble plight, the six hundred hostage knights
+alone being spared.
+
+This was no peculiar insult, but a common usage on such occasions. The
+Romans had imposed it more than once on defeated enemies. They were now
+to endure it themselves, and the affair, under the name of the Caudine
+Forks, has become famous in history.
+
+Pontius proved, indeed, generous to his foes. He supplied carriages for
+the sick and wounded, and furnished provisions to last the army until it
+should arrive at Home. When that city was reached the senate and people
+came out and welcomed the soldiers with the greatest kindness. But the
+wounded pride of the legionaries could not be soothed. Those who had
+homes in the country stole from the ranks and sought their several
+dwellings. Those who lived in Rome lingered without the walls until
+after the sun had fallen, and then made their way home through the
+darkness. The consuls were obliged to enter in open day, but as soon as
+possible they sought their homes, and shut themselves up in privacy.
+
+As for the city, it went into mourning. All business was suspended; the
+patricians laid aside their gold rings and took off the red border of
+their dresses which marked their rank; the plebeians appeared in
+mourning garbs; there was as much weeping for those who had returned in
+dishonor as for those left dead on the field; all rejoicings, festivals,
+and marriages were set aside for a year of happier omen.
+
+The final result was such as might have been expected from the earlier
+record of Rome. The senate refused to recognize the treaty. The defeated
+consuls themselves sustained this bad faith, saying that they and all
+the officers should be given up to the Samnites, as having promised what
+they were unable to perform.
+
+This was done. Half stripped, as when they passed under the yoke, and
+their hands bound behind their backs, the officers were conducted by the
+fecialis to the Samnian frontier, and delivered to the Samnites as men
+who had forfeited their liberty by their breach of faith. The surrender
+completed, Postumius, one of the consuls, struck a fecialis violently
+with his knee,--his hands and feet being bound,--and cried out,--
+
+"I now belong to the Samnites, and I have done violence to the sacred
+person of a Roman fecialis and ambassador. You will rightfully wage war
+with us, Romans, to avenge this outrage."
+
+This transparent trick was wasted on Pontius. He refused the victims
+offered him. They were not the guilty ones, he said. The legions must be
+placed again in the Caudium Valley, or Rome keep the treaty. Anything
+else would be base and faithless.
+
+The treaty was not kept. The war went on. And nearly thirty years
+afterwards, as we have told in the preceding story, Pontius, who had
+behaved so generously to the Romans, was led as a prisoner in a Roman
+triumph, and then basely beheaded while the triumphal car of the victor
+ascended the Capitoline Hill. His death is one of the darkest blots on
+the Roman name. "Such a murder," we are told, "committed or sanctioned
+by such a man as Q. Fabius, is peculiarly a national crime, and proves
+but too clearly that in their dealings with foreigners the Romans had
+neither magnanimity, nor humanity, nor justice."
+
+
+
+
+_THE FATE OF REGULUS._
+
+
+We have followed the growth of Rome from its seed in the cradle of
+Romulus and Remus to its early maturity in the conquest of Italy. Its
+triumph over the Latins, Samnites, and Etruscans had made it virtually
+master of that peninsula. In the year 280 B.C. it was first called upon
+to meet a great foreign soldier in the celebrated Pyrrhus of Epirus, who
+had invaded Italy. How this great soldier scared the Romans with his
+elephants and defeated them in the field, but was finally baffled and
+left the country in disgust, we have told in "Historical Tales of
+Greece." It was not many years after this that Rome herself went abroad
+in search of new foes, and her long and bitter struggle with Carthage
+began.
+
+The great city of Carthage lay on the African side of the Mediterranean,
+where it had won for itself a great empire, and had added to its
+dominion by important conquests in Spain and Sicily. Settled many
+centuries before by emigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, it
+had, like its mother city, grown rich through commerce, and was now lord
+of the Mediterranean and one of the great cities of the earth. With this
+city Rome was now to begin a mighty struggle, which would last for many
+years and end in the utter destruction of the great African city and
+state.
+
+Pyrrhus of Epirus, on leaving Sicily, had said, "What a grand arena this
+would be for Rome and Carthage to contend upon!" And it was in the
+island of Sicily that the struggle between these two mighty powers
+began. In the year 264 B.C., nearly five centuries after the founding of
+Rome, that city first sent its armies beyond the borders of Italy, and
+the long contest between Rome and Carthage was inaugurated.
+
+Some soldiers of fortune, who had invaded Sicily and found themselves in
+trouble, called upon Rome for help. Carthage, which held much of the
+island, was also appealed to, and both sent armies. The result was a
+collision between these armies. In two years' time most of Sicily
+belonged to Rome, and Carthage retained hardly a foothold upon that
+island.
+
+This rapid success of the Romans in foreign conquest encouraged them
+greatly. But they were soon to find themselves at a disadvantage. Being
+an inland power, they knew nothing of ocean warfare, and possessed none
+but small ships. Carthage, on the contrary, had a large and powerful
+fleet, and now began to use it with great effect. By its aid the
+Carthaginians took from Rome many towns on the coast of Sicily. They
+also landed on and ravaged the coasts of Italy. It was made evident to
+the Roman senate that if they looked for success they must meet the
+enemy on their own element, and dispute with Carthage the dominion of
+the sea.
+
+How was this to be done? The largest ships they knew of had only three
+banks of oars. Carthage possessed war vessels with five banks of oars,
+and built on a plan different from that of the smaller vessels. Rome had
+no model for these ships, and was at a loss what to do. Fortunately a
+Carthaginian quinquereme (a ship with five banks of oars) ran ashore on
+the coast of Italy, and was captured and sent to Rome. This served as a
+model for the shipwrights of that city, and so energetically did they
+set to work that in two months after the first cutting of the timber
+they had built and launched more than a hundred ships of this class.
+
+And while the ships were building the crews selected for the
+quinqueremes were practising. Most of them had never even seen an oar,
+and they were now placed on benches ashore, ranged like those in the
+ships, and carefully taught the movements of rowing, so that when the
+ships were launched they were quite ready to drive them through the
+waves. The Romans, who could fight best hand to hand, added a new and
+important device, providing their ships with wooden bridges attached to
+the masts, and ready to fall on an enemy's vessel whenever one came
+near. A great spike at the end was driven into the deck of the enemy's
+ship by the weight of the falling bridge, and held her while the Romans
+charged across the bridge.
+
+The new fleet was soon tried. It met a Carthaginian fleet on the north
+coast of Sicily. The Romans proved poor sailors, but the bridges gave
+them the victory. These could be wheeled round the mast and dropped in
+any direction, and, however the Carthaginians approached, they found
+themselves grappled and boarded by the Romans, whose formidable swords
+soon did the rest. In the end Carthage lost fifty ships and ten thousand
+men, and with them the dominion of the seas.
+
+This success was a great event in the history of Rome. The victory was
+celebrated by a great naval triumph, and a column was set up in the
+Forum, which was adorned with the ornamental prows of ships.
+
+Three years afterwards Rome resolved to carry the war into Africa, and
+for this purpose built a great fleet of three hundred and thirty ships,
+and manned by one hundred and forty thousand seamen, in addition to its
+soldiers or fighting men. These were largely made up of prisoners from
+Sardinia and Corsica, Carthaginian islands which had been attacked by
+the Roman fleets. The two consuls in command were L. Manlius Vulso and
+M. Atilius Regulus.
+
+The great fleet of Rome met a still greater Carthaginian one at Ecnomus,
+on the southern coast of Sicily, and here one of the greatest sea-fights
+of history took place. In the end the Romans lost twenty-four ships,
+while of those of the enemy thirty were sunk and sixty-four captured.
+The remainder of the enemy's fleet fled in all haste to Carthage.
+
+The Romans now prepared to take one of the greatest steps in their
+history,--to cross the sea to the unknown African world. The soldiers
+murmured loudly at this. They were to be taken to a new and strange
+land, burnt by scorching heats and infested with noisome beasts and
+monstrous serpents; and they were to be led into the very stronghold of
+the enemy, where they would be at their mercy. Even one of their
+tribunes supported the soldiers in this complaint. But Regulus was equal
+to the occasion: he threatened the tribune with death, forced the
+soldiers on board, and sailed for the African coast.
+
+The event proved very different from what the soldiers had feared. The
+army of Carthage was so miserably commanded that the Romans landed
+without trouble and ravaged the country at their will; and instead of
+the scorching heats and deadly animals they had feared, they found
+themselves in a fertile and thickly-settled country, where grew rich
+harvests of corn, and where were broad vineyards and fruitful orchards
+of figs and olives. Towns were numerous, and villas of wealthy citizens
+covered the hills.
+
+On this rich and undefended country the hungry Roman army was let loose.
+Villas were plundered and burnt, horses and cattle driven off in vast
+numbers, and twenty thousand persons, many of them doubtless of wealth
+and rank, were carried away to be sold as slaves. Meanwhile the army of
+Carthage lurked on the hills, and was defeated wherever encountered.
+Regulus, who had been left in sole command of the Roman army, overran
+the country without opposition, and boasted that he had taken and
+plundered more than three hundred walled towns or villages.
+
+The Carthaginians, who were also attacked by roving desert tribes, who
+proved even worse than the Romans, were in distress, and begged for
+peace. But the terms offered by Regulus were so intolerable that it was
+impossible to accept them. "Men who are good for anything should either
+conquer or submit to their betters," said Regulus, haughtily. He had not
+yet learned how unwise it is to drive a strong foe to desperation, and
+was to pay dearly for his arrogance and pride.
+
+The tide of war turned when Carthage obtained a general fit to command
+an army. An officer who had been sent to Greece for soldiers of fortune
+brought with him on his return a Spartan named Xanthippus, a man who had
+been trained in the rigid Spartan discipline and had played his part
+well in the wars of Greece. He openly and strongly condemned the conduct
+of the generals of Carthage; and, on his words being reported to the
+government, he was sent for, and so clearly pointed out the causes of
+the late disasters that the direction of all the forces of Carthage was
+placed in his hands.
+
+And now a new spirit awakened in Carthage. Xanthippus reviewed the
+troops, taught them how they should meet the Roman charge, and filled
+them with such enthusiasm and hope that loud shouts broke from the
+ranks, and they eagerly demanded to be led at once to battle.
+
+The army numbered only twelve thousand foot, but had four thousand
+cavalry and a hundred elephants, in which much confidence was placed.
+The demand of the soldiers was complied with; they boldly marched out,
+and now no longer to the hills, but to the lower ground, where the
+devastation of the enemy was at once checked.
+
+Regulus was forced to risk a battle, for his supply of food was in
+peril. He marched out and encamped within a mile of the foe. The
+Carthaginian generals, on seeing these hardy Roman legions, so long
+victorious, were stricken with something like panic. But the soldiers
+were eager to fight, and Xanthippus bade the wavering generals not to
+lose so precious an opportunity. They yielded, and bade him to draw up
+the army on his own plan.
+
+In the battle that ensued the victory was due to the cavalry and
+elephants. The cavalry drove that of Italy from the field, and attacked
+the Roman rear. The elephants broke through the Roman lines in front,
+furiously trampling the bravest underfoot. Those who penetrated the line
+of the elephants were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian infantry. Of the
+whole Roman army, two thousand of the left wing alone escaped; Regulus,
+with five hundred others, fled, but was pursued and taken prisoner; the
+remainder of the army was destroyed to a man. The defeat was total. Rome
+retained but a single African port, which was soon given up. Xanthippus,
+crowned with glory and richly rewarded, returned to Greece to enjoy the
+fame he had won.
+
+For five years Regulus remained a prisoner in Carthage, while the war
+went on in Sicily. Here, in the year 250 B.C., the Romans gained an
+important victory at Panormus (now Palermo), and Carthage, weary of the
+struggle, sent to Rome to ask for terms of peace. With the ambassadors
+came Regulus, who had promised to return to Carthage if the negotiations
+should fail, and whom the Carthaginians naturally expected to use his
+utmost influence in favor of peace.
+
+They did not know their man. Regulus proved himself one of those
+indomitable patriots of whom there are few examples in the ages. On
+reaching the walls of Rome he refused at first to enter, saying that he
+was no longer a citizen, and had lost his rights in that city. When the
+ambassadors of Carthage had offered their proposal to the senate,
+Regulus, who had remained silent, was ordered by the senate to give his
+opinion of the proposed treaty. Thus commanded, he astonished all who
+heard by strongly advising the senate not to make the treaty. He might
+die for his words, he might perish in torture, but the good of his
+country was dearer to him than his own life, and he would not counsel a
+treaty that might prove of advantage to the enemy. He even spoke against
+an exchange of prisoners, saying that he had not long to live, having,
+he believed, been given a secret poison by his captors, and would not
+make a fair exchange for a hale and hearty Carthaginian general.
+
+Such an instance of self-abnegation has rarely been heard of in history.
+It has made Regulus famous for all time. His advice was taken, the
+treaty was refused; he, refusing to break his parole, or even to see his
+family, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors, knowing that he was
+going to his death. The rulers of that city, so it is said, furious
+that the treaty had been rejected through his advice, resolved to
+revenge themselves on him by horrible tortures. His eyelids were cut
+off, and he was exposed to the full glare of the African sun. He was
+then placed in a cask driven full of nails, and left there to die.
+
+It is fortunate to be able to say that there is no historical warrant
+for this story of torture, or for the companion story that the wife and
+son of Regulus treated two Carthaginian prisoners in the same manner. We
+have reason to believe that it is untrue, and that Regulus suffered no
+worse tortures than those of shame, exile, and imprisonment.
+
+
+
+
+_HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS._
+
+
+In the year 235 B.C. the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed, for
+the first time since the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of
+Rome, nearly five centuries before. During all that long period war had
+hardly ever ceased in Rome. And these gates were soon to be thrown open
+again, in consequence of the greatest war that the Roman state had ever
+known, a war which was to bring it to the very brink of destruction.
+
+The end of the first Punic War--as the war with Carthage was
+called--left Rome master of the large island of Sicily, the first
+province gained by that ambitious city outside of Italy. Advantage was
+also taken of some home troubles in Carthage to rob that city of the
+islands of Sardinia and Corsica,--a piece of open piracy which redoubled
+the hatred of the Carthaginians.
+
+Yet Rome just now was not anxious for war with her southern rival. There
+was enough to do in the north, for another great invasion of Gauls was
+threatened. And about this time the Capitol was struck by lightning, a
+prodigy which plunged all Rome into terror. The books of the Sibyl were
+hastily consulted, and were reported to say, "When the lightning shall
+strike the Capitol and the Temple of Apollo, then must thou, O Roman,
+beware of the Gauls." Another prophecy said that the time would come
+"when the race of the Greeks and the race of the Gauls should occupy the
+Forum of Rome."
+
+But Rome had its own way of dealing with prophecies and discounting the
+decrees of destiny. A man and woman alike of the Gaulish and of the
+Greek race were buried alive in the Forum Boarium, and in this cruel way
+the public fear was allayed. As for the invasion of the Gauls, Rome met
+and dealt with them in its usual fashion, defeating them in two battles,
+in the last of which the Gaulish army was annihilated. This ended this
+peril, and the dominion of Rome was extended northward to the Alps.
+
+It was fortunate for the Romans that they had just at this time rid
+themselves of the Gauls, for they were soon to have a greater enemy to
+meet. In the first Punic War, Carthage had been destitute of a
+commander, and had only saved herself by borrowing one from Greece. In
+the second war she had a general of her own, one who has hardly had his
+equal before or since, the far-famed Hannibal, one of the few soldiers
+of supreme ability which the world has produced.
+
+During the peace which followed the first Punic War Carthage sent an
+expedition to Spain, with the purpose of extending her dominions in that
+land. This was under the leadership of Hamilcar, a soldier of much
+ability. As he was about to set sail he offered a solemn sacrifice for
+the success of the enterprise. Having poured the libation on the
+victim, which was then duly offered on the altar, he requested all those
+present to step aside, and called up his son Hannibal, at that time a
+boy of but nine years of age. Hamilcar asked him if he would like to go
+to the war. With a child's eagerness the boy implored his father to take
+him. Then Hamilcar, taking the boy by the hand, led him up to the altar,
+and bade him lay his hand on the sacrifice, and swear "that he would
+never be the friend of the Romans." Hannibal took the oath, and he never
+forgot it. His whole mature life was spent in warfare with Rome.
+
+From the city of New Carthage (or Carthagena), founded by Carthage in
+Spain, Hamilcar gradually won a wide dominion in that land. He was
+killed in battle after nine years of success, and was succeeded by
+Hasdrubal, another soldier of fine powers. On the death of Hasdrubal,
+Hannibal, then twenty-six years of age, was made commander-in-chief of
+the Carthaginian armies in Spain. Shortly afterwards his long struggle
+with Rome began.
+
+Hannibal had laid siege to and captured the city of Saguntum. The people
+of Saguntum were allies of Rome. That city, being once more ready for
+war with its rival, sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand that Hannibal
+and his officers should be surrendered as Roman prisoners, for a breach
+of the treaty of peace. After a long debate, Fabius, the Roman envoy,
+gathered up his toga as if something was wrapped in it, and said, "Look;
+here are peace and war; take which you choose." "Give whichever you
+please," was the haughty Carthaginian reply. "Then we give you war,"
+said Fabius, shaking out the folds of the toga. "With all our hearts we
+welcome it," cried the Carthaginians. The Romans left at once for Rome.
+Had they dreamed what a war it was they were inviting it is doubtful if
+they would have been so hasty in seeking it.
+
+War with Rome was what Hannibal most desired. He was pledged to
+hostility with that faithless city, and had assailed Saguntum for the
+purpose of bringing it about. On learning that war was declared, he
+immediately prepared to invade Italy itself, leading his army across the
+great mountain barrier of the Alps. He had already sent messengers to
+the Gauls, to invite their aid. They were found to be friendly, and
+eager for his coming. They had little reason to love Rome.
+
+A significant dream strengthened Hannibal's purpose. In his vision he
+seemed to see the supreme god of his fathers, who called him into the
+presence of all the gods of Carthage, seated in council on their
+thrones. They solemnly bade him to invade Italy, and one of the council
+went with him into that land as guide. As they passed onward the divine
+guide warned, "See that you look not behind you." But at length,
+heedless of the command, the dreamer turned and looked back. He saw
+behind him a monstrous form, covered thickly with serpents, while as it
+moved houses, orchards, and woods fell crashing to the earth. "What
+mighty thing is this?" he asked in wonder. "You see the desolation of
+Italy," replied the heavenly guide; "go on your way, straight forward,
+and cast no look behind." And thus, at the age of twenty-seven,
+Hannibal, at the command of his country's gods, went forward to the
+accomplishment of his early vow.
+
+His route lay through northern Spain, where he conquered all before him.
+Then he marched through Gaul to the Rhone. This he crossed in the face
+of an army of hostile Gauls, who had gathered to oppose him. He had more
+difficulty with his elephants, of which he had thirty-seven. Rafts were
+built to convey these great beasts across the stream, but some of them,
+frightened, leaped overboard and drowned their drivers. They then swam
+across themselves, and all were safely landed.
+
+[Illustration: HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS.]
+
+Other difficulties arose, but all were overcome, and at length the
+mountains were reached. Here Hannibal was to perform the most famous of
+his exploits, the crossing of the great chain of the Alps with an army,
+an exploit more remarkable than that which brought similar fame to
+Napoleon in our own days, for with Hannibal it was pioneer work, while
+Napoleon profited by his example.
+
+The mountaineers proved to be hostile, and gathered at all points that
+commanded the narrow pass. But they left their posts at night, and
+Hannibal, when nightfall came, set out with a body of light troops and
+occupied all these posts. When morning dawned the natives, to their
+dismay, found that they had been outgeneralled.
+
+Soon after the day began the head of the army entered a dangerous
+defile, and made its way in a long slender line along the terrace-like
+path which overhung the valley far below. The route proved
+comparatively easy for the foot-soldiers, but the cavalry and the
+baggage-animals only made their way with great difficulty, finding
+obstacles at almost every step.
+
+The sight of the struggling cavalcade was too much for the caution of
+the natives. Here was abundant plunder at their hands. From many points
+of the mountain above the road they rushed down upon the Carthaginians,
+arms in hand. A frightful disorder followed. So narrow was the path that
+the least confusion was likely to throw the heavily-laden
+baggage-animals down the precipitous steep. The cavalry horses, wounded
+by the arrows and javelins of the mountaineers, plunged wildly about and
+doubled the confusion.
+
+It was fortunate for Hannibal that he had taken the precaution of the
+night before. From the post he had taken with his light troops the whole
+scene of peril and disorder was visible to his eyes. Charging down the
+hill, he attacked the mountaineers and drove them from their prey. But
+it was a dearly bought victory, for the fight on the narrow road
+increased the confusion, and in seeking the relief of his army he caused
+the destruction of many of his own men.
+
+At length the perilous defile was safely passed, and the army reached a
+wide and rich valley beyond. Here was the town of Montmélian, the
+principal stronghold of the mountaineers. This Hannibal took by storm,
+and recovered there many of his own men, horses, and cattle which the
+natives had taken, while he found an abundant store of food for the use
+of his weary soldiers.
+
+After a day's rest here the march was resumed. During the next three
+days the army moved up the valley of the river Isère without difficulty.
+The natives met them with wreaths on their heads and branches in their
+hands, promising peace, offering hostages, and supplying cattle.
+Hannibal mistrusted the sudden friendliness of his late foes, but they
+seemed so honest that he accepted some of them as guides through a
+difficult region which he was now approaching.
+
+He had reason for his mistrust, for they treacherously led him into a
+narrow and dangerous defile, which might have easily been avoided; and
+while the army was involved in this straitened pass an attack was
+suddenly made by the whole force of the mountaineers. Climbing along the
+mountain-sides above the defile, they hurled down stones on the
+entangled foe, and loosened and rolled great rocks down upon their
+defenceless heads.
+
+Fortunately Hannibal, moved by his doubts, had sent his cavalry and
+baggage on first. The attack fell on the infantry, and with a body of
+these he forced his way to the summit of one of the cliffs above the
+defile, drove away the foe, and held it while the army made its way
+slowly on. As for the elephants, they were safe from attack. The very
+sight of these huge beasts filled the barbarians with such terror that
+they dared not even approach them. There was no further peril, and on
+the ninth day of its march the army reached the summit of the Alps.
+
+It was now the end of October. The grass and flowers which carpet that
+elevated spot in summer had become replaced by snow. In truth, the
+climate of the Alps was colder at that period than now, and snow lay on
+the higher passes all through the year. The soldiers were disheartened
+by cold and fatigue. The scene around them was desolate and dreary. New
+perils awaited their onward course. But no such feeling entered
+Hannibal's courageous soul. Fired by hope and ambition, he sought to
+plant new courage in the hearts of his men.
+
+"The valley you see yonder is Italy," he said, pointing to the sunny
+slope which, from their elevated position, appeared not far away. "It
+leads to the country of our friends, the Gauls; and yonder is our way to
+Rome." Their eyes followed the direction of his pointing hand, and their
+hearts grew hopeful again with the cheerfulness and enthusiasm of his
+words.
+
+Two days the army remained there, resting, and waiting for the
+stragglers to come up. Then the route was resumed.
+
+The mountaineers, severely punished, made no further attacks; but the
+road proved more difficult than that by which the ascent had been made.
+Snow thickly covered the passes. Men and horses often lost their way,
+and plunged to their death down the precipitous steep. Onward struggled
+the distressed host, through appalling dangers and endless difficulties,
+losing men and animals at every step. But these troubles were trifling
+compared with those which they were now to endure. They suddenly found
+that the track before them had entirely disappeared. An avalanche had
+carried it bodily away for about three hundred yards, leaving only a
+steep and impassable slope covered with loose rocks and snow.
+
+A man of less resolution than Hannibal might well have succumbed before
+this supreme difficulty. The way forward had vanished. To go back was
+death. It was impossible to climb round the lost path, for the heights
+above were buried deep in snow. Nothing remained but to perish where
+they were, or to make a new road across the mountain's flank.
+
+The energetic commander lost not an hour in deciding. Moving back to a
+space of somewhat greater breadth, the snow was removed and the army
+encamped. Then the difficult engineering work began. Hands were
+abundant, for every man was working for his life. Tools were improvised.
+So energetically did the soldiers work that the road rapidly grew before
+them. As it was cut into the rock it was supported by solid foundations
+below. Many ancient authors say that Hannibal used vinegar to soften the
+rocks, but this we have no sufficient reason to believe.
+
+So vigorously did the work go on, so many were the hands engaged, that
+in a single day a track was made over which the horses and
+baggage-animals could pass. These were sent over and reached the lower
+valley in safety, where pasture was found.
+
+The passage of the elephants was a more difficult task. The road for
+them must be solid and wide. It took three days of hard labor to make
+it. Meanwhile the great beasts suffered severely from hunger, for
+forage there was none, nor trees on whose leaves they might browse.
+
+At length the road was strong enough to bear them. They safely passed
+the perilous reach. After them came Hannibal with the rear of the army,
+soon reaching the cavalry and baggage. Three days more the wearied host
+struggled on, down the southward slopes of the Alps, until finally they
+reached the wide plain of Northern Italy, having safely accomplished the
+greatest military feat of ancient times.
+
+But Hannibal found himself here with a frightfully reduced army. The
+Alps had taken toll of their invader. He had reached Gaul from Spain
+with fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. He reached Italy with
+only twenty thousand foot and six thousand horse. No fewer than
+thirty-three thousand men had perished by the way. It was a puny force
+with which to invade a country that could oppose it with hundreds of
+thousands of men. But it had Hannibal at its head.
+
+
+
+
+_HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED._
+
+
+The career of Hannibal was a remarkable one. For fifteen years he
+remained in Italy, frequently fighting, never losing a battle, keeping
+Rome in a state of terror, and dwelling with his army in comfort and
+plenty on the rich Italian plains. Yet he represented a commercial city
+against a warlike state. He was poorly supported by Carthage; Rome was
+indomitable; great generals rose to command her armies; in the end the
+mighty effort of Hannibal failed, and he was forced to leave Rome
+unconquered and Italy unsubdued.
+
+The story of his deeds is a long one, a record of war and bloodshed
+which our readers would be little the wiser and none the better for
+hearing. We shall therefore only give it in the barest outline.
+
+Hannibal defeated the Romans on first meeting them, and the Gauls
+flocked to his army. But of the elephants, which he had brought with
+such difficulty over the Rhone and the Alps, the cold of December killed
+all but one. But without them he met a large Roman army at Lake
+Trasimenus, and defeated it so utterly that but six thousand escaped.
+
+Rome, in alarm, chose a dictator, Fabius Maximus by name. This leader
+adopted a new method of warfare, which has ever since been famous as
+the "Fabian policy." This was the policy of avoiding battle and seeking
+to wear the enemy out, while harassing him at every opportunity. Fabius
+kept to the hills, followed and annoyed his great antagonist, yet
+steadily avoided being drawn into battle.
+
+For more than a year this continued, during all which time Fabius grew
+more and more unpopular at Rome. The waiting policy was not that which
+the Romans had hitherto employed, and they became more impatient as days
+and months passed without an effort to drive this eating ulcer from
+their plains. In time the discontent grew too strong to be ignored. A
+_man of business_, who was said to have begun life as a butcher's son,
+Varro by name, became the favorite leader of the populace, and was in
+time raised to the consulship. He enlisted a powerful army, ninety
+thousand strong, and marched away to the field of Cannæ, where Hannibal
+was encamped, with the purpose of driving this Carthaginian wasp from
+the Italian fields.
+
+It was a dwarf contending with a giant. The vainglorious Varro gave
+Hannibal the opportunity for which he had long waited. The Roman army
+met with such a crushing defeat that its equal is scarcely known in
+history. Baffled, beaten, and surrounded by Hannibal's army, the Romans
+were cut down in thousands, no quarter being asked or given, till when
+the sun set scarce three thousand men were left alive and unhurt of
+Varro's hopeful host. Of Hannibal's army less than six thousand had
+fallen. Of the Roman forces more than eighty thousand paid the penalty
+of their leader's incompetence.
+
+Hannibal did not advance to Rome, which seemed to lie helpless before
+him. He doubtless had good reasons for not attempting to capture it.
+Maharbal, his cavalry general, said, "Let me advance with the horse, and
+do you follow; in four days from this time you shall sup in the
+Capitol." Hannibal, on the contrary, sent terms of peace to Rome. These
+the Romans, unconquerable in spirit despite their disaster, refused. He
+then marched to southern Italy and established his head-quarters in the
+rich city of Capua, which opened its gates to him, and which he promised
+to make the capital of all Italy.
+
+Hannibal won no more great victories in Italy, though he was victor in
+many small conflicts. The Romans had paid dearly for their impatience.
+Fabius was again called to the head of the army, and his old policy was
+restored. And thus years went on, Hannibal's army gradually decreasing
+and receiving few reinforcements from home, while Rome in time regained
+Capua and other cities.
+
+At length, in the year 208 B.C., Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, who
+commanded the Carthaginian armies in Spain, resolved to go to his
+brother's aid. He crossed the Alps, as Hannibal had done, following the
+same pass, and making use of the bridges, rock cuttings, and mountain
+roads which his brother had made eleven years before.
+
+Had this movement been successful, it might have been the ruin of Rome.
+But the despatches of Hasdrubal were intercepted by the Romans.
+Perceiving their great danger, they raised an army in haste, marched
+against the invader, and met him before he could effect a junction with
+his brother. The Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter.
+Hasdrubal fell on the field, and his head was cruelly sent to Hannibal,
+who, as he looked with bitter anguish on the gruesome spectacle, sadly
+remarked, "I recognize in this the doom of Carthage."
+
+Yet for four years more Hannibal remained in the mountains of Southern
+Italy, holding his own against Rome, though he had lost all hopes of
+conquering that city. But Rome had now a new general, with a new policy.
+This was the famous Scipio, and the policy was to carry the war into
+Carthage. Fabius had done his work, and new measures came with new men.
+Scipio led an army into Spain, which he conquered from Carthage. Then he
+invaded Africa, and Hannibal was recalled home, after his long and
+victorious career in Italy.
+
+Hannibal had never yet suffered a defeat. He was now to experience a
+crushing one. With a new army, largely made up of raw levies, he met the
+veteran troops of Scipio on the plains of Zama. Hannibal displayed here
+his usual ability, but fortune was against him, his army was routed, the
+veterans he had brought from Italy were cut down where they stood, and
+he escaped with difficulty from the field on which twenty thousand of
+his men had fallen. It was an earlier Waterloo.
+
+His flight was necessary, if Carthage was to be preserved. He was the
+only man capable of saving that great city from ruin. Terms of peace
+were offered by Scipio, severe ones, but Hannibal accepted them,
+knowing that nothing else could be done. Then he devoted himself to the
+restoration of his country's power, and for seven years worked
+diligently to this end.
+
+His efforts were successful. Carthage again became prosperous. Rome
+trembled for fear of her old foe. Commissioners were sent to Carthage to
+demand the surrender of Hannibal, on the plea that he was secretly
+fomenting a new war. His reforms had made enemies in Carthage, his
+liberty was in danger, and nothing remained for him but to flee.
+
+Escaping secretly from the city, the fugitive made his way to Tyre, the
+mother-city of Carthage, where he was received as one who had shed
+untold glory on the Phoenician name. Thence he proceeded to Antioch,
+the capital of Antiochus, king of Syria, and one of the successors of
+Alexander the Great.
+
+During the period over which we have so rapidly passed the empire of
+Rome had been steadily extending. In addition to her conquests in Spain
+and Africa, Macedonia, the home-realm of Alexander the Great, had been
+successfully invaded, and the first great step taken by Rome towards the
+conquest of the East.
+
+The loss of Macedonia stirred up Antiochus, who resolved on war with
+Rome, and marched with his army towards Europe. Hannibal, who had failed
+to find him at Antioch, overtook him at Ephesus, and found him glad
+enough to secure the services of a warrior of such world-wide fame.
+
+Antiochus, unfortunately, was the reverse of a great warrior, and by no
+means the man to cope with Rome. Hannibal saw at a glance that his army
+was not fit to fight with a Roman force, and strongly advised him to
+equip a fleet and invade Southern Italy, saying that he himself would
+take the command. But nothing was to be done with Antiochus. He was
+filled with conceit of his own greatness, was ignorant of the power of
+Rome, and was jealous of the glory which Hannibal might attain. His
+guest then advised that an alliance should be made with Philip, king of
+Macedonia. This, too, was neglected, and the Romans hastened to ally
+themselves with Philip. Antiochus, puffed up with pride, pointed to his
+great army, and asked Hannibal if he did not think that these were
+enough for the Romans.
+
+"Yes," he replied, sarcastically, "enough for the Romans, however greedy
+they may be."
+
+[Illustration: THE BATHS OF CARACALLA.]
+
+It proved as he feared. The Romans triumphed. Hannibal was employed only
+in a subordinate naval command, in which field of warfare he had no
+experience. Peace was made, and Antiochus agreed to deliver him up to
+Rome. The greatest of Rome's enemies was again forced to fly for his
+life.
+
+Hannibal now took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Here he
+remained for five years. But even here the implacable enmity of Rome
+followed him. Envoys were sent to the court of Prusias to demand his
+surrender. Prusias, who was a king on a small scale, could not, or would
+not, defend his guest, and promised to deliver him into the hands of his
+unrelenting foes.
+
+Only one course remained. Death was tenfold preferable to figuring in a
+Roman triumph. Finding the avenues to his house secured by the king's
+guards, the great Carthaginian took poison, which he is said to have
+long carried with him in a ring, in readiness for such an emergency. He
+died at Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the sea of Marmora, in his
+sixty-fourth year, as closely as we know. In the same year, 183 B.C.,
+died his great and successful antagonist, Scipio Africanus.
+
+Thus perished, in exile, one of the greatest warriors of any age, who,
+almost without aid from home, supported himself for fifteen years in
+Italy against all the power of Rome and the greatest generals she could
+supply. Had Carthage shown the military spirit of Rome, Hannibal might
+have stopped effectually the conquering career of that warlike city.
+
+
+
+
+_ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE._
+
+
+The city of Syracuse, the capital of Sicily, rose to prominence in
+ancient history through its three famous sieges. The first of these was
+that long siege which ruined Athens and left Syracuse uncaptured. The
+second was the siege by Timoleon, who took the city almost without a
+blow. The third was the siege by the Romans, in which the genius of one
+man, the celebrated mathematician and engineer Archimedes, long set at
+naught all the efforts of the besieging army and fleet.
+
+This remarkable defence took place during the wars with Hannibal. Such
+was the warlike energy of the Romans, that, while their city itself was
+threatened by this great general, they sent armies abroad, one into
+Spain and another into Sicily. The latter, under a consul named Appius,
+besieged Syracuse by sea and land. Hoping to take the city by sudden
+assault, before it could be properly got ready for defence, Appius
+pushed forward his land force, fully provided with blinds and ladders,
+against the walls. At the same time a fleet of sixty quinqueremes under
+the consul Marcellus advanced to the assault from the side of the
+harbor. Among these vessels were eight which had been joined together
+two and two, and which carried machines called sackbuts. These consisted
+of immensely long ladders, projecting far beyond the bows, and so
+arranged that they could be raised by ropes and pulleys, and the end let
+fall upon the top of the wall. Four men, well protected by wooden
+blinds, occupied the top of each ladder, ready to attack the defenders
+of the walls while their comrades hastened up the ladder to their aid.
+
+There was only one thing on which the consuls had not counted, and that
+was that Syracuse possessed the greatest artificer of ancient times.
+They had to fight not Syracuse alone but Syracuse and Archimedes; and
+they found the latter their most formidable foe. In short, the skill of
+this one man did more to baffle the Romans than the strength and courage
+of all the garrison.
+
+The historian Polybius has so well told the story of this famous
+defence, that we cannot do better than quote from his work. He remarks,
+after describing at length the Roman preparations,--
+
+"In this manner, then, when all things were ready, the Romans designed
+to attack the towers. But Archimedes had prepared machines that were
+fitted to every distance. While the vessels were yet far removed from
+the walls, he, employing catapults and balistæ that were of the largest
+size and worked by the strongest springs, wounded the enemy with his
+darts and stones, and threw them into great disorder. When the darts
+passed beyond them he then used other machines, of a smaller size, and
+proportioned to the distance. By these means the Romans were so
+effectually repulsed that it was not possible for them to approach.
+
+"Marcellus, therefore, perplexed with this resistance, was forced to
+advance silently with his vessels in the night. But when they came so
+near to the land as to be within the reach of darts, they were exposed
+to a new danger, which Archimedes had contrived. He had caused openings
+to be made in many parts of the wall, equal in height to the stature of
+a man, and to the palm of the hand in breadth. Then, having planted on
+the inside archers and little scorpions, he discharged a multitude of
+arrows through the openings, and disabled the soldiers that were on
+board. In this manner, whether the Romans were at a great distance or
+whether they were near, he not only rendered useless all their efforts,
+but destroyed also many of their men.
+
+"When they attempted also to raise the sackbuts, certain machines which
+he had erected along the whole wall inside, and which were before
+concealed from view, suddenly appeared above the wall and stretched
+their long beaks far beyond the battlements. Some of these machines
+carried masses of lead and stone not less than ten talents [about eight
+hundred pounds] in weight. Accordingly, when the vessels with the
+sackbuts came near, the beaks, being first turned by ropes and pulleys
+to the proper point, let fall their stones, which broke not only the
+sackbuts but the vessels likewise, and threw all those who were on board
+into the greatest danger.
+
+"In the same manner also the rest of the machines, as often as the enemy
+approached under cover of their blinds, and had secured themselves by
+that protection against the darts that were discharged through the
+openings in the wall, let fall upon them stones of so large a size that
+all the combatants on the prow were forced to retire from their station.
+
+"He invented, likewise, a hand of iron, hanging by a chain from the beak
+of a machine, which was used in the following manner. The person who,
+like a pilot, guided the beak, having let fall the hand and caught hold
+of the prow of any vessel, drew down the opposite end of the machine,
+that was inside of the walls. When the vessel was thus raised erect upon
+its stern, the machine itself was held immovable; but the chain being
+suddenly loosened from the beak by means of pulleys, some of the vessels
+were thrown upon their sides, others turned with their bottoms upward,
+and the greatest part, as the prows were plunged from a considerable
+height into the sea, were filled with water, and all that were on board
+thrown into tumult and disorder.
+
+"Marcellus was in no small degree embarrassed when he found himself
+encountered in every attempt by such resistance. He perceived that all
+his efforts were defeated with loss, and were even derided by the enemy.
+But, amidst all the anxiety that he suffered, he could not help jesting
+upon the inventions of Archimedes.
+
+"'This man,' said he, 'employs our ships as buckets to draw water, and,
+boxing about our sackbuts, as if they were unworthy to be associated
+with him, drives them from his company with disgrace.' Such was the
+success of the siege on the side of the sea.
+
+"Appius also, on his part, having met with the same obstacles in his
+approaches, was in like manner forced to abandon his design. For while
+he was yet at a considerable distance, great number of his men were
+destroyed by the balistæ and the catapults, so wonderful was the
+quantity of stones and darts, and so astonishing the force with which
+they were thrown. The means, indeed, were worthy of Hiero, who had
+furnished the expense, and of Archimedes, who designed them, and by
+whose directions they were made.
+
+"If the troops advanced nearer to the city, they either were stopped in
+their advance by the arrows that were discharged through the openings in
+the walls, or, if they attempted to force their way under cover of their
+bucklers, they were destroyed by stones and beams that were let fall
+upon their heads. Great mischief also was occasioned by these hands of
+iron that have been mentioned; for they lifted men with their armor into
+the air and dashed them upon the ground. Appius, therefore, was at last
+constrained to return back again into his camp."
+
+This ended the assault. For eight months the Romans remained, but never
+again had the courage to make a regular attack, depending rather on the
+hope of reducing the crowded city by famine. "So wonderful, and of such
+importance on some occasions, is the power of a single man, and the
+force of science properly employed. With so great armies both by sea and
+land the Romans could scarcely have failed to take the city, if one old
+man had been removed. But while he was present they did not even dare
+to make the attempt; in the manner, at least, which Archimedes was able
+to oppose." The story was told in past times that the great scientist
+set the Roman ships on fire by means of powerful burning glasses, but
+this is not believed.
+
+The end of this story may be briefly told. The Romans finally took the
+city by surprise. Tradition tells that, as the assailants were rushing
+through the streets, with death in their hands, they found Archimedes
+sitting in the public square, with a number of geometrical figures drawn
+before him in the sand, which he was studying in oblivion of the tumult
+of war around. As a Roman soldier rushed upon him sword in hand, he
+called out to the rude warrior not to spoil the circle. But the soldier
+cut him down. Another story says that this took place in his room.
+
+When Cicero, years afterwards, came to Syracuse, he found the tomb of
+Archimedes overgrown with briers, and on it the figure of a sphere
+inscribed in a cylinder, to commemorate one of his most important
+mathematical discoveries.
+
+
+
+
+_THE FATE OF CARTHAGE._
+
+
+In all the history of Rome there is no act of more flagrant treachery
+and cruelty than that of her dealings with the great rival city of
+Carthage. In the whole history of the world there is nothing more base
+and frightful than the utter destruction of that mighty mart of
+commerce. The jealousy of Rome would not permit a rival to exist. It was
+not enough to drive Hannibal into exile; Carthage was recovering her
+trade and regaining her strength; new Hannibals might be born; the
+terror of the great invasion, the remembrance of the defeat at Cannæ,
+still remained in Roman memories.
+
+Cato the Censor, a famous old Roman, now eighty-four years of age, and
+who had served in the wars against Hannibal, hated Carthage with the
+hatred of a fanatic, and declared that Rome would never be safe while
+this rival was permitted to exist.
+
+Rising from his seat in the senate, the stern old man glowingly
+described the power and wealth of Carthage. He held up some great figs,
+and said, "These figs grow but three days' sail from Rome." There could
+be no safety for Rome, he declared, while Carthage survived.
+
+"Every speech which I shall make in this house," he sternly declared,
+"shall finish with these words: 'My opinion is that _Carthage must be
+destroyed_ (_delenda est Carthago_.)'"
+
+These words sealed the fate of Carthage. Men of moderate views spoke
+more mercifully, but Cato swayed the senate, and from that day the doom
+of Carthage was fixed.
+
+The Carthaginian territory was being assailed and ravaged by Masinissa,
+the king of Numidia. Rome was appealed to for aid, but delayed and
+temporized. Carthage raised an army, which was defeated by Masinissa,
+then over ninety years of age. The war went on, and Carthage was reduced
+to such straits that resistance became impossible, and in the end the
+city and all its possessions were placed at the absolute disposal of the
+senate of Rome, which, absolutely without provocation, had declared war.
+
+An army of eighty thousand foot and four thousand horse was sent to
+Africa. Before the consuls commanding it there appeared deputies from
+Carthage, stating what acts of submission had already been made, and
+humbly asking what more Rome could demand.
+
+"Carthage is now under the protection of Rome," answered Censorinus, the
+consul, "and can no longer have occasion to engage in war; she must
+therefore deliver without reserve to Rome all her arms and engines of
+war."
+
+Hard as was this condition, the humiliated city accepted it. We may have
+some conception of the strength of the city when it is stated that the
+military stores given up included two hundred thousand stand of arms and
+two thousand catapults. It was a condition to which only despair could
+have yielded, seemingly the last act of humiliation to which any city
+could consent.
+
+But if Carthage thought that the end had been reached, she was destined
+to be rudely awakened from her dream. The consuls, thinking the city now
+to be wholly helpless, dropped the mask they had worn, and made known
+the senate's treacherous decree.
+
+"The decision of the senate is this," said Censorinus, coldly, to the
+unhappy envoys of Carthage: "so long as you possess a fortified city
+near the sea, Rome can never feel sure of your submission. The senate
+therefore decrees that you must remove to some point ten miles distant
+from the coast. _Carthage must be destroyed._"
+
+The trembling Carthaginians heard these fatal words in stupefied
+amazement. On recovering their senses they broke out into passionate
+exclamations against the treachery of Rome, and declared that the
+freedom of Carthage had been guaranteed.
+
+"The guarantee refers to the people of Carthage, not to her houses,"
+answered the consul. "You have heard the will of the senate; it must be
+obeyed, and quickly."
+
+Carthage, meanwhile, waited in gloomy dread the return of the
+commissioners. When they gave in the council-chamber the ultimatum of
+Rome, a cry of horror broke from the councillors. The crowd in the
+street, on hearing this ominous sound, broke open the doors and demanded
+what fatal news had been received.
+
+On being told, they burst into a paroxysm of fury. The members of the
+government who had submitted to Rome were obliged to fly for their
+lives. Every Italian found in the city was killed. The party of the
+people seized the government, and resolved to defend themselves to the
+uttermost. An armistice of thirty days was asked from the consuls, that
+a deputation might be sent to Rome. This was refused. Despair gave
+courage and strength. The making of new arms was energetically begun.
+Temples and public buildings were converted into workshops; men and
+women by thousands worked night and day; every day there were produced
+one hundred shields, three hundred swords, five hundred pikes and
+javelins, and one thousand bolts for catapults. The women even cut off
+their hair to be twisted into strings for the catapults. Corn was
+gathered in all haste from every quarter.
+
+The consuls were astonished and disappointed. They had not counted on
+such energy as this. They did not know what it meant to drive a foe to
+desperation. They laid siege to Carthage, but found it too strong for
+all their efforts. They proceeded against the Carthaginian army in the
+field, but gained no success. Summer and winter passed, and Carthage
+still held out. Another year (148 B.C.) went by, and Rome still lost
+ground. Old Cato, the bitter foe of Carthage, had died, at the age of
+eighty-five. Masinissa, the warlike Numidian, had died at ninety-five.
+The hopes of the Carthaginians grew. Those of Rome began to fall. The
+rich booty that was looked for from the sack of Carthage was not to be
+handled so easily as had been expected.
+
+What Rome lacked was an able general. One was found in Scipio, the
+adopted son of Publius Scipio, son of the great Scipio Africanus. This
+young man had proved himself the only able soldier in the war. The army
+adored him. Though too young for the consulship, he was elected to that
+high office, and in 147 B.C. sailed for Carthage.
+
+The new commander found the army disorganized, and immediately restored
+strict discipline to its ranks. The suburb of Megara, from which the
+people of the city obtained their chief supply of fresh provisions, was
+quickly taken. Want of food began to be felt. The isthmus which
+connected the city with the mainland was strongly occupied, and
+land-supplies were thus cut off. The fleet blockaded the harbor, but, as
+vessels still made their way in, Scipio determined to build an
+embankment across the harbor's mouth.
+
+This was a work of great labor, and slowly proceeded. By the time it was
+done the Carthaginians had cut a new channel from their harbor to the
+sea, and Scipio had the mortification to see a newly-built fleet of
+fifty ships sail out through this fresh passage. On the third day a
+naval battle took place, in which the greater part of the new fleet was
+destroyed.
+
+Another winter came and went. It was not until the spring of 146 B.C.
+that the Romans succeeded in forcing their way into the city, and their
+legions bivouacked in the Forum of Carthage.
+
+But Carthage was not yet taken. Its death-struggle was to be a
+desperate one. The streets leading from the Forum towards the Citadel
+were all strongly barricaded, and the houses, six stories in height,
+occupied by armed men. For three days a war of desperation was waged in
+the streets. The Romans had to take the first houses of each street by
+assault, and then force their way forward by breaking from house to
+house. The cross streets were passed on bridges of planks.
+
+Thus they slowly advanced till the wall of Bosra--the high ground of the
+Citadel--was reached. Behind them the city was in flames. For six days
+and nights it burned, destroying the wealth and works of years. When the
+fire declined passages were cleared through the ruins for the army to
+advance.
+
+Scipio, who had scarcely slept night or day during the assault, now lay
+down for a short repose, on an eminence from which could be seen the
+Temple of Esculapius, whose gilded roof glittered on the highest point
+of the hill of Bosra. He was aroused to receive an offer from the
+garrison to surrender if their lives were spared. Scipio consented to
+spare all but Roman deserters, and from the gates of the Citadel marched
+out fifty thousand men as prisoners of war.
+
+Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian commander, who had made so brave a defence
+against Rome, retired with his family and nine hundred deserters and
+others into the Temple of Esculapius, as if to make a final desperate
+defence. But his heart failed him at the last moment, and, slipping out
+alone, he cast himself at Scipio's feet, and begged his pardon and
+mercy. His wife, who saw his dastardly act, reproached him bitterly for
+cowardice, and threw herself and her children into the flames which
+enveloped the Citadel. Most of the deserters perished in the same
+flames.
+
+"Assyria has fallen," said Scipio, as he looked with eyes of prevision
+on the devouring flames. "Persia and Macedonia have likewise fallen.
+Carthage is burning. The day of Rome's fall may come next."
+
+For five days the soldiers plundered the city, yet enough of statues and
+other valuables remained to yield the consul a magnificent triumph on
+his return to Rome. Before doing so he celebrated the fall of Carthage
+with grand games, in which the spoil of that great city was shown the
+army. To Rome he sent the brief despatch, "Carthage is taken. The army
+waits for further orders."
+
+The orders sent were that the walls should be destroyed and every house
+levelled to the ground. A curse was pronounced by Scipio on any one who
+should seek to build a town on the site. The curse did not prove
+effective. Julius Cæsar afterwards projected a new Carthage, and
+Augustus built it. It grew to be a noble city, and in the third century
+A.D. became one of the principal cities of the Roman empire and an
+important seat of Western Christianity. It was finally destroyed by the
+Arabs.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL._
+
+
+In the assault by the Roman forces on Megara, the suburb of Carthage,
+the first to mount the wall was a young man named Tiberius Gracchus,
+brother-in-law of Scipio, the commander, and grandson of the famous
+Scipio Africanus. This young man and his brother were to play prominent
+parts in Rome.
+
+One day when the great Scipio was feasting in the Capitol, with other
+senators of Rome, he was asked by some friends to give his daughter
+Cornelia in marriage to Tiberius Gracchus, a young plebeian. Proud
+patrician as he was, he consented, for Gracchus was highly esteemed for
+probity, and had done him a personal service.
+
+On his return home he told his wife that he had promised his daughter to
+a plebeian. The good woman, who had higher aims, blamed him severely for
+his folly, as she deemed it. But when she was told the name of her
+proposed son-in-law she changed her mind, saying that Gracchus was the
+only man worthy of the gift.
+
+Of Cornelia's children three became notable, a daughter, who became the
+wife of the younger Scipio, and two sons, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus,
+who are known in history as "The Gracchi." Their father became famous
+in war and peace, taking important steps in the needed movement of
+reform. He died, and after his death many sought the hand of the noble
+Cornelia in marriage, among them King Ptolemy of Egypt. But she refused
+them all, devoting her life to the education of her children, for which
+she was admirably fitted by her lofty spirit and high attainments.
+
+Concerning this lady, one of the greatest and noblest which Rome
+produced, there is an anecdote, often repeated, yet well worth repeating
+again. A Campanian lady who called upon her, and boastfully spoke of her
+wealth in gold and precious stones, asked Cornelia for the pleasure of
+seeing her jewels. Leading her visitor to another room, the noble matron
+pointed to her sleeping children, and said, "There are my jewels; the
+only ones of which I am proud."
+
+These children were born to troublous times. Rome had grown in
+corruption and ostentation as she had grown in wealth and dominion. When
+the first Punic War broke out Rome ruled only over Central and Southern
+Italy. When the third Punic War ended Rome was lord of all Italy, Spain,
+and Greece, and had wide possessions in Asia Minor and Northern Africa.
+Wealth had flowed abundantly into the imperial city, and with it pride,
+corruption, and oppression. The great grew greater, the poor poorer, and
+the old simplicity and frugality of Rome were replaced by overweening
+luxury and greed of wealth.
+
+The younger Tiberius Gracchus, who was nine years older than his
+brother, after taking part in the siege of Carthage, went to Spain,
+where also was work for a soldier. On his way thither he passed through
+Etruria, and saw that in the fields the old freeman farmers had
+disappeared, and been replaced by foreign slaves, who worked with chains
+upon their limbs. No Cincinnatus now ploughed his own small fields, but
+the land was divided up into great estates, cultivated by the captives
+taken in war; while the poor Romans, by whose courage these lands had
+been won, had not a foot of soil to call their own.
+
+This spectacle was a sore one to Tiberius, in whose mind the wise
+teachings of his mother had sunk deep. Here were great spaces of fertile
+land lying untilled, broad parks for the ostentation of their proud
+possessors, while thousands of Romans languished in poverty, and Rome
+had begun to depend for food largely upon distant realms.
+
+There was a law, more than two hundred years old, which forbade any man
+from holding such large tracts of land. Tiberius thought that this law
+should be enforced. On his return to Rome his indignant eloquence soon
+roused trouble in that city of rich and poor.
+
+"The wild beasts of the waste have their caves and dens," he said; "but
+you, the people of Rome, who have fought and bled for its growth and
+glory, have nothing left you but the air and the sunlight. There are far
+too many Romans," he continued, "who have no family altar nor ancestral
+tomb. They have fought well for Rome, and are falsely called the masters
+of the world; but the results of their fighting can only be seen in the
+luxury of the great, while not one of them has a clod of dirt to call
+his own."
+
+Cornelia urged her son to do some work to ennoble his name and benefit
+Rome.
+
+"I am called the 'daughter of Scipio,'" she said. "I wish to be known as
+'the mother of the Gracchi.'"
+
+It was not personal glory, but the good of Rome, that the young reformer
+sought. He presented himself for the office of tribune, and was elected
+by the people, who looked upon him as their friend and advocate. And at
+his appeal they crowded from all quarters into the city to vote for the
+re-establishment of the Licinian laws,--those forbidding the rich to
+hold great estates.
+
+These laws were re-enacted, and those lands which the aristocrats had
+occupied by fraud or force were taken from them by a commission and
+returned to the state.
+
+All this stirred the proud land-holders to fury. They hated Gracchus
+with a bitter hatred, and began to plot secretly for his overthrow.
+About this time Attalus, king of Pergamus, moved by some erratic whim,
+left his estates by will to the city of Rome. Those who had been
+deprived of their lands claimed these estates, to repay them for their
+outlays in improvement. Gracchus opposed this, and proposed to divide
+this property among the plebeians, that they might buy cattle and tools
+for their new estates.
+
+His opponents were still more infuriated by this action. He had offered
+himself for re-election to the office of tribune, promising the people
+new and important reforms. His patrician foes took advantage of the
+opportunity. As he stood in the Forum, surrounded by his partisans, an
+uproar arose, in the midst of which Gracchus happened to raise his hand
+to his head. His enemies at once cried out that he wanted to make
+himself king, and that this was a sign that he sought a crown.
+
+A fierce fight ensued. The opposing senators attacked the crowd so
+furiously that those around Gracchus fled, leaving him unsupported. He
+hastened for refuge towards the Temple of Jupiter, but the priests had
+closed the doors, and in his haste he stumbled over a bench. Before he
+could rise one of his enemies struck him over the head with a stool. A
+second repeated the blow. Before the statues of the old kings, which
+graced the portals of the temple, the tribune fell dead.
+
+Many of his supporters were slain before the tumult ceased. Many were
+forced over the wall at the edge of the Tarpeian Rock, and were killed
+by their fall. Three hundred in all were slain in the fray.
+
+Thus was shed the first blood that flowed in civil strife at Rome. It
+was a crimson prelude to the streams of blood that were to follow, in
+the long series of butcheries which were afterwards to disgrace the
+Roman name.
+
+Tiberius Gracchus may well be called the Great, for the effect of his
+life upon the history of Rome was stupendous. He held office for not
+more than seven months, yet in that short time the power of the senate
+was so shaken by him that it never fully recovered its strength. Had he
+been less gentle, or more resolute, in disposition his work might have
+been much greater still. Fiery indignation led him on, but soldierly
+energy failed him at the end.
+
+Caius Gracchus was in Spain at the time of his brother's murder. On his
+return to Rome he lived in quiet retirement for some years. The senate
+thought he disapproved of his brother's laws. They did not know him. At
+length he offered himself as a candidate for the tribuneship, and so
+convincing was his eloquence that the people supported him in numbers,
+and he was elected to the office.
+
+He at once made himself an ardent advocate of his brother's reforms, and
+with such impassioned oratory that he gained adherents on every side. He
+made himself active in all measures of public progress, advocating the
+building of roads and bridges, the erection of mile-stones, the giving
+the right to vote to Italians in general, and the selling of grain at
+low rates to the deserving poor. The laws passed for these purposes are
+known as the Sempronian laws, from the name of the family to which the
+Gracchi belonged.
+
+By this time the rich senators had grown highly alarmed. Here was a new
+Gracchus in the field, as eloquent and as eager for reform as his
+brother, and who was daily growing more and more in favor with the
+people. Something must be done at once, or this new demagogue--as they
+called him--would do them more harm than that for which they had slain
+his brother.
+
+They adopted the policy of fraud in place of that of violence. The
+people were gullible; they might be made to believe that the senators of
+Rome were their best friends. A rich and eloquent politician, Drusus by
+name, proposed measures more democratic even than those which Gracchus
+had advocated. This effort had the effect that was intended. The
+influence of Gracchus over the popular mind was lessened. The people had
+proved fully as gullible as the shrewd senators had expected.
+
+Among other measures proposed by Gracchus was one for planting a colony
+and building a new city on the site of Carthage. The senate appeared to
+approve this, and appointed him one of the commissioners for laying out
+the settlement. He was forced to leave Rome, and during his absence his
+enemies worked more diligently than ever. Gracchus was defeated in the
+election for tribune that followed.
+
+And now the plans of his enemies matured. It was said that the new
+colony at Carthage had been planted on the ground cursed by Scipio.
+Wolves had torn down the boundary-posts, which signified the wrath of
+the gods. The tribes were called to meet at the Capitol, and repeal the
+law for colonizing Carthage.
+
+A tumult arose. A man who insulted Gracchus was slain by an unknown
+hand. The senate proclaimed Gracchus and his friends public enemies, and
+roused many of the people against him by parading the body of the slain
+man. Gracchus and his friends took up a position on the Aventine Hill.
+Here they were assailed by a strong armed force.
+
+There was no resistance. Gracchus sought refuge at first in the Temple
+of Diana, and afterwards made his way to the Grove of the Furies,
+several of his friends dying in defence of his flight. A single slave
+accompanied him. When the grove was reached by his pursuers both were
+found dead. The faithful slave had pierced his master's heart, and then
+slain himself by the same sword.
+
+Slaughter ruled in Rome. The Tiber flowed thick with the corpses of the
+friends of Gracchus, who were slain by the fierce patricians. The houses
+of the murdered reformers were plundered by the mob, for whose good they
+had lost their lives. For the time none dared speak the name of Gracchus
+except in reprobation. Yet he and his brother had done yeoman service
+for the ungrateful people of Rome.
+
+Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she lived for many years. But she
+lived not in grief for her sons, but in pride and triumph. They had died
+the deaths of heroes and patriots, and she gloried in their fame,
+declaring that they had found worthy graves in the temples of the gods.
+
+So came the people to think, in after-years, and they set up in the
+Forum a bronze statue to the great Roman matron, on which were inscribed
+only these words: TO CORNELIA, THE MOTHER OF THE GRACCHI.
+
+
+
+
+_JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME._
+
+
+Masinissa, the valiant old king of Numidia, who had ravaged Carthage in
+its declining days, left his kingdom to his three sons. On the death of
+Micipsa, the last remaining of these, in 118 B.C., he, in turn, left the
+kingdom to his two sons. They were still young, and Jugurtha, their
+cousin, was appointed their guardian and the regent of the kingdom.
+
+Shrewd, bold, ambitious, and unscrupulous, Jugurtha was the most
+dangerous man in Numidia to whose care the young princes could have been
+confided. Scipio read his character rightly, and said to him, "Trust to
+your own good qualities, and power will come of itself. Seek it by base
+arts, and you will lose all."
+
+Some of the young nobles in Scipio's camp gave baser advice. "At Rome,"
+they told him, "all things could be had for money." They advised him to
+buy the support of Rome, and seize the crown of Numidia.
+
+Jugurtha took this base advice, instead of the wise counsel of Scipio.
+He was destined to pay dearly for his ambition and lack of faith and
+honor. One of the young princes showed a high spirit, and Jugurtha had
+him assassinated. The other fled to Rome and sought the support of the
+senate. Jugurtha now, following the suggestions of his false friends,
+sent gold and promises to Rome, purchased the support of venal senators,
+and had voted to him the strongest half of the kingdom; Adherbal, the
+young prince, being given the weaker half.
+
+But the young man was not left in peace, even in this reduced
+inheritance. Jugurtha sent more presents to Rome, and, confident of his
+strength there, boldly invaded the dominions of Adherbal. A Roman
+commission threatened him with Rome's displeasure if he did not keep
+within his own dominions. He affected to submit, but as soon as the
+commissioners turned their backs the daring adventurer renewed his
+efforts, got possession of his cousin through treachery, and at once
+ordered him to be put to death with torture.
+
+Since Rome had become great and powerful no one had dared so openly to
+contemn its decrees. But Jugurtha knew the Romans of that day, and
+trusted to his gold. He bought a majority in the senate, defied the
+minority, and would have gained his aim but for one honest man. This was
+the tribune Memmius, who, seeing that the senate was hopelessly corrupt,
+called the people together in the Forum, told them of the crimes of
+Jugurtha, and demanded justice and redress at their hands.
+
+And now a struggle arose like that between the Gracchi and the rich
+senators. Jugurtha sent more gold to Rome. An army was despatched
+against him, but he purchased it also. He gave up his elephants in
+pledge of good faith, and then bought them back at a high price. The
+officers divided the money, and the army failed to advance.
+
+Jugurtha would have triumphed but for Memmius, who resolutely kept up
+his attacks. In the end the usurper was ordered to come to Rome,--under
+a safe-conduct. He came, and here by his gold purchased one of the
+tribunes, who protected him against the wrath of Memmius and the people.
+But Memmius was resolute and determined. Another Numidian prince was
+found and asked to demand the crown from the senate. Jugurtha learned
+what was afoot, and sent an agent, Bomilcar by name, to assassinate the
+new prince. An indictment was laid against Bomilcar, but Jugurtha,
+fearing to have his own share in the murder exposed, sent him off
+secretly to Africa.
+
+This was too much, even for the purchased members of the senate. Such
+open disdain of the majesty of Rome no man, however avaricious, dared
+support. Jugurtha had a safe-conduct, and could not be seized, but he
+was ordered to quit Rome immediately. He did so, and as he passed out of
+the gates he looked back and said, "A city for sale if she can find a
+purchaser."
+
+The remainder of Jugurtha's history is one of war. The time for winning
+power by bribery was past. The people were so thoroughly aroused and
+incensed that none dared yield to cupidity. The indignation grew. The
+first army sent against Jugurtha was baffled by the wily African, caught
+in a defile, and only escaped by passing under the yoke, and agreeing
+to evacuate Numidia.
+
+This disgrace stirred Rome more deeply still. A new consul was elected
+and a new army raised. A commission was appointed to inquire into the
+conduct of the senate, and several of the leading members were found
+guilty of high treason and put to death without mercy. Rome had begun to
+purge itself.
+
+The new general, Metellus, was not one to be sent under the yoke. He
+defeated Jugurtha in the field and pursued him so unrelentingly that
+soon the African usurper was a fugitive, without an army, and with only
+some fortresses under his control.
+
+Metellus had with him as his principal officer a man who was to become
+famous in Roman history. This man, Caius Marius, was then fifty years of
+age. Yet he had years enough before him to play a mighty part. He was a
+man of the people, rough and uneducated; scorned learning, but had a
+vigorous ambition and a striking military genius. He claimed to be a
+_New Man_, knew no Greek, and boasted that he had no images but "prizes
+won by valor and scars upon his breast."
+
+This man made himself the favorite of the populace, was elected consul,
+and by undisguised trickery took the conduct of the war out of the hands
+of Metellus just as the latter was about to succeed. With him to Africa
+went another man who was to become equally famous, L. Cornelius Sulla,
+the future chief of Rome. Sulla was not a _New Man_. He was an
+aristocrat, knew Greek better than Marius knew Latin, was educated and
+dissipated, and showed the marks of a dissolute life in his face. When
+he rode into the camp of Marius at the head of the cavalry he had seen
+no service, and the rugged soldier looked with contempt on this
+effeminate pleasure-seeker who had been sent as his lieutenant. He soon
+learned his mistake, and before the campaign ended Sulla was his most
+trusted officer and chief adviser.
+
+In the subsequent conduct of the war there is an interesting story to
+tell. There were two hill-forts in Numidia which still remained in
+Jugurtha's control. One of these was taken easily. The other--which
+contained all that was left of the usurper's treasures--was a formidable
+place, which long defied the Roman engineers. It stood on a precipitous
+rock, with only a single narrow ascent; was well garrisoned and supplied
+with arms, food, and water; and so long defied all the efforts of Marius
+that he almost despaired of its capture.
+
+In this dilemma a happy chance came to his aid. A Ligurian soldier, a
+practised mountaineer, being in search of water, saw a number of snails
+crawling up the rock in the rear of the castle. These were a favorite
+food with him, and he gathered what he saw, and climbed the cliff in
+search of more. Higher and higher he went, till he had nearly reached
+the summit of the rock. Here he found himself near a large oak, which
+had rooted itself in the rock crevices, and grew upward so as to overtop
+the castle hill.
+
+The Ligurian, led by curiosity, climbed the tree, and gained a point
+from which he could see the castle, undefended on this side, and
+without sentinels. Having taken a close observation, he descended,
+carefully examining every point as he went. He now hastened to the tent
+of Marius, recounted to him his exploit, and offered to guide a party up
+the perilous ascent.
+
+Marius was quick to seize this hopeful chance. Five trumpeters and four
+centurions were selected, who were placed under the leadership of the
+mountaineer. Laying aside all clothing and arms that would obstruct
+them, they followed the Ligurian up the rock. He, an alert and skilful
+climber, here and there tied ropes to projecting points, here lent them
+the aid of his hand, here sent them up ahead and carried their arms
+after them. At length, with great toil and risk, they reached the
+summit, and found the castle at this point undefended and unwatched, the
+Numidians being all on the opposite side.
+
+Marius, being apprised of their success, ordered a vigorous assault in
+front. The garrison rushed to the defence of their outer works. In the
+heat of the action a sudden clangor of trumpets was heard in their rear.
+This unexpected sound spread instant alarm. The women and children who
+had come out to watch the contest fled in terror. The soldiers nearest
+the walls followed. At length the whole body, stricken suddenly with
+panic, took to flight, followed in hot pursuit by their foes.
+
+Over the deserted works the Romans clambered, into the castle they
+burst, all who opposed them were cut down, and in a short time the place
+which had so long defied them was theirs, while the four trumpets to
+which their victory was due sounded loudly the war-peal of triumph.
+
+Jugurtha was still at large. He was supported by Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, whose daughter he had married. Sulla was sent to demand his
+surrender. Bocchus refused at first, but at length, through fear of
+Rome, consented, and the bold usurper was betrayed into Sulla's hands.
+
+The end of Jugurtha was one in accordance with the brutal cruelty of
+Rome, yet it was one which he richly deserved. It was in the month of
+January, 104 B.C., three years after his capture, that Marius entered
+Rome in triumphal procession, displaying to the people the spoils of his
+victories, while before his car walked his captive in chains.
+
+The African seemed sunk in stupor as he walked. He was roused by the
+brutal mob, who tore off his clothes and plucked the gold rings from his
+ears. Then he was thrust into the dungeon at the foot of the Capitoline
+Hill. "Hercules, what a cold bath this is!" he exclaimed. There he who
+had defied Rome and lorded it over Africa starved to death. A prince of
+the line of Masinissa succeeded him on the throne.
+
+
+
+
+_THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS._
+
+
+Marius and Sulla, the heroes of the Jugurthine War, in later years led
+in greater wars, in which they gained much fame. They ended their
+careers in frightful massacres, in which they gained great infamy. Rome,
+which had made the world its slaughter-house, was itself turned into a
+slaughter-house by these cruel and revengeful rivals.
+
+There was rarely any lack of work for the swords of Rome. While Marius
+was absent in Africa a frightful peril threatened the Roman state. A
+vast horde of barbarians was sweeping downward from the north. The
+Germans of Central Europe had ravaged Switzerland and invaded Gaul.
+Every army sent against them had been defeated with great slaughter.
+Italy was in immediate danger of invasion, Rome in imminent peril.
+Marius was sadly needed, and on his return from Africa was hailed as the
+only man who could save the state.
+
+Instantly he gathered an army and set out for Gaul, Sulla going with him
+as a subordinate officer. Two years were spent in marches and
+counter-marches, and then (B.C. 102) he met the enemy and defeated them
+with immense slaughter. Reserving the richest of the spoils, he devoted
+the remainder to the gods, and, as he stood in a purple robe, torch in
+hand, about to apply the flame to the costly funeral pile, horsemen
+dashed at full speed through the open lines of the troops, and announced
+that for a fifth time he had been elected consul of Rome.
+
+In this war Sulla also showed valor and won fame. But he had grown
+jealous of the glory of Marius, and left his army to join that of the
+consul Catulus, who was being driven backward by another great horde of
+barbarians. Marius, having beaten his own foes, hastened to the relief
+of his associate; the flight was stopped, and a battle ensued in which
+the invading army was swept from the face of the earth, and Rome freed
+for centuries from danger of barbarian invasion.
+
+Sulla and Catulus had their share in this victory, but the people gave
+Marius the whole honor, called him the third founder of their city (as
+Camillus had been the second), and gathered in rejoicing multitudes to
+witness his triumph.
+
+While this war was going on there was dreadful work at home. The slaves
+had, for the second time, broken into insurrection. This servile war was
+mainly in Sicily, where thousands of slaves were slain. Of the captives,
+many were taken to Rome to fight with wild beasts in the arena, but they
+disappointed the eager spectators by killing each other. This outbreak
+only made slavery at Rome harder and harsher than before.
+
+Years passed on, and then another war broke out. The Italian allies, who
+had helped to make Rome great, claimed rights of citizenship and
+suffrage. These were denied, and what is known as the Social War began.
+Sulla and Marius took part in this conflict, which ended in favor of
+Rome, though the franchise fought for was in large measure gained. It
+was of little value, however, since all who held it were obliged to go
+to the city of Rome to vote.
+
+During these various conflicts the rivalry between Marius and Sulla grew
+steadily more declared. The old plebeian, now seventy years of age, was
+jealous of the honors which his aristocratic rival had gained in the
+Social War, and a spirit of bitter hatred, which was to bear dire
+results, arose in his heart.
+
+Events to come were to blow this spark of hatred into a glowing flame. A
+new war threatened Rome. Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, in Asia
+Minor, was pursuing a career of conquest, and the Roman provinces in
+Asia were in danger. War was determined on, and Sulla, who had already
+held successful command in the East, claimed the command of the new
+army. Marius, old as he was, wanted it, too, and by his influence with
+the new citizens of Rome succeeded in defeating Sulla and gaining the
+appointment of general in the war against Pontus.
+
+This vote of the tribes precipitated a contest. The Social War was not
+yet fully ended, and Sulla hastened to the camp where his soldiers were
+besieging a Samnite town. It was his purpose to set sail for the East
+before he could be superseded. He was too late. Officials from Rome
+reached the camp almost as soon as he, bearing a commission from Marius
+to assume the command. It was a critical moment. Sulla must either yield
+or inaugurate a civil war.
+
+He chose the latter. Calling the soldiers together, he told them that
+he had been insulted and injured, and that, unless they supported him,
+they would be left at home, and a new army raised by Marius would obtain
+the spoils of the Mithridatic war. Stirred by this appeal to their
+avarice, the legions stoned to death the officers sent by Marius, and
+loudly demanded to be led to Rome.
+
+Their coming took Marius by surprise, and threw the city into
+consternation. No one had dreamed of such daring and audacity. To lead a
+Roman army against Rome was unprecedented. The senate sent an embassy
+asking Sulla to halt till the Fathers could come to some decision. He
+promised to do so, but as soon as the envoys had gone he sent a force
+that seized the Colline Gate and entered the city streets. Here their
+progress was stopped by the people, who hurled tiles and stones upon
+their heads from the house-tops.
+
+The whole army soon followed, and Sulla entered the city with two
+legions at his back. The people again opposed their march, but Sulla
+seized a torch and threatened to burn the city if any hostility were
+shown. This ended all opposition, except that made by Marius, who
+retreated to the Capitol, where he proclaimed liberty to all slaves who
+would join his banner. This did him much more harm than good; his
+adherents dispersed; he and his chief supporters were forced to seek
+safety in flight.
+
+And now we have a story of striking interest to tell. It would need the
+powers of invention of a romancer to devise a series of adventures as
+remarkable as those which befell old Marius in his flight. It is one of
+the strangest stories in all the annals of history, a marked
+illustration of the saying that fact is often stranger than fiction.
+
+Marius fled to Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, in company with
+Granius, his son-in-law, and five slaves. He proposed to take ship there
+for Africa, where his influence was great. His son followed him by a
+different route, and arrived at Ostia to find that his father had put to
+sea. There was another vessel about to sail, which the son took, and in
+which he succeeded in reaching Africa.
+
+The older fugitive had no such good fortune. The elements pronounced
+against him, and a storm drove the vessel ashore near Circeii. Here the
+party wandered in distress along the desolate coast, in imminent danger
+of capture, for emissaries of Sulla were scouring the shores of Italy in
+his pursuit. Fortunately for the old general, he was recognized by some
+herdsmen, who warned him that a troop of cavalry was approaching. Not
+knowing who they were, and fearing their purpose, the fugitives hastily
+left the road and sought shelter in the forest that there came down near
+to the coast.
+
+Here the night was miserably passed, the fugitives suffering for want of
+food and shelter. When the dawn of the next day broke, their forlorn
+walk was resumed, there being no enemy in sight. By this time the whole
+party, with the exception of Marius, was greatly depressed. He alone
+kept up his spirits, telling his followers that he had been six times
+consul of Rome, and that a seventh consulship would yet be his.
+
+There seemed little hope of such a turn of fortune as the hungry
+fugitives dragged wearily onward. For two days they kept on, making
+about forty miles of distance. At the end of that time peril of capture
+came frightfully near. A body of horsemen was visible at a distance,
+coming rapidly on. No friendly forest here offered shelter. The only
+hope of escape lay in two merchant vessels, which were moving slowly
+close in shore.
+
+Calling loudly for aid, Marius and those with him plunged into the water
+and swam for these vessels. Granius reached one of them. Marius was so
+exhausted that he could not swim, and was supported with difficulty
+above the water by two slaves till the seamen of the other vessel drew
+him on board.
+
+He had barely reached the deck when the troop of horsemen rode to the
+water's edge, and their leader called to the captain of the vessel,
+telling him that it was the proscribed Marius he had rescued, and
+bidding him at once to deliver him up.
+
+What to do the captain did not know. The officer on shore threatened him
+with the vengeance of Sulla if he failed to yield the fugitive. Marius,
+with tears in his eyes, earnestly begged for protection from the captain
+and crew. The captain wavered in purpose, but finally yielded to Marius
+and sailed on. But he did so in doubt and fear, and on reaching the
+mouth of the river Liris he persuaded Marius to go ashore, saying that
+the vessel must lie to till the land-wind rose. The instant the boat
+returned the faithless captain sailed away, leaving the aged fugitive
+absolutely alone on the beach.
+
+Walking wearily to the sorry hut of an old peasant, which stood near,
+Marius told him who he was, and begged for shelter. The old man hid him
+in a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds. While he lay there
+the horsemen, who had followed the vessel along the shore, came up, and
+asked the tenant of the hut where Marius was.
+
+The shivering fugitive, in fear of being betrayed, rose hastily from his
+hiding-place and dashed into the stream. Some of the horsemen saw him,
+he was pursued, and, covered with mud and nearly naked, the old
+conqueror was dragged from the river, placed on a horse, and carried as
+a captive to the neighboring town of Miturnæ. Here he was confined in
+the house of a woman named Fannia till his fate could be determined.
+
+A circular letter had been received by the magistrates from the consuls
+at Rome, ordering them to put Marius to death if he should fall into
+their hands. This was more than they cared to do on their own
+responsibility, and they called a meeting of the town council to decide
+the momentous question. The council decided that Marius should die, and
+sent a Gaulish slave to put him to death.
+
+It was dark when the executioner entered the house of Fannia. The slave,
+little relishing the task committed to his hands, entered the room where
+Marius lay. All the trembling wretch could see in the darkness were the
+glaring eyes of the old man fixed fiercely on him, while a deep voice
+came from the couch, "Fellow, darest thou slay Caius Marius?"
+
+Throwing down his sword, the Gaul fled in terror from those accusing
+eyes, crying out, loudly, "I cannot slay Caius Marius!"
+
+The magistrates made no further effort to put their prisoner to death.
+They managed that he should escape, and he made his way to the island of
+Ischia, which Granius had already reached. Here a friendly ship took
+them on board, and they sailed for Africa.
+
+But the perils of the fugitive were not yet at an end. The ship was
+forced to stop at Erycina, in Sicily, for water. Here a Roman official
+recognized Marius, fell upon the party with a company of soldiers, and
+slew sixteen of them. Marius was nearly taken, but managed to escape,
+the vessel hastily setting sail. He now reached Africa without further
+adventure.
+
+His son and other friends had arrived earlier, and, encouraging news
+being told him, he landed near the site of ancient Carthage. The prætor,
+learning of his presence, and advised of the revolution at Rome, sent
+him word to quit the province without delay. As the messenger spoke
+Marius looked at him with silent indignation.
+
+"What answer shall I take back to the prætor?" asked the man.
+
+"Tell him," said the old general, with impressive dignity, "that you
+have seen Caius Marius sitting among the ruins of Carthage."
+
+Meanwhile his son had reached Numidia, where he was outwardly well
+received by the king, yet held in captivity. He was at length enabled
+to escape by the aid of the king's daughter, and joined his father.
+Marius was not further molested.
+
+Yet it would have been well for the fame of Caius Marius had his life
+ended here. He would nave escaped the infamy of his later years, and the
+flood of blood and vengeance in which his career reached its end. He had
+friends still in Rome. Sulla had made many foes by his capture of the
+city. Among the new consuls elected was Cornelius Cinna, who quickly
+made trouble for the ruler of Rome. Sulla, finding his power abating,
+and fearing assassination by friends of Marius, concluded to let the
+senate fight its own battles, and shipped his troops for Greece, leaving
+Rome to its own devices, while he occupied himself with fighting its
+enemy in the East.
+
+No sooner had he gone than civil war began. Fighting took place in the
+streets of Rome. Cinna moved in the senate that Marius should be
+restored to his rights. Failing in this, he gathered an army and
+threatened his enemies in Rome.
+
+News of all this soon reached old Marius in Africa. At the head of a
+thousand desperate men he took ship and landed in Etruria. Here he
+proclaimed liberty to all slaves who would join him, and soon had a
+large force. He also gained a small fleet. He and Cinna now joined
+forces and marched on Rome.
+
+The senate, which stood for Sulla, had meanwhile been gathering an army
+for the defence of the city. But few of those ordered from afar reached
+the gates, and of the principal force the greater part deserted to
+Marius. The city was soon invested on all sides. The ships of Marius
+captured the corn-vessels from Sicily and Africa. A plague broke out in
+the city, which decimated the army of the senate. In the end beleaguered
+Rome was forced to open its gates to a new conqueror.
+
+All the senate asked for was that Cinna would not permit a general
+massacre. This he promised. But behind his chair, in which he sat in
+state as consul, stood old Marius, whose face threatened disaster. He
+was dressed in mean attire; his hair and beard hung down rough and long,
+for neither had been cut since the day he fled from Rome; on his brow
+was a sullen frown that boded only evil to his foes.
+
+Evil it was, evil without stint. Rome was treated as a conquered city.
+The slaves and desperadoes who followed Marius were let loose to plunder
+at their will. Octavius, the consul who had supported the senate, was
+slain in his consular chair. A series of horrible butcheries followed.
+Marius was bent on dire vengeance, and his enemies fell in multitudes.
+Followed by a band of ruffians known as the Bardiæi, the remorseless old
+man roamed in search of victims through the city streets, and any man of
+rank whom he passed without a salute was at once struck dead.
+
+The senators who had opposed his recall from exile fell first. Others
+followed in multitudes. Those who had private wrongs to revenge followed
+the example of their chief. The slaves of the army killed at will all
+whom they wished to plunder. So great became the licentious outrages of
+these slaves that in the end Cinna, who had taken no part in the
+massacres, fell upon them with a body of troops and slew several
+thousands. This reprisal in some measure restored order in Rome.
+
+Sulla, meanwhile, was winning victories in the East, and the news of
+them somewhat disturbed the ruthless conquerors. But for the present
+they were absolute, and the saturnalia of blood went on. It ended at
+length in the death of Marius.
+
+Since his return he had given himself to wine and riotous living. This,
+after the privations and hardships he had recently suffered, sapped his
+iron constitution. He was elected to the seventh consulship, which he
+had predicted while wandering as a fugitive on the south Italian shores.
+But he fell now into an inflammatory fever, and in two weeks after his
+election he ceased to breathe. Great and successful soldier as he had
+been, his late conduct had won him wide-spread detestation, and he died
+hated by his enemies and feared even by his friends.
+
+
+
+
+_THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA._
+
+
+While Marius and his friends were ruling and murdering in Rome, Sulla,
+their bitter enemy, was commanding and conquering in the East, biding
+his time for revenge. He drove the Asiatic foe out of Greece, taking and
+pillaging Athens as an episode. He carried the war into Asia, forced
+Mithridates to sue for peace, and exacted enormous sums (more than one
+hundred million dollars in our money) from the rich cities of the East.
+Then, after giving his soldiers a winter's rest in Asia, he turned his
+face towards Rome, writing to the senate that he was coming, and that he
+intended to take revenge on his enemies.
+
+It was now the year 83 B.C. Three years had passed since the death of
+Marius. During the interval the party of the plebeians had been at the
+head of affairs. Now Sulla, the aristocrat, was coming to call them to a
+stern account, and they trembled in anticipation. They remembered
+vividly the Marian carnival of blood. What retribution would his
+merciless rival exact?
+
+Cinna, who had most to fear, proposed to meet the conqueror in the
+field. But his soldiers were not in the mood to fight, and settled the
+question by murdering their commander. When spring was well advanced,
+Sulla left Asia, and in sixteen hundred ships transported his men to
+Italy, landing at the port of Brundusium.
+
+On the 6th of July, shortly after his landing, an event occurred that
+threw all Rome into consternation. The venerable buildings of the
+Capitol took fire and were burned to the ground, the cherished Sibylline
+books perishing in the flames. Such a disaster seemed to many Romans a
+fatal prognostic. The gods were surely against them, and all things were
+at risk.
+
+Onward marched Sulla, opposed by a much greater army collected by his
+opponents. But he led the veterans of the Mithridatic War, and in the
+ranks of his opponents no man of equal ability appeared. Battle after
+battle was fought, Sulla steadily advancing. At length an army of
+Samnites, raised to defend the Marian cause, marched on Rome. Caius
+Pontius, their commander, was bent on terribly avenging the sufferings
+of his people on that great city.
+
+"Rome's last day," he said to his soldiers, "is come. The city must be
+annihilated. The wolves that have so long preyed upon Italy will never
+cease from troubling till their lair is utterly destroyed."
+
+Rome was in despair, for all seemed at an end. The Samnites had not
+forgotten a former Pontius, who had sent a Roman army under the Caudine
+Forks, and had been cruelly murdered in the Capitol They thundered on
+the Colline Gate. But at that critical moment a large body of cavalry
+appeared and charged the foe. It was the vanguard of Sulla's army,
+marching in haste to the relief of Rome.
+
+A fierce battle ensued. Sulla fought gallantly. He rode a white horse,
+and was the mark of every javelin. But despite his efforts his men were
+forced back against the wall, and when night came to their relief it
+looked as if nothing remained for them but to sell their lives as dearly
+as possible the next morning.
+
+But during the night Sulla received favorable news. Crassus, who
+commanded his right wing, had completely defeated a detachment of the
+Marian army. With quick decision, Sulla marched during the night round
+the enemy's camp, joined Crassus, and at day-break attacked the foe.
+
+The battle that ensued was a terrible one. Fifty thousand men fell on
+each side. Pontius and other Marian leaders were slain. In the end Sulla
+triumphed, taking eight thousand prisoners, of whom six thousand were
+Samnites. The latter were, by order of the victor, ruthlessly butchered
+in cold blood.
+
+This was but the prelude to an equally ruthless but more protracted
+butchery. Sulla was at last lord of Rome, as absolute in power as any
+emperor of later days. In fact, he had himself appointed dictator, an
+office which had vanished more than a century before, and which raised
+him above the law. He announced that he would give a better government
+to Rome, but to do so he must first rid that city of its enemies.
+
+Marius, whom Sulla hated with intense bitterness, had escaped him by
+death. By his orders the bones of the old general were torn from their
+tomb near the Anio and flung into that stream. The son of Marius had
+slain himself to prevent being taken. His head was brought to Sulla at
+Rome, who gazed on the youthful face with grim satisfaction, saying,
+"Those who take the helm must first serve at the oar." As for himself,
+his fortune was now accomplished, he said, and henceforth he should be
+known as Felix.
+
+The cruel work which Sulla had promised immediately began. Adherents of
+the popular party were slaughtered daily and hourly at Rome. Some who
+had taken no part in the late war were slain. No man knew if he was
+safe. Some of the senators asked that the names of the guilty should be
+made known, that the innocent might be relieved from uncertainty. The
+proposition hit with Sulla's humor. He ordered that a list of those
+doomed to death should be made out and published. This was called a
+Proscription.
+
+But the uncertainty continued as great as ever. The list contained but
+eighty names. It was quickly followed by another containing one hundred
+and twenty. Day after day new lists of the doomed were issued. To make
+death sure, a reward of two talents was promised any one who should kill
+a proscribed man,--even if the killer were his son or his slave. Those
+who in any way aided the proscribed became themselves doomed to death.
+
+Men who envied others their property managed to have their names put on
+the list. A partisan of Sulla was exulting over the doomed, when his
+eye fell on his own name in the list. He hastily fled, and the
+bystanders, judging the cause, followed and cut him down. Catiline, who
+afterwards became notorious in Roman history, murdered his own brother,
+and to legalize the murder had the name of his victim placed on the
+list.
+
+How many were murdered we do not know. Probably little less than three
+thousand in Rome. The stream of murder flowed to other cities. Several
+of these defied the conqueror, but were taken one by one and their
+defenders slain. To all cities which had taken part with the Marians the
+proscription made its way. Of the total number slain during this reign
+of terror no record exists, but the deliberate butchery of Sulla went
+far beyond the ferocious but temporary slaughter of Marius.
+
+Murder was followed by confiscation. Sulla ordered that the property of
+the slain should be sold at auction and the proceeds put in the
+treasury. But the favorites of the dictator were the chief bidders, the
+property was sold at a tithe of its value, and the unworthy and
+dissolute obtained the lion's share of the spoil.
+
+During this period of murder and confiscation we first hear the names of
+a number of afterwards famous Romans. Catiline we have named. Pompey
+took part in the war on Sulla's side, was victorious in Sicily and
+Africa, and on his return was hailed by his chief with the title of
+Pompey the Great. Another still more famous personage was Julius Cæsar.
+Sulla had ordered that all persons connected by marriage with the
+Marian party should divorce their wives. Pompey obeyed. Cæsar, who was a
+nephew of Marius and had married the daughter of Cinna, boldly refused.
+He was then a youth of nineteen. His boldness would have brought him
+death had not powerful friends asked for his life.
+
+"You know not what you ask," said Sulla; "that profligate boy will be
+more dangerous than many Mariuses."
+
+Cæsar, not trusting Sulla's doubtful humor, escaped from Rome, and hid
+in the depths of the Sabine mountains, awaiting a time when the streets
+of the capital city would be safer for those who dared speak their
+minds.
+
+Another young man of rising fame showed little less boldness. This was
+Cicero, who had just returned to Rome from his studies in Greece. He
+ventured to defend Roscius of Ameria against an accusation of murder
+made by Chrysogonus, a prime favorite of Sulla. Cicero lashed the
+favorite vigorously, and won a verdict for his client. But he found it
+advisable to leave Rome immediately and resume his studies at Rhodes.
+
+Sulla ended his work by organizing a new senate and making a new code of
+laws. Three hundred new members were added to the senate, and the laws
+of Rome were brought largely back to the state in which they had been
+before the Gracchi.
+
+This done, to the utter surprise of the people he laid down his power
+and retired from Rome, within whose streets he never again set foot. He
+had no occasion for fear. He had scattered his veterans throughout
+Italy on confiscated estates, and knew that he could trust to their
+support. Before his departure he gave a feast of costly meats and rich
+wines to the Roman commons, in such profusion that vast quantities that
+could not be eaten were cast into the Tiber. Then he dismissed his armed
+attendants, and walked on foot to his house, through a multitude of whom
+many had ample reason to strike him down.
+
+He now retired to his villa near Puteoli, on the Bay of Naples, with the
+purpose of enjoying that life of voluptuous ease which he craved more
+than power and distinction. Here he spent the brief remainder of his
+life in nocturnal orgies and literary converse, completing his
+"Memoirs," in which he told, in exaggerated phrase, the story of his
+life and exploits.
+
+He lived but about a year. His excesses brought on a complication of
+disorders, which ended, we are told, in a loathsome disease. The senate
+voted him a gorgeous funeral, after which his body was burned on the
+Campus Martius, that no future tyrant could treat his remains as he had
+done those of his great rival Marius.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS._
+
+
+At the beginning of the first Punic War, or war with Carthage, a new
+form of entertainment was introduced into Rome. This was the
+gladiatorial show, the fights of armed men in the arena, the first of
+which was given in the year 264 B.C., at the funeral of D. Junius
+Brutus. These exhibitions were long confined to funeral occasions, money
+being frequently left for this purpose in wills, but they gradually
+extended to other occasions, and finally became the choice amusement of
+the brutal Roman mob. The gladiators were divided into several classes,
+in accordance with their particular weapons and modes of fighting, and
+great pains were taken to instruct them in the use of their special
+arms. But in the period that followed the death of Sulla Rome was to
+have a gladiatorial exhibition of a different sort.
+
+In the city of Capua was a school of gladiators, kept by a man named
+Lentulus. It was his practice to hire out his trained pupils to nobles
+for battles in the arena during public festivals. His school was a large
+one, and included in its numbers a Thracian named Spartacus, who had
+been taken prisoner while leading his countrymen against the Romans, and
+was to be punished for his presumption by making sport for his
+conquerors.
+
+But Spartacus had other and nobler aims. He formed a plot of flight to
+freedom in which two hundred of his fellows joined, though only
+seventy-eight succeeded in making their escape. These men, armed merely
+with the knives and spits which they had seized as they fled, made their
+way to the neighboring mountains, and sought a refuge in the crater of
+Mount Vesuvius. It must be borne in mind that this mountain, in that
+year of 73 B.C., was silent and seemingly extinct, though before another
+century passed it was to awake to vital activity. It was only biding its
+time in slumber.
+
+It was better to die on the open field than in the amphitheatre, argued
+Spartacus, and his followers agreed with him. Their position in the
+crater was a strong one, and the news of their revolt soon brought them
+a multitude of allies,--slaves and outlaws of every kind. These
+Spartacus organized and drilled, supplying them with officers from the
+gladiators, mostly old soldiers, and placing them under rigid
+discipline. It was liberty he wanted, not rapine, and he did his utmost
+to restrain his lawless followers from acts of violence.
+
+Pompey, the chief Roman general of that day, was then absent in Spain,
+fighting with a remnant of the Marian forces. Two Roman prætors led
+their forces against the gladiators, but were driven back with loss, and
+the army of Spartacus swelled day by day. The wild herdsmen of Apulia
+joined him in large numbers. They were slaves to their lords, whom they
+hated bitterly, and here was an opening for freedom and revenge.
+
+It was soon evident that Rome had on its hands the greatest and most
+dangerous of its servile wars. Spartacus was brave and prudent, and
+possessed the qualities of an able leader. Unfortunately for him, he led
+an unmanageable host. In the next year both the consuls took the field
+against him. By this time his army had swelled to more than one hundred
+thousand men, and with these he pushed his way northward through the
+passes of the Apennines. But now insubordination appeared. Crixus, one
+of his lieutenants, ambitious of independent command, led off a large
+division of the army, chiefly Germans. He was quickly punished for his
+temerity, being surprised and slain with the whole of his force.
+
+Spartacus, wise enough to know that he could not long hold out against
+the whole power of Rome, kept on northward, hoping to pass the Alps and
+find a place of refuge remote from the stronghold of his foes. Both the
+consuls attacked him in his march, and both were defeated, while he
+retaliated on Rome by forcing his prisoners to fight as gladiators in
+memory of the slain Crixus.
+
+Reaching the provinces of the north, his diminished force was repulsed
+by Crassus, one of the richest men of Rome, who had taken the field as
+prætor. Spartacus would still have fought his way towards the Alps but
+for his followers, whose impatient thirst for rapine forced him to march
+southward again.
+
+Every Roman force that assailed him on this march was hurled back in
+defeat. He even meditated an attack on Rome itself, but relinquished
+this plan as too desperate, and instead employed his men in collecting
+arms and treasure from the cities of central and southern Italy.
+Discipline was almost at an end. The wild horde of slaves and outlaws
+were beyond any strict military control. So great and general were their
+ravages that in a later day the poet Horace promised his friend a jar of
+wine made in the Social War, "if he could find one that had escaped the
+ravages of roaming Spartacus."
+
+In the year 71 B.C. the most vigorous efforts were made to put down this
+dangerous revolt. Pompey was still in Spain. The only man at home of any
+military reputation was the prætor Crassus, who had amassed an enormous
+fortune by buying up property at famine prices during the Proscription
+of Sulla, and in speculative measures since.
+
+He was given full command, took the field with a large army, restored
+discipline to the beaten bands of the consuls by cruel and rigorous
+measures, and assailed Spartacus in Calabria, where he was seeking to
+rekindle the Servile War, or slave outbreak, in Sicily. He had even
+engaged with pirate captains to transport a part of his force to Sicily,
+but the freebooters took the money and sailed away without the men.
+
+And now began a struggle for life and death. Spartacus was in the
+narrowest part of the foot of Southern Italy. Crassus determined to keep
+him there by building strong lines of intrenchment across the neck of
+land. Spartacus attacked his works twice in one day, but each time was
+repulsed with great slaughter. But he defended himself vigorously.
+
+Pompey was now returning from Spain. Crassus, not caring to be robbed of
+the results of his labors, determined to assault Spartacus in his camp.
+But before he could do so the daring gladiator attacked his lines again,
+forced his way through, and marched for Brundusium, where he hoped to
+find ships that would convey him and his men from Italy.
+
+As it happened, a large body of Roman veterans, returning from
+Macedonia, had just reached Brundusium, and undertook its defence.
+Foiled in his purpose, Spartacus turned upon the pursuing army of
+Crassus, like a wolf at bay, and attacked it with the energy of
+desperation. The battle that ensued was contested with the fiercest
+courage. Spartacus and his men were fighting for their lives, and the
+result continued doubtful till the brave gladiator was wounded in the
+thigh by a javelin. Falling on his knee, he fought with the courage of a
+hero until, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead.
+
+His death decided the conflict. Most of his followers were slain on the
+field. A strong body escaped to the mountains, but these were pursued,
+and many fell. Five thousand of them made their way to the north of
+Italy, where they were met by Pompey, on his return from Spain, and
+slaughtered to a man.
+
+Crassus took six thousand prisoners, and these he disposed of in the
+cruel Roman way of dealing with revolted slaves, hanging or crucifying
+the whole of them along the road between Rome and Capua.
+
+Thus ended far the most important outbreak of Roman gladiators and
+slaves. The south of Italy suffered horribly from its ravages, but not
+through any act of Spartacus, who throughout showed a moderation equal
+to his courage and military ability. Had it not been for the lawless
+character of his followers his career might have had a very different
+ending, for he had shown himself a commander of rare ability and
+unconquerable courage.
+
+
+
+
+_CÆSAR AND THE PIRATES._
+
+
+We have spoken of the pirates who agreed to convey the forces of
+Spartacus from Italy to Sicily, but faithlessly sailed away with his
+money and without his men. From times immemorial the Mediterranean had
+been ravaged by pirate fleets, which made the inlets of Asia Minor and
+the isles of the Archipelago their places of shelter, whence they dashed
+out on rapid raids, and within which they vanished when attacked.
+
+This piracy reached its highest power during and after the Social and
+Civil Wars of Rome, the outlaws taking prompt advantage of the
+distractions of the times, and gaining a strength and audacity unknown
+before. Their chief places of refuge were in the coast districts of
+Cilicia and Pisidia, in Asia Minor, while in the mountain valleys which
+led down from Taurus to that coast they had strongholds difficult of
+access, and enabling them to defy attack by land.
+
+They were now aided by Mithridates, who supplied them with money and
+encouraged their raids. So great became their audacity that they carried
+off important personages from the coast of Italy, among them two
+prætors, whom they held to ransom. They ravaged all unguarded shores,
+and are said to have captured in all four hundred important towns. The
+riches gained in these raids were displayed with the ostentation of
+conquerors. The sails of their ships were dyed with that costly Tyrian
+purple which at a later date was reserved for the robes of emperors;
+their oars were inlaid with silver, and their pennants glittered with
+gold. As for the merchant fleets of Rome, they made their journeys under
+constant risk, and there was danger, if the pirates were not suppressed,
+that they would cut off the entire grain-supply from Africa and Sicily.
+
+The most interesting story told in connection with these marauders is
+connected with the youthful days of Julius Cæsar, afterwards so great a
+man in Rome.
+
+In the year 76 B.C. Cæsar, then a young man of twenty-four, and
+seemingly given over to mere enjoyment of life, with no indications of
+political aspiration, was on his way to the island of Rhodes, where he
+wished to perfect himself in oratory in the famous school of Apollonius
+Melo, in which Cicero, a few years before, had gained instruction in the
+art. Cicero had taught Rome the full power of oratory, and Cæsar, who
+was no mean orator by nature, and recognized the usefulness of the art,
+naturally sought instruction from Cicero's teacher.
+
+He was travelling as a gentleman of rank, but on his way was taken
+prisoner by pirates, who, deeming him a person of great distinction,
+held him at a high ransom. For six weeks Cæsar remained in their hands,
+waiting until his ransom should be paid. He was in no respect downcast
+by his misfortune, but took part freely in the games and pastimes of
+the pirates, and, according to Plutarch, treated them with such disdain
+that whenever their noise disturbed his sleep he sent orders to them to
+keep silence. In his familiar conversations with the chiefs he plainly
+told them that he would one day crucify them all. Doubtless they laughed
+heartily at this pleasantry, as they deemed it, but they were to find it
+a grim sort of jest.
+
+Cæsar was released at last, the ransom paid amounting to about fifty
+thousand dollars. He lost not a moment in carrying out his threat.
+Obtaining a fleet of Milesian vessels, he sailed immediately to the
+island in which he had been held captive, and descended upon the pirates
+so suddenly that he took them prisoners while they were engaged in
+dividing their plunder. Carrying them to Pergamus, he handed them over
+to the civil authorities, by whom his promise of crucifying them all was
+duly carried out. Then he went to Rhodes, and spent two years in the
+study of elocution. He had proved himself an awkward kind of prey for
+pirates.
+
+These worthies continued their depredations, and became at length so
+annoying that extraordinary measures were taken for their suppression.
+Pompey, then the most powerful man in Rome, was given absolute control
+over the Mediterranean. This was not done without opposition, for it was
+feared that he aspired to kingly rule. "You aspire to be Romulus; beware
+of the fate of Romulus," said some of the opposing senators.
+
+Despite opposition the power was given him, and he used it with
+remarkable results. A large fleet was at once got ready and put to sea,
+confining its operations at first to the west of the Mediterranean, and
+driving the piratical fleets towards their lurking-places in the east.
+Land troops meanwhile guarded the coasts. In the brief space of forty
+days he reported to the senate that the whole sea west of Greece was
+cleared of pirates.
+
+Then he sailed for the Archipelago, swept its inlets, spread his ships
+everywhere, and drove the foe towards Cilicia. Here they gathered their
+fleet and gave him battle, but suffered a total defeat. A surrender
+followed, to which he won them over by lenient terms. In three months
+from the day he began his work the war was ended, and the pirates who
+had so long troubled the republic of Rome had retired from business.
+
+
+
+
+_CÆSAR AND POMPEY._
+
+
+There were three leaders in Rome, Pompey, whom Sulla had named the
+Great, Crassus, the rich, and Cæsar, the shrewd and wise. Two of these
+had reached their utmost height. For Pompey there was to be no more
+greatness, for Crassus no more riches. But Cæsar was the coming man of
+Rome. After a youth given to profligate pleasures, in which he spent
+money as fast as Crassus collected it, and accumulated debt more rapidly
+than Pompey accumulated fame, the innate powers of the man began to
+declare themselves. He studied oratory and made his mark in the Roman
+Forum; he studied the political situation, and step by step made himself
+a power among men. He was shrewd enough to cultivate Pompey, then the
+Roman favorite, and brought himself into closer relations with him by
+marrying his relative. Steadily he grew into public favor and respect,
+and laid his hands on the reins of control.
+
+There was a fourth man of prominence, Cicero, the great scholar,
+philosopher, and orator. He prosecuted Verres, who, as governor of
+Sicily, had committed frightful excesses, and drove him from Rome. He
+prosecuted Catiline, who had made a conspiracy to seize the government,
+and even to burn Rome. The conspirators were foiled and Catiline killed.
+But Cicero, earnest and eloquent as he was, lacked manliness and
+courage, and was driven into exile by his enemies.
+
+There remained the three leaders, Pompey, Cæsar, and Crassus, and these
+three made a secret compact to control the government, forming what
+became known as a _triumvirate_, or three man power. Pompey married
+Julia, the young and beautiful daughter of Cæsar, and the two seemed
+very closely united.
+
+Cæsar was elected consul, and in this position won public favor by
+proposing some highly popular laws. After his year as consul he was made
+governor of Gaul, and now began an extraordinary career. The man who had
+by turns shown himself a dissolute spendthrift, an orator, and a
+political leader, suddenly developed a new power, and proved himself one
+of the greatest soldiers the world has ever known.
+
+Gaul, as then known, had two divisions,--Cisalpine Gaul, or the Gaulish
+settlements in Northern Italy; and Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the
+Alps, including the present countries of France and Switzerland. In the
+latter country Rome possessed only a narrow strip of land, then known as
+the Province, since then known as the country of Provence.
+
+From this centre Cæsar, with the small army under his command,
+consisting of three legions, entered upon a career of conquest which
+astonished Rome and drew upon him the eyes of the civilized world. He
+had hardly been appointed when he received word that the Helvetian
+tribes of Switzerland were advancing on Geneva, the northern outpost of
+the Province, with a view of invading the West. He hastened thither, met
+and defeated them, killed a vast multitude, and drove the remnant back
+to their own country. Then, invited by some northern tribes, he attacked
+a great German band which had invaded Northern Gaul, and defeated them
+so utterly that few escaped across the Rhine. From that point he made
+his way into and conquered Belgium. In a year's time he had vastly
+extended the Roman dominion in the West.
+
+For nine years this career of conquest continued. The barbarian Gauls
+proved fierce and valiant soldiers, but at the end of that time they had
+been completely subdued and made passive subjects of Rome. Cæsar even
+crossed the sea into Britain, and look the first step towards the
+conquest of that island, of which Rome had barely heard before.
+
+During this career of conquest many hundreds of thousands of men were
+slain. But, then, Cæsar was victorious and Rome triumphant, and what
+mattered it if a million or two of barbarians were sacrificed to the
+demon of conquest? It mattered little to Rome, in which great city
+barbarian life was scarcely worth a second thought. It mattered little
+to Cæsar, who, like all great conquerors, was quite willing to mount to
+power on a ladder of human lives.
+
+Meanwhile what were Cæsar's partners in the Triumvirate doing? When
+Cæsar was given the province of Gaul, Pompey was made governor of
+Spain, and Crassus of Syria. Crassus, who had gained some military fame
+by overcoming Spartacus the gladiator, wished to gain more, and sailed
+for Asia, where he stirred up a war with distant Parthia. That was the
+end of Crassus. He marched into the desert of Mesopotamia, and left his
+body on the sands. His head was sent to Orodes, the Parthian king, who
+ordered molten gold to be poured into his mouth,--a ghastly commentary
+on his thirst for wealth.
+
+Pompey left Spain to take care of itself, and remained in Rome, where he
+sought to add to his popularity by building a great stone theatre, large
+enough to hold forty thousand people, where for many days he amused the
+people with plays and games. Here, for the first time, a rhinoceros was
+shown. Eighteen elephants were killed by Libyan hunters, and five
+hundred lions were slain, while hosts of gladiators fought for life and
+honor.
+
+While thus seeking popular favor, Pompey was secretly working against
+the interests of Cæsar, of whose fame he had grown jealous. His wife
+Julia died, and he joined his strength with that of the aristocrats;
+while Cæsar, a nephew of old Marius, was looked upon as a leader of the
+party of the people.
+
+Pompey's power and influence over the senate increased until he was
+virtually dictator in Rome. Cæsar's ten years' governorship in Gaul
+would expire on the 1st of January, 49 B.C., and it was resolved by
+Pompey and the senate to deprive him of the command of the army. But
+Cæsar was not the man to be dealt with in this summary manner. His
+career of conquest ended, he entered his province of Cisalpine Gaul, or
+Northern Italy, where he was received as a great hero and conqueror.
+From here he sent secret agents to Rome, bribed with large sums a number
+of important persons, and took other steps to guard his interests.
+
+Meanwhile the senate tried to disarm Cæsar by unfair means. They had the
+power to shorten or lengthen the year as they pleased, and announced
+that that year would end on November 12, and that Cæsar must resign his
+authority on the 13th. Curio, a tribune of Rome and Cæsar's agent, said
+that it was only fair that Pompey also should give up the command of the
+army which he had near Rome. This he refused to do, and Curio publicly
+declared that he was trying to make himself a tyrant.
+
+Finally the senate decreed that each general should give up one legion,
+to be used in a war with the Parthians. There was no such war, but it
+was pretended that there soon would be. Pompey agreed, but he called
+upon Cæsar to send him back a legion which he had lent him three years
+before. Cæsar did not hesitate to do so: he sent Pompey's legion and his
+own; but he took care to win the soldiers by giving each a valuable
+present as he went away. These legions were not sent to Asia, but to
+Capua. The senate wanted them for use nearer than Parthia.
+
+Cæsar was then at Ravenna, a sea-side city on the southern limit of his
+province. South of it flowed a little stream called the Rubicon, which
+formed his border-line. Here he took a bold step. He sent a letter to
+the senate, offering to give up his command if Pompey would do the same.
+A violent debate followed in the senate, and a decree was passed that
+unless Cæsar laid down his command by a certain day he should be
+declared an outlaw and enemy of Rome. At the same time the two consuls
+were made dictators, and the two tribunes who favored Cæsar--one of them
+the afterwards famous Marc Antony--fled for safety from Rome.
+
+The decree of the senate was equivalent to a declaration of war. On the
+one side was Pompey, proud, over-confident, and unprepared. On the other
+was Cæsar, knowing his strength, satisfied in the power of the money he
+had so freely distributed, and sure of his men. He called his soldiers
+together and asked if they would support him. They answered that they
+would follow wherever he led. At once he marched for the Rubicon, the
+limit of his province, to cross which stream meant an invasion of Italy
+and civil war.
+
+Plutarch tells us that he halted here and deeply meditated, troubled by
+the thought that to cross that stream meant the death of thousands of
+his countrymen. After a period of such meditation, he cried aloud, "The
+die is cast; let us go where the gods and the injustice of our foes
+direct!" and, spurring his horse forward, he plunged into the stream.
+
+This story, which has been effectively used by a great epic poet of
+Rome, probably relates what never happened. From all we know of Cæsar,
+the question of bloodshed in attaining the aims of his ambition did not
+greatly trouble his mind. Yet the story has taken hold, and "to cross
+the Rubicon" has become a proverb, signifying the taking of a step of
+momentous importance.
+
+Cæsar, after the legions sent the senate, had but a single legion left
+with him. He sent orders to others to join him with all haste, but they
+were distant. As for Pompey, knowing and despising the weakness of his
+rival, he had made no preparations. He had Cæsar's two legions at Capua
+and one of his own at Rome, while thousands of Sulla's veterans were
+settled in the country round. "I have but to stamp my foot," he said,
+"and armed men will start from the soil of Italy."
+
+He did not stamp, or, if he did, the armed men did not start. Cæsar
+marched southward with his accustomed rapidity. Town after town opened
+its gates to him. Labienus, one of his principal officers, deserted to
+Pompey. Cæsar showed his contempt by sending his baggage after him. Two
+legions from Gaul having reached him, he pushed more boldly still to the
+south. The cities taken were treated as friends; there was no pillage,
+no violence. Everywhere Cæsar won golden opinions by his humanity.
+
+Meanwhile Pompey's armed men came not; his rival was rapidly
+approaching; he and his party of the senate fled from Rome. They reached
+Brundusium, where Cæsar with six legions quickly appeared. The town was
+strong, and Pompey took his time to embark his men and sail from Italy.
+Disappointed of his prey, Cæsar turned back, and entered Rome on April
+1, now full lord and master of Italy and its capital city. In the
+treasury of that city was a sacred hoard of money, which had been set
+aside since the invasion of the Gauls, centuries before. The people
+voted this money for his use. There was no more danger from the Gauls,
+it was said, for they had all become subjects of Rome. Yet the keeper of
+the treasury refused to produce the keys, and when Cæsar ordered the
+doors to be broken open, tried to bar his passage into the sacred
+chamber.
+
+"Stand aside, young man," said Cæsar, with stern dignity; "it is easier
+for me to do than to say."
+
+Cæsar was not the man to rest while an enemy was at large. Pompey had
+gone to the East. There was no fleet with which to follow him; and in
+Spain Pompey had an army of veterans, who might enter Italy as soon as
+he left it. These must first be dealt with.
+
+This did not delay him long. Before the year closed all Spain was his.
+Most of the soldiers of Pompey joined his army. Those who did not were
+dismissed unharmed. Everywhere he showed the greatest leniency, and
+everywhere won friends. On his return to Rome he gained new friends by
+passing laws relieving debtors and restoring their civil rights to the
+children of Sulla's victims.
+
+He remained in Rome only eleven days, and then sailed for Greece, where
+Pompey had gathered a large army. It was January 4, 48 B.C., when he
+sailed. On June 6 of the same year was fought, at Pharsalia, in
+Thessaly, a great battle which decided the fate of the Roman world.
+
+Pompey's army consisted of about forty-four thousand men. Cæsar had but
+half as many. But his men were all veterans; many of those of Pompey
+were new levies, collected in Asia and Macedonia. The battle was fierce
+and desperate. During its course the cavalry of Pompey attacked Cæsar's
+weak troops and drove them back. The infantry advanced to their support,
+and struck straight at the faces of the foe. Plutarch tells us that this
+cavalry was made up of young Romans, of the aristocratic class and proud
+of their beauty, and that the order was given to Cæsar's soldiers to
+spoil their beauty for them. But this story, like many told by Plutarch,
+lacks proof.
+
+Whatever was the cause, the cavalry were broken and fled in disorder.
+Cæsar's reserve force now attacked Pompey's worn troops, who gave way
+everywhere. Cæsar ordered that all Romans should be spared, and only the
+Asiatics pursued. The legions, hearing of this, ceased to resist. The
+foreign soldiers fled, after great slaughter. Pompey rode hastily from
+the field.
+
+The camp was taken. The booty captured was immense. But Cæsar would not
+let his soldiers rest or plunder till they had completed their work.
+This proved easy; all the Romans submitted; the Asiatics fled. Pompey
+put to sea, where he had still a powerful fleet. Africa was his, and he
+determined to take refuge in Egypt. It proved that he had enemies there.
+A small boat was sent off to bring him ashore. Among those on board was
+an officer named Septimius, who had served under Pompey in the war with
+the pirates.
+
+Pompey recognized his old officer, and entered the boat alone, his wife
+and friends watching from the vessel as he was rowed ashore. On the
+beach a number of persons were collected, as if to receive him with
+honor. The boat stopped. Pompey took the hand of the person next him to
+assist him to rise. As he did so Septimius, who stood behind, struck him
+with his sword. Pompey, finding that he was among enemies, made no
+resistance, and the next blow laid him low in death. His assassins cut
+off his head and left his body on the beach. Here one of his freedmen
+and an old soldier of his army broke up a fishing-boat and made him a
+rude funeral pile. Such were the obsequies of the one-time master of the
+world.
+
+The battle of Pharsalia practically ended the struggle that made Cæsar
+lord of Rome. Some more fighting was necessary. Africa was still in
+arms. But a few short campaigns sufficed to bring it to terms, while a
+campaign against a son of Mithridates ended in five days, Cæsar's
+victory being announced to the senate in three short words, "Veni, vidi,
+vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). Then he returned to Rome, where he
+shed not a drop of the blood of his enemies, though that of gladiators
+and wild animals was freely spilled in the gorgeous games and festivals
+with which he amused the sovereign people.
+
+
+
+
+_THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR._
+
+
+The republic of Rome was at an end. The army had become the power, and
+the will of the head of the army was the law, of the state. Cæsar
+celebrated his victories with grand triumphs; but he celebrated them
+more notably still by a clemency that signified his innate nobility of
+character. Instead of dyeing the streets of Rome with blood, as Marius
+and Sulla had done before him, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and his
+rise to power was not signalized by the slaughter of one of his foes.
+
+[Illustration: THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR.]
+
+He signalized it, on the contrary, by an activity in civil reform as
+marked as had been his energy in war. The title and privilege of Roman
+citizenship had so far been confined to Italians. He extended it to many
+parts of Gaul and Spain. He formed plans to drain the Pontine marshes,
+to make a survey and map of the empire, to form a code of laws, and
+other great works, which he did not live to fulfil. Of all his reforms,
+the best known is the revision of the Calendar. Before his time the
+Roman year was three hundred and fifty-five days long, an extra month
+being occasionally added, so as to regain the lost days. But this was
+very irregularly done, and the civil year had got to be far away from
+the solar year. To correct this Cæsar was obliged to add ninety days to
+the year 46 B.C., which was therefore given the unprecedented length of
+four hundred and forty-five days. He ordered that the year in future
+should be three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days in length, a
+change which brought it very nearly, but not quite, to the true length.
+A new reform was made in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII., which made the
+civil and solar years almost exactly agree.
+
+Cæsar did not live to see his reforms consummated. He was murdered,
+perhaps because he had refused to murder. In a few months after he had
+brought the civil war to an end he fell the victim of assassins. The
+story of his death is famous in Roman history, and must here be told.
+
+After his triumphs Cæsar, who had been dictator twice before, was named
+dictator for the term of ten years. He was also made censor for three
+years. These offices gave him such unlimited power that he was declared
+absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the citizens and subjects
+of Rome. Imperator men called him, a term we translate emperor, and
+after his return from Spain, where he overthrew the last army of his
+foes, the senate named him dictator and imperator for life.
+
+These high honors were not sufficient for Cæsar's ambition. He wished to
+be made king. He had no son of his own, but desired to make his power
+hereditary, and chose his grandnephew Octavius as his heir. But he was
+to find the people resolutely bent on having no king over Rome.
+
+To try their temper some of his friends placed a crown on his statue in
+the Forum. Two of the tribunes tore it off, and the crowd loudly
+applauded. Later, at the festival of the Alban Mount, some voices in the
+crowd hailed him as king. But the mutterings of the multitude grew so
+loud, that he quickly cried, "I am no king, but Cæsar."
+
+At the feast of the Lupercalia, on February 15, he was approached by
+Marc Antony, as he sat in his golden chair, and offered an embroidered
+band, such as the sovereigns of Asia wore on their heads. The crowd
+failed to applaud, and Cæsar pushed it aside. Then the multitude broke
+out in a roar of applause. Again and again he rejected the glittering
+bauble, and again the people broke into loud cries of approval. It was
+evident that they would have no king. At a later date it was moved in
+the senate that Cæsar should be king in the provinces; but he died
+before this decree could be put in effect.
+
+There was discontent at Rome. Even the clemency of Cæsar had made him
+enemies, for there were many who hoped to profit by proscription. His
+justice made foes among those who wished to grow rich through extortion
+and oppression. He secluded himself while engaged on his reforms, and
+this lost him popularity. A conspiracy was organized against him by a
+soldier named Caius Cassius and others of the discontented. For leader
+they selected Marcus Junius Brutus, who believed himself a descendant of
+the Brutus of old, and was won to their plot by being told that, while
+his great ancestor had expelled the last king of Rome, he was resting
+content under the rule of a new king.
+
+Brutus, at length convinced that Cæsar was seeking to overthrow the
+Roman republic, and that patriotism required him to emulate the famous
+Brutus of old, joined the conspiracy, which now included more than sixty
+persons, most of whom had received benefits and honors from the man they
+wished to kill. But no considerations of gratitude prevailed; they
+determined on Cæsar's death; and the meeting of the senate called for
+the Ides of March (March 15) was fixed for the time and place of the
+projected murder.
+
+The morning of that day seemed full of omens and warnings. The secret
+was oozing out. Cæsar received more than one intimation of impending
+danger. A soothsayer had even bidden him to "beware of the Ides of
+March." During the preceding night his wife was so disturbed by dreams
+that in the morning she begged him not to go that day to the senate, as
+she was sure some peril was at hand. Her words failed to trouble Cæsar's
+resolute mind, but to quiet her apprehensions he agreed not to go, and
+directed Marc Antony to preside over the senate in his stead.
+
+When this word was brought to the assembled senate the conspirators were
+in despair. Their secret was known to too many to remain a secret long.
+Even a day's delay might be fatal. An hour might put Cæsar on his guard.
+What was to be done? Unless their victim could be brought to the senate
+chamber all would be lost.
+
+Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators who had been favored by Cæsar's
+bounty, went hastily to his house, and, telling him that the senate
+proposed that day to make him king of the provinces, bade him not to
+yield to such idle matters as auguries and dreams, but show himself
+above any such superstitious weakness. These cunning arguments induced
+Cæsar to change his mind, and he called for his litter and was carried
+forth.
+
+On his way to the senate new intimations of danger came to him. A slave
+had in some way discovered the conspiracy, and tried to force himself
+through the crowd to the dictator's litter, but was driven back by the
+throng. Another informant was more fortunate. A Greek philosopher,
+Artemidorus by name, had also discovered the conspiracy, and succeeded
+in reaching Cæsar's side. He thrust into his hand a roll of paper
+containing a full account of the impending peril. But the star of Cæsar
+that day was against him. Thinking the roll to contain a petition of
+some sort, he laid it in the litter by his side, to examine at a more
+convenient time. And thus he went on to his death, despite all the
+warnings sent him by the fates.
+
+The conspirators meanwhile were far from easy in mind. There were signs
+among them that their plot had leaked out. Casca, one of their number,
+was accosted by a friend, "Ah, Casca, Brutus has told me your secret."
+The conspirator started in alarm, but was relieved by the next words,
+"Where will you find money for the expenses of the ædileship?" The man
+evidently referred to an expected office.
+
+Another senator, Popillius Lænas, hit the mark closer. "You have my
+good wishes; but what you do, do quickly," he said to Brutus and
+Cassius.
+
+The alarm caused by his words was doubled when he stepped up to Cæsar,
+on his entrance to the chamber, and began to whisper in his ear. Cassius
+was so terrified that he grasped his dagger with the thought of killing
+himself. He was stopped by Brutus, who quietly said that Popillius
+seemed rather to be asking a favor than telling a secret. Whatever his
+purpose, Cæsar was not checked, but moved quietly on and took his seat.
+
+Immediately Cimber, one of the conspirators, approached with a petition,
+in which he begged for the recall of his brother from banishment. The
+others pressed round, praying Cæsar to grant his request. Displeased by
+their importunity, Cæsar attempted to rise, but was pulled down into his
+seat by Cimber, while Casca stabbed him in the side, but inflicted only
+a slight wound. Then they all assailed him with drawn daggers.
+
+Cæsar kept them off for a brief time by winding his gown as a shield
+round his left arm, and using his sharp writing style for a weapon. But
+when he saw Brutus approach prepared to strike he exclaimed in deep
+sorrow and reproach, "_Et tu, Brute!_" (Thou too, Brutus!) and covering
+his face with his gown, he ceased to resist. Their daggers pierced his
+body till he had received twenty-three wounds, when he fell dead at the
+base of the statue of Pompey, which looked silently down on the
+slaughter of his great and successful rival.
+
+What followed this base and fruitless deed may be briefly told. The
+senators not in the plot rose in alarm and fled from the house. When
+Brutus turned to seek to justify his deed only empty benches remained.
+Then the assassins hurried to the Forum, to tell the people that they
+had freed Rome from a despot. But the people were hostile, and the words
+of Brutus fell on unfriendly ears.
+
+Marc Antony followed, and delivered a telling oration, which Shakespeare
+has magnificently paraphrased. He showed the mob a waxen image of
+Cæsar's body, pierced with wounds, and the garment rent by murderous
+blades. His words wrought his hearers to fury. They tore up benches,
+tables, and everything on which they could lay their hands, for a
+funeral pile, placed on it the corpse, and set it on fire. Then, seizing
+blazing embers from the pile, they rushed in quest of vengeance to the
+houses of the conspirators. They were too late; all had fled. The will
+of the dictator, in which he had made a large donation to every citizen
+of Rome, added to the popular fury, and a frenzy of vengeance took
+possession of the people of Rome.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CÆSAR.]
+
+We must give the sequel of this murderous deed in a few words. Marc
+Antony was now master of Rome. He increased his power by pretending
+moderation, and having a law passed to abolish the dictatorship forever.
+But there were other actors on the scene. Octavius, whom Cæsar's will
+had named as his heir, took quick steps to gain his heritage. Antony had
+taken possession of Cæsar's wealth, but Octavius managed to raise money
+enough to pay his uncle's legacy to the citizens of Rome. A third man
+of power was Lepidus, who commanded an army near Rome, and was prepared
+to take part in the course of events.
+
+Octavius was still only a boy, not yet twenty years of age. But he was
+shrewd and ambitious, and soon succeeded in having himself elected
+consul and put at the head of a large army. Cicero aided him with a
+series of orations directed against Antony, which were so keen and
+bitter, and had such an effect upon the people, that Antony was declared
+a public enemy. Octavius marched to meet him and Lepidus, who were
+marching southward with another large army.
+
+Instead of fighting, however, the three leaders met in secret conclave,
+and agreed to divide the power in Rome between them. This compact is
+known as the Second Triumvirate. Its members followed the example of
+Marius and Sulla, not that of Cæsar, and resolved to extirpate their
+enemies. Each of them gave up personal friends to the vengeance of the
+others. Of their victims the most famous was Cicero, who had delivered
+his orations against Antony in aid of Octavius. The ambitious boy was
+base enough to yield his friend to the vengeance of the incensed Antony.
+No less than three hundred senators and two thousand knights fell
+victims to this new proscription, which while it lasted made a reign of
+terror in Rome.
+
+Brutus and Cassius had meanwhile made themselves masters of Greece and
+the eastern provinces of Rome, and were ready to meet the forces of the
+Triumvirate in the field. The decisive battle was fought on the field
+of Philippi in Northern Greece. The division of Cassius was defeated,
+and he killed himself in despair. Twenty days afterwards another battle
+was fought on the same field, in which Brutus was defeated, and likewise
+put an end to his life. The triumvirs were undisputed lords of Rome. The
+imperial rule of Cæsar had lasted but a few months, and ended with his
+life. But with Octavius began an imperial era which lasted till the end
+of the dominion of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA._
+
+
+The battles of Philippi and the death of Brutus and Cassius put an end
+to the republican party to whom Cæsar owed his death. The whole realm
+was handed over to the imperial Triumvirate, who now made a new division
+of the vast Roman world. Antony took as his share all the mighty realm
+of the East; Octavius all the West. To Lepidus, whom his powerful
+confederates did not take the trouble to consult, only Africa was left.
+
+The after-career of Antony was a curious and impressive one. He loved a
+bewitching Egyptian queen, and for a false love lost the vast dominion
+he had won. The story is one of the most romantic and popular of all
+that have come to us from the past. It has been told in detail by
+Plutarch and richly dramatized by Shakespeare. We give it here in brief
+epitome.
+
+Fourteen years previously Antony had visited Alexandria, and had there
+seen the youthful Cleopatra, then a girl of fifteen, but already so
+beautiful and attractive that the susceptible Roman was deeply smitten
+with her charms. Later she had charmed Cæsar, and now when the lord of
+the East set out on a tour of his new dominions, the love queen of Egypt
+left her capital for Cilicia with the purpose of making him her captive.
+
+It was midsummer of the year 41 B.C. when Antony arrived at Tarsus, on
+the river Cydnus. Up this stream to visit him came, in more than
+Oriental pomp, the beautiful Egyptian queen. The galley that bore her
+was gorgeous beyond comparison. Its sails were of Tyrian purple; silver
+oars fretted the yielding wave, while music timed their rise and fall;
+the poop glittered with burnished gold; rich perfumes filled the air
+with fragrance. Here, on a splendid couch, under a spangled canopy,
+reclined Cleopatra, attired as Venus, and surrounded by attendants
+dressed as Graces and Cupids. Beautiful slaves moved oars and ropes, and
+the whole array was one of wondrous charm. We cannot do better than
+quote Shakespeare's vivid description of this unequalled spectacle:
+
+  "The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne,
+  Burned on the water; the poop was beaten gold;
+  Purple the sails, and so perfumed that
+  The winds were love-sick with them; the oars were silver,
+  Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made
+  The water that they beat to follow faster,
+  As amorous of their strokes. For her own person,
+  It beggared all description; she did lie
+  In her pavilion--cloth-of-gold of tissue--
+  Outpicturing that Venus where we see
+  The fancy outwork nature; on each side her
+  Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,
+  With divers-colored fans, whose wind did seem
+  To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool."
+
+The people of Tarsus ran in crowds to gaze on this wondrous spectacle,
+leaving Antony alone in the Forum. At the request of Cleopatra he came
+also, and was so captivated at sight that he became her slave. He forgot
+Rome, forgot his wife Fulvia, forgot honor and dignity, through his wild
+passion for this Egyptian sorceress. Following her to Alexandria, he
+laid aside his Roman garb for the Oriental costume of the Egyptian
+court, gave way to all Cleopatra's pleasure-loving caprices, and lived
+in a perpetual round of orgies and festivities, heedless of honor and
+duty, and caring for naught but love and sensual enjoyment.
+
+Intoxicated with pleasure, Antony did not know what risk he ran. Shortly
+before Octavius had been spoken of as a boy, whom it would be easy to
+manage and control. He was feeble and sickly,--so much so, indeed, that
+just at this time his death was reported in Rome. But the "boy" was
+ambitious, astute, and far-seeing, and Marc Antony was descending to
+ruin with every step he took in his career of folly and profligacy.
+
+The history of the succeeding years is long, but must here be made
+short. The two lords of Rome were changed from friends to enemies by the
+act of Fulvia, the wife of Antony. Octavius had married her daughter
+Claudia, and now divorced her. Anger at this, and a hope of winning
+Antony from the seductions of the Egyptian queen, caused her to organize
+a formidable revolt against Octavius. She succeeded in raising a large
+army, but Antony was still too absorbed in Cleopatra to come to her aid,
+and Agrippa, the able general of Octavius, soon put down the revolt.
+
+Then, when it was too late to help her, Antony awoke from his lethargy,
+and sailed to battle with Octavius. He besieged Brundusium. But Fulvia
+had died, the soldiers had no heart for civil war, and the great rivals
+again made peace. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, they
+divided the Roman world between them as before, and Rome was made happy
+by a grand round of games and festivities.
+
+[Illustration: THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA.]
+
+For three years Antony remained true to his new wife, and aided Octavius
+in putting down the foes of Rome. Then, during a campaign in Syria, his
+old passion for the fascinating Egyptian returned, he called Cleopatra
+to him, dallied with her instead of prosecuting his march, and in the
+end was forced to retreat in haste from the barbarian foe.
+
+For three years now Antony was the willing slave of the enchanting
+queen. The courage and stoical endurance of the soldier vanished, and
+were replaced by the soft indulgence of the voluptuary. The rigid
+discipline of the camp was exchanged for the idle and often childish
+amusements of the Oriental court. Cleopatra enchained him with an
+endless round of pleasures and profligacies. Now, while in a
+fishing-boat on the Nile, the queen amused him by having salted fish
+fixed by divers on his hook, which he drew up amid the laughter of the
+party. Again she wagered that she would consume ten million sesterces at
+a meal, and won her wager by drinking vinegar in which she had dissolved
+a priceless pearl. All the enjoyments that the fancy of the cunning
+enchantress could devise were spread around him, and he let the world
+roll unheeded by while he yielded to their alluring charm.
+
+Antony posed at festive tables in the character of the god Osiris, while
+Cleopatra played the rôle of Isis. He issued coins which bore her head
+and his. He gave away kingdoms and principalities in the East to please
+her fancy. It was her hope and aim to lead her yielding lover to the
+conquest of Rome, and to rule as empress of that imperial city.
+
+But the madness of Antony led to destruction, not empire. The story of
+his doings was repeated at Rome, where the voluptuary lost credit as
+Octavius gained it. Antony's friends urged him to dismiss Cleopatra and
+fight for the empire. Instead of this the infatuated madman divorced
+Octavia and clung to the Egyptian queen.
+
+This act led to an open rupture. Octavius, by authority of the senate,
+declared war, not against Antony, but against Cleopatra. Antony was at
+length roused. He gathered an army in haste, passed to Ephesus and
+Athens, and everywhere levied men and collected ships. A last and great
+struggle for the supreme headship of the Roman world was at hand.
+
+Octavius was not skilled in war, but he had in Agrippa one of the ablest
+of ancient generals, and was wise enough to trust all warlike operations
+to him. Antony had strongly fortified himself at Actium, on the west
+coast of Greece, while the strong fleet he had gathered lay in its
+spacious bay. Here took place one of the decisive battles of the world's
+history.
+
+Antony had made the fatal mistake of bringing Cleopatra with him. Under
+her advice he played the part of a poltroon instead of a soldier. His
+chief officers, disgusted by his fascination, deserted him in numbers,
+and, yielding to her urgent fears, he resolved to fly with the fleet and
+abandon the army.
+
+In this act of folly he failed. A strong gale from the south kept the
+fleet for four days in the harbor. Then the ships of Octavius came up,
+and the two fleets joined battle off the headland of Actium.
+
+The ships of Antony were much larger and more powerful than those of
+Octavius. Little impression was made on them by the light Italian
+vessels, and had Antony been a soldier still, or Cleopatra possessed as
+much courage as guile, the victory might well have been theirs. But
+battle was no place for the pleasure-loving queen. Filled with terror,
+she took advantage of the first wind that came, and sailed hastily away,
+followed by sixty Egyptian ships.
+
+The moment Antony discovered her flight he gave up the world for love.
+Springing from his ship-of-war into a light galley, he hastened in wild
+pursuit after his flying mistress. Overtaking her vessel, he went on
+board, but seated himself in morose misery at a distance, and would have
+nothing to do with her. Ruin and despair were now his mistresses.
+
+Their commander fled, the ships fought on, and yielded not till the
+greater part of them were in flames. Before night they were all
+destroyed, and with them perished most of those on board, while all the
+treasure was lost. When the army heard of Antony's desertion the legions
+went over to the conqueror. That brief sea-fight had ended the war.
+
+For a year Octavius did not trouble his rival. He spent the time in
+cementing his power in Greece and Asia Minor. Cleopatra tried her
+fascinations on him, as she had on Cæsar and Antony, but in vain. She
+sought to fly to some place beyond the reach of Rome, but Arabs
+destroyed her ships. At length Octavius came. Antony made some show of
+hostility, but Cleopatra betrayed the fleet to his rival and all
+resistance ended. Octavius entered the open gates of Alexandria as a
+conqueror.
+
+The queen shut herself up in a building which she had erected as a
+mausoleum. It had no door, being built to receive her body after death,
+and word was sent out that she was already dead.
+
+When these false tidings were brought to Antony all his anger against
+the fair traitress was replaced by a flood of his old tenderness. In
+despair he stabbed himself, bidding his attendants to lay his body
+beside that of Cleopatra.
+
+Still living, he was borne to the queen's retreat, where, moved by pity,
+she had him drawn up by cords into an upper window. Here she threw
+herself in agony on his body, bathed his face with her tears, and
+continued to bemoan his fate until he was dead.
+
+She afterwards consented to receive Octavius. He spoke her fairly, but
+she was wise enough to see that all her charms were lost on him, and
+that he proposed to degrade her by making her walk as a captive in his
+triumph.
+
+With a cunning greater than his own, Cleopatra promised to submit. She
+had no apparent means of taking her life in the cell, every dangerous
+weapon was removed by his orders, and he left her, as he supposed, a
+safe victim of his wiles.
+
+He did not know Cleopatra. When his messengers returned, at the hour
+fixed, to conduct her away, they found only the dead body of Cleopatra
+stretched upon her couch, and by her side her two faithful attendants,
+Iris and Charmion. It is said that she died from the bite of an asp, a
+venomous Egyptian serpent, which had been secretly conveyed to her
+concealed in a basket of fruit; but this story remains unconfirmed.
+
+Plutarch tells the story thus: "But when they opened the doors they
+found Cleopatra stark dead, laid upon a bed of gold, attired and arrayed
+in her royal robes, and one of her two women, who was called Iris, dead
+at her feet, and the other woman (called Charmion) half dead, and
+trembling, trimming the diadem which Cleopatra wore upon her head.
+
+"One of the soldiers, seeing her, angrily said to her, 'Is that well
+done, Charmion?' 'Very well,' said she again, 'and meet for a princess
+descended from the race of so many noble kings.' She said no more, but
+fell down dead, hard by the bed.
+
+"Now Cæsar, though he was marvellous sorry for the death of Cleopatra,
+yet he wondered at her noble mind and courage, and therefore commanded
+that she should be nobly buried and laid by Antony."
+
+Thus ends the story of these two famous lovers of old. Octavius,
+afterwards known as Cæsar Augustus, reigned sole emperor of Rome, and
+the republic was at an end. He was not formally proclaimed emperor, but
+liberty and independence were thereafter forgotten words in Rome. He
+ended the old era of Roman history by closing the Temple of Janus, for
+the third time since it was built, and by freely forgiving all the
+friends of Antony. He had nothing to fear and had no thirst for blood
+and misery. Base as he had shown himself in his youth, his reign was a
+noble one, and during it Rome reached its highest level of literary and
+military glory.
+
+
+
+
+_AN IMPERIAL MONSTER._
+
+
+A being, half monster, half madman, had come to empire in Rome. This was
+Caius Cæsar, great-grandson of Augustus, who in his short career as
+emperor displayed a malignant cruelty unsurpassed by the worst of Roman
+emperors, and a mad folly unequalled by any. The only conceivable excuse
+for him is mental disease; but insanity which takes the form of thirst
+for blood, and is combined with unlimited power, is a spectacle to make
+the very gods weep. We describe his career as the most exaggerated
+instance on record of mingled folly and malignity.
+
+Brought up in the camp, he was christened by the soldiers Caligula, from
+the soldier's boots (_caligæ_) which he wore. By shrewd dissimulation he
+preserved his life through the reign of Tiberius, and was left heir to
+the throne along with the emperor's grandson. But, deceiving the senate
+by his pretended moderation, he was appointed by that body sole emperor.
+
+They little knew what they did. Tiberius, who appears to have read him
+truly, spoke of educating him "for the destruction of the Roman people,"
+and Caligula seemed eager to make these words good. At first, indeed,
+he seemed generous and merciful, mingling this affectation with a savage
+profligacy and voluptuousness. Illness, however, apparently affected his
+brain or destroyed what little moral nature he possessed, and he quickly
+embarked on a career of frightful excess and barbarity.
+
+The great wealth left by Tiberius--over twenty-five million dollars--was
+expended by him in a single year, and to gain new funds he taxed and
+robbed his subjects to an incredible extent. One of his methods of
+finance was to force wealthy citizens to gamble with him for enormous
+sums, and when they lost their all (they dared not win), he would make
+their lives the stake and bid their friends redeem them. In addition to
+this open robbery of the rich, taxes of all sorts were laid and
+unlimited oppressions enforced. The new edicts of the emperor were
+written so small and posted so high as to be unreadable, yet no excuse
+of ignorance of the law was admitted in extenuation of a fault.
+
+The funds obtained by such oppressive means were lavished on the most
+extravagant follies. We are told of loaves of solid gold set before his
+guests, and the prows of galleys adorned with diamonds. His favorite
+horse was kept in an ivory stable and fed from a golden manger, and when
+invited to a banquet at his own table was regaled with gilded oats,
+served in a golden basin of exquisite workmanship.
+
+In addition to these domestic follies, he built villas and laid out
+gardens without regard to cost; and, that he might vie with Xerxes, he
+constructed a bridge of ships three miles long, from Baiæ to Puteoli,
+on which he built houses and planted trees. This madness was concluded
+by throwing a great many of his guests from the bridge into the sea, and
+by driving recklessly with his war-galley through the throng of boats
+that had gathered to witness the spectacle.
+
+These cruelties were mild compared with his more deliberate ones. Rome
+was filled with executions, the estates of his victims being
+confiscated; and it was his choice delight to have these victims
+tortured and slain in his presence while at dinner, the officers being
+bidden to protract their sufferings, that they might "feel themselves
+die." On one occasion he expressed the mad wish that all the Roman
+people had but one neck, that he might strike it off at a blow.
+
+Priding himself on the indifference with which he could gaze on human
+torture, it was one of his enjoyments to witness criminals torn to
+pieces by wild beasts, and if criminals proved scarce he did not
+hesitate to order some of the spectators to be thrown into the arena. In
+the same manner, if a full supply of gladiators was wanting, he would
+command Roman knights to battle in the arena, taking delight in the fact
+that this was viewed as an infamous pursuit. He kept two lists
+containing names of knights and senators whom he intended to put to
+death, and these contained the majority of both those bodies of Roman
+patricians. He is said to have put one man to death for being better
+dressed than himself, and another for being better looking.
+
+He married more wives than he had years of empire; but when one of
+these wives, Drusilla by name, died, he affected the bitterest grief,
+exiling himself to Sicily, and letting his beard and hair grow into wild
+disorder. On his return to Rome his subjects found themselves in a
+dangerous quandary. Those who made a show of sadness were declared
+guilty of disrespect to the memory of the queen, who had been translated
+to the joys of heaven. Those who seemed glad were adjudged equally
+guilty for not mourning her loss. And those who showed neither joy nor
+sorrow were accused of criminal indifference to his feelings. One man,
+who sold warm water in the streets, was sentenced to death for daring to
+pursue his occupation on so solemn an occasion.
+
+At a loss, as it would appear, in what madness next to indulge, Caligula
+finally not only declared himself a god, but erected a temple to his own
+divinity, and created a college of priests to serve at his altar. Among
+these were some of the first senators of Rome, who vied with each other
+in adulation to this impious wretch. Not content with these, he made his
+wife a priest, then his horse, and at length became a priest to himself.
+He played with the dignities of the realm in the same manner as with its
+religion, raised the ministers of his lusts to the highest offices, and
+finally went so far as to make his horse a consul of Rome.
+
+In his position as a deity he pretended to be equal to and on friendly
+terms with Jupiter, and would whisper in the ears of his statue as if
+they were in familiar intercourse. He had a machine constructed to vie
+with Jupiter's thunder, and during the lightning of a storm would
+challenge the god to mortal combat by hurling stones into the air.
+
+This succession of mad frolics and ruthless cruelties should, it would
+seem, have satisfied even a Caligula, but he managed to overtop them all
+by a supreme piece of folly, which stands alone among human freaks.
+Hitherto his doings had been those of peace; he now resolved to gain
+glory in war, and show the Romans what a man of soldierly mettle they
+had in their emperor. There were no particular wars then afoot, but he
+would make one, and resolved on an invasion of Germany, whose people
+were at that time quiet subjects or allies of Rome.
+
+To decide with him was to act. The army was ordered to prepare with the
+utmost haste, and was driven so fiercely that all was in confusion, the
+roads everywhere being blocked up with hurrying troops and great convoys
+of provisions, all converging rapidly on the line of march. Not waiting
+their arrival, he put himself at the head of the first legions gathered,
+and set out on the march with such furious speed that the legionaries
+were utterly exhausted with fatigue. Then, suddenly changing his mood,
+he affected the slow progress and military pomp of an Oriental king.
+
+On reaching the borders of Germany the emperor found no foes and showed
+no fancy for fighting. Concealing some boys in a wood, he got up a mock
+battle with them, and at its end congratulated the troops on their valor
+and felicitated himself on his success. Next, the British island being
+still under process of conquest, he marched his army, two hundred
+thousand strong, to the sea-shore of Gaul, and drew them up in line of
+battle. The legionaries stolidly obeyed, wondering in their stern souls
+what new madness the emperor had in mind.
+
+They were soon to know. He bade them to fill their helmets with
+sea-shells, "the spoils of the ocean due to the Capitol and the palace."
+Then he distributed large sums of money among the troops, giving a
+reward for valor to each, and bidding them "henceforth to be happy and
+rich."
+
+This was all well for the army, but the people of Rome must be impressed
+with the glory and victorious success of their emperor. Such a career
+was worthy a triumph; and to the German hostages and criminals, destined
+to figure in the procession to the Capitol, he added a number of tall
+and martial Gauls, chosen without regard to rank or condition, whom he
+ordered to learn German, that they might pass for German captives.
+
+And now, his military expedition having ended without shedding the blood
+of a foe, Caligula's insane thirst for blood arose, and he determined to
+glut it out of the ranks of his own army. There were in it some
+regiments which had mutinied against his father on the death of
+Augustus. He ordered these to be slaughtered for their crime. Some of
+his higher officers representing to him the danger of such a proceeding,
+he changed his mind, and gave orders that these legions should be
+decimated. But the whole army showed such symptoms of discontent with
+this cruel order that Caligula was seized with consternation, and fled
+in a panic to Rome.
+
+On reaching the city the senate proved bold enough to vote him an
+ovation instead of the triumph on which he had set his mind. Incensed at
+this, he met the advances of the patricians with stinging insults, and
+perhaps determined in his mind to be deeply revenged for this
+premeditated slight.
+
+Whatever he had in view, he did not live much longer to afflict mankind.
+Four months more brought him to the end of his flagitious career. There
+was a brave soldier of the palace guard, Cassius Chærea by name, who
+happened to have a weak voice, and whom Caligula frequently insulted in
+public for this fault of nature. These insults in time grew heavier and
+viler than the veteran could bear, and he organized a conspiracy with a
+few others against the emperor's life. Meeting him without guards, the
+conspirators assailed him with their daggers and put an end to his base
+life.
+
+Thus died, after twenty-nine years of life and four years of power, one
+of the vilest, cruellest, and maddest of the imperial demons who so long
+made Rome a slaughter-house and an abomination among the nations.
+
+
+
+
+_THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS._
+
+
+Nero was lord of Rome. Chance had placed a weak and immoral boy in
+unlimited control of the greatest of nations. Utterly destitute of
+principle, he gradually descended into the deepest vice and profligacy,
+which was soon succeeded by the basest cruelty and treachery. And one of
+the first victims of his treachery was his own mother, who had murdered
+her husband, the Emperor Claudius, to place him on the throne, and had
+now committed the deeper fault of attempting to control her worthless
+and faithless son.
+
+She had threatened to replace him on the throne with his half-brother
+Britannicus, and Nero had escaped this difficulty by poisoning
+Britannicus. She then opposed his vicious passions, and made a bitter
+foe of his mistress Poppæa, who by every artifice incensed the
+weak-minded emperor against his mother, representing her as the only
+obstacle to his full enjoyment of power and pleasure.
+
+At length the detestable son was wrought up to the resolution of
+murdering her to whom he owed his life. But how? He was too cowardly and
+irresolute to take open means. Should he remove her by poison or the
+poignard? The first was doubtful. Agrippina was too practised in guilt,
+too accustomed to vile deeds, to be easily deceived, and had, moreover,
+by taking poisons, hardened her frame against their effect. Nor could
+she be killed by the knife and the murder concealed. The murder-seeking
+wretch, who had no plan, and no stronger person than himself in whom he
+could confide, was at a loss how to carry out his wicked purpose.
+
+At this juncture his tutor Anicetus came to his aid. This villain, who
+bitterly hated Agrippina, was now in command of the fleet that lay at
+Misenum. He proposed to Nero to have a vessel built in such a manner
+that it might give way in the open sea, and plunge to the bottom with
+all not prepared to escape. If Agrippina could be lured on board such a
+vessel, her drowning would seem one of the natural disasters of the open
+sea.
+
+This suggestion filled with joy the mind of the unnatural son. The court
+was then at Baiæ, celebrating the festival called the Quinquatria.
+Agrippina was invited to attend, and Nero, pretending a desire for
+reconciliation, went to the sea-shore to meet her on her arrival,
+embraced her tenderly, and conducted her to a villa in a pleasant
+situation, looking out on a charming bay of the Mediterranean.
+
+On the waters of the bay floated a number of vessels, among which was
+one superbly decorated, being prepared, as she was told, in her honor as
+the emperor's mother. This was intended to convey her to Baiæ, where a
+banquet was to be given to her that evening.
+
+Agrippina was fond of sailing. She had frequently joined coasting
+parties and made pleasure trips of her own. But for some reason, perhaps
+through suspicion of Nero's dark project, she now took a carriage in
+preference, and arrived safely at Baiæ, much to the discomfiture of her
+worthless son.
+
+Nero, however, was cunning enough to conceal his disappointment. He gave
+her the most gracious reception, placed her at table above himself, and
+by his affectionate attentions and his easy flow of talk succeeded in
+dispelling any suspicions his mother may have entertained.
+
+The banquet was continued till a late hour, and when Agrippina rose to
+go Nero attended her to the shore, where lay the sumptuously decorated
+vessel ready to convey her back to her villa. Here he lavished upon her
+marks of fond affection, clasped her warmly to his bosom, and bade her
+adieu in words of tender regret, disguising his fell purpose under the
+utmost show of tenderness.
+
+Agrippina went on board, attended by only two of her train, one of whom,
+a maid named Acerronia, lay at the foot of her mistress's couch, and
+gladly expressed her joy at the loving reconciliation which she had just
+perceived.
+
+The night was calm and serene. The stars shone with their brightest
+lustre. The sea extended with an unruffled surface. The vessel moved
+swiftly, at no great distance from the shore, under the regular sweep of
+the rowers' oars. Yet little way had been made when there came a
+disastrous change. A signal was given, and suddenly the deck over
+Agrippina's cabin sank in, borne down by a great weight of lead.
+
+One of the attendants of the empress was crushed to death, but the posts
+of Agrippina's couch proved strong enough to bear the weight, and she
+and Acerronia escaped and made their way hastily to the deck. Here
+confusion and consternation reigned. The plot had failed. The vessel had
+not fallen to pieces at once, as intended. Those who were not in the
+plot rushed wildly to and fro, hampering, by their distracted movements,
+the operations of the guilty. These sought to sink the vessel at once,
+but in spite of their efforts the ship sank but slowly, giving the
+intended victims an opportunity to escape.
+
+Acerronia, with instinctive devotion to her mistress, or a desire to
+save her own life, cried out that she was Agrippina, and pathetically
+implored the mariners to save her life. She won death instead. The
+assassins attacked her with oars and other weapons, and beat her down to
+the sinking deck. Agrippina, on the contrary, kept silent, and, with the
+exception of a wound on her shoulder, remained unhurt. Dashing into the
+dark waters of the bay, she swam towards the shore, and managed to keep
+herself afloat till taken up by a boat, in which some persons who had
+witnessed the accident from the shore had hastily put out. Telling her
+rescuers who she was, they conveyed her up the bay to her villa.
+
+Agrippina had been concerned in too many crimes of her own devising to
+be deceived. The treachery of her son was too evident. Without touching
+a rock, and in complete calm, the vessel had suddenly broken down, as
+if constructed for the purpose. Her own wound and the murder of her maid
+were further proofs of a preconcerted plot. Yet she was too shrewd to
+make her suspicions public. The plot had failed, and she was still
+alive. She at once despatched a messenger to her son, saying that by the
+favor of the gods and his good auspices she had escaped shipwreck, and
+that she thus hastened to quiet his affectionate fears. She then retired
+to her couch.
+
+Meanwhile Nero waited impatiently for the news of his mother's death.
+When word was at length brought him that she had escaped, his craven
+soul was filled with terror. If this should get abroad; if she should
+call on her slaves, on the army, on the senate; if the people should
+learn of the plot of murder, and rise in riot; if any of a dozen
+contingencies should happen, all might be lost.
+
+The terrified emperor was in a frightful quandary. He sent in all haste
+for his advisers, but none of them cared to offer any suggestions. At
+length the villanous Anicetus came to his aid. While they talked the
+messenger of Agrippina had arrived, and was admitted to give his message
+to the prince. As he was speaking Anicetus foxily let fall a dagger
+between his legs. He instantly seized him, snatched up the dagger and
+showed it to the company, and declared that the wretch had been sent by
+Agrippina to assassinate her son. The guards were called in, the man was
+ordered to be dragged away and put in fetters, and the story of the
+discovered plot of Agrippina was made public.
+
+"Death to the murderess!" cried Anicetus. "Let me hasten at once to
+her punishment."
+
+Nero gladly assented, and Anicetus hurried from the room, empowered to
+carry out his murderous intent.
+
+Meanwhile the news of the peril and escape of the empress had spread far
+and wide. A dreadful accident had occurred, it was said. The people
+rushed in numbers to the shore, crowded the piers, filled the boats, and
+gave voice to a medley of cries of alarm. The uproar was at length
+allayed by some men with lighted torches, who assured the excited
+multitude that Agrippina had escaped and was now safe in her villa.
+
+While they were speaking a body of soldiers, led by Anicetus, arrived,
+and with threats of violence dispersed the peasant throng. Then,
+planting a guard round the mansion, Anicetus burst open its doors,
+seized the slaves who appeared, and forced his way to the apartment of
+the empress.
+
+Here Agrippina waited in fear and agitation the return of her messenger.
+Why came he not? Was new murder in contemplation? She heard the tumult
+and confusion on the shore, and learned from her attendants what it
+meant. But the noise was suddenly hushed; a dismal silence prevailed;
+then came new noises, then loud tones of command, and violent blows on
+the outer doors. In dread of what was coming, the unhappy woman waited
+still, till loud steps sounded in the passage, the attendants at her
+door were thrust aside, and armed men entered her chamber.
+
+The room was in deep shadow, only the pale glimmer of a feeble light
+breaking the gloom. A single maid remained with the empress, and she,
+too, hastened to the door on hearing the tramp of warlike feet.
+
+"Do you, too, desert me?" cried Agrippina, in deep reproach.
+
+At that moment Anicetus entered the room, followed by two other
+ruffians. They approached her bed. She rose to receive them.
+
+"If you come from the prince," she said, "tell him I am well. If your
+intents are murderous, you are not sent by my son. The guilt of
+parricide is foreign to his heart."
+
+Her words were checked by a blow on the head with a club. A sword-thrust
+followed, and she expired under a number of mortal wounds. Thus died the
+niece, the wife, and the mother of an emperor, the daughter of the
+celebrated soldier Germanicus, herself so stained with vice that none
+can pity her fate, particularly as she had committed the further
+unconscious crime of giving birth to the monster named Nero.
+
+
+
+
+_BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN._
+
+
+Prasutagus, the king of the Icenians, a tribe of the ancient Britons,
+had amassed much wealth in the course of a long reign. On his death, in
+order to secure the favor of the Romans, now masters of the island, he
+left half his wealth by will to the emperor and half to his two
+daughters. This well-judged action of the barbarian king did not have
+the intended effect. No sooner was he dead than the Romans in the
+vicinity claimed the whole estate as theirs, ruthlessly pillaged his
+house, and seized all his effects.
+
+This base brigandage roused Boadicea, the widowed queen, to a vigorous
+protest, but with the sole result of bringing a worse calamity upon her
+head. She was seized and cruelly scourged by the ruthless Romans, her
+two daughters were vilely maltreated, and the noblest of the Icenians
+were robbed of their possessions by the plunderers, who went so far as
+to reduce to slavery the near relatives of the deceased king.
+
+Roused to madness by this inhuman treatment, the Icenians broke into
+open revolt. They were joined by a neighboring state, while the
+surrounding Britons, not yet inured to bondage, secretly resolved to
+join the cause of liberty. There had lately been planted a colony of
+Roman veterans at Camalodunum (Colchester), who had treated the Britons
+cruelly, driven them from their houses, and insulted them with the names
+of slaves and captives; while the common soldiers, a licentious and
+greedy crew, still further degraded and robbed the owners of the land.
+
+The invaders went too far for British endurance, and brought a terrible
+retribution upon themselves. Paulinus Suetonius, an able officer, who
+then commanded in Britain, was absent on an expedition to conquer the
+island of Mona. Of this expedition the historian Tacitus gives a vivid
+account. As the boats of the Romans approached the island they beheld on
+the shore the Britons prepared to receive them, while through their
+ranks rushed their women in funereal attire, their hair flying loose in
+the wind, flaming torches in their hands, and their whole appearance
+recalling the frantic rage of the fabled Furies. Near by, ranged in
+order, stood the venerable Druids, or Celtic priests, with uplifted
+hands, at once invoking the gods and pouring forth imprecations upon the
+foe.
+
+The novelty and impressiveness of this spectacle filled the Romans with
+awe and wonder. They stood in stupid amazement, riveted to the spot, and
+a mark for the foe had they been then attacked. From this brief
+paralysis the voice of their general recalled them, and, ashamed of
+being held in awe by a troop of women and a band of fanatic priests,
+they rushed to the assault, cut down all before them, and set fire to
+the edifices and the sacred groves of the island with the torches which
+the Britons themselves had kindled.
+
+But Suetonius had chosen a perilous time for this enterprise. During his
+absence the wrongs of the Icenians and the exhortations of Boadicea had
+roused a formidable revolt, and the undefended colonies of the Romans
+were in danger.
+
+In addition to the actual peril the Romans were frightened with dire
+omens. The statue of victory at Camalodunum fell without any visible
+cause, and lay prostrate on the ground. Clamors in a foreign accent were
+heard in the Roman council chamber, the theatres were filled with the
+sound of savage howlings, the sea ran purple as with blood, the figures
+of human bodies were traced on the sands, and the image of a colony in
+ruins was reflected from the waters of the Thames.
+
+These omens threw the Romans into despair and filled the minds of the
+Britons with joy. No effort was made by the soldiers for defence, no
+ditch was dug, no palisade erected, and the assault of the Britons found
+the colonists utterly unprepared. Taken by surprise, the Romans were
+overpowered, and the colony was laid waste with fire and sword. The
+fortified temple alone held out, but after a two days' siege it also was
+taken, and the legion which marched to its relief was cut to pieces.
+
+Boadicea was now the leading spirit among the Britons. Her wrongs had
+stirred them to revolt, and her warlike energy led them to victory and
+revenge. But she was soon to have a master-spirit to meet. Suetonius,
+recalled from the island of Mona by tidings of rebellion and disaster,
+marched hastily as far as London, which was even then the chief
+residence of the merchants and the centre of trade and commerce of the
+island.
+
+His army was small, not more than ten thousand men in all. That of the
+Britons was large. The interests of the empire were greater than those
+of any city, and Suetonius found himself obliged to abandon London to
+the barbarians, despite the supplications of its imperilled citizens.
+All he would agree to was to take under his protection those who chose
+to follow his banner. Many followed him, but many remained, and no
+sooner had he marched out than the Britons fell in rage on the
+settlement, and killed all they found. In like manner they ravaged
+Verulamium (St. Albans). Seventy thousand Romans are said to have been
+put to the sword.
+
+Meanwhile Suetonius marched through the land, and at length the two
+armies met. The skilled Roman general drew up his force in a place where
+a thick forest sheltered the rear and flanks, leaving only a narrow
+front open to attack. Here the Britons, twenty times his number, and
+confident of victory, approached. The warlike Boadicea, tall, stern of
+countenance, her hair hanging to her waist, a spear in her hand, drove
+along their front in a warlike car, with her two daughters by her side,
+and eloquently sought to rouse her countrymen to thirst for revenge.
+
+Telling them of the base cruelty with which she and her daughters had
+been treated, and painting in vivid words the arrogance and insults of
+the Romans, she besought them to fight for their country and their
+homes. "On this spot we must either conquer or die with glory," she
+said. "There is no alternative. Though I am a woman, my resolution is
+fixed. The men, if they prefer, may survive with infamy and live in
+bondage. For me there is only victory or death."
+
+Stirred to fury by her words, the British host poured like a deluge on
+their foes. But the Roman arms and discipline proved far too much for
+barbarian courage and ferocity. The British were repulsed, and, rushing
+forward in a wedge shape, the legions cut their way with frightful
+carnage through the disordered ranks. The cavalry seconded their
+efforts. Thousands fell. The rest took to flight. But the wagons of the
+British, which had been massed in the rear, impeded their flight, and a
+dreadful slaughter, in which neither sex nor age was spared, ensued.
+Tacitus tells us that eighty thousand Britons fell, while the Roman
+slain numbered no more than four hundred men.
+
+Boadicea, who had done her utmost to rally her flying hosts, kept to her
+resolution. When all was lost, she took poison, and perished upon the
+field where she had vowed to seek victory or death. With her decease the
+success of the Britons vanished. Though they still kept the field, they
+gradually yielded to the Roman arms, and Britain became in time a quiet
+and peaceful part of the great empire of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES._
+
+
+Nero, the cruel coward under whom Rome for its sins was made to suffer,
+could scarcely devise follies and atrocities enough to please his
+profligate fancy. He offended the pride and sense of decorum of Rome by
+forcing senators and women of the highest rank to appear as gladiators
+in the arena. He exposed himself to ridicule by appearing as an actor in
+the theatre at Naples, which theatre, as soon as the audience dispersed,
+tumbled to pieces,--a little late so far as Nero himself was concerned.
+Returning to Rome, he indulged in every species of vice and folly,
+lavishing the wealth of the state with the utmost prodigality. On the
+lake of Agrippa he had a pavilion erected on a great floating platform,
+which was moved from point to point by the aid of boats superbly
+decorated with gold and ivory, while to furnish the banquet here given,
+animals of the chase were sought in the whole country round, and fish
+were brought from every sea and even from the distant ocean. When night
+descended a sudden illumination burst forth from all sides, and music
+resounded from every grove. These are the mentionable parts of the
+festival. Vile scenes were exhibited of which nothing can be said.
+
+Finally, at a loss in what deeper excess of vice and ostentation to
+indulge, the crowned reprobate set fire to Rome that he might enjoy the
+spectacle of an unlimited conflagration. This wickedness, it is true, is
+doubted by some historians, but we are told that during the prevalence
+of the flames a crew of incendiaries threatened anyone with death who
+should seek to extinguish them, and flung flaming torches into the
+dwellings, crying that they acted under orders.
+
+In all the history of Rome this fire was far the most violent and
+destructive. Breaking out in a number of shops stored with combustible
+goods, and driven by the winds, it raged with the utmost fury, neither
+the thick walls of the houses nor the enclosures of the temples
+sufficing to stay its frightful progress. The form of the streets, long,
+narrow, and winding, added to the mischief, and the flames swiftly sped
+alike through the humblest and the stateliest quarters of the mighty
+capital.
+
+"The shrieks and lamentations of women, the infirmities of age, and the
+weakness of the young and tender," says Tacitus, "added misery to the
+dreadful scene. Some endeavored to provide for themselves, others to
+save their friends, in one part dragging along the lame and impotent, in
+another waiting to receive the tardy, or expecting relief themselves;
+they hurried, they lingered, they obstructed one another; they looked
+behind, and the fire broke out in front; they escaped from the flames,
+and in their place of refuge found no safety; the fire raged in every
+quarter; all were involved in one general conflagration.
+
+"The unhappy wretches fled to places remote, and thought themselves
+secure, but soon perceived the flames raging round them. Which way to
+turn, what to avoid, or what to seek, no one could tell. They crowded
+the streets; they fell prostrate on the ground; they lay stretched in
+the fields, in consternation and dismay resigned to their fate. Numbers
+lost their whole substance, even the tools and implements by which they
+gained their livelihood, and, in that distress, did not wish to survive.
+Others, wild with affliction for their friends and relations whom they
+could not save, embraced voluntary death, and perished in the flames."
+
+The story goes that, while the city was in its intensest blaze, Nero
+watched it with high enjoyment from a tower in the house of Mæcenas, and
+finally went to his own theatre, where in his scenic dress he mounted
+the stage, tuned his harp, and sang the destruction of Troy.
+
+How far Nero was guilty and to what extent the stories told of him were
+true will never be known, but he was destined to feel the calamity
+himself, for in time the devouring flames reached the imperial palace,
+and laid it with all its treasures and surrounding buildings in ruins.
+For six days the fire raged uncontrolled, and then, when it seemed
+subdued, a new conflagration broke out and burned with all the old fury,
+spreading still more widely the area of ruin and devastation.
+
+The number of buildings destroyed cannot be ascertained. Not only
+dwellings and shops, but temples, porticos, and other public buildings,
+were destroyed, among them the most venerable monuments of antiquity,
+which the worship of ages had rendered sacred; and with these the
+trophies of uncounted victories, the inimitable works of the great
+artists of Greece, and precious monuments of literature and ancient
+genius, were irrecoverably lost.
+
+Whether or not this fire took place through Nero's orders, and was
+played to by him on the harp, he showed more feeling for the people and
+more good sense in the rebuilding of the city than could have been
+expected from one of his weak and vicious character. By his orders the
+Field of Mars, the magnificent buildings erected by Agrippa, and even
+the imperial gardens were thrown open to the houseless people, and sheds
+for their shelter were erected with all possible haste. Household
+utensils and all kinds of useful implements were brought from Ostia and
+other neighboring cities, and the price of grain was reduced. But all
+this failed to gain the good-will of the people, who were exasperated by
+the story that Nero had exulted in the grandeur of the flames, and
+harped over burning Rome.
+
+When the fire was at length subdued, of the fourteen quarters of Rome
+only four were left entire; the remainder presented more or less utter
+ruin. The conflagration in the time of the Gauls had been little more
+complete, while the wealth now consumed was incomparably greater. The
+whole world had been robbed of its treasures to feed the flames of Rome.
+But the haste and ill-judged confusion with which the city was rebuilt
+after the irruption of the Gauls was not now repeated. A regular plan
+was formed; the new streets were made wide and straight; the elevation
+of the houses was defined, and each was given an open area before the
+door, and was adorned with porticos. The expense of these porticos Nero
+took upon himself. He ordered also that the new houses should not be
+contiguous, but that each should be surrounded by its own enclosure;
+and, in order to hurry the work, he offered rewards to those who should
+finish their buildings in a fixed period. As for the refuse of the fire,
+it was removed at Nero's expense to the marshes of Ostia in the ships
+that brought corn up the Tiber.
+
+These regulations, while they must have made much confusion among the
+rival claimants of building sites, added greatly to the beauty and
+comfort of the new city, and the Rome which rose from the ruins was far
+more stately and handsome than the Rome which had vanished in ashes and
+smoke. But Nero, while showing some passing feeling for the people and
+some wisdom in the rebuilding of the city, did not hesitate to use a
+generous portion of the devastated space for his own advantage. His
+palace had been destroyed, and he built a new and most magnificent one
+on the Palatine Hill, the famous "golden house," which after-ages beheld
+with unstinted admiration.
+
+But he did not confine his ostentation to the palace itself. A great
+space around it was converted into pleasure-grounds for his amusement,
+in which, as Tacitus says, "expansive lakes and fields of vast extent
+were intermixed with pleasing variety; woods and forests stretched to
+an immeasurable length, presenting gloom and solitude amid scenes of
+open space, where the eye wandered with surprise over an unbounded
+prospect."
+
+But nothing that Nero could do sufficed to remove from men's minds the
+belief that on him rested the infamy of the fire. This public sentiment
+troubled and frightened him, and to remove it he sought to lay the
+burden of guilt on others. It was now the year 64 A.D., and for at least
+thirty years the new sect of the Christians had been spreading in Rome,
+where it had gained many adherents among the humbler and more moral
+section of the population. The Christians were far from popular. They
+were accused of secret and evil practices and debasing superstitions,
+and on this despised sect Nero determined to turn the fury of the
+populace.
+
+[Illustration: THE TOMB OF HADRIAN.]
+
+With his usual artifice he induced a number of abandoned wretches to
+confess themselves guilty, and on their purchased evidence numbers of
+the Christians were seized and convicted, mainly on the plea of their
+sullen hatred of the whole human race. A frightful persecution followed,
+Nero perhaps hoping, by an exhibition of human suffering, so dear to the
+rabble of Rome, to turn the thoughts of the people from their own
+losses.
+
+The captives were put to death with every cruelty the emperor could
+devise, and to their sufferings he added mockery and derision. Many were
+nailed to the cross; others were covered with the skins of wild beasts,
+and left to be devoured by dogs; numbers were burned alive, many of
+these, covered with inflammable matter, being set on fire to serve as
+torches during the night.
+
+That the public might see this tragic spectacle with the more
+satisfaction, it was given in the imperial gardens. The sports of the
+circus were added to the tortures of the victims, Nero himself driving
+his chariot in the races, or mingling with the rabble in his coachman's
+dress. These cruel proceedings continued until even the hardened Roman
+heart became softened with compassion, spectators failed to come, and
+Nero felt obliged to yield to a general demand that the persecutions
+should cease.
+
+While all this went on at Rome, the people of the whole empire suffered
+with those of the capital city. Italy was ravaged and the provinces
+plundered to supply the demand for the rebuilding of the city and palace
+and the unbounded prodigality of the emperor. The very gods were taxed,
+their temples being robbed of golden treasures which had been gathering
+for ages through the gifts of pious devotees; while in Greece and Asia
+not alone the treasures of the temples but the statues of the deities
+were seized. Nero was preparing for himself a load of infamy worthy of
+the most frightful retribution, and which would not fail soon to reap
+its fitting reward.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DOOM OF NERO._
+
+
+We have perhaps paid too much attention to the enormities of Caligula
+and Nero. Yet the mad freakishness of the one and the cowardly
+dissimulation of the other give to their stories a dramatic interest
+which seems to render them worth repeating. Nero, one of the basest and
+cruelest of the Roman emperors, is one of the best known to readers, and
+the interest felt in him is not alone due to the story of his life, but
+as well to that of his death, which we therefore here give.
+
+A conspiracy against him among some of the noblest citizens of Rome was
+discovered and punished with revengeful fury. It was followed, a few
+years afterwards, by a revolt of the armies in Gaul and Spain. This was
+in its turn quelled, and Nero triumphed in imagination over all his
+enemies. But he had lost favor alike with the army and the people, and
+an event now happened that threw the whole city into a ferment of anger
+against him.
+
+Food was scarce, and the arrival of a ship from Alexandria, supposed to
+be loaded with corn, filled the people with joy. It proved instead to be
+loaded with sand for the arena. In their disappointment the people broke
+at first into scurrilous jests against Nero, and then into rage and
+fury. A wild clamor filled the streets. On all sides rose the demand to
+be delivered from a monster. Even the Prætorian guards, who had hitherto
+supported the emperor, began to show signs of disaffection, and were
+wrought to a spirit of revolt by two of the choice companions of Nero's
+iniquities, who now deserted him as rats desert a sinking ship. The
+senate was approached and told that Nero was no longer supported by his
+friends, and that they might now regain the power of which they had been
+deprived.
+
+Some whisper of what was afloat reached Nero's ears. Filled with craven
+fury, he resolved to massacre the senate, to set fire again to the city,
+and to let loose his whole collection of wild beasts. He proposed to fly
+to Egypt during the consternation that would prevail. A trusted servant,
+to whom he told this design, revealed it to the senate. It filled them
+with fear and rage. Yet even in so dire a contingency they could not be
+prevailed upon to act with vigor, and all might have been lost by their
+procrastination and timidity but for the two men who had organized the
+revolt.
+
+These men, Nymphidius and Tigellinus by name, went to the palace, and
+with a show of deep affliction informed Nero of his danger. "All is
+lost," they said: "the people call aloud for vengeance; the Prætorian
+guards have abandoned your cause; the senate is ready to pronounce a
+dreadful judgment. Only one hope remains to you, to fly for your life,
+and seek a retreat in Egypt."
+
+It was as they said; revolt was everywhere in the air, and affected the
+armies near and far. Nero sought assistance, but sought it in vain. The
+palace, lately swarming with life, was now deserted. Nero wandered
+through its empty chambers, and found only solitude and gloom.
+Conscience awoke in his seared heart, and he was filled with horror and
+remorse. Of all his late crowd of courtiers only three friends now
+remained with him,--Sporus, a servant; Phaon, a freedman; and
+Epaphroditus, his secretary.
+
+"'My wife, my father, and my mother doom me dead!'" he bitterly cried,
+quoting a line from a Greek tragedy.
+
+With a last hope he bade the soldiers on duty to hasten to Ostia and
+prepare a ship, on which he might embark for Egypt. The men refused.
+
+"'Is it, then, so wretched a thing to die?'" said one of them, quoting
+from Virgil.
+
+This refusal threw Nero into despair. He hurried to the Servilian
+gardens, with a vial of deadly poison, which, on getting there, he had
+not the courage to take. He returned to the palace and threw himself on
+his bed. Then, too agitated to lie, he sprang up and called for some
+friendly hand to end his wretched life. No one consented, and in his
+wild despair he called out, in doleful accents, "My friends desert me,
+and I cannot find an enemy."
+
+The world had suddenly fallen away from the despicable Nero. A week
+before he had ordered it at his will, now "none so poor to do him
+reverence." His craven terror would have been pitiable in any one to
+whom the word pity could apply. In frantic dread he rushed from the
+palace, as if with intent to fling himself into the Tiber. Then as
+hastily he returned, saying that he would fly to Spain, and yield
+himself to the mercy of Galba, who commanded the revolted army. But no
+ship was to be had for either Spain or Egypt, and this plan was
+abandoned as quickly as formed.
+
+These and other projects passed in succession through his distracted
+brain. One of the most absurd of them was to go in a mourning garb to
+the Forum, and by his powers of eloquence seek to win back the favor of
+the people. If they would not have him as emperor, he might by
+persuasive oratory obtain from them the government of Egypt.
+
+Full of hope in this new project, he was about to put it into effect,
+when a fresh reflection filled his soul with horror. What if the
+populace should, without waiting to hear his harmonious accents and
+unequalled oratory, break out in sudden rage and rend him limb from
+limb? Might they not assail him in the palace? Might not a seditious mob
+be already on its way thither, bent on bloody work? Whither should he
+fly? Where find refuge?
+
+Turning in despair to his companions, he asked them, wildly, "Is there
+no hiding-place, no safe retreat, where I may have leisure to consider
+what is to be done?"
+
+Phaon, his freedman, told him that he owned an obscure villa, at a
+distance of about four miles from Rome, where he might remain for a time
+in concealment.
+
+This suggestion, in Nero's state of distraction, was eagerly
+embraced,--in such haste, indeed, that he left the palace without an
+instant's preparation, his feet destitute of shoes, and no garment but
+his close tunic, his outer garments and imperial robe having been
+discarded in his distraction. The utmost he did was to snatch up an old
+rusty robe as a disguise, covering his head with it, and holding a
+handkerchief before his face. Thus attired, he mounted his horse and
+fled in frantic fear, attended only by the three men we have mentioned,
+and a fourth named Neophytus.
+
+Meanwhile, the revolt in the city was growing more and more decided.
+When the coming day showed its first faint rays, the Prætorian guards,
+who had been on duty in the palace, left their post and marched to the
+camp. Here, under the influence of Nymphidius, Galba was nominated
+emperor. This was an important innovation in the government of Rome.
+Hitherto the imperial dignity had remained in the family of Cæsar,
+descending by hereditary transmission. Nero was the last of that family
+to wear the crown. Henceforth the army and its generals controlled the
+destinies of the empire. The nomination of Galba by the Prætorian guard
+signalized the new state of things, in which the emperors would largely
+be chosen by that guard or by some army in the field.
+
+The action of the Prætorian guard was supported by the senate. That
+body, awaking from its late timidity, determined to mark the day with a
+decree worthy of its past history. With unanimous decision they
+pronounced Nero a tyrant who had trampled on all laws, human and divine,
+and condemned him to suffer death with all the rigor of the ancient
+laws.
+
+While this revolution was taking place in the city the terror-stricken
+Nero was still in frantic flight. He passed the Prætorian camp near
+enough to hear loud acclamations, among which the name of Galba reached
+his ear. As the small cavalcade hastened by a man early at work in the
+fields, he looked up and said, "These people must be hot in pursuit of
+Nero." A short distance farther another hailed them, asking, "What do
+they say of Nero in the city?"
+
+A more alarming event occurred soon. As they drew near Phaon's house the
+horse of Nero started at a dead carcass beside the road, shaking down
+the handkerchief by which he had concealed his face. The movement
+revealed him to a veteran soldier, then on his way to Rome, and ignorant
+of what was taking place in the city. He recognized and saluted the
+emperor by name.
+
+This incident increased Nero's fear. His route of flight would now be
+known. He pressed his horse to the utmost speed until Phaon's house was
+close at hand. They now halted and Nero dismounted, it being thought
+unsafe for him to enter the house publicly. He crossed a field overgrown
+with reeds, and, being tortured with thirst, scooped up some water from
+a muddy ditch and drank it, saying, dolefully, "Is this the beverage
+which Nero has been used to drink?"
+
+Phaon advised him to conceal himself in a neighboring sand-pit, from
+which could be opened for him a subterraneous passage to the house, but
+Nero refused, saying that he did not care to be buried alive. His
+companions then made an opening in the wall on one side of the house,
+through which Nero crept on his hands and knees. Entering a wretched
+chamber, he threw himself on a mean bed, which was covered with a
+tattered coverlet, and asked for some refreshment.
+
+All they could offer him was a little coarse bread, so black that the
+sight of it sickened his dainty taste, and some warm and foul water,
+which thirst forced him to drink. His friends meanwhile were in little
+less desperation than himself. They saw that no hope was left and that
+his place of concealment would soon be known, and entreated him to avoid
+a disgraceful death by taking his own life.
+
+Nero promised to do so, but still sought reasons for delay. His funeral
+must be prepared for, he said, and bade them to dig a grave, to prepare
+wood for a funeral pile, and bring marble to cover his remains.
+Meanwhile he piteously bewailed his unhappy lot; sighed and shed tears
+copiously; and said, with a last impulse of vanity, "What a musician the
+world will lose!"
+
+While he thus in cowardly procrastination delayed the inevitable end, a
+messenger, whom Phaon had ordered to bring news from Rome, arrived with
+papers. These Nero eagerly seized and read. He found himself dethroned,
+declared a public enemy, and condemned to suffer death with the rigor of
+ancient usage. Such was the decree of the senate, which hitherto had
+been his subservient slave.
+
+"Ancient usage?" he asked. "What do they mean? What kind of death is
+that?"
+
+"It is this," they told him. "Every traitor, by the law of the old
+republic, with his head fastened between two stakes, and his body
+stripped naked, was slowly flogged to death by the lictors' rods."
+
+Dread of this terrible and ignominious punishment roused the trembling
+wretch to some semblance of courage. He produced two daggers, which he
+had brought with him, and tried their points. Then he replaced them in
+their scabbards, saying, "The fatal moment is not yet come."
+
+Turning to Sporus, he said, "Sing the melancholy dirge, and offer the
+last obsequies to your friend." Then, rolling his eyes wildly around, he
+exclaimed, "Why will not some one of you kill himself, and teach me how
+to die?"
+
+He paused a moment. No one seemed inclined to adopt his suggestion. A
+flood of tears burst from his eyes. Starting up, he cried, in a tone of
+wild despair, "Nero, this is infamy; you linger in disgrace; this is no
+time for dejected passions; this moment calls for manly fortitude."
+
+These words were hardly spoken when the sound of horses was heard
+advancing rapidly towards the house. Theatrical to the end, he repeated
+a line from Homer which the noise of hoofs recalled to his mind. At
+length, driven to desperation, he seized his dagger and stabbed himself
+in the throat,--but cowardice made the stroke too feeble. Epaphroditus
+now lent his aid, and the next thrust was a mortal one.
+
+It was time. The horses were those of pursuers. The senate, informed of
+his probable place of refuge, had sent soldiers in haste to bring him
+back to Rome, there to suffer the punishment decreed. In a minute
+afterwards a centurion entered the room, and, seeing Nero prostrate and
+bleeding, ran to his aid, saying that he would bind the wound and save
+his life.
+
+Nero looked up languidly, and said, in faint tones, "You come too late.
+Is this your fidelity?" In a moment more he expired.
+
+In the words of Tacitus, "The ferocity of his nature was still visible
+in his countenance. His eyes fixed and glaring, and every feature
+swelled with warring passions, he looked more stern, more grim, more
+terrible than ever."
+
+Nero was in his thirty-second year. He had reigned nearly fourteen
+years. Tacitus says of him, "The race of Cæsars ended with Nero; he was
+the last, and perhaps the worst, of that illustrious house."
+
+The tidings of his death filled Rome with joy. Men ran wildly about the
+streets, their heads covered with liberty caps. Acclamations of gladness
+resounded in the Forum. Icelus, Galba's freedman and agent in Rome, whom
+Nero had thrown into prison, was released and took control of affairs.
+He ordered that Nero's body should be burned where he had died, and this
+was done so quickly and secretly that many would not believe that he was
+dead. The report got abroad that he had escaped to Asia or Egypt, and
+from time to time impostors appeared claiming to be Nero. The Parthians
+were deluded by one of these impostors and offered to defend his cause.
+Another made trouble in the Greek islands. Nero's profligate companions
+in Rome, who alone mourned his death, while affecting to believe him
+still alive raised a tomb to his memory, which for several years they
+annually dressed with the flowers of spring and summer. But the world at
+large rejoiced in its delivery from the rule of a monster of iniquity.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE._
+
+
+In no other nation upon the earth and no other period of history has
+enjoyment taken so cruel and brutal a shape as in the Roman empire. The
+fierce people of the imperial city seemed to have a native thirst for
+blood and misery, which no amount of slaughter in the arena, of the
+sufferings of captives and slaves, or of the torments of persecuted
+Christians sufficed to assuage. The love of theatrical representations,
+which has proved so potent and unceasing with other nations, had but a
+brief period of prevalence in Rome, its milder enjoyment vanishing
+before the wild excitement of the gladiatorial struggle and the
+spectacle of rending beasts and slaughtered martyrs.
+
+It was not in the theatre, but in the amphitheatre, that the Romans
+sought their chief enjoyment, and few who wished the favor of the Roman
+people failed to seek it by the easy though costly means of gladiatorial
+shows. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre in forming a complete
+circle or oval instead of a semicircle, with an arena in the centre
+instead of a stage at the side. It also greatly surpassed the theatre in
+size, the purpose being to see, not to hear.
+
+These buildings were at first temporary edifices of wood, but of
+enormous size, since one which collapsed at Fidenæ, during the reign of
+Tiberius, is said to have caused the death of fifty thousand spectators.
+The first of stone was built by the command of Augustus. But the great
+amphitheatre of Rome, the Flavian, whose mighty ruins we possess in the
+Colosseum, was that begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus ten years
+after the destruction of Jerusalem.
+
+This vast building is elliptical in shape and covers about five acres of
+ground, being six hundred and twelve feet in its greatest length and
+five hundred and fifteen in greatest breadth. It is based on rows of
+arches, eighty in number, and rises in four different orders of
+architecture to a height of about one hundred and sixty feet. The
+outside of this great edifice was encrusted with marble and decorated
+with statues. Interiorly its vast slopes presented sixty or eighty rows
+of marble seats, covered with cushions, and capable of seating more than
+eighty thousand spectators. There were sixty-four doors of entrance and
+exit, and the entrances, passages, and stairs were so skilfully
+constructed that every person could with ease and safety reach and leave
+his place.
+
+Nothing was omitted that could add to the pleasure and convenience of
+the spectators. An ample canopy, drawn over their heads, protected them
+from the sun and the rain. Fountains refreshed the air with cooling
+moisture, and aromatics profusely perfumed the air. In the centre was
+the arena or stage, strewn with fine sand, and capable of being changed
+to suit varied spectacles. Now it appeared to rise out of the earth,
+like the gardens of the Hesperides; now it was made to represent the
+rocks and caverns of Thrace. Water was abundantly supplied by concealed
+pipes, and the sand-strewn plain might at will be converted into a wide
+lake, sustaining armed vessels, and displaying the swimming monsters of
+the deep.
+
+In these spectacles the Roman emperors loved to display their wealth. On
+various occasions the whole furniture of the amphitheatre was of amber,
+silver, or gold, and in one display the nets provided for defence
+against wild beasts were of gold wire, the porticos were gilded, and the
+belt or circle that divided the several ranks of spectators was studded
+with a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. In the dedication of this
+mighty edifice five thousand wild beasts were slain in the arena, the
+games lasting one hundred days.
+
+The first show of gladiators in Rome was one given by Marcus and Decius
+Brutus, on the occasion of the death of their father, 264 B.C. Three
+pairs of gladiators fought in this first contest. This gladiatorial
+spectacle was continued on funeral occasions, but afterwards lost its
+religious character and became a popular amusement, there being schools
+for the training of gladiators, whose pupils were recruited from the
+captives of Rome, from condemned criminals, and from vigorous men
+desirous of fame.
+
+As time went on the magnificence of these spectacles increased. Julius
+Cæsar gave one in which three hundred and twenty combatants fought.
+Trajan far surpassed this with a show that lasted for one hundred and
+twenty-three days, and in which ten thousand men fought with each other
+or with wild beasts for the pleasure of the Roman populace.
+
+The gladiators were variously armed, some with sword, shield, and body
+armor; some with net and trident; some with noose or lasso. The disarmed
+or overthrown gladiator was killed or spared in response to signals made
+by the thumbs of the spectators; while the successful combatant was
+rewarded at first with a palm branch, afterwards with money and rich and
+valuable presents.
+
+[Illustration: ROMAN CHARIOT RACE.]
+
+The gladiators were not always passive instruments of Roman cruelty. We
+have elsewhere described the revolt of Spartacus and his brave struggle
+for liberty. Other outbreaks took place. During the reign of Probus a
+revolt of about eighty gladiators out of a school of some six hundred
+filled Rome with death and alarm. Killing their keepers, they broke into
+the streets, which they set afloat with blood, and only after an
+obstinate resistance and ample revenge were they at length overpowered
+and cut to pieces by the soldiers of the city. But such outbreaks were
+but few, and the Roman multitude usually enjoyed its cruel sports in
+safety.
+
+We cannot here describe the many remarkable displays made by successive
+emperors, and which grew more lavish as time went on. Probus, about 280
+A.D., gave a show in which the arena was transformed into a forest,
+large trees, dug up by the roots, being transported and planted
+throughout its space. In this miniature forest were set free a thousand
+ostriches, and an equal number each of stags, fallow deer, and wild
+boars. These were given to the multitude to assail and slay at their
+will. On the following day, the populace being now safely screened from
+danger, there were slain in the arena a hundred lions, as many
+lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears.
+
+The younger Gordian, in his triumphal games, astonished the Romans by
+the strangeness of the animals displayed, in search of which the whole
+known world was ransacked. The curious mob now beheld the graceful forms
+of twenty zebras, and the remarkable stature of ten giraffes, brought
+from remote African plains. There were shown, in addition, ten elks, as
+many tigers from India, and thirty African hyenas. To these were added a
+troop of thirty-two elephants, and the uncouth forms of the hippopotamus
+of the Nile and the rhinoceros of the African wilds. These animals,
+familiar to us, were new to their observers, and filled the minds of
+their spectators with wonder and awe.
+
+Gladiators, as we have said, were not confined to slaves, captives, and
+criminals. Roman citizens, emulous of the fame and rewards of the
+successful combatant, entered their ranks, and men of birth and fortune,
+thirsting for the excitement of the arenal strife, were often seen in
+the lists. In the reign of Nero, senators, and even women of high birth,
+appeared as combatants; and Domitian arranged a battle between dwarfs
+and women. As late as 200 A.D. an edict forbidding women to fight became
+necessary.
+
+The emperors, as a rule, were content with sending their subjects to
+death in those frightful shows; but one of them, Commodus, proud of his
+strength and skill, himself entered the lists as a combatant. He was at
+first content with displaying his remarkable skill as an archer against
+wild animals. With arrows whose head was shaped like a crescent, he cut
+asunder the long neck of the ostrich, and with the strength of his bow
+pierced alike the thick skin of the elephant and the scaly hide of the
+rhinoceros. A panther was let loose and a slave forced to act as its
+prey. But at the instant when the beast leaped upon the man the shaft of
+Commodus flew, and the animal fell dead, leaving its prey unhurt. No
+less than a hundred lions were let loose at once in the arena, and the
+death-dealing darts of the emperor hurtled among them until they all
+were slain.
+
+During this exhibition of skill the emperor was securely protected
+against any chance danger from his victims. But later, to the shame and
+indignation of the people, he entered the arena as a gladiator, and
+fought there no less than seven hundred and thirty-five times. He was
+well protected, wearing the helmet, shield, and sword of the _Secutor_,
+while his antagonists were armed with the net and trident of the
+_Retiarius_. It was the aim of the latter to entangle his opponent in
+the net and then despatch him with the trident, and if he missed he was
+forced to fly till he had prepared his net for a second throw.
+
+As may be imagined, in these contests Commodus was uniformly successful.
+His opponents were schooled not to put forth their full skill, and were
+usually given their lives in reward. But the emperor claimed the prize
+of the successful gladiator, and himself fixed this reward at so high a
+price that to pay it became a new tax on the Roman people. Commodus, we
+may say here, met with the usual fate of the base and cruel emperors of
+Rome, falling by the hands of assassins.
+
+The gladiatorial shows were not without their opponents in Rome. Under
+the republic efforts were made to limit the number of combatants and the
+frequency of the displays, and the Emperor Augustus forbade more than
+two shows in a year. They were prohibited by Constantine, the first
+Christian emperor, in 325 A.D., but continued at intervals till 404. In
+that year Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, filled with horror at the cruelty
+of the practice, made his way to Rome, and during a contest rushed into
+the arena and tried to part two gladiators.
+
+The spectators, furious at this interruption of their sport, stoned the
+monk to death. But the Emperor Honorius proclaimed him a martyr, and
+issued an edict which finally brought such exhibitions to an end.
+
+There was another form of spectacle at Rome, in its way as significant
+of cruelty and ruthlessness, the Triumph, each occasion of which
+signified some nation conquered or army defeated, and thousands slain or
+plunged into misery and destitution. The victorious general to whom the
+senate granted the honor of a triumph was not allowed to enter the city
+in advance, and Lucullus, on his return from victory in Asia, waited
+outside Rome for three years, until the desired honor was granted him.
+
+Starting from the Field of Mars, outside the city walls, the procession
+passed through the gayly garlanded streets to the Capitol. It was headed
+by the magistrates and senate of Rome, who were followed by trumpeters,
+and then by the spoils of war, consisting not only of treasures and
+standards, but of representations of battles, towns, fortresses, rivers,
+etc.
+
+Next came the victims intended for sacrifice, largely composed of white
+oxen with gilded horns. They were followed by prisoners kept to grace
+the triumph, and who were put to death when the Capitol was reached.
+Afterwards came the gorgeous chariot of the conqueror, crowned with
+laurel and drawn by four horses. He wore robes of purple and gold taken
+from the temple of Jupiter, carried a laurel branch in his right hand,
+and in his left a sceptre of ivory with an eagle at its tip. After him
+came the soldiers, singing _Io triumphe_ and other songs of victory.
+
+On reaching the Capitol the victor placed the laurel branch on the cap
+of the seated Jupiter, and offered the thank-offerings. A feast of the
+dignitaries, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, followed. The
+ceremony at first occupied one day only, but in later times was extended
+through several days, and was frequently attended with gladiatorial
+shows and other spectacles for the greater enjoyment of the Roman
+multitude.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON._
+
+
+The death of Nero cut all the reins of order in Rome. Until now, as
+stated in a preceding tale, some form of hereditary succession had been
+followed, the emperors being of the family of Cæsar, though not his
+direct descendants. Now confusion reigned supreme. The army took upon
+itself the task of nominating the emperor, and within less than two
+years four emperors came in succession to the royal seat, each the
+general of one of the armies of Rome.
+
+Galba, who headed the revolt against Nero, and succeeded him on the
+throne, reigned but seven months, being overthrown by Otho, who
+conspired against him with the Prætorian guards. The new emperor reigned
+only three months. The army of Germany proclaimed their
+general--Vitellius--emperor, marched against Otho, and defeated him. He
+ended the contest by committing suicide. Vitellius reigned less than a
+year. The army of the East rebelled against him, proclaimed their
+general--Vespasian--emperor, and a new civil war broke out, which was
+closed by the speedy downfall of Vitellius. It is the story of this man,
+emperor for less than a year, which we have here to describe.
+
+The three men named were alike unfit to reign over Rome. Galba was very
+old and very incompetent, Otho was a declared profligate, and Vitellius
+was a glutton of such extraordinary powers that his name has become a
+synonyme for voracity. He had by his arts and his skill as a courtier
+made himself a favorite with four emperors of widely differing
+character,--Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. The suicide of Otho
+had now made him emperor himself, and he gave way without stint to the
+peculiar vice which has made his name despicable, that of inordinate
+love of the pleasures of the table.
+
+After the death of Otho, says Tacitus, "Vitellius, sunk in sloth, and
+growing every day more contemptible, advanced by slow marches towards
+the city of Rome. In all the villas and municipal towns through which he
+passed, carousing festivals were sufficient to retard a man abandoned to
+his pleasures. He was followed by an unwieldy multitude, not less than
+sixty thousand men in arms, all corrupted by a life of debauchery. The
+number of retainers and followers of the army was still greater, all
+disposed to riot and insolence, even beyond the natural bent of the
+vilest slaves.
+
+"The crowd was still increased by a conflux of senators and Roman
+knights, who came from Rome to greet the prince on his way; some
+impelled by fear, others to pay their court, and numbers, not to be
+thought sullen or disaffected. All went with the current. The populace
+rushed forth in crowds, accompanied by an infamous band of pimps,
+players, buffoons, and charioteers, by their utility in vicious
+pleasures all well known and dear to Vitellius.
+
+"To supply so vast a body with provisions the colonies and municipal
+cities were exhausted; the fruits of the earth, then ripe and fit for
+use, were carried off; the husbandman was plundered; and his land, as if
+it were an enemy's country, was laid waste and ruined."
+
+[Illustration: THE COLISEUM AT ROME.]
+
+The followers of Vitellius were many of them Germans and Gauls, so
+savage of aspect as to create consternation in Rome. "Covered with the
+skins of savage beasts, and wielding large and massive spears, the
+spectacle which they exhibited to the Roman citizens was fierce and
+hideous." They were as savage as they looked, and many conflicts took
+place both outside and inside of Rome, in which numbers of citizens were
+slaughtered. In fact, the march of Vitellius to Rome was almost like
+that of a conqueror through a captive province.
+
+The conduct of Vitellius and his army in Rome was an abhorrent spectacle
+of sloth and licentiousness. All discipline vanished. The Germans and
+Gauls entered into the vilest habits of the city, and by their
+disorderly lives brought on an epidemic disease which swept thousands of
+them away. Vitellius, lost in sluggishness and gluttony, wasted the
+funds of the state on his pleasures, and laid severe taxes to raise new
+funds. "To squander with wild profusion," says Tacitus, "was the only
+use of money known to Vitellius. He built a set of stables for the
+charioteers, and kept in the circus a constant spectacle of gladiators
+and wild beasts; in this manner dissipating with prodigality, as if his
+treasury overflowed with riches."
+
+While the Vitellian army was indulging in riot, bloodshed, and vice,
+and the populace was kept amused by the frightful gladiatorial shows,
+the emperor spent his days in a sloth and gluttony that stand unrivalled
+in imperial records. We may quote from Whyte-Melville's romance of "The
+Gladiators" a sketch of a Vitellian banquet whose characteristic
+features are taken from exact history:
+
+"A banquet with Vitellius was no light and simple repast. Leagues of sea
+and miles of forest had been swept to furnish the mere groundwork of the
+entertainment. Hardy fishermen had spent their nights on the heaving
+wave, that the giant turbot might flap its snowy flakes on the emperor's
+table broader than its broad dish of gold. Many a swelling hill, clad in
+the dark oak coppice, had echoed to ringing shout of hunter and
+deep-mouthed bay of hound, ere the wild boar yielded his grim life by
+the morass, and the dark, grisly carcass was drawn off to provide a
+standing dish that was only meant to gratify the eye. Even the peacock
+roasted in its feathers was too gross a dainty for epicures who studied
+the art of gastronomy under Cæsar; and that taste would have been
+considered rustic in the extreme which could partake of more than the
+mere fumes and savor of so substantial a dish. A thousand nightingales
+had been trapped and killed, indeed, for this one supper, but brains and
+tongues were all they contributed to the banquet; while even the wing of
+a roasted hare would have been considered far too coarse and common food
+for the imperial board.
+
+"It would be useless to go into the details of such a banquet as that
+which was placed before the guests of Cæsar. Wild boar, pasties, goats,
+every kind of shell-fish, thrushes, beccaficoes, vegetables of all
+descriptions, and poultry, were removed to make way for the pheasant,
+the guinea-hen, the capon, venison, ducks, woodcocks, and turtle-doves.
+Everything that could creep, fly, or swim, and could boast a delicate
+flavor when cooked, was pressed into the service of the emperor; and
+when appetite was appeased and could do no more, the strongest
+condiments and other remedies were used to stimulate fresh hunger and
+consume a fresh supply of superfluous dainties."
+
+Deep drinking followed, merely to stimulate fresh hunger. The disgusting
+story is even told that the imperial glutton was in the habit of taking
+an emetic to empty his stomach, that he might begin a fresh course of
+gluttony.
+
+Certain artists in the preparation of original dishes employed
+themselves in devising new and appetizing compounds of food for the
+table of Vitellius. They were sure of an ample reward if they should
+succeed in pleasing the imperial palate. Failure, however, was attended
+by a severe penance. The artist was not permitted to eat any food but
+his own unsuccessful dish until he had atoned for his failure by a
+success.
+
+While Vitellius was thus sunk in sloth and gluttony his destiny was on
+its march. A terrible and disgraceful retribution awaited him. He had
+never been emperor of all the Roman empire. The army of Syria had
+declared for Vespasian, its general; and while Vitellius had been
+wasting his means and ruining his army by permitting it to indulge in
+every vice and excess, his rival in the East was carefully laying his
+plans to insure success. He finally seized Alexandria, thus being able
+at will to starve Rome, by cutting off its food-supply; and sent
+Antonius Primus, his principal general, with a strong force to Italy.
+
+The progress of Antonius in Italy was rapid. City after city fell into
+his hands. The fleet at Ravenna declared for Vespasian. The general of
+Vitellius sought to carry his whole army over to Antonius, but found his
+men more faithful than himself. The Vitellians were defeated in two
+battles; Cremona was taken and destroyed; all was at risk; and yet
+Vitellius remained absorbed in luxury. "Hid in the recess of his garden,
+he indulged his appetite, forgetting the past, the present, and all
+solicitude about future events; like those nauseous animals that know no
+care, and, while they are supplied with food, remain in one spot, torpid
+and insensible."
+
+At length awakened from his stupor, Vitellius took some steps for
+defence. He was too late. His men deserted their ranks; the army of
+Antonius steadily advanced. Filled with terror, the emperor called an
+assembly of the people and offered to resign. The people in violent
+uproar refused to accept his resignation. He then proposed to seek a
+retreat in his brother's house. This the populace also opposed and
+forced him to return to the palace.
+
+This attempted abdication brought civil war into the city. Sabinus, the
+brother of Vespasian, raised a force and took possession of the
+Capitol. He was besieged here, and in the conflict that ensued the
+Capitol was set on fire and burned to the ground. It was the second time
+this venerable edifice had been consumed by the flames. Sabinus was
+taken prisoner, and was murdered by the mob.
+
+News of this revolt and its disastrous end hastened the march of
+Antonius. Once more, as in the far-off days of the Gaulish invasion,
+Rome was to be attacked and taken by a hostile army. It was assailed at
+three points, each of which was obstinately defended. Finally an
+entrance was made at the Collinian gate, and the battle was transferred
+to the open streets, in which the Vitellians defended themselves as
+obstinately as before.
+
+And now was seen an extraordinary spectacle. While two armies--one from
+the East, one from the North--contended fiercely for the possession of
+Rome, the populace of that city flocked to behold the fight, as if it
+was a gladiatorial struggle got up for their diversion, and nothing in
+which they had any personal interest. Tacitus says,--
+
+"Whenever they saw the advantage inclining to either side, they favored
+the contestants with shouts and theatrical applause. If the men fled
+from their ranks, to take shelter in shops or houses, they roared to
+have them dragged forth and put to death like gladiators for their
+diversion. While the soldiers were intent on slaughter, these miscreants
+were employed in plundering. The greatest part of the booty fell to
+their share. Rome presented a scene truly shocking, a medley of savage
+slaughter and monstrous vice; in one place war and desolation; in
+another bathing, riot, and debauchery. The whole city seemed to be
+inflamed with frantic rage, and at the same time intoxicated with
+bacchanalian pleasures. In the midst of rage and massacre, pleasure knew
+no intermission. A dreadful carnage seemed to be a spectacle added to
+the public games."
+
+It was a spectacle certainly without its like in the history of nations.
+
+The battle ended in the complete overthrow of the army of Vitellius. The
+camp was taken, and all that defended it were slain. And now took place
+a scene which recalls that of the last days of Nero. Vitellius, seeing
+that all was lost, was in an agony of apprehension. He left the palace
+by a private way to seek shelter in his wife's house on the Aventine.
+Then irresolution brought him back to the palace, which he found
+deserted. The slaves had fled. The dead silence that reigned filled him
+with terror. All was solitude and desolation. He wandered pitiably from
+room to room, and finally, weary and utterly wretched, sought a humble
+hiding-place. Here he was discovered and dragged forth.
+
+And now the populace, who had lately refused his deposition, turned upon
+him with the bitterest insults and contumely. With his hands bound
+behind him and his garment torn, the obese old glutton was dragged
+through crowds who treated him with scoffs and words of contempt, not a
+voice of pity or sympathy being heard. A German soldier struck at him
+with his sword, and, missing his aim, cut off the ear of a tribune. He
+was killed on the spot.
+
+As Vitellius was thus dragged onward, his captors, with swords pointed
+at his throat, forced him to raise his head and expose his bloated face
+to scorn and derision. They made him look at his statues, which were
+being tumbled to the ground. They pointed out to him the place where
+Galba had perished. They pricked his body with their weapons. With
+endless contumely they brought him to the public charnel, where the body
+of Sabinus had been thrown among those of the vilest malefactors.
+
+A single expression is recorded as coming from his lips. "And yet," he
+said, to a tribune who insulted his misery, "I have been your
+sovereign."
+
+His torment soon ended. The rabble fell on him with swords and clubs and
+he died under a multitude of wounds. Even after his death those who had
+worshipped him in the height of his power continued to shower marks of
+rage and contempt upon his remains. Thus perished one of the most
+despicable of all the emperors who disgraced Rome, to make room for one
+whose wisdom and virtue would make still more contemptible the excesses
+of his gluttonous predecessor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE FAITHFUL EPONINA._
+
+
+Though Rome had extended its conquests over numerous tribes and nations
+of barbarians, and reduced them to subjection, much of the old love of
+liberty remained, and many of the later Roman wars were devoted to the
+suppression of outbreaks among these unwilling subjects. In the reign of
+Vespasian occurred such a rebellion, followed by so remarkable an
+instance of womanly devotion that it has since enlisted the sympathy of
+the world.
+
+Julius Sabinus, a leading chief among the Ligones, a tribe of the Gauls,
+led by ambition and daring, and stirred by hatred of the Roman dominion,
+resolved to shake off the yoke of conquest, and by his arts and
+eloquence kindled the flame of rebellion among his countrymen. Gathering
+an army, he drove the Romans from the territory of his own people, and
+then marched into the country of the Sequani, whom he hoped to bring
+into the revolt.
+
+But the discomfiture of the Romans lasted only until they could bring
+their forces together. A battle ensued between the hastily-levied
+followers of Sabinus and a disciplined Roman army, with the inevitable
+result. The barbarians were defeated with great slaughter, the death of
+most, the flight of the others, bringing the rebellion to a disastrous
+end.
+
+Sabinus was among those who escaped the general carnage. He sought
+shelter from his pursuers in an obscure cottage, and, being hotly and
+closely tracked, he set fire to his lurking-place and caused a report to
+be spread that he had perished in the flames. He had been attended in
+his flight by two faithful freedmen, and one of these, Martialis by
+name, sought Eponina, the loving wife of the chief, and told her that
+her husband was no more, that he had perished in the flames of the
+burning hut.
+
+Giving full credit to the story, Eponina was thrown into a transport of
+grief which went far to convince the spies of Rome that she must have
+received sure tidings of her husband's death, and that Sabinus had
+escaped the vengeance of Rome. For several days her grief continued
+unabated, and then the same messenger returned and told her that her
+husband still lived, having spread the report of his death to throw his
+pursuers off his track.
+
+This information brought Eponina as lively joy as the former news had
+brought her sorrow; but knowing that she was watched, she affected as
+deep grief as before, going about her daily duties with all the outward
+manifestations of woe. When night came she visited Sabinus secretly in
+his new hiding-place, and was received in his arms with all the joy of
+which loving souls are capable. Before the dawn of day she returned to
+her home, from which her absence had not been known.
+
+During seven months the devoted wife continued these clandestine visits,
+softening by caresses and brave words her husband's anxious care, and
+supplying his wants as far as she was capable. At the end of that time
+she grew hopeful of obtaining a pardon for the fugitive chief. For this
+purpose she induced him to disguise himself in a way that made detection
+impossible and accompany her on a long and painful journey to Rome.
+
+Here the earnest and faithful woman made every possible effort to gain
+the ear and favor of the emperor and to obtain influence in high places.
+She unhappily found that Roman officials had no time or thought to waste
+on fugitive rebels, and that compassion for those who dared oppose the
+supremacy of Rome was a sentiment that could find no place in the
+imperial heart. Repelled, disappointed, hopeless, the unhappy woman and
+her disguised husband retraced their long and weary journey, and Sabinus
+again sought shelter in the dens and caves which formed his only secure
+places of refuge.
+
+And now the faithful wife, abandoning her home, joined him in his
+lurking-place, and for nine long years the devoted couple lived as
+homeless fugitives, mutual love their only comfort, obtaining the
+necessaries of life by means of which we are not aware. By the tenderest
+affection Eponina softened the anxieties of her husband, the birth of
+two sons served still more to alleviate the misery of their distressful
+situation, and all the happiness that could possibly come to two so
+circumstanced attended the pair in their straitened place of refuge.
+
+At the end of nine years the hiding-place of the fugitives was
+discovered by their enemies, and they were seized and sent in chains to
+Rome. Here Vespasian, who had gained a reputation for kindness and
+clemency, acted with a cruelty worthy of the worst emperors of Rome. The
+pitiable tale of the captives had no effect upon him; the devotion of
+the wife roused no sympathy in his heart; Sabinus had dared rebel
+against Rome, no time nor circumstance could soften that flagitious
+crime; without hesitation the chief was condemned to death, and instant
+execution ordered.
+
+This cruel sentence changed the tone of Eponina. She had hitherto humbly
+and warmly supplicated her husband's pardon. Now that he was dead she
+resolved not to survive him. With the spirit and pride of a free-born
+princess she said to Vespasian, "Death has no terror for me. I have
+lived happier underground than you upon your throne. You have robbed me
+of all I loved, and I have no further use for life. Bid your assassins
+strike their blow; with joy I leave a world which is peopled by such
+tyrants as you."
+
+She was taken at her word and ordered by the emperor for execution. It
+was the darkest deed of Vespasian's life, a blot upon his character
+which all his record for clemency cannot remove, and which has ever
+since lain as a dark stain upon his memory.
+
+Plutarch, who has alone told this story of love unto death, concludes
+his tale by saying that there was nothing during Vespasian's reign to
+match the horror of this atrocious deed, and that, in retribution for
+it, the vengeance of the gods fell upon Vespasian, and in a short time
+after wrought the extirpation of his entire family.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM._
+
+
+Christ had not long passed away from the earth when the reign of peace
+and brotherly love which He had so warmly inculcated ceased to exist on
+the soil of Judæa. Forty years after He foretold the destruction of the
+Temple of Jerusalem that noble edifice had ceased to exist, Jerusalem
+itself was burned to the ground, and a million of people perished by
+sword and flames. It is this lamentable tale which we have now to tell.
+
+Caligula, the mad emperor, first roused the indignation of the Jews, by
+demanding that his statue should be placed in that holy shrine in which
+no image of man had ever been permitted. War would have followed, for
+the Jews were resolute against such an impious desecration of their
+Temple, had not the sword of the assassin removed the tyrant.
+
+But the discontent of the Jews was not ended. They were resolved that no
+image of the Cæsars should be brought into their land, and carried this
+so far that when the governor of Syria wished to march through a part of
+their territory to attack the Arabs, they objected that the standards of
+the legions were crowded with profane images, which their sacred laws
+did not permit to be seen in their country. The governor yielded to
+their remonstrance, and marched around the land of Judæa.
+
+This concession did not allay the discontent. Felix, a governor under
+Claudius, by oppression and cruelty aroused a general spirit of revolt.
+Gessius Florus, appointed by Nero governor of Judæa, found his province
+in a state of irritation and tumult. His avarice and robbery of the
+people ripened this to war. The province broke into open rebellion. It
+was quickly invaded by Gallus, the governor of Syria, who marched
+through the country to the walls of Jerusalem. But he was not a soldier,
+and was quickly forced to abandon the siege and retreat in haste, losing
+six thousand men in his flight.
+
+[Illustration: THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM.]
+
+Nero now, finding that Rome had an obstinate struggle on its hands,
+chose Vespasian, a soldier of renown, to conduct the war. This he did
+with the true Roman energy and thoroughness, subduing the whole country,
+and capturing every stronghold except Jerusalem, within two years. He
+was called from this work to the struggle for the empire of Rome,
+leaving his able son Titus to complete the task.
+
+The taking of Jerusalem was not to be easily performed. The city was of
+immense strength. It stood upon two hills, Mount Sion to the south,
+Mount Acra to the north. The former, being the loftiest, was called the
+upper, and Acra the lower, city. Each of these hills was surrounded by a
+wall of great strength and elevation, their bases washed by a rapid
+stream that ran through the valleys of Hinnom and Cedron, to the foot of
+the Mount of Olives. A third hill, Mount Moriah, was the seat of the
+famous Temple, an immense group of courts and edifices which looked more
+like a citadel than a sanctuary of religious faith. The true temple
+stood separate, in the midst of these buildings, its interior being
+divided by a curtain into two parts, of which the inmost was the Holy of
+Holies. The total group of edifices was nearly a mile in circumference.
+
+Jerusalem, unfortunately for its defence, had, during the conquest of
+the country, become filled with fugitives. To these the celebration of
+the Passover, now at hand, added other great numbers, so that when the
+army of Titus invested it, it was crowded with a vast multitude of human
+beings. Filled with religious enthusiasm, accustomed to war, and
+believing that the Lord of Hosts would come to their aid, the garrison
+displayed a desperate resolution that the Romans were to find very
+difficult to overcome.
+
+Yet it was as much due to themselves as to the Roman arms that the city
+at length fell. Resolute as the Jews were in defence against the foreign
+foe, they were divided among themselves, the city being held by three
+factions bitterly hostile to each other. One of these, known as the
+Zealots, under Eleazer, held the Temple. Another, under John of Gisela,
+an artful orator but a man of infamous character, occupied another
+portion of the city. A third, whose leader was named Simon, a man known
+for crime and courage, held still another section. These three parties
+kept Jerusalem in tumult. There were ferocious battles in the streets;
+houses were plundered, families slain, and when Titus encamped before
+the walls, he had before him a city distracted by civil war and its
+streets filled with blood and carnage.
+
+The story of the siege of Jerusalem is far too long a one to be told in
+detail. Several times during the siege Titus offered terms of pardon and
+amnesty to the besieged, but all in vain. Divided as they were among
+themselves, they were united in hostility to Rome. The siege began and
+proceeded with the usual energy shown by a Roman army. Mounds were
+erected, forts built, warlike engines constructed. Darts and other
+weapons were rained into the city, great stones were flung from engines,
+every resource known to ancient war was practised. A breach was at
+length made in the walls, the soldiers rushed in, sword in hand, and the
+section of the city known as Salem was captured. Five days afterwards
+Bezetha, a hill to the north of the Temple, was taken by Titus, but he
+was here so furiously assailed by the garrison that he was forced to
+retreat to his camp.
+
+Some days of quiet now followed, while the Romans prepared for a second
+attack. The factions in the city, fancying that their foes had withdrawn
+in despair, at once resumed their feuds, and the streets again ran with
+blood. John invaded the Temple precincts, overcame the party of Eleazer,
+and a general massacre followed which desecrated With slaughter every
+part of the holy place.
+
+Soon the Romans advanced again, and the two remaining factions united in
+defence. Now the Romans penetrated the city, now they were driven out
+in a fierce charge, and their camp nearly taken. And now famine came to
+add to the horrors of the siege, and made frightful havoc in the dense
+multitude with which every part of the city was thronged. The dead and
+dying filled the streets, the wounded soldiers perished of starvation,
+groans and lamentations resounded in every quarter; to rid themselves of
+the hosts of dead John and Simon had them thrown from the walls, to
+fester in heaps before the Roman works. Among the scenes of horror
+related, a woman was seen to kill and devour her own infant child.
+
+At length the Romans made such progress that all the city was theirs
+except the Temple enclosure, into which the remainder of the garrison
+had gathered. Titus wished to save this famous structure, and made a
+last effort to end the siege by peaceful measures. Josephus, the Jewish
+historian, who had been taken prisoner during the war, and was now in
+his camp, was sent into the city, with an offer of amnesty if they would
+even now yield. The offer was refused, and Titus saw that but one thing
+remained.
+
+On the next day the assault on Mount Moriah began. The Jews fought with
+fierce courage, but the close lines and steady discipline of the legions
+prevailed. The defenders, after a bitter resistance, were forced back;
+the assailants furiously pursued; the inner court of the Temple was
+entered; in the uproar of the furious strife the orders of Titus and his
+officers to save the Temple were unheard; all was tumult, the roar of
+battle, the shedding of blood. The Jews fought with frantic obstinacy,
+but their undisciplined valor failed to affect the steady discipline or
+break the close array of the legions. Many fled in despair to the
+sanctuary. Here were gathered priests and prophets, who still declared
+the Lord of Hosts was on their side, and that He would protect His holy
+seat.
+
+Even while these assurances were being given the assailants forced the
+gates. The eyes of the avaricious Romans rested on the golden and
+glittering ornaments of the Temple, and they sought more fiercely than
+ever to hew their way through flesh and blood to these alluring
+treasures. One soldier, frantic with the fury of the fight, snatched a
+flaming ember from some burning materials, and, lifted by a comrade, set
+fire to a gilded window of the Temple. Almost in an instant the flames
+flared upward, and the despairing Jews saw that their holy house was
+doomed. A great groan of agony burst from their lips. Many occupied
+themselves in vain efforts to quench the flames; others flung themselves
+in despairing rage on the Romans, heedless of life now that all they
+lived for was perishing.
+
+Titus, on learning what had been done, ran in all haste to the scene,
+and loudly ordered the soldiers to extinguish the flames, signalling to
+the same effect with his hand. But his voice was drowned in the uproar
+and his signals were not understood, while the thirst for plunder
+carried the soldiers beyond all restraint. The holy place of the Temple
+was still intact. This Titus entered, and was so impressed with its
+beauty and splendor that he made a strenuous effort to save it from
+destruction. In vain he begged and threatened. While some of the
+soldiery tore with wolfish fury at its gold, others fired its gates, and
+soon the Holy of Holies itself was in a blaze, and the whole Temple
+wrapped in devouring flames.
+
+The rapacious soldiers raged through the buildings, rending from them
+everything of value which the fire had left untouched. The defenders
+fell by thousands. Great numbers perished in the flames. A multitude of
+fugitives, including women and children, sought refuge in the outer
+cloisters. These were set on fire by the furious soldiers, and thousands
+were swept away by the pitiless hand of death. Word was brought to Titus
+that a number of priests stood on the outside wall, begging for their
+lives. "It is too late," he replied; "the priests ought not to survive
+their temple." Retiring to an outer fort, he gazed with deep regret on
+the devouring conflagration, saying, "The God of the Jews has fought
+against them: to him we owe our victory."
+
+Thus perished the Temple of Jerusalem, a magnificent structure, for ages
+the pride and glory of the Jews. First erected by Solomon, eleven
+centuries before, it was burnt by the Babylonians five hundred years
+afterwards. It was rebuilt by Haggai, in the reign of King Cyrus of
+Persia, and had now stood more than six hundred years, enlarged and
+adorned from time to time. But Christ had said, "There shall not be left
+one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down." This prophetic
+utterance was now fulfilled. Thenceforward there was no Temple of the
+Jews.
+
+But more fighting remained. The defenders made their way into the upper
+city on Mount Sion, and here held out bitterly still, rejecting the
+terms offered them by Titus of unconditional surrender. The place was
+strong, and defended by towers that were almost impregnable. Better
+terms might have been extorted from Titus had John and Simon, the
+leaders of the party of defence, been as brave as they were blatant. But
+after refusing surrender they lost heart, and hid themselves in
+subterranean vaults, leaving their deluded followers to their own
+devices. The end came soon. A breach was made in the walls. The legions
+entered, sword in hand, and with the rage of slaughter in heart. A
+dreadful carnage followed. Neither sex nor age was spared. According to
+Josephus, not less than one million one hundred thousand persons
+perished during this terrible siege. Of those that remained alive the
+most flagrant were put to death, some were reserved to grace the
+victor's triumph, and the others were sent to Egypt to be sold as
+slaves. As for the city, it had been in great part consumed by flames.
+Thus ended the rebellion of the Jews. To rule or ruin was the terrible
+motto of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII._
+
+
+On the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples, where it serves as a
+striking background to the city of that name, stands the renowned
+Vesuvius, the most celebrated volcano in the world. During many
+centuries before the Christian era it had been a dead and silent
+mountain. Throughout the earlier period of Roman history the people of
+Campania treated it with the contempt of ignorance, planting their
+vineyards on its fertile slopes and building their towns and villages
+around its base. Under the shadow of the silent mountain armies met and
+fought, and its crater was made the fort and lurking-place of Spartacus
+and his party of gladiators. But the time was at hand in which a more
+terrible enemy than a band of vengeful rebels was to emerge from that
+threatening cavity.
+
+The sleeping giant first showed signs of waking from his long slumber in
+63 A.D., when earthquake convulsions shook the surrounding lands. These
+tremblings of the earth continued at intervals for sixteen years, doing
+much damage. At length, on the 24th of August of the year 79, came the
+culminating event. With a tremendous and terrible explosion the whole
+top of the mountain was torn out, and vast clouds of steam and volcanic
+ashes were hurled high into the air, lit into lurid light by the crimson
+gleams of the boiling lava below.
+
+The scene was a frightful one. The vast, tree-like cloud, kindled
+throughout its length by almost incessant flashes of lightning; the
+fiery glare that gleamed upward from the glowing lava; the total
+darkness that overspread the surrounding country as the dense mass of
+volcanic dust floated outward, a darkness only relieved by the glare
+that attended each new explosion, formed a spectacle of terror to make
+the stoutest heart quail, and to fill the weak and ignorant with dread
+of a final overthrow of the earth and its inhabitants.
+
+The elder Pliny, the famous naturalist, was then in command of a fleet
+at Misenum, in the vicinity. Led by his scientific interest, he
+approached the volcano to examine the eruption more closely, and fell a
+victim to the falling ashes or the choking fumes of sulphur that filled
+the air. His nephew, Pliny the younger, then only a boy of eighteen, has
+given a lucid account of what took place, in letters to the historian
+Tacitus. After describing the journey and death of his uncle, he goes on
+to speak of the violent earthquakes that shook the ground during the
+night. He continues with the story of the next day:
+
+"Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid;
+the buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon open
+ground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining there without certain and great danger; we therefore resolved
+to leave the town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation,
+and, as to a mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more
+prudent than its own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out.
+
+"Being got at a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in
+the midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we
+had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backward and forward,
+though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady,
+even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back
+upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain, at least, that the shore was considerably
+enlarged, and several sea-animals were left upon it. At the other side a
+black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor,
+darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but
+much larger....
+
+"Soon afterwards the cloud seemed to descend and cover the whole ocean,
+as indeed it entirely hid the island of Capreæ and the promontory of
+Misenum. My mother strongly conjured me to make my escape at any rate,
+which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, her
+age and corpulence rendered all attempts of that sort impossible.
+However, she would willingly meet death if she could have the
+satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But I
+absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand, I led her
+on; she complied with great reluctance, and not without many reproaches
+to herself for retarding my flight.
+
+"The ashes now began to fall on us, though in no great quantity. I
+turned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rolling
+after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turn
+out of the high-road, lest she should be pressed to death in the dark by
+the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path when
+darkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night or when there is
+no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinct.
+Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams of
+children, and the cries of men; some calling for their children, others
+for their parents, others for their husbands, and only distinguishing
+each other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, another that of
+his family; some wishing to die from the very fear of dying; some
+lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part imagining that the
+last and eternal night was come, which was to destroy the gods and the
+world together.
+
+"Among these were some who augmented the real terrors by imaginary ones,
+and made the frightened multitude falsely believe that Misenum was in
+flames. At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be
+rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it
+was, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at a distance from
+us; then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of
+ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake
+off, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. I
+might boast that during all this scene of horror not a sigh or
+expression of fear escaped from me, had not my support been found in
+that miserable, though strong, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with
+the world itself.
+
+"At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud
+of smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though very
+faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that
+presented itself to our eyes seemed changed, being covered over with
+white ashes, as with a deep snow."
+
+This graphic story repeats the experience of thousands on that fatal
+occasion, in which great numbers perished, while many lost their all.
+Villas of wealthy Romans were numerous in the vicinity of the volcano,
+while among the several towns which surrounded it three were utterly
+destroyed,--Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiæ. Of these much the most
+famous is Pompeii, which, being buried in ashes, has proved far easier
+of exploration than Herculaneum, which was overwhelmed with torrents of
+mud, caused by heavy rains on the volcanic ash.
+
+Pompeii was an old town, built more than six hundred years before, and
+occupied at the time of its destruction by the aristocracy of Rome.
+Triumphal arches were erected there in honor of Caligula and Nero, who
+probably honored it by visits. It possessed costly temples, handsome
+theatres and other public buildings, luxurious residences, and all the
+ostentatious magnificence arising from the wealth of the proud
+patricians of Rome.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF POMPEII.]
+
+What Pompeii was in its best days we are not now able to estimate. It
+was essentially, in its architecture, a Greek city, rich and artistic,
+gay and luxurious. But on February 5, 63 A.D., came the first of the
+long series of earthquakes, and when it ended nearly all of old Pompeii
+was levelled with the ground. It was not yet a lost city, but was a
+thoroughly ruined one. In the years that followed it was rapidly
+rebuilt, Roman architecture and decoration, of often tawdry and inferior
+character, replacing the chaste and artistic Greek. Once more the city
+became a centre of gayety, ostentation, and licentiousness, when, in 79
+A.D., the eruption of Vesuvius came, and the overwhelming storm of ashes
+came down like a thick-descending fall of snow on the doomed city.
+
+The description given by Pliny relates to a less endangered point. Upon
+Pompeii the ashes settled down in seemingly unending volumes, continuing
+for three days, during which all was enveloped in darkness and gloom.
+The citizens fled in terror, such as were able to, though many perished
+and were buried deep in their ruined homes. On the fourth day the sun
+began to reappear, as if shining through a fog, and the bolder fugitives
+returned in search of their lost property.
+
+What they saw must have been frightfully disheartening. Where the busy
+city had stood was now a level plain of white ashes, so deep that not a
+house-top could be seen, and only the upper walls of the great theatre
+and the amphitheatre were visible. Digging into the fleecy ashes, many
+of them recovered articles of value, while thieves also may have reaped
+a rich harvest. The emperor Titus even undertook to clear and rebuild
+the city, but soon abandoned the task as too costly a one, and for many
+centuries afterwards Pompeii remained buried in mud and ashes, lost to
+the world, its site forgotten, and the forms of many of its old
+inhabitants preserved intact in the bed of ashes in which they had
+perished.
+
+It was only in 1748 that its site was recognized, and only since 1860
+has there been a systematic effort to dig the old city out of its grave.
+At present nearly one-half--the most important half--of Pompeii has been
+laid bare, and we are able to see for ourselves how the Romans lived.
+The narrow streets, fourteen to twenty-four feet wide, are well paved
+with blocks of lava, which are cut into deep ruts by the wheels of
+chariots that rolled over them two thousand years ago. On each side rise
+the walls of houses, two, and sometimes three, stories in height, and
+some of them richly painted and adorned, while walls and columns are
+brightly painted in red, blue, and yellow, which must have given the old
+city a gay and festive hue.
+
+The ornaments, articles of furniture, and domestic utensils found in
+these houses go far to teach us the modes of life in Roman times, and
+reveal to us that the Romans possessed many comforts and conveniences
+for which we had not given them credit. Even the forms of the
+inhabitants have in many cases been recovered. Though these forms have
+long vanished, the hollows made by their bodies in the hardened ashes in
+which they lay and slowly decayed have remained unchanged, and by
+pouring liquid plaster of Paris into these cavities perfect casts have
+been obtained, showing the exact shape of face and body, and even every
+fold of the clothes of these victims of Vesuvius eighteen hundred years
+ago. They are not altogether pleasant to see, for they express the agony
+of those caught in the swift descending death of the falling volcanic
+shroud, but as tenants of an archæological museum they stand unrivalled
+in lifelike fidelity.
+
+Herculaneum, which was buried to a depth of from forty to one hundred
+feet, and with wet material which has grown much harder than the ashes
+of Pompeii, has been but little explored. It was the larger and more
+important city of the two, while none of its treasures could have been
+recovered by their owners. The art relics found there far exceed in
+interest and value those of Pompeii, but the work is so difficult that
+as yet very little has been done in the task of restoring this "dead
+city of Campania" to the light of the modern day.
+
+
+
+
+_AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE._
+
+
+We have now reached the period in which began the decline and fall of
+the Roman empire. Its story is crowded with events, but lacks those
+dramatic and romantic incidents which give such interest to the history
+of early Rome. Now good emperors ruled, now bad ones followed, now peace
+prevailed, now war raged; the story grows monotonous as we advance. The
+reigns of virtuous emperors yield much to commend but little to
+describe; those of wicked emperors repel us by their enormities and
+disgust us by their follies. We must end our tales with a few selections
+from the long and somewhat dreary list.
+
+[Illustration: EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS.]
+
+After Vespasian came to the throne, a period of nearly two centuries
+elapsed during most of which Rome was governed by men of virtue and
+ability, though cursed for a time by the reigns of the cruel Domitian,
+the dissolute Commodus, the base Caracalla, and the foolish Elagabalus.
+Fortunately, none of the monsters who disgraced the empire reigned long.
+Assassination purified the throne. The total length of reign of the
+cruel monarchs of Rome covered no long space of time, though they occupy
+a great space in history.
+
+We have now to tell how the patrician families of Rome lost their hold
+upon the throne, and a barbarian peasant became lord and master of this
+vast empire, of which his ancestors of a few generations before had
+perhaps scarcely heard. The story is an interesting one, and well worth
+repeating.
+
+Just after the year 200 A.D. the emperor Septimius Severus, father of
+the notorious Caracalla, while returning from an expedition to the East,
+halted in Thrace to celebrate, with military games, the birthday of
+Geta, his youngest son. The spectacle was an enticing one, and the
+country-people for many miles round gathered in crowds to gaze upon
+their sovereign and behold the promised sports.
+
+Among those who came was a young barbarian of such gigantic stature and
+great muscular development as to excite the attention of all who saw
+him. In a rude dialect, which those who heard could barely understand,
+he asked if he might take part in the wrestling exercises and contend
+for the prize. This the officers would not permit. For a Roman soldier
+to be overthrown by a Thracian peasant, as seemed likely to be the
+result, would be a disgrace not to be risked. But he might try, if he
+would, with the camp followers, some of the stoutest of whom were chosen
+to contend with him. Of these he laid no less than sixteen, in
+succession, on the ground.
+
+Here was a man worth having in the ranks. Some gifts were given him, and
+he was told that he might enlist, if he chose; a privilege he was quick
+to accept. The next day the peasant, happy in the thought of being a
+soldier, was seen among a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting in
+rustic fashion, while his head towered above them all.
+
+The emperor, who was passing in the march, looked at him with interest
+and approval, and as he rode onward the new recruit ran up to his horse,
+and followed him on foot during a long and rapid journey without the
+least appearance of fatigue.
+
+This remarkable endurance astonished Severus. "Thracian," he said, "are
+you prepared to wrestle after your race?"
+
+"Ready and willing," answered the youth, with alacrity.
+
+Some of the strongest soldiers of the army were now selected and pitted
+against him, and he overthrew seven of them in rapid succession. The
+emperor, delighted with this matchless display of vigor and agility,
+presented him with a golden collar in reward, and ordered that he should
+be placed in the horse-guards that formed his personal escort.
+
+The new recruit, Maximin by name, was a true barbarian, though born in
+the empire. His father was a Goth, his mother of the nation of the
+Alani. But he had judgment and shrewdness, and a valor equal to his
+strength, and soon advanced in the favor of the emperor, who was a good
+judge of merit. Fierce and impetuous by nature, experience of the world
+taught him to restrain these qualities, and he advanced in position
+until he attained the rank of centurion.
+
+After the death of Severus the Thracian served with equal fidelity under
+his son Caracalla, whose favor and esteem he won. During the short
+reign of the profligate and effeminate Elagabalus, Maximin withdrew
+from the court, but he returned when Alexander Severus, one of the
+noblest of Roman emperors, came to the throne. The new monarch was
+familiar with his ability and the incidents of his unusual career, and
+raised him to the responsible post of tribune of the fourth legion,
+which, under his rigid care, soon became the best disciplined in the
+whole army. He was the favorite of the soldiers under his command, who
+bestowed on their gigantic leader the names of Ajax and Hercules, and
+rejoiced as he steadily rose in rank under the discriminating judgment
+of the emperor. Step by step he was advanced until he reached the
+highest rank in the army, and, but for the evident marks of his savage
+origin, the emperor might have given his own sister in marriage to the
+son of his favorite general.
+
+The incautious emperor was nursing a serpent. The favors poured upon the
+Thracian peasant failed to secure his fidelity, and only nourished his
+ambition. He began to aspire to the highest place in the empire, which
+had been won by many soldiers before him. Licentiousness and profligacy
+had sapped the strength of the army during the weak preceding reigns,
+and Alexander sought earnestly to overcome this corruption and restore
+the rigid ancient discipline. It was too great a task for one of his
+lenient disposition. The soldiers were furious at his restrictions, many
+mutinies broke out, his officers were murdered, his authority was widely
+insulted, he could scarcely repress the disorders that broke out in his
+immediate presence.
+
+This sentiment in the army offered the opportunity desired by Maximin.
+He sent his emissaries among the soldiers to enhance their discontent.
+For thirteen years, said these men, Rome had been governed by a weak
+Syrian, the slave of his mother and the senate. It was time the empire
+had a man at its head, a real soldier, who could add to its glory and
+win new treasures for his followers.
+
+Alexander had been engaged in a war with Persia. He had no sooner
+returned than an outbreak in Germany forced him to hasten to the Rhine.
+Here a large army was assembled, made up in part of new levies, whose
+training in the art of war was given to the care of Maximin. The
+discipline exacted by Alexander was no more acceptable to the soldiers
+here than elsewhere, and the secret agents of the ambitious Thracian
+found fertile ground for their insinuations.
+
+At length all was ripe for the outbreak. One day--March 19, 239 A.D.--as
+Maximin entered the field of exercise, the troops suddenly saluted him
+as emperor, and silenced by violent exclamations his obstinate show of
+refusal. The rebels rushed to the tent of Alexander and consummated
+their conspiracy by striking him dead. His most faithful friends
+perished with him; others were dismissed from court and army; and some
+suffered the cruelest treatment from the unfeeling usurper. Thus it was
+that the imperial dignity descended from the noblest citizens of Rome to
+a peasant of a distant province of barbarian origin. It was one of the
+most striking steps in the decline of the empire.
+
+The new emperor was a man of extraordinary physical powers. He is said
+to have been more than eight feet in height, while his strength and
+appetite were in accordance with his gigantic stature. It is stated that
+he could drink seven gallons of wine and eat thirty or forty pounds of
+meat in a day, and could move a loaded wagon with his arms, break a
+horse's leg with his fist, crumble stones in his hands, and tear up
+small trees by the roots. His mental powers did not accord with his
+physical ones. He was savage of aspect, ignorant of civilized arts,
+destitute of accomplishments, and ruthless in disposition.
+
+He had the virtues of the camp, and these had endeared him to the
+soldiers, but his barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his
+rudeness and ignorance were the contempt of cultivated people, and had
+gained him many rebuffs in his humbler days. He was now in a position to
+revenge himself, not only on the haughty nobles who had treated him with
+contempt, but even on former friends who were aware of his mean
+origin,--of which he was heartily ashamed. For both these crimes many
+were put to death, and the slaughter of several of his former
+benefactors has stained the memory of Maximin with the basest
+ingratitude.
+
+Rome, in the strange progress of its history, had raised a savage to the
+imperial seat, and it suffered accordingly. A scion of the despised
+barbarians of the northern forests was now its emperor, and he visited
+on the proud citizens of Rome the wrongs of his ancestors. The suspicion
+and cruelty of Maximin were unbounded and unrelenting. A consular
+senator named Magnus was accused of a conspiracy against his life.
+Without trial or opportunity for defence Magnus was put to death, with
+no less than four thousand supposed accomplices.
+
+This was but an incident in a frightful reign of terror. The emperor
+kept aloof from his capital, but he filled Rome, and the whole empire,
+in fact, with spies and informers. The slightest accusation or suspicion
+was sufficient for the blood-thirsty tyrant. On a mere unproved charge
+Roman nobles of the highest descent--men who had served as consuls,
+governed provinces, commanded armies, enjoyed triumphs--were seized,
+chained on the public carriages, and borne away to the distant camp of
+the low-born tyrant.
+
+Here they found neither justice nor compassion. Exile, confiscation, and
+ordinary execution were mild measures with Maximin. Some of the
+unfortunates were clubbed to death, some exposed to wild beasts, some
+sewed in the hides of slaughtered animals and left to perish. The worst
+enormities of Caligula and Nero were rivalled by this rude soldier, who,
+during the three years of his reign, disdained to visit either Rome or
+Italy, and permitted no men of high birth, elegant accomplishments, or
+knowledge of public business to approach his person. His imperial seat
+shifted from a camp on the Rhine to one on the Danube, and his sole idea
+of government seems to have been the execution of the suspected.
+
+It was the great that suffered, and to this the people were indifferent.
+But they all felt his avarice. The soldiers demanded rewards, and the
+empire was drained to supply them. By a single edict all the stored-up
+revenue of the cities was taken to supply Maximin's treasury. The
+temples were robbed of their treasures, and the statues of gods, heroes,
+and emperors were melted down and converted into coin. A general cry of
+indignation against this impiety rose throughout the Roman world, and it
+was evident that the end of this frightful tyranny was approaching.
+
+An insurrection broke out in Africa. It was supported in Rome. But it
+ended in failure, the Gordians, father and son, who headed it, were
+slain, and the senate and nobles of Rome fell into mortal terror. They
+looked for a frightful retribution from the imperial monster. With the
+courage of despair they took the only step that remained: two new
+emperors, Maximus and Balbinus, were appointed, and active steps taken
+to defend Italy and Rome.
+
+There was no time to be lost. News of these revolutionary movements had
+roused in Maximin the rage of a wild beast. All who approached his
+person were in danger, even his son and nearest friends. Under his
+command was a large, well-disciplined, and experienced army. He was a
+soldier of acknowledged valor and military ability. The rebels, with
+their hasty levies and untried commanders, had everything to fear.
+
+They took judicious steps. When the troops of Maximin, crossing the
+Julian Alps, reached the borders of Italy, they were terrified by the
+silence and desolation that prevailed. The villages and open towns had
+been abandoned, the bridges destroyed, the cattle driven away, the
+provisions removed, the country made a desert. The people had gathered
+into the walled cities, which were plentifully provisioned and
+garrisoned. The purpose of the senate was to weaken Maximin by famine
+and retard him by siege.
+
+The first city assailed was Aquileia, It was fully provisioned and
+vigorously defended, the inhabitants preferring death on their walls to
+death by the tyrant's order. Yet Rome was in imminent danger. Maximin
+might at any moment abandon the siege of a frontier city and march upon
+the capital. There was no army capable of opposing him. The fate of Rome
+hung upon a thread.
+
+The hand of an assassin cut that thread. The severity of the weather,
+the growth of disease, the lack of food, had spread disaffection through
+Maximin's army. Ignorant of the true state of affairs, many of the
+soldiers feared that the whole empire was in arms against them. The
+tyrant, vexed at the obstinate defence of Aquileia, visited his anger on
+his men, and roused a stern desire for revenge. The end came soon. A
+party of Prætorian guards, in dread for their wives and children, who
+were in the camp of Alba, near Rome, broke into sudden revolt, entered
+Maximin's tent, and killed him, his son, and the principal ministers of
+his tyranny.
+
+The whole army sympathized with this impulsive act. The heads of the
+dead, borne on the points of spears, were shown the garrison, and at
+once the gates were thrown open, the hungry troops supplied with food,
+and a general fraternization took place. Joy in the fall of the tyrant
+was universal throughout the empire, the two new emperors entered Rome
+in a triumphal procession, people and nobles alike went wild with
+enthusiasm, and the belief was entertained that a golden age was to
+succeed the age of iron that had come to an end. Yet within three months
+afterwards both the new emperors were massacred in the streets of Rome,
+and the hoped-for era of happiness and prosperity vanished before the
+swelling tide of oppression, demoralization, and decline.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE._
+
+
+In the century that followed the reign of Maximin great changes came
+upon the empire of Rome. The process of decline went steadily on. The
+city of Rome sank in importance as the centre of the empire. The armies
+were recruited from former barbarian tribes; many of the emperors
+reigned in the field; the savage inmates of the northern forests,
+hitherto sternly restrained, now began to gain a footing within the
+borders; the Goths plundered Greece; the Persians took Armenia; the day
+of the downfall of the great empire was coming, slowly but surely. One
+important event during this period, the rebellion of Zenobia and the
+ruin of Palmyra, we have told in "Tales of Greece." There are two other
+events to be told: the rise of Christianity, and the founding of a new
+capital of the empire.
+
+From the date of the death of Christ, the Christian religion made
+continual progress in the city and empire of Rome. Despite the contempt
+with which its believers were viewed, despite the persecution to which
+they were subjected, despite frequent massacres and martyrdoms, their
+numbers rapidly increased, and the many superstitions of the empire
+gradually gave way before the doctrines of human brotherhood, infinite
+love and mercy, and the eternal existence and happiness of those who
+believed in Christ and practised virtue. By the time of the accession of
+the great emperor Constantine, 306 A.D., the Christians were so numerous
+in the army and populace of the empire that they had to be dealt with
+more mercifully than of old, and their teachings were no longer confined
+to the lowly, but ascended to the level of the throne itself.
+
+The traditional story handed down to us is that Constantine, in his
+struggle with Maxentius for the empire of the West, saw in the sky,
+above the mid-day sun, a great luminous cross, marked with the words,
+"_In hoc signo vinces_" ("In this sign conquer"). The whole army beheld
+this amazing object; and during the following night Christ appeared to
+the emperor in a vision, and directed him to march against his enemies
+under the standard of the cross. Another writer claims that a whole army
+of divine warriors were seen descending from the sky, and flying to the
+aid of Constantine.
+
+[Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS, ROME.]
+
+It may be said that both these stories, though told by devout authors,
+greatly lack probability. But, whatever the cause, Constantine became a
+professed Christian, and as such availed himself of the enthusiastic
+support of the Christians of his army. By an edict issued at Milan, 313
+A.D., he gave civil rights and toleration to the Christians throughout
+the empire, and not long afterwards proclaimed Christianity the religion
+of the state, though the pagan worship was still tolerated.
+
+This highly important act of Constantine was followed by another of
+great importance, the establishment of a new capital of the Roman
+empire, one which was destined to keep alive some shadow of that empire
+for many centuries after Rome itself had become the capital of a kingdom
+of barbarians. On the European bank of the Bosphorus, the channel which
+connects the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea, had for ages stood the
+city of Byzantium, which played an important part in Grecian history.
+
+On the basis of this old city Constantine resolved to build a new one,
+worthy his greatness. The situation was much more central than that of
+Rome, and was admirably chosen for the government of an empire that
+extended as far to the east in Asia as to the west in Europe, while it
+was at once defended by nature against hostile attack and open to the
+benefits of commercial intercourse. This, then, was the site chosen for
+the new capital, and here the city of Constantinople arose.
+
+We have, in our first chapter, described how Romulus laid out the walls
+of Rome. With equally impressive ceremonies Constantine traced those of
+the new capital of the empire. Lance in hand, and followed by a solemn
+procession, the emperor walked over a route of such extent that his
+assistants cried out in astonishment that he had already exceeded the
+dimensions of a great city.
+
+"I shall still advance," said Constantine, "till He, the invisible guide
+who marches before me, thinks proper to stop."
+
+From the eastern promontory to that part of the Bosphorus known as the
+"Golden Gate," the city extended along the strait about three Roman
+miles. Its circumference measured between ten and eleven, the space
+embraced equalling about two thousand acres. Upon the five hills
+enclosed within this space, which, to those who approach Constantinople,
+rise above each other in beautiful order, was built the new city, the
+choicest marble and the most costly and showy materials being abundantly
+employed to add grandeur and splendor to the natural beauty of the site.
+
+A great multitude of builders and architects were employed in raising
+the walls and building the edifices of the imperial city, while the
+treasures of the empire were spent without stint in the effort to make
+it an unequalled monument. In that day the art of architecture had
+greatly declined, but for the adornment of the city there were to be had
+the noblest productions the world had ever known, the works of the most
+celebrated artists of the age of Pericles.
+
+These were amply employed. To adorn the new city, the cities of Greece
+and Asia were despoiled of their choicest treasures of art. In the Forum
+was placed a lofty column of porphyry, one hundred and twenty feet in
+height, on whose summit stood a colossal statue of Apollo, supposed to
+be the work of Phidias. In the stately circus or hippodrome, the space
+between the goals, round which the chariots turned in their swift
+flight, was filled with ancient statues and obelisks. Here was also a
+trophy of striking historical value, the bodies of three serpents
+twisted into a pillar of brass, which once supported the golden tripod
+that was consecrated by the Greeks in the temple of Delphi after the
+defeat of Xerxes. It still exists, as the choicest antiquarian relic of
+the city.
+
+The palace was a magnificent edifice, hardly surpassed by that of Rome
+itself. The baths were enriched with lofty columns, handsome marbles,
+and more than threescore statues of brass. The city contained numbers of
+other magnificent public buildings, and over four thousand noble
+residences, which towered above the multitude of plebeian dwellings. As
+for its wealth and population, these, in less than a century, vied with
+those of Rome itself.
+
+With such energy did Constantine push the work on his city that its
+principal edifices were finished in a few years,--or in a few months, as
+one authority states, though this statement seems to lack probability.
+This done, the founder dedicated his new capital with the most
+impressive ceremonies, and with games and largesses to the people of the
+greatest pomp and cost. An edict, engraved on a marble column, gave to
+the new city the title of Second or New Rome. But this official title
+died, as the accepted name of the city, almost as soon as it was born.
+Constantinople, the "city of Constantine," became the popular name, and
+so it continues till this day in Christian acceptation. In reality,
+however, the city has suffered another change of name, for its present
+possessors, the Turks, know it by the name of Stambol.
+
+An interesting ceremony succeeded. With every return of the birthday of
+the city, a statue of Constantine, made of gilt wood and bearing in its
+right hand a small image of the genius of the city, was placed on a
+triumphal car, and drawn in solemn procession through the Hippodrome,
+attended by the guards, who carried white tapers and were dressed in
+their richest robes. When it came opposite the throne of the reigning
+emperor, he rose from his seat, and, with grateful reverence, paid
+homage to the statue of the founder. Thus it was that Byzantium was
+replaced by Constantinople, and thus was the founder of the new capital
+held in honor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE._
+
+
+The doom of Rome was at hand. Its empire had extended almost inimitably
+to the east and west, had crossed the sea and deeply penetrated the
+desert to the south, but had failed in its advances to the north. The
+Rhine and the Danube here formed its boundaries. The great forest region
+which lay beyond these, with its hosts of blue-eyed and fair-skinned
+barbarians, defied the armies of Rome. Here and there the forest was
+penetrated, hundreds of thousands of its tenants were slain, yet Rome
+failed to subdue its swarming tribes, and simply taught them the
+principle of combination and the art of war. Early in the history of
+Rome it was taken and burnt by the Gauls. Raids of barbarians across the
+border were frequent in its later history. As Rome grew weaker, the
+tribes of the north grew bolder and stronger. The armies of the empire
+were kept busy in holding the lines of the Rhine and the Danube. At
+length Roman weakness and incompetency permitted this barrier to be
+broken, and the beginning of the end was at hand. This is the important
+event which we have now to describe.
+
+In the year 375 A.D. there existed a great Gothic kingdom in the north,
+extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea, under the rule of an able
+monarch named Hermanric, who had conquered and combined numerous tribes
+into a single nation. On this nation, just as assassination removed the
+Gothic conqueror, descended a vast and frightful horde from northern
+Asia, the mighty invasion of the Huns, which was to shake to its heart
+the empire of Rome.
+
+The Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) were conquered by this savage horde. The
+Visigoths (Western Goths), stricken with mortal fear, hurried to the
+Danube and implored the Romans to save them from annihilation. For many
+miles along the banks of the river extended the panic-stricken
+multitude, with outstretched arms and pathetic lamentations, praying for
+permission to cross. If settled on the waste lands of Thrace they would
+pledge themselves to be faithful subjects of Rome, to obey its laws and
+guard its limits.
+
+Sympathy and pity counselled the emperor to grant the request. Political
+considerations bade him refuse. To admit such a host of warlike
+barbarians to the empire was full of danger. Finally they were permitted
+to cross, under two stringent conditions: they must deliver up their
+arms, and they must yield their children, who were to be taken to Asia,
+educated, and held as hostages. Such was the first fatal step in the
+overthrow of Rome.
+
+The task of crossing was a difficult one. The Danube there was more than
+a mile wide, and had been swollen with rains. A large fleet of boats and
+vessels was provided, but it took many days and nights to transport the
+mighty host, and numbers of them were swept away and drowned by the
+rapid current. Probably the whole multitude numbered nearly a million,
+of whom two hundred thousand were warriors.
+
+Of the conditions made only one was carried out. The children of the
+Goths were removed, and taken to the distant lands chosen for their
+residence. But the arms were not given up. The Roman officers were
+bribed to let the warriors retain their weapons, and in a short time a
+great army of armed barbarians was encamped on the southern bank of the
+Danube.
+
+These new subjects of Rome were treated in a way well calculated to
+convert them into enemies. The officials of Thrace disobeyed the orders
+of the emperor, sold the Goths the meanest food at extravagant prices,
+and by their rapacious avarice bitterly irritated them. While this was
+going on, the Ostrogoths also appeared on the Danube, and solicited
+permission to cross. Valens, the emperor, refused. He was beginning to
+fear that he had already too many subjects of that race. But the
+discontent of the Visigoths had drawn the soldiers from the stream and
+left it unguarded. The Ostrogoths seized vessels and built rafts. They
+crossed without opposition. Soon a new and hostile army was encamped
+upon the territory of the Roman empire.
+
+The discontent of the Visigoths was not long in breaking into open war.
+They had marched to Marcianopolis, seventy miles from the Danube. Here
+Lupicinus, one of the governors of Thrace, invited the Gothic chiefs to
+a splendid entertainment. Their guards remained under arms at the
+entrance to the palace. But the gates of the city were closely guarded,
+and the Goths outside were refused the use of a plentiful market, to
+which they claimed admission as subjects of Rome.
+
+The citizens treated them with insult and derision. The Goths grew
+angry. Words led to blows. A sword was drawn, and the first blood shed
+in a long and ruinous war. Lupicinus was told that many of his soldiers
+had been slain. Heated with wine, he gave orders that they should be
+revenged by the death of the Gothic guards at the palace gates.
+
+The shouts and groans in the street warned Fritigern, the Gothic king,
+of his danger. At a word from him his comrades at the banquet drew their
+swords, forced their way from the palace and through the streets, and,
+mounting their horses, rode with all speed to their camp, and told their
+followers what had occurred. Instantly cries of vengeance and warlike
+shouts arose, war was resolved upon by the chiefs, the banners of the
+host were displayed, and the sound of the trumpets carried afar the
+hostile warning.
+
+Lupicinus hastily collected such troops as he could command and advanced
+against the barbarians; but the Roman ranks were broken and the legions
+slaughtered, while their guilty leader was forced to fly for his life.
+"That successful day put an end to the distress of the barbarians and
+the security of the Romans," says a Gothic historian.
+
+The imprudence of Valens had introduced a nation of warriors into the
+heart of the empire; the venality of the officials had converted them
+into enemies; Valens, instead of seeking to remove their causes of
+hostility, marched with an army against them. We cannot here describe
+the various conflicts that took place. It will suffice to say that other
+barbarians crossed the Danube, and that even some of the Huns joined the
+army of Fritigern. The borders of the empire were effectually broken,
+and the forest myriads swarmed unchecked into the empire.
+
+On August 9, 378, the Emperor Valens, inspired by ambition and moved by
+the demands of the ignorant multitude, left the strong walls of
+Adrianople and marched to attack the Goths, who were encamped twelve
+miles away. The result was fatal. The Romans, exhausted with their
+march, suffering from heat and thirst, confused and ill-organized, met
+with a complete defeat. The emperor was slain on the field or burnt to
+death in a hut to which he had been carried wounded, hundreds of
+distinguished officers perished, more than two-thirds of the army were
+destroyed, and the darkness of the night only saved the rest. Valens had
+been badly punished for his imprudence and the Romans for their
+venality.
+
+This signal victory of the Goths was followed by a siege of Adrianople.
+But the barbarians knew nothing of the art of attacking stone walls, and
+quickly gave up the impossible task. From Adrianople they marched to
+Constantinople, but were forced to content themselves with ravaging the
+suburbs and gazing, with impotent desire, on the city's distant
+splendor. Then, laden with the rich spoils of the suburbs, they marched
+southward through Thrace, and spread over the face of a fertile and
+cultivated country extending as far as the confines of Italy, their
+course being everywhere marked with massacre, conflagration, and rapine,
+until some of the fairest regions of the empire were turned almost into
+a desert. It may be that the numbers of Romans who perished from this
+invasion equalled those of the Goths whom imprudent compassion had
+delivered from the Huns.
+
+As regards the children of the Goths, who had been distributed in the
+provinces of Asia Minor, there remains a cruel story to tell. Though
+given the education and taught the arts of the Romans, they did not
+forget their origin, and the suspicion arose that they were plotting to
+repeat in Asia the deeds of their fathers in Europe. Julius, who
+commanded the troops after the death of Valens, took bloody measures to
+prevent any such calamity. The youthful Goths were bidden to assemble,
+on a stated day, in the capital cities of their provinces, the hint
+being given that they were to receive gifts of land and money. On the
+appointed day they were collected unarmed in the Forum of each city, the
+surrounding streets being occupied by Roman troops, and the roofs of the
+houses covered with archers and slingers. At a fixed hour, in all the
+cities, the signal for slaughter was given, and in an hour more not one
+of these helpless wards of Rome remained alive. The cruel treachery of
+this blood-thirsty act remains almost unparalleled in history.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DOWNFALL OF ROME._
+
+
+Theodosius, the great and noble emperor who succeeded Valens, pacified
+and made quiet subjects of the Goths. He died in 395, and before the
+year ended the Gothic nation was again in arms. At the first sound of
+the trumpet the warriors, who had been forced to a life of labor,
+deserted their fields and flocked to the standards of war. The barriers
+of the empire were down. Across the frozen surface of the Danube flocked
+savage tribesmen from the northern forests, and joined the Gothic hosts.
+Under the leadership of an able commander, the famous Alaric, the
+barbarians swept from their fields and poured downward upon Greece, in
+search of an easier road to fortune than the toilsome one of industry.
+
+Many centuries had passed since the Persians invaded Greece, and the men
+of Marathon and Thermopylæ were no more. Men had been posted to defend
+the world-famous pass, but, instead of fighting to the death, like
+Leonidas and his Spartans of old, they retired without a blow, and left
+Greece to the mercy of the Goth.
+
+Instantly a deluge of barbarians spread right and left, and the whole
+country was ravaged. Thebes alone resisted. Athens admitted Alaric
+within its gates, and saved itself by giving the barbarian chief a bath
+and a banquet. The other famous cities had lost their walls, and
+Corinth, Argos, and Sparta yielded without defence to the Goths. The
+wealth of the cities and the produce of the country were ravaged without
+stint, villages and towns were committed to the flames, thousands of the
+inhabitants were borne off to slavery, and for years afterwards the
+track of the Goths could be traced in ruin throughout the land.
+
+By a fortunate chance Rome possessed at that epoch a great general, the
+famous Stilicho, whose military genius has rarely been surpassed. He had
+before him a mighty task, the forcing back of the high tide of barbarian
+overflow, but he did it well while he lived. His death brought ruin on
+Rome. Stilicho hastened to Greece and quickly drove the Goths from the
+Peloponnesus. But jealousy between Constantinople and Rome tied his
+hands, he was recalled to Italy, and the weak emperor of the East
+rewarded the Gothic general for his destructive raid by making him
+master-general of Illyricum.
+
+Alaric, fired by ambition, used his new power in forcing the cities of
+his dominion to supply the Goths with the weapons of war. Then, Greece
+and the country to the north having been devastated, he turned his arms
+against Italy, and about 400 A.D. appeared at the foot of the Julian
+Alps, the first invader who had threatened Italy since the days of
+Hannibal, six hundred years before.
+
+There were at that time two rulers of the Roman empire,--Arcadius,
+emperor of the East, and Honorius, emperor of the West. The latter, a
+coward himself, had a brave man to command his armies,--Stilicho, who
+had driven the Goths from Greece. But Italy, though it had a general,
+was destitute of an army. To meet the invading foe, Stilicho was forced
+to empty the forts on the Rhine, and even to send to England for the
+legion that guarded the Caledonian wall. With the army thus raised he
+met the Gothic host at Pollentia, and defeated them with frightful
+slaughter, recovering from their camp many of the spoils of Greece.
+Another battle was fought at Verona, and the Goths were again defeated.
+They were now forced to retire from Italy, Stilicho and the emperor
+entered Rome, and that capital saw its last great triumph, and gloried
+in a revival of its magnificent ancient games.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS.]
+
+In these games the cruel combat of gladiators was shown for the last
+time to the blood-thirsty populace of Rome. The edict of Constantine had
+failed to stop these frightful sports. The appeal of a Christian poet
+was equally without effect. A more decisive action was necessary, and it
+came. In the midst of these bloody contests an Asiatic monk, named
+Telemachus, rushed into the arena and attempted to separate the
+gladiators. He paid for his rashness with his life, being stoned to
+death by the furious spectators, with whose pleasure he had dared to
+interfere. But his death had its effect. The fury of the people was
+followed by shame. Telemachus was looked upon as a martyr, and the
+gladiatorial shows came to an end, the emperor abolishing forever the
+spectacle of human slaughter and human cruelty in the amphitheatre of
+Rome.
+
+Rome triumphed too soon. Its ovation to victory was the expiring gleam
+in its long career of glory and dominion. Its downfall was at hand.
+Fight as it might in Italy, the gate-ways of the empire lay open in the
+north, and through them still poured barbarian hordes. The myriads of
+the Huns, rushing in a devouring wave from the borders of China, made a
+mighty stir in the forest region of the Baltic and the Danube. In the
+year 406 a vast host of Germans, known by the names of Vandals,
+Burgundians, and Suevi, under a leader named Rhodogast, or Radagaisus,
+crossed the Danube and made its way unopposed to Italy. Multitudes of
+Goths joined them, till the army numbered not less than two hundred
+thousand fighting men.
+
+As the flood of barbarians rushed southward through Italy, many cities
+were pillaged or destroyed, and the city of Florence sustained its first
+recorded siege. Alaric and his Goths were Christians. Radagaisus and his
+Germans were half-savage pagans. Florence, which had dared oppose them,
+was threatened with utter ruin. It was to be reduced to stones and
+ashes, and its noblest senators were to be sacrificed on the altars of
+the German gods. The Florentines, thus threatened, fought bravely, but
+they were reduced to the last extremity before deliverance came.
+
+Stilicho had not been idle during this destructive raid. By calling
+troops from the frontiers, by arming slaves, and by enlisting barbarian
+allies, he was at length able to take the field. He led the _last_ army
+of Rome, and dared not expose it to the wild valor of the savage foe. On
+the contrary, he surrounded their camp with strong lines which defied
+their efforts to break through, and waited till starvation should force
+them to surrender.
+
+Florence was relieved. The besiegers were in their turn besieged. Their
+bravest warriors were slain in efforts to break the Roman lines.
+Radagaisus surrendered to Stilicho, and was instantly executed. Such of
+his followers as had not been swept away by famine and disease were sold
+as slaves. The great host disappeared, and Stilicho a second time won
+the proud title of Deliverer of Italy.
+
+But the whole army of Radagaisus was not destroyed. Half of it had
+remained in the north. These were forced by Stilicho to retreat from
+Italy. But Gaul lay open to their fury. That great and rich section of
+the empire was invaded and frightfully ravaged, and its conquerors never
+afterwards left its fertile fields. The empire of Rome ceased to exist
+in the countries beyond the Alps, those great regions which had been won
+by the arms of Marius and Cæsar.
+
+And now the time had come for Rome to destroy itself. The mind of the
+emperor was poisoned against Stilicho, the sole remaining bulwark of his
+power. He had sought to tie the hands of Alaric with gifts of power and
+gold, and was accused of treason by his enemies. The weak Honorius gave
+way, and Stilicho was slain. His friends shared his fate, and the
+cowardly imbecile who ruled Rome cut down the only safeguard of his
+throne.
+
+The result was what might have been foreseen. In a few months after the
+death of Stilicho, Alaric was again in Italy, exasperated by the bad
+faith of the court, which had promised and not performed. There was no
+army and no general to meet him. City after city was pillaged. Avoiding
+the strong walls of Ravenna, behind which the emperor lay secure, he
+marched on Rome, led his army under the stately arches, adorned with the
+spoils of countless victories, and pitched his tents beneath the walls
+of the imperial city.
+
+Six hundred and nineteen years had passed since a foreign foe had gazed
+upon those proud walls, within which lay the richest and most splendid
+city of the world, peopled by a population of more than a million souls.
+But Rome was no longer the city which had defied the hosts of Hannibal,
+and had sold at auction, for a fair price, the very ground on which the
+great Carthaginian had pitched his tent. Alaric was not a Hannibal, but
+much less were the Romans of his day the Romans of the past.
+
+Instead of striking for the honor of Rome, they lay and starved within
+their walls until thousands had died in houses and streets. No army came
+to their relief, and in despair the senate sent delegates to treat with
+the king of the Goths.
+
+"We are resolved to maintain the dignity of Rome, either in peace or
+war," said the envoys, with a show of pride and valor. "If you will not
+yield us honorable terms, you may sound your trumpets and prepare to
+fight with myriads of men used to arms and with the courage of despair."
+
+"The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed," answered Alaric, with a
+loud and insulting laugh.
+
+He then named the terms on which he would retreat,--_all_ the gold and
+silver in the city; _all_ the rich and precious movables; _all_ the
+slaves who were of barbarian origin.
+
+"If such are your demands," asked the envoys, now reduced to suppliant
+tones, "what do you intend to leave us?"
+
+"Your _lives_," said Alaric, in haughty tones.
+
+The envoys retired, trembling with fear.
+
+But Alaric moderated his demands, and was bought off by the payment of
+five thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, four
+thousand robes of silk, three thousand pieces of scarlet cloth, and
+three thousand pounds of pepper, then a costly and favorite spice. The
+gates were opened, the hungry multitude was fed, and the Gothic army
+marched away, but it left Rome poor.
+
+What followed is too long to tell. Alaric treated for peace with the
+ministers of the emperor. But he met with such bad faith and so many
+insults that exasperation overcame all his desire for peace, and once
+more the army of the Goths marched upon Rome.
+
+The crime and folly of the court of Honorius at Ravenna had at last
+brought about the ruin of the imperial city. The senate resolved on
+defence; but there were traitors within the walls. At midnight the
+Salarian Gate was silently opened, and a chosen band of barbarians
+entered the streets. The tremendous sound of the Gothic trumpet aroused
+the sleeping citizens to the fact that all was lost. Eleven hundred and
+sixty-three years after the foundation of Rome, and eight hundred years
+after its capture by the Gauls, it had again become the prey of
+barbarians, and the imperial mistress of the world was delivered to the
+fury of the German and Gothic hordes.
+
+Alaric, while permitting his followers to plunder at discretion, bade
+them to spare the lives of the unresisting; but thousands of Romans were
+slain, and the forty thousand slaves who had joined his ranks revenged
+themselves on their former masters with pitiless rage. Conflagration
+added to the horrors, and fire spread far over the captured city. The
+Goths held Rome only for six days, but in that time depleted it
+frightfully of its wealth. The costly furniture, the massive plate, the
+robes of silk and purple, were piled without stint into their wagons,
+and numerous works of art were wantonly destroyed.
+
+But Alaric and many of his followers were Christians, and the treasures
+of the Church escaped. A Christian Goth broke into the dwelling of an
+aged woman, and demanded all the gold and silver she possessed. To his
+astonishment, she showed him a hoard of massive plate, of the most
+curious workmanship. As he looked at it with wonder and delight, she
+solemnly said,--
+
+"These are the consecrated vessels belonging to St. Peter. If you
+presume to touch them, your conscience must answer for the sacrilege.
+For me, I dare not keep what I am not able to defend."
+
+The Goth, struck with awe by her words, sent word to Alaric of what he
+had found, and received an order that all this consecrated treasure
+should be transported without damage to St. Peter's Church. A remarkable
+spectacle, never before seen in a captured city, followed. From the
+Quirinal Hill to the distant Vatican marched a long train of devout
+Goths, bearing on their heads the sacred vessels of gold and silver, and
+guarded on each side by a detachment of their armed companions, while
+the martial shouts of the barbarians mingled with the hymns of devotees.
+A crowd of Christians flocked from the houses to join the procession,
+and through its sheltering aid a multitude of fugitives escaped to the
+secure retreat of the Vatican.
+
+Not satisfied with plundering the city, the conquerors ended by selling
+its citizens, save those who could ransom themselves, for slaves. Many
+of these were redeemed by the benevolent, but as a result of the taking
+of Rome hosts of indigent fugitives were scattered through the empire,
+from Italy to Syria.
+
+From this time forward the Western Empire of Rome was the prey of
+barbarians. In 451 the Huns under Attila invaded Gaul, besieged Orleans,
+and were defeated at Châlons in the last great victory of Rome. In the
+following year Attila invaded Italy, and Rome was only saved from the
+worst of horrors by a large ransom. Three years afterwards, in 455, an
+army of Vandals, who had invaded Africa, sailed to Italy, and Rome was
+again taken and sacked. For fourteen days and nights the pillage
+continued, and when it ended Rome was stripped bare of treasure; the
+Christian churches, which had been spared by the Goths, being
+mercilessly plundered by these heathen conquerors.
+
+A few years more and the Western Empire of Rome came to an end. In the
+year 476 or 479, Augustulus, the last emperor, was forced to resign, and
+Odoacer, a barbarian chief, assumed the title of King of Italy. As for
+the Eastern Empire, it maintained a half-life for nearly a thousand
+years after, Constantinople being finally taken by the Turks, and made
+the capital of Turkey, in 1453.
+
+  THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by 
+Charles Morris
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Historical Tales, Volume 11, by Charles Morris.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by Charles Morris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15)
+       The Romance of Reality
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2008 [EBook #25673]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC TALES, VOLUME 11 (OF 15) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Kline, Greg Bergquist and The Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="ANGELO" id="ANGELO"></a>
+<img src="images/front.jpg" width="600" height="393" alt="CASTLE S. ANGELO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CASTLE S. ANGELO.</span>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<p class="old">Edition d'&Eacute;lite<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h1>Historical Tales</h1>
+
+<p class="t1">The Romance of Reality<br /></p>
+
+<p class="center">By</p>
+
+<p class="t2">CHARLES MORRIS</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small><i>Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the
+Dramatists," etc.</i></small><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="t3">IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES</p>
+
+<p class="t4">Volume XI<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="old2">Roman</p>
+
+
+<p class="t2">J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY</p>
+
+<p class="center">PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON</p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+Copyright, 1896, by <span class="smcap">J.B. Lippincott Company</span>.<br />
+<br />
+Copyright, 1904, by <span class="smcap">J.B. Lippincott Company</span>.<br />
+<br />
+Copyright, 1908, by <span class="smcap">J.B. Lippincott Company</span>.<br />
+</small></p>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<hr class="short" />
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC">
+<tr><td class="td1">&nbsp;</td><td class="td2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">How Rome was founded</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Sabine Virgins</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Horatii and Curiatii</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Dynasty of the Tarquins</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Books of the Sibyl</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Story of Lucretia</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">How Brave Horatius kept the Bridge</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Battle of Lake Regillus</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Revolt of the People</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Revenge of Coriolanus</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Cincinnatus and the &AElig;quians</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Sacrifice of Virginia</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Camillus at the Siege of Veii</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Gauls at Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Curtian Gulf</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Anecdotes of the Latin and Samnite Wars</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Caudine Forks</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Fate of Regulus</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Hannibal crosses the Alps</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">How Hannibal fought and died</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Archimedes at the Siege of Syracuse</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Fate of Carthage</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Gracchi and their Fall</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Jugurtha, the Purchaser of Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Exile and Revenge of Marius</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Proscription of Sulla</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Revolt of the Gladiators</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">C&aelig;sar and the Pirates</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">C&aelig;sar and Pompey</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Assassination of C&aelig;sar</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Antony and Cleopatra</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">An Imperial Monster</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Murder of an Empress</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Boadicea, the Heroine of Britain</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Rome swept by Flames</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Doom of Nero</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Sports of the Amphitheatre</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Reign of a Glutton</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Faithful Eponina</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Siege of Jerusalem</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Destruction of Pompeii</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">An Imperial Savage</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Deeds of Constantine</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Goths cross the Danube</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Downfall of Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>ROMAN.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td class="td1">&nbsp;</td><td class="td2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Castle of St. Angelo</span></td><td class="td2"><i><a href="#ANGELO">Frontispiece.</a></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Rome from the Dome of St. Peter's</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Forum of Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Brutus Ordering the Execution of His Sons</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Horatius Keeping the Bridge</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Sacrifice of Virginia</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Ruins of the Roman Aqueducts</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Hannibal Crossing the Alps</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Baths of Caracalla</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Assassination of C&aelig;sar</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Antony's Oration Over C&aelig;sar</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Galley of Cleopatra</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Tomb of Hadrian</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">A Roman Chariot Race</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Coliseum at Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Jews' Wailing Place, Jerusalem</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Ruins of Pompeii</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Arch of Titus, Rome</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td1"><span class="smcap">The Last Combat of the Gladiators</span></td><td class="td2"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Very</span> far back in time, more than twenty-six hundred years ago, on the
+banks of a small Italian river, known as the Tiber, were laid the
+foundations of a city which was in time to become the conqueror of the
+civilized world. Of the early days of this renowned city of Rome we know
+very little. What is called its history is really only legend,&mdash;stories
+invented by poets, or ancient facts which became gradually changed into
+romances. The Romans believed them, but that is no reason why we should.
+They believed many things which we doubt. And yet these romantic stories
+are the only existing foundation-stones of actual Roman history, and we
+can do no better than give them for what little kernel of fact they may
+contain.</p>
+
+<p>In our tales from Greek history it has been told how the city of Troy
+was destroyed, and how &AElig;neas, one of its warrior chiefs, escaped. After
+many adventures this fugitive Trojan prince reached Italy and founded
+there a new kingdom. His son Ascanius afterwards built the city of Alba
+Longa (the long white city) not far from the site of the later city of
+Rome. Three hundred years passed away, many kings came and went, and
+then Numitor, a descendant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> of &AElig;neas, came to the throne. But Numitor
+had an ambitious brother, Amulius, who robbed him of his crown, and,
+while letting him live, killed his only son and shut up his daughter
+Silvia in the temple of the goddess Vesta, to guard the ever-burning
+fire of that deity.</p>
+
+<p>Here Silvia had twin sons, whose father was said, in the old
+superstitious fashion, to be Mars, the God of War. The usurper, fearing
+that these sons of Mars might grow up and deprive him of his throne,
+ordered that they and their mother should be flung into the Tiber, then
+swollen with recent rains. The mother was drowned, but destiny, or Mars,
+preserved the sons. Borne onward in their basket cradle, they were at
+length swept ashore where the river had overflown its banks at the foot
+of the afterwards famous Palatine Hill. Here the cradle was over-turned
+near the roots of a wild fig-tree, and the infants left at the edge of
+the shallow waters.</p>
+
+<p>What follows sounds still more like fable. A she-wolf that came to the
+water to drink chanced to see the helpless children, and carried them to
+her cave, where she fed them with her milk. As they grew older a
+woodpecker brought them food, flying in and out of the cave. At length
+Faustulus, a herdsman of the king, found these lusty infants in the
+wolf's den, took them home, and gave them to his wife Laurentia to bring
+up with her own children. He gave them the names of Romulus and Remus.</p>
+
+<p>Years went by, and the river waifs grew to be strong, handsome, and
+brave young men. They became leaders among the shepherds and herdsmen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+and helped them to fight the wild animals that troubled their flocks.
+Their home was on the Palatine Hill, and the cattle and sheep for which
+they cared were those of the wicked king Amulius. Near by was another
+hill, called the Aventine, and on this the deposed king Numitor fed his
+flocks. In course of time a quarrel arose between the herdsmen on the
+two hills, and Numitor's men, having laid an ambush, took Remus prisoner
+and carried him to Alba, where their master dwelt. This no sooner became
+known to Romulus than he gathered the young men of the Palatine Hill,
+and set out in all haste to the rescue of his brother.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Remus had been taken before Numitor, who gazed on him with
+surprise. His face and bearing were rather those of a prince than of a
+shepherd, and there was something in his aspect familiar to the old
+king. Numitor questioned him closely, and Remus told him the story of
+the river, the wolf, and the herdsman. Numitor listened intently. The
+story took him back to the day, many years before, when his daughter
+Silvia and her twin sons had been thrown into the swollen stream. Could
+the children have escaped? Could this handsome youth be his grandson? It
+must be so, for his age and his story agreed.</p>
+
+<p>But while they talked, Romulus and his followers reached the city, and,
+being forbidden entrance, made an assault on the gates. In the conflict
+that ensued Amulius took part and was killed, and thus Numitor and his
+daughter were at last revenged. Seeking Remus, the victorious shepherd
+prince found him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> with Numitor, who now fully recognized in the twin
+youths his long-lost grandsons. Romulus, who was now master of the city,
+restored his royal grandfather to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>As for Romulus and Remus, their life as shepherds was at an end. It was
+not for youths of royal blood and warlike aspirations to spend their
+lives in keeping sheep. But Numitor had been restored to the throne of
+Alba, and they decided to build a city of their own on those hills where
+all their lives had been passed and on which they preferred to dwell.
+The land belonged to Numitor, but he willingly granted it to them, and
+they led their followers to the spot.</p>
+
+<p>Here a dispute arose between the brothers. The story goes that Romulus
+wished to have the city built on the Palatine Hill, Remus on the
+Aventine Hill; and that, as they could not agree, they referred the
+matter to their grandfather, who advised them to settle it by
+augury,&mdash;or by watching and forming conclusions from the flight of
+birds. This long continued the favorite Roman mode of settling difficult
+questions. It was easier than the Greek plan of going to Delphi to
+consult the oracle.</p>
+
+<p>The two brothers now stationed themselves on the opposite hills, each
+with a portion of their followers, and waited patiently for what the
+heavens might send. The day slowly waned, and they waited in vain. Night
+came and deepened, and still their vigil lasted. At length, just as the
+sun of a new day rose in the east, Remus saw a flight of vultures, six
+in all. He exulted at the sight, for the vulture, as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> bird which was
+seldom seen and did no harm to cattle or crops, was looked upon as an
+excellent augury. Word of his success was sent to Romulus, but he capped
+the story with a better one, saying that twelve vultures had just passed
+over his hill.</p>
+
+<p>The dispute was still open. Remus had seen the birds first; Romulus had
+seen the most. Which had won? The question was offered to the decision
+of their followers, the majority of whom raised their voices in favor of
+Romulus. The Palatine Hill was therefore chosen as the city's site. This
+event took place, so Roman chronology tells us, in the year 753 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The day fixed for the beginning of the work on the new city&mdash;the 21st of
+April&mdash;was a day of religious ceremony and festival among the shepherds.
+On this day they offered sacrifices of cakes and milk to their god
+Pales, asked for blessings on the flocks and herds, and implored pardon
+for all offences against the dryads of the woods, the nymphs of the
+streams, and other deities. They purified themselves by flame and their
+flocks by smoke, and afterwards indulged in rustic feasts and games.
+This day of religious consecration was deemed by Romulus the fittest one
+for the important ceremony of founding his projected city.</p>
+
+<p>Far back in time as it was when this took place, Italy seems to have
+already possessed numerous cities, many of which were to become enemies
+of Rome in later days. The most civilized of the Italian peoples were
+the Etruscans, a nation dwelling north of the Tiber, and whose many
+cities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>displayed a higher degree of civilization than those around
+them. From these the Romans in later days borrowed many of their
+religious customs, and to them Romulus sent to learn what were the
+proper ceremonies to use in founding a city.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremonies he used were the following. At the centre of the chosen
+area he dug a circular pit through the soil to the hard clay beneath,
+and cast into this, with solemn observances, some of the first fruits of
+the season. Each of his men also threw in a handful of earth brought
+from his native land. Then the pit was filled up, an altar erected upon
+it, and a fire kindled on the altar. In this way was the city
+consecrated to the gods.</p>
+
+<p>Then, having harnessed a cow and a bull of snow-white color to a plough
+whose share was made of brass, Romulus ploughed a furrow along the line
+of the future walls. He took care that the earth of the furrow should
+fall inward towards the city, and also to lift the plough and carry it
+over the places where gates were to be made. As he ploughed he uttered a
+prayer to Jupiter, Mars, Vesta, and other deities, invoking their favor,
+and praying that the new city should long endure and become an
+all-ruling power upon the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans tell us that his prayer was answered by Jupiter, who sent
+thunder from one side of the heavens and lightning from the other. These
+omens encouraged the people, who went cheerfully to the work of building
+the walls. But the consecration of the city was not yet completed. Its
+walls were to be cemented by noble blood. There is reason to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> believe
+that in those days the line of a city's walls was held as sacred, and
+that it was desecration to enter the enclosure at any place except those
+left for the gates. This may be the reason that Romulus gave orders to a
+man named Celer, who had charge of the building of the walls, not to let
+any one pass over the furrow made by the plough. However this be, the
+story goes that Remus, who was still angry about his brother's victory,
+leaped scornfully over the furrow, exclaiming, "Shall such defences as
+these keep your city?"</p>
+
+<p>Celer, who stood by, stirred to sudden fury by this disdain, raised the
+spade with which he had been working, and struck Remus a blow that laid
+him dead upon the ground. Then, fearing vengeance for his hasty act, he
+rushed away with such speed that his name has since been a synonyme for
+quickness. Our word "celerity" is derived from it. But Romulus seems to
+have borne the infliction with much of that spirit of fortitude which
+distinguished the Romans in after-times. At least, the only effect the
+death of his brother had upon him, so far as we know, was in the remark,
+"So let it happen to all who pass over my walls!" Thus were consecrated
+in the blood of a brother the walls of that city which in later years
+was to be bathed in the blood of the brotherhood of mankind, and from
+which was destined to outflow a torrent of desolation over the earth.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr/><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE SABINE VIRGINS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A tract</span> of ground surrounded by walls does not make a city. Men are
+wanted, and of these the new city of Rome had but few. The band of
+shepherds who were sufficient to build a wall, or perhaps only a wooden
+palisade, were not enough to inhabit a city and defend it from its foes.
+The neighboring people had cities of their own, except bandits and
+fugitives, men who had shed blood, exiles driven from their homes by
+their enemies, or slaves who had fled from their lords and masters.
+These were the only people to be had, and Romulus invited them in by
+proclaiming that his city should be an asylum for all who were
+oppressed, a place of refuge to which any man might flee and be safe
+from his pursuers. He erected a temple to a god named Asyl&aelig;us,&mdash;from
+whom comes the word asylum,&mdash;and in this he "received and protected all,
+delivering none back, neither the servant to his master, the debtor to
+his creditor, nor the murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying
+that it was a privileged place, and they could so maintain it by an
+order of the holy oracle, insomuch that the city grew presently very
+populous."</p>
+
+<p>It was a quick and easy way of peopling a city.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> Doubtless the country
+held many such fugitives,&mdash;men lurking in woods or caves, hiding in
+mountain clefts, abiding wherever a place of safety offered,&mdash;hundreds
+of whom, no doubt, were glad to find a shelter among men and behind
+walls of defence. But it was probably a sorry population, made up of the
+waifs of mankind, many of whom had been slaves or murderers. There were
+certainly no women among this desperate horde, and Romulus appealed in
+vain to the neighboring cities to let his people obtain wives from among
+their maidens. It was not safe for the citizens of Rome to go abroad to
+seek wives for themselves; the surrounding peoples rejected the appeal
+of Romulus with scorn and disdain; unless something was done Rome bade
+fair to remain a city of bachelors.</p>
+
+<p>In this dilemma Romulus conceived a plan to win wives for his people. He
+sent word abroad that he had discovered the altar of the god Consus, who
+presided over secret counsels, and he invited the citizens of the
+neighboring towns to come to Rome and take part in a feast with which he
+proposed to celebrate the festal day of the deity. This was the 21st of
+August, just four months after the founding of the city,&mdash;that is, if it
+was the same year.</p>
+
+<p>There were to be sacrifices to Consus, where libations would be poured
+into the flames that consumed the victims. These would be followed by
+horse-and chariot-races, banquets, and other festivities. The promise of
+merry-making brought numerous spectators from the nearer cities, some
+doubtless drawn by curiosity to see what sort of a commonwealth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> this
+was that had grown up so suddenly on the sheep pastures of the Palatine
+Hill; and they found their wives and daughters as curious and eager for
+enjoyment as themselves, and brought them along, ignoring the scorn with
+which they had lately rejected the Roman proposals for wives. It was a
+religious festival, and therefore safe; so visitors came from the cities
+of C&#339;nina, Crustumerium, and Antemna, and a multitude from the
+neighboring country of the Sabines.</p>
+
+<p>The sacrifices over, the games began. The visitors, excited by the
+races, became scattered about among the Romans. But as the chariots,
+drawn by flying horses, sped swiftly over the ground, and the eyes of
+the visitors followed them in their flight, Romulus gave a preconcerted
+signal, and immediately each Roman seized a maiden whom he had managed
+to get near and carried her struggling and screaming from the ground. As
+they did so, each called out "Talasia," a word which means spinning, and
+which afterwards became the refrain of a Roman marriage song.</p>
+
+<p>The games at once broke up in rage and confusion. But the visitors were
+unarmed and helpless. Their anger could be displayed only in words, and
+Romulus told them boldly that they owed their misfortune to their pride.
+But all would go well with their daughters, he said, since their new
+husbands would take the place with them of home and family.</p>
+
+<p>This reasoning failed to satisfy the fathers who had been robbed so
+violently of their daughters, and they had no sooner reached home than
+many of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> them seized their arms and marched against their faithless
+hosts. First came the people of C&#339;nina; but the Romans defeated them,
+and Romulus killed their king. Then came the people of Crustumerium and
+Antemna, but they too were defeated. The prisoners were taken into Rome
+and made citizens of the new commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>But it was the Sabines who had most to deplore, for they had come in
+much the greatest number, and it was principally the Sabine virgins whom
+the Romans had borne off from the games. Titus Tatius, the king of the
+Sabines, therefore resolved upon a signal revenge, and took time to
+gather a large army, with which he marched against Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The war that followed was marked by two romantic incidents. Near the
+Tiber is a hill,&mdash;afterwards known as the Capitoline Hill,&mdash;which was
+divided from the Palatine Hill by a low and swampy valley. On this hill
+Romulus had built a fortress, as a sort of outwork of his new city. It
+happened that Tarpeius, the chief who held this fortress, had a daughter
+named Tarpeia, who was deeply affected by that love of finery which has
+caused abundant mischief since her day. When she saw the golden collars
+and bracelets which many of the Sabines wore, her soul was filled with
+longing, and she managed to let them know that she would betray the
+fortress into their hands if they would give her the bright things which
+they wore upon their arms.</p>
+
+<p>They consented, and she secretly opened to them a gate of the fortress.
+But as they marched through the gate, and the traitress waited to
+receive her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>reward, the Sabine soldiers threw on her the bright shields
+which they wore on their arms, and she was crushed to death beneath
+their weight. The steep rock of the Capitoline Hill from which traitors
+were afterwards thrown was called, after her, the Tarpeian Rock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image1.jpg" width="400" height="669" alt="ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER&#39;S." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER&#39;S.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fortress thus captured, the valley between the hill and the city
+became the scene of battle. Here the Sabines repulsed the Romans,
+driving them back to one of their gates, through which the fugitives
+rushed in confusion, shutting it hastily behind them. But&mdash;if we may
+trust the legend&mdash;the gate refused to stay shut. It opened again of its
+own accord. They closed it twice more, and twice more it swung open. The
+victorious Sabines, who had now reached it, began to rush in; but just
+then, from the Temple of Janus, near by, there burst forth a mighty
+stream of water, which swept the Sabines away and saved Rome from
+capture. Therefore, in after-days, the gates of the Temple of Janus
+stood always wide open in time of war, that the god might go out, if he
+would, to fight for the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>Another battle took place in the valley, and the Romans again began to
+flee. Romulus now prayed to Jupiter, and vowed to erect to him a temple
+as Jupiter Stator,&mdash;that is, the "stayer,"&mdash;if he would stay the Romans
+in their flight. Jupiter did so, or, at any rate, the Romans turned
+again to the fight, which now waxed furious. What would have been its
+result we cannot tell, for it was brought to an end by the other
+romantic incident of which we have spoken.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p><p>In fact, while the fathers of the Sabine virgins retained their anger
+against the Romans, the virgins themselves, who had now long been
+brides, had become comforted, most of them being as attached to their
+husbands as they had been to their parents before; and in the midst of
+the furious battle between their nearest relatives the lately abducted
+damsels were seen rushing down the Palatine Hill, and forcing their way,
+with appealing eyes and dishevelled hair, in between the combatants.</p>
+
+<p>"Make us not twice captives!" they earnestly exclaimed, saying
+pathetically that if the war went on they would be widowed or
+fatherless, both of which sad alternatives they deplored.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this appeal was a happy one. Both sides let fall their
+arms, and peace was declared upon the spot, it being recognized that
+there could be no closer bond of unity than that made by the daughters
+of the Sabines and wives of the Romans. The two people agreed to become
+one, the Sabines making their new home on the Capitoline and Quirinal
+Hills, and the Romans continuing to occupy the Palatine. As for the
+women, there was established in their honor the feast called Matronalia,
+in which husbands gave presents to their wives and lovers to their
+betrothed. Romulus and Tatius were to rule jointly, and afterwards the
+king of Rome should be alternately of Roman and Sabine birth.</p>
+
+<p>After five years Tatius was killed in a quarrel, and Romulus became sole
+king. Under him Rome grew rapidly. He was successful in his wars, and
+enriched his people with the spoils of his enemies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> In rule he was just
+and gentle, and punished those guilty of crime not by death, but by
+fines of sheep or oxen. It is said, though, that he grew somewhat
+arrogant, and was accustomed to receive his people dressed in scarlet
+and lying on a couch of state, where he was surrounded by a body of
+young men called <i>Celeres</i>, from the speed with which they flew to
+execute his orders.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly forty years his reign continued, and then his end came
+strangely. One day he called the people together in the Field of Mars.
+But suddenly there arose a frightful storm, with such terrible thunder
+and lightning and such midnight darkness that the people fled homeward
+in affright through the drenching rain. That was the last of Romulus. He
+was never seen in life again. He may have been slain by enemies, but the
+popular belief was that Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven
+in his chariot. All that the people knew was that one night, when
+Proculus Julius, a friend of the king, was on his way from Alba to Rome,
+he met Romulus by the way, his stature beyond that of man, and his face
+showing the beauty of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>Proculus asked him why he had left the people to sorrow and wicked
+surmises, for some said that the senators had made away with him.
+Romulus replied that it was the wish of the gods that, after building a
+city that was destined to the greatest empire and glory, he should go to
+heaven and dwell with the gods.</p>
+
+<p>"Go and tell my people that they must not weep for me any more," he
+said; "but bid them to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> brave and warlike, and so shall they make my
+city the greatest on the earth."</p>
+
+<p>This story satisfied the people that their king had been made a god; so
+they built a temple to him, and always afterwards worshipped him under
+the name of the god Quirinus. A festival called the Quirinalia was
+celebrated each year on the 17th of February, the day on which he had
+vanished from the eyes of men.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE HORATII AND CURIATII.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Romulus</span> was succeeded by a king named Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin,
+who so loved peace that during his reign Rome had no wars and no
+enemies, so that the doors of the Temple of Janus were never once opened
+while he was on the throne. He built a temple to Faith, that men might
+learn to avoid falsehood and to act honestly. He taught the people to
+sacrifice nothing but the fruits of the earth, cakes of flour, and
+roasted corn, and to shed no blood upon the altars. And so Home was
+peaceful and prosperous throughout his long reign, and grew rapidly in
+wealth and population. He died at length when eighty years of age, and
+was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, a king of Roman birth.</p>
+
+<p>The new king loved war as much as the gentle Numa had loved peace. Under
+his rule the gates of the Temple of Janus were soon thrown open again,
+long to remain so. His first war was with the city of Alba Longa, the
+foster-parent of Rome. Some border troubles brought on hostilities, war
+broke out, and an Alban army marched until within fifteen miles of Rome.
+And here took place a celebrated incident. The two armies were drawn out
+on the field, and were about to plunge into the dreadful work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> of
+battle, when the Alban king, to whom the war seemed a foolish and
+useless one, stood out between the two armies and spoke in the hearing
+of both.</p>
+
+<p>He reminded them that the Romans and Albans were of the same origin, and
+that they were surrounded by nations who would like to see both of them
+weakened. He proposed, therefore, that the dispute between them should
+be decided not by battle, but by a duel between a few soldiers, and that
+the side which won should rule the other. This proposal seemed to Tullus
+a sensible one, and he accepted it, offering as the combatants on his
+side three brothers known as the Horatii.</p>
+
+<p>The Alban army had also three brave brothers, of about the same age as
+the Roman champions, known as the Curiatii, and these were chosen to
+uphold the honor and dominion of Alba against Rome. So, with the two
+armies as spectators, and a broad space between for the deadly duel, the
+six champions, fully armed, faced each other in the field.</p>
+
+<p>The onset was fierce, and set every heart in the two armies throbbing in
+hope or dread. But after a short time a shout of triumph went up from
+the Alban host. Two of the Horatii lay stretched in death on the field.
+The Curiatii were all wounded, but they were now three to one, so the
+remaining Horatius turned and fled, though he was still unhurt. Dismay
+fell on the Romans as they saw their single champion in full flight,
+pursued by his opponents. The glad shouts of the Albans redoubled.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly a change came. The fugitive, whose flight had been a feint, to
+separate his foes, now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> turned and saw that the wounded men were lagging
+in pursuit and were widely separated. Running quickly back, he met the
+nearest, and killed him with a blow. The other two were met and slain in
+succession before they could aid each other. Then, holding up his bloody
+sword in triumph, the victor invited the plaudits of his friends, while
+shedding dismay on Alban hearts.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, now lords of the Albans, returned to Rome in triumph, their
+advent to the city being marked by the first of those pompous
+processions which in after-years became known as Roman Triumphs, and
+were celebrated with the utmost splendor and costliness of display.</p>
+
+<p>But the affair of the Horatii and Curiatii was not yet at an end. It was
+to be finished in blood and crime. A sister of the Horatii was the
+affianced bride of one of the Curiatii, and as she saw her victorious
+brother enter the city, bearing on his shoulders the military cloak
+which she had wrought for her lover with her own hands, she broke into
+wild invectives, tearing her hair, and upbraiding her brother with
+bitter words. Roused to fury by this accusation, the victor, in a
+paroxysm of rage, struck his sister to the heart with the sword which
+had slain her lover, crying out, "So perish the Roman maiden who shall
+weep for her country's enemy."</p>
+
+<p>This dreadful deed filled with horror the hearts of all who beheld it.
+Men cried that it was a crime against the law and the gods, too great to
+be atoned for by the victor's services. He was seized and dragged to the
+tribunal of the two judges who dealt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> with crimes of bloodshed. These
+heard the evidence of the crime, and condemned him to death, in despite
+of what he had done for Rome.</p>
+
+<p>But the Roman law permitted an appeal from the judges to the people.
+This appeal Horatius made, and it was tried before the assembly of
+Romans. Here his father spoke in his favor, saying that in his opinion
+the maiden deserved her fate. Remembrance of the great service performed
+by Horatius was also strong with the people, and the voice of the
+assembly freed him from the sentence of death. But blood had been shed,
+and blood required atonement, so a sum of money was set aside to pay for
+sacrifices to atone for this dreadful deed. Ever afterwards these
+sacrifices were performed by members of the Horatian clan.</p>
+
+<p>In a later war the Albans failed to aid the Romans, as they were
+required to do by the terms of alliance. As a result the city of Alba
+was destroyed, and the Albans forced to come and live in Rome, the
+C&aelig;lial Hill being given them for a dwelling-place.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> tale we have now to tell forces us to pass rapidly over years of
+history. After several kings of Roman and Sabine birth had reigned, a
+foreigner, of Greek descent, came to the throne of Rome. This was one
+Lucomo, the son of a native of Corinth, who had settled at Tarquinii in
+Italy. Growing weary of Tarquinii, Lucomo left that city, with his
+family and wealth, and made his way to Rome. As he came near the gates
+of the city an eagle swooped down, lifted the cap from his head, and,
+bearing it high into the air, descended and placed it on his head again.
+His wife Tanaquil, who was skilled in augury, told him this was a happy
+omen, and that he was destined to become great.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image2.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="THE FORUM OF ROME." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE FORUM OF ROME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>And so he did. His riches, courage, and wisdom brought him great favor
+in Rome, and on the death of their king Ancus the people chose Lucius
+Tarquinius&mdash;as they called him, from his native city&mdash;to reign over them
+in his stead. He proved a valiant and successful warrior, and in times
+of peace did noble work. He built great sewers to drain the city,
+constructed a large circus or race-course, and a forum or market-place,
+and built a wall of stone around the city in place of the old wooden
+wall.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> He also began to build a great temple on the Capitoline Hill,
+which was designed to be the temple of the gods of Rome. In the end
+Lucius was murdered by the sons of King Ancus, who declared that he had
+robbed them of the throne.</p>
+
+<p>There is a story of the deed of an augur in his reign which is worth
+repeating, whether we believe it or not. Lucius had little trust in the
+augur, and said to him, "Come, tell me by your auguries whether the
+thing I have in my mind may be done or not." "It may," said Attus, the
+augur. "It is this," said the king, laughing: "it was in my mind that
+you should cut this whetstone in two with this razor. Take them and see
+if you can do it."</p>
+
+<p>Attus took the razor and whetstone, and with a bold stroke cut the
+latter in two. From that time on Lucius did nothing without first
+consulting the augurs, and testing the purposes of the gods by the
+flight of birds, and&mdash;so say the legends&mdash;he prospered accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the death of Lucius was this. One day a boy who dwelt in
+the palace fell asleep in its portico, and as he lay there some
+attendants who passed by saw a flame playing lambently around his head.
+Alarmed at the sight, they were about to throw water upon him to
+extinguish the flame, when Tanaquil, the queen, who had also seen it,
+forbade them. She told the king of what had happened, and said that the
+boy whom they were bringing up so meanly was destined to become great
+and noble. She bade him, therefore, to rear the child in a way befitting
+his destiny.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p><p>The boy, whose name was Servius Tullius, was thereupon brought up as a
+prince, and when old enough married the king's daughter. Lucius reigned
+forty years, and then the sons of Ancus, fearing to be robbed of their
+claim to the throne by young Servius, who had become very popular,
+managed to get an audience with and kill the king.</p>
+
+<p>The murderers gained nothing by their deed of blood. Queen Tanaquil
+shrewdly told the people that Lucius was only stunned by the blow, and
+that he wished them to obey the orders of Servius. To the young man she
+said, "The kingdom is yours; if you have no plans of your own, then
+follow mine." For several days Servius acted as king, and then, the
+people and senate having grown used to seeing him on the throne, the
+death of Lucius was declared and Servius proclaimed king. He had the
+consent of the senate, but had not asked that of the people, being the
+first king of Rome who reigned without the votes of the assembly of the
+Roman people.</p>
+
+<p>Servius Tullius reigned long and won victories, but his greatest
+triumphs were those of peace. He formed a league with the thirty cities
+of Latium, and is said to have taken a census of the people of the city,
+which was found to have eighty-three thousand inhabitants. To strengthen
+his power he married his two daughters to two sons of Lucius Tarquinius,
+a well-intended act which led to a tragic and dreadful deed.</p>
+
+<p>The daughters of Servius were very unlike in nature, and the same may be
+said of their husbands, and they became unequally mated. Lucius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+Tarquinius was proud and full of evil, while his wife, the elder Tullia,
+was good and gentle. Aruns Tarquinius was of a mild and kindly nature,
+while his wife, the younger Tullia, was cruel and ambitious. They were
+thus sadly mismated. But the evil pair saw in each other kindred
+spirits, and in the end Lucius secretly killed his wife, and the younger
+Tullia her husband. The wicked pair then married, and proceeded to carry
+out the purposes of their base hearts.</p>
+
+<p>Servius, being himself of humble birth, had favored the people at the
+expense of the nobles. He even made a law that no king should rule after
+him, but that two men chosen by the people should govern them year by
+year. Thus it was that the commons came to love him and the nobles to
+hate him, and when he asked for a vote of the people on his king-ship
+there was not a voice raised against him.</p>
+
+<p>Lucius, whom his wicked wife steadily goaded to ambitious aims,
+conspired with the nobles against the king. There were brotherhoods of
+the young nobles, pledged to support each other in deeds of oppression.
+These he joined, and gained their aid. Then he waited till the harvest
+season, when the commons were in the fields, gathering the ripened corn.</p>
+
+<p>This absence of the king's friends gave him the opportunity he wished.
+Gathering a band of armed men, he suddenly entered the Forum, and took
+his seat on the king's throne, before the door of the senate-chamber,
+from which Servius was accustomed to judge the people. Word of this act
+of treason<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> was borne to the old king, who at once hastened to the Forum
+and sternly asked the usurper why he had dared to take that seat.</p>
+
+<p>Lucius insolently answered that it was his father's throne, and that he
+had the best right to it. Then, as the aged and unguarded king mounted
+the steps of the senate-house, his ambitious son-in-law sprang up,
+caught him by the middle, and flung him headlong down the steps to the
+ground. Then he went into the senate-chamber and called the senators
+together, as though he were already king.</p>
+
+<p>The old monarch, sadly shaken by his fall, rose to his feet and made his
+way slowly towards his home on the Esquiline Hill. But when he came near
+it he was overtaken by some bravos whom Lucius had sent in pursuit.
+These killed the unprotected old man, and left him lying in his blood in
+the middle of the street.</p>
+
+<p>And now was done a deed which has aroused the execrations of mankind in
+all later ages. Tullia, who had instigated her husband to the murder of
+her father, waited with impatience until it was performed. Then,
+mounting her chariot, she bade the coachman to drive to the Forum,
+where, heedless of the crowd of men who had assembled, she called Lucius
+from the senate-house, and cried to him, in accents of triumph, "Hail to
+thee, King Tarquinius!"</p>
+
+<p>Wicked as Lucius was, he was not as shameless as his wife, and sternly
+bade her to go home. She obeyed, taking the same street as her father
+had followed. Soon reaching the spot where the bleeding body of the old
+king lay stretched across the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> way, the coachman drew up his horses and
+pointed out to Tullia the dreadful spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>"Drive on," she harshly commanded. "I cannot," he replied. "The street
+is too narrow to pass without crushing the king's body." "Drive on," she
+again fiercely ordered, and the coachman did so. Tullia went to her home
+with her father's blood upon the wheels of her chariot, and with the
+execration of all good men upon her head. And thus it was that Lucius
+Tarquinius and his wicked wife succeeded the good king Servius upon the
+throne.</p>
+
+<p>We may tell here briefly the end of this evil pair. Tarquin the Proud,
+as he is known in history, reigned as a tyrant and oppressor, while his
+wife was viewed with horror by all virtuous matrons. At length the
+people rose against a base deed of the tyrant's son, and the wicked
+Tullia fled in terror from her house. No one sought to stop her in her
+flight; but all, men and women alike, cursed her as she passed, and
+prayed that the furies of her father's blood might take revenge for her
+dreadful deed.</p>
+
+<p>She never saw Rome again. Tarquin sought long to regain his crown, but
+in vain, and the wicked usurpers died in exile. No king ever again ruled
+over the Romans. Tarquin's tyranny had given the people enough of kings,
+and the law of good Servius Tullius was at last carried out.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Tarquin the Proud was king a strange thing happened at Rome. One
+day an unknown woman came to the king, bearing in her arms nine books,
+which she offered to sell to him at a certain price. She told him that
+they contained the prophecies of the Sibyl of Cum&aelig;, and that from them
+might be learned the destiny of Rome and the way to carry out this
+destiny.</p>
+
+<p>But the price she asked for her books seemed to the king exorbitant, and
+he refused to buy them, whereupon the woman went away from the palace
+and burned three of the volumes. She then returned with six only and
+offered them to the king, but demanded the same price for the six as she
+had before done for the nine. King Tarquin heard this demand with
+laughter and mockery, and again refused to buy. The woman once more left
+the palace, and burned three more of the books.</p>
+
+<p>To the king's astonishment his strange visitor soon returned, bearing
+the three books that remained. On being asked their price, she named the
+same sum as she had demanded for the six and the nine. This was ceasing
+to be matter for mockery. There might be some important mystery
+concealed behind this strange demand. The king sent for the augurs of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+the court, told them what had happened, and asked what he should do.
+They told him that he had done very wrong. In refusing the books he had
+refused a gift of the gods. By all means he must buy the books that were
+left. He bought them, therefore, at the Sibyl's price. As for the woman,
+she was never seen again.</p>
+
+<p>The books were placed in a chest of stone, and kept underground in the
+great temple which his father had begun on the Capitoline Hill, and
+which he had completed. Two men were appointed to guard them, who were
+called the two men of the sacred books; and no treasure could have been
+kept with more care and devotion than these mysterious rolls.</p>
+
+<p>The temple in which these books were kept was the grandest edifice Rome
+had yet known. When Tarquin proposed to build it he found the chosen
+site already occupied by many holy places, sacred to the gods of the
+Sabines, the first dwellers on the Capitoline Hill. The augurs consulted
+the gods to see if these holy places could safely be removed, to make
+room for the new temple. The answer came that they might take away all
+except the holy places of the god of Youth and of Terminus, the god of
+boundaries. This was accounted a happy augury, for it seemed to mean
+that the city should always retain its youth and that no enemy should
+remove its boundaries. And when the foundations of the temple were dug a
+human head was found, which was held to be a sign that the Capitoline
+Hill should be the head of all the earth. So a great temple was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> built,
+and consecrated to Jupiter and to Juno and to Minerva, the greatest of
+the Etruscan gods. This edifice, afterwards known as the Capitol, was
+the most sacred and revered edifice of later Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In the vaults of this temple the sacred books of the Sibyl were
+sedulously kept, and here they were consulted from time to time, as
+occasions arose in the history of the city when divine guidance seemed
+necessary. None of the people were permitted to gaze within the sacred
+cell in which they lay. Only the augurs consulted them, and the word of
+the augurs had to be taken for what they revealed. It may be that the
+augurs themselves invented all that they told, for the books at length
+perished in the flames, and no man knows what secret lore they really
+contained.</p>
+
+<p>It was during the wars of Sulla and Marius (83 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>) that this disaster
+occurred. The Capitol was burned, and with it those famous oracles,
+which had so long directed the counsels of the nation. Their loss threw
+Rome into the deepest consternation, the loss of the Capitol itself
+seeming small beside that of these famous scrolls.</p>
+
+<p>To replace them as far as possible, the senate sent ambassadors to the
+various temples of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, within which were
+Sibyls, or oracle-speaking priestesses. These collected such oracles
+referring to Rome as they could find, about one thousand lines in all,
+and brought them to Rome, where they were placed in the same locality in
+the new Capitol that they had occupied in the old.</p>
+
+<p>These oracles do not appear to have predicted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> future events, but were
+consulted to discover the religious observances necessary to avert great
+calamities and to expiate prodigies. During the reign of Augustus they
+were removed to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and all the
+false Sibylline leaves which were extant were collected and burned. They
+remained here until shortly after the year 400 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, when they were
+publicly burned by Stilicho, a famous general of Christian Rome, as
+impious documents of heathen times.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE STORY OF LUCRETIA.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have next to tell how Tarquin the Proud lost his throne, through his
+own tyranny and the criminal action of his son. Once upon a time, when
+this king was at the height of his power, he, as was usual, offered
+sacrifices to the gods on the altar in the palace court-yard. But from
+the altar there crawled out a snake, which devoured the offerings before
+the flames could reach them.</p>
+
+<p>This was an alarming omen. The augurs were consulted, but none of them
+could explain it. So Tarquin sent two of his sons to the Temple of
+Delphi, in Greece, whose oracle was famous in all lands, to ask counsel
+of Apollo concerning this prodigy. With these two princes, Titus and
+Aruns by name, went their cousin, Lucius Junius, a youth who seemed so
+lacking in wit that men called him Brutus,&mdash;that is, the "Dullard." One
+evidence of his lack of wit was that he would eat wild figs with honey.
+Just in what way this was an evidence of want of good sense we do not
+know, though doubtless the Romans did.</p>
+
+<p>But Brutus was by no means the fool that men fancied him. He was shrewd
+instead of stupid. His father had left him abundant wealth, to which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+his uncle, King Tarquin, might at any time take a fancy, and sweep him
+away to enjoy it. The king had killed his brother for his wealth, and
+would be likely to serve him in the same way if he deemed him wise
+enough to fight for his inheritance. So, preferring life to money,
+Brutus feigned to be wanting in sense.</p>
+
+<p>When he went to Delphi he took with him a hollow staff of horn, which he
+had filled with gold, and offered this staff to the oracle as a likeness
+of himself,&mdash;perhaps as one empty of wit and whose whole merit lay in
+his gold. When the three young men had performed the bidding of the
+king, and asked the oracle the meaning of the prodigy, they were told
+that it portended the fall of Tarquin. Then they said, "O Lord Apollo,
+tell us which of us shall be king of Rome." From the depth of the
+sanctuary there came a voice in reply, "The one among you who shall
+first kiss his mother."</p>
+
+<p>This was one of those enigmas in which the Delphian oracle usually
+spoke, saying things with a double meaning, and which men were apt to
+take amiss. It was so now. The two princes drew lots which of them
+should first kiss their mother on his return; and they agreed to keep
+the oracle secret from their brother Sextus, lest he should be king
+rather than they. But Brutus was wiser than them both. As they left the
+temple together, he pretended to stumble and fell with his face to the
+ground. He then kissed the earth, saying, "The earth is the true mother
+of us all."</p>
+
+<p>On their return to Rome the princes found that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> their father was at war.
+He was besieging the city of Ardea, which lay south of Rome; and as this
+city was strong and well defended the king and his army were kept a long
+while before it, waiting until famine, their ally, should force the
+inhabitants to surrender. While the army was thus waiting in idleness
+its officers had leisure for feasts and diversions, and one of the
+king's sons found time to indulge in fatal mischief. This arose from a
+supper in the tent of Prince Sextus, at which his brothers Titus and
+Aruns, and his cousin Tarquin of Collatia, were present.</p>
+
+<p>While they feasted a dispute arose between them, as to which had the
+worthiest wife. It ended in a proposition of Tarquin, "Let us go and see
+with our own eyes what our wives are doing, and we can then best decide
+which is the worthiest." This proposition hit with their humor, and,
+mounting their horses, they rode to Rome. Here they found the wives of
+the three princes merrily engaged at a banquet. They then rode on to
+Collatia. It was now late at night, but they found Lucretia, the wife of
+their cousin, neither sleeping nor feasting, but working at the loom,
+with her handmaids busily engaged around her.</p>
+
+<p>On seeing this, they all cried, "Lucretia is the worthiest lady." She
+ceased her work to entertain them, after which they took to their horses
+again, and rode back to the camp before Ardea.</p>
+
+<p>But Sextus was seized with a vile passion for his cousin's wife, and a
+few days afterwards went alone to Collatia, where Lucretia received him
+with much hospitality, as her husband's kinsman. He treated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> her
+shamefully in return, forcing her, with wicked threats, to accept him as
+her lover and husband, in defiance of the laws of God and man.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Sextus had left her and returned to the camp, Lucretia sent
+to Rome for her father and to Ardea for her husband. Tarquin brought
+with him his cousin Lucius Junius, or Brutus the Dullard. When they
+arrived the lady, with bitter tears, told them of the wickedness of
+Sextus, and said, "If you are men, avenge it!" They heard her tale in
+horror, and swore to deeply revenge her wrong.</p>
+
+<p>"I am not guilty," she now said; "yet I too must share in the punishment
+of this deed, lest any should think that they may be false to their
+husbands and live." As she spoke she drew a knife from her bosom and
+stabbed herself to the heart.</p>
+
+<p>As they saw her fall, a cry of horror arose from her husband and father.
+But Brutus, who saw that the time had come for him to throw off his
+pretence of stupidity and act the man, drew the knife from the bleeding
+wound and held it up, saying, in solemn accents, "By this blood, I swear
+that I will visit this deed upon King Tarquin and all his accursed race!
+And no man hereafter shall reign as king in Rome, lest he may do the
+like wickedness."</p>
+
+<p>He then handed the knife to the others, and bade them to take the same
+oath. This they did, wondering at the sudden transformation in Brutus.
+They then took up the body of the slain woman and carried it into the
+forum of the town, crying to the gathering people, "Behold the deeds of
+the wicked family of Tarquin, the tyrant of Rome!"</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p><p>The people, maddened by the sight, hastily sought their arms, and while
+some guarded the gates, that none might carry the news to the king, the
+others followed Brutus to Rome. Here the story of the wickedness of
+Sextus and the self-sacrifice of Lucretia ran through the city like
+wildfire, and a multitude gathered in the Forum, where Brutus addressed
+them in fervent words. He recalled to them all the tyranny of Tarquin
+and the vices of his sons, reminding them of the murder of Servius, the
+impious act of Tullia, and ending with an earnest recital of the wrongs
+of the virtuous Lucretia, whose bleeding corpse still lay in evidence in
+the forum of Collatia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image3.jpg" width="600" height="322" alt="BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>His words went to the souls of his hearers. An assembly of the people
+being quickly called, it was voted that the Tarquins should be banished,
+and the office of king should be forever abolished in Rome. Tullia,
+learning of the cause of the tumult, hastily left the palace, and fled
+from Rome in her chariot through throngs that followed her with threats
+and curses. Brutus, perhaps with the crimsoned knife still in his hand,
+bade the young men to follow him, and set off in haste to Ardea, to
+spread through the army the story of the deed of crime and blood.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Tarquin had been told of the revolt, and was hurrying to Rome
+to put it down. Brutus turned aside from the road that he might not meet
+him, and hastened on to the camp, where the story of the revolt and its
+cause was told the soldiers. On hearing the story the whole army broke
+into a tumult of indignation, drove the king's sons from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> the camp, and
+demanded to be led to Rome. The siege of Ardea was at once abandoned and
+the backward march began.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Tarquin had reached the city, but only to find the gates
+closed against him and stern men on the walls. "You cannot enter here,"
+they cried. "You are banished from Rome, you and all of yours, and shall
+never set foot within its walls again. And you are the last of our
+kings. No man after you shall ever call himself king of Rome."</p>
+
+<p>Just in what threats, promises, and persuasions Tarquin indulged we do
+not know. But the men on the walls were not to be moved by threats or
+promises, and he was obliged to take himself away, a crownless wanderer.
+As for Sextus, to whom all the trouble was due, some say that he was
+killed in a town whose people he had betrayed, while others say that he
+was slain in battle while his father was fighting to regain his throne.</p>
+
+<p>But this is certain, no king ever reigned in Rome again. The people,
+talking among each other, said, "Let us follow the wise laws of good
+King Servius. He bade us to meet in our centuries (or hundreds) and to
+choose two men year by year to govern us, instead of a king. This let us
+do, as Servius would have done himself had he not been basely murdered."</p>
+
+<p>So the centuries of the people met in the Campus Martius (Field of
+Mars), and there chose two men,&mdash;Brutus, the leader in the revolution,
+and Lucius Tarquin, the husband of the fated Lucretia. These officials
+were afterwards called Consuls, and were given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> ruling power in Rome.
+But they had to lay down their office at the end of the year and be
+succeeded by two others elected in their stead. The people, however,
+were afraid of the very name of Tarquin, and in electing Lucius to the
+consulate it seemed as if they had put a new Tarquin on the throne. So
+they prayed him to leave the city; and, taking all his goods, he went
+away and settled at Lavinium, a new consul being elected in his place. A
+law was now passed that all the house of the Tarquins should be
+banished, whether they were of the king's family or not.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the kingly period in Rome, after six kings had followed
+Romulus. With the consuls many of the laws of King Servius, which
+Tarquin had set aside, were restored, and a much greater degree of
+freedom came to the people of Rome. But that there might not now seem to
+be two kings instead of one, it was decreed that only one of the consuls
+should rule at a time, each of them acting as ruler for a month, and
+then giving over the power to his associate.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> banished King Tarquin did not lightly yield his realm. He roused the
+neighboring cities against Rome and fought fiercely for his throne. Soon
+after he was exiled from Rome he sent messengers there for his goods.
+These the senate decreed should be given him. But his messengers had
+more secret work to do. They formed a plot with many of the young nobles
+to bring back the king, and among these traitors were Titus and
+Tiberius, the sons of Brutus.</p>
+
+<p>A slave overheard the conspirators and betrayed them to the consuls, and
+they were seized and brought to the judgment-seat in the Forum. Here
+Brutus, sitting in judgment, beheld his two sons among the culprits. He
+loved them, but he loved justice more, and though he grieved deeply
+inwardly, his face was grave and stern as he gave judgment that the law
+must take its course. So the sons of this stern old Roman were scourged
+with rods before his eyes, and then, with the other conspirators, were
+beheaded by the lictors, while he looked steadily on, never turning his
+eyes from the dreadful sight. But men could see that his heart bled for
+his sons.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p><p>Soon afterwards Tarquin led an army of Etruscans against Rome, and the
+two consuls marched against them at the head of the Roman army. In the
+battle that followed Brutus met Aruns, the king's son, in advance of the
+lines of battle. Aruns, seeing Brutus dressed in royal robes and
+attended by the lictors of a king, was filled with anger, and levelled
+his spear and spurred his horse against him. Brutus met him in
+mid-career with levelled spear. Both were run through, and together fell
+dead upon the field.</p>
+
+<p>The day ended with neither party victors. But during the night a
+woodland deity was heard speaking from a forest near by. "One man more
+has fallen of the Etruscans than of the Romans," it said; "the Romans
+are to conquer." This strange oracle ended the war. It was a reason,
+surely, for which war was never ended before or since. The Etruscans,
+affrighted, marched hastily home; while the Romans carried home their
+slain patriot, for whom their women mourned a whole year, in honor of
+his noble service in avenging Lucretia.</p>
+
+<p>The banished king still craved his lost kingdom, and made other efforts
+to regain it. Having failed in his first attempt, he went to another
+city, named Clusium, in the distant part of Etruria, and here besought
+Lars Porsenna, the king of that city, to aid him recover his throne.
+Lars Porsenna, with a fellow-feeling for his dethroned brother king,
+raised a large army and marched with Tarquin and his fellow-exiles
+against defiant Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans now awaited him at home, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> two armies met on the hill
+called Janiculum, beyond the river from the city. Here came the crash of
+battle, but the men of Clusium proved the stronger, and after a sharp
+struggle the Romans gave way and were driven pell-mell down the hill and
+across the bridge which spanned the Tiber at this point. This was a
+wooden bridge on which the Romans set great store, as it was their only
+means of crossing the stream. But it now was likely to serve as a means
+of the loss of their city. Their flying army was pouring in panic across
+it, with the Etruscans in hot pursuit, seeking strenuously to win the
+bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The bridge must be speedily destroyed or the city would be lost, but it
+seemed too late for this; unless the enemy could in some way be kept
+back till the bridge was cut down, Tarquin and his allies would be in
+the streets of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture a brave and stalwart son of Rome, Horatius Cocles by
+name, stepped forward and offered his life in his city's defence. "Cut
+away with all haste," he said; "I will keep the bridge until it falls."
+Two others, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius, sprang to his side, and
+the three, fully armed and stout of heart, ranged themselves across the
+narrow causeway, while behind them the axes of the Romans played
+ringingly upon the supports of the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>On came the Etruscans in force. But the bridge was so narrow that only a
+few could advance at once, and these found in the way the sharp spears
+and keen-edged blades of the patriot three. Down went the leading
+Etruscans, and others pressed on,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> only to fall, till the defenders of
+the bridge had a bulwark of the slain in their front.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image4.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>And now the bridge creaked and groaned as the axes kept up their lively
+play, the ring of steel finding its chorus in the cheering shouts of the
+Romans on the bank.</p>
+
+<p>"Back! back!" cried the axemen. "It will be down in a minute more; back
+for your lives!"</p>
+
+<p>"Back!" cried Horatius to his comrades, and they hastily retreated; but
+he stood unmoving, still boldly facing the foe.</p>
+
+<p>"Fly! It is about to fall!" was the shout.</p>
+
+<p>"Let it," cried Horatius, without yielding a step.</p>
+
+<p>And there he stood alone, defying the whole army of the Etruscans. From
+a distance they showered their javelins on him, but he caught them on
+his shield and stood unhurt. Furious that they should be kept from their
+prey by a single man, they gathered to rush upon him and drive him from
+his post by main force; but just then the creaking beams gave way, and
+the half of the bridge behind him fell with a mighty crash into the
+stream below.</p>
+
+<p>The Etruscans paused in their course at this crashing fall, and gazed,
+not without admiration, at the stalwart champion who had stayed an army
+in its victorious career. He was theirs now; he could not escape; his
+life should pay the penalty for their failure.</p>
+
+<p>But Horatius had no such thought. He looked down on the stream, and
+prayed to the god of the river, "O Father Tiber, I pray thee to receive
+these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> arms and me who bear them, and to let thy waters befriend and
+save me."</p>
+
+<p>Then, with a quick spring, he plunged, heavy with armor, into the
+swift-flowing stream, and struck out boldly for the shore. The foemen
+rushed upon the bridge and poured their darts thick about him; yet none
+struck him, and he swam safely to the shore, where his waiting friends
+drew him in triumph from the stream.</p>
+
+<p>For this grand deed of heroism the Romans set up a statue to Horatius in
+the comitium, and gave him in reward as much land as he could drive his
+plough round in the space of a whole day. Such deeds cannot be fitly
+told in halting prose, and Lord Macaulay, in his "Lays of Ancient Rome,"
+has most ably and picturesquely told</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+"How well Horatius kept the bridge<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In the brave days of old."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>But though Rome was saved from capture by assault, the war was not
+ended, and other deeds of Roman heroism were to be done. Porsenna
+pressed the siege of the city so closely that hunger became his ally,
+and the Romans suffered greatly. Then another patriot devoted his life
+to his city's good. This man, a young noble named Caius Mucius, went to
+the senate and offered to go to the Etruscan camp and slay Lars Porsenna
+in the midst of his men.</p>
+
+<p>His proposal acceded to, he crossed the stream by stealth and slipped
+covertly into the camp, through which he made his way, seeking the king.
+At length<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> he saw a man dressed in a scarlet robe and seated on a lofty
+seat, while many were about him, coming and going. "This must be King
+Porsenna," he said to himself, and he glided stealthily through the
+crowd until he came near by, when, drawing a concealed dagger from
+beneath his cloak, he sprang upon the man and stabbed him to the heart.</p>
+
+<p>But the bold assassin had made a sad mistake. The man he had slain was
+not the king, but his scribe, the king's chief officer. Being instantly
+seized, he was brought before Porsenna, where the guards threatened him
+with sharp torments unless he would truly answer all their questions.</p>
+
+<p>"Torments!" he said. "You shall see how little I care for them."</p>
+
+<p>And he thrust his right hand into the fire that was burning on the
+altar, and held it there till it was completely consumed.</p>
+
+<p>King Porsenna looked at him with an admiration that subdued all anger.
+Never had he seen a man of such fortitude.</p>
+
+<p>"Go your way," he cried, "for you have harmed yourself more than me. You
+are a brave man, and I send you back to Rome free and unhurt."</p>
+
+<p>"And you are a generous king," said Caius, "and shall learn more from me
+for your kindness than tortures could have wrung from my lips. Know,
+then, that three hundred noble youths of Rome have bound themselves by
+oath to take your life. I am but the first; the others will in turn lie
+in wait for you. I warn you to look well to yourself."</p>
+
+<p>He was then set free, and went back to the city,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> where he was
+afterwards known as Sc&aelig;vola, the left-handed.</p>
+
+<p>The warning of Caius moved King Porsenna to offer the Romans terms of
+peace, which they gladly accepted. They were forced to give up all the
+land they had conquered on the west bank of the Tiber, and to agree not
+to use iron except to cultivate the earth. They were also to give as
+hostages ten noble youths and as many maidens. These were sent; but one
+of the maidens, Cl&#339;lia by name, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and,
+bidding the other maidens to follow, fled to the river, into which they
+all plunged and swam safely across to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>They were sent back by the Romans, whose way it was to keep their
+pledges; but King Porsenna, admiring the courage of Cl&#339;lia, set her
+free, and bade her choose such of the youths as she wished to go with
+her. She chose those of tenderest age, and the king set them free.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans rewarded Caius by a gift of land, and had a statue made of
+Cl&#339;lia, which was set up in the highest part of the Sacred Way. And
+King Porsenna led his army home, with Tarquin still dethroned.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p>A third time Tarquin the Proud marched against Rome, this time in
+alliance with the Latins, whose thirty cities had joined together and
+declared war against the Romans. But as many of the Romans had married
+Latin wives, and many of the Latins had got their wives from Rome, it
+was resolved that the women on both sides, who preferred their native
+land to their husbands, might leave their new homes and take with them
+their virgin daughters. And, as the legend tells, all the Latin women
+but two remained in Rome, while all the Roman women returned with their
+daughters to their fathers' homes.</p>
+
+<p>The two armies met by the side of Lake Regillus, and there was fought a
+battle the story of which reads like a tale from the Iliad of Homer; for
+we are told not of how the armies fought, but of how their champions met
+and fought in single combats upon the field. King Tarquin was there, now
+hoary with years, yet sitting his horse and bearing his lance with the
+grace and strength of a young man. And there was Titus his son, leading
+into battle all the banished band of the Tarquins. And with them was
+Octavius Mamilius, the leader of the Latins,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> who swore to seat Tarquin
+again on his throne and to make the Romans subjects of the Latins.</p>
+
+<p>On the Roman side were many true and tried warriors, among them Titus
+Herminius, one of those who fought on the bridge by the side of Horatius
+Cocles, when that champion fought so well for Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It is too long to tell how warrior rode against warrior with levelled
+lances, and how this one was struck through the breast and that one
+through the arm, and so on in true Homeric style. The battle was a
+series of duels, like those fought on the plain of Troy. But at length
+the Tarquin band, under the lead of Titus, charged so fiercely that the
+Romans began to give way, many of their bravest having been slain.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture Aulus, the leader of the Romans, rode up with his own
+chosen band, and bade them level their lances and slay all, friend or
+foe, whose faces were turned towards them. There was to be no mercy for
+a Roman whose face was turned from the field. This onset stopped the
+flight, and Aulus charged fiercely upon the Tarquins, praying, as he did
+so, to the divine warriors Castor and Pollux, to whom he vowed to
+dedicate a temple if they would aid him in the fight. And he promised
+the soldiers that the two who should first break into the camp of the
+enemy should receive a rich reward.</p>
+
+<p>Then suddenly, at the head of the chosen band, appeared two unknown
+horsemen, in the first bloom of youth and taller and fairer than mortal
+men, while the horses they rode were white as the driven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> snow. On went
+the charge, led by these two noble strangers, before whom the enemy fled
+in mortal terror, while Titus, the last of the sons of King Tarquin,
+fell dead from his steed. The camp of the Latins being reached, these
+two horsemen were the first to break into it, and soon the whole army of
+the enemy was in disorderly flight and the battle won.</p>
+
+<p>Aulus now sought the two strange horsemen, to give them the reward he
+had promised; but he sought in vain; they were not to be found, among
+either the living or the dead, and no man had set eyes upon them since
+the camp was won. They had vanished as suddenly as they had appeared.
+But on the hard black rock which surrounds the lake was visible the mark
+of a horse's hoof, such as no earthly steed could ever have made. For
+ages afterwards this mark remained.</p>
+
+<p>But the strangers appeared once again. It was known in Rome that the
+armies were joined in battle, and the longing for tidings from the field
+grew intense. Suddenly, as the sun went down behind the city walls,
+there were seen in the Forum two horsemen on milk-white steeds, taller
+and fairer than the tallest and fairest of men. Their horses were bathed
+in foam, and they looked like men fresh from battle.</p>
+
+<p>Alighting near the Temple of Vesta, where a spring of water bubbles from
+the ground, these men, whom no Romans had ever seen before, washed from
+their persons the battle-stains. As they did so men crowded round and
+eagerly questioned them. In reply, they told them how the battle had
+been fought and won,&mdash;though in truth the battle ended only as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> the sun
+went down over Lake Regillus. They then mounted their horses and rode
+from the Forum, and were seen no more. Men sought them far and wide, but
+no one set eyes on them again.</p>
+
+<p>Then Aulus told the Romans how he had prayed to Castor and Pollux, the
+divine twins, and said that it could be none but they who had broken so
+fiercely into the enemy's camp, and had borne the news of victory with
+more than mortal speed to Rome. So he built the temple he had vowed to
+the hero gods, and gave there rich offerings as the rewards he had
+promised to the two who should first enter the camp of the foe.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the hopes of King Tarquin, against whom the gods had taken
+arms. His sons and all his family slain, he was left ruined and
+hopeless, and retired to the city of Cum&aelig;, whence formerly the Sibyl had
+come to his court. Here he died, and thus passed away the last of the
+Roman kings.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> overthrow of the kings of Rome did not relieve the people from all
+their oppression. The inhabitants of that city had long been divided
+into two great classes, the Patricians, or nobles, and the Plebeians, or
+common people, and the former held in their hand nearly all the wealth
+and power of the state. The senate, the law-making body, were all
+Patricians; the consuls, the executors of the law, were chosen from
+their ranks; and the Plebeians were left with few rights and little
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>It was through the avarice of money-lending nobles that the people were
+chiefly oppressed. There were no laws limiting the rate of interest, and
+the rich lent to the poor at extravagant rates of usury. The interest,
+when not paid, was added to the debt, so that in time it became
+impossible for many debtors to pay.</p>
+
+<p>And the laws against debtors had become terribly severe. They might,
+with all their families, be held as slaves. Or if the debtor refused to
+sell himself to his creditor, and still could not pay his debt, he might
+be imprisoned in fetters for sixty days. At the end of that time, if no
+friend had paid his debt, he could be put to death, or sold as a slave
+into a foreign state. If there were several creditors, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> could
+actually cut his body to pieces, each taking a piece proportional in
+size to his claim.</p>
+
+<p>This cruel severity was more than any people could long endure. It led
+to a revolution in Rome. In the year 495 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, fifteen years after the
+Tarquins had been expelled, a poor debtor, who had fought valiantly in
+the wars, broke from his prison, and&mdash;with his clothes in tatters and
+chains clanking upon his limbs&mdash;appealed eloquently to the people in the
+Forum, and showed them on his emaciated body the scars of the many
+battles in which he had fought.</p>
+
+<p>His tale was a sad one. While he served in the Sabine war, the enemy had
+pillaged and burned his house; and when he returned home, it was to find
+his cattle stolen and his farm heavily taxed. Forced to borrow money,
+the interest had brought him deeply into debt. Finally he had been
+attacked by pestilence, and being unable to work for his creditor, he
+had been thrown into prison and cruelly scourged, the marks of the lash
+being still evident upon his bleeding back.</p>
+
+<p>This piteous story roused its hearers to fury. The whole city broke into
+tumult, as the woful tale passed from lip to lip. Many debtors escaped
+from their prisons and begged protection from the incensed multitude.
+The consuls found themselves powerless to restore order; and in the
+midst of the uproar horsemen came riding hotly through the gates, crying
+out that a hostile army was near at hand, marching to besiege the city.</p>
+
+<p>Here was a splendid opportunity for the Plebeians. When called upon to
+enroll their names and take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> arms for the city's defence, they refused.
+The Patricians, they said, might fight their own battles. As for them,
+they had rather die together at home than perish separate upon the
+battle-field.</p>
+
+<p>This refusal left the Patricians in a quandary. With riot in the streets
+and war beyond the walls they were at the mercy of the commons. They
+were forced to promise a mitigation of the laws, declaring that no one
+should henceforth seize the goods of a soldier while he was in camp, or
+hinder a citizen from enlisting by keeping him in prison. This promise
+satisfied the people. The debtors' prisons were emptied, and their late
+tenants crowded with enthusiasm into the ranks. Through the gates the
+army marched, met the foe, and drove him in defeat from the soil of the
+Roman state.</p>
+
+<p>Victory gained, the Plebeians looked for laws to sustain the promises
+under which they had fought. They looked in vain; the senate took no
+action for their redress. But they had learned their power, and were not
+again to be enslaved. Their action was deliberate but decided. Taking
+measures to protect their homes on the Aventine Hill, they left the city
+the next year in a body, and sought a hill beyond the Anio, about three
+miles beyond the walls of Rome. Here they encamped, built
+fortifications, and sent word to their lordly rulers that they were done
+with empty promises, and would fight no more for the state until the
+state kept its faith. All the good of their fighting came to the
+Patricians, they said, and these might now defend themselves and their
+wealth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p><p>The senate was thrown into a panic by this decided action. When the
+hostile cities without should learn of it, they might send armies in
+haste to undefended Rome. The people left in the city feared the
+Patricians, and the Patricians feared them. All was doubt and anxiety.
+At length the senate, driven to desperation, sent an embassy to the
+rebels to treat for peace, being in deadly fear that some enemy might
+assail and capture the city in the absence of the bulk of its
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The messenger sent, Menenius Agrippa Lanatus, was a man famed for
+eloquence, and a popular favorite. In his address to the people in their
+camp he repeated to them the following significant fable:</p>
+
+<p>"At a time when all the parts of the body did not agree together, as
+they do now, but each had its own method and language, the other parts
+rebelled against the belly. They said that it lay quietly enjoying
+itself in the centre, while they, by care, labor, and service, kept it
+in luxury. They therefore conspired that the hands should not convey
+food to the mouth, the mouth receive it, nor the teeth chew it. They
+thus hoped to subdue the belly by famine; but they found that they and
+all the other parts of the body suffered as much. Then they saw that the
+belly by no means rested in sloth; that it supplied instead of receiving
+nourishment, sending to all parts of the body the blood that gave life
+and strength to the whole system."</p>
+
+<p>It was the same, he said, with the body of the state. All must work in
+unity, if all would prosper. This homely argument hit the popular fancy.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> people consented to treat for their return if their liberties could
+be properly secured. But they must now have deeds instead of words. It
+was not political power they sought, but protection, and protection they
+would have.</p>
+
+<p>Their demands were as follows: All debts should be cancelled, and all
+debtors held by their creditors should be released. And hereafter the
+Plebeians should have as their protectors two officials, who should have
+power to veto all oppressive laws, while their persons should be held as
+sacred and inviolable as those of the messengers of the gods. These
+officials were to be called Tribunes, and to be the chief officers of
+the commons as the consuls were of the nobles.</p>
+
+<p>This proposition was accepted by the senate, and a treaty signed between
+the contesting parties, as solemnly as if they had been two separate
+nations. It was an occasion as important to the liberties of Romans as
+the treaty signed many centuries afterwards on the field of Runnymede,
+between King John and his barons, was to the liberties of Englishmen,
+and was held by the Romans in like high regard. The hill on which the
+treaty had been made was ever after known as the Sacred Mount. Its top
+was consecrated and an altar built upon it, on which sacrifices were
+made to Jupiter, the god who strikes men with terror and then delivers
+them from fear; for the people had fled thither in dread, and were now
+to return home in safety.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the great revolt of the people, who had gained in the
+Tribunes defenders of more power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> and importance than they or the senate
+knew. They were never again to suffer from the bitter oppression to
+which they had been subjected in preceding years. As for Lanatus, to
+whose pleadings they had yielded, he died before the year ended, and was
+found to have not left enough to pay for his funeral. Therefore the
+Plebeians collected funds to give him a splendid burial; but the senate
+having decreed that the state should bear this expense, the money raised
+by the grateful people was formed into a fund for the benefit of his
+children.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caius Marcius</span>, a noble Roman youth, descended from the worthy king Ancus
+Marcius, fought valiantly when but seventeen years of age in the battle
+of Lake Regillus, and was there crowned with an oaken wreath, the Roman
+reward for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. This he showed with the
+greatest joy to his mother, Volumnia, whom he loved exceedingly, it
+being his greatest pleasure to receive praise from her lips for his
+exploits. He afterwards won many more crowns in battle, and became one
+of the most famous of Roman soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>One of his memorable exploits took place during a war with the
+Volscians, in which the Romans attacked the city of Corioli. The
+citizens made a sally, and drove the Romans back to their camp. But
+Caius, with a few followers, stopped them and turned the tide of battle,
+driving the Volscians back. As they fled into the city through the open
+gates, he cried, "Those gates are set open for us rather than for the
+Volscians. Why are we afraid to rush in?" And suiting his act to his
+words, the daring soldier pursued the enemy into the town.</p>
+
+<p>Here he found himself almost alone, for very few had followed him. The
+enemy turned on the bold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> invaders, but Caius proved so strong of hand
+and stout of heart that he drove them all before him, keeping a way
+clear for the Romans, who soon thronged in through the open gate and
+took the city. The army gave Caius the sole credit for the victory,
+saying that he alone had taken Corioli; and the general said, "Let him
+be called after the name of the city." He was, therefore, afterwards
+known by the name of Caius Marcius Coriolanus.</p>
+
+<p>Courage was not the only marked quality of Coriolanus. His pride was
+equally great. He was a noble of the nobles, so haughty in demeanor and
+so disdainful of the commons that they grew to hate him bitterly. At
+length came a time of great scarcity of food. The people were on the
+verge of famine, to relieve which shiploads of corn were sent from
+Sicily to Rome. The senate resolved to distribute this corn among the
+suffering people, but Coriolanus opposed this, saying, "If they want
+corn let them show their obedience to the Patricians, as their fathers
+did, and give up their tribunes. If they do this we will let them have
+corn, and take care of them."</p>
+
+<p>When the people heard of what the proud noble had said they broke into
+such fury that a mob gathered around the doors of the senate house,
+prepared to seize and tear him to pieces when he came out. They were
+checked in this by the tribunes, who said, "Let us not have violence. We
+will accuse him of treason before the assembly, and you shall be his
+judges."</p>
+
+<p>The tribunes, therefore, as the law gave them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> the right, summoned
+Coriolanus to appear before the popular tribunal and answer to the
+charges against him. But he, knowing how deeply he had offended them,
+and that they would show him no mercy, stayed not for the trial, but
+fled from Rome, exiled from his native land by his pride and disdain of
+the people.</p>
+
+<p>The exile made his way to the land of the Volscians, and seating himself
+by the hearth-fire of Attius Tullius, their chief, waited there with
+covered head till his late bitter foe should come in. How Attius would
+receive him he knew not; but he was homeless, and had now only his
+enemies to trust. But when the chieftain entered, and learned that the
+man who sat crouched beside his hearth, subject to his will, was the
+great warrior who by his own hands had taken a Volscian city, but was
+now banished and a fugitive, he was filled with compassion. He greeted
+him kindly and offered him a home, saying to himself, "Caius, our worst
+foe, is now our friend and a foe to Rome; we will make war against that
+proud city, and by his aid will conquer it."</p>
+
+<p>But the Volscians were not eager for war. They were afraid of the
+Romans, who had so often defeated them, and Attius sought in vain to
+stir them to hostility. Failing to rouse them by eloquence, he practised
+craft. There was a great festival at Rome, to which had come the people
+of various cities, among them many of the Volscians. Attius now went
+privately to the Roman consuls and bade them beware of the Volscians,
+lest they should stir up a riot and make trouble in the city, hinting
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> mischief was intended. In consequence of this warning proclamation
+was made that every Volscian should leave Rome before the setting of the
+sun.</p>
+
+<p>This produced the effect which Attius had hoped. He met the Volscians on
+their way home, and found them fired with indignation against Rome. He
+pretended similar indignation. "You have been made a show of before all
+the nations," he cried. "You and your wives and children have been
+basely insulted. They have made war on us while their guests; if you are
+men you will make them rue this deed."</p>
+
+<p>His words inflamed his countrymen. The story of the insult spread widely
+through the country, all the tribes of the Volscians took up the
+quarrel, and a great army was raised and set in march towards Rome, with
+Attius and Coriolanus at its head.</p>
+
+<p>The Volscian force was greater than the Romans were prepared to meet,
+and the army marched victoriously onward, taking city after city, and
+finally encamping within five miles of Rome. When the Volscians entered
+Roman territory they laid waste, by order of Coriolanus, the lands of
+the commons, but spared those of the nobles, the exiled patrician
+deeming the former his foes and the latter his friends. The approach of
+this powerful army threw the Romans into dismay. They had been assailed
+so suddenly that they had made no preparations for defence, and the city
+seemed to lie at the mercy of its foes. The women ran to the temples to
+pray for the favor of the gods. The people <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>demanded that the senate
+should send deputies to the invading army to treat for peace. The
+senate, apparently no less frightened than the people, obeyed, sending
+five leading Patricians to the Volscian camp.</p>
+
+<p>These deputies were haughtily received by Coriolanus, who offered them
+the following severe terms: "We will give you no peace till you restore
+to the Volscians all the land and cities which Rome has ever taken from
+them, and till you make them citizens of Rome, and give them all the
+rights in your city which you have yourselves."</p>
+
+<p>These conditions the deputies had no power to accept, and they threw the
+senate into dismay. The deputies were sent again, instructed to ask for
+gentler terms, but now, Coriolanus refused even to let them enter his
+camp.</p>
+
+<p>This harsh repulse plunged Rome into mortal terror. The senate, helpless
+to resist, now sent the priests of the gods and the augurs, all clothed
+in their sacred garments, and bearing the sacred emblems from the
+temples. But even this solemn delegation Coriolanus refused to receive,
+and sent them back to Rome unheard.</p>
+
+<p>Where all this time was the Roman army, which always before and after
+made itself heard and felt? This we are not told. We are in the land of
+legend, and cannot look for too much consistency. For once in its
+history Rome seems to have forgotten that its mission was not to plead,
+but to fight. Perhaps its armies had been beaten and demoralized in
+previous battles. At any rate we can but tell the story as it is told to
+us.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p><p>The help of delegates, priests, and augurs having proved unavailing,
+that of women was next sought. A noble lady, Valeria by name, who with
+other suppliants had sought the Temple of Jupiter, was inspired by a
+sudden thought, which seemed sent by the god himself. Rising, and
+bidding the other noble ladies to accompany her, she proceeded to the
+house of Volumnia, the mother of Coriolanus, whom she found with
+Virgilia, his wife, and his little children.</p>
+
+<p>"We have come to ask you to join us," she said, "in order that we women,
+without aid from man, may deliver our country, and win for ourselves a
+name more glorious even than that of the Sabine wives of old, who
+stopped the battle between their husbands and fathers. Come with us to
+the camp of Caius, and let us pray him to show us mercy."</p>
+
+<p>"It is well thought of; we shall go with you," said Volumnia, and, with
+Virgilia and her children, the noble matron prepared to seek the camp
+and tent of her exiled son.</p>
+
+<p>It was a sad and solemn spectacle, as this train of noble ladies, clad
+in their habiliments of woe, and with bent heads and sorrowful faces,
+wound through the hostile camp, from which they were not excluded, like
+the men. Even the Volscian soldiers watched them with pitying eyes, and
+spoke no word as they moved slowly past. On reaching the midst of the
+camp, they saw Coriolanus on the general's seat, with the Volscian
+chiefs gathered around him.</p>
+
+<p>At first he wondered who these women could be. But when they came near,
+and he saw his mother at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> the head of the train, his deep love for her
+welled up so strongly in his heart that he could not restrain himself,
+but sprang up and ran to meet and kiss her. The Roman matron stopped him
+with a dignified gesture, saying,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Ere you kiss me, let me know whether I am speaking to an enemy or to my
+son; whether I stand here as your prisoner or your mother."</p>
+
+<p>He stood before her in silence, with bent head, and unable to speak.</p>
+
+<p>"Must it then be that if I had never borne a son, Rome would have never
+seen the camp of an enemy?" said Volumnia, in sorrowful tones. "But I am
+too old to bear much longer your shame and my misery. Think not of me,
+but of your wife and children, whom you would doom to death or to life
+in bondage."</p>
+
+<p>Then Virgilia and the children came up and kissed him, and all the noble
+ladies in the train burst into tears and bemoaned the peril of their
+country. Coriolanus still stood silent, his face working with contending
+thoughts. At length he cried out, in heart-rending accents, "O mother,
+what have you done to me?"</p>
+
+<p>Clasping her hand, he wrung it vehemently, saying, "Mother, the victory
+is yours! A happy victory for you and Rome, but shame and ruin to your
+son."</p>
+
+<p>Then he embraced her with yearning heart, and afterwards clasped his
+wife and children to his breast, bidding them return with their tale of
+conquest to Rome. As for himself, he said, only exile and shame
+remained.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p><p>Before the women reached home the army of the Volscians was on its
+homeward march. Coriolanus never led them against Rome again. He lived
+and died in exile, far from his wife and children. When very old, he
+sadly remarked, "That now in his old age he knew the full bitterness of
+banishment."</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, to honor Volumnia and those who had gone with her to the
+Volscian camp, built a temple to "Woman's Fortune" on the spot where
+Coriolanus had yielded to his mother's entreaties; and the first
+priestess of this temple was Valeria, who had been inspired in the
+temple of Jupiter with the thought that saved Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>CINCINNATUS AND THE &AElig;QUIANS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the old days of Rome, not far from the time when Coriolanus yielded
+up his revenge at his mother's entreaty, the Roman state possessed a
+citizen as patriotic as Coriolanus was proud, and who did as much good
+as the other did evil to his native land. This citizen, Lucius Quinctius
+by name, was usually called Cincinnatus, or the "crisp-haired," from the
+fact that he let his hair grow long, and curled and crisped it so
+carefully as to gain as much fame for his hair as for his wisdom and
+valor.</p>
+
+<p>Cincinnatus was the simplest and least ambitious of men. He cared
+nothing for wealth, and had no craving for city life, but dwelt on his
+small farm beyond the Tiber, which he worked with his own hands,
+content, so his crops grew well, to let the lovers of power and wealth
+pursue their own devices within the city walls. But he was soon to be
+drawn from the plough to the sword.</p>
+
+<p>While Cincinnatus was busy ploughing his land, Rome kept at its old work
+of ploughing the nations. War at this time broke out with the &AElig;quians, a
+neighboring people; but for this war the &AElig;quians were to blame. They had
+plundered the lands of some of the allies of Rome, and when deputies
+were sent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> complain of this wrong, Gracchus, their chief, received
+them with insulting mockery.</p>
+
+<p>He was sitting in his tent, which was pitched in the shade of a great
+evergreen oak, when the deputies arrived.</p>
+
+<p>"I am busy with other matters," he answered them; "I cannot hear you;
+you had better tell your message to the oak yonder."</p>
+
+<p>"Yes," said one of the deputies, "let this sacred oak hear, and let all
+the gods hear also, how treacherously you have broken the peace. They
+shall hear it now, and shall soon avenge it; for you have scorned alike
+the laws of the gods and of men."</p>
+
+<p>The deputies returned to Rome, and reported how they had been insulted.
+The senate at once declared war, and an army was sent towards Algidus,
+where the enemy lay. But Gracchus, who was a skilled soldier, cunningly
+pretended to be afraid of the Romans, and retreated before them, drawing
+them gradually into a narrow valley, on each side of which rose high,
+steep, and barren hills.</p>
+
+<p>When he had lured them fairly into this trap, he sent a force to close
+up the entrance of the valley. The Romans suddenly found that they had
+been entrapped into a <i>cul-de-sac</i>, with impassable hills in front and
+on each side, and a strong body of &AElig;quians guarding the entrance to the
+ravine. There was neither grass for the horses nor food for the men.
+Gracchus held not only the entrance, but the hill-tops all round, so
+that escape in any direction was impossible. But before the road in the
+rear was quite closed up five horsemen had managed to break<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> out; and
+these rode with all speed to Rome, where they told the senate of the
+imminent danger of the consul and his army.</p>
+
+<p>These tidings threw the senate into dismay. What was to be done? The
+other consul was with his army in the country of the Sabines. He was at
+once sent for, and hastened with all speed to Rome. Here a consultation
+took place, which ended in the leading senators saying, "There is only
+one man who can deliver us. We must make Lucius Quinctius Master of the
+People." Master of the People meant in Rome what we now mean by
+Dictator,&mdash;that is, a man above the law, an autocrat supreme. What
+service this unambitious tiller of the ground had previously done for
+Rome to make him worthy of this distinction we are not told, but it is
+evident that he was looked upon as the man of highest wisdom and
+soldiership in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Caius Nautius, the consul, appointed Cincinnatus to this high office, as
+he alone was privileged to do, and then hastened back to his army. Early
+the next morning deputies from the senate sought the farm of the new
+dictator, to apprise him of the honor conferred on him. Early as it was,
+Cincinnatus was already at work in his fields. He was without his toga,
+or cloak, and vigorously digging in the ground with his spade, never
+dreaming that he, a simple husbandman, had been chosen to save a state.</p>
+
+<p>"We bring you a message from the senate," said the deputies. "You must
+put on your cloak to receive it with the fitting respect."</p>
+
+<p>"Has evil befallen the state?" asked the farmer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> as he bade his wife to
+bring him his cloak. When he had put it on he returned to the deputies.</p>
+
+<p>"Hail to you, Lucius Quinctius!" they now said. "The senate has declared
+you Master of the People, and have sent us to call you to the city; for
+the consul and the army in the country of the &AElig;quians are in imminent
+danger."</p>
+
+<p>Without further words, Cincinnatus accompanied them to the boat in which
+they had crossed the Tiber, and was rowed in it to the city. As he left
+the boat he was met by a deputation consisting of his three sons, his
+kinsmen and friends, and many of the senators of Rome. They received him
+with the highest honor, and led him in great state to his city
+residence, the twenty-four lictors walking before him, with their rods
+and axes, while a great multitude of the people crowded round with
+shouts of welcome. The presence of the lictors signified that this plain
+farmer had been invested with all the power of the former kings.</p>
+
+<p>The new dictator quickly proved himself worthy of the trust that had
+been placed in him. He chose at once as his Master of the Horse Lucius
+Tarquinius, a brave man, of noble descent, but so poor that he had been
+forced to serve among the foot-soldiers instead of the horse. Then the
+two entered the Forum, where orders were given that all booths should be
+closed and all lawsuits stopped. All men were forbidden to look after
+their own affairs while a Roman army lay in peril of destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Orders were next given that every man old enough to go to battle should
+appear before sunset with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> arms and with five days' food in the
+Field of Mars, and should bring with him twelve stakes. These they were
+to cut where they chose, without hinderance from any person. While the
+soldiers occupied themselves in cutting these stakes, the women and
+older men dressed their food. Such haste was made, under the energetic
+orders of the dictator, that an army was ready, equipped as commanded,
+in the Field of Mars before the sun had set. The march was at once
+begun, and was continued with such rapidity that by midnight the
+vicinity of Algidus was reached. On the enemy being perceived, a halt
+was called.</p>
+
+<p>Cincinnatus now rode forward and inspected the camp of the enemy, so far
+as it could be seen by night. He then ordered the soldiers to throw down
+their baggage, and to keep only their arms and stakes. Marching
+stealthily forward, they now extended their lines until they had
+completely surrounded the hostile camp. Then, upon a given signal, a
+simultaneous shout was raised, and each soldier began to dig a ditch
+where he stood and to plant his stakes in the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The shout rang like a thunder-clap through the camp of the &AElig;quians,
+waking them suddenly and filling them with dismay. It also reached the
+ears of the Romans who lay in the valley, and inspired them with hope,
+for they recognized the Roman war-cry. They raised their own
+battle-shout in response, and, seizing their arms, sallied out and made
+a fierce attack upon the foe, fighting so desperately that the &AElig;quians
+were prevented from interrupting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> the work of the outer army. All the
+remainder of the night the battle went on, and when day broke the
+&AElig;quians found that a ditch and a palisade of stakes had been made around
+their entire camp.</p>
+
+<p>This work accomplished, Cincinnatus ordered his men to attack the foe,
+and thus aid their entrapped countrymen. The &AElig;quians, finding themselves
+between two armies, and as closely walled in as the Romans in the valley
+had before been, fell into a panic of hopelessness, threw down their
+arms, and begged their foes for mercy. Cincinnatus now signalled for the
+fighting to cease, and, meeting those who came to ask on what terms he
+would spare their lives, said,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Give me Gracchus and your other chiefs bound. As for you, you can have
+your lives on one condition. I will set two spears upright in the
+ground, and put a third spear across, and every man of you, giving up
+your arms and your cloaks, shall pass under this yoke, and may then go
+away free."</p>
+
+<p>To go under the yoke was accounted the greatest dishonor to a soldier.
+But the &AElig;quians had no alternative and were obliged to submit. They
+delivered up to the Romans their king and their chiefs, left their camp
+with all its spoil to the foe, and passed without cloaks or arms under
+the crossed spears, their heads bowed with shame. They then went home,
+leaving their chiefs as Roman prisoners. Thus was Gracchus punished for
+his pride.</p>
+
+<p>In less than a day's time Cincinnatus had saved a Roman army and
+humiliated the &AElig;quian foe. As for the battle-spoils, he distributed them
+among his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> men, giving none to the consul's army, and degraded the
+consul, making him his under-officer. He then marched the two armies
+back to Rome, which he reached that same evening, and where he was
+received with as much astonishment as joy. The rescued army were too
+full of thankfulness at their escape to feel chagrin at their loss of
+spoil, and voted to give Cincinnatus a golden crown, calling him their
+protector and father.</p>
+
+<p>The senate decreed that Cincinnatus should enter the city in triumph. He
+rode in his chariot through the gates, Gracchus and the chiefs of the
+&AElig;quians being led in fetters before him. In front of all the standards
+were borne, while in the rear marched the soldiers, laden with their
+spoil. At the door of every house tables were set, with meat and drink
+for the soldiers, while the people, singing and rejoicing, danced with
+joy as they followed the conqueror's chariot, and all Rome was given up
+to feasting and merry-making.</p>
+
+<p>As for Cincinnatus, he laid down his power and returned to his farm,
+glad to have rescued a Roman army, but caring nothing for the pomp and
+authority he might have gained. And for all we know, he lived and died
+thereafter a simple tiller of the ground.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the year 504 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> a citizen of Regillum, of much wealth and
+importance, finding himself at odds with his fellow-citizens, left that
+city and proceeded to Rome, with a long train of followers, much as the
+elder Tarquin had come from Tarquinii. His name was Atta Clausus, but in
+Rome he became known as Appius Claudius. He was received as a patrician,
+was given ample lands, and he and his descendants in later years became
+among the chief of those who hated and oppressed the plebeians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image5.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>About half a century after this date, one of these descendants, also
+named Appius Claudius, was a principal actor in one of the most dramatic
+events of ancient Rome. The trouble which had long existed between the
+patricians and the plebeians now grew so pronounced, and the demand for
+a reform in the laws so great, that in the year 451 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> a commission
+was sent to the city of Athens, to report on the system of government
+they found there and elsewhere in Greece. After this commission had
+returned and given its report, a body of ten patricians was appointed,
+under the title of Decemvirs (or ten men), to prepare a new code of laws
+for Rome. They were chosen for one year, and took the place of the
+consuls, tribunes, and all the chief officials of Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p><p>At the head of this body was Appius Claudius. The laws of Rome had
+previously been only partly written, the remainder being held in memory
+or transmitted as traditions. A complete code of written laws was
+desired, and to this work the decemvirs set themselves diligently. After
+a few months they prepared a code of laws, which was accepted by nobles
+and people alike as fair and satisfactory, and it was ordered that these
+laws should be engraved upon ten tables of brass and hung up in the
+comitium, or place of assembly of the people, where all might read them
+and learn under what laws they lived. It is probable that the plebeian
+demand for reform was so great that the decemvirs did not dare to
+disregard it.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the year of office of these officials it was felt that
+they had done so well that it was thought wise to continue them in power
+for another year. But when the time for election came round, Appius
+Claudius managed to have his nine associates defeated, he alone being
+re-elected. The other nine chosen were men whom he felt sure he could
+control. And now, having a year's rule assured him, he threw off the
+cloak of moderation he had worn, and began a career of oppression of the
+plebeians, aided by his subservient associates. The first step taken was
+to add two new laws to the code, which became known, therefore, as the
+"Twelve Tables." These new laws proved so distasteful to the people that
+they almost broke into open rebellion. It was evident that the haughty
+decemvirs were seeking to increase the power of their class.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p><p>The decemvirs did not confine themselves to passing oppressive laws.
+They began a career of outrage and oppression that filled Rome with woe.
+The youthful patricians followed their lead, and insult and murder
+became common incidents in Rome. When the second year of the decemvirate
+expired, Appius and his colleagues, knowing that they could not be
+elected again, showed no intention of yielding up their authority. They
+were supported by the senate and the patricians, and had gained such
+power that they defied the plebeians. Those of the people who were
+active in opposition were quietly disposed of, and so intolerable became
+the tyranny that numbers of the plebeian party fled from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on war broke out with the Sabines and the &AElig;quians.
+Of the armies sent against these nations, one was commanded by Lucius
+Sicinius Dentatus, among the bravest of the Romans, and who had fought
+in one hundred and twenty battles and was covered with the scars of old
+wounds. On his way to his post this veteran was murdered by bravos sent
+by Appius Claudius. Decemvirs were now appointed to command the armies,
+Appius and one of his colleagues remaining in Rome to look after the
+safety of the city.</p>
+
+<p>The story goes that both armies were beaten by their foes, and forced to
+retreat within Roman territory. While they lay encamped, not many miles
+from Rome, an event occurred in the city which gave them new work to do,
+and proved that the worst enemies of Rome were not without, but within,
+her walls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p><p>In the army sent against the &AElig;quians was a centurion named Lucius
+Virginius, who had a beautiful daughter named Virginia, whom he had
+betrothed to Lucius Icilius, recently one of the tribunes of Rome. But
+the tyranny of the decemvirs was directed against the wives and
+daughters as well as the men of the plebeians, as was now to be
+strikingly shown.</p>
+
+<p>One day, as the beautiful maiden was on her way, attended by her nurse,
+to school in the Forum (around which the schools were placed), she was
+seen by Appius Claudius, who was so struck by her beauty that he
+determined to gain possession of her, and sought to win her by insidious
+words. The innocent girl repelled his advances, but this only increased
+his desire to possess her, and he determined, as she was not to be had
+by fair means, to have her by foul. He therefore laid a wicked plot for
+her capture.</p>
+
+<p>Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, instigated by him, seized the girl
+as she entered the Forum, claiming that she was his slave. The nurse
+screamed for help, and a crowd quickly gathered. Many of these well knew
+the maiden, her father, and her betrothed, and vowed to protect her from
+wrong. But the villain declared that he meant no harm, and that he only
+claimed his own, and was quite willing to submit his claim to the
+decision of the law.</p>
+
+<p>Followed by the crowd, he led the weeping maiden to where Appius
+Claudius occupied the judgment-seat, and demanded justice at his hands.
+He declared that the wife of Virginius, being childless,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> had got this
+child from its mother and presented it to Virginius as her own, and said
+that the real mother had been his slave, and that, therefore, the
+daughter was his slave also. This he would prove to Virginius on his
+return to Rome. Meanwhile it was but just that the master should keep
+possession of his slave.</p>
+
+<p>This specious appeal was earnestly combated by the friends of the
+maiden, many of whom were present in the throng. Virginius, they said,
+was absent from Rome in the service of the commonwealth. To take such
+action in his absence was unjust. They would send him word at once, and
+in two days he would be in the city.</p>
+
+<p>"Let the case stand until he can appear," they demanded. "The law
+expressly declares that in cases like this every one shall be considered
+free till proved a slave. The maiden, therefore, should legally be left
+with her friends till the day of trial. Put not her fair fame in peril
+by giving up a free-born maiden into the hands of a man whom she knows
+not."</p>
+
+<p>To this reasonable appeal Appius, with a show of judicial moderation,
+replied,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Truly, I know the law you speak of, and hold it just and good, for it
+was enacted by myself. But this maiden cannot in any case be free; she
+belongs either to her father or to her master. And as her father is not
+here, who but her master can have any claim to her? I decide, therefore,
+that M. Claudius shall keep her till Virginius comes, and shall require
+him to give sureties to bring her before my judgment-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>seat when the day
+comes for hearing the case between them."</p>
+
+<p>This illegal decision was far from satisfying the multitude. The
+decemvirs and their adherents had gained an unholy reputation for
+dishonorable treatment of the wives and daughters of the people, and it
+was not safe to trust a maiden in their hands. Word had been hastily
+sent to Numitorius, the uncle of Virginia, and Icilius, her betrothed,
+and they now came up in great haste, and protested so vigorously against
+the sentence, that the surrounding people became roused to fury. Appius,
+seeing the temper of the throng, and fearing a riotous demonstration,
+felt forced to change his decision. He said, therefore, that, in view of
+the rights of fathers over their children, he would let the case rest
+till the next day.</p>
+
+<p>"If, then," he said, with a show of stern dignity, "Virginius does not
+appear, I plainly tell Icilius and his fellows that I will support the
+laws which I have made. Violence shall not prevail over justice at this
+tribunal."</p>
+
+<p>Obliged to be content with this, the friends of Virginia conducted her
+home, and Icilius sent messengers in all haste to the camp, to bid
+Virginius come without an hour's delay to Rome. Surety was given that
+the maiden should appear before Appius the next day.</p>
+
+<p>It was fortunate that the army in which Virginius was a centurion had
+been obliged to retreat, and then lay not many miles from Rome. The
+messengers sent reached the camp that same evening, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> told Virginius
+of the peril of his daughter. Appius had also sent messengers to his
+colleagues in command of the army, secretly instructing them not to let
+Virginius leave the camp on any pretence. But the messengers of right
+outstripped those of wrong, and when word came from the decemvirs in
+command to restrain Virginius he had already been given leave of
+absence, and was speeding on the road to Rome, spurred by love and
+indignation.</p>
+
+<p>Morning came, and Appius resumed his judgment-seat, under the delusion
+that his vile scheme was safe. To his surprise and dismay, he saw
+Virginius, whom he supposed detained in camp, dressed in mean attire,
+like a suppliant, and leading his daughter into the Forum. With him came
+a body of Roman matrons and a great troop of friends, for the affair had
+roused the people almost to the point of revolt.</p>
+
+<p>"This is not my cause only, but the cause of all," said Virginius, in
+moving accents, to the people. "If my daughter shall be robbed from me,
+what father and mother among you all is safe?"</p>
+
+<p>Icilius earnestly seconded this appeal, and the mothers who stood by
+wept with pity, their tears moving the people even more than the words
+of the father and lover.</p>
+
+<p>But Appius was not to be moved by tears or appeals. Bent on gaining his
+unholy ends, he did not even give Virginius time to address the
+tribunal, but before Claudius had done speaking he hastened to give
+sentence. The maiden, he said, should be considered a slave until proved
+to be free-born. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> mean time she should remain in the custody of
+her master Claudius.</p>
+
+<p>This monstrous decision, a perversion of all law, natural and civil,
+filled the people with astonishment. Could the maker of the laws of Rome
+thus himself set them at defiance? They stood as if stunned, until
+Claudius approached to lay hands on the maiden, when the women and her
+friends gathered around her and kept him off, while Virginius broke out
+in passionate threats that he would not tamely submit to so great a
+wrong.</p>
+
+<p>Appius had prepared for this. He had brought with him a body of armed
+patricians, and, supported by them, he bade his lictors to drive back
+the crowd. Before their threatening axes the unarmed people fell back,
+and the weeping maiden was left standing alone. Virginius looked on in
+despair. Was he to be robbed of his daughter in the face of Rome, and in
+defiance of all justice and honor? There was one way still to save her,
+and only one.</p>
+
+<p>With an aspect of humility he asked Appius to let him speak one word to
+the nurse in the maiden's hearing, that he might learn whether she were
+really his child or not. "If I am not indeed her father, I shall bear
+her loss the lighter," he said.</p>
+
+<p>Appius, with a show of moderation, consented, and the distracted father
+drew the nurse and his daughter aside to a spot where stood some
+butchers' booths, for the Forum of Rome was then a place of trade as
+well as of justice. Here he snatched a knife from a butcher, and,
+holding the poor girl in his arm, he cried, "This is the only way, my
+child, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> keep thee free," and plunged the weapon to her heart.</p>
+
+<p>Then, turning to Appius, he cried, in threatening accents, "On you and
+on your head be the curse of this blood!"</p>
+
+<p>"Seize the madman!" yelled Appius.</p>
+
+<p>But, brandishing the bloody knife, Virginius broke through the
+multitude, which readily made way for his passage, and flew to the city
+gates, where, seizing a horse, he rode with wild haste to the camp of
+Tusculum.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Icilius and Numitorius held up the maiden's body, and bade the
+people see the bloody result of the decemvir's unholy purpose. A tumult
+instantly arose, the people rushing in such fury upon the tribunal that
+the lictors and armed patricians were driven back, and Appius, stricken
+with fear, covered his face with his robe and fled into a neighboring
+house.</p>
+
+<p>Never had Rome been so stirred to fury. The colleague of Appius rushed
+with his followers to the Forum, but the people were too strong for all
+the force he could gather. The senate met, but could do nothing in the
+excited state of public feeling. An attempt to support the decemvirs now
+might cause the commons once more to secede to the Sacred Hill.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on in the city, Virginius, followed by many
+citizens, had reached the camp. Here the encrimsoned knife he held, the
+blood on his face and body, and the many unarmed citizens who followed
+him, brought the soldiers crowding round to learn what all this meant.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><p>The tale was told in moving accents. On hearing it the whole army burst
+into a storm of indignation. Heedless of the orders of their generals,
+they rushed excitedly to arms, pulled up their standards, and put
+themselves in hasty march for Rome. The only leader they recognized was
+Virginius, who, knife in hand, led the way in the van.</p>
+
+<p>Reaching the city, the soldiers called on the commons to assert their
+liberties and elect new tribunes, the decemvirs having deprived them of
+these officials. They then marched to the Aventine Hill, where they
+selected ten military tribunes. The senate sent to them to know what
+they wanted, but they replied that they had no answer to give except to
+their own friends.</p>
+
+<p>The other army had also heard of the outrage, and soon appeared at the
+Aventine, led by Icilius and Numitorius, who had hastened with the
+dreadful story to its camp. It, too, elected ten tribunes, and waited to
+hear what the senate had to propose. They waited in vain. No word came
+to them. The senate, distracted by the sudden occurrence, sought to
+temporize, but the people were in too deadly earnest to be thus dealt
+with. In the end the armies left the Aventine, marched through the city,
+and made their way to the Sacred Hill, where the seceding commoners had
+established themselves on a famous occasion long before. Men, women, and
+children followed them in multitudes. Once more the city was deserted by
+the plebeians, and the patricians were left to keep Rome together as
+they could.</p>
+
+<p>This brought the senate to terms. The decemvirs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> agreed to resign.
+Deputies were sent to ask what the people demanded. They replied that
+they wanted their tribunes and the right of appeal restored, full
+indemnity for all the leaders in the secession, and the punishment of
+their oppressors.</p>
+
+<p>"These decemvirs," said Icilius, "are public enemies, and we will have
+them die the death of such. Give them up to us, that they may be burnt
+with fire, as they have richly deserved."</p>
+
+<p>This blood-thirsty desire, however, was not insisted on. All their other
+requests were granted, and the people returned to Rome. The decemvirs
+had resigned. Ten tribunes were chosen, among them Virginius and
+Icilius. The people of Rome had regained the liberty of which they had
+been robbed by their late oppressors.</p>
+
+<p>But though the decemvirs had been spared from death by fire, they were
+not forgiven. Virginius, as a tribune, impeached Appius for having given
+a decision in defiance of the law. The proud patrician appeared in the
+Forum surrounded by a body of young nobles, but he gained nothing by
+this bravado. He refused to go before the judge, appealed to the people,
+and demanded to be released on bail. This Virginius refused. He could
+not be trusted at liberty. He was therefore thrown into prison, to await
+the judgment of the people.</p>
+
+<p>This judgment he did not live to hear. Whether he killed himself in
+prison, or was killed by order of his accusers, we do not know. We only
+know that he died. His colleague, who had come to his aid on that fatal
+day, was also thrown into prison, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> charge of having wantonly
+scourged an old and distinguished soldier. He also died there. The other
+decemvirs, with M. Claudius, who had claimed Virginia as his slave, were
+allowed to give bail, and all fled from Rome. The property of all of
+them was confiscated and sold.</p>
+
+<p>Rome had experienced enough of decemvirate rule. The tribunes of the
+people were restored, and thereafter they were both freely chosen by the
+people, which had not been the case before.</p>
+
+<p>And thus it was that Virginia was revenged and justice once more reigned
+in Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now to tell the story of another dictator of Rome. Like
+Cincinnatus, Camillus is largely a creature of legend, but he plays an
+active part in old Roman annals, and the tale of his doings is well
+worth repeating.</p>
+
+<p>Rome was at war with the city of Veii, a large and strong city beyond
+the Tiber, and not many miles away. In the year of Rome 350 (or 403
+<span class="ampm">B.C.</span>) the siege of Veii began, and was continued for seven years. We are
+told that the Romans surrounded the city, five miles in circumference,
+with a double wall, but it could not have been complete, or the
+Veientians could not have held out against starvation so long. For the
+end of the siege and the taking of the city we must revert to the
+legendary tale.</p>
+
+<p>For seven years and more, so the legend says, the Romans had been
+besieging Veii. During the last year of the siege, in late summer, the
+springs and rivers all ran low; but of a sudden the waters of the Lake
+of Alba began to rise, and the flood continued until the banks were
+overflowed and the fields and houses by its side were drowned. Still
+higher and higher the waters swelled till they reached the tops of the
+hills which rose like a wall around the lake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> In the end they
+overflowed these hills at their lowest points, and poured in a mighty
+torrent into the plain beyond.</p>
+
+<p>The prayers and sacrifices of the Romans had failed to check the flood,
+which threatened their city and fields, and despairing of any redress
+from their own gods they sent to Delphi, in Greece, and applied there to
+the famous oracle of Apollo. While the messengers were on their way, it
+chanced that a Roman centurion talked with an old Veientian on the walls
+whom he had known in times of peace, and knew to be skilled in the
+secrets of Fate. The Roman condoled with his friend, and hoped that no
+harm would come to him in the fall of Veii, sure to happen soon. The old
+man laughed in reply, and said,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"You think, then, to take Veii. You shall not take it till the waters of
+the Lake of Alba are all spent, and flow out into the sea no more."</p>
+
+<p>This remark troubled the Roman, who knew the prophetic foresight of his
+friend. The next day he talked with him again, and finally enticed him
+to leave the city, saying that he wished to meet him at a certain secret
+place and consult with him on a matter of his own. But on getting him in
+this way out of the city, he seized and carried him off to the camp,
+where he brought him before the generals. These, learning what the old
+man had said, sent him to the senate at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The prisoner here spoke freely. "If the lake overflow," he said, "and
+its waters run out into the sea, woe unto Rome; but if it be drawn off,
+and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> waters reach the sea no longer, then it is woe unto Veii."</p>
+
+<p>This he gave as the decree of the Fates; but the senate would not accept
+his words, and preferred to wait until the messengers should return from
+Delphi with the reply of the oracle.</p>
+
+<p>When they did come, they confirmed what the old prophet had said. "See
+that the waters be not confined within the basin of the lake," was the
+message of Apollo's priestess: "see that they take not their own course
+and run into the sea. Thou shalt take the water out of the lake, and
+thou shalt turn it to the watering of the fields, and thou shalt make
+courses for it till it be spent and come to nothing."</p>
+
+<p>What all this could possibly have to do with the siege of Veii the
+oracle did not say. But the people of the past were not given to ask
+such inconvenient questions. The oracle was supposed to know better than
+they, so workmen were sent with orders to bore through the sides of the
+hills and make a passage for the water. This tunnel was made, and the
+waters of the lake were drawn off, and divided into many courses, being
+given the duty of watering the fields of the Romans. In this way the
+water of the lake was all used up, and no drop of it flowed to the sea.
+Then the Romans knew that it was the will of the gods that Veii should
+be theirs.</p>
+
+<p>Despite all this, the army of Rome must have met with serious
+difficulties and dangers at Veii, for the senate chose a dictator to
+conduct the war. This was their ablest and most famous man, Marcus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+Furius Camillus, a leader among the aristocrats, and a statesman of
+distinguished ability.</p>
+
+<p>Under the command of Camillus the army hotly pressed the siege. So
+straitened became the Veientians that they sent envoys to Rome to beg
+for peace. The senate refused. In reply, one of the chief men of the
+embassy, who was a skilled prophet, rebuked the Romans for their
+arrogance, and predicted coming retribution.</p>
+
+<p>"You heed neither the wrath of the gods nor the vengeance of men," he
+said. "Yet the gods shall requite you for your pride; as you destroy our
+country, so shall you shortly after lose your own."</p>
+
+<p>This prediction was verified before many years in the invasion of the
+Gauls and the destruction of Rome,&mdash;a tale which we have next to tell.</p>
+
+<p>Camillus, finding that Veii was not to be taken by assault over its
+walls, began to approach it from below. Men were set to dig an
+underground tunnel, which should pass beneath the walls, and come to the
+surface again in the Temple of Juno, which stood in the citadel of Veii.
+Night and day they worked, and the tunnel was in course of time
+completed, though the ground was not opened at its inner extremity.</p>
+
+<p>Then many Romans came to the camp through desire to have a share in the
+spoil of Veii. A tenth part of this spoil was vowed by Camillus to
+Apollo, in reward for his oracle; and the dictator also prayed to Juno,
+the goddess of Veii, begging her to desert this city and follow the
+Romans home, where a temple worthy of her dignity should be built.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p><p>All being ready, a fierce assault was made on the city from every side.
+The defenders ran to the walls to repel their foes, and the fight went
+vigorously on. While it continued the king of Veii repaired to the
+Temple of Juno, where he offered a sacrifice for the deliverance of the
+city. The prophet who stood by, on seeing the sacrifice, said, "This is
+an accepted offering. There is victory for him who offers the entrails
+of this victim upon the altar."</p>
+
+<p>The Romans who were in the secret passage below heard these words.
+Instantly the earth was heaved up above them, and they sprang, arms in
+hand, from the tunnel. The entrails were snatched from the hands of
+those who were sacrificing, and Camillus, the Roman dictator, not the
+Veientian king, offered them upon the altar. While he did so his
+followers rushed from the citadel into the streets, flung open the city
+gates, and let in their comrades. Thus both from within and without the
+army broke into the town, and Veii was taken and sacked.</p>
+
+<p>From the height of the citadel Camillus looked down upon the havoc in
+the city streets, and said in pride of heart, "What man's fortune was
+ever so great as mine?" But instantly the thought came to him how little
+a thing can bring the highest fortune down to the lowest, and he prayed
+that if some evil should befall him or his country it might be light.</p>
+
+<p>As he prayed he veiled his head, according to the Roman custom, and
+turned toward the right. In doing so his foot slipped, and he fell upon
+his back on the ground. "The gods have heard my prayer,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> he said. "For
+the great fortune of my victory over Veii they have sent me only this
+little evil."</p>
+
+<p>He then bade some young men, chosen from the whole army, to wash
+themselves in pure water, and clothe themselves in white, so that there
+would be about them no stain or sign of blood. This done, they entered
+the Temple of Juno, bowing low, and taking care not to touch the statue
+of the goddess, which only the priest could touch. They asked the
+goddess whether it was her pleasure to go with them to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Then a wonder happened; from the mouth of the image came the words "I
+will go." And when they now touched it, it moved of its own accord. It
+was carried to Rome, where a temple was built and consecrated to Juno on
+the Aventine Hill.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Rome Camillus entered the city in triumph, and rode to
+the Capitol in a chariot drawn by four white horses, like the horses of
+Jupiter or those of the sun. Such was his ostentation that wise men
+shook their heads. "Marcus Camillus makes himself equal to the blessed
+gods," they said. "See if vengeance come not on him, and he be not made
+lower than other men."</p>
+
+<p>There is one further legend about Camillus. After the fall of Veii he
+besieged Falerii. During this siege a school-master, who had charge of
+the sons of the principal citizens, while walking with his boys outside
+the walls, played the traitor and led them into the Roman camp.</p>
+
+<p>But the villain received an unexpected reward. Camillus, justly
+indignant at the act, put thongs in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> the boys' hands and bade them flog
+their master back into the town, saying that the Romans did not war on
+children. On this the people of Falerii, overcome by his magnanimity,
+surrendered themselves, their city, and their country into the hands of
+this generous foe, assured of just treatment from so noble a man.</p>
+
+<p>But trouble came upon Camillus, as the wise men had predicted. He was an
+enemy of the commons and was to feel their power. It was claimed that he
+had kept for himself part of the plunder of Veii, and on this charge he
+was banished from Rome. But the time was near at hand when his foes
+would have to pray for his return. The next year the Gauls were to come,
+and Camillus was to be revenged upon his ungrateful country. This story
+we have next to tell.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE GAULS AT ROME.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have related in the preceding tale how a Veientian prophet predicted
+the ruin of Rome, in retribution for the cruelty of the Romans to the
+people of Veii. It is the story of this disaster which we have now to
+tell. While the Romans were assailing Veii and making other conquests
+among the neighboring cities, a new people had come into Central Italy,
+a fair-faced, light-haired, great-bodied tribe of barbarians, fierce in
+aspect, warlike in character, the first contingent of that great
+invasion from the north which, centuries afterwards, was to overthrow
+the empire of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>These were the Gauls, barbarian tribes from the region now known as
+France, who had long before crossed the Alps and made themselves lords
+of much of Northern Italy. Just when this took place we do not know, but
+about the time with which we are now concerned they pushed farther
+south, overthrew the Etruscans, and in the year 389 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> crossed the
+Apennines and penetrated into Central Italy.</p>
+
+<p>And now the proud city of Rome was to come face to face with an enemy
+more powerful and courageous than any it had hitherto known. In the year
+named the Gauls besieged the city of Clusium,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> in Etruria, the city of
+Lars Porsenna, who in former years had aided Tarquin against Rome. The
+Roman senate, alarmed at their approach, sent three deputies to observe
+these barbarian bands. What follows is the story as told in Roman
+annals. It cannot be accepted as the exact truth, though no one
+questions the destruction of Rome by the Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>The story goes, then, that the deputies sent to the barbarians, and
+asked by what right they sought to take a part of the territory of
+Clusium, a city in alliance with Rome. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,
+who knew little and cared less about Rome, replied, with insolent pride,
+that all things belonged to the brave, and that their right lay in their
+swords.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after, in a sortie that was made from the city, one of the Roman
+deputies joined the soldiers, and killed a Gaulish champion of great
+size and stature. On this being reported to Brennus he sent messengers
+to Rome, demanding that the man who had slain one of his chiefs, when no
+war existed between the Gauls and Romans, should be delivered into his
+hands for punishment. The senate voted to do so, as the demand seemed
+reasonable; but an appeal was made to the people, and they declared that
+the culprit should not be given up. On this answer being taken to
+Brennus, he at once ordered that the siege of Clusium should be
+abandoned, and marched with his whole army upon Rome.</p>
+
+<p>A Roman army, forty thousand strong, was hastily raised, and crossed the
+Tiber, marching towards Veii, where they expected to meet the advancing
+enemy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> But they reckoned wrongly: the Gauls came down the left bank of
+the river, plundering and burning as they marched. This threw the Romans
+into the greatest alarm. For many miles above Rome the Tiber could not
+be forded, there were no bridges, and boats could not be had to convey
+so large an army. The Romans were forced to march back with all speed to
+the city, cross the river there, and hasten to meet their foes before
+they got too near at hand. But when they came within sight of the Gauls
+the latter were already within twelve miles of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman army was drawn up behind the Alia, a little stream whose deep
+bed formed a line of defence. But the Gauls made their attack upon the
+weakest section of the Roman army, hewing them down with their great
+broadswords, and assailing their ears with frightful yells. The Roman
+right wing, formed of new recruits, gave way before this vigorous
+charge, and in its flight threw the regular legions of the left wing
+into disorder. The Gauls pursued so fiercely that in a short time the
+whole army was in total rout, and flying as Roman army had never fled
+before.</p>
+
+<p>Many plunged into the river, in hope of escaping by swimming across it.
+But of these the Gauls slew multitudes on the banks, and killed most of
+those in the stream with their javelins. Others took refuge in a dense
+wood near the road, where they lay hidden till nightfall. The remainder
+fled back to the city, where they brought the frightful tidings of the
+utter ruin of the Roman army.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p><p>The news threw Rome into a panic. Of those who escaped from the battle,
+the majority had crossed the river and made their way to Veii. No other
+army could be raised. Most of the other inhabitants left the city, as
+the people of Athens had done when the army of Xerxes approached. It was
+resolved to abandon the city to the barbarians, but to maintain the
+citadel, the home of the gods of Rome. The holy articles in the temples
+were buried or removed, the Vestal Virgins sent away, and the flower of
+the patricians took refuge in the Capitol, determined to defend to the
+last that abiding-place of the guardian gods of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>But there were aged members of the senate, old patricians who had filled
+the highest offices in the state, and venerable ministers of the gods,
+who felt that they had a different duty to perform. They could not serve
+their country by their deeds; they might by their death. They devoted
+themselves and the army of the Gauls, in solemn invocations, to the
+spirits of the dead and to the earth, the common grave of man. Then,
+attiring themselves in their richest robes of office, each took his seat
+on his ivory chair of magistracy in the gate-way of his house.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Gauls had delayed for a day their attack on the city,
+fearing that the silence portended some snare. When they did enter, the
+people had escaped with such valuables as they could carry. The Capitol
+was provisioned and garrisoned, and the aged senators awaited death in
+solemn calm.</p>
+
+<p>On seeing these venerable men, sitting in motionless silence amid the
+confusion of the sack of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> city, the Gauls viewed them with awe,
+regarding them at first as more than human. One of the soldiers
+approached M. Papirius, and began reverently to stroke his long white
+beard. Papirius was a minister of the gods, and looked on this touch of
+a barbarian hand as profanation. With an impulse of anger he struck the
+Gaul on the head with his ivory sceptre. Instantly the barbarian,
+breaking into rage, cut him down with his sword. This put an end to the
+feeling of awe. All the old men were attacked and slain, their vow being
+thus fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, except its Capitol, was now in the hands of the Gauls. The sack
+and ruin of the city went mercilessly on. But the Capitol defied their
+efforts. It stood on a hill which, except at a single point, presented
+precipitous sides. The Gauls tried to storm it by this single approach,
+but were driven back with loss. They then blockaded the hill, and spent
+their time in devastating the city and neighboring country.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on the fugitives from Rome had gathered at Veii,
+where they daily became more reorganized. And now they turned in their
+distress to a man whom they had injured in their prosperity. Camillus,
+the conqueror of Veii, had been exiled from Rome on a charge of having
+been dishonest in distributing the spoils of the conquered city. He was
+now living at Ardea, whither messengers were sent, begging him to come
+to the aid of Rome. He sent word back that he had been condemned for an
+offence of which he was not guilty, and would not return unless
+requested to do so by the senate.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p><p>But the senate was shut up in the Capitol. How could it be reached? In
+this dilemma a young man, Pontius Cominius, volunteered for the
+adventure. He swam the Tiber at night, climbed the hill by the aid of
+shrubs and projecting stones, obtained for Camillus the appointment as
+dictator, and returned by the same route.</p>
+
+<p>The feat of Cominius, whatever its real purpose, came near being a fatal
+one to Rome. He had left his marks on the cliff. Here the soil had been
+trodden away and stones loosened; there bushes had been broken or torn
+from the soil. The sharp eyes of the Gauls saw, in the morning light,
+these proofs that some one had climbed or descended the hill. The cliff,
+then, could be climbed. Some Roman had climbed it; why not they? The
+spot, supposed to be inaccessible, was not guarded. There was no wall at
+its top. Here was an open route to that stubborn citadel. They resolved
+to attempt it as soon as night should fall.</p>
+
+<p>It was midnight when the Gauls began to make their way slowly and with
+difficulty up the steep cliff. The moon may have aided them with its
+rays, but, if so, it revealed them to no sentinel above. The very
+watch-dogs failed to scent and signal their approach. They reached the
+summit, and, to their gratification, no alarm had been given. The Romans
+slept on.</p>
+
+<p>The fate of Rome in that hour hung in the balance. Had the citadel been
+taken and its defenders slain, Rome might never have recovered from the
+blow. The whole course of history might have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> changed. It was the
+merest chance that saved the city from this impending disaster.</p>
+
+<p>It chanced that on this part of the hill stood the temple of the
+guardian gods of Rome,&mdash;Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,&mdash;and in this temple
+were kept a number of geese, sacred to Juno. Though food was not
+abundant, the garrison had spared these sacred geese. They were now to
+be amply repaid, for the geese alone heard the noise of the ascending
+Gauls, and in alarm began a loud screaming and flapping of wings.</p>
+
+<p>The noise aroused Marcus Manlius, who slept near. Hastily seizing his
+sword and shield, he called to his comrades and ran to the edge of the
+cliff. He reached there just in time to see the head and shoulders of a
+burly Gaul, who had nearly attained the summit. Dashing the rim of his
+shield into the face of the barbarian, Manlius tumbled him down the
+rock, and with him those who followed in his track. The others,
+dismayed, dropped their arms to cling more closely to the rocks. Unable
+to ascend or descend, they were easily slaughtered by the guards who
+followed Manlius. The Capitol was saved. As for the captain of the
+watch, from whose neglect of duty this peril had come, he was punished
+the next morning by being hurled down the cliff upon the slaughtered
+Gauls.</p>
+
+<p>Manlius was rewarded, says the story, by each man giving him from his
+scanty store a day's allowance of food,&mdash;namely, half a pound of corn
+and five ounces in weight of wine. As for the real defenders of Rome,
+the geese of the Capitol, they were ever after held in the highest honor
+and veneration.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p><p>As the Capitol could not be taken by assault or surprise, there
+remained only the slow process of siege. For six or eight months the
+Gauls blockaded the hill. So says the story, but it was probably not so
+long. However, in the end the Romans were brought to the point of
+famine, and offered to ransom their city by paying a large sum of gold.
+Brennus, the Gaulish king, was ready to accept the offer. His men were
+suffering from the Roman fever; food had grown scarce; he agreed, if
+paid a thousand pounds' weight of gold, to withdraw his army from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Much gold had been brought by the fugitive patricians into the Capitol.
+From this the delegates brought down and placed in the scales a
+sufficient quantity. But while they found the gold, the Gauls found the
+weights, and it was soon discovered that the wily barbarians were
+cheating. Their weights were too heavy. Complaint of this fraud was made
+by the Roman tribune of the soldiers. In reply Brennus drew his heavy
+broadsword and threw it into the scale with the weights.</p>
+
+<p>"What does this mean?" asked the tribune.</p>
+
+<p>"It means," answered the barbarian, haughtily, "woe to the vanquished!"
+"<i>V&aelig; victis esse!</i>"</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on, says the legend, Camillus, the dictator, was
+marching to Rome with the legions he had organized at Veii. He appeared
+at the right minute for the dramatic interest of the story, entered the
+Forum while the gold was being weighed, bade the Romans take back their
+gold, threw the weights to the Gauls, and told Brennus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> proudly that it
+was the Roman custom to pay their debts in iron, not in gold.</p>
+
+<p>A fight ensued, as might be expected. The Gauls were driven from the
+city. The next day Camillus attacked them in their camp, eight miles
+from Rome, and defeated them so utterly that not a man was left alive to
+carry home the tale of the slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>This story of the coming of Camillus is too much like the last act of a
+stage-play, or the d&eacute;nouement of a novel, to be true. Most likely the
+Gauls marched off with their gold, though they may have been attacked on
+their retreat, and most or all of the gold regained.</p>
+
+<p>Camillus, however, is said to have saved Rome in still another way. The
+old city was in ashes. Most of the citizens were at Veii, where they had
+found or built new homes. They were loath to come back to rebuild a
+ruined city. This Camillus induced them to do. Every appeal was made to
+the local pride and the religious sentiments of the people. A centurion,
+marching with his company, and being obliged to halt in front of the
+senate-house, called to the standard-bearer, "Pitch your standard here,
+for this is the best place to stop at." This casual remark was looked
+upon as an omen from heaven, and by this and the like means the people
+were induced to return.</p>
+
+<p>Then the rebuilding of Rome began. The sites of the temples were
+retraced as far as could be done in the ruins. The laws of the twelve
+tables and some other records were recovered, but the mass of the
+historical annals of Rome had been destroyed. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> relics were said to
+have been miraculously preserved, among them the shepherd's crook of
+Romulus.</p>
+
+<p>But the bulk of the possessions of the Romans had vanished in the
+flames; the streets were mere heaps of ashes; the very walls had been in
+part pulled down; rubbish and ruin lay everywhere. Rome, like the
+ph&#339;nix, had to be born again from its ashes. Men built wherever they
+could find a clear spot. Stones and roofing-material were brought from
+Veii, and one city was dismantled that another might be restored. Stones
+and timber were supplied to any man from the public lands. The city
+rapidly rose again. But it was an irregular city; the streets ran
+anywhere; no effort was made at rule or system in the making of the new
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>As for Camillus, he came to be honored as the second founder of Rome.
+While the Romans were at work on their new homes they were harassed by
+their foes, and he was kept busy with the army in the field. He lived
+for twenty-five years longer, and in the year 367 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, when some eighty
+years of age, he marched again to meet the Gauls in a new assault upon
+Rome, and defeated them with such slaughter that they left Rome alone
+for many years afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, was not so fortunate. He
+came forward as the patron of the poor, who began to suffer again from
+the severe laws against debtors. Finally he began to use his large
+fortune to relieve suffering debtors, and is said to have paid the debts
+of four hundred debtors,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> thus saving them from bondage. This generosity
+won him the unbounded affection of the people, who called him the
+"Father of the Commons." But it aroused the suspicion of the patricians,
+and some of these, against whom he had used violent language, had him
+arrested on a charge of treason, perhaps with good reason. Though he
+showed the many honors he had received for services to his country, he
+was condemned to death and his house razed to the ground. Thus the
+patricians dealt with the benefactors of the poor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE CURTIAN GULF.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">During</span> three years&mdash;363 to 361 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>&mdash;Rome was ravaged by the plague,
+which was so violent and fatal as to carry off the citizens by hundreds.
+In its first year it found a noble victim in Camillus, the conqueror of
+Veii and the second founder of Rome, who four years before had a second
+time defeated the Gauls. He was the last of the old heroes of Rome,
+those whose glory belongs to romance rather than history. The Gauls had
+destroyed the records of old Rome, and left only legend and romance.
+With the new Rome history fairly began.</p>
+
+<p>But we have another romantic tale to tell before we bid adieu to the
+story of early Rome. In the second year of the pestilence a strange and
+portentous event occurred. The Tiber rose to an unusual height,
+overflowed with its waters the great circus (<i>Circus Maximus</i>), and put
+a stop to the games then going on, which were intended to propitiate the
+wrath of heaven, and induce the gods to relieve man from the evil of the
+plague.</p>
+
+<p>And now, in the midst of the Forum, there yawned open a fearful gulf, so
+wide and deep that the superstitious Romans viewed it with awe and
+affright. Whether it was due to an earthquake or the wrath of the gods
+is not for us to say. The Romans believed the latter; those who prefer
+may believe the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> former. But, so we are told, it seemed bottomless.
+Throw what they would in it, it stood unfilled, and the feeling grew
+that no power of man could ever fill its yawning depths.</p>
+
+<p>Man being powerless, the oracles of the gods were consulted. Must this
+gaping wound always stand open in the soil of Rome? or could it in any
+way be filled and the offended deities who had caused it be propitiated?
+From the oracle came the reply that it must stand open till that which
+constituted the best and true strength of the Roman commonwealth was
+cast as an offering into the gulf. Then only would it close, and
+thereafter forever would the state live and flourish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image6.jpg" width="600" height="324" alt="RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The true strength of Rome! In what did this consist? This question men
+asked each other anxiously and none seemed able to answer. But there was
+one man in Rome who interpreted rightly the meaning of the oracle. This
+was a noble youth, M. Curtius by name, who had played his part valiantly
+in war, and gained great fame by brave and manly deeds. The true
+strength of Rome? he said to the people. In what else could it lie but
+in the arms and valor of her children? This was the sacrifice the gods
+demanded.</p>
+
+<p>Going home, he put on his armor and mounted his horse. Riding to the
+brink of the gulf, he, before the eyes of the trembling and awe-struck
+multitude, devoted himself to death for the safety and glory of Rome,
+and plunged, with his horse, headlong into the gaping void. The people
+rushed after him to the brink, flung in their offerings, and with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+surge the lips of the gap came together, and the gulf was forever
+closed. The place was afterwards known by the name of the Curtian Lake,
+in honor of this sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>There are two other stories of this date worth repeating, as giving rise
+to two great names in Rome. T. Manlius, the future conqueror of the
+Latins, fought with a gigantic Gaul on the bridge over the Anio on the
+Salarian road. Slaying his enemy, he took from his neck a chain of gold
+(<i>torques</i>), which he afterwards wore upon his own. From this the
+soldiers called him Torquatus, which name his descendants ever
+afterwards bore.</p>
+
+<p>In a later battle Marcus Valerius fought with a second gigantic Gaul.
+During the combat a wonderful thing happened. A crow perched on the
+helmet of the Roman, and continued there as the combatants fought.
+Occasionally it flew up into the air, and darted down upon the Gaul,
+striking at his eyes with its beak and claws. The Gaul, confounded by
+this attack, soon fell by the sword of his foe, and then the crow flew
+up again, and vanished towards the east. The name of Corvus (crow) was
+added to that of Valerius, and was long afterwards borne by his
+descendants.</p>
+
+<p>These stories are rather to be enjoyed than believed. They probably
+contain more poetry than history, particularly that of Curtius and the
+gulf. Yet they were accepted as history by the Romans, and are given in
+all their detail in the fine old work of Livy, the rarest and raciest of
+the story-tellers of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> conquest of Italy by Rome was attended by many interesting events,
+of which we propose to relate here some of the more striking. The
+capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls, and the dispersal of her army
+and people, ruinous as it seemed, was but an event in her career of
+conquest. The city was no sooner rebuilt than the old r&eacute;gime of war was
+resumed, and it was no longer a struggle between neighboring cities, but
+of Rome against powerful confederacies and peoples, such as the
+Volscians, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Campanians, and the Samnites,
+the final conquest of which gave her the dominion of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The war with the Latins was attended with some circumstances showing
+strongly the stern and indomitable spirit of the Romans. This war was
+carried into Campania, in Southern Italy; and here, on a celebrated
+occasion, when the two armies lay encamped in close vicinity on the
+plain of Capua, the Roman consuls issued a strict order against
+skirmishing or engaging in single encounters with the enemy. The two
+peoples were alike in arms and in language, and it was feared that such
+chance combats might lead to confusion and disaster.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p><p>The only man to disobey this order was T. Manlius, the son of one of
+the consuls. A Latin warrior, Geminus Metius, of Tusculum, challenged
+young Manlius to meet him in single combat; and the youthful warrior,
+fired by ambition and warlike zeal, and eager to sustain the honor of
+Rome, accepted the challenge, despite his father's order. If killed, his
+fault would be atoned; if successful, victory over a noted warrior must
+win him pardon and praise.</p>
+
+<p>The duel that ensued was a fierce and gallant one. It ended in the
+triumph of the young Roman, who laid his antagonist dead at his feet.
+Shouts of triumph from the Roman soldiers hailed his victory; and when
+he had despoiled his slain foe of his arms, and borne them triumphantly
+from the field, the exultation of the Romans was as unbounded as the
+chagrin of the Latins was deep. Towards his father's tent the young
+victor proudly went, through exulting lines of troops, and laid his
+spoils in triumph at the feet of the stern old man.</p>
+
+<p>The poor youth, the rejoicing soldiers, knew not the man with whom they
+had to deal. A military order had been disobeyed. To old Manlius the
+fact that the culprit was his son, and that he had added honor to the
+Roman arms, weighed nothing. Discipline stood above affection or
+victory. Turning coldly away, the iron-hearted old Roman ordered that
+the soldiers should be immediately summoned to the pr&aelig;torium, or
+general's tent, and that his son should be beheaded before them.</p>
+
+<p>This cruel and inhuman order filled the whole army with horror. Yet none
+dared interfere, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the unnatural mandate was obeyed, in full view of
+an army whose late exultation was turned to deepest woe and indignation.
+The youngest soldiers never forgave the consul for his inhuman act, but
+regarded him with abhorrence to the end of his life. But their hatred
+was mingled with fear and respect, and the stern lesson taught was
+doubtless felt for years in the discipline of the armies of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The next event worthy of record took place in the vicinity of Mount
+Vesuvius, under whose very shadow a fierce battle was fought between the
+Latin and Roman armies, with the then silent volcano as witness. Two
+centuries more were to pass before Rome would learn what fearful power
+lay sleeping in this long voiceless mountain.</p>
+
+<p>Before the battle joined, the gods, as usual, were appealed to. During
+the night both consuls had dreamed the same dream. A figure of more than
+human stature and majesty had appeared to them, and told them that the
+earth and the gods of the dead claimed as their victims the general of
+one party and the army of the other. When the sacrifices were made, the
+signs given by the entrails of the victims signified the same thing. It
+was resolved, therefore, that if the army of Rome anywhere gave way, the
+general commanding on that side should devote himself, and the army of
+the enemy with him, to the gods of death and the grave. "Fate," said the
+augurs, "requires the sacrifice of a general from one party and an army
+from the other. Let it be our general and the Latin army that shall
+perish."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p><p>It was the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul Publius
+Decius, that first gave way. The consul at once accepted his fate. By
+the direction of the chief priest, he wrapped his consular toga around
+his head, holding it to his face with his hand, and then set his feet
+upon a javelin, and repeated after the priest the words devoting him to
+the gods of death. Then, arming himself at all points, and wrapping his
+toga around his body in the manner usual in sacrifices, he sprang upon
+his horse, and spurred headlong into the ranks of the enemy, where he
+soon fell dead.</p>
+
+<p>This sacrifice filled the Romans with hope, and the Latins, who
+understood its meaning, with dismay. Yet the latter, after being driven
+back, soon recovered, and, despite the self-devotion of Decius, would
+probably have won the victory had not the remaining consul brought up
+his reserve troops just in time. In the end the Latins were utterly
+defeated, and Vesuvius looked down on the massacre of one army by the
+swords of another, scarcely a fourth of the Latins escaping. Thus the
+gods seemed to keep their word, though probably the Roman reserve force
+had more to do with the victory than all the gods of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The next event which we have to relate took place during the second
+Samnite war. Its hero was L. Papirius Cursor, one of the favorite heroes
+of Roman tradition, and the avenger of the disgrace of the Caudine
+Forks, the story of which we have next to tell. This famous soldier is
+said to have possessed marvellous swiftness of foot and gigantic
+strength,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> with extraordinary capacity for food, while his iron
+strictness of discipline was at times relieved by a rough humor. All
+this made his memory popular with the Romans, who boasted that Alexander
+the Great would have found in him a worthy champion, had that conqueror
+invaded Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The event we have now to narrate occurred early in the war. One of the
+consuls, being taken ill, was ordered to name a dictator to replace him,
+and chose Papirius Cursor. This champion appointed Q. Fabius Rullianus,
+another famous soldier, his master of the horse, and marched out to
+attack the Samnites.</p>
+
+<p>As it happened, the auspices taken by the dictator at Rome before
+marching to the seat of war were of no particular significance. Not
+satisfied with them, he decided to take them again, and returned to Rome
+for this purpose, the auspices being of a kind which could only be taken
+within the city walls. He ordered the master of the horse to remain
+strictly on the defensive during his absence.</p>
+
+<p>Fabius did not obey this order. He attacked the enemy and gained some
+advantage. The annals say that he won a great victory, defeating the
+Samnites with a loss of twenty thousand men; but the annals have a habit
+of magnifying small affairs into large ones where they have any object
+to gain.</p>
+
+<p>On hearing that his orders had been disobeyed, Papirius hurried back to
+the camp in a violent rage, and with the intention of making such an
+example of discipline as Manlius had made in the execution of his son.
+On reaching camp he ordered that Fabius should be immediately executed.
+His <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>authority as dictator gave him power for this violent act; but he
+failed to reckon on the spirit of the soldiers, who supported Fabius to
+a man, and broke into a violent demonstration that was almost mutiny. So
+strong was their feeling that the furious dictator found himself obliged
+to halt in his purpose.</p>
+
+<p>But Fabius knew too well the iron nature of his antagonist to trust his
+life in his hands. That night he fled from the camp to Rome, and
+immediately appealed to the senate for protection. Papirius followed in
+hot haste, and while the senators were still assembling arrived in Rome,
+where, under his authority as dictator, he gave order for the arrest of
+the culprit. In this critical situation the prisoner's father, M.
+Fabius, appealed to the tribunes for the protection of his son, saying
+that he proposed to carry the case before the assembly of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The tribunes found themselves in a dilemma. Papirius warned them not to
+sanction so flagrant a breach of military discipline, nor to lessen the
+majesty of the office of dictator, and they found themselves hesitating
+between their duty to support the absolute power of the dictator and
+their abhorrence of an exercise of this power that must shock the
+feelings of the whole Roman people. The people themselves relieved their
+tribunes from this difficulty. They hastily met in assembly, and by a
+unanimous vote implored the dictator to be merciful, and for their sakes
+to forgive Fabius. His authority thus acknowledged, Papirius yielded,
+and declared that he pardoned the master of the horse.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> "And the
+authority of the Roman generals," says Livy, "was established no less
+firmly by the peril of Q. Fabius than by the actual death of the young
+T. Manlius."</p>
+
+<p>It was well for Rome that Fabius was spared, for he afterwards proved
+one of their ablest generals. The time came, also, when he was able to
+confer a benefit upon Papirius Cursor. This was during a subsequent war
+with the Etruscans, in which he commanded as consul and gained great
+victories. Meanwhile a Roman army was defeated by the Samnites, and on
+the news of this defeat reaching Rome the senate at once resolved to
+appoint Papirius once more as dictator.</p>
+
+<p>But this appointment must be made by a consul. One consul was with the
+defeated army, perhaps dead. It was necessary to apply to Fabius, the
+other consul, and the declared enemy of the proposed dictator. To
+overcome his personal feelings, a deputation of the highest senators was
+sent him, who read him the senate's decree and strongly urged him to
+support it. Fabius listened in dead silence, not answering by word or
+look. When they had ended, he abruptly withdrew from the room. But at
+dead of night he pronounced, in the usual form, the nomination of
+Papirius as dictator. When the deputies thanked him for his noble
+conquest over his feelings, he listened still in dead silence, and
+dismissed them without a word in answer.</p>
+
+<p>We must now pass over years of war, in which both Fabius and Papirius
+gained honor and fame, and come to an occasion in which the son of
+Fabius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> led a Roman army as consul, and met with a severe defeat by a
+Samnite army. He had been tricked by the Samnites, and great indignation
+was aroused against him in Rome. It was proposed to remove him from his
+office, a disgrace which no consul ever experienced in Roman history. It
+was also proposed that old Fabius should be appointed dictator. But the
+aged soldier, to preserve the honor of his son, offered to go with him
+as his lieutenant, and the offer was accepted by the senate.</p>
+
+<p>A second battle ensued, in the heat of which the consul became
+surrounded by the enemy, and his aged father led the charge to his
+rescue. His example animated the Romans, they followed him in a vigorous
+assault, and a complete victory was won. Twenty thousand Samnites were
+slain, four thousand taken prisoners, and with them their general, C.
+Pontius. After other victories the younger Fabius returned to Rome and
+was given a triumph, while behind him rode his old father on horseback,
+as one of his lieutenants, delighting in the honor conferred on his son.
+The Samnite general was made to walk in the procession, and at its end
+was taken to the prison under the Capitoline Hill and there beheaded. It
+was thus that Rome dealt with its captured foes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE CAUDINE FORKS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Westward</span> from Rome rise the Apennine Mountains, the backbone of Italy;
+and amid their highest peaks, where the snow lies all the year long, and
+whence streams flow into the two seas, dwelt the Sabines, an important
+people, from whom came the mothers of the Roman state. There is a legend
+concerning this people which we have now to tell. For many years they
+had been at war with their neighbors, the Umbrians; and at length,
+failing to conquer their enemies by their own strength, they sought to
+obtain the help of the divinities. They made a vow that if victory was
+given to them, all the living creatures born that year in their land
+should be held as sacred to the gods.</p>
+
+<p>The victory came, and they sacrificed all the lambs, calves, kids, and
+pigs of that year's birth, while they redeemed from the gods such
+animals as were not suitable for sacrifice. But, as it appeared, the
+deities were not satisfied. The land refused to yield its fruits, and
+the Sabines were not long in deciding why their crops had failed. They
+had neither sacrificed nor redeemed the children born that year, and had
+thus failed in their duty to the gods.</p>
+
+<p>To atone for this fault, all their children of that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> year's birth were
+devoted to the god Mamers, and when they had grown up they were sent
+away to make themselves a home in a new land. As the young men started
+on their pilgrimage a bull went before them, and, as they fancied that
+Mamers had sent this animal for their guide, they piously followed him.
+He first lay down to rest when he had come to the land of the Opicans.
+This the Sabines took for a sign, and they fell on the Opicans, who
+dwelt in villages without walls, and drove them out from their country,
+of which the new-comers took possession. They then sacrificed the bull
+to Mamers; and in after-ages they bore the bull for their device. They
+also took a new name, and were afterwards known as Samnites.</p>
+
+<p>While the Romans were extending their dominion in Central Italy, the
+Samnites were conquering the peoples farther south. Their dominion
+became great, and at one time included the famous cities of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii and many others of the cities of the southern plains. In the
+centre of the Samnite country stood a remarkable mountain mass, an
+offshoot from the Apennines. This mountain, now called the Matese, is
+nearly eight miles in circumference, and rises abruptly in huge
+wall-like cliffs of limestone to the height of three thousand feet. Its
+surface is greatly varied in character, now sloping into deep valleys,
+now rising into elevated cliffs, of which the loftiest is six thousand
+feet high. It is rich in springs, which gush out in full flow, and
+disappear again in the caverns with which limestone rocks abound. Its
+valleys yield abundant pasture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> and magnificent beech forests, while on
+its highest summits the snow tarries till late summer, and in the
+hottest months of summer the upland pastures continue cool.</p>
+
+<p>This mountain fastness formed the citadel from which the Samnites issued
+in conquering excursions over the surrounding country, and enabled them
+in time to extend their dominion far and wide, and to rival Rome in the
+width and importance of their state. Thus Rome and Samnium approached
+each other step by step, and the time inevitably came when they were to
+join issue in war.</p>
+
+<p>Three wars took place between the Romans and the Samnites. In the first
+of these Valerius Corvus (the origin of whose name of Corvus we have
+already told) led the Roman army to victory. In honor of this victory
+Rome received from Carthage (with which city it was to engage in a
+desperate contest in later years) a golden crown, for the shrine of
+Jupiter in the Capitol.</p>
+
+<p>In 329 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> Rome finally overcame the Volscians, with whom they had been
+many years at war, and three years afterwards war with the Samnites was
+again declared. The latter were invading Campania, in which country lay
+the volcano of Vesuvius and the city of Naples. Rome came to the aid of
+the Campanians, and a war began which lasted for more than twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>Of this war we have but one event to tell, that in which Rome suffered
+the greatest humiliation it had met with in its entire career, the
+famous affair of the Caudine Forks. It was in the fifth campaign of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+war that this event took place. Two Roman armies had marched into
+Campania and threatened the southern border of Samnium, which the
+Samnite general Pontius was prepared to defend. His force occupied the
+passes which led from the plain of Naples into the higher mountain
+valleys; but he deceived the Romans by spreading the report that the
+whole Samnite army had gone to Apulia, where they were besieging the
+city of Luceria. His purpose was to lure the Romans into these difficult
+defiles under the impression that the Samnites were trusting to the
+natural strength of their country for its defence.</p>
+
+<p>The trick succeeded. The Roman consuls believed the story, and, in their
+haste to go to the aid of their allies in Apulia, chose the shortest
+route, that which led through the Samnian hills. The absence of the
+Samnite army would enable them, they thought, to force their way through
+Samnium without difficulty; and, blinded by their false confidence, the
+consuls recklessly led their men into the fatal pass of Caudium.</p>
+
+<p>This pass was a narrow opening in the outer wall of the Apennines, which
+led from the plain of Campania to Maleventum. To-day it is traversed by
+the road from Naples to Benevento, and is called the valley of Arpaia.
+In the past it was famous as Caudium.</p>
+
+<p>Into this defile the Romans marched between the rugged mountain
+acclivities that bounded its sides, and through the deep silence that
+reigned around. The pass seemed utterly deserted, and they expected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+soon to emerge into a more open valley in the interior of the hills.</p>
+
+<p>But as they advanced the pass contracted, until it became but a narrow
+gorge, and this they found to be blocked up with great stones and felled
+trees. Brought to a halt, the troops stood gazing in dismay and dread on
+these obstacles, when suddenly the silence was broken, loud war-cries
+filled the air, and armed Samnites appeared as if by magic, covering the
+hills on both flanks, and crowding into the pass in the rear.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans were caught in such a trap as that from which Cincinnatus had
+rescued a Roman army many years before. But there was here no
+Cincinnatus with his stakes, and they were far from Rome. The entrapped
+army made a desperate effort to escape, attacking the Samnites in the
+rear, and seeking to force their way up the rugged surrounding hills.
+They fought in vain. Many of them fell. The Samnite foe pressed them
+still more closely into the rocky pass. Only the coming of night saved
+them from total destruction.</p>
+
+<p>But escape was impossible. The gorge in front was completely blocked up.
+The pass in the rear was held by the enemy in force. The flanking hills
+could hardly have been climbed by an army, even if they had not been
+occupied. No resource remained to the Romans but to encamp in the
+broader part of the narrow valley, and there wait in hopeless despair
+the outcome of their folly.</p>
+
+<p>The Samnites could well afford to let them wait. The rear was held by
+the bulk of their army. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> obstacles in front were strongly guarded.
+Every possible track by which the Romans might try to scale the hills
+was held. Some desperate attempts to break out were made, but they were
+easily repulsed. Nothing remained but surrender, or death by famine.</p>
+
+<p>One or other of these alternatives had soon to be chosen. A large army,
+surprised on its march, and confined within a barren pass, could not
+have subsistence for any long period. Nothing was to be gained by delay,
+and they might as well yield themselves prisoners of war at once.</p>
+
+<p>So the Romans evidently thought, and without delay they put themselves
+at the mercy of their conquerors. "We yield ourselves your captives,"
+they said, "to do with as you will. Put us all to the sword, if such be
+your decision; sell us into slavery; or hold us as prisoners until we
+are ransomed: one thing only we ask, save our bodies, whether living or
+dead, from all unworthy insults."</p>
+
+<p>In this request they forgot the record that Rome had made; forgot how
+often noble captives had been forced to walk in Roman triumphs and been
+afterwards slain in cold blood in the common prison; forgot how they had
+recently refused the rites of burial to the body of a noble Samnite. But
+Pontius, the Samnite general, was much less of a barbarian than the
+Romans of that age. He was acquainted with Greek philosophy, had even
+held conversation, it is said, with Plato, and was not the man to
+indulge in cruel or insulting acts.</p>
+
+<p>"Restore to us," he said to the consuls, "the towns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> and territory you
+have taken from us, and withdraw the colonists whom you have unjustly
+placed on our soil. Conclude with us a treaty of peace, in which each
+nation shall be acknowledged to be independent of the other. Swear to do
+this, and I will grant you your lives and release you without ransom.
+Each man of you shall give up his arms, but may keep his clothes
+untouched; and you shall pass before our army as prisoners who have been
+in our power and whom we have set free of our own will, when we might
+have killed or sold them, or held them for ransom."</p>
+
+<p>These terms the consuls were glad enough to accept. They were far better
+than they would have granted the Samnites under similar circumstances.
+Pontius now called for the Roman fecialis, whose duty it was to conclude
+all treaties and take all oaths for the Roman people. But there was no
+fecialis with the army. The senate had sent none, having resolved to
+make no terms with the Samnites, and to accept only their absolute
+submission. They had never dreamed of such a turn of the tide as this.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of the proper officer, the consuls and all the surviving
+officers took the oath, while it was agreed that six hundred knights
+should be held as hostages until the Roman people had ratified the
+treaty. Why Pontius did not insist on treating with the senate and
+people of Rome at once, instead of trusting to them to ratify a treaty
+made with prisoners of war, we are not told. He was soon to learn how
+weak a reed to lean upon was the Roman faith.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p><p>The treaty made, the humiliating part of the affair came. The Roman
+army was obliged to march under the yoke, which consisted of two spears
+set upright and a third fastened across their tops. Under this the
+soldiers of the legions without their arms, and wearing but a single
+article of clothing,&mdash;the campestre or kilt, which reached from the
+waist to the knees,&mdash;passed in gloomy succession. Even the consuls were
+obliged to appear in this humble plight, the six hundred hostage knights
+alone being spared.</p>
+
+<p>This was no peculiar insult, but a common usage on such occasions. The
+Romans had imposed it more than once on defeated enemies. They were now
+to endure it themselves, and the affair, under the name of the Caudine
+Forks, has become famous in history.</p>
+
+<p>Pontius proved, indeed, generous to his foes. He supplied carriages for
+the sick and wounded, and furnished provisions to last the army until it
+should arrive at Home. When that city was reached the senate and people
+came out and welcomed the soldiers with the greatest kindness. But the
+wounded pride of the legionaries could not be soothed. Those who had
+homes in the country stole from the ranks and sought their several
+dwellings. Those who lived in Rome lingered without the walls until
+after the sun had fallen, and then made their way home through the
+darkness. The consuls were obliged to enter in open day, but as soon as
+possible they sought their homes, and shut themselves up in privacy.</p>
+
+<p>As for the city, it went into mourning. All business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> was suspended; the
+patricians laid aside their gold rings and took off the red border of
+their dresses which marked their rank; the plebeians appeared in
+mourning garbs; there was as much weeping for those who had returned in
+dishonor as for those left dead on the field; all rejoicings, festivals,
+and marriages were set aside for a year of happier omen.</p>
+
+<p>The final result was such as might have been expected from the earlier
+record of Rome. The senate refused to recognize the treaty. The defeated
+consuls themselves sustained this bad faith, saying that they and all
+the officers should be given up to the Samnites, as having promised what
+they were unable to perform.</p>
+
+<p>This was done. Half stripped, as when they passed under the yoke, and
+their hands bound behind their backs, the officers were conducted by the
+fecialis to the Samnian frontier, and delivered to the Samnites as men
+who had forfeited their liberty by their breach of faith. The surrender
+completed, Postumius, one of the consuls, struck a fecialis violently
+with his knee,&mdash;his hands and feet being bound,&mdash;and cried out,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I now belong to the Samnites, and I have done violence to the sacred
+person of a Roman fecialis and ambassador. You will rightfully wage war
+with us, Romans, to avenge this outrage."</p>
+
+<p>This transparent trick was wasted on Pontius. He refused the victims
+offered him. They were not the guilty ones, he said. The legions must be
+placed again in the Caudium Valley, or Rome keep the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> treaty. Anything
+else would be base and faithless.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty was not kept. The war went on. And nearly thirty years
+afterwards, as we have told in the preceding story, Pontius, who had
+behaved so generously to the Romans, was led as a prisoner in a Roman
+triumph, and then basely beheaded while the triumphal car of the victor
+ascended the Capitoline Hill. His death is one of the darkest blots on
+the Roman name. "Such a murder," we are told, "committed or sanctioned
+by such a man as Q. Fabius, is peculiarly a national crime, and proves
+but too clearly that in their dealings with foreigners the Romans had
+neither magnanimity, nor humanity, nor justice."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE FATE OF REGULUS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have followed the growth of Rome from its seed in the cradle of
+Romulus and Remus to its early maturity in the conquest of Italy. Its
+triumph over the Latins, Samnites, and Etruscans had made it virtually
+master of that peninsula. In the year 280 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> it was first called upon
+to meet a great foreign soldier in the celebrated Pyrrhus of Epirus, who
+had invaded Italy. How this great soldier scared the Romans with his
+elephants and defeated them in the field, but was finally baffled and
+left the country in disgust, we have told in "Historical Tales of
+Greece." It was not many years after this that Rome herself went abroad
+in search of new foes, and her long and bitter struggle with Carthage
+began.</p>
+
+<p>The great city of Carthage lay on the African side of the Mediterranean,
+where it had won for itself a great empire, and had added to its
+dominion by important conquests in Spain and Sicily. Settled many
+centuries before by emigrants from the Ph&#339;nician city of Tyre, it
+had, like its mother city, grown rich through commerce, and was now lord
+of the Mediterranean and one of the great cities of the earth. With this
+city Rome was now to begin a mighty struggle, which would last for many
+years and end<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> in the utter destruction of the great African city and
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Pyrrhus of Epirus, on leaving Sicily, had said, "What a grand arena this
+would be for Rome and Carthage to contend upon!" And it was in the
+island of Sicily that the struggle between these two mighty powers
+began. In the year 264 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, nearly five centuries after the founding of
+Rome, that city first sent its armies beyond the borders of Italy, and
+the long contest between Rome and Carthage was inaugurated.</p>
+
+<p>Some soldiers of fortune, who had invaded Sicily and found themselves in
+trouble, called upon Rome for help. Carthage, which held much of the
+island, was also appealed to, and both sent armies. The result was a
+collision between these armies. In two years' time most of Sicily
+belonged to Rome, and Carthage retained hardly a foothold upon that
+island.</p>
+
+<p>This rapid success of the Romans in foreign conquest encouraged them
+greatly. But they were soon to find themselves at a disadvantage. Being
+an inland power, they knew nothing of ocean warfare, and possessed none
+but small ships. Carthage, on the contrary, had a large and powerful
+fleet, and now began to use it with great effect. By its aid the
+Carthaginians took from Rome many towns on the coast of Sicily. They
+also landed on and ravaged the coasts of Italy. It was made evident to
+the Roman senate that if they looked for success they must meet the
+enemy on their own element, and dispute with Carthage the dominion of
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p><p>How was this to be done? The largest ships they knew of had only three
+banks of oars. Carthage possessed war vessels with five banks of oars,
+and built on a plan different from that of the smaller vessels. Rome had
+no model for these ships, and was at a loss what to do. Fortunately a
+Carthaginian quinquereme (a ship with five banks of oars) ran ashore on
+the coast of Italy, and was captured and sent to Rome. This served as a
+model for the shipwrights of that city, and so energetically did they
+set to work that in two months after the first cutting of the timber
+they had built and launched more than a hundred ships of this class.</p>
+
+<p>And while the ships were building the crews selected for the
+quinqueremes were practising. Most of them had never even seen an oar,
+and they were now placed on benches ashore, ranged like those in the
+ships, and carefully taught the movements of rowing, so that when the
+ships were launched they were quite ready to drive them through the
+waves. The Romans, who could fight best hand to hand, added a new and
+important device, providing their ships with wooden bridges attached to
+the masts, and ready to fall on an enemy's vessel whenever one came
+near. A great spike at the end was driven into the deck of the enemy's
+ship by the weight of the falling bridge, and held her while the Romans
+charged across the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>The new fleet was soon tried. It met a Carthaginian fleet on the north
+coast of Sicily. The Romans proved poor sailors, but the bridges gave
+them the victory. These could be wheeled round the mast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> and dropped in
+any direction, and, however the Carthaginians approached, they found
+themselves grappled and boarded by the Romans, whose formidable swords
+soon did the rest. In the end Carthage lost fifty ships and ten thousand
+men, and with them the dominion of the seas.</p>
+
+<p>This success was a great event in the history of Rome. The victory was
+celebrated by a great naval triumph, and a column was set up in the
+Forum, which was adorned with the ornamental prows of ships.</p>
+
+<p>Three years afterwards Rome resolved to carry the war into Africa, and
+for this purpose built a great fleet of three hundred and thirty ships,
+and manned by one hundred and forty thousand seamen, in addition to its
+soldiers or fighting men. These were largely made up of prisoners from
+Sardinia and Corsica, Carthaginian islands which had been attacked by
+the Roman fleets. The two consuls in command were L. Manlius Vulso and
+M. Atilius Regulus.</p>
+
+<p>The great fleet of Rome met a still greater Carthaginian one at Ecnomus,
+on the southern coast of Sicily, and here one of the greatest sea-fights
+of history took place. In the end the Romans lost twenty-four ships,
+while of those of the enemy thirty were sunk and sixty-four captured.
+The remainder of the enemy's fleet fled in all haste to Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans now prepared to take one of the greatest steps in their
+history,&mdash;to cross the sea to the unknown African world. The soldiers
+murmured loudly at this. They were to be taken to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> new and strange
+land, burnt by scorching heats and infested with noisome beasts and
+monstrous serpents; and they were to be led into the very stronghold of
+the enemy, where they would be at their mercy. Even one of their
+tribunes supported the soldiers in this complaint. But Regulus was equal
+to the occasion: he threatened the tribune with death, forced the
+soldiers on board, and sailed for the African coast.</p>
+
+<p>The event proved very different from what the soldiers had feared. The
+army of Carthage was so miserably commanded that the Romans landed
+without trouble and ravaged the country at their will; and instead of
+the scorching heats and deadly animals they had feared, they found
+themselves in a fertile and thickly-settled country, where grew rich
+harvests of corn, and where were broad vineyards and fruitful orchards
+of figs and olives. Towns were numerous, and villas of wealthy citizens
+covered the hills.</p>
+
+<p>On this rich and undefended country the hungry Roman army was let loose.
+Villas were plundered and burnt, horses and cattle driven off in vast
+numbers, and twenty thousand persons, many of them doubtless of wealth
+and rank, were carried away to be sold as slaves. Meanwhile the army of
+Carthage lurked on the hills, and was defeated wherever encountered.
+Regulus, who had been left in sole command of the Roman army, overran
+the country without opposition, and boasted that he had taken and
+plundered more than three hundred walled towns or villages.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p><p>The Carthaginians, who were also attacked by roving desert tribes, who
+proved even worse than the Romans, were in distress, and begged for
+peace. But the terms offered by Regulus were so intolerable that it was
+impossible to accept them. "Men who are good for anything should either
+conquer or submit to their betters," said Regulus, haughtily. He had not
+yet learned how unwise it is to drive a strong foe to desperation, and
+was to pay dearly for his arrogance and pride.</p>
+
+<p>The tide of war turned when Carthage obtained a general fit to command
+an army. An officer who had been sent to Greece for soldiers of fortune
+brought with him on his return a Spartan named Xanthippus, a man who had
+been trained in the rigid Spartan discipline and had played his part
+well in the wars of Greece. He openly and strongly condemned the conduct
+of the generals of Carthage; and, on his words being reported to the
+government, he was sent for, and so clearly pointed out the causes of
+the late disasters that the direction of all the forces of Carthage was
+placed in his hands.</p>
+
+<p>And now a new spirit awakened in Carthage. Xanthippus reviewed the
+troops, taught them how they should meet the Roman charge, and filled
+them with such enthusiasm and hope that loud shouts broke from the
+ranks, and they eagerly demanded to be led at once to battle.</p>
+
+<p>The army numbered only twelve thousand foot, but had four thousand
+cavalry and a hundred elephants, in which much confidence was placed.
+The demand of the soldiers was complied with; they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> boldly marched out,
+and now no longer to the hills, but to the lower ground, where the
+devastation of the enemy was at once checked.</p>
+
+<p>Regulus was forced to risk a battle, for his supply of food was in
+peril. He marched out and encamped within a mile of the foe. The
+Carthaginian generals, on seeing these hardy Roman legions, so long
+victorious, were stricken with something like panic. But the soldiers
+were eager to fight, and Xanthippus bade the wavering generals not to
+lose so precious an opportunity. They yielded, and bade him to draw up
+the army on his own plan.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle that ensued the victory was due to the cavalry and
+elephants. The cavalry drove that of Italy from the field, and attacked
+the Roman rear. The elephants broke through the Roman lines in front,
+furiously trampling the bravest underfoot. Those who penetrated the line
+of the elephants were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian infantry. Of the
+whole Roman army, two thousand of the left wing alone escaped; Regulus,
+with five hundred others, fled, but was pursued and taken prisoner; the
+remainder of the army was destroyed to a man. The defeat was total. Rome
+retained but a single African port, which was soon given up. Xanthippus,
+crowned with glory and richly rewarded, returned to Greece to enjoy the
+fame he had won.</p>
+
+<p>For five years Regulus remained a prisoner in Carthage, while the war
+went on in Sicily. Here, in the year 250 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, the Romans gained an
+important victory at Panormus (now Palermo), and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>Carthage, weary of the
+struggle, sent to Rome to ask for terms of peace. With the ambassadors
+came Regulus, who had promised to return to Carthage if the negotiations
+should fail, and whom the Carthaginians naturally expected to use his
+utmost influence in favor of peace.</p>
+
+<p>They did not know their man. Regulus proved himself one of those
+indomitable patriots of whom there are few examples in the ages. On
+reaching the walls of Rome he refused at first to enter, saying that he
+was no longer a citizen, and had lost his rights in that city. When the
+ambassadors of Carthage had offered their proposal to the senate,
+Regulus, who had remained silent, was ordered by the senate to give his
+opinion of the proposed treaty. Thus commanded, he astonished all who
+heard by strongly advising the senate not to make the treaty. He might
+die for his words, he might perish in torture, but the good of his
+country was dearer to him than his own life, and he would not counsel a
+treaty that might prove of advantage to the enemy. He even spoke against
+an exchange of prisoners, saying that he had not long to live, having,
+he believed, been given a secret poison by his captors, and would not
+make a fair exchange for a hale and hearty Carthaginian general.</p>
+
+<p>Such an instance of self-abnegation has rarely been heard of in history.
+It has made Regulus famous for all time. His advice was taken, the
+treaty was refused; he, refusing to break his parole, or even to see his
+family, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors, knowing that he was
+going to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> death. The rulers of that city, so it is said, furious
+that the treaty had been rejected through his advice, resolved to
+revenge themselves on him by horrible tortures. His eyelids were cut
+off, and he was exposed to the full glare of the African sun. He was
+then placed in a cask driven full of nails, and left there to die.</p>
+
+<p>It is fortunate to be able to say that there is no historical warrant
+for this story of torture, or for the companion story that the wife and
+son of Regulus treated two Carthaginian prisoners in the same manner. We
+have reason to believe that it is untrue, and that Regulus suffered no
+worse tortures than those of shame, exile, and imprisonment.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the year 235 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed, for
+the first time since the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of
+Rome, nearly five centuries before. During all that long period war had
+hardly ever ceased in Rome. And these gates were soon to be thrown open
+again, in consequence of the greatest war that the Roman state had ever
+known, a war which was to bring it to the very brink of destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The end of the first Punic War&mdash;as the war with Carthage was
+called&mdash;left Rome master of the large island of Sicily, the first
+province gained by that ambitious city outside of Italy. Advantage was
+also taken of some home troubles in Carthage to rob that city of the
+islands of Sardinia and Corsica,&mdash;a piece of open piracy which redoubled
+the hatred of the Carthaginians.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Rome just now was not anxious for war with her southern rival. There
+was enough to do in the north, for another great invasion of Gauls was
+threatened. And about this time the Capitol was struck by lightning, a
+prodigy which plunged all Rome into terror. The books of the Sibyl were
+hastily consulted, and were reported to say, "When<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the lightning shall
+strike the Capitol and the Temple of Apollo, then must thou, O Roman,
+beware of the Gauls." Another prophecy said that the time would come
+"when the race of the Greeks and the race of the Gauls should occupy the
+Forum of Rome."</p>
+
+<p>But Rome had its own way of dealing with prophecies and discounting the
+decrees of destiny. A man and woman alike of the Gaulish and of the
+Greek race were buried alive in the Forum Boarium, and in this cruel way
+the public fear was allayed. As for the invasion of the Gauls, Rome met
+and dealt with them in its usual fashion, defeating them in two battles,
+in the last of which the Gaulish army was annihilated. This ended this
+peril, and the dominion of Rome was extended northward to the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>It was fortunate for the Romans that they had just at this time rid
+themselves of the Gauls, for they were soon to have a greater enemy to
+meet. In the first Punic War, Carthage had been destitute of a
+commander, and had only saved herself by borrowing one from Greece. In
+the second war she had a general of her own, one who has hardly had his
+equal before or since, the far-famed Hannibal, one of the few soldiers
+of supreme ability which the world has produced.</p>
+
+<p>During the peace which followed the first Punic War Carthage sent an
+expedition to Spain, with the purpose of extending her dominions in that
+land. This was under the leadership of Hamilcar, a soldier of much
+ability. As he was about to set sail he offered a solemn sacrifice for
+the success of the enterprise.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> Having poured the libation on the
+victim, which was then duly offered on the altar, he requested all those
+present to step aside, and called up his son Hannibal, at that time a
+boy of but nine years of age. Hamilcar asked him if he would like to go
+to the war. With a child's eagerness the boy implored his father to take
+him. Then Hamilcar, taking the boy by the hand, led him up to the altar,
+and bade him lay his hand on the sacrifice, and swear "that he would
+never be the friend of the Romans." Hannibal took the oath, and he never
+forgot it. His whole mature life was spent in warfare with Rome.</p>
+
+<p>From the city of New Carthage (or Carthagena), founded by Carthage in
+Spain, Hamilcar gradually won a wide dominion in that land. He was
+killed in battle after nine years of success, and was succeeded by
+Hasdrubal, another soldier of fine powers. On the death of Hasdrubal,
+Hannibal, then twenty-six years of age, was made commander-in-chief of
+the Carthaginian armies in Spain. Shortly afterwards his long struggle
+with Rome began.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal had laid siege to and captured the city of Saguntum. The people
+of Saguntum were allies of Rome. That city, being once more ready for
+war with its rival, sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand that Hannibal
+and his officers should be surrendered as Roman prisoners, for a breach
+of the treaty of peace. After a long debate, Fabius, the Roman envoy,
+gathered up his toga as if something was wrapped in it, and said, "Look;
+here are peace and war; take which you choose." "Give whichever you
+please," was the haughty Carthaginian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> reply. "Then we give you war,"
+said Fabius, shaking out the folds of the toga. "With all our hearts we
+welcome it," cried the Carthaginians. The Romans left at once for Rome.
+Had they dreamed what a war it was they were inviting it is doubtful if
+they would have been so hasty in seeking it.</p>
+
+<p>War with Rome was what Hannibal most desired. He was pledged to
+hostility with that faithless city, and had assailed Saguntum for the
+purpose of bringing it about. On learning that war was declared, he
+immediately prepared to invade Italy itself, leading his army across the
+great mountain barrier of the Alps. He had already sent messengers to
+the Gauls, to invite their aid. They were found to be friendly, and
+eager for his coming. They had little reason to love Rome.</p>
+
+<p>A significant dream strengthened Hannibal's purpose. In his vision he
+seemed to see the supreme god of his fathers, who called him into the
+presence of all the gods of Carthage, seated in council on their
+thrones. They solemnly bade him to invade Italy, and one of the council
+went with him into that land as guide. As they passed onward the divine
+guide warned, "See that you look not behind you." But at length,
+heedless of the command, the dreamer turned and looked back. He saw
+behind him a monstrous form, covered thickly with serpents, while as it
+moved houses, orchards, and woods fell crashing to the earth. "What
+mighty thing is this?" he asked in wonder. "You see the desolation of
+Italy," replied the heavenly guide; "go on your way, straight forward,
+and cast no look<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> behind." And thus, at the age of twenty-seven,
+Hannibal, at the command of his country's gods, went forward to the
+accomplishment of his early vow.</p>
+
+<p>His route lay through northern Spain, where he conquered all before him.
+Then he marched through Gaul to the Rhone. This he crossed in the face
+of an army of hostile Gauls, who had gathered to oppose him. He had more
+difficulty with his elephants, of which he had thirty-seven. Rafts were
+built to convey these great beasts across the stream, but some of them,
+frightened, leaped overboard and drowned their drivers. They then swam
+across themselves, and all were safely landed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image7.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other difficulties arose, but all were overcome, and at length the
+mountains were reached. Here Hannibal was to perform the most famous of
+his exploits, the crossing of the great chain of the Alps with an army,
+an exploit more remarkable than that which brought similar fame to
+Napoleon in our own days, for with Hannibal it was pioneer work, while
+Napoleon profited by his example.</p>
+
+<p>The mountaineers proved to be hostile, and gathered at all points that
+commanded the narrow pass. But they left their posts at night, and
+Hannibal, when nightfall came, set out with a body of light troops and
+occupied all these posts. When morning dawned the natives, to their
+dismay, found that they had been outgeneralled.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the day began the head of the army entered a dangerous
+defile, and made its way in a long slender line along the terrace-like
+path which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> overhung the valley far below. The route proved
+comparatively easy for the foot-soldiers, but the cavalry and the
+baggage-animals only made their way with great difficulty, finding
+obstacles at almost every step.</p>
+
+<p>The sight of the struggling cavalcade was too much for the caution of
+the natives. Here was abundant plunder at their hands. From many points
+of the mountain above the road they rushed down upon the Carthaginians,
+arms in hand. A frightful disorder followed. So narrow was the path that
+the least confusion was likely to throw the heavily-laden
+baggage-animals down the precipitous steep. The cavalry horses, wounded
+by the arrows and javelins of the mountaineers, plunged wildly about and
+doubled the confusion.</p>
+
+<p>It was fortunate for Hannibal that he had taken the precaution of the
+night before. From the post he had taken with his light troops the whole
+scene of peril and disorder was visible to his eyes. Charging down the
+hill, he attacked the mountaineers and drove them from their prey. But
+it was a dearly bought victory, for the fight on the narrow road
+increased the confusion, and in seeking the relief of his army he caused
+the destruction of many of his own men.</p>
+
+<p>At length the perilous defile was safely passed, and the army reached a
+wide and rich valley beyond. Here was the town of Montm&eacute;lian, the
+principal stronghold of the mountaineers. This Hannibal took by storm,
+and recovered there many of his own men, horses, and cattle which the
+natives had taken,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> while he found an abundant store of food for the use
+of his weary soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>After a day's rest here the march was resumed. During the next three
+days the army moved up the valley of the river Is&egrave;re without difficulty.
+The natives met them with wreaths on their heads and branches in their
+hands, promising peace, offering hostages, and supplying cattle.
+Hannibal mistrusted the sudden friendliness of his late foes, but they
+seemed so honest that he accepted some of them as guides through a
+difficult region which he was now approaching.</p>
+
+<p>He had reason for his mistrust, for they treacherously led him into a
+narrow and dangerous defile, which might have easily been avoided; and
+while the army was involved in this straitened pass an attack was
+suddenly made by the whole force of the mountaineers. Climbing along the
+mountain-sides above the defile, they hurled down stones on the
+entangled foe, and loosened and rolled great rocks down upon their
+defenceless heads.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately Hannibal, moved by his doubts, had sent his cavalry and
+baggage on first. The attack fell on the infantry, and with a body of
+these he forced his way to the summit of one of the cliffs above the
+defile, drove away the foe, and held it while the army made its way
+slowly on. As for the elephants, they were safe from attack. The very
+sight of these huge beasts filled the barbarians with such terror that
+they dared not even approach them. There was no further peril, and on
+the ninth day of its march the army reached the summit of the Alps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was now the end of October. The grass and flowers which carpet that
+elevated spot in summer had become replaced by snow. In truth, the
+climate of the Alps was colder at that period than now, and snow lay on
+the higher passes all through the year. The soldiers were disheartened
+by cold and fatigue. The scene around them was desolate and dreary. New
+perils awaited their onward course. But no such feeling entered
+Hannibal's courageous soul. Fired by hope and ambition, he sought to
+plant new courage in the hearts of his men.</p>
+
+<p>"The valley you see yonder is Italy," he said, pointing to the sunny
+slope which, from their elevated position, appeared not far away. "It
+leads to the country of our friends, the Gauls; and yonder is our way to
+Rome." Their eyes followed the direction of his pointing hand, and their
+hearts grew hopeful again with the cheerfulness and enthusiasm of his
+words.</p>
+
+<p>Two days the army remained there, resting, and waiting for the
+stragglers to come up. Then the route was resumed.</p>
+
+<p>The mountaineers, severely punished, made no further attacks; but the
+road proved more difficult than that by which the ascent had been made.
+Snow thickly covered the passes. Men and horses often lost their way,
+and plunged to their death down the precipitous steep. Onward struggled
+the distressed host, through appalling dangers and endless difficulties,
+losing men and animals at every step. But these troubles were trifling
+compared with those which they were now to endure. They suddenly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> found
+that the track before them had entirely disappeared. An avalanche had
+carried it bodily away for about three hundred yards, leaving only a
+steep and impassable slope covered with loose rocks and snow.</p>
+
+<p>A man of less resolution than Hannibal might well have succumbed before
+this supreme difficulty. The way forward had vanished. To go back was
+death. It was impossible to climb round the lost path, for the heights
+above were buried deep in snow. Nothing remained but to perish where
+they were, or to make a new road across the mountain's flank.</p>
+
+<p>The energetic commander lost not an hour in deciding. Moving back to a
+space of somewhat greater breadth, the snow was removed and the army
+encamped. Then the difficult engineering work began. Hands were
+abundant, for every man was working for his life. Tools were improvised.
+So energetically did the soldiers work that the road rapidly grew before
+them. As it was cut into the rock it was supported by solid foundations
+below. Many ancient authors say that Hannibal used vinegar to soften the
+rocks, but this we have no sufficient reason to believe.</p>
+
+<p>So vigorously did the work go on, so many were the hands engaged, that
+in a single day a track was made over which the horses and
+baggage-animals could pass. These were sent over and reached the lower
+valley in safety, where pasture was found.</p>
+
+<p>The passage of the elephants was a more difficult task. The road for
+them must be solid and wide. It took three days of hard labor to make
+it. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>Meanwhile the great beasts suffered severely from hunger, for
+forage there was none, nor trees on whose leaves they might browse.</p>
+
+<p>At length the road was strong enough to bear them. They safely passed
+the perilous reach. After them came Hannibal with the rear of the army,
+soon reaching the cavalry and baggage. Three days more the wearied host
+struggled on, down the southward slopes of the Alps, until finally they
+reached the wide plain of Northern Italy, having safely accomplished the
+greatest military feat of ancient times.</p>
+
+<p>But Hannibal found himself here with a frightfully reduced army. The
+Alps had taken toll of their invader. He had reached Gaul from Spain
+with fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. He reached Italy with
+only twenty thousand foot and six thousand horse. No fewer than
+thirty-three thousand men had perished by the way. It was a puny force
+with which to invade a country that could oppose it with hundreds of
+thousands of men. But it had Hannibal at its head.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> career of Hannibal was a remarkable one. For fifteen years he
+remained in Italy, frequently fighting, never losing a battle, keeping
+Rome in a state of terror, and dwelling with his army in comfort and
+plenty on the rich Italian plains. Yet he represented a commercial city
+against a warlike state. He was poorly supported by Carthage; Rome was
+indomitable; great generals rose to command her armies; in the end the
+mighty effort of Hannibal failed, and he was forced to leave Rome
+unconquered and Italy unsubdued.</p>
+
+<p>The story of his deeds is a long one, a record of war and bloodshed
+which our readers would be little the wiser and none the better for
+hearing. We shall therefore only give it in the barest outline.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal defeated the Romans on first meeting them, and the Gauls
+flocked to his army. But of the elephants, which he had brought with
+such difficulty over the Rhone and the Alps, the cold of December killed
+all but one. But without them he met a large Roman army at Lake
+Trasimenus, and defeated it so utterly that but six thousand escaped.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, in alarm, chose a dictator, Fabius Maximus by name. This leader
+adopted a new method of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> warfare, which has ever since been famous as
+the "Fabian policy." This was the policy of avoiding battle and seeking
+to wear the enemy out, while harassing him at every opportunity. Fabius
+kept to the hills, followed and annoyed his great antagonist, yet
+steadily avoided being drawn into battle.</p>
+
+<p>For more than a year this continued, during all which time Fabius grew
+more and more unpopular at Rome. The waiting policy was not that which
+the Romans had hitherto employed, and they became more impatient as days
+and months passed without an effort to drive this eating ulcer from
+their plains. In time the discontent grew too strong to be ignored. A
+<i>man of business</i>, who was said to have begun life as a butcher's son,
+Varro by name, became the favorite leader of the populace, and was in
+time raised to the consulship. He enlisted a powerful army, ninety
+thousand strong, and marched away to the field of Cann&aelig;, where Hannibal
+was encamped, with the purpose of driving this Carthaginian wasp from
+the Italian fields.</p>
+
+<p>It was a dwarf contending with a giant. The vainglorious Varro gave
+Hannibal the opportunity for which he had long waited. The Roman army
+met with such a crushing defeat that its equal is scarcely known in
+history. Baffled, beaten, and surrounded by Hannibal's army, the Romans
+were cut down in thousands, no quarter being asked or given, till when
+the sun set scarce three thousand men were left alive and unhurt of
+Varro's hopeful host. Of Hannibal's army less than six thousand had
+fallen. Of the Roman forces more than eighty thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> paid the penalty
+of their leader's incompetence.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal did not advance to Rome, which seemed to lie helpless before
+him. He doubtless had good reasons for not attempting to capture it.
+Maharbal, his cavalry general, said, "Let me advance with the horse, and
+do you follow; in four days from this time you shall sup in the
+Capitol." Hannibal, on the contrary, sent terms of peace to Rome. These
+the Romans, unconquerable in spirit despite their disaster, refused. He
+then marched to southern Italy and established his head-quarters in the
+rich city of Capua, which opened its gates to him, and which he promised
+to make the capital of all Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal won no more great victories in Italy, though he was victor in
+many small conflicts. The Romans had paid dearly for their impatience.
+Fabius was again called to the head of the army, and his old policy was
+restored. And thus years went on, Hannibal's army gradually decreasing
+and receiving few reinforcements from home, while Rome in time regained
+Capua and other cities.</p>
+
+<p>At length, in the year 208 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, who
+commanded the Carthaginian armies in Spain, resolved to go to his
+brother's aid. He crossed the Alps, as Hannibal had done, following the
+same pass, and making use of the bridges, rock cuttings, and mountain
+roads which his brother had made eleven years before.</p>
+
+<p>Had this movement been successful, it might have been the ruin of Rome.
+But the despatches of Hasdrubal were intercepted by the Romans.
+Perceiving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> their great danger, they raised an army in haste, marched
+against the invader, and met him before he could effect a junction with
+his brother. The Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter.
+Hasdrubal fell on the field, and his head was cruelly sent to Hannibal,
+who, as he looked with bitter anguish on the gruesome spectacle, sadly
+remarked, "I recognize in this the doom of Carthage."</p>
+
+<p>Yet for four years more Hannibal remained in the mountains of Southern
+Italy, holding his own against Rome, though he had lost all hopes of
+conquering that city. But Rome had now a new general, with a new policy.
+This was the famous Scipio, and the policy was to carry the war into
+Carthage. Fabius had done his work, and new measures came with new men.
+Scipio led an army into Spain, which he conquered from Carthage. Then he
+invaded Africa, and Hannibal was recalled home, after his long and
+victorious career in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal had never yet suffered a defeat. He was now to experience a
+crushing one. With a new army, largely made up of raw levies, he met the
+veteran troops of Scipio on the plains of Zama. Hannibal displayed here
+his usual ability, but fortune was against him, his army was routed, the
+veterans he had brought from Italy were cut down where they stood, and
+he escaped with difficulty from the field on which twenty thousand of
+his men had fallen. It was an earlier Waterloo.</p>
+
+<p>His flight was necessary, if Carthage was to be preserved. He was the
+only man capable of saving that great city from ruin. Terms of peace
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> offered by Scipio, severe ones, but Hannibal accepted them,
+knowing that nothing else could be done. Then he devoted himself to the
+restoration of his country's power, and for seven years worked
+diligently to this end.</p>
+
+<p>His efforts were successful. Carthage again became prosperous. Rome
+trembled for fear of her old foe. Commissioners were sent to Carthage to
+demand the surrender of Hannibal, on the plea that he was secretly
+fomenting a new war. His reforms had made enemies in Carthage, his
+liberty was in danger, and nothing remained for him but to flee.</p>
+
+<p>Escaping secretly from the city, the fugitive made his way to Tyre, the
+mother-city of Carthage, where he was received as one who had shed
+untold glory on the Ph&#339;nician name. Thence he proceeded to Antioch,
+the capital of Antiochus, king of Syria, and one of the successors of
+Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+<p>During the period over which we have so rapidly passed the empire of
+Rome had been steadily extending. In addition to her conquests in Spain
+and Africa, Macedonia, the home-realm of Alexander the Great, had been
+successfully invaded, and the first great step taken by Rome towards the
+conquest of the East.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of Macedonia stirred up Antiochus, who resolved on war with
+Rome, and marched with his army towards Europe. Hannibal, who had failed
+to find him at Antioch, overtook him at Ephesus, and found him glad
+enough to secure the services of a warrior of such world-wide fame.</p>
+
+<p>Antiochus, unfortunately, was the reverse of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> great warrior, and by no
+means the man to cope with Rome. Hannibal saw at a glance that his army
+was not fit to fight with a Roman force, and strongly advised him to
+equip a fleet and invade Southern Italy, saying that he himself would
+take the command. But nothing was to be done with Antiochus. He was
+filled with conceit of his own greatness, was ignorant of the power of
+Rome, and was jealous of the glory which Hannibal might attain. His
+guest then advised that an alliance should be made with Philip, king of
+Macedonia. This, too, was neglected, and the Romans hastened to ally
+themselves with Philip. Antiochus, puffed up with pride, pointed to his
+great army, and asked Hannibal if he did not think that these were
+enough for the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes," he replied, sarcastically, "enough for the Romans, however greedy
+they may be."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image8.jpg" width="600" height="414" alt="THE BATHS OF CARACALLA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE BATHS OF CARACALLA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It proved as he feared. The Romans triumphed. Hannibal was employed only
+in a subordinate naval command, in which field of warfare he had no
+experience. Peace was made, and Antiochus agreed to deliver him up to
+Rome. The greatest of Rome's enemies was again forced to fly for his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal now took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Here he
+remained for five years. But even here the implacable enmity of Rome
+followed him. Envoys were sent to the court of Prusias to demand his
+surrender. Prusias, who was a king on a small scale, could not, or would
+not, defend his guest, and promised to deliver him into the hands of his
+unrelenting foes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p><p>Only one course remained. Death was tenfold preferable to figuring in a
+Roman triumph. Finding the avenues to his house secured by the king's
+guards, the great Carthaginian took poison, which he is said to have
+long carried with him in a ring, in readiness for such an emergency. He
+died at Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the sea of Marmora, in his
+sixty-fourth year, as closely as we know. In the same year, 183 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>,
+died his great and successful antagonist, Scipio Africanus.</p>
+
+<p>Thus perished, in exile, one of the greatest warriors of any age, who,
+almost without aid from home, supported himself for fifteen years in
+Italy against all the power of Rome and the greatest generals she could
+supply. Had Carthage shown the military spirit of Rome, Hannibal might
+have stopped effectually the conquering career of that warlike city.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> city of Syracuse, the capital of Sicily, rose to prominence in
+ancient history through its three famous sieges. The first of these was
+that long siege which ruined Athens and left Syracuse uncaptured. The
+second was the siege by Timoleon, who took the city almost without a
+blow. The third was the siege by the Romans, in which the genius of one
+man, the celebrated mathematician and engineer Archimedes, long set at
+naught all the efforts of the besieging army and fleet.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable defence took place during the wars with Hannibal. Such
+was the warlike energy of the Romans, that, while their city itself was
+threatened by this great general, they sent armies abroad, one into
+Spain and another into Sicily. The latter, under a consul named Appius,
+besieged Syracuse by sea and land. Hoping to take the city by sudden
+assault, before it could be properly got ready for defence, Appius
+pushed forward his land force, fully provided with blinds and ladders,
+against the walls. At the same time a fleet of sixty quinqueremes under
+the consul Marcellus advanced to the assault from the side of the
+harbor. Among these vessels were eight which had been joined together<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+two and two, and which carried machines called sackbuts. These consisted
+of immensely long ladders, projecting far beyond the bows, and so
+arranged that they could be raised by ropes and pulleys, and the end let
+fall upon the top of the wall. Four men, well protected by wooden
+blinds, occupied the top of each ladder, ready to attack the defenders
+of the walls while their comrades hastened up the ladder to their aid.</p>
+
+<p>There was only one thing on which the consuls had not counted, and that
+was that Syracuse possessed the greatest artificer of ancient times.
+They had to fight not Syracuse alone but Syracuse and Archimedes; and
+they found the latter their most formidable foe. In short, the skill of
+this one man did more to baffle the Romans than the strength and courage
+of all the garrison.</p>
+
+<p>The historian Polybius has so well told the story of this famous
+defence, that we cannot do better than quote from his work. He remarks,
+after describing at length the Roman preparations,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"In this manner, then, when all things were ready, the Romans designed
+to attack the towers. But Archimedes had prepared machines that were
+fitted to every distance. While the vessels were yet far removed from
+the walls, he, employing catapults and balist&aelig; that were of the largest
+size and worked by the strongest springs, wounded the enemy with his
+darts and stones, and threw them into great disorder. When the darts
+passed beyond them he then used other machines, of a smaller size, and
+proportioned to the distance. By these means the Romans were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> so
+effectually repulsed that it was not possible for them to approach.</p>
+
+<p>"Marcellus, therefore, perplexed with this resistance, was forced to
+advance silently with his vessels in the night. But when they came so
+near to the land as to be within the reach of darts, they were exposed
+to a new danger, which Archimedes had contrived. He had caused openings
+to be made in many parts of the wall, equal in height to the stature of
+a man, and to the palm of the hand in breadth. Then, having planted on
+the inside archers and little scorpions, he discharged a multitude of
+arrows through the openings, and disabled the soldiers that were on
+board. In this manner, whether the Romans were at a great distance or
+whether they were near, he not only rendered useless all their efforts,
+but destroyed also many of their men.</p>
+
+<p>"When they attempted also to raise the sackbuts, certain machines which
+he had erected along the whole wall inside, and which were before
+concealed from view, suddenly appeared above the wall and stretched
+their long beaks far beyond the battlements. Some of these machines
+carried masses of lead and stone not less than ten talents [about eight
+hundred pounds] in weight. Accordingly, when the vessels with the
+sackbuts came near, the beaks, being first turned by ropes and pulleys
+to the proper point, let fall their stones, which broke not only the
+sackbuts but the vessels likewise, and threw all those who were on board
+into the greatest danger.</p>
+
+<p>"In the same manner also the rest of the machines, as often as the enemy
+approached under cover of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> their blinds, and had secured themselves by
+that protection against the darts that were discharged through the
+openings in the wall, let fall upon them stones of so large a size that
+all the combatants on the prow were forced to retire from their station.</p>
+
+<p>"He invented, likewise, a hand of iron, hanging by a chain from the beak
+of a machine, which was used in the following manner. The person who,
+like a pilot, guided the beak, having let fall the hand and caught hold
+of the prow of any vessel, drew down the opposite end of the machine,
+that was inside of the walls. When the vessel was thus raised erect upon
+its stern, the machine itself was held immovable; but the chain being
+suddenly loosened from the beak by means of pulleys, some of the vessels
+were thrown upon their sides, others turned with their bottoms upward,
+and the greatest part, as the prows were plunged from a considerable
+height into the sea, were filled with water, and all that were on board
+thrown into tumult and disorder.</p>
+
+<p>"Marcellus was in no small degree embarrassed when he found himself
+encountered in every attempt by such resistance. He perceived that all
+his efforts were defeated with loss, and were even derided by the enemy.
+But, amidst all the anxiety that he suffered, he could not help jesting
+upon the inventions of Archimedes.</p>
+
+<p>"'This man,' said he, 'employs our ships as buckets to draw water, and,
+boxing about our sackbuts, as if they were unworthy to be associated
+with him, drives them from his company with disgrace.' Such was the
+success of the siege on the side of the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p><p>"Appius also, on his part, having met with the same obstacles in his
+approaches, was in like manner forced to abandon his design. For while
+he was yet at a considerable distance, great number of his men were
+destroyed by the balist&aelig; and the catapults, so wonderful was the
+quantity of stones and darts, and so astonishing the force with which
+they were thrown. The means, indeed, were worthy of Hiero, who had
+furnished the expense, and of Archimedes, who designed them, and by
+whose directions they were made.</p>
+
+<p>"If the troops advanced nearer to the city, they either were stopped in
+their advance by the arrows that were discharged through the openings in
+the walls, or, if they attempted to force their way under cover of their
+bucklers, they were destroyed by stones and beams that were let fall
+upon their heads. Great mischief also was occasioned by these hands of
+iron that have been mentioned; for they lifted men with their armor into
+the air and dashed them upon the ground. Appius, therefore, was at last
+constrained to return back again into his camp."</p>
+
+<p>This ended the assault. For eight months the Romans remained, but never
+again had the courage to make a regular attack, depending rather on the
+hope of reducing the crowded city by famine. "So wonderful, and of such
+importance on some occasions, is the power of a single man, and the
+force of science properly employed. With so great armies both by sea and
+land the Romans could scarcely have failed to take the city, if one old
+man had been removed. But while he was present they did not even dare
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> make the attempt; in the manner, at least, which Archimedes was able
+to oppose." The story was told in past times that the great scientist
+set the Roman ships on fire by means of powerful burning glasses, but
+this is not believed.</p>
+
+<p>The end of this story may be briefly told. The Romans finally took the
+city by surprise. Tradition tells that, as the assailants were rushing
+through the streets, with death in their hands, they found Archimedes
+sitting in the public square, with a number of geometrical figures drawn
+before him in the sand, which he was studying in oblivion of the tumult
+of war around. As a Roman soldier rushed upon him sword in hand, he
+called out to the rude warrior not to spoil the circle. But the soldier
+cut him down. Another story says that this took place in his room.</p>
+
+<p>When Cicero, years afterwards, came to Syracuse, he found the tomb of
+Archimedes overgrown with briers, and on it the figure of a sphere
+inscribed in a cylinder, to commemorate one of his most important
+mathematical discoveries.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE FATE OF CARTHAGE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> all the history of Rome there is no act of more flagrant treachery
+and cruelty than that of her dealings with the great rival city of
+Carthage. In the whole history of the world there is nothing more base
+and frightful than the utter destruction of that mighty mart of
+commerce. The jealousy of Rome would not permit a rival to exist. It was
+not enough to drive Hannibal into exile; Carthage was recovering her
+trade and regaining her strength; new Hannibals might be born; the
+terror of the great invasion, the remembrance of the defeat at Cann&aelig;,
+still remained in Roman memories.</p>
+
+<p>Cato the Censor, a famous old Roman, now eighty-four years of age, and
+who had served in the wars against Hannibal, hated Carthage with the
+hatred of a fanatic, and declared that Rome would never be safe while
+this rival was permitted to exist.</p>
+
+<p>Rising from his seat in the senate, the stern old man glowingly
+described the power and wealth of Carthage. He held up some great figs,
+and said, "These figs grow but three days' sail from Rome." There could
+be no safety for Rome, he declared, while Carthage survived.</p>
+
+<p>"Every speech which I shall make in this house," he sternly declared,
+"shall finish with these words:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> 'My opinion is that <i>Carthage must be
+destroyed</i> (<i>delenda est Carthago</i>.)'"</p>
+
+<p>These words sealed the fate of Carthage. Men of moderate views spoke
+more mercifully, but Cato swayed the senate, and from that day the doom
+of Carthage was fixed.</p>
+
+<p>The Carthaginian territory was being assailed and ravaged by Masinissa,
+the king of Numidia. Rome was appealed to for aid, but delayed and
+temporized. Carthage raised an army, which was defeated by Masinissa,
+then over ninety years of age. The war went on, and Carthage was reduced
+to such straits that resistance became impossible, and in the end the
+city and all its possessions were placed at the absolute disposal of the
+senate of Rome, which, absolutely without provocation, had declared war.</p>
+
+<p>An army of eighty thousand foot and four thousand horse was sent to
+Africa. Before the consuls commanding it there appeared deputies from
+Carthage, stating what acts of submission had already been made, and
+humbly asking what more Rome could demand.</p>
+
+<p>"Carthage is now under the protection of Rome," answered Censorinus, the
+consul, "and can no longer have occasion to engage in war; she must
+therefore deliver without reserve to Rome all her arms and engines of
+war."</p>
+
+<p>Hard as was this condition, the humiliated city accepted it. We may have
+some conception of the strength of the city when it is stated that the
+military stores given up included two hundred thousand stand of arms and
+two thousand catapults. It was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> a condition to which only despair could
+have yielded, seemingly the last act of humiliation to which any city
+could consent.</p>
+
+<p>But if Carthage thought that the end had been reached, she was destined
+to be rudely awakened from her dream. The consuls, thinking the city now
+to be wholly helpless, dropped the mask they had worn, and made known
+the senate's treacherous decree.</p>
+
+<p>"The decision of the senate is this," said Censorinus, coldly, to the
+unhappy envoys of Carthage: "so long as you possess a fortified city
+near the sea, Rome can never feel sure of your submission. The senate
+therefore decrees that you must remove to some point ten miles distant
+from the coast. <i>Carthage must be destroyed.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>The trembling Carthaginians heard these fatal words in stupefied
+amazement. On recovering their senses they broke out into passionate
+exclamations against the treachery of Rome, and declared that the
+freedom of Carthage had been guaranteed.</p>
+
+<p>"The guarantee refers to the people of Carthage, not to her houses,"
+answered the consul. "You have heard the will of the senate; it must be
+obeyed, and quickly."</p>
+
+<p>Carthage, meanwhile, waited in gloomy dread the return of the
+commissioners. When they gave in the council-chamber the ultimatum of
+Rome, a cry of horror broke from the councillors. The crowd in the
+street, on hearing this ominous sound, broke open the doors and demanded
+what fatal news had been received.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p><p>On being told, they burst into a paroxysm of fury. The members of the
+government who had submitted to Rome were obliged to fly for their
+lives. Every Italian found in the city was killed. The party of the
+people seized the government, and resolved to defend themselves to the
+uttermost. An armistice of thirty days was asked from the consuls, that
+a deputation might be sent to Rome. This was refused. Despair gave
+courage and strength. The making of new arms was energetically begun.
+Temples and public buildings were converted into workshops; men and
+women by thousands worked night and day; every day there were produced
+one hundred shields, three hundred swords, five hundred pikes and
+javelins, and one thousand bolts for catapults. The women even cut off
+their hair to be twisted into strings for the catapults. Corn was
+gathered in all haste from every quarter.</p>
+
+<p>The consuls were astonished and disappointed. They had not counted on
+such energy as this. They did not know what it meant to drive a foe to
+desperation. They laid siege to Carthage, but found it too strong for
+all their efforts. They proceeded against the Carthaginian army in the
+field, but gained no success. Summer and winter passed, and Carthage
+still held out. Another year (148 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>) went by, and Rome still lost
+ground. Old Cato, the bitter foe of Carthage, had died, at the age of
+eighty-five. Masinissa, the warlike Numidian, had died at ninety-five.
+The hopes of the Carthaginians grew. Those of Rome began to fall. The
+rich booty that was looked for from the sack of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> Carthage was not to be
+handled so easily as had been expected.</p>
+
+<p>What Rome lacked was an able general. One was found in Scipio, the
+adopted son of Publius Scipio, son of the great Scipio Africanus. This
+young man had proved himself the only able soldier in the war. The army
+adored him. Though too young for the consulship, he was elected to that
+high office, and in 147 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> sailed for Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>The new commander found the army disorganized, and immediately restored
+strict discipline to its ranks. The suburb of Megara, from which the
+people of the city obtained their chief supply of fresh provisions, was
+quickly taken. Want of food began to be felt. The isthmus which
+connected the city with the mainland was strongly occupied, and
+land-supplies were thus cut off. The fleet blockaded the harbor, but, as
+vessels still made their way in, Scipio determined to build an
+embankment across the harbor's mouth.</p>
+
+<p>This was a work of great labor, and slowly proceeded. By the time it was
+done the Carthaginians had cut a new channel from their harbor to the
+sea, and Scipio had the mortification to see a newly-built fleet of
+fifty ships sail out through this fresh passage. On the third day a
+naval battle took place, in which the greater part of the new fleet was
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Another winter came and went. It was not until the spring of 146 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>
+that the Romans succeeded in forcing their way into the city, and their
+legions bivouacked in the Forum of Carthage.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p><p>But Carthage was not yet taken. Its death-struggle was to be a
+desperate one. The streets leading from the Forum towards the Citadel
+were all strongly barricaded, and the houses, six stories in height,
+occupied by armed men. For three days a war of desperation was waged in
+the streets. The Romans had to take the first houses of each street by
+assault, and then force their way forward by breaking from house to
+house. The cross streets were passed on bridges of planks.</p>
+
+<p>Thus they slowly advanced till the wall of Bosra&mdash;the high ground of the
+Citadel&mdash;was reached. Behind them the city was in flames. For six days
+and nights it burned, destroying the wealth and works of years. When the
+fire declined passages were cleared through the ruins for the army to
+advance.</p>
+
+<p>Scipio, who had scarcely slept night or day during the assault, now lay
+down for a short repose, on an eminence from which could be seen the
+Temple of Esculapius, whose gilded roof glittered on the highest point
+of the hill of Bosra. He was aroused to receive an offer from the
+garrison to surrender if their lives were spared. Scipio consented to
+spare all but Roman deserters, and from the gates of the Citadel marched
+out fifty thousand men as prisoners of war.</p>
+
+<p>Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian commander, who had made so brave a defence
+against Rome, retired with his family and nine hundred deserters and
+others into the Temple of Esculapius, as if to make a final desperate
+defence. But his heart failed him at the last moment, and, slipping out
+alone, he cast himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> at Scipio's feet, and begged his pardon and
+mercy. His wife, who saw his dastardly act, reproached him bitterly for
+cowardice, and threw herself and her children into the flames which
+enveloped the Citadel. Most of the deserters perished in the same
+flames.</p>
+
+<p>"Assyria has fallen," said Scipio, as he looked with eyes of prevision
+on the devouring flames. "Persia and Macedonia have likewise fallen.
+Carthage is burning. The day of Rome's fall may come next."</p>
+
+<p>For five days the soldiers plundered the city, yet enough of statues and
+other valuables remained to yield the consul a magnificent triumph on
+his return to Rome. Before doing so he celebrated the fall of Carthage
+with grand games, in which the spoil of that great city was shown the
+army. To Rome he sent the brief despatch, "Carthage is taken. The army
+waits for further orders."</p>
+
+<p>The orders sent were that the walls should be destroyed and every house
+levelled to the ground. A curse was pronounced by Scipio on any one who
+should seek to build a town on the site. The curse did not prove
+effective. Julius C&aelig;sar afterwards projected a new Carthage, and
+Augustus built it. It grew to be a noble city, and in the third century
+<span class="ampm">A.D.</span> became one of the principal cities of the Roman empire and an
+important seat of Western Christianity. It was finally destroyed by the
+Arabs.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the assault by the Roman forces on Megara, the suburb of Carthage,
+the first to mount the wall was a young man named Tiberius Gracchus,
+brother-in-law of Scipio, the commander, and grandson of the famous
+Scipio Africanus. This young man and his brother were to play prominent
+parts in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>One day when the great Scipio was feasting in the Capitol, with other
+senators of Rome, he was asked by some friends to give his daughter
+Cornelia in marriage to Tiberius Gracchus, a young plebeian. Proud
+patrician as he was, he consented, for Gracchus was highly esteemed for
+probity, and had done him a personal service.</p>
+
+<p>On his return home he told his wife that he had promised his daughter to
+a plebeian. The good woman, who had higher aims, blamed him severely for
+his folly, as she deemed it. But when she was told the name of her
+proposed son-in-law she changed her mind, saying that Gracchus was the
+only man worthy of the gift.</p>
+
+<p>Of Cornelia's children three became notable, a daughter, who became the
+wife of the younger Scipio, and two sons, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus,
+who are known in history as "The Gracchi." Their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> father became famous
+in war and peace, taking important steps in the needed movement of
+reform. He died, and after his death many sought the hand of the noble
+Cornelia in marriage, among them King Ptolemy of Egypt. But she refused
+them all, devoting her life to the education of her children, for which
+she was admirably fitted by her lofty spirit and high attainments.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning this lady, one of the greatest and noblest which Rome
+produced, there is an anecdote, often repeated, yet well worth repeating
+again. A Campanian lady who called upon her, and boastfully spoke of her
+wealth in gold and precious stones, asked Cornelia for the pleasure of
+seeing her jewels. Leading her visitor to another room, the noble matron
+pointed to her sleeping children, and said, "There are my jewels; the
+only ones of which I am proud."</p>
+
+<p>These children were born to troublous times. Rome had grown in
+corruption and ostentation as she had grown in wealth and dominion. When
+the first Punic War broke out Rome ruled only over Central and Southern
+Italy. When the third Punic War ended Rome was lord of all Italy, Spain,
+and Greece, and had wide possessions in Asia Minor and Northern Africa.
+Wealth had flowed abundantly into the imperial city, and with it pride,
+corruption, and oppression. The great grew greater, the poor poorer, and
+the old simplicity and frugality of Rome were replaced by overweening
+luxury and greed of wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The younger Tiberius Gracchus, who was nine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> years older than his
+brother, after taking part in the siege of Carthage, went to Spain,
+where also was work for a soldier. On his way thither he passed through
+Etruria, and saw that in the fields the old freeman farmers had
+disappeared, and been replaced by foreign slaves, who worked with chains
+upon their limbs. No Cincinnatus now ploughed his own small fields, but
+the land was divided up into great estates, cultivated by the captives
+taken in war; while the poor Romans, by whose courage these lands had
+been won, had not a foot of soil to call their own.</p>
+
+<p>This spectacle was a sore one to Tiberius, in whose mind the wise
+teachings of his mother had sunk deep. Here were great spaces of fertile
+land lying untilled, broad parks for the ostentation of their proud
+possessors, while thousands of Romans languished in poverty, and Rome
+had begun to depend for food largely upon distant realms.</p>
+
+<p>There was a law, more than two hundred years old, which forbade any man
+from holding such large tracts of land. Tiberius thought that this law
+should be enforced. On his return to Rome his indignant eloquence soon
+roused trouble in that city of rich and poor.</p>
+
+<p>"The wild beasts of the waste have their caves and dens," he said; "but
+you, the people of Rome, who have fought and bled for its growth and
+glory, have nothing left you but the air and the sunlight. There are far
+too many Romans," he continued, "who have no family altar nor ancestral
+tomb. They have fought well for Rome, and are falsely called the masters
+of the world; but the results of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> their fighting can only be seen in the
+luxury of the great, while not one of them has a clod of dirt to call
+his own."</p>
+
+<p>Cornelia urged her son to do some work to ennoble his name and benefit
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>"I am called the 'daughter of Scipio,'" she said. "I wish to be known as
+'the mother of the Gracchi.'"</p>
+
+<p>It was not personal glory, but the good of Rome, that the young reformer
+sought. He presented himself for the office of tribune, and was elected
+by the people, who looked upon him as their friend and advocate. And at
+his appeal they crowded from all quarters into the city to vote for the
+re-establishment of the Licinian laws,&mdash;those forbidding the rich to
+hold great estates.</p>
+
+<p>These laws were re-enacted, and those lands which the aristocrats had
+occupied by fraud or force were taken from them by a commission and
+returned to the state.</p>
+
+<p>All this stirred the proud land-holders to fury. They hated Gracchus
+with a bitter hatred, and began to plot secretly for his overthrow.
+About this time Attalus, king of Pergamus, moved by some erratic whim,
+left his estates by will to the city of Rome. Those who had been
+deprived of their lands claimed these estates, to repay them for their
+outlays in improvement. Gracchus opposed this, and proposed to divide
+this property among the plebeians, that they might buy cattle and tools
+for their new estates.</p>
+
+<p>His opponents were still more infuriated by this action. He had offered
+himself for re-election to the office of tribune, promising the people
+new and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>important reforms. His patrician foes took advantage of the
+opportunity. As he stood in the Forum, surrounded by his partisans, an
+uproar arose, in the midst of which Gracchus happened to raise his hand
+to his head. His enemies at once cried out that he wanted to make
+himself king, and that this was a sign that he sought a crown.</p>
+
+<p>A fierce fight ensued. The opposing senators attacked the crowd so
+furiously that those around Gracchus fled, leaving him unsupported. He
+hastened for refuge towards the Temple of Jupiter, but the priests had
+closed the doors, and in his haste he stumbled over a bench. Before he
+could rise one of his enemies struck him over the head with a stool. A
+second repeated the blow. Before the statues of the old kings, which
+graced the portals of the temple, the tribune fell dead.</p>
+
+<p>Many of his supporters were slain before the tumult ceased. Many were
+forced over the wall at the edge of the Tarpeian Rock, and were killed
+by their fall. Three hundred in all were slain in the fray.</p>
+
+<p>Thus was shed the first blood that flowed in civil strife at Rome. It
+was a crimson prelude to the streams of blood that were to follow, in
+the long series of butcheries which were afterwards to disgrace the
+Roman name.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius Gracchus may well be called the Great, for the effect of his
+life upon the history of Rome was stupendous. He held office for not
+more than seven months, yet in that short time the power of the senate
+was so shaken by him that it never fully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> recovered its strength. Had he
+been less gentle, or more resolute, in disposition his work might have
+been much greater still. Fiery indignation led him on, but soldierly
+energy failed him at the end.</p>
+
+<p>Caius Gracchus was in Spain at the time of his brother's murder. On his
+return to Rome he lived in quiet retirement for some years. The senate
+thought he disapproved of his brother's laws. They did not know him. At
+length he offered himself as a candidate for the tribuneship, and so
+convincing was his eloquence that the people supported him in numbers,
+and he was elected to the office.</p>
+
+<p>He at once made himself an ardent advocate of his brother's reforms, and
+with such impassioned oratory that he gained adherents on every side. He
+made himself active in all measures of public progress, advocating the
+building of roads and bridges, the erection of mile-stones, the giving
+the right to vote to Italians in general, and the selling of grain at
+low rates to the deserving poor. The laws passed for these purposes are
+known as the Sempronian laws, from the name of the family to which the
+Gracchi belonged.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the rich senators had grown highly alarmed. Here was a new
+Gracchus in the field, as eloquent and as eager for reform as his
+brother, and who was daily growing more and more in favor with the
+people. Something must be done at once, or this new demagogue&mdash;as they
+called him&mdash;would do them more harm than that for which they had slain
+his brother.</p>
+
+<p>They adopted the policy of fraud in place of that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> of violence. The
+people were gullible; they might be made to believe that the senators of
+Rome were their best friends. A rich and eloquent politician, Drusus by
+name, proposed measures more democratic even than those which Gracchus
+had advocated. This effort had the effect that was intended. The
+influence of Gracchus over the popular mind was lessened. The people had
+proved fully as gullible as the shrewd senators had expected.</p>
+
+<p>Among other measures proposed by Gracchus was one for planting a colony
+and building a new city on the site of Carthage. The senate appeared to
+approve this, and appointed him one of the commissioners for laying out
+the settlement. He was forced to leave Rome, and during his absence his
+enemies worked more diligently than ever. Gracchus was defeated in the
+election for tribune that followed.</p>
+
+<p>And now the plans of his enemies matured. It was said that the new
+colony at Carthage had been planted on the ground cursed by Scipio.
+Wolves had torn down the boundary-posts, which signified the wrath of
+the gods. The tribes were called to meet at the Capitol, and repeal the
+law for colonizing Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>A tumult arose. A man who insulted Gracchus was slain by an unknown
+hand. The senate proclaimed Gracchus and his friends public enemies, and
+roused many of the people against him by parading the body of the slain
+man. Gracchus and his friends took up a position on the Aventine Hill.
+Here they were assailed by a strong armed force.</p>
+
+<p>There was no resistance. Gracchus sought refuge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> at first in the Temple
+of Diana, and afterwards made his way to the Grove of the Furies,
+several of his friends dying in defence of his flight. A single slave
+accompanied him. When the grove was reached by his pursuers both were
+found dead. The faithful slave had pierced his master's heart, and then
+slain himself by the same sword.</p>
+
+<p>Slaughter ruled in Rome. The Tiber flowed thick with the corpses of the
+friends of Gracchus, who were slain by the fierce patricians. The houses
+of the murdered reformers were plundered by the mob, for whose good they
+had lost their lives. For the time none dared speak the name of Gracchus
+except in reprobation. Yet he and his brother had done yeoman service
+for the ungrateful people of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she lived for many years. But she
+lived not in grief for her sons, but in pride and triumph. They had died
+the deaths of heroes and patriots, and she gloried in their fame,
+declaring that they had found worthy graves in the temples of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>So came the people to think, in after-years, and they set up in the
+Forum a bronze statue to the great Roman matron, on which were inscribed
+only these words: <span class="smcap">To Cornelia, the Mother of the Gracchi</span>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Masinissa</span>, the valiant old king of Numidia, who had ravaged Carthage in
+its declining days, left his kingdom to his three sons. On the death of
+Micipsa, the last remaining of these, in 118 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, he, in turn, left the
+kingdom to his two sons. They were still young, and Jugurtha, their
+cousin, was appointed their guardian and the regent of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Shrewd, bold, ambitious, and unscrupulous, Jugurtha was the most
+dangerous man in Numidia to whose care the young princes could have been
+confided. Scipio read his character rightly, and said to him, "Trust to
+your own good qualities, and power will come of itself. Seek it by base
+arts, and you will lose all."</p>
+
+<p>Some of the young nobles in Scipio's camp gave baser advice. "At Rome,"
+they told him, "all things could be had for money." They advised him to
+buy the support of Rome, and seize the crown of Numidia.</p>
+
+<p>Jugurtha took this base advice, instead of the wise counsel of Scipio.
+He was destined to pay dearly for his ambition and lack of faith and
+honor. One<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> of the young princes showed a high spirit, and Jugurtha had
+him assassinated. The other fled to Rome and sought the support of the
+senate. Jugurtha now, following the suggestions of his false friends,
+sent gold and promises to Rome, purchased the support of venal senators,
+and had voted to him the strongest half of the kingdom; Adherbal, the
+young prince, being given the weaker half.</p>
+
+<p>But the young man was not left in peace, even in this reduced
+inheritance. Jugurtha sent more presents to Rome, and, confident of his
+strength there, boldly invaded the dominions of Adherbal. A Roman
+commission threatened him with Rome's displeasure if he did not keep
+within his own dominions. He affected to submit, but as soon as the
+commissioners turned their backs the daring adventurer renewed his
+efforts, got possession of his cousin through treachery, and at once
+ordered him to be put to death with torture.</p>
+
+<p>Since Rome had become great and powerful no one had dared so openly to
+contemn its decrees. But Jugurtha knew the Romans of that day, and
+trusted to his gold. He bought a majority in the senate, defied the
+minority, and would have gained his aim but for one honest man. This was
+the tribune Memmius, who, seeing that the senate was hopelessly corrupt,
+called the people together in the Forum, told them of the crimes of
+Jugurtha, and demanded justice and redress at their hands.</p>
+
+<p>And now a struggle arose like that between the Gracchi and the rich
+senators. Jugurtha sent more gold to Rome. An army was despatched
+against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> him, but he purchased it also. He gave up his elephants in
+pledge of good faith, and then bought them back at a high price. The
+officers divided the money, and the army failed to advance.</p>
+
+<p>Jugurtha would have triumphed but for Memmius, who resolutely kept up
+his attacks. In the end the usurper was ordered to come to Rome,&mdash;under
+a safe-conduct. He came, and here by his gold purchased one of the
+tribunes, who protected him against the wrath of Memmius and the people.
+But Memmius was resolute and determined. Another Numidian prince was
+found and asked to demand the crown from the senate. Jugurtha learned
+what was afoot, and sent an agent, Bomilcar by name, to assassinate the
+new prince. An indictment was laid against Bomilcar, but Jugurtha,
+fearing to have his own share in the murder exposed, sent him off
+secretly to Africa.</p>
+
+<p>This was too much, even for the purchased members of the senate. Such
+open disdain of the majesty of Rome no man, however avaricious, dared
+support. Jugurtha had a safe-conduct, and could not be seized, but he
+was ordered to quit Rome immediately. He did so, and as he passed out of
+the gates he looked back and said, "A city for sale if she can find a
+purchaser."</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of Jugurtha's history is one of war. The time for winning
+power by bribery was past. The people were so thoroughly aroused and
+incensed that none dared yield to cupidity. The indignation grew. The
+first army sent against Jugurtha was baffled by the wily African, caught
+in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> defile, and only escaped by passing under the yoke, and agreeing
+to evacuate Numidia.</p>
+
+<p>This disgrace stirred Rome more deeply still. A new consul was elected
+and a new army raised. A commission was appointed to inquire into the
+conduct of the senate, and several of the leading members were found
+guilty of high treason and put to death without mercy. Rome had begun to
+purge itself.</p>
+
+<p>The new general, Metellus, was not one to be sent under the yoke. He
+defeated Jugurtha in the field and pursued him so unrelentingly that
+soon the African usurper was a fugitive, without an army, and with only
+some fortresses under his control.</p>
+
+<p>Metellus had with him as his principal officer a man who was to become
+famous in Roman history. This man, Caius Marius, was then fifty years of
+age. Yet he had years enough before him to play a mighty part. He was a
+man of the people, rough and uneducated; scorned learning, but had a
+vigorous ambition and a striking military genius. He claimed to be a
+<i>New Man</i>, knew no Greek, and boasted that he had no images but "prizes
+won by valor and scars upon his breast."</p>
+
+<p>This man made himself the favorite of the populace, was elected consul,
+and by undisguised trickery took the conduct of the war out of the hands
+of Metellus just as the latter was about to succeed. With him to Africa
+went another man who was to become equally famous, L. Cornelius Sulla,
+the future chief of Rome. Sulla was not a <i>New Man</i>. He was an
+aristocrat, knew Greek better than Marius knew Latin, was educated and
+dissipated,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> and showed the marks of a dissolute life in his face. When
+he rode into the camp of Marius at the head of the cavalry he had seen
+no service, and the rugged soldier looked with contempt on this
+effeminate pleasure-seeker who had been sent as his lieutenant. He soon
+learned his mistake, and before the campaign ended Sulla was his most
+trusted officer and chief adviser.</p>
+
+<p>In the subsequent conduct of the war there is an interesting story to
+tell. There were two hill-forts in Numidia which still remained in
+Jugurtha's control. One of these was taken easily. The other&mdash;which
+contained all that was left of the usurper's treasures&mdash;was a formidable
+place, which long defied the Roman engineers. It stood on a precipitous
+rock, with only a single narrow ascent; was well garrisoned and supplied
+with arms, food, and water; and so long defied all the efforts of Marius
+that he almost despaired of its capture.</p>
+
+<p>In this dilemma a happy chance came to his aid. A Ligurian soldier, a
+practised mountaineer, being in search of water, saw a number of snails
+crawling up the rock in the rear of the castle. These were a favorite
+food with him, and he gathered what he saw, and climbed the cliff in
+search of more. Higher and higher he went, till he had nearly reached
+the summit of the rock. Here he found himself near a large oak, which
+had rooted itself in the rock crevices, and grew upward so as to overtop
+the castle hill.</p>
+
+<p>The Ligurian, led by curiosity, climbed the tree, and gained a point
+from which he could see the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> castle, undefended on this side, and
+without sentinels. Having taken a close observation, he descended,
+carefully examining every point as he went. He now hastened to the tent
+of Marius, recounted to him his exploit, and offered to guide a party up
+the perilous ascent.</p>
+
+<p>Marius was quick to seize this hopeful chance. Five trumpeters and four
+centurions were selected, who were placed under the leadership of the
+mountaineer. Laying aside all clothing and arms that would obstruct
+them, they followed the Ligurian up the rock. He, an alert and skilful
+climber, here and there tied ropes to projecting points, here lent them
+the aid of his hand, here sent them up ahead and carried their arms
+after them. At length, with great toil and risk, they reached the
+summit, and found the castle at this point undefended and unwatched, the
+Numidians being all on the opposite side.</p>
+
+<p>Marius, being apprised of their success, ordered a vigorous assault in
+front. The garrison rushed to the defence of their outer works. In the
+heat of the action a sudden clangor of trumpets was heard in their rear.
+This unexpected sound spread instant alarm. The women and children who
+had come out to watch the contest fled in terror. The soldiers nearest
+the walls followed. At length the whole body, stricken suddenly with
+panic, took to flight, followed in hot pursuit by their foes.</p>
+
+<p>Over the deserted works the Romans clambered, into the castle they
+burst, all who opposed them were cut down, and in a short time the place
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> had so long defied them was theirs, while the four trumpets to
+which their victory was due sounded loudly the war-peal of triumph.</p>
+
+<p>Jugurtha was still at large. He was supported by Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, whose daughter he had married. Sulla was sent to demand his
+surrender. Bocchus refused at first, but at length, through fear of
+Rome, consented, and the bold usurper was betrayed into Sulla's hands.</p>
+
+<p>The end of Jugurtha was one in accordance with the brutal cruelty of
+Rome, yet it was one which he richly deserved. It was in the month of
+January, 104 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, three years after his capture, that Marius entered
+Rome in triumphal procession, displaying to the people the spoils of his
+victories, while before his car walked his captive in chains.</p>
+
+<p>The African seemed sunk in stupor as he walked. He was roused by the
+brutal mob, who tore off his clothes and plucked the gold rings from his
+ears. Then he was thrust into the dungeon at the foot of the Capitoline
+Hill. "Hercules, what a cold bath this is!" he exclaimed. There he who
+had defied Rome and lorded it over Africa starved to death. A prince of
+the line of Masinissa succeeded him on the throne.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marius</span> and Sulla, the heroes of the Jugurthine War, in later years led
+in greater wars, in which they gained much fame. They ended their
+careers in frightful massacres, in which they gained great infamy. Rome,
+which had made the world its slaughter-house, was itself turned into a
+slaughter-house by these cruel and revengeful rivals.</p>
+
+<p>There was rarely any lack of work for the swords of Rome. While Marius
+was absent in Africa a frightful peril threatened the Roman state. A
+vast horde of barbarians was sweeping downward from the north. The
+Germans of Central Europe had ravaged Switzerland and invaded Gaul.
+Every army sent against them had been defeated with great slaughter.
+Italy was in immediate danger of invasion, Rome in imminent peril.
+Marius was sadly needed, and on his return from Africa was hailed as the
+only man who could save the state.</p>
+
+<p>Instantly he gathered an army and set out for Gaul, Sulla going with him
+as a subordinate officer. Two years were spent in marches and
+counter-marches, and then (<span class="ampm">B.C.</span> 102) he met the enemy and defeated them
+with immense slaughter. Reserving the richest of the spoils, he devoted
+the remainder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> to the gods, and, as he stood in a purple robe, torch in
+hand, about to apply the flame to the costly funeral pile, horsemen
+dashed at full speed through the open lines of the troops, and announced
+that for a fifth time he had been elected consul of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In this war Sulla also showed valor and won fame. But he had grown
+jealous of the glory of Marius, and left his army to join that of the
+consul Catulus, who was being driven backward by another great horde of
+barbarians. Marius, having beaten his own foes, hastened to the relief
+of his associate; the flight was stopped, and a battle ensued in which
+the invading army was swept from the face of the earth, and Rome freed
+for centuries from danger of barbarian invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla and Catulus had their share in this victory, but the people gave
+Marius the whole honor, called him the third founder of their city (as
+Camillus had been the second), and gathered in rejoicing multitudes to
+witness his triumph.</p>
+
+<p>While this war was going on there was dreadful work at home. The slaves
+had, for the second time, broken into insurrection. This servile war was
+mainly in Sicily, where thousands of slaves were slain. Of the captives,
+many were taken to Rome to fight with wild beasts in the arena, but they
+disappointed the eager spectators by killing each other. This outbreak
+only made slavery at Rome harder and harsher than before.</p>
+
+<p>Years passed on, and then another war broke out. The Italian allies, who
+had helped to make Rome great, claimed rights of citizenship and
+suffrage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> These were denied, and what is known as the Social War began.
+Sulla and Marius took part in this conflict, which ended in favor of
+Rome, though the franchise fought for was in large measure gained. It
+was of little value, however, since all who held it were obliged to go
+to the city of Rome to vote.</p>
+
+<p>During these various conflicts the rivalry between Marius and Sulla grew
+steadily more declared. The old plebeian, now seventy years of age, was
+jealous of the honors which his aristocratic rival had gained in the
+Social War, and a spirit of bitter hatred, which was to bear dire
+results, arose in his heart.</p>
+
+<p>Events to come were to blow this spark of hatred into a glowing flame. A
+new war threatened Rome. Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, in Asia
+Minor, was pursuing a career of conquest, and the Roman provinces in
+Asia were in danger. War was determined on, and Sulla, who had already
+held successful command in the East, claimed the command of the new
+army. Marius, old as he was, wanted it, too, and by his influence with
+the new citizens of Rome succeeded in defeating Sulla and gaining the
+appointment of general in the war against Pontus.</p>
+
+<p>This vote of the tribes precipitated a contest. The Social War was not
+yet fully ended, and Sulla hastened to the camp where his soldiers were
+besieging a Samnite town. It was his purpose to set sail for the East
+before he could be superseded. He was too late. Officials from Rome
+reached the camp almost as soon as he, bearing a commission from Marius
+to assume the command. It was a critical moment. Sulla must either yield
+or inaugurate a civil war.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p><p>He chose the latter. Calling the soldiers together, he told them that
+he had been insulted and injured, and that, unless they supported him,
+they would be left at home, and a new army raised by Marius would obtain
+the spoils of the Mithridatic war. Stirred by this appeal to their
+avarice, the legions stoned to death the officers sent by Marius, and
+loudly demanded to be led to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Their coming took Marius by surprise, and threw the city into
+consternation. No one had dreamed of such daring and audacity. To lead a
+Roman army against Rome was unprecedented. The senate sent an embassy
+asking Sulla to halt till the Fathers could come to some decision. He
+promised to do so, but as soon as the envoys had gone he sent a force
+that seized the Colline Gate and entered the city streets. Here their
+progress was stopped by the people, who hurled tiles and stones upon
+their heads from the house-tops.</p>
+
+<p>The whole army soon followed, and Sulla entered the city with two
+legions at his back. The people again opposed their march, but Sulla
+seized a torch and threatened to burn the city if any hostility were
+shown. This ended all opposition, except that made by Marius, who
+retreated to the Capitol, where he proclaimed liberty to all slaves who
+would join his banner. This did him much more harm than good; his
+adherents dispersed; he and his chief supporters were forced to seek
+safety in flight.</p>
+
+<p>And now we have a story of striking interest to tell. It would need the
+powers of invention of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> romancer to devise a series of adventures as
+remarkable as those which befell old Marius in his flight. It is one of
+the strangest stories in all the annals of history, a marked
+illustration of the saying that fact is often stranger than fiction.</p>
+
+<p>Marius fled to Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, in company with
+Granius, his son-in-law, and five slaves. He proposed to take ship there
+for Africa, where his influence was great. His son followed him by a
+different route, and arrived at Ostia to find that his father had put to
+sea. There was another vessel about to sail, which the son took, and in
+which he succeeded in reaching Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The older fugitive had no such good fortune. The elements pronounced
+against him, and a storm drove the vessel ashore near Circeii. Here the
+party wandered in distress along the desolate coast, in imminent danger
+of capture, for emissaries of Sulla were scouring the shores of Italy in
+his pursuit. Fortunately for the old general, he was recognized by some
+herdsmen, who warned him that a troop of cavalry was approaching. Not
+knowing who they were, and fearing their purpose, the fugitives hastily
+left the road and sought shelter in the forest that there came down near
+to the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Here the night was miserably passed, the fugitives suffering for want of
+food and shelter. When the dawn of the next day broke, their forlorn
+walk was resumed, there being no enemy in sight. By this time the whole
+party, with the exception of Marius, was greatly depressed. He alone
+kept up his spirits, telling his followers that he had been six times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+consul of Rome, and that a seventh consulship would yet be his.</p>
+
+<p>There seemed little hope of such a turn of fortune as the hungry
+fugitives dragged wearily onward. For two days they kept on, making
+about forty miles of distance. At the end of that time peril of capture
+came frightfully near. A body of horsemen was visible at a distance,
+coming rapidly on. No friendly forest here offered shelter. The only
+hope of escape lay in two merchant vessels, which were moving slowly
+close in shore.</p>
+
+<p>Calling loudly for aid, Marius and those with him plunged into the water
+and swam for these vessels. Granius reached one of them. Marius was so
+exhausted that he could not swim, and was supported with difficulty
+above the water by two slaves till the seamen of the other vessel drew
+him on board.</p>
+
+<p>He had barely reached the deck when the troop of horsemen rode to the
+water's edge, and their leader called to the captain of the vessel,
+telling him that it was the proscribed Marius he had rescued, and
+bidding him at once to deliver him up.</p>
+
+<p>What to do the captain did not know. The officer on shore threatened him
+with the vengeance of Sulla if he failed to yield the fugitive. Marius,
+with tears in his eyes, earnestly begged for protection from the captain
+and crew. The captain wavered in purpose, but finally yielded to Marius
+and sailed on. But he did so in doubt and fear, and on reaching the
+mouth of the river Liris he persuaded Marius to go ashore, saying that
+the vessel must lie to till the land-wind rose. The instant the boat
+returned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> the faithless captain sailed away, leaving the aged fugitive
+absolutely alone on the beach.</p>
+
+<p>Walking wearily to the sorry hut of an old peasant, which stood near,
+Marius told him who he was, and begged for shelter. The old man hid him
+in a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds. While he lay there
+the horsemen, who had followed the vessel along the shore, came up, and
+asked the tenant of the hut where Marius was.</p>
+
+<p>The shivering fugitive, in fear of being betrayed, rose hastily from his
+hiding-place and dashed into the stream. Some of the horsemen saw him,
+he was pursued, and, covered with mud and nearly naked, the old
+conqueror was dragged from the river, placed on a horse, and carried as
+a captive to the neighboring town of Miturn&aelig;. Here he was confined in
+the house of a woman named Fannia till his fate could be determined.</p>
+
+<p>A circular letter had been received by the magistrates from the consuls
+at Rome, ordering them to put Marius to death if he should fall into
+their hands. This was more than they cared to do on their own
+responsibility, and they called a meeting of the town council to decide
+the momentous question. The council decided that Marius should die, and
+sent a Gaulish slave to put him to death.</p>
+
+<p>It was dark when the executioner entered the house of Fannia. The slave,
+little relishing the task committed to his hands, entered the room where
+Marius lay. All the trembling wretch could see in the darkness were the
+glaring eyes of the old man fixed fiercely on him, while a deep voice
+came from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> the couch, "Fellow, darest thou slay Caius Marius?"</p>
+
+<p>Throwing down his sword, the Gaul fled in terror from those accusing
+eyes, crying out, loudly, "I cannot slay Caius Marius!"</p>
+
+<p>The magistrates made no further effort to put their prisoner to death.
+They managed that he should escape, and he made his way to the island of
+Ischia, which Granius had already reached. Here a friendly ship took
+them on board, and they sailed for Africa.</p>
+
+<p>But the perils of the fugitive were not yet at an end. The ship was
+forced to stop at Erycina, in Sicily, for water. Here a Roman official
+recognized Marius, fell upon the party with a company of soldiers, and
+slew sixteen of them. Marius was nearly taken, but managed to escape,
+the vessel hastily setting sail. He now reached Africa without further
+adventure.</p>
+
+<p>His son and other friends had arrived earlier, and, encouraging news
+being told him, he landed near the site of ancient Carthage. The pr&aelig;tor,
+learning of his presence, and advised of the revolution at Rome, sent
+him word to quit the province without delay. As the messenger spoke
+Marius looked at him with silent indignation.</p>
+
+<p>"What answer shall I take back to the pr&aelig;tor?" asked the man.</p>
+
+<p>"Tell him," said the old general, with impressive dignity, "that you
+have seen Caius Marius sitting among the ruins of Carthage."</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile his son had reached Numidia, where he was outwardly well
+received by the king, yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> held in captivity. He was at length enabled
+to escape by the aid of the king's daughter, and joined his father.
+Marius was not further molested.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it would have been well for the fame of Caius Marius had his life
+ended here. He would nave escaped the infamy of his later years, and the
+flood of blood and vengeance in which his career reached its end. He had
+friends still in Rome. Sulla had made many foes by his capture of the
+city. Among the new consuls elected was Cornelius Cinna, who quickly
+made trouble for the ruler of Rome. Sulla, finding his power abating,
+and fearing assassination by friends of Marius, concluded to let the
+senate fight its own battles, and shipped his troops for Greece, leaving
+Rome to its own devices, while he occupied himself with fighting its
+enemy in the East.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had he gone than civil war began. Fighting took place in the
+streets of Rome. Cinna moved in the senate that Marius should be
+restored to his rights. Failing in this, he gathered an army and
+threatened his enemies in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>News of all this soon reached old Marius in Africa. At the head of a
+thousand desperate men he took ship and landed in Etruria. Here he
+proclaimed liberty to all slaves who would join him, and soon had a
+large force. He also gained a small fleet. He and Cinna now joined
+forces and marched on Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The senate, which stood for Sulla, had meanwhile been gathering an army
+for the defence of the city. But few of those ordered from afar reached
+the gates, and of the principal force the greater part deserted to
+Marius. The city was soon invested on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> all sides. The ships of Marius
+captured the corn-vessels from Sicily and Africa. A plague broke out in
+the city, which decimated the army of the senate. In the end beleaguered
+Rome was forced to open its gates to a new conqueror.</p>
+
+<p>All the senate asked for was that Cinna would not permit a general
+massacre. This he promised. But behind his chair, in which he sat in
+state as consul, stood old Marius, whose face threatened disaster. He
+was dressed in mean attire; his hair and beard hung down rough and long,
+for neither had been cut since the day he fled from Rome; on his brow
+was a sullen frown that boded only evil to his foes.</p>
+
+<p>Evil it was, evil without stint. Rome was treated as a conquered city.
+The slaves and desperadoes who followed Marius were let loose to plunder
+at their will. Octavius, the consul who had supported the senate, was
+slain in his consular chair. A series of horrible butcheries followed.
+Marius was bent on dire vengeance, and his enemies fell in multitudes.
+Followed by a band of ruffians known as the Bardi&aelig;i, the remorseless old
+man roamed in search of victims through the city streets, and any man of
+rank whom he passed without a salute was at once struck dead.</p>
+
+<p>The senators who had opposed his recall from exile fell first. Others
+followed in multitudes. Those who had private wrongs to revenge followed
+the example of their chief. The slaves of the army killed at will all
+whom they wished to plunder. So great became the licentious outrages of
+these slaves that in the end Cinna, who had taken no part in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+massacres, fell upon them with a body of troops and slew several
+thousands. This reprisal in some measure restored order in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla, meanwhile, was winning victories in the East, and the news of
+them somewhat disturbed the ruthless conquerors. But for the present
+they were absolute, and the saturnalia of blood went on. It ended at
+length in the death of Marius.</p>
+
+<p>Since his return he had given himself to wine and riotous living. This,
+after the privations and hardships he had recently suffered, sapped his
+iron constitution. He was elected to the seventh consulship, which he
+had predicted while wandering as a fugitive on the south Italian shores.
+But he fell now into an inflammatory fever, and in two weeks after his
+election he ceased to breathe. Great and successful soldier as he had
+been, his late conduct had won him wide-spread detestation, and he died
+hated by his enemies and feared even by his friends.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Marius and his friends were ruling and murdering in Rome, Sulla,
+their bitter enemy, was commanding and conquering in the East, biding
+his time for revenge. He drove the Asiatic foe out of Greece, taking and
+pillaging Athens as an episode. He carried the war into Asia, forced
+Mithridates to sue for peace, and exacted enormous sums (more than one
+hundred million dollars in our money) from the rich cities of the East.
+Then, after giving his soldiers a winter's rest in Asia, he turned his
+face towards Rome, writing to the senate that he was coming, and that he
+intended to take revenge on his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the year 83 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> Three years had passed since the death of
+Marius. During the interval the party of the plebeians had been at the
+head of affairs. Now Sulla, the aristocrat, was coming to call them to a
+stern account, and they trembled in anticipation. They remembered
+vividly the Marian carnival of blood. What retribution would his
+merciless rival exact?</p>
+
+<p>Cinna, who had most to fear, proposed to meet the conqueror in the
+field. But his soldiers were not in the mood to fight, and settled the
+question by murdering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> their commander. When spring was well advanced,
+Sulla left Asia, and in sixteen hundred ships transported his men to
+Italy, landing at the port of Brundusium.</p>
+
+<p>On the 6th of July, shortly after his landing, an event occurred that
+threw all Rome into consternation. The venerable buildings of the
+Capitol took fire and were burned to the ground, the cherished Sibylline
+books perishing in the flames. Such a disaster seemed to many Romans a
+fatal prognostic. The gods were surely against them, and all things were
+at risk.</p>
+
+<p>Onward marched Sulla, opposed by a much greater army collected by his
+opponents. But he led the veterans of the Mithridatic War, and in the
+ranks of his opponents no man of equal ability appeared. Battle after
+battle was fought, Sulla steadily advancing. At length an army of
+Samnites, raised to defend the Marian cause, marched on Rome. Caius
+Pontius, their commander, was bent on terribly avenging the sufferings
+of his people on that great city.</p>
+
+<p>"Rome's last day," he said to his soldiers, "is come. The city must be
+annihilated. The wolves that have so long preyed upon Italy will never
+cease from troubling till their lair is utterly destroyed."</p>
+
+<p>Rome was in despair, for all seemed at an end. The Samnites had not
+forgotten a former Pontius, who had sent a Roman army under the Caudine
+Forks, and had been cruelly murdered in the Capitol They thundered on
+the Colline Gate. But at that critical moment a large body of cavalry
+appeared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> and charged the foe. It was the vanguard of Sulla's army,
+marching in haste to the relief of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>A fierce battle ensued. Sulla fought gallantly. He rode a white horse,
+and was the mark of every javelin. But despite his efforts his men were
+forced back against the wall, and when night came to their relief it
+looked as if nothing remained for them but to sell their lives as dearly
+as possible the next morning.</p>
+
+<p>But during the night Sulla received favorable news. Crassus, who
+commanded his right wing, had completely defeated a detachment of the
+Marian army. With quick decision, Sulla marched during the night round
+the enemy's camp, joined Crassus, and at day-break attacked the foe.</p>
+
+<p>The battle that ensued was a terrible one. Fifty thousand men fell on
+each side. Pontius and other Marian leaders were slain. In the end Sulla
+triumphed, taking eight thousand prisoners, of whom six thousand were
+Samnites. The latter were, by order of the victor, ruthlessly butchered
+in cold blood.</p>
+
+<p>This was but the prelude to an equally ruthless but more protracted
+butchery. Sulla was at last lord of Rome, as absolute in power as any
+emperor of later days. In fact, he had himself appointed dictator, an
+office which had vanished more than a century before, and which raised
+him above the law. He announced that he would give a better government
+to Rome, but to do so he must first rid that city of its enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Marius, whom Sulla hated with intense bitterness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> had escaped him by
+death. By his orders the bones of the old general were torn from their
+tomb near the Anio and flung into that stream. The son of Marius had
+slain himself to prevent being taken. His head was brought to Sulla at
+Rome, who gazed on the youthful face with grim satisfaction, saying,
+"Those who take the helm must first serve at the oar." As for himself,
+his fortune was now accomplished, he said, and henceforth he should be
+known as Felix.</p>
+
+<p>The cruel work which Sulla had promised immediately began. Adherents of
+the popular party were slaughtered daily and hourly at Rome. Some who
+had taken no part in the late war were slain. No man knew if he was
+safe. Some of the senators asked that the names of the guilty should be
+made known, that the innocent might be relieved from uncertainty. The
+proposition hit with Sulla's humor. He ordered that a list of those
+doomed to death should be made out and published. This was called a
+Proscription.</p>
+
+<p>But the uncertainty continued as great as ever. The list contained but
+eighty names. It was quickly followed by another containing one hundred
+and twenty. Day after day new lists of the doomed were issued. To make
+death sure, a reward of two talents was promised any one who should kill
+a proscribed man,&mdash;even if the killer were his son or his slave. Those
+who in any way aided the proscribed became themselves doomed to death.</p>
+
+<p>Men who envied others their property managed to have their names put on
+the list. A partisan of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> Sulla was exulting over the doomed, when his
+eye fell on his own name in the list. He hastily fled, and the
+bystanders, judging the cause, followed and cut him down. Catiline, who
+afterwards became notorious in Roman history, murdered his own brother,
+and to legalize the murder had the name of his victim placed on the
+list.</p>
+
+<p>How many were murdered we do not know. Probably little less than three
+thousand in Rome. The stream of murder flowed to other cities. Several
+of these defied the conqueror, but were taken one by one and their
+defenders slain. To all cities which had taken part with the Marians the
+proscription made its way. Of the total number slain during this reign
+of terror no record exists, but the deliberate butchery of Sulla went
+far beyond the ferocious but temporary slaughter of Marius.</p>
+
+<p>Murder was followed by confiscation. Sulla ordered that the property of
+the slain should be sold at auction and the proceeds put in the
+treasury. But the favorites of the dictator were the chief bidders, the
+property was sold at a tithe of its value, and the unworthy and
+dissolute obtained the lion's share of the spoil.</p>
+
+<p>During this period of murder and confiscation we first hear the names of
+a number of afterwards famous Romans. Catiline we have named. Pompey
+took part in the war on Sulla's side, was victorious in Sicily and
+Africa, and on his return was hailed by his chief with the title of
+Pompey the Great. Another still more famous personage was Julius C&aelig;sar.
+Sulla had ordered that all persons connected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> by marriage with the
+Marian party should divorce their wives. Pompey obeyed. C&aelig;sar, who was a
+nephew of Marius and had married the daughter of Cinna, boldly refused.
+He was then a youth of nineteen. His boldness would have brought him
+death had not powerful friends asked for his life.</p>
+
+<p>"You know not what you ask," said Sulla; "that profligate boy will be
+more dangerous than many Mariuses."</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, not trusting Sulla's doubtful humor, escaped from Rome, and hid
+in the depths of the Sabine mountains, awaiting a time when the streets
+of the capital city would be safer for those who dared speak their
+minds.</p>
+
+<p>Another young man of rising fame showed little less boldness. This was
+Cicero, who had just returned to Rome from his studies in Greece. He
+ventured to defend Roscius of Ameria against an accusation of murder
+made by Chrysogonus, a prime favorite of Sulla. Cicero lashed the
+favorite vigorously, and won a verdict for his client. But he found it
+advisable to leave Rome immediately and resume his studies at Rhodes.</p>
+
+<p>Sulla ended his work by organizing a new senate and making a new code of
+laws. Three hundred new members were added to the senate, and the laws
+of Rome were brought largely back to the state in which they had been
+before the Gracchi.</p>
+
+<p>This done, to the utter surprise of the people he laid down his power
+and retired from Rome, within whose streets he never again set foot. He
+had no occasion for fear. He had scattered his veterans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> throughout
+Italy on confiscated estates, and knew that he could trust to their
+support. Before his departure he gave a feast of costly meats and rich
+wines to the Roman commons, in such profusion that vast quantities that
+could not be eaten were cast into the Tiber. Then he dismissed his armed
+attendants, and walked on foot to his house, through a multitude of whom
+many had ample reason to strike him down.</p>
+
+<p>He now retired to his villa near Puteoli, on the Bay of Naples, with the
+purpose of enjoying that life of voluptuous ease which he craved more
+than power and distinction. Here he spent the brief remainder of his
+life in nocturnal orgies and literary converse, completing his
+"Memoirs," in which he told, in exaggerated phrase, the story of his
+life and exploits.</p>
+
+<p>He lived but about a year. His excesses brought on a complication of
+disorders, which ended, we are told, in a loathsome disease. The senate
+voted him a gorgeous funeral, after which his body was burned on the
+Campus Martius, that no future tyrant could treat his remains as he had
+done those of his great rival Marius.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">At</span> the beginning of the first Punic War, or war with Carthage, a new
+form of entertainment was introduced into Rome. This was the
+gladiatorial show, the fights of armed men in the arena, the first of
+which was given in the year 264 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, at the funeral of D. Junius
+Brutus. These exhibitions were long confined to funeral occasions, money
+being frequently left for this purpose in wills, but they gradually
+extended to other occasions, and finally became the choice amusement of
+the brutal Roman mob. The gladiators were divided into several classes,
+in accordance with their particular weapons and modes of fighting, and
+great pains were taken to instruct them in the use of their special
+arms. But in the period that followed the death of Sulla Rome was to
+have a gladiatorial exhibition of a different sort.</p>
+
+<p>In the city of Capua was a school of gladiators, kept by a man named
+Lentulus. It was his practice to hire out his trained pupils to nobles
+for battles in the arena during public festivals. His school was a large
+one, and included in its numbers a Thracian named Spartacus, who had
+been taken prisoner while leading his countrymen against the Romans, and
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> to be punished for his presumption by making sport for his
+conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>But Spartacus had other and nobler aims. He formed a plot of flight to
+freedom in which two hundred of his fellows joined, though only
+seventy-eight succeeded in making their escape. These men, armed merely
+with the knives and spits which they had seized as they fled, made their
+way to the neighboring mountains, and sought a refuge in the crater of
+Mount Vesuvius. It must be borne in mind that this mountain, in that
+year of 73 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, was silent and seemingly extinct, though before another
+century passed it was to awake to vital activity. It was only biding its
+time in slumber.</p>
+
+<p>It was better to die on the open field than in the amphitheatre, argued
+Spartacus, and his followers agreed with him. Their position in the
+crater was a strong one, and the news of their revolt soon brought them
+a multitude of allies,&mdash;slaves and outlaws of every kind. These
+Spartacus organized and drilled, supplying them with officers from the
+gladiators, mostly old soldiers, and placing them under rigid
+discipline. It was liberty he wanted, not rapine, and he did his utmost
+to restrain his lawless followers from acts of violence.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey, the chief Roman general of that day, was then absent in Spain,
+fighting with a remnant of the Marian forces. Two Roman pr&aelig;tors led
+their forces against the gladiators, but were driven back with loss, and
+the army of Spartacus swelled day by day. The wild herdsmen of Apulia
+joined him in large numbers. They were slaves to their lords,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> whom they
+hated bitterly, and here was an opening for freedom and revenge.</p>
+
+<p>It was soon evident that Rome had on its hands the greatest and most
+dangerous of its servile wars. Spartacus was brave and prudent, and
+possessed the qualities of an able leader. Unfortunately for him, he led
+an unmanageable host. In the next year both the consuls took the field
+against him. By this time his army had swelled to more than one hundred
+thousand men, and with these he pushed his way northward through the
+passes of the Apennines. But now insubordination appeared. Crixus, one
+of his lieutenants, ambitious of independent command, led off a large
+division of the army, chiefly Germans. He was quickly punished for his
+temerity, being surprised and slain with the whole of his force.</p>
+
+<p>Spartacus, wise enough to know that he could not long hold out against
+the whole power of Rome, kept on northward, hoping to pass the Alps and
+find a place of refuge remote from the stronghold of his foes. Both the
+consuls attacked him in his march, and both were defeated, while he
+retaliated on Rome by forcing his prisoners to fight as gladiators in
+memory of the slain Crixus.</p>
+
+<p>Reaching the provinces of the north, his diminished force was repulsed
+by Crassus, one of the richest men of Rome, who had taken the field as
+pr&aelig;tor. Spartacus would still have fought his way towards the Alps but
+for his followers, whose impatient thirst for rapine forced him to march
+southward again.</p>
+
+<p>Every Roman force that assailed him on this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> march was hurled back in
+defeat. He even meditated an attack on Rome itself, but relinquished
+this plan as too desperate, and instead employed his men in collecting
+arms and treasure from the cities of central and southern Italy.
+Discipline was almost at an end. The wild horde of slaves and outlaws
+were beyond any strict military control. So great and general were their
+ravages that in a later day the poet Horace promised his friend a jar of
+wine made in the Social War, "if he could find one that had escaped the
+ravages of roaming Spartacus."</p>
+
+<p>In the year 71 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> the most vigorous efforts were made to put down this
+dangerous revolt. Pompey was still in Spain. The only man at home of any
+military reputation was the pr&aelig;tor Crassus, who had amassed an enormous
+fortune by buying up property at famine prices during the Proscription
+of Sulla, and in speculative measures since.</p>
+
+<p>He was given full command, took the field with a large army, restored
+discipline to the beaten bands of the consuls by cruel and rigorous
+measures, and assailed Spartacus in Calabria, where he was seeking to
+rekindle the Servile War, or slave outbreak, in Sicily. He had even
+engaged with pirate captains to transport a part of his force to Sicily,
+but the freebooters took the money and sailed away without the men.</p>
+
+<p>And now began a struggle for life and death. Spartacus was in the
+narrowest part of the foot of Southern Italy. Crassus determined to keep
+him there by building strong lines of intrenchment across the neck of
+land. Spartacus attacked his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> works twice in one day, but each time was
+repulsed with great slaughter. But he defended himself vigorously.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey was now returning from Spain. Crassus, not caring to be robbed of
+the results of his labors, determined to assault Spartacus in his camp.
+But before he could do so the daring gladiator attacked his lines again,
+forced his way through, and marched for Brundusium, where he hoped to
+find ships that would convey him and his men from Italy.</p>
+
+<p>As it happened, a large body of Roman veterans, returning from
+Macedonia, had just reached Brundusium, and undertook its defence.
+Foiled in his purpose, Spartacus turned upon the pursuing army of
+Crassus, like a wolf at bay, and attacked it with the energy of
+desperation. The battle that ensued was contested with the fiercest
+courage. Spartacus and his men were fighting for their lives, and the
+result continued doubtful till the brave gladiator was wounded in the
+thigh by a javelin. Falling on his knee, he fought with the courage of a
+hero until, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead.</p>
+
+<p>His death decided the conflict. Most of his followers were slain on the
+field. A strong body escaped to the mountains, but these were pursued,
+and many fell. Five thousand of them made their way to the north of
+Italy, where they were met by Pompey, on his return from Spain, and
+slaughtered to a man.</p>
+
+<p>Crassus took six thousand prisoners, and these he disposed of in the
+cruel Roman way of dealing with revolted slaves, hanging or crucifying
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> whole of them along the road between Rome and Capua.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended far the most important outbreak of Roman gladiators and
+slaves. The south of Italy suffered horribly from its ravages, but not
+through any act of Spartacus, who throughout showed a moderation equal
+to his courage and military ability. Had it not been for the lawless
+character of his followers his career might have had a very different
+ending, for he had shown himself a commander of rare ability and
+unconquerable courage.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>C&AElig;SAR AND THE PIRATES.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have spoken of the pirates who agreed to convey the forces of
+Spartacus from Italy to Sicily, but faithlessly sailed away with his
+money and without his men. From times immemorial the Mediterranean had
+been ravaged by pirate fleets, which made the inlets of Asia Minor and
+the isles of the Archipelago their places of shelter, whence they dashed
+out on rapid raids, and within which they vanished when attacked.</p>
+
+<p>This piracy reached its highest power during and after the Social and
+Civil Wars of Rome, the outlaws taking prompt advantage of the
+distractions of the times, and gaining a strength and audacity unknown
+before. Their chief places of refuge were in the coast districts of
+Cilicia and Pisidia, in Asia Minor, while in the mountain valleys which
+led down from Taurus to that coast they had strongholds difficult of
+access, and enabling them to defy attack by land.</p>
+
+<p>They were now aided by Mithridates, who supplied them with money and
+encouraged their raids. So great became their audacity that they carried
+off important personages from the coast of Italy, among them two
+pr&aelig;tors, whom they held to ransom. They ravaged all unguarded shores,
+and are said to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> captured in all four hundred important towns. The
+riches gained in these raids were displayed with the ostentation of
+conquerors. The sails of their ships were dyed with that costly Tyrian
+purple which at a later date was reserved for the robes of emperors;
+their oars were inlaid with silver, and their pennants glittered with
+gold. As for the merchant fleets of Rome, they made their journeys under
+constant risk, and there was danger, if the pirates were not suppressed,
+that they would cut off the entire grain-supply from Africa and Sicily.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting story told in connection with these marauders is
+connected with the youthful days of Julius C&aelig;sar, afterwards so great a
+man in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 76 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> C&aelig;sar, then a young man of twenty-four, and
+seemingly given over to mere enjoyment of life, with no indications of
+political aspiration, was on his way to the island of Rhodes, where he
+wished to perfect himself in oratory in the famous school of Apollonius
+Melo, in which Cicero, a few years before, had gained instruction in the
+art. Cicero had taught Rome the full power of oratory, and C&aelig;sar, who
+was no mean orator by nature, and recognized the usefulness of the art,
+naturally sought instruction from Cicero's teacher.</p>
+
+<p>He was travelling as a gentleman of rank, but on his way was taken
+prisoner by pirates, who, deeming him a person of great distinction,
+held him at a high ransom. For six weeks C&aelig;sar remained in their hands,
+waiting until his ransom should be paid. He was in no respect downcast
+by his misfortune, but took part freely in the games and pastimes of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> pirates, and, according to Plutarch, treated them with such disdain
+that whenever their noise disturbed his sleep he sent orders to them to
+keep silence. In his familiar conversations with the chiefs he plainly
+told them that he would one day crucify them all. Doubtless they laughed
+heartily at this pleasantry, as they deemed it, but they were to find it
+a grim sort of jest.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was released at last, the ransom paid amounting to about fifty
+thousand dollars. He lost not a moment in carrying out his threat.
+Obtaining a fleet of Milesian vessels, he sailed immediately to the
+island in which he had been held captive, and descended upon the pirates
+so suddenly that he took them prisoners while they were engaged in
+dividing their plunder. Carrying them to Pergamus, he handed them over
+to the civil authorities, by whom his promise of crucifying them all was
+duly carried out. Then he went to Rhodes, and spent two years in the
+study of elocution. He had proved himself an awkward kind of prey for
+pirates.</p>
+
+<p>These worthies continued their depredations, and became at length so
+annoying that extraordinary measures were taken for their suppression.
+Pompey, then the most powerful man in Rome, was given absolute control
+over the Mediterranean. This was not done without opposition, for it was
+feared that he aspired to kingly rule. "You aspire to be Romulus; beware
+of the fate of Romulus," said some of the opposing senators.</p>
+
+<p>Despite opposition the power was given him, and he used it with
+remarkable results. A large fleet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> was at once got ready and put to sea,
+confining its operations at first to the west of the Mediterranean, and
+driving the piratical fleets towards their lurking-places in the east.
+Land troops meanwhile guarded the coasts. In the brief space of forty
+days he reported to the senate that the whole sea west of Greece was
+cleared of pirates.</p>
+
+<p>Then he sailed for the Archipelago, swept its inlets, spread his ships
+everywhere, and drove the foe towards Cilicia. Here they gathered their
+fleet and gave him battle, but suffered a total defeat. A surrender
+followed, to which he won them over by lenient terms. In three months
+from the day he began his work the war was ended, and the pirates who
+had so long troubled the republic of Rome had retired from business.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>C&AElig;SAR AND POMPEY.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> were three leaders in Rome, Pompey, whom Sulla had named the
+Great, Crassus, the rich, and C&aelig;sar, the shrewd and wise. Two of these
+had reached their utmost height. For Pompey there was to be no more
+greatness, for Crassus no more riches. But C&aelig;sar was the coming man of
+Rome. After a youth given to profligate pleasures, in which he spent
+money as fast as Crassus collected it, and accumulated debt more rapidly
+than Pompey accumulated fame, the innate powers of the man began to
+declare themselves. He studied oratory and made his mark in the Roman
+Forum; he studied the political situation, and step by step made himself
+a power among men. He was shrewd enough to cultivate Pompey, then the
+Roman favorite, and brought himself into closer relations with him by
+marrying his relative. Steadily he grew into public favor and respect,
+and laid his hands on the reins of control.</p>
+
+<p>There was a fourth man of prominence, Cicero, the great scholar,
+philosopher, and orator. He prosecuted Verres, who, as governor of
+Sicily, had committed frightful excesses, and drove him from Rome. He
+prosecuted Catiline, who had made a conspiracy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> to seize the government,
+and even to burn Rome. The conspirators were foiled and Catiline killed.
+But Cicero, earnest and eloquent as he was, lacked manliness and
+courage, and was driven into exile by his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>There remained the three leaders, Pompey, C&aelig;sar, and Crassus, and these
+three made a secret compact to control the government, forming what
+became known as a <i>triumvirate</i>, or three man power. Pompey married
+Julia, the young and beautiful daughter of C&aelig;sar, and the two seemed
+very closely united.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was elected consul, and in this position won public favor by
+proposing some highly popular laws. After his year as consul he was made
+governor of Gaul, and now began an extraordinary career. The man who had
+by turns shown himself a dissolute spendthrift, an orator, and a
+political leader, suddenly developed a new power, and proved himself one
+of the greatest soldiers the world has ever known.</p>
+
+<p>Gaul, as then known, had two divisions,&mdash;Cisalpine Gaul, or the Gaulish
+settlements in Northern Italy; and Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the
+Alps, including the present countries of France and Switzerland. In the
+latter country Rome possessed only a narrow strip of land, then known as
+the Province, since then known as the country of Provence.</p>
+
+<p>From this centre C&aelig;sar, with the small army under his command,
+consisting of three legions, entered upon a career of conquest which
+astonished Rome and drew upon him the eyes of the civilized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> world. He
+had hardly been appointed when he received word that the Helvetian
+tribes of Switzerland were advancing on Geneva, the northern outpost of
+the Province, with a view of invading the West. He hastened thither, met
+and defeated them, killed a vast multitude, and drove the remnant back
+to their own country. Then, invited by some northern tribes, he attacked
+a great German band which had invaded Northern Gaul, and defeated them
+so utterly that few escaped across the Rhine. From that point he made
+his way into and conquered Belgium. In a year's time he had vastly
+extended the Roman dominion in the West.</p>
+
+<p>For nine years this career of conquest continued. The barbarian Gauls
+proved fierce and valiant soldiers, but at the end of that time they had
+been completely subdued and made passive subjects of Rome. C&aelig;sar even
+crossed the sea into Britain, and look the first step towards the
+conquest of that island, of which Rome had barely heard before.</p>
+
+<p>During this career of conquest many hundreds of thousands of men were
+slain. But, then, C&aelig;sar was victorious and Rome triumphant, and what
+mattered it if a million or two of barbarians were sacrificed to the
+demon of conquest? It mattered little to Rome, in which great city
+barbarian life was scarcely worth a second thought. It mattered little
+to C&aelig;sar, who, like all great conquerors, was quite willing to mount to
+power on a ladder of human lives.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile what were C&aelig;sar's partners in the Triumvirate doing? When
+C&aelig;sar was given the province of Gaul, Pompey was made governor of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+Spain, and Crassus of Syria. Crassus, who had gained some military fame
+by overcoming Spartacus the gladiator, wished to gain more, and sailed
+for Asia, where he stirred up a war with distant Parthia. That was the
+end of Crassus. He marched into the desert of Mesopotamia, and left his
+body on the sands. His head was sent to Orodes, the Parthian king, who
+ordered molten gold to be poured into his mouth,&mdash;a ghastly commentary
+on his thirst for wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey left Spain to take care of itself, and remained in Rome, where he
+sought to add to his popularity by building a great stone theatre, large
+enough to hold forty thousand people, where for many days he amused the
+people with plays and games. Here, for the first time, a rhinoceros was
+shown. Eighteen elephants were killed by Libyan hunters, and five
+hundred lions were slain, while hosts of gladiators fought for life and
+honor.</p>
+
+<p>While thus seeking popular favor, Pompey was secretly working against
+the interests of C&aelig;sar, of whose fame he had grown jealous. His wife
+Julia died, and he joined his strength with that of the aristocrats;
+while C&aelig;sar, a nephew of old Marius, was looked upon as a leader of the
+party of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey's power and influence over the senate increased until he was
+virtually dictator in Rome. C&aelig;sar's ten years' governorship in Gaul
+would expire on the 1st of January, 49 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, and it was resolved by
+Pompey and the senate to deprive him of the command of the army. But
+C&aelig;sar was not the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> man to be dealt with in this summary manner. His
+career of conquest ended, he entered his province of Cisalpine Gaul, or
+Northern Italy, where he was received as a great hero and conqueror.
+From here he sent secret agents to Rome, bribed with large sums a number
+of important persons, and took other steps to guard his interests.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the senate tried to disarm C&aelig;sar by unfair means. They had the
+power to shorten or lengthen the year as they pleased, and announced
+that that year would end on November 12, and that C&aelig;sar must resign his
+authority on the 13th. Curio, a tribune of Rome and C&aelig;sar's agent, said
+that it was only fair that Pompey also should give up the command of the
+army which he had near Rome. This he refused to do, and Curio publicly
+declared that he was trying to make himself a tyrant.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the senate decreed that each general should give up one legion,
+to be used in a war with the Parthians. There was no such war, but it
+was pretended that there soon would be. Pompey agreed, but he called
+upon C&aelig;sar to send him back a legion which he had lent him three years
+before. C&aelig;sar did not hesitate to do so: he sent Pompey's legion and his
+own; but he took care to win the soldiers by giving each a valuable
+present as he went away. These legions were not sent to Asia, but to
+Capua. The senate wanted them for use nearer than Parthia.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was then at Ravenna, a sea-side city on the southern limit of his
+province. South of it flowed a little stream called the Rubicon, which
+formed his border-line. Here he took a bold step. He sent a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> letter to
+the senate, offering to give up his command if Pompey would do the same.
+A violent debate followed in the senate, and a decree was passed that
+unless C&aelig;sar laid down his command by a certain day he should be
+declared an outlaw and enemy of Rome. At the same time the two consuls
+were made dictators, and the two tribunes who favored C&aelig;sar&mdash;one of them
+the afterwards famous Marc Antony&mdash;fled for safety from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The decree of the senate was equivalent to a declaration of war. On the
+one side was Pompey, proud, over-confident, and unprepared. On the other
+was C&aelig;sar, knowing his strength, satisfied in the power of the money he
+had so freely distributed, and sure of his men. He called his soldiers
+together and asked if they would support him. They answered that they
+would follow wherever he led. At once he marched for the Rubicon, the
+limit of his province, to cross which stream meant an invasion of Italy
+and civil war.</p>
+
+<p>Plutarch tells us that he halted here and deeply meditated, troubled by
+the thought that to cross that stream meant the death of thousands of
+his countrymen. After a period of such meditation, he cried aloud, "The
+die is cast; let us go where the gods and the injustice of our foes
+direct!" and, spurring his horse forward, he plunged into the stream.</p>
+
+<p>This story, which has been effectively used by a great epic poet of
+Rome, probably relates what never happened. From all we know of C&aelig;sar,
+the question of bloodshed in attaining the aims of his ambition did not
+greatly trouble his mind. Yet the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> story has taken hold, and "to cross
+the Rubicon" has become a proverb, signifying the taking of a step of
+momentous importance.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, after the legions sent the senate, had but a single legion left
+with him. He sent orders to others to join him with all haste, but they
+were distant. As for Pompey, knowing and despising the weakness of his
+rival, he had made no preparations. He had C&aelig;sar's two legions at Capua
+and one of his own at Rome, while thousands of Sulla's veterans were
+settled in the country round. "I have but to stamp my foot," he said,
+"and armed men will start from the soil of Italy."</p>
+
+<p>He did not stamp, or, if he did, the armed men did not start. C&aelig;sar
+marched southward with his accustomed rapidity. Town after town opened
+its gates to him. Labienus, one of his principal officers, deserted to
+Pompey. C&aelig;sar showed his contempt by sending his baggage after him. Two
+legions from Gaul having reached him, he pushed more boldly still to the
+south. The cities taken were treated as friends; there was no pillage,
+no violence. Everywhere C&aelig;sar won golden opinions by his humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Pompey's armed men came not; his rival was rapidly
+approaching; he and his party of the senate fled from Rome. They reached
+Brundusium, where C&aelig;sar with six legions quickly appeared. The town was
+strong, and Pompey took his time to embark his men and sail from Italy.
+Disappointed of his prey, C&aelig;sar turned back, and entered Rome on April
+1, now full lord and master of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> Italy and its capital city. In the
+treasury of that city was a sacred hoard of money, which had been set
+aside since the invasion of the Gauls, centuries before. The people
+voted this money for his use. There was no more danger from the Gauls,
+it was said, for they had all become subjects of Rome. Yet the keeper of
+the treasury refused to produce the keys, and when C&aelig;sar ordered the
+doors to be broken open, tried to bar his passage into the sacred
+chamber.</p>
+
+<p>"Stand aside, young man," said C&aelig;sar, with stern dignity; "it is easier
+for me to do than to say."</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar was not the man to rest while an enemy was at large. Pompey had
+gone to the East. There was no fleet with which to follow him; and in
+Spain Pompey had an army of veterans, who might enter Italy as soon as
+he left it. These must first be dealt with.</p>
+
+<p>This did not delay him long. Before the year closed all Spain was his.
+Most of the soldiers of Pompey joined his army. Those who did not were
+dismissed unharmed. Everywhere he showed the greatest leniency, and
+everywhere won friends. On his return to Rome he gained new friends by
+passing laws relieving debtors and restoring their civil rights to the
+children of Sulla's victims.</p>
+
+<p>He remained in Rome only eleven days, and then sailed for Greece, where
+Pompey had gathered a large army. It was January 4, 48 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, when he
+sailed. On June 6 of the same year was fought, at Pharsalia, in
+Thessaly, a great battle which decided the fate of the Roman world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p><p>Pompey's army consisted of about forty-four thousand men. C&aelig;sar had but
+half as many. But his men were all veterans; many of those of Pompey
+were new levies, collected in Asia and Macedonia. The battle was fierce
+and desperate. During its course the cavalry of Pompey attacked C&aelig;sar's
+weak troops and drove them back. The infantry advanced to their support,
+and struck straight at the faces of the foe. Plutarch tells us that this
+cavalry was made up of young Romans, of the aristocratic class and proud
+of their beauty, and that the order was given to C&aelig;sar's soldiers to
+spoil their beauty for them. But this story, like many told by Plutarch,
+lacks proof.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever was the cause, the cavalry were broken and fled in disorder.
+C&aelig;sar's reserve force now attacked Pompey's worn troops, who gave way
+everywhere. C&aelig;sar ordered that all Romans should be spared, and only the
+Asiatics pursued. The legions, hearing of this, ceased to resist. The
+foreign soldiers fled, after great slaughter. Pompey rode hastily from
+the field.</p>
+
+<p>The camp was taken. The booty captured was immense. But C&aelig;sar would not
+let his soldiers rest or plunder till they had completed their work.
+This proved easy; all the Romans submitted; the Asiatics fled. Pompey
+put to sea, where he had still a powerful fleet. Africa was his, and he
+determined to take refuge in Egypt. It proved that he had enemies there.
+A small boat was sent off to bring him ashore. Among those on board was
+an officer named Septimius, who had served under Pompey in the war with
+the pirates.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p><p>Pompey recognized his old officer, and entered the boat alone, his wife
+and friends watching from the vessel as he was rowed ashore. On the
+beach a number of persons were collected, as if to receive him with
+honor. The boat stopped. Pompey took the hand of the person next him to
+assist him to rise. As he did so Septimius, who stood behind, struck him
+with his sword. Pompey, finding that he was among enemies, made no
+resistance, and the next blow laid him low in death. His assassins cut
+off his head and left his body on the beach. Here one of his freedmen
+and an old soldier of his army broke up a fishing-boat and made him a
+rude funeral pile. Such were the obsequies of the one-time master of the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Pharsalia practically ended the struggle that made C&aelig;sar
+lord of Rome. Some more fighting was necessary. Africa was still in
+arms. But a few short campaigns sufficed to bring it to terms, while a
+campaign against a son of Mithridates ended in five days, C&aelig;sar's
+victory being announced to the senate in three short words, "Veni, vidi,
+vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). Then he returned to Rome, where he
+shed not a drop of the blood of his enemies, though that of gladiators
+and wild animals was freely spilled in the gorgeous games and festivals
+with which he amused the sovereign people.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE ASSASSINATION OF C&AElig;SAR.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> republic of Rome was at an end. The army had become the power, and
+the will of the head of the army was the law, of the state. C&aelig;sar
+celebrated his victories with grand triumphs; but he celebrated them
+more notably still by a clemency that signified his innate nobility of
+character. Instead of dyeing the streets of Rome with blood, as Marius
+and Sulla had done before him, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and his
+rise to power was not signalized by the slaughter of one of his foes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image9.jpg" width="600" height="407" alt="THE ASSASSINATION OF C&AElig;SAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE ASSASSINATION OF C&AElig;SAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>He signalized it, on the contrary, by an activity in civil reform as
+marked as had been his energy in war. The title and privilege of Roman
+citizenship had so far been confined to Italians. He extended it to many
+parts of Gaul and Spain. He formed plans to drain the Pontine marshes,
+to make a survey and map of the empire, to form a code of laws, and
+other great works, which he did not live to fulfil. Of all his reforms,
+the best known is the revision of the Calendar. Before his time the
+Roman year was three hundred and fifty-five days long, an extra month
+being occasionally added, so as to regain the lost days. But this was
+very irregularly done, and the civil year had got to be far away from
+the solar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> year. To correct this C&aelig;sar was obliged to add ninety days to
+the year 46 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span>, which was therefore given the unprecedented length of
+four hundred and forty-five days. He ordered that the year in future
+should be three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days in length, a
+change which brought it very nearly, but not quite, to the true length.
+A new reform was made in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII., which made the
+civil and solar years almost exactly agree.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar did not live to see his reforms consummated. He was murdered,
+perhaps because he had refused to murder. In a few months after he had
+brought the civil war to an end he fell the victim of assassins. The
+story of his death is famous in Roman history, and must here be told.</p>
+
+<p>After his triumphs C&aelig;sar, who had been dictator twice before, was named
+dictator for the term of ten years. He was also made censor for three
+years. These offices gave him such unlimited power that he was declared
+absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the citizens and subjects
+of Rome. Imperator men called him, a term we translate emperor, and
+after his return from Spain, where he overthrew the last army of his
+foes, the senate named him dictator and imperator for life.</p>
+
+<p>These high honors were not sufficient for C&aelig;sar's ambition. He wished to
+be made king. He had no son of his own, but desired to make his power
+hereditary, and chose his grandnephew Octavius as his heir. But he was
+to find the people resolutely bent on having no king over Rome.</p>
+
+<p>To try their temper some of his friends placed a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> crown on his statue in
+the Forum. Two of the tribunes tore it off, and the crowd loudly
+applauded. Later, at the festival of the Alban Mount, some voices in the
+crowd hailed him as king. But the mutterings of the multitude grew so
+loud, that he quickly cried, "I am no king, but C&aelig;sar."</p>
+
+<p>At the feast of the Lupercalia, on February 15, he was approached by
+Marc Antony, as he sat in his golden chair, and offered an embroidered
+band, such as the sovereigns of Asia wore on their heads. The crowd
+failed to applaud, and C&aelig;sar pushed it aside. Then the multitude broke
+out in a roar of applause. Again and again he rejected the glittering
+bauble, and again the people broke into loud cries of approval. It was
+evident that they would have no king. At a later date it was moved in
+the senate that C&aelig;sar should be king in the provinces; but he died
+before this decree could be put in effect.</p>
+
+<p>There was discontent at Rome. Even the clemency of C&aelig;sar had made him
+enemies, for there were many who hoped to profit by proscription. His
+justice made foes among those who wished to grow rich through extortion
+and oppression. He secluded himself while engaged on his reforms, and
+this lost him popularity. A conspiracy was organized against him by a
+soldier named Caius Cassius and others of the discontented. For leader
+they selected Marcus Junius Brutus, who believed himself a descendant of
+the Brutus of old, and was won to their plot by being told that, while
+his great ancestor had expelled the last king of Rome, he was resting
+content under the rule of a new king.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p><p>Brutus, at length convinced that C&aelig;sar was seeking to overthrow the
+Roman republic, and that patriotism required him to emulate the famous
+Brutus of old, joined the conspiracy, which now included more than sixty
+persons, most of whom had received benefits and honors from the man they
+wished to kill. But no considerations of gratitude prevailed; they
+determined on C&aelig;sar's death; and the meeting of the senate called for
+the Ides of March (March 15) was fixed for the time and place of the
+projected murder.</p>
+
+<p>The morning of that day seemed full of omens and warnings. The secret
+was oozing out. C&aelig;sar received more than one intimation of impending
+danger. A soothsayer had even bidden him to "beware of the Ides of
+March." During the preceding night his wife was so disturbed by dreams
+that in the morning she begged him not to go that day to the senate, as
+she was sure some peril was at hand. Her words failed to trouble C&aelig;sar's
+resolute mind, but to quiet her apprehensions he agreed not to go, and
+directed Marc Antony to preside over the senate in his stead.</p>
+
+<p>When this word was brought to the assembled senate the conspirators were
+in despair. Their secret was known to too many to remain a secret long.
+Even a day's delay might be fatal. An hour might put C&aelig;sar on his guard.
+What was to be done? Unless their victim could be brought to the senate
+chamber all would be lost.</p>
+
+<p>Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators who had been favored by C&aelig;sar's
+bounty, went hastily to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> house, and, telling him that the senate
+proposed that day to make him king of the provinces, bade him not to
+yield to such idle matters as auguries and dreams, but show himself
+above any such superstitious weakness. These cunning arguments induced
+C&aelig;sar to change his mind, and he called for his litter and was carried
+forth.</p>
+
+<p>On his way to the senate new intimations of danger came to him. A slave
+had in some way discovered the conspiracy, and tried to force himself
+through the crowd to the dictator's litter, but was driven back by the
+throng. Another informant was more fortunate. A Greek philosopher,
+Artemidorus by name, had also discovered the conspiracy, and succeeded
+in reaching C&aelig;sar's side. He thrust into his hand a roll of paper
+containing a full account of the impending peril. But the star of C&aelig;sar
+that day was against him. Thinking the roll to contain a petition of
+some sort, he laid it in the litter by his side, to examine at a more
+convenient time. And thus he went on to his death, despite all the
+warnings sent him by the fates.</p>
+
+<p>The conspirators meanwhile were far from easy in mind. There were signs
+among them that their plot had leaked out. Casca, one of their number,
+was accosted by a friend, "Ah, Casca, Brutus has told me your secret."
+The conspirator started in alarm, but was relieved by the next words,
+"Where will you find money for the expenses of the &aelig;dileship?" The man
+evidently referred to an expected office.</p>
+
+<p>Another senator, Popillius L&aelig;nas, hit the mark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> closer. "You have my
+good wishes; but what you do, do quickly," he said to Brutus and
+Cassius.</p>
+
+<p>The alarm caused by his words was doubled when he stepped up to C&aelig;sar,
+on his entrance to the chamber, and began to whisper in his ear. Cassius
+was so terrified that he grasped his dagger with the thought of killing
+himself. He was stopped by Brutus, who quietly said that Popillius
+seemed rather to be asking a favor than telling a secret. Whatever his
+purpose, C&aelig;sar was not checked, but moved quietly on and took his seat.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately Cimber, one of the conspirators, approached with a petition,
+in which he begged for the recall of his brother from banishment. The
+others pressed round, praying C&aelig;sar to grant his request. Displeased by
+their importunity, C&aelig;sar attempted to rise, but was pulled down into his
+seat by Cimber, while Casca stabbed him in the side, but inflicted only
+a slight wound. Then they all assailed him with drawn daggers.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar kept them off for a brief time by winding his gown as a shield
+round his left arm, and using his sharp writing style for a weapon. But
+when he saw Brutus approach prepared to strike he exclaimed in deep
+sorrow and reproach, "<i>Et tu, Brute!</i>" (Thou too, Brutus!) and covering
+his face with his gown, he ceased to resist. Their daggers pierced his
+body till he had received twenty-three wounds, when he fell dead at the
+base of the statue of Pompey, which looked silently down on the
+slaughter of his great and successful rival.</p>
+
+<p>What followed this base and fruitless deed may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> briefly told. The
+senators not in the plot rose in alarm and fled from the house. When
+Brutus turned to seek to justify his deed only empty benches remained.
+Then the assassins hurried to the Forum, to tell the people that they
+had freed Rome from a despot. But the people were hostile, and the words
+of Brutus fell on unfriendly ears.</p>
+
+<p>Marc Antony followed, and delivered a telling oration, which Shakespeare
+has magnificently paraphrased. He showed the mob a waxen image of
+C&aelig;sar's body, pierced with wounds, and the garment rent by murderous
+blades. His words wrought his hearers to fury. They tore up benches,
+tables, and everything on which they could lay their hands, for a
+funeral pile, placed on it the corpse, and set it on fire. Then, seizing
+blazing embers from the pile, they rushed in quest of vengeance to the
+houses of the conspirators. They were too late; all had fled. The will
+of the dictator, in which he had made a large donation to every citizen
+of Rome, added to the popular fury, and a frenzy of vengeance took
+possession of the people of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="600" height="363" alt="ANTONY&#39;S ORATION OVER C&AElig;SAR." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ANTONY&#39;S ORATION OVER C&AElig;SAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must give the sequel of this murderous deed in a few words. Marc
+Antony was now master of Rome. He increased his power by pretending
+moderation, and having a law passed to abolish the dictatorship forever.
+But there were other actors on the scene. Octavius, whom C&aelig;sar's will
+had named as his heir, took quick steps to gain his heritage. Antony had
+taken possession of C&aelig;sar's wealth, but Octavius managed to raise money
+enough to pay his uncle's legacy to the citizens of Rome. A third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> man
+of power was Lepidus, who commanded an army near Rome, and was prepared
+to take part in the course of events.</p>
+
+<p>Octavius was still only a boy, not yet twenty years of age. But he was
+shrewd and ambitious, and soon succeeded in having himself elected
+consul and put at the head of a large army. Cicero aided him with a
+series of orations directed against Antony, which were so keen and
+bitter, and had such an effect upon the people, that Antony was declared
+a public enemy. Octavius marched to meet him and Lepidus, who were
+marching southward with another large army.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of fighting, however, the three leaders met in secret conclave,
+and agreed to divide the power in Rome between them. This compact is
+known as the Second Triumvirate. Its members followed the example of
+Marius and Sulla, not that of C&aelig;sar, and resolved to extirpate their
+enemies. Each of them gave up personal friends to the vengeance of the
+others. Of their victims the most famous was Cicero, who had delivered
+his orations against Antony in aid of Octavius. The ambitious boy was
+base enough to yield his friend to the vengeance of the incensed Antony.
+No less than three hundred senators and two thousand knights fell
+victims to this new proscription, which while it lasted made a reign of
+terror in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Brutus and Cassius had meanwhile made themselves masters of Greece and
+the eastern provinces of Rome, and were ready to meet the forces of the
+Triumvirate in the field. The decisive battle was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> fought on the field
+of Philippi in Northern Greece. The division of Cassius was defeated,
+and he killed himself in despair. Twenty days afterwards another battle
+was fought on the same field, in which Brutus was defeated, and likewise
+put an end to his life. The triumvirs were undisputed lords of Rome. The
+imperial rule of C&aelig;sar had lasted but a few months, and ended with his
+life. But with Octavius began an imperial era which lasted till the end
+of the dominion of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> battles of Philippi and the death of Brutus and Cassius put an end
+to the republican party to whom C&aelig;sar owed his death. The whole realm
+was handed over to the imperial Triumvirate, who now made a new division
+of the vast Roman world. Antony took as his share all the mighty realm
+of the East; Octavius all the West. To Lepidus, whom his powerful
+confederates did not take the trouble to consult, only Africa was left.</p>
+
+<p>The after-career of Antony was a curious and impressive one. He loved a
+bewitching Egyptian queen, and for a false love lost the vast dominion
+he had won. The story is one of the most romantic and popular of all
+that have come to us from the past. It has been told in detail by
+Plutarch and richly dramatized by Shakespeare. We give it here in brief
+epitome.</p>
+
+<p>Fourteen years previously Antony had visited Alexandria, and had there
+seen the youthful Cleopatra, then a girl of fifteen, but already so
+beautiful and attractive that the susceptible Roman was deeply smitten
+with her charms. Later she had charmed C&aelig;sar, and now when the lord of
+the East set out on a tour of his new dominions, the love queen of Egypt
+left her capital for Cilicia with the purpose of making him her captive.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p><p>It was midsummer of the year 41 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> when Antony arrived at Tarsus, on
+the river Cydnus. Up this stream to visit him came, in more than
+Oriental pomp, the beautiful Egyptian queen. The galley that bore her
+was gorgeous beyond comparison. Its sails were of Tyrian purple; silver
+oars fretted the yielding wave, while music timed their rise and fall;
+the poop glittered with burnished gold; rich perfumes filled the air
+with fragrance. Here, on a splendid couch, under a spangled canopy,
+reclined Cleopatra, attired as Venus, and surrounded by attendants
+dressed as Graces and Cupids. Beautiful slaves moved oars and ropes, and
+the whole array was one of wondrous charm. We cannot do better than
+quote Shakespeare's vivid description of this unequalled spectacle:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+"The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne,<br />
+Burned on the water; the poop was beaten gold;<br />
+Purple the sails, and so perfumed that<br />
+The winds were love-sick with them; the oars were silver,<br />
+Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made<br />
+The water that they beat to follow faster,<br />
+As amorous of their strokes. For her own person,<br />
+It beggared all description; she did lie<br />
+In her pavilion&mdash;cloth-of-gold of tissue&mdash;<br />
+Outpicturing that Venus where we see<br />
+The fancy outwork nature; on each side her<br />
+Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,<br />
+With divers-colored fans, whose wind did seem<br />
+To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool."<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The people of Tarsus ran in crowds to gaze on this wondrous spectacle,
+leaving Antony alone in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> Forum. At the request of Cleopatra he came
+also, and was so captivated at sight that he became her slave. He forgot
+Rome, forgot his wife Fulvia, forgot honor and dignity, through his wild
+passion for this Egyptian sorceress. Following her to Alexandria, he
+laid aside his Roman garb for the Oriental costume of the Egyptian
+court, gave way to all Cleopatra's pleasure-loving caprices, and lived
+in a perpetual round of orgies and festivities, heedless of honor and
+duty, and caring for naught but love and sensual enjoyment.</p>
+
+<p>Intoxicated with pleasure, Antony did not know what risk he ran. Shortly
+before Octavius had been spoken of as a boy, whom it would be easy to
+manage and control. He was feeble and sickly,&mdash;so much so, indeed, that
+just at this time his death was reported in Rome. But the "boy" was
+ambitious, astute, and far-seeing, and Marc Antony was descending to
+ruin with every step he took in his career of folly and profligacy.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the succeeding years is long, but must here be made
+short. The two lords of Rome were changed from friends to enemies by the
+act of Fulvia, the wife of Antony. Octavius had married her daughter
+Claudia, and now divorced her. Anger at this, and a hope of winning
+Antony from the seductions of the Egyptian queen, caused her to organize
+a formidable revolt against Octavius. She succeeded in raising a large
+army, but Antony was still too absorbed in Cleopatra to come to her aid,
+and Agrippa, the able general of Octavius, soon put down the revolt.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p><p>Then, when it was too late to help her, Antony awoke from his lethargy,
+and sailed to battle with Octavius. He besieged Brundusium. But Fulvia
+had died, the soldiers had no heart for civil war, and the great rivals
+again made peace. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, they
+divided the Roman world between them as before, and Rome was made happy
+by a grand round of games and festivities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image11.jpg" width="600" height="326" alt="THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For three years Antony remained true to his new wife, and aided Octavius
+in putting down the foes of Rome. Then, during a campaign in Syria, his
+old passion for the fascinating Egyptian returned, he called Cleopatra
+to him, dallied with her instead of prosecuting his march, and in the
+end was forced to retreat in haste from the barbarian foe.</p>
+
+<p>For three years now Antony was the willing slave of the enchanting
+queen. The courage and stoical endurance of the soldier vanished, and
+were replaced by the soft indulgence of the voluptuary. The rigid
+discipline of the camp was exchanged for the idle and often childish
+amusements of the Oriental court. Cleopatra enchained him with an
+endless round of pleasures and profligacies. Now, while in a
+fishing-boat on the Nile, the queen amused him by having salted fish
+fixed by divers on his hook, which he drew up amid the laughter of the
+party. Again she wagered that she would consume ten million sesterces at
+a meal, and won her wager by drinking vinegar in which she had dissolved
+a priceless pearl. All the enjoyments that the fancy of the cunning
+enchantress could devise were spread around him,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> and he let the world
+roll unheeded by while he yielded to their alluring charm.</p>
+
+<p>Antony posed at festive tables in the character of the god Osiris, while
+Cleopatra played the r&ocirc;le of Isis. He issued coins which bore her head
+and his. He gave away kingdoms and principalities in the East to please
+her fancy. It was her hope and aim to lead her yielding lover to the
+conquest of Rome, and to rule as empress of that imperial city.</p>
+
+<p>But the madness of Antony led to destruction, not empire. The story of
+his doings was repeated at Rome, where the voluptuary lost credit as
+Octavius gained it. Antony's friends urged him to dismiss Cleopatra and
+fight for the empire. Instead of this the infatuated madman divorced
+Octavia and clung to the Egyptian queen.</p>
+
+<p>This act led to an open rupture. Octavius, by authority of the senate,
+declared war, not against Antony, but against Cleopatra. Antony was at
+length roused. He gathered an army in haste, passed to Ephesus and
+Athens, and everywhere levied men and collected ships. A last and great
+struggle for the supreme headship of the Roman world was at hand.</p>
+
+<p>Octavius was not skilled in war, but he had in Agrippa one of the ablest
+of ancient generals, and was wise enough to trust all warlike operations
+to him. Antony had strongly fortified himself at Actium, on the west
+coast of Greece, while the strong fleet he had gathered lay in its
+spacious bay. Here took place one of the decisive battles of the world's
+history.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p><p>Antony had made the fatal mistake of bringing Cleopatra with him. Under
+her advice he played the part of a poltroon instead of a soldier. His
+chief officers, disgusted by his fascination, deserted him in numbers,
+and, yielding to her urgent fears, he resolved to fly with the fleet and
+abandon the army.</p>
+
+<p>In this act of folly he failed. A strong gale from the south kept the
+fleet for four days in the harbor. Then the ships of Octavius came up,
+and the two fleets joined battle off the headland of Actium.</p>
+
+<p>The ships of Antony were much larger and more powerful than those of
+Octavius. Little impression was made on them by the light Italian
+vessels, and had Antony been a soldier still, or Cleopatra possessed as
+much courage as guile, the victory might well have been theirs. But
+battle was no place for the pleasure-loving queen. Filled with terror,
+she took advantage of the first wind that came, and sailed hastily away,
+followed by sixty Egyptian ships.</p>
+
+<p>The moment Antony discovered her flight he gave up the world for love.
+Springing from his ship-of-war into a light galley, he hastened in wild
+pursuit after his flying mistress. Overtaking her vessel, he went on
+board, but seated himself in morose misery at a distance, and would have
+nothing to do with her. Ruin and despair were now his mistresses.</p>
+
+<p>Their commander fled, the ships fought on, and yielded not till the
+greater part of them were in flames. Before night they were all
+destroyed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> with them perished most of those on board, while all the
+treasure was lost. When the army heard of Antony's desertion the legions
+went over to the conqueror. That brief sea-fight had ended the war.</p>
+
+<p>For a year Octavius did not trouble his rival. He spent the time in
+cementing his power in Greece and Asia Minor. Cleopatra tried her
+fascinations on him, as she had on C&aelig;sar and Antony, but in vain. She
+sought to fly to some place beyond the reach of Rome, but Arabs
+destroyed her ships. At length Octavius came. Antony made some show of
+hostility, but Cleopatra betrayed the fleet to his rival and all
+resistance ended. Octavius entered the open gates of Alexandria as a
+conqueror.</p>
+
+<p>The queen shut herself up in a building which she had erected as a
+mausoleum. It had no door, being built to receive her body after death,
+and word was sent out that she was already dead.</p>
+
+<p>When these false tidings were brought to Antony all his anger against
+the fair traitress was replaced by a flood of his old tenderness. In
+despair he stabbed himself, bidding his attendants to lay his body
+beside that of Cleopatra.</p>
+
+<p>Still living, he was borne to the queen's retreat, where, moved by pity,
+she had him drawn up by cords into an upper window. Here she threw
+herself in agony on his body, bathed his face with her tears, and
+continued to bemoan his fate until he was dead.</p>
+
+<p>She afterwards consented to receive Octavius. He spoke her fairly, but
+she was wise enough to see that all her charms were lost on him, and
+that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> proposed to degrade her by making her walk as a captive in his
+triumph.</p>
+
+<p>With a cunning greater than his own, Cleopatra promised to submit. She
+had no apparent means of taking her life in the cell, every dangerous
+weapon was removed by his orders, and he left her, as he supposed, a
+safe victim of his wiles.</p>
+
+<p>He did not know Cleopatra. When his messengers returned, at the hour
+fixed, to conduct her away, they found only the dead body of Cleopatra
+stretched upon her couch, and by her side her two faithful attendants,
+Iris and Charmion. It is said that she died from the bite of an asp, a
+venomous Egyptian serpent, which had been secretly conveyed to her
+concealed in a basket of fruit; but this story remains unconfirmed.</p>
+
+<p>Plutarch tells the story thus: "But when they opened the doors they
+found Cleopatra stark dead, laid upon a bed of gold, attired and arrayed
+in her royal robes, and one of her two women, who was called Iris, dead
+at her feet, and the other woman (called Charmion) half dead, and
+trembling, trimming the diadem which Cleopatra wore upon her head.</p>
+
+<p>"One of the soldiers, seeing her, angrily said to her, 'Is that well
+done, Charmion?' 'Very well,' said she again, 'and meet for a princess
+descended from the race of so many noble kings.' She said no more, but
+fell down dead, hard by the bed.</p>
+
+<p>"Now C&aelig;sar, though he was marvellous sorry for the death of Cleopatra,
+yet he wondered at her noble mind and courage, and therefore commanded
+that she should be nobly buried and laid by Antony."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p><p>Thus ends the story of these two famous lovers of old. Octavius,
+afterwards known as C&aelig;sar Augustus, reigned sole emperor of Rome, and
+the republic was at an end. He was not formally proclaimed emperor, but
+liberty and independence were thereafter forgotten words in Rome. He
+ended the old era of Roman history by closing the Temple of Janus, for
+the third time since it was built, and by freely forgiving all the
+friends of Antony. He had nothing to fear and had no thirst for blood
+and misery. Base as he had shown himself in his youth, his reign was a
+noble one, and during it Rome reached its highest level of literary and
+military glory.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>AN IMPERIAL MONSTER.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A being</span>, half monster, half madman, had come to empire in Rome. This was
+Caius C&aelig;sar, great-grandson of Augustus, who in his short career as
+emperor displayed a malignant cruelty unsurpassed by the worst of Roman
+emperors, and a mad folly unequalled by any. The only conceivable excuse
+for him is mental disease; but insanity which takes the form of thirst
+for blood, and is combined with unlimited power, is a spectacle to make
+the very gods weep. We describe his career as the most exaggerated
+instance on record of mingled folly and malignity.</p>
+
+<p>Brought up in the camp, he was christened by the soldiers Caligula, from
+the soldier's boots (<i>calig&aelig;</i>) which he wore. By shrewd dissimulation he
+preserved his life through the reign of Tiberius, and was left heir to
+the throne along with the emperor's grandson. But, deceiving the senate
+by his pretended moderation, he was appointed by that body sole emperor.</p>
+
+<p>They little knew what they did. Tiberius, who appears to have read him
+truly, spoke of educating him "for the destruction of the Roman people,"
+and Caligula seemed eager to make these words good.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> At first, indeed,
+he seemed generous and merciful, mingling this affectation with a savage
+profligacy and voluptuousness. Illness, however, apparently affected his
+brain or destroyed what little moral nature he possessed, and he quickly
+embarked on a career of frightful excess and barbarity.</p>
+
+<p>The great wealth left by Tiberius&mdash;over twenty-five million dollars&mdash;was
+expended by him in a single year, and to gain new funds he taxed and
+robbed his subjects to an incredible extent. One of his methods of
+finance was to force wealthy citizens to gamble with him for enormous
+sums, and when they lost their all (they dared not win), he would make
+their lives the stake and bid their friends redeem them. In addition to
+this open robbery of the rich, taxes of all sorts were laid and
+unlimited oppressions enforced. The new edicts of the emperor were
+written so small and posted so high as to be unreadable, yet no excuse
+of ignorance of the law was admitted in extenuation of a fault.</p>
+
+<p>The funds obtained by such oppressive means were lavished on the most
+extravagant follies. We are told of loaves of solid gold set before his
+guests, and the prows of galleys adorned with diamonds. His favorite
+horse was kept in an ivory stable and fed from a golden manger, and when
+invited to a banquet at his own table was regaled with gilded oats,
+served in a golden basin of exquisite workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these domestic follies, he built villas and laid out
+gardens without regard to cost; and, that he might vie with Xerxes, he
+constructed a bridge of ships three miles long, from Bai&aelig; to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> Puteoli,
+on which he built houses and planted trees. This madness was concluded
+by throwing a great many of his guests from the bridge into the sea, and
+by driving recklessly with his war-galley through the throng of boats
+that had gathered to witness the spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>These cruelties were mild compared with his more deliberate ones. Rome
+was filled with executions, the estates of his victims being
+confiscated; and it was his choice delight to have these victims
+tortured and slain in his presence while at dinner, the officers being
+bidden to protract their sufferings, that they might "feel themselves
+die." On one occasion he expressed the mad wish that all the Roman
+people had but one neck, that he might strike it off at a blow.</p>
+
+<p>Priding himself on the indifference with which he could gaze on human
+torture, it was one of his enjoyments to witness criminals torn to
+pieces by wild beasts, and if criminals proved scarce he did not
+hesitate to order some of the spectators to be thrown into the arena. In
+the same manner, if a full supply of gladiators was wanting, he would
+command Roman knights to battle in the arena, taking delight in the fact
+that this was viewed as an infamous pursuit. He kept two lists
+containing names of knights and senators whom he intended to put to
+death, and these contained the majority of both those bodies of Roman
+patricians. He is said to have put one man to death for being better
+dressed than himself, and another for being better looking.</p>
+
+<p>He married more wives than he had years of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>empire; but when one of
+these wives, Drusilla by name, died, he affected the bitterest grief,
+exiling himself to Sicily, and letting his beard and hair grow into wild
+disorder. On his return to Rome his subjects found themselves in a
+dangerous quandary. Those who made a show of sadness were declared
+guilty of disrespect to the memory of the queen, who had been translated
+to the joys of heaven. Those who seemed glad were adjudged equally
+guilty for not mourning her loss. And those who showed neither joy nor
+sorrow were accused of criminal indifference to his feelings. One man,
+who sold warm water in the streets, was sentenced to death for daring to
+pursue his occupation on so solemn an occasion.</p>
+
+<p>At a loss, as it would appear, in what madness next to indulge, Caligula
+finally not only declared himself a god, but erected a temple to his own
+divinity, and created a college of priests to serve at his altar. Among
+these were some of the first senators of Rome, who vied with each other
+in adulation to this impious wretch. Not content with these, he made his
+wife a priest, then his horse, and at length became a priest to himself.
+He played with the dignities of the realm in the same manner as with its
+religion, raised the ministers of his lusts to the highest offices, and
+finally went so far as to make his horse a consul of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In his position as a deity he pretended to be equal to and on friendly
+terms with Jupiter, and would whisper in the ears of his statue as if
+they were in familiar intercourse. He had a machine constructed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> to vie
+with Jupiter's thunder, and during the lightning of a storm would
+challenge the god to mortal combat by hurling stones into the air.</p>
+
+<p>This succession of mad frolics and ruthless cruelties should, it would
+seem, have satisfied even a Caligula, but he managed to overtop them all
+by a supreme piece of folly, which stands alone among human freaks.
+Hitherto his doings had been those of peace; he now resolved to gain
+glory in war, and show the Romans what a man of soldierly mettle they
+had in their emperor. There were no particular wars then afoot, but he
+would make one, and resolved on an invasion of Germany, whose people
+were at that time quiet subjects or allies of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>To decide with him was to act. The army was ordered to prepare with the
+utmost haste, and was driven so fiercely that all was in confusion, the
+roads everywhere being blocked up with hurrying troops and great convoys
+of provisions, all converging rapidly on the line of march. Not waiting
+their arrival, he put himself at the head of the first legions gathered,
+and set out on the march with such furious speed that the legionaries
+were utterly exhausted with fatigue. Then, suddenly changing his mood,
+he affected the slow progress and military pomp of an Oriental king.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching the borders of Germany the emperor found no foes and showed
+no fancy for fighting. Concealing some boys in a wood, he got up a mock
+battle with them, and at its end congratulated the troops on their valor
+and felicitated himself on his success. Next, the British island being
+still under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> process of conquest, he marched his army, two hundred
+thousand strong, to the sea-shore of Gaul, and drew them up in line of
+battle. The legionaries stolidly obeyed, wondering in their stern souls
+what new madness the emperor had in mind.</p>
+
+<p>They were soon to know. He bade them to fill their helmets with
+sea-shells, "the spoils of the ocean due to the Capitol and the palace."
+Then he distributed large sums of money among the troops, giving a
+reward for valor to each, and bidding them "henceforth to be happy and
+rich."</p>
+
+<p>This was all well for the army, but the people of Rome must be impressed
+with the glory and victorious success of their emperor. Such a career
+was worthy a triumph; and to the German hostages and criminals, destined
+to figure in the procession to the Capitol, he added a number of tall
+and martial Gauls, chosen without regard to rank or condition, whom he
+ordered to learn German, that they might pass for German captives.</p>
+
+<p>And now, his military expedition having ended without shedding the blood
+of a foe, Caligula's insane thirst for blood arose, and he determined to
+glut it out of the ranks of his own army. There were in it some
+regiments which had mutinied against his father on the death of
+Augustus. He ordered these to be slaughtered for their crime. Some of
+his higher officers representing to him the danger of such a proceeding,
+he changed his mind, and gave orders that these legions should be
+decimated. But the whole army showed such symptoms of discontent with
+this cruel order that Caligula<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> was seized with consternation, and fled
+in a panic to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching the city the senate proved bold enough to vote him an
+ovation instead of the triumph on which he had set his mind. Incensed at
+this, he met the advances of the patricians with stinging insults, and
+perhaps determined in his mind to be deeply revenged for this
+premeditated slight.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever he had in view, he did not live much longer to afflict mankind.
+Four months more brought him to the end of his flagitious career. There
+was a brave soldier of the palace guard, Cassius Ch&aelig;rea by name, who
+happened to have a weak voice, and whom Caligula frequently insulted in
+public for this fault of nature. These insults in time grew heavier and
+viler than the veteran could bear, and he organized a conspiracy with a
+few others against the emperor's life. Meeting him without guards, the
+conspirators assailed him with their daggers and put an end to his base
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Thus died, after twenty-nine years of life and four years of power, one
+of the vilest, cruellest, and maddest of the imperial demons who so long
+made Rome a slaughter-house and an abomination among the nations.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nero</span> was lord of Rome. Chance had placed a weak and immoral boy in
+unlimited control of the greatest of nations. Utterly destitute of
+principle, he gradually descended into the deepest vice and profligacy,
+which was soon succeeded by the basest cruelty and treachery. And one of
+the first victims of his treachery was his own mother, who had murdered
+her husband, the Emperor Claudius, to place him on the throne, and had
+now committed the deeper fault of attempting to control her worthless
+and faithless son.</p>
+
+<p>She had threatened to replace him on the throne with his half-brother
+Britannicus, and Nero had escaped this difficulty by poisoning
+Britannicus. She then opposed his vicious passions, and made a bitter
+foe of his mistress Popp&aelig;a, who by every artifice incensed the
+weak-minded emperor against his mother, representing her as the only
+obstacle to his full enjoyment of power and pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>At length the detestable son was wrought up to the resolution of
+murdering her to whom he owed his life. But how? He was too cowardly and
+irresolute to take open means. Should he remove her by poison or the
+poignard? The first was doubtful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> Agrippina was too practised in guilt,
+too accustomed to vile deeds, to be easily deceived, and had, moreover,
+by taking poisons, hardened her frame against their effect. Nor could
+she be killed by the knife and the murder concealed. The murder-seeking
+wretch, who had no plan, and no stronger person than himself in whom he
+could confide, was at a loss how to carry out his wicked purpose.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture his tutor Anicetus came to his aid. This villain, who
+bitterly hated Agrippina, was now in command of the fleet that lay at
+Misenum. He proposed to Nero to have a vessel built in such a manner
+that it might give way in the open sea, and plunge to the bottom with
+all not prepared to escape. If Agrippina could be lured on board such a
+vessel, her drowning would seem one of the natural disasters of the open
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>This suggestion filled with joy the mind of the unnatural son. The court
+was then at Bai&aelig;, celebrating the festival called the Quinquatria.
+Agrippina was invited to attend, and Nero, pretending a desire for
+reconciliation, went to the sea-shore to meet her on her arrival,
+embraced her tenderly, and conducted her to a villa in a pleasant
+situation, looking out on a charming bay of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>On the waters of the bay floated a number of vessels, among which was
+one superbly decorated, being prepared, as she was told, in her honor as
+the emperor's mother. This was intended to convey her to Bai&aelig;, where a
+banquet was to be given to her that evening.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p><p>Agrippina was fond of sailing. She had frequently joined coasting
+parties and made pleasure trips of her own. But for some reason, perhaps
+through suspicion of Nero's dark project, she now took a carriage in
+preference, and arrived safely at Bai&aelig;, much to the discomfiture of her
+worthless son.</p>
+
+<p>Nero, however, was cunning enough to conceal his disappointment. He gave
+her the most gracious reception, placed her at table above himself, and
+by his affectionate attentions and his easy flow of talk succeeded in
+dispelling any suspicions his mother may have entertained.</p>
+
+<p>The banquet was continued till a late hour, and when Agrippina rose to
+go Nero attended her to the shore, where lay the sumptuously decorated
+vessel ready to convey her back to her villa. Here he lavished upon her
+marks of fond affection, clasped her warmly to his bosom, and bade her
+adieu in words of tender regret, disguising his fell purpose under the
+utmost show of tenderness.</p>
+
+<p>Agrippina went on board, attended by only two of her train, one of whom,
+a maid named Acerronia, lay at the foot of her mistress's couch, and
+gladly expressed her joy at the loving reconciliation which she had just
+perceived.</p>
+
+<p>The night was calm and serene. The stars shone with their brightest
+lustre. The sea extended with an unruffled surface. The vessel moved
+swiftly, at no great distance from the shore, under the regular sweep of
+the rowers' oars. Yet little way had been made when there came a
+disastrous change. A signal was given, and suddenly the deck over
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>Agrippina's cabin sank in, borne down by a great weight of lead.</p>
+
+<p>One of the attendants of the empress was crushed to death, but the posts
+of Agrippina's couch proved strong enough to bear the weight, and she
+and Acerronia escaped and made their way hastily to the deck. Here
+confusion and consternation reigned. The plot had failed. The vessel had
+not fallen to pieces at once, as intended. Those who were not in the
+plot rushed wildly to and fro, hampering, by their distracted movements,
+the operations of the guilty. These sought to sink the vessel at once,
+but in spite of their efforts the ship sank but slowly, giving the
+intended victims an opportunity to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Acerronia, with instinctive devotion to her mistress, or a desire to
+save her own life, cried out that she was Agrippina, and pathetically
+implored the mariners to save her life. She won death instead. The
+assassins attacked her with oars and other weapons, and beat her down to
+the sinking deck. Agrippina, on the contrary, kept silent, and, with the
+exception of a wound on her shoulder, remained unhurt. Dashing into the
+dark waters of the bay, she swam towards the shore, and managed to keep
+herself afloat till taken up by a boat, in which some persons who had
+witnessed the accident from the shore had hastily put out. Telling her
+rescuers who she was, they conveyed her up the bay to her villa.</p>
+
+<p>Agrippina had been concerned in too many crimes of her own devising to
+be deceived. The treachery of her son was too evident. Without touching
+a rock, and in complete calm, the vessel had suddenly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> broken down, as
+if constructed for the purpose. Her own wound and the murder of her maid
+were further proofs of a preconcerted plot. Yet she was too shrewd to
+make her suspicions public. The plot had failed, and she was still
+alive. She at once despatched a messenger to her son, saying that by the
+favor of the gods and his good auspices she had escaped shipwreck, and
+that she thus hastened to quiet his affectionate fears. She then retired
+to her couch.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Nero waited impatiently for the news of his mother's death.
+When word was at length brought him that she had escaped, his craven
+soul was filled with terror. If this should get abroad; if she should
+call on her slaves, on the army, on the senate; if the people should
+learn of the plot of murder, and rise in riot; if any of a dozen
+contingencies should happen, all might be lost.</p>
+
+<p>The terrified emperor was in a frightful quandary. He sent in all haste
+for his advisers, but none of them cared to offer any suggestions. At
+length the villanous Anicetus came to his aid. While they talked the
+messenger of Agrippina had arrived, and was admitted to give his message
+to the prince. As he was speaking Anicetus foxily let fall a dagger
+between his legs. He instantly seized him, snatched up the dagger and
+showed it to the company, and declared that the wretch had been sent by
+Agrippina to assassinate her son. The guards were called in, the man was
+ordered to be dragged away and put in fetters, and the story of the
+discovered plot of Agrippina was made public.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p><p>"Death to the murderess!" cried Anicetus. "Let me hasten at once to
+her punishment."</p>
+
+<p>Nero gladly assented, and Anicetus hurried from the room, empowered to
+carry out his murderous intent.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the news of the peril and escape of the empress had spread far
+and wide. A dreadful accident had occurred, it was said. The people
+rushed in numbers to the shore, crowded the piers, filled the boats, and
+gave voice to a medley of cries of alarm. The uproar was at length
+allayed by some men with lighted torches, who assured the excited
+multitude that Agrippina had escaped and was now safe in her villa.</p>
+
+<p>While they were speaking a body of soldiers, led by Anicetus, arrived,
+and with threats of violence dispersed the peasant throng. Then,
+planting a guard round the mansion, Anicetus burst open its doors,
+seized the slaves who appeared, and forced his way to the apartment of
+the empress.</p>
+
+<p>Here Agrippina waited in fear and agitation the return of her messenger.
+Why came he not? Was new murder in contemplation? She heard the tumult
+and confusion on the shore, and learned from her attendants what it
+meant. But the noise was suddenly hushed; a dismal silence prevailed;
+then came new noises, then loud tones of command, and violent blows on
+the outer doors. In dread of what was coming, the unhappy woman waited
+still, till loud steps sounded in the passage, the attendants at her
+door were thrust aside, and armed men entered her chamber.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p><p>The room was in deep shadow, only the pale glimmer of a feeble light
+breaking the gloom. A single maid remained with the empress, and she,
+too, hastened to the door on hearing the tramp of warlike feet.</p>
+
+<p>"Do you, too, desert me?" cried Agrippina, in deep reproach.</p>
+
+<p>At that moment Anicetus entered the room, followed by two other
+ruffians. They approached her bed. She rose to receive them.</p>
+
+<p>"If you come from the prince," she said, "tell him I am well. If your
+intents are murderous, you are not sent by my son. The guilt of
+parricide is foreign to his heart."</p>
+
+<p>Her words were checked by a blow on the head with a club. A sword-thrust
+followed, and she expired under a number of mortal wounds. Thus died the
+niece, the wife, and the mother of an emperor, the daughter of the
+celebrated soldier Germanicus, herself so stained with vice that none
+can pity her fate, particularly as she had committed the further
+unconscious crime of giving birth to the monster named Nero.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Prasutagus</span>, the king of the Icenians, a tribe of the ancient Britons,
+had amassed much wealth in the course of a long reign. On his death, in
+order to secure the favor of the Romans, now masters of the island, he
+left half his wealth by will to the emperor and half to his two
+daughters. This well-judged action of the barbarian king did not have
+the intended effect. No sooner was he dead than the Romans in the
+vicinity claimed the whole estate as theirs, ruthlessly pillaged his
+house, and seized all his effects.</p>
+
+<p>This base brigandage roused Boadicea, the widowed queen, to a vigorous
+protest, but with the sole result of bringing a worse calamity upon her
+head. She was seized and cruelly scourged by the ruthless Romans, her
+two daughters were vilely maltreated, and the noblest of the Icenians
+were robbed of their possessions by the plunderers, who went so far as
+to reduce to slavery the near relatives of the deceased king.</p>
+
+<p>Roused to madness by this inhuman treatment, the Icenians broke into
+open revolt. They were joined by a neighboring state, while the
+surrounding Britons, not yet inured to bondage, secretly resolved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> to
+join the cause of liberty. There had lately been planted a colony of
+Roman veterans at Camalodunum (Colchester), who had treated the Britons
+cruelly, driven them from their houses, and insulted them with the names
+of slaves and captives; while the common soldiers, a licentious and
+greedy crew, still further degraded and robbed the owners of the land.</p>
+
+<p>The invaders went too far for British endurance, and brought a terrible
+retribution upon themselves. Paulinus Suetonius, an able officer, who
+then commanded in Britain, was absent on an expedition to conquer the
+island of Mona. Of this expedition the historian Tacitus gives a vivid
+account. As the boats of the Romans approached the island they beheld on
+the shore the Britons prepared to receive them, while through their
+ranks rushed their women in funereal attire, their hair flying loose in
+the wind, flaming torches in their hands, and their whole appearance
+recalling the frantic rage of the fabled Furies. Near by, ranged in
+order, stood the venerable Druids, or Celtic priests, with uplifted
+hands, at once invoking the gods and pouring forth imprecations upon the
+foe.</p>
+
+<p>The novelty and impressiveness of this spectacle filled the Romans with
+awe and wonder. They stood in stupid amazement, riveted to the spot, and
+a mark for the foe had they been then attacked. From this brief
+paralysis the voice of their general recalled them, and, ashamed of
+being held in awe by a troop of women and a band of fanatic priests,
+they rushed to the assault, cut down all before them, and set fire to
+the edifices and the sacred groves of the island<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> with the torches which
+the Britons themselves had kindled.</p>
+
+<p>But Suetonius had chosen a perilous time for this enterprise. During his
+absence the wrongs of the Icenians and the exhortations of Boadicea had
+roused a formidable revolt, and the undefended colonies of the Romans
+were in danger.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the actual peril the Romans were frightened with dire
+omens. The statue of victory at Camalodunum fell without any visible
+cause, and lay prostrate on the ground. Clamors in a foreign accent were
+heard in the Roman council chamber, the theatres were filled with the
+sound of savage howlings, the sea ran purple as with blood, the figures
+of human bodies were traced on the sands, and the image of a colony in
+ruins was reflected from the waters of the Thames.</p>
+
+<p>These omens threw the Romans into despair and filled the minds of the
+Britons with joy. No effort was made by the soldiers for defence, no
+ditch was dug, no palisade erected, and the assault of the Britons found
+the colonists utterly unprepared. Taken by surprise, the Romans were
+overpowered, and the colony was laid waste with fire and sword. The
+fortified temple alone held out, but after a two days' siege it also was
+taken, and the legion which marched to its relief was cut to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Boadicea was now the leading spirit among the Britons. Her wrongs had
+stirred them to revolt, and her warlike energy led them to victory and
+revenge. But she was soon to have a master-spirit to meet. Suetonius,
+recalled from the island of Mona<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> by tidings of rebellion and disaster,
+marched hastily as far as London, which was even then the chief
+residence of the merchants and the centre of trade and commerce of the
+island.</p>
+
+<p>His army was small, not more than ten thousand men in all. That of the
+Britons was large. The interests of the empire were greater than those
+of any city, and Suetonius found himself obliged to abandon London to
+the barbarians, despite the supplications of its imperilled citizens.
+All he would agree to was to take under his protection those who chose
+to follow his banner. Many followed him, but many remained, and no
+sooner had he marched out than the Britons fell in rage on the
+settlement, and killed all they found. In like manner they ravaged
+Verulamium (St. Albans). Seventy thousand Romans are said to have been
+put to the sword.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Suetonius marched through the land, and at length the two
+armies met. The skilled Roman general drew up his force in a place where
+a thick forest sheltered the rear and flanks, leaving only a narrow
+front open to attack. Here the Britons, twenty times his number, and
+confident of victory, approached. The warlike Boadicea, tall, stern of
+countenance, her hair hanging to her waist, a spear in her hand, drove
+along their front in a warlike car, with her two daughters by her side,
+and eloquently sought to rouse her countrymen to thirst for revenge.</p>
+
+<p>Telling them of the base cruelty with which she and her daughters had
+been treated, and painting in vivid words the arrogance and insults of
+the Romans,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> she besought them to fight for their country and their
+homes. "On this spot we must either conquer or die with glory," she
+said. "There is no alternative. Though I am a woman, my resolution is
+fixed. The men, if they prefer, may survive with infamy and live in
+bondage. For me there is only victory or death."</p>
+
+<p>Stirred to fury by her words, the British host poured like a deluge on
+their foes. But the Roman arms and discipline proved far too much for
+barbarian courage and ferocity. The British were repulsed, and, rushing
+forward in a wedge shape, the legions cut their way with frightful
+carnage through the disordered ranks. The cavalry seconded their
+efforts. Thousands fell. The rest took to flight. But the wagons of the
+British, which had been massed in the rear, impeded their flight, and a
+dreadful slaughter, in which neither sex nor age was spared, ensued.
+Tacitus tells us that eighty thousand Britons fell, while the Roman
+slain numbered no more than four hundred men.</p>
+
+<p>Boadicea, who had done her utmost to rally her flying hosts, kept to her
+resolution. When all was lost, she took poison, and perished upon the
+field where she had vowed to seek victory or death. With her decease the
+success of the Britons vanished. Though they still kept the field, they
+gradually yielded to the Roman arms, and Britain became in time a quiet
+and peaceful part of the great empire of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nero</span>, the cruel coward under whom Rome for its sins was made to suffer,
+could scarcely devise follies and atrocities enough to please his
+profligate fancy. He offended the pride and sense of decorum of Rome by
+forcing senators and women of the highest rank to appear as gladiators
+in the arena. He exposed himself to ridicule by appearing as an actor in
+the theatre at Naples, which theatre, as soon as the audience dispersed,
+tumbled to pieces,&mdash;a little late so far as Nero himself was concerned.
+Returning to Rome, he indulged in every species of vice and folly,
+lavishing the wealth of the state with the utmost prodigality. On the
+lake of Agrippa he had a pavilion erected on a great floating platform,
+which was moved from point to point by the aid of boats superbly
+decorated with gold and ivory, while to furnish the banquet here given,
+animals of the chase were sought in the whole country round, and fish
+were brought from every sea and even from the distant ocean. When night
+descended a sudden illumination burst forth from all sides, and music
+resounded from every grove. These are the mentionable parts of the
+festival. Vile scenes were exhibited of which nothing can be said.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p><p>Finally, at a loss in what deeper excess of vice and ostentation to
+indulge, the crowned reprobate set fire to Rome that he might enjoy the
+spectacle of an unlimited conflagration. This wickedness, it is true, is
+doubted by some historians, but we are told that during the prevalence
+of the flames a crew of incendiaries threatened anyone with death who
+should seek to extinguish them, and flung flaming torches into the
+dwellings, crying that they acted under orders.</p>
+
+<p>In all the history of Rome this fire was far the most violent and
+destructive. Breaking out in a number of shops stored with combustible
+goods, and driven by the winds, it raged with the utmost fury, neither
+the thick walls of the houses nor the enclosures of the temples
+sufficing to stay its frightful progress. The form of the streets, long,
+narrow, and winding, added to the mischief, and the flames swiftly sped
+alike through the humblest and the stateliest quarters of the mighty
+capital.</p>
+
+<p>"The shrieks and lamentations of women, the infirmities of age, and the
+weakness of the young and tender," says Tacitus, "added misery to the
+dreadful scene. Some endeavored to provide for themselves, others to
+save their friends, in one part dragging along the lame and impotent, in
+another waiting to receive the tardy, or expecting relief themselves;
+they hurried, they lingered, they obstructed one another; they looked
+behind, and the fire broke out in front; they escaped from the flames,
+and in their place of refuge found no safety; the fire raged in every
+quarter; all were involved in one general conflagration.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p><p>"The unhappy wretches fled to places remote, and thought themselves
+secure, but soon perceived the flames raging round them. Which way to
+turn, what to avoid, or what to seek, no one could tell. They crowded
+the streets; they fell prostrate on the ground; they lay stretched in
+the fields, in consternation and dismay resigned to their fate. Numbers
+lost their whole substance, even the tools and implements by which they
+gained their livelihood, and, in that distress, did not wish to survive.
+Others, wild with affliction for their friends and relations whom they
+could not save, embraced voluntary death, and perished in the flames."</p>
+
+<p>The story goes that, while the city was in its intensest blaze, Nero
+watched it with high enjoyment from a tower in the house of M&aelig;cenas, and
+finally went to his own theatre, where in his scenic dress he mounted
+the stage, tuned his harp, and sang the destruction of Troy.</p>
+
+<p>How far Nero was guilty and to what extent the stories told of him were
+true will never be known, but he was destined to feel the calamity
+himself, for in time the devouring flames reached the imperial palace,
+and laid it with all its treasures and surrounding buildings in ruins.
+For six days the fire raged uncontrolled, and then, when it seemed
+subdued, a new conflagration broke out and burned with all the old fury,
+spreading still more widely the area of ruin and devastation.</p>
+
+<p>The number of buildings destroyed cannot be ascertained. Not only
+dwellings and shops, but temples, porticos, and other public buildings,
+were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> destroyed, among them the most venerable monuments of antiquity,
+which the worship of ages had rendered sacred; and with these the
+trophies of uncounted victories, the inimitable works of the great
+artists of Greece, and precious monuments of literature and ancient
+genius, were irrecoverably lost.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not this fire took place through Nero's orders, and was
+played to by him on the harp, he showed more feeling for the people and
+more good sense in the rebuilding of the city than could have been
+expected from one of his weak and vicious character. By his orders the
+Field of Mars, the magnificent buildings erected by Agrippa, and even
+the imperial gardens were thrown open to the houseless people, and sheds
+for their shelter were erected with all possible haste. Household
+utensils and all kinds of useful implements were brought from Ostia and
+other neighboring cities, and the price of grain was reduced. But all
+this failed to gain the good-will of the people, who were exasperated by
+the story that Nero had exulted in the grandeur of the flames, and
+harped over burning Rome.</p>
+
+<p>When the fire was at length subdued, of the fourteen quarters of Rome
+only four were left entire; the remainder presented more or less utter
+ruin. The conflagration in the time of the Gauls had been little more
+complete, while the wealth now consumed was incomparably greater. The
+whole world had been robbed of its treasures to feed the flames of Rome.
+But the haste and ill-judged confusion with which the city was rebuilt
+after the irruption of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> Gauls was not now repeated. A regular plan
+was formed; the new streets were made wide and straight; the elevation
+of the houses was defined, and each was given an open area before the
+door, and was adorned with porticos. The expense of these porticos Nero
+took upon himself. He ordered also that the new houses should not be
+contiguous, but that each should be surrounded by its own enclosure;
+and, in order to hurry the work, he offered rewards to those who should
+finish their buildings in a fixed period. As for the refuse of the fire,
+it was removed at Nero's expense to the marshes of Ostia in the ships
+that brought corn up the Tiber.</p>
+
+<p>These regulations, while they must have made much confusion among the
+rival claimants of building sites, added greatly to the beauty and
+comfort of the new city, and the Rome which rose from the ruins was far
+more stately and handsome than the Rome which had vanished in ashes and
+smoke. But Nero, while showing some passing feeling for the people and
+some wisdom in the rebuilding of the city, did not hesitate to use a
+generous portion of the devastated space for his own advantage. His
+palace had been destroyed, and he built a new and most magnificent one
+on the Palatine Hill, the famous "golden house," which after-ages beheld
+with unstinted admiration.</p>
+
+<p>But he did not confine his ostentation to the palace itself. A great
+space around it was converted into pleasure-grounds for his amusement,
+in which, as Tacitus says, "expansive lakes and fields of vast extent
+were intermixed with pleasing variety; woods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> and forests stretched to
+an immeasurable length, presenting gloom and solitude amid scenes of
+open space, where the eye wandered with surprise over an unbounded
+prospect."</p>
+
+<p>But nothing that Nero could do sufficed to remove from men's minds the
+belief that on him rested the infamy of the fire. This public sentiment
+troubled and frightened him, and to remove it he sought to lay the
+burden of guilt on others. It was now the year 64 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, and for at least
+thirty years the new sect of the Christians had been spreading in Rome,
+where it had gained many adherents among the humbler and more moral
+section of the population. The Christians were far from popular. They
+were accused of secret and evil practices and debasing superstitions,
+and on this despised sect Nero determined to turn the fury of the
+populace.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image12.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt="THE TOMB OF HADRIAN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE TOMB OF HADRIAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With his usual artifice he induced a number of abandoned wretches to
+confess themselves guilty, and on their purchased evidence numbers of
+the Christians were seized and convicted, mainly on the plea of their
+sullen hatred of the whole human race. A frightful persecution followed,
+Nero perhaps hoping, by an exhibition of human suffering, so dear to the
+rabble of Rome, to turn the thoughts of the people from their own
+losses.</p>
+
+<p>The captives were put to death with every cruelty the emperor could
+devise, and to their sufferings he added mockery and derision. Many were
+nailed to the cross; others were covered with the skins of wild beasts,
+and left to be devoured by dogs; numbers were burned alive, many of
+these, covered with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> inflammable matter, being set on fire to serve as
+torches during the night.</p>
+
+<p>That the public might see this tragic spectacle with the more
+satisfaction, it was given in the imperial gardens. The sports of the
+circus were added to the tortures of the victims, Nero himself driving
+his chariot in the races, or mingling with the rabble in his coachman's
+dress. These cruel proceedings continued until even the hardened Roman
+heart became softened with compassion, spectators failed to come, and
+Nero felt obliged to yield to a general demand that the persecutions
+should cease.</p>
+
+<p>While all this went on at Rome, the people of the whole empire suffered
+with those of the capital city. Italy was ravaged and the provinces
+plundered to supply the demand for the rebuilding of the city and palace
+and the unbounded prodigality of the emperor. The very gods were taxed,
+their temples being robbed of golden treasures which had been gathering
+for ages through the gifts of pious devotees; while in Greece and Asia
+not alone the treasures of the temples but the statues of the deities
+were seized. Nero was preparing for himself a load of infamy worthy of
+the most frightful retribution, and which would not fail soon to reap
+its fitting reward.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE DOOM OF NERO.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have perhaps paid too much attention to the enormities of Caligula
+and Nero. Yet the mad freakishness of the one and the cowardly
+dissimulation of the other give to their stories a dramatic interest
+which seems to render them worth repeating. Nero, one of the basest and
+cruelest of the Roman emperors, is one of the best known to readers, and
+the interest felt in him is not alone due to the story of his life, but
+as well to that of his death, which we therefore here give.</p>
+
+<p>A conspiracy against him among some of the noblest citizens of Rome was
+discovered and punished with revengeful fury. It was followed, a few
+years afterwards, by a revolt of the armies in Gaul and Spain. This was
+in its turn quelled, and Nero triumphed in imagination over all his
+enemies. But he had lost favor alike with the army and the people, and
+an event now happened that threw the whole city into a ferment of anger
+against him.</p>
+
+<p>Food was scarce, and the arrival of a ship from Alexandria, supposed to
+be loaded with corn, filled the people with joy. It proved instead to be
+loaded with sand for the arena. In their disappointment the people broke
+at first into scurrilous jests against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> Nero, and then into rage and
+fury. A wild clamor filled the streets. On all sides rose the demand to
+be delivered from a monster. Even the Pr&aelig;torian guards, who had hitherto
+supported the emperor, began to show signs of disaffection, and were
+wrought to a spirit of revolt by two of the choice companions of Nero's
+iniquities, who now deserted him as rats desert a sinking ship. The
+senate was approached and told that Nero was no longer supported by his
+friends, and that they might now regain the power of which they had been
+deprived.</p>
+
+<p>Some whisper of what was afloat reached Nero's ears. Filled with craven
+fury, he resolved to massacre the senate, to set fire again to the city,
+and to let loose his whole collection of wild beasts. He proposed to fly
+to Egypt during the consternation that would prevail. A trusted servant,
+to whom he told this design, revealed it to the senate. It filled them
+with fear and rage. Yet even in so dire a contingency they could not be
+prevailed upon to act with vigor, and all might have been lost by their
+procrastination and timidity but for the two men who had organized the
+revolt.</p>
+
+<p>These men, Nymphidius and Tigellinus by name, went to the palace, and
+with a show of deep affliction informed Nero of his danger. "All is
+lost," they said: "the people call aloud for vengeance; the Pr&aelig;torian
+guards have abandoned your cause; the senate is ready to pronounce a
+dreadful judgment. Only one hope remains to you, to fly for your life,
+and seek a retreat in Egypt."</p>
+
+<p>It was as they said; revolt was everywhere in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> air, and affected the
+armies near and far. Nero sought assistance, but sought it in vain. The
+palace, lately swarming with life, was now deserted. Nero wandered
+through its empty chambers, and found only solitude and gloom.
+Conscience awoke in his seared heart, and he was filled with horror and
+remorse. Of all his late crowd of courtiers only three friends now
+remained with him,&mdash;Sporus, a servant; Phaon, a freedman; and
+Epaphroditus, his secretary.</p>
+
+<p>"'My wife, my father, and my mother doom me dead!'" he bitterly cried,
+quoting a line from a Greek tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>With a last hope he bade the soldiers on duty to hasten to Ostia and
+prepare a ship, on which he might embark for Egypt. The men refused.</p>
+
+<p>"'Is it, then, so wretched a thing to die?'" said one of them, quoting
+from Virgil.</p>
+
+<p>This refusal threw Nero into despair. He hurried to the Servilian
+gardens, with a vial of deadly poison, which, on getting there, he had
+not the courage to take. He returned to the palace and threw himself on
+his bed. Then, too agitated to lie, he sprang up and called for some
+friendly hand to end his wretched life. No one consented, and in his
+wild despair he called out, in doleful accents, "My friends desert me,
+and I cannot find an enemy."</p>
+
+<p>The world had suddenly fallen away from the despicable Nero. A week
+before he had ordered it at his will, now "none so poor to do him
+reverence." His craven terror would have been pitiable in any one to
+whom the word pity could apply. In frantic dread he rushed from the
+palace, as if with intent to fling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> himself into the Tiber. Then as
+hastily he returned, saying that he would fly to Spain, and yield
+himself to the mercy of Galba, who commanded the revolted army. But no
+ship was to be had for either Spain or Egypt, and this plan was
+abandoned as quickly as formed.</p>
+
+<p>These and other projects passed in succession through his distracted
+brain. One of the most absurd of them was to go in a mourning garb to
+the Forum, and by his powers of eloquence seek to win back the favor of
+the people. If they would not have him as emperor, he might by
+persuasive oratory obtain from them the government of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Full of hope in this new project, he was about to put it into effect,
+when a fresh reflection filled his soul with horror. What if the
+populace should, without waiting to hear his harmonious accents and
+unequalled oratory, break out in sudden rage and rend him limb from
+limb? Might they not assail him in the palace? Might not a seditious mob
+be already on its way thither, bent on bloody work? Whither should he
+fly? Where find refuge?</p>
+
+<p>Turning in despair to his companions, he asked them, wildly, "Is there
+no hiding-place, no safe retreat, where I may have leisure to consider
+what is to be done?"</p>
+
+<p>Phaon, his freedman, told him that he owned an obscure villa, at a
+distance of about four miles from Rome, where he might remain for a time
+in concealment.</p>
+
+<p>This suggestion, in Nero's state of distraction, was eagerly
+embraced,&mdash;in such haste, indeed, that he left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> the palace without an
+instant's preparation, his feet destitute of shoes, and no garment but
+his close tunic, his outer garments and imperial robe having been
+discarded in his distraction. The utmost he did was to snatch up an old
+rusty robe as a disguise, covering his head with it, and holding a
+handkerchief before his face. Thus attired, he mounted his horse and
+fled in frantic fear, attended only by the three men we have mentioned,
+and a fourth named Neophytus.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the revolt in the city was growing more and more decided.
+When the coming day showed its first faint rays, the Pr&aelig;torian guards,
+who had been on duty in the palace, left their post and marched to the
+camp. Here, under the influence of Nymphidius, Galba was nominated
+emperor. This was an important innovation in the government of Rome.
+Hitherto the imperial dignity had remained in the family of C&aelig;sar,
+descending by hereditary transmission. Nero was the last of that family
+to wear the crown. Henceforth the army and its generals controlled the
+destinies of the empire. The nomination of Galba by the Pr&aelig;torian guard
+signalized the new state of things, in which the emperors would largely
+be chosen by that guard or by some army in the field.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the Pr&aelig;torian guard was supported by the senate. That
+body, awaking from its late timidity, determined to mark the day with a
+decree worthy of its past history. With unanimous decision they
+pronounced Nero a tyrant who had trampled on all laws, human and divine,
+and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>condemned him to suffer death with all the rigor of the ancient
+laws.</p>
+
+<p>While this revolution was taking place in the city the terror-stricken
+Nero was still in frantic flight. He passed the Pr&aelig;torian camp near
+enough to hear loud acclamations, among which the name of Galba reached
+his ear. As the small cavalcade hastened by a man early at work in the
+fields, he looked up and said, "These people must be hot in pursuit of
+Nero." A short distance farther another hailed them, asking, "What do
+they say of Nero in the city?"</p>
+
+<p>A more alarming event occurred soon. As they drew near Phaon's house the
+horse of Nero started at a dead carcass beside the road, shaking down
+the handkerchief by which he had concealed his face. The movement
+revealed him to a veteran soldier, then on his way to Rome, and ignorant
+of what was taking place in the city. He recognized and saluted the
+emperor by name.</p>
+
+<p>This incident increased Nero's fear. His route of flight would now be
+known. He pressed his horse to the utmost speed until Phaon's house was
+close at hand. They now halted and Nero dismounted, it being thought
+unsafe for him to enter the house publicly. He crossed a field overgrown
+with reeds, and, being tortured with thirst, scooped up some water from
+a muddy ditch and drank it, saying, dolefully, "Is this the beverage
+which Nero has been used to drink?"</p>
+
+<p>Phaon advised him to conceal himself in a neighboring sand-pit, from
+which could be opened for him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> a subterraneous passage to the house, but
+Nero refused, saying that he did not care to be buried alive. His
+companions then made an opening in the wall on one side of the house,
+through which Nero crept on his hands and knees. Entering a wretched
+chamber, he threw himself on a mean bed, which was covered with a
+tattered coverlet, and asked for some refreshment.</p>
+
+<p>All they could offer him was a little coarse bread, so black that the
+sight of it sickened his dainty taste, and some warm and foul water,
+which thirst forced him to drink. His friends meanwhile were in little
+less desperation than himself. They saw that no hope was left and that
+his place of concealment would soon be known, and entreated him to avoid
+a disgraceful death by taking his own life.</p>
+
+<p>Nero promised to do so, but still sought reasons for delay. His funeral
+must be prepared for, he said, and bade them to dig a grave, to prepare
+wood for a funeral pile, and bring marble to cover his remains.
+Meanwhile he piteously bewailed his unhappy lot; sighed and shed tears
+copiously; and said, with a last impulse of vanity, "What a musician the
+world will lose!"</p>
+
+<p>While he thus in cowardly procrastination delayed the inevitable end, a
+messenger, whom Phaon had ordered to bring news from Rome, arrived with
+papers. These Nero eagerly seized and read. He found himself dethroned,
+declared a public enemy, and condemned to suffer death with the rigor of
+ancient usage. Such was the decree of the senate, which hitherto had
+been his subservient slave.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p><p>"Ancient usage?" he asked. "What do they mean? What kind of death is
+that?"</p>
+
+<p>"It is this," they told him. "Every traitor, by the law of the old
+republic, with his head fastened between two stakes, and his body
+stripped naked, was slowly flogged to death by the lictors' rods."</p>
+
+<p>Dread of this terrible and ignominious punishment roused the trembling
+wretch to some semblance of courage. He produced two daggers, which he
+had brought with him, and tried their points. Then he replaced them in
+their scabbards, saying, "The fatal moment is not yet come."</p>
+
+<p>Turning to Sporus, he said, "Sing the melancholy dirge, and offer the
+last obsequies to your friend." Then, rolling his eyes wildly around, he
+exclaimed, "Why will not some one of you kill himself, and teach me how
+to die?"</p>
+
+<p>He paused a moment. No one seemed inclined to adopt his suggestion. A
+flood of tears burst from his eyes. Starting up, he cried, in a tone of
+wild despair, "Nero, this is infamy; you linger in disgrace; this is no
+time for dejected passions; this moment calls for manly fortitude."</p>
+
+<p>These words were hardly spoken when the sound of horses was heard
+advancing rapidly towards the house. Theatrical to the end, he repeated
+a line from Homer which the noise of hoofs recalled to his mind. At
+length, driven to desperation, he seized his dagger and stabbed himself
+in the throat,&mdash;but cowardice made the stroke too feeble. Epaphroditus
+now lent his aid, and the next thrust was a mortal one.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p><p>It was time. The horses were those of pursuers. The senate, informed of
+his probable place of refuge, had sent soldiers in haste to bring him
+back to Rome, there to suffer the punishment decreed. In a minute
+afterwards a centurion entered the room, and, seeing Nero prostrate and
+bleeding, ran to his aid, saying that he would bind the wound and save
+his life.</p>
+
+<p>Nero looked up languidly, and said, in faint tones, "You come too late.
+Is this your fidelity?" In a moment more he expired.</p>
+
+<p>In the words of Tacitus, "The ferocity of his nature was still visible
+in his countenance. His eyes fixed and glaring, and every feature
+swelled with warring passions, he looked more stern, more grim, more
+terrible than ever."</p>
+
+<p>Nero was in his thirty-second year. He had reigned nearly fourteen
+years. Tacitus says of him, "The race of C&aelig;sars ended with Nero; he was
+the last, and perhaps the worst, of that illustrious house."</p>
+
+<p>The tidings of his death filled Rome with joy. Men ran wildly about the
+streets, their heads covered with liberty caps. Acclamations of gladness
+resounded in the Forum. Icelus, Galba's freedman and agent in Rome, whom
+Nero had thrown into prison, was released and took control of affairs.
+He ordered that Nero's body should be burned where he had died, and this
+was done so quickly and secretly that many would not believe that he was
+dead. The report got abroad that he had escaped to Asia or Egypt, and
+from time to time impostors appeared claiming to be Nero. The Parthians
+were deluded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> by one of these impostors and offered to defend his cause.
+Another made trouble in the Greek islands. Nero's profligate companions
+in Rome, who alone mourned his death, while affecting to believe him
+still alive raised a tomb to his memory, which for several years they
+annually dressed with the flowers of spring and summer. But the world at
+large rejoiced in its delivery from the rule of a monster of iniquity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> no other nation upon the earth and no other period of history has
+enjoyment taken so cruel and brutal a shape as in the Roman empire. The
+fierce people of the imperial city seemed to have a native thirst for
+blood and misery, which no amount of slaughter in the arena, of the
+sufferings of captives and slaves, or of the torments of persecuted
+Christians sufficed to assuage. The love of theatrical representations,
+which has proved so potent and unceasing with other nations, had but a
+brief period of prevalence in Rome, its milder enjoyment vanishing
+before the wild excitement of the gladiatorial struggle and the
+spectacle of rending beasts and slaughtered martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>It was not in the theatre, but in the amphitheatre, that the Romans
+sought their chief enjoyment, and few who wished the favor of the Roman
+people failed to seek it by the easy though costly means of gladiatorial
+shows. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre in forming a complete
+circle or oval instead of a semicircle, with an arena in the centre
+instead of a stage at the side. It also greatly surpassed the theatre in
+size, the purpose being to see, not to hear.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p><p>These buildings were at first temporary edifices of wood, but of
+enormous size, since one which collapsed at Fiden&aelig;, during the reign of
+Tiberius, is said to have caused the death of fifty thousand spectators.
+The first of stone was built by the command of Augustus. But the great
+amphitheatre of Rome, the Flavian, whose mighty ruins we possess in the
+Colosseum, was that begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus ten years
+after the destruction of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>This vast building is elliptical in shape and covers about five acres of
+ground, being six hundred and twelve feet in its greatest length and
+five hundred and fifteen in greatest breadth. It is based on rows of
+arches, eighty in number, and rises in four different orders of
+architecture to a height of about one hundred and sixty feet. The
+outside of this great edifice was encrusted with marble and decorated
+with statues. Interiorly its vast slopes presented sixty or eighty rows
+of marble seats, covered with cushions, and capable of seating more than
+eighty thousand spectators. There were sixty-four doors of entrance and
+exit, and the entrances, passages, and stairs were so skilfully
+constructed that every person could with ease and safety reach and leave
+his place.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing was omitted that could add to the pleasure and convenience of
+the spectators. An ample canopy, drawn over their heads, protected them
+from the sun and the rain. Fountains refreshed the air with cooling
+moisture, and aromatics profusely perfumed the air. In the centre was
+the arena or stage, strewn with fine sand, and capable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> of being changed
+to suit varied spectacles. Now it appeared to rise out of the earth,
+like the gardens of the Hesperides; now it was made to represent the
+rocks and caverns of Thrace. Water was abundantly supplied by concealed
+pipes, and the sand-strewn plain might at will be converted into a wide
+lake, sustaining armed vessels, and displaying the swimming monsters of
+the deep.</p>
+
+<p>In these spectacles the Roman emperors loved to display their wealth. On
+various occasions the whole furniture of the amphitheatre was of amber,
+silver, or gold, and in one display the nets provided for defence
+against wild beasts were of gold wire, the porticos were gilded, and the
+belt or circle that divided the several ranks of spectators was studded
+with a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. In the dedication of this
+mighty edifice five thousand wild beasts were slain in the arena, the
+games lasting one hundred days.</p>
+
+<p>The first show of gladiators in Rome was one given by Marcus and Decius
+Brutus, on the occasion of the death of their father, 264 <span class="ampm">B.C.</span> Three
+pairs of gladiators fought in this first contest. This gladiatorial
+spectacle was continued on funeral occasions, but afterwards lost its
+religious character and became a popular amusement, there being schools
+for the training of gladiators, whose pupils were recruited from the
+captives of Rome, from condemned criminals, and from vigorous men
+desirous of fame.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on the magnificence of these spectacles increased. Julius
+C&aelig;sar gave one in which three hundred and twenty combatants fought.
+Trajan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> far surpassed this with a show that lasted for one hundred and
+twenty-three days, and in which ten thousand men fought with each other
+or with wild beasts for the pleasure of the Roman populace.</p>
+
+<p>The gladiators were variously armed, some with sword, shield, and body
+armor; some with net and trident; some with noose or lasso. The disarmed
+or overthrown gladiator was killed or spared in response to signals made
+by the thumbs of the spectators; while the successful combatant was
+rewarded at first with a palm branch, afterwards with money and rich and
+valuable presents.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image13.jpg" width="600" height="368" alt="ROMAN CHARIOT RACE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROMAN CHARIOT RACE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gladiators were not always passive instruments of Roman cruelty. We
+have elsewhere described the revolt of Spartacus and his brave struggle
+for liberty. Other outbreaks took place. During the reign of Probus a
+revolt of about eighty gladiators out of a school of some six hundred
+filled Rome with death and alarm. Killing their keepers, they broke into
+the streets, which they set afloat with blood, and only after an
+obstinate resistance and ample revenge were they at length overpowered
+and cut to pieces by the soldiers of the city. But such outbreaks were
+but few, and the Roman multitude usually enjoyed its cruel sports in
+safety.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot here describe the many remarkable displays made by successive
+emperors, and which grew more lavish as time went on. Probus, about 280
+<span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, gave a show in which the arena was transformed into a forest,
+large trees, dug up by the roots, being transported and planted
+throughout its space. In this miniature forest were set free a thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+ostriches, and an equal number each of stags, fallow deer, and wild
+boars. These were given to the multitude to assail and slay at their
+will. On the following day, the populace being now safely screened from
+danger, there were slain in the arena a hundred lions, as many
+lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears.</p>
+
+<p>The younger Gordian, in his triumphal games, astonished the Romans by
+the strangeness of the animals displayed, in search of which the whole
+known world was ransacked. The curious mob now beheld the graceful forms
+of twenty zebras, and the remarkable stature of ten giraffes, brought
+from remote African plains. There were shown, in addition, ten elks, as
+many tigers from India, and thirty African hyenas. To these were added a
+troop of thirty-two elephants, and the uncouth forms of the hippopotamus
+of the Nile and the rhinoceros of the African wilds. These animals,
+familiar to us, were new to their observers, and filled the minds of
+their spectators with wonder and awe.</p>
+
+<p>Gladiators, as we have said, were not confined to slaves, captives, and
+criminals. Roman citizens, emulous of the fame and rewards of the
+successful combatant, entered their ranks, and men of birth and fortune,
+thirsting for the excitement of the arenal strife, were often seen in
+the lists. In the reign of Nero, senators, and even women of high birth,
+appeared as combatants; and Domitian arranged a battle between dwarfs
+and women. As late as 200 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> an edict forbidding women to fight became
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p><p>The emperors, as a rule, were content with sending their subjects to
+death in those frightful shows; but one of them, Commodus, proud of his
+strength and skill, himself entered the lists as a combatant. He was at
+first content with displaying his remarkable skill as an archer against
+wild animals. With arrows whose head was shaped like a crescent, he cut
+asunder the long neck of the ostrich, and with the strength of his bow
+pierced alike the thick skin of the elephant and the scaly hide of the
+rhinoceros. A panther was let loose and a slave forced to act as its
+prey. But at the instant when the beast leaped upon the man the shaft of
+Commodus flew, and the animal fell dead, leaving its prey unhurt. No
+less than a hundred lions were let loose at once in the arena, and the
+death-dealing darts of the emperor hurtled among them until they all
+were slain.</p>
+
+<p>During this exhibition of skill the emperor was securely protected
+against any chance danger from his victims. But later, to the shame and
+indignation of the people, he entered the arena as a gladiator, and
+fought there no less than seven hundred and thirty-five times. He was
+well protected, wearing the helmet, shield, and sword of the <i>Secutor</i>,
+while his antagonists were armed with the net and trident of the
+<i>Retiarius</i>. It was the aim of the latter to entangle his opponent in
+the net and then despatch him with the trident, and if he missed he was
+forced to fly till he had prepared his net for a second throw.</p>
+
+<p>As may be imagined, in these contests Commodus was uniformly successful.
+His opponents were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> schooled not to put forth their full skill, and were
+usually given their lives in reward. But the emperor claimed the prize
+of the successful gladiator, and himself fixed this reward at so high a
+price that to pay it became a new tax on the Roman people. Commodus, we
+may say here, met with the usual fate of the base and cruel emperors of
+Rome, falling by the hands of assassins.</p>
+
+<p>The gladiatorial shows were not without their opponents in Rome. Under
+the republic efforts were made to limit the number of combatants and the
+frequency of the displays, and the Emperor Augustus forbade more than
+two shows in a year. They were prohibited by Constantine, the first
+Christian emperor, in 325 <span class="ampm">A.D</span>., but continued at intervals till 404. In
+that year Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, filled with horror at the cruelty
+of the practice, made his way to Rome, and during a contest rushed into
+the arena and tried to part two gladiators.</p>
+
+<p>The spectators, furious at this interruption of their sport, stoned the
+monk to death. But the Emperor Honorius proclaimed him a martyr, and
+issued an edict which finally brought such exhibitions to an end.</p>
+
+<p>There was another form of spectacle at Rome, in its way as significant
+of cruelty and ruthlessness, the Triumph, each occasion of which
+signified some nation conquered or army defeated, and thousands slain or
+plunged into misery and destitution. The victorious general to whom the
+senate granted the honor of a triumph was not allowed to enter the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> city
+in advance, and Lucullus, on his return from victory in Asia, waited
+outside Rome for three years, until the desired honor was granted him.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the Field of Mars, outside the city walls, the procession
+passed through the gayly garlanded streets to the Capitol. It was headed
+by the magistrates and senate of Rome, who were followed by trumpeters,
+and then by the spoils of war, consisting not only of treasures and
+standards, but of representations of battles, towns, fortresses, rivers,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>Next came the victims intended for sacrifice, largely composed of white
+oxen with gilded horns. They were followed by prisoners kept to grace
+the triumph, and who were put to death when the Capitol was reached.
+Afterwards came the gorgeous chariot of the conqueror, crowned with
+laurel and drawn by four horses. He wore robes of purple and gold taken
+from the temple of Jupiter, carried a laurel branch in his right hand,
+and in his left a sceptre of ivory with an eagle at its tip. After him
+came the soldiers, singing <i>Io triumphe</i> and other songs of victory.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching the Capitol the victor placed the laurel branch on the cap
+of the seated Jupiter, and offered the thank-offerings. A feast of the
+dignitaries, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, followed. The
+ceremony at first occupied one day only, but in later times was extended
+through several days, and was frequently attended with gladiatorial
+shows and other spectacles for the greater enjoyment of the Roman
+multitude.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> death of Nero cut all the reins of order in Rome. Until now, as
+stated in a preceding tale, some form of hereditary succession had been
+followed, the emperors being of the family of C&aelig;sar, though not his
+direct descendants. Now confusion reigned supreme. The army took upon
+itself the task of nominating the emperor, and within less than two
+years four emperors came in succession to the royal seat, each the
+general of one of the armies of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Galba, who headed the revolt against Nero, and succeeded him on the
+throne, reigned but seven months, being overthrown by Otho, who
+conspired against him with the Pr&aelig;torian guards. The new emperor reigned
+only three months. The army of Germany proclaimed their
+general&mdash;Vitellius&mdash;emperor, marched against Otho, and defeated him. He
+ended the contest by committing suicide. Vitellius reigned less than a
+year. The army of the East rebelled against him, proclaimed their
+general&mdash;Vespasian&mdash;emperor, and a new civil war broke out, which was
+closed by the speedy downfall of Vitellius. It is the story of this man,
+emperor for less than a year, which we have here to describe.</p>
+
+<p>The three men named were alike unfit to reign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> over Rome. Galba was very
+old and very incompetent, Otho was a declared profligate, and Vitellius
+was a glutton of such extraordinary powers that his name has become a
+synonyme for voracity. He had by his arts and his skill as a courtier
+made himself a favorite with four emperors of widely differing
+character,&mdash;Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. The suicide of Otho
+had now made him emperor himself, and he gave way without stint to the
+peculiar vice which has made his name despicable, that of inordinate
+love of the pleasures of the table.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Otho, says Tacitus, "Vitellius, sunk in sloth, and
+growing every day more contemptible, advanced by slow marches towards
+the city of Rome. In all the villas and municipal towns through which he
+passed, carousing festivals were sufficient to retard a man abandoned to
+his pleasures. He was followed by an unwieldy multitude, not less than
+sixty thousand men in arms, all corrupted by a life of debauchery. The
+number of retainers and followers of the army was still greater, all
+disposed to riot and insolence, even beyond the natural bent of the
+vilest slaves.</p>
+
+<p>"The crowd was still increased by a conflux of senators and Roman
+knights, who came from Rome to greet the prince on his way; some
+impelled by fear, others to pay their court, and numbers, not to be
+thought sullen or disaffected. All went with the current. The populace
+rushed forth in crowds, accompanied by an infamous band of pimps,
+players, buffoons, and charioteers, by their utility in vicious
+pleasures all well known and dear to Vitellius.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p><p>"To supply so vast a body with provisions the colonies and municipal
+cities were exhausted; the fruits of the earth, then ripe and fit for
+use, were carried off; the husbandman was plundered; and his land, as if
+it were an enemy's country, was laid waste and ruined."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image14.jpg" width="600" height="360" alt="THE COLISEUM AT ROME." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE COLISEUM AT ROME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The followers of Vitellius were many of them Germans and Gauls, so
+savage of aspect as to create consternation in Rome. "Covered with the
+skins of savage beasts, and wielding large and massive spears, the
+spectacle which they exhibited to the Roman citizens was fierce and
+hideous." They were as savage as they looked, and many conflicts took
+place both outside and inside of Rome, in which numbers of citizens were
+slaughtered. In fact, the march of Vitellius to Rome was almost like
+that of a conqueror through a captive province.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of Vitellius and his army in Rome was an abhorrent spectacle
+of sloth and licentiousness. All discipline vanished. The Germans and
+Gauls entered into the vilest habits of the city, and by their
+disorderly lives brought on an epidemic disease which swept thousands of
+them away. Vitellius, lost in sluggishness and gluttony, wasted the
+funds of the state on his pleasures, and laid severe taxes to raise new
+funds. "To squander with wild profusion," says Tacitus, "was the only
+use of money known to Vitellius. He built a set of stables for the
+charioteers, and kept in the circus a constant spectacle of gladiators
+and wild beasts; in this manner dissipating with prodigality, as if his
+treasury overflowed with riches."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p><p>While the Vitellian army was indulging in riot, bloodshed, and vice,
+and the populace was kept amused by the frightful gladiatorial shows,
+the emperor spent his days in a sloth and gluttony that stand unrivalled
+in imperial records. We may quote from Whyte-Melville's romance of "The
+Gladiators" a sketch of a Vitellian banquet whose characteristic
+features are taken from exact history:</p>
+
+<p>"A banquet with Vitellius was no light and simple repast. Leagues of sea
+and miles of forest had been swept to furnish the mere groundwork of the
+entertainment. Hardy fishermen had spent their nights on the heaving
+wave, that the giant turbot might flap its snowy flakes on the emperor's
+table broader than its broad dish of gold. Many a swelling hill, clad in
+the dark oak coppice, had echoed to ringing shout of hunter and
+deep-mouthed bay of hound, ere the wild boar yielded his grim life by
+the morass, and the dark, grisly carcass was drawn off to provide a
+standing dish that was only meant to gratify the eye. Even the peacock
+roasted in its feathers was too gross a dainty for epicures who studied
+the art of gastronomy under C&aelig;sar; and that taste would have been
+considered rustic in the extreme which could partake of more than the
+mere fumes and savor of so substantial a dish. A thousand nightingales
+had been trapped and killed, indeed, for this one supper, but brains and
+tongues were all they contributed to the banquet; while even the wing of
+a roasted hare would have been considered far too coarse and common food
+for the imperial board.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p><p>"It would be useless to go into the details of such a banquet as that
+which was placed before the guests of C&aelig;sar. Wild boar, pasties, goats,
+every kind of shell-fish, thrushes, beccaficoes, vegetables of all
+descriptions, and poultry, were removed to make way for the pheasant,
+the guinea-hen, the capon, venison, ducks, woodcocks, and turtle-doves.
+Everything that could creep, fly, or swim, and could boast a delicate
+flavor when cooked, was pressed into the service of the emperor; and
+when appetite was appeased and could do no more, the strongest
+condiments and other remedies were used to stimulate fresh hunger and
+consume a fresh supply of superfluous dainties."</p>
+
+<p>Deep drinking followed, merely to stimulate fresh hunger. The disgusting
+story is even told that the imperial glutton was in the habit of taking
+an emetic to empty his stomach, that he might begin a fresh course of
+gluttony.</p>
+
+<p>Certain artists in the preparation of original dishes employed
+themselves in devising new and appetizing compounds of food for the
+table of Vitellius. They were sure of an ample reward if they should
+succeed in pleasing the imperial palate. Failure, however, was attended
+by a severe penance. The artist was not permitted to eat any food but
+his own unsuccessful dish until he had atoned for his failure by a
+success.</p>
+
+<p>While Vitellius was thus sunk in sloth and gluttony his destiny was on
+its march. A terrible and disgraceful retribution awaited him. He had
+never been emperor of all the Roman empire. The army of Syria had
+declared for Vespasian, its general; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> while Vitellius had been
+wasting his means and ruining his army by permitting it to indulge in
+every vice and excess, his rival in the East was carefully laying his
+plans to insure success. He finally seized Alexandria, thus being able
+at will to starve Rome, by cutting off its food-supply; and sent
+Antonius Primus, his principal general, with a strong force to Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of Antonius in Italy was rapid. City after city fell into
+his hands. The fleet at Ravenna declared for Vespasian. The general of
+Vitellius sought to carry his whole army over to Antonius, but found his
+men more faithful than himself. The Vitellians were defeated in two
+battles; Cremona was taken and destroyed; all was at risk; and yet
+Vitellius remained absorbed in luxury. "Hid in the recess of his garden,
+he indulged his appetite, forgetting the past, the present, and all
+solicitude about future events; like those nauseous animals that know no
+care, and, while they are supplied with food, remain in one spot, torpid
+and insensible."</p>
+
+<p>At length awakened from his stupor, Vitellius took some steps for
+defence. He was too late. His men deserted their ranks; the army of
+Antonius steadily advanced. Filled with terror, the emperor called an
+assembly of the people and offered to resign. The people in violent
+uproar refused to accept his resignation. He then proposed to seek a
+retreat in his brother's house. This the populace also opposed and
+forced him to return to the palace.</p>
+
+<p>This attempted abdication brought civil war into the city. Sabinus, the
+brother of Vespasian, raised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> a force and took possession of the
+Capitol. He was besieged here, and in the conflict that ensued the
+Capitol was set on fire and burned to the ground. It was the second time
+this venerable edifice had been consumed by the flames. Sabinus was
+taken prisoner, and was murdered by the mob.</p>
+
+<p>News of this revolt and its disastrous end hastened the march of
+Antonius. Once more, as in the far-off days of the Gaulish invasion,
+Rome was to be attacked and taken by a hostile army. It was assailed at
+three points, each of which was obstinately defended. Finally an
+entrance was made at the Collinian gate, and the battle was transferred
+to the open streets, in which the Vitellians defended themselves as
+obstinately as before.</p>
+
+<p>And now was seen an extraordinary spectacle. While two armies&mdash;one from
+the East, one from the North&mdash;contended fiercely for the possession of
+Rome, the populace of that city flocked to behold the fight, as if it
+was a gladiatorial struggle got up for their diversion, and nothing in
+which they had any personal interest. Tacitus says,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Whenever they saw the advantage inclining to either side, they favored
+the contestants with shouts and theatrical applause. If the men fled
+from their ranks, to take shelter in shops or houses, they roared to
+have them dragged forth and put to death like gladiators for their
+diversion. While the soldiers were intent on slaughter, these miscreants
+were employed in plundering. The greatest part of the booty fell to
+their share. Rome presented a scene truly shocking, a medley of savage
+slaughter and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> monstrous vice; in one place war and desolation; in
+another bathing, riot, and debauchery. The whole city seemed to be
+inflamed with frantic rage, and at the same time intoxicated with
+bacchanalian pleasures. In the midst of rage and massacre, pleasure knew
+no intermission. A dreadful carnage seemed to be a spectacle added to
+the public games."</p>
+
+<p>It was a spectacle certainly without its like in the history of nations.</p>
+
+<p>The battle ended in the complete overthrow of the army of Vitellius. The
+camp was taken, and all that defended it were slain. And now took place
+a scene which recalls that of the last days of Nero. Vitellius, seeing
+that all was lost, was in an agony of apprehension. He left the palace
+by a private way to seek shelter in his wife's house on the Aventine.
+Then irresolution brought him back to the palace, which he found
+deserted. The slaves had fled. The dead silence that reigned filled him
+with terror. All was solitude and desolation. He wandered pitiably from
+room to room, and finally, weary and utterly wretched, sought a humble
+hiding-place. Here he was discovered and dragged forth.</p>
+
+<p>And now the populace, who had lately refused his deposition, turned upon
+him with the bitterest insults and contumely. With his hands bound
+behind him and his garment torn, the obese old glutton was dragged
+through crowds who treated him with scoffs and words of contempt, not a
+voice of pity or sympathy being heard. A German soldier struck at him
+with his sword, and, missing his aim, cut off the ear of a tribune. He
+was killed on the spot.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p><p>As Vitellius was thus dragged onward, his captors, with swords pointed
+at his throat, forced him to raise his head and expose his bloated face
+to scorn and derision. They made him look at his statues, which were
+being tumbled to the ground. They pointed out to him the place where
+Galba had perished. They pricked his body with their weapons. With
+endless contumely they brought him to the public charnel, where the body
+of Sabinus had been thrown among those of the vilest malefactors.</p>
+
+<p>A single expression is recorded as coming from his lips. "And yet," he
+said, to a tribune who insulted his misery, "I have been your
+sovereign."</p>
+
+<p>His torment soon ended. The rabble fell on him with swords and clubs and
+he died under a multitude of wounds. Even after his death those who had
+worshipped him in the height of his power continued to shower marks of
+rage and contempt upon his remains. Thus perished one of the most
+despicable of all the emperors who disgraced Rome, to make room for one
+whose wisdom and virtue would make still more contemptible the excesses
+of his gluttonous predecessor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE FAITHFUL EPONINA.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Though</span> Rome had extended its conquests over numerous tribes and nations
+of barbarians, and reduced them to subjection, much of the old love of
+liberty remained, and many of the later Roman wars were devoted to the
+suppression of outbreaks among these unwilling subjects. In the reign of
+Vespasian occurred such a rebellion, followed by so remarkable an
+instance of womanly devotion that it has since enlisted the sympathy of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>Julius Sabinus, a leading chief among the Ligones, a tribe of the Gauls,
+led by ambition and daring, and stirred by hatred of the Roman dominion,
+resolved to shake off the yoke of conquest, and by his arts and
+eloquence kindled the flame of rebellion among his countrymen. Gathering
+an army, he drove the Romans from the territory of his own people, and
+then marched into the country of the Sequani, whom he hoped to bring
+into the revolt.</p>
+
+<p>But the discomfiture of the Romans lasted only until they could bring
+their forces together. A battle ensued between the hastily-levied
+followers of Sabinus and a disciplined Roman army, with the inevitable
+result. The barbarians were defeated with great slaughter, the death of
+most, the flight of the others, bringing the rebellion to a disastrous
+end.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p><p>Sabinus was among those who escaped the general carnage. He sought
+shelter from his pursuers in an obscure cottage, and, being hotly and
+closely tracked, he set fire to his lurking-place and caused a report to
+be spread that he had perished in the flames. He had been attended in
+his flight by two faithful freedmen, and one of these, Martialis by
+name, sought Eponina, the loving wife of the chief, and told her that
+her husband was no more, that he had perished in the flames of the
+burning hut.</p>
+
+<p>Giving full credit to the story, Eponina was thrown into a transport of
+grief which went far to convince the spies of Rome that she must have
+received sure tidings of her husband's death, and that Sabinus had
+escaped the vengeance of Rome. For several days her grief continued
+unabated, and then the same messenger returned and told her that her
+husband still lived, having spread the report of his death to throw his
+pursuers off his track.</p>
+
+<p>This information brought Eponina as lively joy as the former news had
+brought her sorrow; but knowing that she was watched, she affected as
+deep grief as before, going about her daily duties with all the outward
+manifestations of woe. When night came she visited Sabinus secretly in
+his new hiding-place, and was received in his arms with all the joy of
+which loving souls are capable. Before the dawn of day she returned to
+her home, from which her absence had not been known.</p>
+
+<p>During seven months the devoted wife continued these clandestine visits,
+softening by caresses and brave words her husband's anxious care, and
+supplying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> his wants as far as she was capable. At the end of that time
+she grew hopeful of obtaining a pardon for the fugitive chief. For this
+purpose she induced him to disguise himself in a way that made detection
+impossible and accompany her on a long and painful journey to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Here the earnest and faithful woman made every possible effort to gain
+the ear and favor of the emperor and to obtain influence in high places.
+She unhappily found that Roman officials had no time or thought to waste
+on fugitive rebels, and that compassion for those who dared oppose the
+supremacy of Rome was a sentiment that could find no place in the
+imperial heart. Repelled, disappointed, hopeless, the unhappy woman and
+her disguised husband retraced their long and weary journey, and Sabinus
+again sought shelter in the dens and caves which formed his only secure
+places of refuge.</p>
+
+<p>And now the faithful wife, abandoning her home, joined him in his
+lurking-place, and for nine long years the devoted couple lived as
+homeless fugitives, mutual love their only comfort, obtaining the
+necessaries of life by means of which we are not aware. By the tenderest
+affection Eponina softened the anxieties of her husband, the birth of
+two sons served still more to alleviate the misery of their distressful
+situation, and all the happiness that could possibly come to two so
+circumstanced attended the pair in their straitened place of refuge.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of nine years the hiding-place of the fugitives was
+discovered by their enemies, and they were seized and sent in chains to
+Rome. Here <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>Vespasian, who had gained a reputation for kindness and
+clemency, acted with a cruelty worthy of the worst emperors of Rome. The
+pitiable tale of the captives had no effect upon him; the devotion of
+the wife roused no sympathy in his heart; Sabinus had dared rebel
+against Rome, no time nor circumstance could soften that flagitious
+crime; without hesitation the chief was condemned to death, and instant
+execution ordered.</p>
+
+<p>This cruel sentence changed the tone of Eponina. She had hitherto humbly
+and warmly supplicated her husband's pardon. Now that he was dead she
+resolved not to survive him. With the spirit and pride of a free-born
+princess she said to Vespasian, "Death has no terror for me. I have
+lived happier underground than you upon your throne. You have robbed me
+of all I loved, and I have no further use for life. Bid your assassins
+strike their blow; with joy I leave a world which is peopled by such
+tyrants as you."</p>
+
+<p>She was taken at her word and ordered by the emperor for execution. It
+was the darkest deed of Vespasian's life, a blot upon his character
+which all his record for clemency cannot remove, and which has ever
+since lain as a dark stain upon his memory.</p>
+
+<p>Plutarch, who has alone told this story of love unto death, concludes
+his tale by saying that there was nothing during Vespasian's reign to
+match the horror of this atrocious deed, and that, in retribution for
+it, the vengeance of the gods fell upon Vespasian, and in a short time
+after wrought the extirpation of his entire family.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Christ</span> had not long passed away from the earth when the reign of peace
+and brotherly love which He had so warmly inculcated ceased to exist on
+the soil of Jud&aelig;a. Forty years after He foretold the destruction of the
+Temple of Jerusalem that noble edifice had ceased to exist, Jerusalem
+itself was burned to the ground, and a million of people perished by
+sword and flames. It is this lamentable tale which we have now to tell.</p>
+
+<p>Caligula, the mad emperor, first roused the indignation of the Jews, by
+demanding that his statue should be placed in that holy shrine in which
+no image of man had ever been permitted. War would have followed, for
+the Jews were resolute against such an impious desecration of their
+Temple, had not the sword of the assassin removed the tyrant.</p>
+
+<p>But the discontent of the Jews was not ended. They were resolved that no
+image of the C&aelig;sars should be brought into their land, and carried this
+so far that when the governor of Syria wished to march through a part of
+their territory to attack the Arabs, they objected that the standards of
+the legions were crowded with profane images, which their sacred laws
+did not permit to be seen in their country. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> governor yielded to
+their remonstrance, and marched around the land of Jud&aelig;a.</p>
+
+<p>This concession did not allay the discontent. Felix, a governor under
+Claudius, by oppression and cruelty aroused a general spirit of revolt.
+Gessius Florus, appointed by Nero governor of Jud&aelig;a, found his province
+in a state of irritation and tumult. His avarice and robbery of the
+people ripened this to war. The province broke into open rebellion. It
+was quickly invaded by Gallus, the governor of Syria, who marched
+through the country to the walls of Jerusalem. But he was not a soldier,
+and was quickly forced to abandon the siege and retreat in haste, losing
+six thousand men in his flight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image15.jpg" width="400" height="658" alt="THE JEWS&#39; WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE JEWS&#39; WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nero now, finding that Rome had an obstinate struggle on its hands,
+chose Vespasian, a soldier of renown, to conduct the war. This he did
+with the true Roman energy and thoroughness, subduing the whole country,
+and capturing every stronghold except Jerusalem, within two years. He
+was called from this work to the struggle for the empire of Rome,
+leaving his able son Titus to complete the task.</p>
+
+<p>The taking of Jerusalem was not to be easily performed. The city was of
+immense strength. It stood upon two hills, Mount Sion to the south,
+Mount Acra to the north. The former, being the loftiest, was called the
+upper, and Acra the lower, city. Each of these hills was surrounded by a
+wall of great strength and elevation, their bases washed by a rapid
+stream that ran through the valleys of Hinnom and Cedron, to the foot of
+the Mount of Olives. A third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> hill, Mount Moriah, was the seat of the
+famous Temple, an immense group of courts and edifices which looked more
+like a citadel than a sanctuary of religious faith. The true temple
+stood separate, in the midst of these buildings, its interior being
+divided by a curtain into two parts, of which the inmost was the Holy of
+Holies. The total group of edifices was nearly a mile in circumference.</p>
+
+<p>Jerusalem, unfortunately for its defence, had, during the conquest of
+the country, become filled with fugitives. To these the celebration of
+the Passover, now at hand, added other great numbers, so that when the
+army of Titus invested it, it was crowded with a vast multitude of human
+beings. Filled with religious enthusiasm, accustomed to war, and
+believing that the Lord of Hosts would come to their aid, the garrison
+displayed a desperate resolution that the Romans were to find very
+difficult to overcome.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it was as much due to themselves as to the Roman arms that the city
+at length fell. Resolute as the Jews were in defence against the foreign
+foe, they were divided among themselves, the city being held by three
+factions bitterly hostile to each other. One of these, known as the
+Zealots, under Eleazer, held the Temple. Another, under John of Gisela,
+an artful orator but a man of infamous character, occupied another
+portion of the city. A third, whose leader was named Simon, a man known
+for crime and courage, held still another section. These three parties
+kept Jerusalem in tumult. There were ferocious battles in the streets;
+houses were plundered,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> families slain, and when Titus encamped before
+the walls, he had before him a city distracted by civil war and its
+streets filled with blood and carnage.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the siege of Jerusalem is far too long a one to be told in
+detail. Several times during the siege Titus offered terms of pardon and
+amnesty to the besieged, but all in vain. Divided as they were among
+themselves, they were united in hostility to Rome. The siege began and
+proceeded with the usual energy shown by a Roman army. Mounds were
+erected, forts built, warlike engines constructed. Darts and other
+weapons were rained into the city, great stones were flung from engines,
+every resource known to ancient war was practised. A breach was at
+length made in the walls, the soldiers rushed in, sword in hand, and the
+section of the city known as Salem was captured. Five days afterwards
+Bezetha, a hill to the north of the Temple, was taken by Titus, but he
+was here so furiously assailed by the garrison that he was forced to
+retreat to his camp.</p>
+
+<p>Some days of quiet now followed, while the Romans prepared for a second
+attack. The factions in the city, fancying that their foes had withdrawn
+in despair, at once resumed their feuds, and the streets again ran with
+blood. John invaded the Temple precincts, overcame the party of Eleazer,
+and a general massacre followed which desecrated With slaughter every
+part of the holy place.</p>
+
+<p>Soon the Romans advanced again, and the two remaining factions united in
+defence. Now the Romans penetrated the city, now they were driven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> out
+in a fierce charge, and their camp nearly taken. And now famine came to
+add to the horrors of the siege, and made frightful havoc in the dense
+multitude with which every part of the city was thronged. The dead and
+dying filled the streets, the wounded soldiers perished of starvation,
+groans and lamentations resounded in every quarter; to rid themselves of
+the hosts of dead John and Simon had them thrown from the walls, to
+fester in heaps before the Roman works. Among the scenes of horror
+related, a woman was seen to kill and devour her own infant child.</p>
+
+<p>At length the Romans made such progress that all the city was theirs
+except the Temple enclosure, into which the remainder of the garrison
+had gathered. Titus wished to save this famous structure, and made a
+last effort to end the siege by peaceful measures. Josephus, the Jewish
+historian, who had been taken prisoner during the war, and was now in
+his camp, was sent into the city, with an offer of amnesty if they would
+even now yield. The offer was refused, and Titus saw that but one thing
+remained.</p>
+
+<p>On the next day the assault on Mount Moriah began. The Jews fought with
+fierce courage, but the close lines and steady discipline of the legions
+prevailed. The defenders, after a bitter resistance, were forced back;
+the assailants furiously pursued; the inner court of the Temple was
+entered; in the uproar of the furious strife the orders of Titus and his
+officers to save the Temple were unheard; all was tumult, the roar of
+battle, the shedding of blood. The Jews fought with frantic obstinacy,
+but their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> undisciplined valor failed to affect the steady discipline or
+break the close array of the legions. Many fled in despair to the
+sanctuary. Here were gathered priests and prophets, who still declared
+the Lord of Hosts was on their side, and that He would protect His holy
+seat.</p>
+
+<p>Even while these assurances were being given the assailants forced the
+gates. The eyes of the avaricious Romans rested on the golden and
+glittering ornaments of the Temple, and they sought more fiercely than
+ever to hew their way through flesh and blood to these alluring
+treasures. One soldier, frantic with the fury of the fight, snatched a
+flaming ember from some burning materials, and, lifted by a comrade, set
+fire to a gilded window of the Temple. Almost in an instant the flames
+flared upward, and the despairing Jews saw that their holy house was
+doomed. A great groan of agony burst from their lips. Many occupied
+themselves in vain efforts to quench the flames; others flung themselves
+in despairing rage on the Romans, heedless of life now that all they
+lived for was perishing.</p>
+
+<p>Titus, on learning what had been done, ran in all haste to the scene,
+and loudly ordered the soldiers to extinguish the flames, signalling to
+the same effect with his hand. But his voice was drowned in the uproar
+and his signals were not understood, while the thirst for plunder
+carried the soldiers beyond all restraint. The holy place of the Temple
+was still intact. This Titus entered, and was so impressed with its
+beauty and splendor that he made a strenuous effort to save it from
+destruction. In vain he begged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> and threatened. While some of the
+soldiery tore with wolfish fury at its gold, others fired its gates, and
+soon the Holy of Holies itself was in a blaze, and the whole Temple
+wrapped in devouring flames.</p>
+
+<p>The rapacious soldiers raged through the buildings, rending from them
+everything of value which the fire had left untouched. The defenders
+fell by thousands. Great numbers perished in the flames. A multitude of
+fugitives, including women and children, sought refuge in the outer
+cloisters. These were set on fire by the furious soldiers, and thousands
+were swept away by the pitiless hand of death. Word was brought to Titus
+that a number of priests stood on the outside wall, begging for their
+lives. "It is too late," he replied; "the priests ought not to survive
+their temple." Retiring to an outer fort, he gazed with deep regret on
+the devouring conflagration, saying, "The God of the Jews has fought
+against them: to him we owe our victory."</p>
+
+<p>Thus perished the Temple of Jerusalem, a magnificent structure, for ages
+the pride and glory of the Jews. First erected by Solomon, eleven
+centuries before, it was burnt by the Babylonians five hundred years
+afterwards. It was rebuilt by Haggai, in the reign of King Cyrus of
+Persia, and had now stood more than six hundred years, enlarged and
+adorned from time to time. But Christ had said, "There shall not be left
+one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down." This prophetic
+utterance was now fulfilled. Thenceforward there was no Temple of the
+Jews.</p>
+
+<p>But more fighting remained. The defenders made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> their way into the upper
+city on Mount Sion, and here held out bitterly still, rejecting the
+terms offered them by Titus of unconditional surrender. The place was
+strong, and defended by towers that were almost impregnable. Better
+terms might have been extorted from Titus had John and Simon, the
+leaders of the party of defence, been as brave as they were blatant. But
+after refusing surrender they lost heart, and hid themselves in
+subterranean vaults, leaving their deluded followers to their own
+devices. The end came soon. A breach was made in the walls. The legions
+entered, sword in hand, and with the rage of slaughter in heart. A
+dreadful carnage followed. Neither sex nor age was spared. According to
+Josephus, not less than one million one hundred thousand persons
+perished during this terrible siege. Of those that remained alive the
+most flagrant were put to death, some were reserved to grace the
+victor's triumph, and the others were sent to Egypt to be sold as
+slaves. As for the city, it had been in great part consumed by flames.
+Thus ended the rebellion of the Jews. To rule or ruin was the terrible
+motto of Rome.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples, where it serves as a
+striking background to the city of that name, stands the renowned
+Vesuvius, the most celebrated volcano in the world. During many
+centuries before the Christian era it had been a dead and silent
+mountain. Throughout the earlier period of Roman history the people of
+Campania treated it with the contempt of ignorance, planting their
+vineyards on its fertile slopes and building their towns and villages
+around its base. Under the shadow of the silent mountain armies met and
+fought, and its crater was made the fort and lurking-place of Spartacus
+and his party of gladiators. But the time was at hand in which a more
+terrible enemy than a band of vengeful rebels was to emerge from that
+threatening cavity.</p>
+
+<p>The sleeping giant first showed signs of waking from his long slumber in
+63 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, when earthquake convulsions shook the surrounding lands. These
+tremblings of the earth continued at intervals for sixteen years, doing
+much damage. At length, on the 24th of August of the year 79, came the
+culminating event. With a tremendous and terrible explosion the whole
+top of the mountain was torn out,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> and vast clouds of steam and volcanic
+ashes were hurled high into the air, lit into lurid light by the crimson
+gleams of the boiling lava below.</p>
+
+<p>The scene was a frightful one. The vast, tree-like cloud, kindled
+throughout its length by almost incessant flashes of lightning; the
+fiery glare that gleamed upward from the glowing lava; the total
+darkness that overspread the surrounding country as the dense mass of
+volcanic dust floated outward, a darkness only relieved by the glare
+that attended each new explosion, formed a spectacle of terror to make
+the stoutest heart quail, and to fill the weak and ignorant with dread
+of a final overthrow of the earth and its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The elder Pliny, the famous naturalist, was then in command of a fleet
+at Misenum, in the vicinity. Led by his scientific interest, he
+approached the volcano to examine the eruption more closely, and fell a
+victim to the falling ashes or the choking fumes of sulphur that filled
+the air. His nephew, Pliny the younger, then only a boy of eighteen, has
+given a lucid account of what took place, in letters to the historian
+Tacitus. After describing the journey and death of his uncle, he goes on
+to speak of the violent earthquakes that shook the ground during the
+night. He continues with the story of the next day:</p>
+
+<p>"Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid;
+the buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon open
+ground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining there without certain and great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>danger; we therefore resolved
+to leave the town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation,
+and, as to a mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more
+prudent than its own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out.</p>
+
+<p>"Being got at a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in
+the midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we
+had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backward and forward,
+though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady,
+even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back
+upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain, at least, that the shore was considerably
+enlarged, and several sea-animals were left upon it. At the other side a
+black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor,
+darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but
+much larger....</p>
+
+<p>"Soon afterwards the cloud seemed to descend and cover the whole ocean,
+as indeed it entirely hid the island of Capre&aelig; and the promontory of
+Misenum. My mother strongly conjured me to make my escape at any rate,
+which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, her
+age and corpulence rendered all attempts of that sort impossible.
+However, she would willingly meet death if she could have the
+satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But I
+absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand, I led her
+on; she complied with great reluctance, and not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> without many reproaches
+to herself for retarding my flight.</p>
+
+<p>"The ashes now began to fall on us, though in no great quantity. I
+turned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rolling
+after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turn
+out of the high-road, lest she should be pressed to death in the dark by
+the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path when
+darkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night or when there is
+no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinct.
+Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams of
+children, and the cries of men; some calling for their children, others
+for their parents, others for their husbands, and only distinguishing
+each other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, another that of
+his family; some wishing to die from the very fear of dying; some
+lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part imagining that the
+last and eternal night was come, which was to destroy the gods and the
+world together.</p>
+
+<p>"Among these were some who augmented the real terrors by imaginary ones,
+and made the frightened multitude falsely believe that Misenum was in
+flames. At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be
+rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it
+was, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at a distance from
+us; then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of
+ashes rained upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake
+off, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. I
+might boast that during all this scene of horror not a sigh or
+expression of fear escaped from me, had not my support been found in
+that miserable, though strong, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with
+the world itself.</p>
+
+<p>"At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud
+of smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though very
+faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that
+presented itself to our eyes seemed changed, being covered over with
+white ashes, as with a deep snow."</p>
+
+<p>This graphic story repeats the experience of thousands on that fatal
+occasion, in which great numbers perished, while many lost their all.
+Villas of wealthy Romans were numerous in the vicinity of the volcano,
+while among the several towns which surrounded it three were utterly
+destroyed,&mdash;Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabi&aelig;. Of these much the most
+famous is Pompeii, which, being buried in ashes, has proved far easier
+of exploration than Herculaneum, which was overwhelmed with torrents of
+mud, caused by heavy rains on the volcanic ash.</p>
+
+<p>Pompeii was an old town, built more than six hundred years before, and
+occupied at the time of its destruction by the aristocracy of Rome.
+Triumphal arches were erected there in honor of Caligula and Nero, who
+probably honored it by visits.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> It possessed costly temples, handsome
+theatres and other public buildings, luxurious residences, and all the
+ostentatious magnificence arising from the wealth of the proud
+patricians of Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/image16.jpg" width="600" height="395" alt="THE RUINS OF POMPEII." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE RUINS OF POMPEII.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>What Pompeii was in its best days we are not now able to estimate. It
+was essentially, in its architecture, a Greek city, rich and artistic,
+gay and luxurious. But on February 5, 63 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, came the first of the
+long series of earthquakes, and when it ended nearly all of old Pompeii
+was levelled with the ground. It was not yet a lost city, but was a
+thoroughly ruined one. In the years that followed it was rapidly
+rebuilt, Roman architecture and decoration, of often tawdry and inferior
+character, replacing the chaste and artistic Greek. Once more the city
+became a centre of gayety, ostentation, and licentiousness, when, in 79
+<span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, the eruption of Vesuvius came, and the overwhelming storm of ashes
+came down like a thick-descending fall of snow on the doomed city.</p>
+
+<p>The description given by Pliny relates to a less endangered point. Upon
+Pompeii the ashes settled down in seemingly unending volumes, continuing
+for three days, during which all was enveloped in darkness and gloom.
+The citizens fled in terror, such as were able to, though many perished
+and were buried deep in their ruined homes. On the fourth day the sun
+began to reappear, as if shining through a fog, and the bolder fugitives
+returned in search of their lost property.</p>
+
+<p>What they saw must have been frightfully disheartening. Where the busy
+city had stood was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> now a level plain of white ashes, so deep that not a
+house-top could be seen, and only the upper walls of the great theatre
+and the amphitheatre were visible. Digging into the fleecy ashes, many
+of them recovered articles of value, while thieves also may have reaped
+a rich harvest. The emperor Titus even undertook to clear and rebuild
+the city, but soon abandoned the task as too costly a one, and for many
+centuries afterwards Pompeii remained buried in mud and ashes, lost to
+the world, its site forgotten, and the forms of many of its old
+inhabitants preserved intact in the bed of ashes in which they had
+perished.</p>
+
+<p>It was only in 1748 that its site was recognized, and only since 1860
+has there been a systematic effort to dig the old city out of its grave.
+At present nearly one-half&mdash;the most important half&mdash;of Pompeii has been
+laid bare, and we are able to see for ourselves how the Romans lived.
+The narrow streets, fourteen to twenty-four feet wide, are well paved
+with blocks of lava, which are cut into deep ruts by the wheels of
+chariots that rolled over them two thousand years ago. On each side rise
+the walls of houses, two, and sometimes three, stories in height, and
+some of them richly painted and adorned, while walls and columns are
+brightly painted in red, blue, and yellow, which must have given the old
+city a gay and festive hue.</p>
+
+<p>The ornaments, articles of furniture, and domestic utensils found in
+these houses go far to teach us the modes of life in Roman times, and
+reveal to us that the Romans possessed many comforts and conveniences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+for which we had not given them credit. Even the forms of the
+inhabitants have in many cases been recovered. Though these forms have
+long vanished, the hollows made by their bodies in the hardened ashes in
+which they lay and slowly decayed have remained unchanged, and by
+pouring liquid plaster of Paris into these cavities perfect casts have
+been obtained, showing the exact shape of face and body, and even every
+fold of the clothes of these victims of Vesuvius eighteen hundred years
+ago. They are not altogether pleasant to see, for they express the agony
+of those caught in the swift descending death of the falling volcanic
+shroud, but as tenants of an arch&aelig;ological museum they stand unrivalled
+in lifelike fidelity.</p>
+
+<p>Herculaneum, which was buried to a depth of from forty to one hundred
+feet, and with wet material which has grown much harder than the ashes
+of Pompeii, has been but little explored. It was the larger and more
+important city of the two, while none of its treasures could have been
+recovered by their owners. The art relics found there far exceed in
+interest and value those of Pompeii, but the work is so difficult that
+as yet very little has been done in the task of restoring this "dead
+city of Campania" to the light of the modern day.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now reached the period in which began the decline and fall of
+the Roman empire. Its story is crowded with events, but lacks those
+dramatic and romantic incidents which give such interest to the history
+of early Rome. Now good emperors ruled, now bad ones followed, now peace
+prevailed, now war raged; the story grows monotonous as we advance. The
+reigns of virtuous emperors yield much to commend but little to
+describe; those of wicked emperors repel us by their enormities and
+disgust us by their follies. We must end our tales with a few selections
+from the long and somewhat dreary list.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image17.jpg" width="400" height="536" alt="EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After Vespasian came to the throne, a period of nearly two centuries
+elapsed during most of which Rome was governed by men of virtue and
+ability, though cursed for a time by the reigns of the cruel Domitian,
+the dissolute Commodus, the base Caracalla, and the foolish Elagabalus.
+Fortunately, none of the monsters who disgraced the empire reigned long.
+Assassination purified the throne. The total length of reign of the
+cruel monarchs of Rome covered no long space of time, though they occupy
+a great space in history.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to tell how the patrician families of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> Rome lost their hold
+upon the throne, and a barbarian peasant became lord and master of this
+vast empire, of which his ancestors of a few generations before had
+perhaps scarcely heard. The story is an interesting one, and well worth
+repeating.</p>
+
+<p>Just after the year 200 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> the emperor Septimius Severus, father of
+the notorious Caracalla, while returning from an expedition to the East,
+halted in Thrace to celebrate, with military games, the birthday of
+Geta, his youngest son. The spectacle was an enticing one, and the
+country-people for many miles round gathered in crowds to gaze upon
+their sovereign and behold the promised sports.</p>
+
+<p>Among those who came was a young barbarian of such gigantic stature and
+great muscular development as to excite the attention of all who saw
+him. In a rude dialect, which those who heard could barely understand,
+he asked if he might take part in the wrestling exercises and contend
+for the prize. This the officers would not permit. For a Roman soldier
+to be overthrown by a Thracian peasant, as seemed likely to be the
+result, would be a disgrace not to be risked. But he might try, if he
+would, with the camp followers, some of the stoutest of whom were chosen
+to contend with him. Of these he laid no less than sixteen, in
+succession, on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Here was a man worth having in the ranks. Some gifts were given him, and
+he was told that he might enlist, if he chose; a privilege he was quick
+to accept. The next day the peasant, happy in the thought of being a
+soldier, was seen among a crowd of recruits,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> dancing and exulting in
+rustic fashion, while his head towered above them all.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor, who was passing in the march, looked at him with interest
+and approval, and as he rode onward the new recruit ran up to his horse,
+and followed him on foot during a long and rapid journey without the
+least appearance of fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable endurance astonished Severus. "Thracian," he said, "are
+you prepared to wrestle after your race?"</p>
+
+<p>"Ready and willing," answered the youth, with alacrity.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the strongest soldiers of the army were now selected and pitted
+against him, and he overthrew seven of them in rapid succession. The
+emperor, delighted with this matchless display of vigor and agility,
+presented him with a golden collar in reward, and ordered that he should
+be placed in the horse-guards that formed his personal escort.</p>
+
+<p>The new recruit, Maximin by name, was a true barbarian, though born in
+the empire. His father was a Goth, his mother of the nation of the
+Alani. But he had judgment and shrewdness, and a valor equal to his
+strength, and soon advanced in the favor of the emperor, who was a good
+judge of merit. Fierce and impetuous by nature, experience of the world
+taught him to restrain these qualities, and he advanced in position
+until he attained the rank of centurion.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Severus the Thracian served with equal fidelity under
+his son Caracalla, whose favor and esteem he won. During the short
+reign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> of the profligate and effeminate Elagabalus, Maximin withdrew
+from the court, but he returned when Alexander Severus, one of the
+noblest of Roman emperors, came to the throne. The new monarch was
+familiar with his ability and the incidents of his unusual career, and
+raised him to the responsible post of tribune of the fourth legion,
+which, under his rigid care, soon became the best disciplined in the
+whole army. He was the favorite of the soldiers under his command, who
+bestowed on their gigantic leader the names of Ajax and Hercules, and
+rejoiced as he steadily rose in rank under the discriminating judgment
+of the emperor. Step by step he was advanced until he reached the
+highest rank in the army, and, but for the evident marks of his savage
+origin, the emperor might have given his own sister in marriage to the
+son of his favorite general.</p>
+
+<p>The incautious emperor was nursing a serpent. The favors poured upon the
+Thracian peasant failed to secure his fidelity, and only nourished his
+ambition. He began to aspire to the highest place in the empire, which
+had been won by many soldiers before him. Licentiousness and profligacy
+had sapped the strength of the army during the weak preceding reigns,
+and Alexander sought earnestly to overcome this corruption and restore
+the rigid ancient discipline. It was too great a task for one of his
+lenient disposition. The soldiers were furious at his restrictions, many
+mutinies broke out, his officers were murdered, his authority was widely
+insulted, he could scarcely repress the disorders that broke out in his
+immediate presence.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p><p>This sentiment in the army offered the opportunity desired by Maximin.
+He sent his emissaries among the soldiers to enhance their discontent.
+For thirteen years, said these men, Rome had been governed by a weak
+Syrian, the slave of his mother and the senate. It was time the empire
+had a man at its head, a real soldier, who could add to its glory and
+win new treasures for his followers.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander had been engaged in a war with Persia. He had no sooner
+returned than an outbreak in Germany forced him to hasten to the Rhine.
+Here a large army was assembled, made up in part of new levies, whose
+training in the art of war was given to the care of Maximin. The
+discipline exacted by Alexander was no more acceptable to the soldiers
+here than elsewhere, and the secret agents of the ambitious Thracian
+found fertile ground for their insinuations.</p>
+
+<p>At length all was ripe for the outbreak. One day&mdash;March 19, 239 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>&mdash;as
+Maximin entered the field of exercise, the troops suddenly saluted him
+as emperor, and silenced by violent exclamations his obstinate show of
+refusal. The rebels rushed to the tent of Alexander and consummated
+their conspiracy by striking him dead. His most faithful friends
+perished with him; others were dismissed from court and army; and some
+suffered the cruelest treatment from the unfeeling usurper. Thus it was
+that the imperial dignity descended from the noblest citizens of Rome to
+a peasant of a distant province of barbarian origin. It was one of the
+most striking steps in the decline of the empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p><p>The new emperor was a man of extraordinary physical powers. He is said
+to have been more than eight feet in height, while his strength and
+appetite were in accordance with his gigantic stature. It is stated that
+he could drink seven gallons of wine and eat thirty or forty pounds of
+meat in a day, and could move a loaded wagon with his arms, break a
+horse's leg with his fist, crumble stones in his hands, and tear up
+small trees by the roots. His mental powers did not accord with his
+physical ones. He was savage of aspect, ignorant of civilized arts,
+destitute of accomplishments, and ruthless in disposition.</p>
+
+<p>He had the virtues of the camp, and these had endeared him to the
+soldiers, but his barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his
+rudeness and ignorance were the contempt of cultivated people, and had
+gained him many rebuffs in his humbler days. He was now in a position to
+revenge himself, not only on the haughty nobles who had treated him with
+contempt, but even on former friends who were aware of his mean
+origin,&mdash;of which he was heartily ashamed. For both these crimes many
+were put to death, and the slaughter of several of his former
+benefactors has stained the memory of Maximin with the basest
+ingratitude.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, in the strange progress of its history, had raised a savage to the
+imperial seat, and it suffered accordingly. A scion of the despised
+barbarians of the northern forests was now its emperor, and he visited
+on the proud citizens of Rome the wrongs of his ancestors. The suspicion
+and cruelty of Maximin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> were unbounded and unrelenting. A consular
+senator named Magnus was accused of a conspiracy against his life.
+Without trial or opportunity for defence Magnus was put to death, with
+no less than four thousand supposed accomplices.</p>
+
+<p>This was but an incident in a frightful reign of terror. The emperor
+kept aloof from his capital, but he filled Rome, and the whole empire,
+in fact, with spies and informers. The slightest accusation or suspicion
+was sufficient for the blood-thirsty tyrant. On a mere unproved charge
+Roman nobles of the highest descent&mdash;men who had served as consuls,
+governed provinces, commanded armies, enjoyed triumphs&mdash;were seized,
+chained on the public carriages, and borne away to the distant camp of
+the low-born tyrant.</p>
+
+<p>Here they found neither justice nor compassion. Exile, confiscation, and
+ordinary execution were mild measures with Maximin. Some of the
+unfortunates were clubbed to death, some exposed to wild beasts, some
+sewed in the hides of slaughtered animals and left to perish. The worst
+enormities of Caligula and Nero were rivalled by this rude soldier, who,
+during the three years of his reign, disdained to visit either Rome or
+Italy, and permitted no men of high birth, elegant accomplishments, or
+knowledge of public business to approach his person. His imperial seat
+shifted from a camp on the Rhine to one on the Danube, and his sole idea
+of government seems to have been the execution of the suspected.</p>
+
+<p>It was the great that suffered, and to this the people were indifferent.
+But they all felt his avarice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> The soldiers demanded rewards, and the
+empire was drained to supply them. By a single edict all the stored-up
+revenue of the cities was taken to supply Maximin's treasury. The
+temples were robbed of their treasures, and the statues of gods, heroes,
+and emperors were melted down and converted into coin. A general cry of
+indignation against this impiety rose throughout the Roman world, and it
+was evident that the end of this frightful tyranny was approaching.</p>
+
+<p>An insurrection broke out in Africa. It was supported in Rome. But it
+ended in failure, the Gordians, father and son, who headed it, were
+slain, and the senate and nobles of Rome fell into mortal terror. They
+looked for a frightful retribution from the imperial monster. With the
+courage of despair they took the only step that remained: two new
+emperors, Maximus and Balbinus, were appointed, and active steps taken
+to defend Italy and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>There was no time to be lost. News of these revolutionary movements had
+roused in Maximin the rage of a wild beast. All who approached his
+person were in danger, even his son and nearest friends. Under his
+command was a large, well-disciplined, and experienced army. He was a
+soldier of acknowledged valor and military ability. The rebels, with
+their hasty levies and untried commanders, had everything to fear.</p>
+
+<p>They took judicious steps. When the troops of Maximin, crossing the
+Julian Alps, reached the borders of Italy, they were terrified by the
+silence and desolation that prevailed. The villages and open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> towns had
+been abandoned, the bridges destroyed, the cattle driven away, the
+provisions removed, the country made a desert. The people had gathered
+into the walled cities, which were plentifully provisioned and
+garrisoned. The purpose of the senate was to weaken Maximin by famine
+and retard him by siege.</p>
+
+<p>The first city assailed was Aquileia, It was fully provisioned and
+vigorously defended, the inhabitants preferring death on their walls to
+death by the tyrant's order. Yet Rome was in imminent danger. Maximin
+might at any moment abandon the siege of a frontier city and march upon
+the capital. There was no army capable of opposing him. The fate of Rome
+hung upon a thread.</p>
+
+<p>The hand of an assassin cut that thread. The severity of the weather,
+the growth of disease, the lack of food, had spread disaffection through
+Maximin's army. Ignorant of the true state of affairs, many of the
+soldiers feared that the whole empire was in arms against them. The
+tyrant, vexed at the obstinate defence of Aquileia, visited his anger on
+his men, and roused a stern desire for revenge. The end came soon. A
+party of Pr&aelig;torian guards, in dread for their wives and children, who
+were in the camp of Alba, near Rome, broke into sudden revolt, entered
+Maximin's tent, and killed him, his son, and the principal ministers of
+his tyranny.</p>
+
+<p>The whole army sympathized with this impulsive act. The heads of the
+dead, borne on the points of spears, were shown the garrison, and at
+once the gates were thrown open, the hungry troops supplied with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> food,
+and a general fraternization took place. Joy in the fall of the tyrant
+was universal throughout the empire, the two new emperors entered Rome
+in a triumphal procession, people and nobles alike went wild with
+enthusiasm, and the belief was entertained that a golden age was to
+succeed the age of iron that had come to an end. Yet within three months
+afterwards both the new emperors were massacred in the streets of Rome,
+and the hoped-for era of happiness and prosperity vanished before the
+swelling tide of oppression, demoralization, and decline.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the century that followed the reign of Maximin great changes came
+upon the empire of Rome. The process of decline went steadily on. The
+city of Rome sank in importance as the centre of the empire. The armies
+were recruited from former barbarian tribes; many of the emperors
+reigned in the field; the savage inmates of the northern forests,
+hitherto sternly restrained, now began to gain a footing within the
+borders; the Goths plundered Greece; the Persians took Armenia; the day
+of the downfall of the great empire was coming, slowly but surely. One
+important event during this period, the rebellion of Zenobia and the
+ruin of Palmyra, we have told in "Tales of Greece." There are two other
+events to be told: the rise of Christianity, and the founding of a new
+capital of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>From the date of the death of Christ, the Christian religion made
+continual progress in the city and empire of Rome. Despite the contempt
+with which its believers were viewed, despite the persecution to which
+they were subjected, despite frequent massacres and martyrdoms, their
+numbers rapidly increased, and the many superstitions of the empire
+gradually gave way before the doctrines of human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> brotherhood, infinite
+love and mercy, and the eternal existence and happiness of those who
+believed in Christ and practised virtue. By the time of the accession of
+the great emperor Constantine, 306 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, the Christians were so numerous
+in the army and populace of the empire that they had to be dealt with
+more mercifully than of old, and their teachings were no longer confined
+to the lowly, but ascended to the level of the throne itself.</p>
+
+<p>The traditional story handed down to us is that Constantine, in his
+struggle with Maxentius for the empire of the West, saw in the sky,
+above the mid-day sun, a great luminous cross, marked with the words,
+"<i>In hoc signo vinces</i>" ("In this sign conquer"). The whole army beheld
+this amazing object; and during the following night Christ appeared to
+the emperor in a vision, and directed him to march against his enemies
+under the standard of the cross. Another writer claims that a whole army
+of divine warriors were seen descending from the sky, and flying to the
+aid of Constantine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image18.jpg" width="400" height="661" alt="ARCH OF TITUS, ROME." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ARCH OF TITUS, ROME.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be said that both these stories, though told by devout authors,
+greatly lack probability. But, whatever the cause, Constantine became a
+professed Christian, and as such availed himself of the enthusiastic
+support of the Christians of his army. By an edict issued at Milan, 313
+<span class="ampm">A.D.</span>, he gave civil rights and toleration to the Christians throughout
+the empire, and not long afterwards proclaimed Christianity the religion
+of the state, though the pagan worship was still tolerated.</p>
+
+<p>This highly important act of Constantine was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>followed by another of
+great importance, the establishment of a new capital of the Roman
+empire, one which was destined to keep alive some shadow of that empire
+for many centuries after Rome itself had become the capital of a kingdom
+of barbarians. On the European bank of the Bosphorus, the channel which
+connects the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea, had for ages stood the
+city of Byzantium, which played an important part in Grecian history.</p>
+
+<p>On the basis of this old city Constantine resolved to build a new one,
+worthy his greatness. The situation was much more central than that of
+Rome, and was admirably chosen for the government of an empire that
+extended as far to the east in Asia as to the west in Europe, while it
+was at once defended by nature against hostile attack and open to the
+benefits of commercial intercourse. This, then, was the site chosen for
+the new capital, and here the city of Constantinople arose.</p>
+
+<p>We have, in our first chapter, described how Romulus laid out the walls
+of Rome. With equally impressive ceremonies Constantine traced those of
+the new capital of the empire. Lance in hand, and followed by a solemn
+procession, the emperor walked over a route of such extent that his
+assistants cried out in astonishment that he had already exceeded the
+dimensions of a great city.</p>
+
+<p>"I shall still advance," said Constantine, "till He, the invisible guide
+who marches before me, thinks proper to stop."</p>
+
+<p>From the eastern promontory to that part of the Bosphorus known as the
+"Golden Gate," the city<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> extended along the strait about three Roman
+miles. Its circumference measured between ten and eleven, the space
+embraced equalling about two thousand acres. Upon the five hills
+enclosed within this space, which, to those who approach Constantinople,
+rise above each other in beautiful order, was built the new city, the
+choicest marble and the most costly and showy materials being abundantly
+employed to add grandeur and splendor to the natural beauty of the site.</p>
+
+<p>A great multitude of builders and architects were employed in raising
+the walls and building the edifices of the imperial city, while the
+treasures of the empire were spent without stint in the effort to make
+it an unequalled monument. In that day the art of architecture had
+greatly declined, but for the adornment of the city there were to be had
+the noblest productions the world had ever known, the works of the most
+celebrated artists of the age of Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>These were amply employed. To adorn the new city, the cities of Greece
+and Asia were despoiled of their choicest treasures of art. In the Forum
+was placed a lofty column of porphyry, one hundred and twenty feet in
+height, on whose summit stood a colossal statue of Apollo, supposed to
+be the work of Phidias. In the stately circus or hippodrome, the space
+between the goals, round which the chariots turned in their swift
+flight, was filled with ancient statues and obelisks. Here was also a
+trophy of striking historical value, the bodies of three serpents
+twisted into a pillar of brass, which once supported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> the golden tripod
+that was consecrated by the Greeks in the temple of Delphi after the
+defeat of Xerxes. It still exists, as the choicest antiquarian relic of
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>The palace was a magnificent edifice, hardly surpassed by that of Rome
+itself. The baths were enriched with lofty columns, handsome marbles,
+and more than threescore statues of brass. The city contained numbers of
+other magnificent public buildings, and over four thousand noble
+residences, which towered above the multitude of plebeian dwellings. As
+for its wealth and population, these, in less than a century, vied with
+those of Rome itself.</p>
+
+<p>With such energy did Constantine push the work on his city that its
+principal edifices were finished in a few years,&mdash;or in a few months, as
+one authority states, though this statement seems to lack probability.
+This done, the founder dedicated his new capital with the most
+impressive ceremonies, and with games and largesses to the people of the
+greatest pomp and cost. An edict, engraved on a marble column, gave to
+the new city the title of Second or New Rome. But this official title
+died, as the accepted name of the city, almost as soon as it was born.
+Constantinople, the "city of Constantine," became the popular name, and
+so it continues till this day in Christian acceptation. In reality,
+however, the city has suffered another change of name, for its present
+possessors, the Turks, know it by the name of Stambol.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting ceremony succeeded. With every return of the birthday of
+the city, a statue of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>Constantine, made of gilt wood and bearing in its
+right hand a small image of the genius of the city, was placed on a
+triumphal car, and drawn in solemn procession through the Hippodrome,
+attended by the guards, who carried white tapers and were dressed in
+their richest robes. When it came opposite the throne of the reigning
+emperor, he rose from his seat, and, with grateful reverence, paid
+homage to the statue of the founder. Thus it was that Byzantium was
+replaced by Constantinople, and thus was the founder of the new capital
+held in honor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> doom of Rome was at hand. Its empire had extended almost inimitably
+to the east and west, had crossed the sea and deeply penetrated the
+desert to the south, but had failed in its advances to the north. The
+Rhine and the Danube here formed its boundaries. The great forest region
+which lay beyond these, with its hosts of blue-eyed and fair-skinned
+barbarians, defied the armies of Rome. Here and there the forest was
+penetrated, hundreds of thousands of its tenants were slain, yet Rome
+failed to subdue its swarming tribes, and simply taught them the
+principle of combination and the art of war. Early in the history of
+Rome it was taken and burnt by the Gauls. Raids of barbarians across the
+border were frequent in its later history. As Rome grew weaker, the
+tribes of the north grew bolder and stronger. The armies of the empire
+were kept busy in holding the lines of the Rhine and the Danube. At
+length Roman weakness and incompetency permitted this barrier to be
+broken, and the beginning of the end was at hand. This is the important
+event which we have now to describe.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 375 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> there existed a great Gothic kingdom in the north,
+extending from the Baltic to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> the Black Sea, under the rule of an able
+monarch named Hermanric, who had conquered and combined numerous tribes
+into a single nation. On this nation, just as assassination removed the
+Gothic conqueror, descended a vast and frightful horde from northern
+Asia, the mighty invasion of the Huns, which was to shake to its heart
+the empire of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) were conquered by this savage horde. The
+Visigoths (Western Goths), stricken with mortal fear, hurried to the
+Danube and implored the Romans to save them from annihilation. For many
+miles along the banks of the river extended the panic-stricken
+multitude, with outstretched arms and pathetic lamentations, praying for
+permission to cross. If settled on the waste lands of Thrace they would
+pledge themselves to be faithful subjects of Rome, to obey its laws and
+guard its limits.</p>
+
+<p>Sympathy and pity counselled the emperor to grant the request. Political
+considerations bade him refuse. To admit such a host of warlike
+barbarians to the empire was full of danger. Finally they were permitted
+to cross, under two stringent conditions: they must deliver up their
+arms, and they must yield their children, who were to be taken to Asia,
+educated, and held as hostages. Such was the first fatal step in the
+overthrow of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The task of crossing was a difficult one. The Danube there was more than
+a mile wide, and had been swollen with rains. A large fleet of boats and
+vessels was provided, but it took many days and nights to transport the
+mighty host, and numbers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> of them were swept away and drowned by the
+rapid current. Probably the whole multitude numbered nearly a million,
+of whom two hundred thousand were warriors.</p>
+
+<p>Of the conditions made only one was carried out. The children of the
+Goths were removed, and taken to the distant lands chosen for their
+residence. But the arms were not given up. The Roman officers were
+bribed to let the warriors retain their weapons, and in a short time a
+great army of armed barbarians was encamped on the southern bank of the
+Danube.</p>
+
+<p>These new subjects of Rome were treated in a way well calculated to
+convert them into enemies. The officials of Thrace disobeyed the orders
+of the emperor, sold the Goths the meanest food at extravagant prices,
+and by their rapacious avarice bitterly irritated them. While this was
+going on, the Ostrogoths also appeared on the Danube, and solicited
+permission to cross. Valens, the emperor, refused. He was beginning to
+fear that he had already too many subjects of that race. But the
+discontent of the Visigoths had drawn the soldiers from the stream and
+left it unguarded. The Ostrogoths seized vessels and built rafts. They
+crossed without opposition. Soon a new and hostile army was encamped
+upon the territory of the Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p>The discontent of the Visigoths was not long in breaking into open war.
+They had marched to Marcianopolis, seventy miles from the Danube. Here
+Lupicinus, one of the governors of Thrace, invited the Gothic chiefs to
+a splendid entertainment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> Their guards remained under arms at the
+entrance to the palace. But the gates of the city were closely guarded,
+and the Goths outside were refused the use of a plentiful market, to
+which they claimed admission as subjects of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The citizens treated them with insult and derision. The Goths grew
+angry. Words led to blows. A sword was drawn, and the first blood shed
+in a long and ruinous war. Lupicinus was told that many of his soldiers
+had been slain. Heated with wine, he gave orders that they should be
+revenged by the death of the Gothic guards at the palace gates.</p>
+
+<p>The shouts and groans in the street warned Fritigern, the Gothic king,
+of his danger. At a word from him his comrades at the banquet drew their
+swords, forced their way from the palace and through the streets, and,
+mounting their horses, rode with all speed to their camp, and told their
+followers what had occurred. Instantly cries of vengeance and warlike
+shouts arose, war was resolved upon by the chiefs, the banners of the
+host were displayed, and the sound of the trumpets carried afar the
+hostile warning.</p>
+
+<p>Lupicinus hastily collected such troops as he could command and advanced
+against the barbarians; but the Roman ranks were broken and the legions
+slaughtered, while their guilty leader was forced to fly for his life.
+"That successful day put an end to the distress of the barbarians and
+the security of the Romans," says a Gothic historian.</p>
+
+<p>The imprudence of Valens had introduced a nation of warriors into the
+heart of the empire; the venality<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> of the officials had converted them
+into enemies; Valens, instead of seeking to remove their causes of
+hostility, marched with an army against them. We cannot here describe
+the various conflicts that took place. It will suffice to say that other
+barbarians crossed the Danube, and that even some of the Huns joined the
+army of Fritigern. The borders of the empire were effectually broken,
+and the forest myriads swarmed unchecked into the empire.</p>
+
+<p>On August 9, 378, the Emperor Valens, inspired by ambition and moved by
+the demands of the ignorant multitude, left the strong walls of
+Adrianople and marched to attack the Goths, who were encamped twelve
+miles away. The result was fatal. The Romans, exhausted with their
+march, suffering from heat and thirst, confused and ill-organized, met
+with a complete defeat. The emperor was slain on the field or burnt to
+death in a hut to which he had been carried wounded, hundreds of
+distinguished officers perished, more than two-thirds of the army were
+destroyed, and the darkness of the night only saved the rest. Valens had
+been badly punished for his imprudence and the Romans for their
+venality.</p>
+
+<p>This signal victory of the Goths was followed by a siege of Adrianople.
+But the barbarians knew nothing of the art of attacking stone walls, and
+quickly gave up the impossible task. From Adrianople they marched to
+Constantinople, but were forced to content themselves with ravaging the
+suburbs and gazing, with impotent desire, on the city's distant
+splendor. Then, laden with the rich spoils of the suburbs, they marched
+southward through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> Thrace, and spread over the face of a fertile and
+cultivated country extending as far as the confines of Italy, their
+course being everywhere marked with massacre, conflagration, and rapine,
+until some of the fairest regions of the empire were turned almost into
+a desert. It may be that the numbers of Romans who perished from this
+invasion equalled those of the Goths whom imprudent compassion had
+delivered from the Huns.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the children of the Goths, who had been distributed in the
+provinces of Asia Minor, there remains a cruel story to tell. Though
+given the education and taught the arts of the Romans, they did not
+forget their origin, and the suspicion arose that they were plotting to
+repeat in Asia the deeds of their fathers in Europe. Julius, who
+commanded the troops after the death of Valens, took bloody measures to
+prevent any such calamity. The youthful Goths were bidden to assemble,
+on a stated day, in the capital cities of their provinces, the hint
+being given that they were to receive gifts of land and money. On the
+appointed day they were collected unarmed in the Forum of each city, the
+surrounding streets being occupied by Roman troops, and the roofs of the
+houses covered with archers and slingers. At a fixed hour, in all the
+cities, the signal for slaughter was given, and in an hour more not one
+of these helpless wards of Rome remained alive. The cruel treachery of
+this blood-thirsty act remains almost unparalleled in history.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p>
+<h2><i>THE DOWNFALL OF ROME.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Theodosius</span>, the great and noble emperor who succeeded Valens, pacified
+and made quiet subjects of the Goths. He died in 395, and before the
+year ended the Gothic nation was again in arms. At the first sound of
+the trumpet the warriors, who had been forced to a life of labor,
+deserted their fields and flocked to the standards of war. The barriers
+of the empire were down. Across the frozen surface of the Danube flocked
+savage tribesmen from the northern forests, and joined the Gothic hosts.
+Under the leadership of an able commander, the famous Alaric, the
+barbarians swept from their fields and poured downward upon Greece, in
+search of an easier road to fortune than the toilsome one of industry.</p>
+
+<p>Many centuries had passed since the Persians invaded Greece, and the men
+of Marathon and Thermopyl&aelig; were no more. Men had been posted to defend
+the world-famous pass, but, instead of fighting to the death, like
+Leonidas and his Spartans of old, they retired without a blow, and left
+Greece to the mercy of the Goth.</p>
+
+<p>Instantly a deluge of barbarians spread right and left, and the whole
+country was ravaged. Thebes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> alone resisted. Athens admitted Alaric
+within its gates, and saved itself by giving the barbarian chief a bath
+and a banquet. The other famous cities had lost their walls, and
+Corinth, Argos, and Sparta yielded without defence to the Goths. The
+wealth of the cities and the produce of the country were ravaged without
+stint, villages and towns were committed to the flames, thousands of the
+inhabitants were borne off to slavery, and for years afterwards the
+track of the Goths could be traced in ruin throughout the land.</p>
+
+<p>By a fortunate chance Rome possessed at that epoch a great general, the
+famous Stilicho, whose military genius has rarely been surpassed. He had
+before him a mighty task, the forcing back of the high tide of barbarian
+overflow, but he did it well while he lived. His death brought ruin on
+Rome. Stilicho hastened to Greece and quickly drove the Goths from the
+Peloponnesus. But jealousy between Constantinople and Rome tied his
+hands, he was recalled to Italy, and the weak emperor of the East
+rewarded the Gothic general for his destructive raid by making him
+master-general of Illyricum.</p>
+
+<p>Alaric, fired by ambition, used his new power in forcing the cities of
+his dominion to supply the Goths with the weapons of war. Then, Greece
+and the country to the north having been devastated, he turned his arms
+against Italy, and about 400 <span class="ampm">A.D.</span> appeared at the foot of the Julian
+Alps, the first invader who had threatened Italy since the days of
+Hannibal, six hundred years before.</p>
+
+<p>There were at that time two rulers of the Roman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> empire,&mdash;Arcadius,
+emperor of the East, and Honorius, emperor of the West. The latter, a
+coward himself, had a brave man to command his armies,&mdash;Stilicho, who
+had driven the Goths from Greece. But Italy, though it had a general,
+was destitute of an army. To meet the invading foe, Stilicho was forced
+to empty the forts on the Rhine, and even to send to England for the
+legion that guarded the Caledonian wall. With the army thus raised he
+met the Gothic host at Pollentia, and defeated them with frightful
+slaughter, recovering from their camp many of the spoils of Greece.
+Another battle was fought at Verona, and the Goths were again defeated.
+They were now forced to retire from Italy, Stilicho and the emperor
+entered Rome, and that capital saw its last great triumph, and gloried
+in a revival of its magnificent ancient games.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/image19.jpg" width="400" height="568" alt="THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In these games the cruel combat of gladiators was shown for the last
+time to the blood-thirsty populace of Rome. The edict of Constantine had
+failed to stop these frightful sports. The appeal of a Christian poet
+was equally without effect. A more decisive action was necessary, and it
+came. In the midst of these bloody contests an Asiatic monk, named
+Telemachus, rushed into the arena and attempted to separate the
+gladiators. He paid for his rashness with his life, being stoned to
+death by the furious spectators, with whose pleasure he had dared to
+interfere. But his death had its effect. The fury of the people was
+followed by shame. Telemachus was looked upon as a martyr, and the
+gladiatorial shows came to an end, the emperor abolishing forever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> the
+spectacle of human slaughter and human cruelty in the amphitheatre of
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Rome triumphed too soon. Its ovation to victory was the expiring gleam
+in its long career of glory and dominion. Its downfall was at hand.
+Fight as it might in Italy, the gate-ways of the empire lay open in the
+north, and through them still poured barbarian hordes. The myriads of
+the Huns, rushing in a devouring wave from the borders of China, made a
+mighty stir in the forest region of the Baltic and the Danube. In the
+year 406 a vast host of Germans, known by the names of Vandals,
+Burgundians, and Suevi, under a leader named Rhodogast, or Radagaisus,
+crossed the Danube and made its way unopposed to Italy. Multitudes of
+Goths joined them, till the army numbered not less than two hundred
+thousand fighting men.</p>
+
+<p>As the flood of barbarians rushed southward through Italy, many cities
+were pillaged or destroyed, and the city of Florence sustained its first
+recorded siege. Alaric and his Goths were Christians. Radagaisus and his
+Germans were half-savage pagans. Florence, which had dared oppose them,
+was threatened with utter ruin. It was to be reduced to stones and
+ashes, and its noblest senators were to be sacrificed on the altars of
+the German gods. The Florentines, thus threatened, fought bravely, but
+they were reduced to the last extremity before deliverance came.</p>
+
+<p>Stilicho had not been idle during this destructive raid. By calling
+troops from the frontiers, by arming slaves, and by enlisting barbarian
+allies, he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> at length able to take the field. He led the <i>last</i> army
+of Rome, and dared not expose it to the wild valor of the savage foe. On
+the contrary, he surrounded their camp with strong lines which defied
+their efforts to break through, and waited till starvation should force
+them to surrender.</p>
+
+<p>Florence was relieved. The besiegers were in their turn besieged. Their
+bravest warriors were slain in efforts to break the Roman lines.
+Radagaisus surrendered to Stilicho, and was instantly executed. Such of
+his followers as had not been swept away by famine and disease were sold
+as slaves. The great host disappeared, and Stilicho a second time won
+the proud title of Deliverer of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>But the whole army of Radagaisus was not destroyed. Half of it had
+remained in the north. These were forced by Stilicho to retreat from
+Italy. But Gaul lay open to their fury. That great and rich section of
+the empire was invaded and frightfully ravaged, and its conquerors never
+afterwards left its fertile fields. The empire of Rome ceased to exist
+in the countries beyond the Alps, those great regions which had been won
+by the arms of Marius and C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>And now the time had come for Rome to destroy itself. The mind of the
+emperor was poisoned against Stilicho, the sole remaining bulwark of his
+power. He had sought to tie the hands of Alaric with gifts of power and
+gold, and was accused of treason by his enemies. The weak Honorius gave
+way, and Stilicho was slain. His friends shared his fate, and the
+cowardly imbecile who ruled Rome cut down the only safeguard of his
+throne.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p><p>The result was what might have been foreseen. In a few months after the
+death of Stilicho, Alaric was again in Italy, exasperated by the bad
+faith of the court, which had promised and not performed. There was no
+army and no general to meet him. City after city was pillaged. Avoiding
+the strong walls of Ravenna, behind which the emperor lay secure, he
+marched on Rome, led his army under the stately arches, adorned with the
+spoils of countless victories, and pitched his tents beneath the walls
+of the imperial city.</p>
+
+<p>Six hundred and nineteen years had passed since a foreign foe had gazed
+upon those proud walls, within which lay the richest and most splendid
+city of the world, peopled by a population of more than a million souls.
+But Rome was no longer the city which had defied the hosts of Hannibal,
+and had sold at auction, for a fair price, the very ground on which the
+great Carthaginian had pitched his tent. Alaric was not a Hannibal, but
+much less were the Romans of his day the Romans of the past.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of striking for the honor of Rome, they lay and starved within
+their walls until thousands had died in houses and streets. No army came
+to their relief, and in despair the senate sent delegates to treat with
+the king of the Goths.</p>
+
+<p>"We are resolved to maintain the dignity of Rome, either in peace or
+war," said the envoys, with a show of pride and valor. "If you will not
+yield us honorable terms, you may sound your trumpets and prepare to
+fight with myriads of men used to arms and with the courage of despair."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p><p>"The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed," answered Alaric, with a
+loud and insulting laugh.</p>
+
+<p>He then named the terms on which he would retreat,&mdash;<i>all</i> the gold and
+silver in the city; <i>all</i> the rich and precious movables; <i>all</i> the
+slaves who were of barbarian origin.</p>
+
+<p>"If such are your demands," asked the envoys, now reduced to suppliant
+tones, "what do you intend to leave us?"</p>
+
+<p>"Your <i>lives</i>," said Alaric, in haughty tones.</p>
+
+<p>The envoys retired, trembling with fear.</p>
+
+<p>But Alaric moderated his demands, and was bought off by the payment of
+five thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, four
+thousand robes of silk, three thousand pieces of scarlet cloth, and
+three thousand pounds of pepper, then a costly and favorite spice. The
+gates were opened, the hungry multitude was fed, and the Gothic army
+marched away, but it left Rome poor.</p>
+
+<p>What followed is too long to tell. Alaric treated for peace with the
+ministers of the emperor. But he met with such bad faith and so many
+insults that exasperation overcame all his desire for peace, and once
+more the army of the Goths marched upon Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The crime and folly of the court of Honorius at Ravenna had at last
+brought about the ruin of the imperial city. The senate resolved on
+defence; but there were traitors within the walls. At midnight the
+Salarian Gate was silently opened, and a chosen band of barbarians
+entered the streets. The tremendous sound of the Gothic trumpet aroused
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> sleeping citizens to the fact that all was lost. Eleven hundred and
+sixty-three years after the foundation of Rome, and eight hundred years
+after its capture by the Gauls, it had again become the prey of
+barbarians, and the imperial mistress of the world was delivered to the
+fury of the German and Gothic hordes.</p>
+
+<p>Alaric, while permitting his followers to plunder at discretion, bade
+them to spare the lives of the unresisting; but thousands of Romans were
+slain, and the forty thousand slaves who had joined his ranks revenged
+themselves on their former masters with pitiless rage. Conflagration
+added to the horrors, and fire spread far over the captured city. The
+Goths held Rome only for six days, but in that time depleted it
+frightfully of its wealth. The costly furniture, the massive plate, the
+robes of silk and purple, were piled without stint into their wagons,
+and numerous works of art were wantonly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>But Alaric and many of his followers were Christians, and the treasures
+of the Church escaped. A Christian Goth broke into the dwelling of an
+aged woman, and demanded all the gold and silver she possessed. To his
+astonishment, she showed him a hoard of massive plate, of the most
+curious workmanship. As he looked at it with wonder and delight, she
+solemnly said,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"These are the consecrated vessels belonging to St. Peter. If you
+presume to touch them, your conscience must answer for the sacrilege.
+For me, I dare not keep what I am not able to defend."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p><p>The Goth, struck with awe by her words, sent word to Alaric of what he
+had found, and received an order that all this consecrated treasure
+should be transported without damage to St. Peter's Church. A remarkable
+spectacle, never before seen in a captured city, followed. From the
+Quirinal Hill to the distant Vatican marched a long train of devout
+Goths, bearing on their heads the sacred vessels of gold and silver, and
+guarded on each side by a detachment of their armed companions, while
+the martial shouts of the barbarians mingled with the hymns of devotees.
+A crowd of Christians flocked from the houses to join the procession,
+and through its sheltering aid a multitude of fugitives escaped to the
+secure retreat of the Vatican.</p>
+
+<p>Not satisfied with plundering the city, the conquerors ended by selling
+its citizens, save those who could ransom themselves, for slaves. Many
+of these were redeemed by the benevolent, but as a result of the taking
+of Rome hosts of indigent fugitives were scattered through the empire,
+from Italy to Syria.</p>
+
+<p>From this time forward the Western Empire of Rome was the prey of
+barbarians. In 451 the Huns under Attila invaded Gaul, besieged Orleans,
+and were defeated at Ch&acirc;lons in the last great victory of Rome. In the
+following year Attila invaded Italy, and Rome was only saved from the
+worst of horrors by a large ransom. Three years afterwards, in 455, an
+army of Vandals, who had invaded Africa, sailed to Italy, and Rome was
+again taken and sacked. For fourteen days and nights the pillage
+continued, and when it ended Rome was stripped bare of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> treasure; the
+Christian churches, which had been spared by the Goths, being
+mercilessly plundered by these heathen conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>A few years more and the Western Empire of Rome came to an end. In the
+year 476 or 479, Augustulus, the last emperor, was forced to resign, and
+Odoacer, a barbarian chief, assumed the title of King of Italy. As for
+the Eastern Empire, it maintained a half-life for nearly a thousand
+years after, Constantinople being finally taken by the Turks, and made
+the capital of Turkey, in 1453.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+THE END.
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by 
+Charles Morris
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by Charles Morris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15)
+       The Romance of Reality
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2008 [EBook #25673]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORIC TALES, VOLUME 11 (OF 15) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Kline, Greg Bergquist and The Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: CASTLE S. ANGELO.]
+
+
+
+
+  Edition d'Elite
+
+  Historical Tales
+
+  The Romance of Reality
+
+  By
+
+  CHARLES MORRIS
+
+  _Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the
+  Dramatists," etc._
+
+  IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES
+
+  Volume XI
+
+  Roman
+
+
+  J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1896, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+  Copyright, 1904, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+  Copyright, 1908, by J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                              PAGE
+  HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED                           7
+
+  THE SABINE VIRGINS                            14
+
+  THE HORATII AND CURIATII                      22
+
+  THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS                   26
+
+  THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL                        32
+
+  THE STORY OF LUCRETIA                         36
+
+  HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE            43
+
+  THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS                   50
+
+  THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE                      54
+
+  THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS                     60
+
+  CINCINNATUS AND THE AEQUIANS                   68
+
+  THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA                     75
+
+  CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII                 87
+
+  THE GAULS AT ROME                             94
+
+  THE CURTIAN GULF                             105
+
+  ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS      108
+
+  THE CAUDINE FORKS                            116
+
+  THE FATE OF REGULUS                          126
+
+  HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS                    135
+
+  HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED                 145
+
+  ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE          152
+
+  THE FATE OF CARTHAGE                         158
+
+  THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL                   165
+
+  JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME              173
+
+  THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS              180
+
+  THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA                    191
+
+  THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS                 198
+
+  CAESAR AND THE PIRATES                        204
+
+  CAESAR AND POMPEY                             208
+
+  THE ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR                   218
+
+  ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA                         227
+
+  AN IMPERIAL MONSTER                          236
+
+  THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS                     243
+
+  BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN             250
+
+  ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES                         255
+
+  THE DOOM OF NERO                             262
+
+  THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE               272
+
+  THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON                       280
+
+  THE FAITHFUL EPONINA                         289
+
+  THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM                       293
+
+  THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII                   301
+
+  AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE                           309
+
+  THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE                     319
+
+  THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE                   325
+
+  THE DOWNFALL OF ROME                         331
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ROMAN.
+
+                                              PAGE
+  THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO           _Frontispiece_.
+
+  ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S             18
+
+  THE FORUM OF ROME                             26
+
+  BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS     40
+
+  HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE                   46
+
+  THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA                     75
+
+  RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS                 106
+
+  HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS                   139
+
+  THE BATHS OF CARACALLA                       150
+
+  THE ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR                   218
+
+  ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CAESAR                  224
+
+  THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA                      230
+
+  THE TOMB OF HADRIAN                          260
+
+  A ROMAN CHARIOT RACE                         275
+
+  THE COLISEUM AT ROME                         282
+
+  THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM           294
+
+  THE RUINS OF POMPEII                         306
+
+  EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS         309
+
+  ARCH OF TITUS, ROME                          320
+
+  THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS            333
+
+
+
+
+_HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED._
+
+
+Very far back in time, more than twenty-six hundred years ago, on the
+banks of a small Italian river, known as the Tiber, were laid the
+foundations of a city which was in time to become the conqueror of the
+civilized world. Of the early days of this renowned city of Rome we know
+very little. What is called its history is really only legend,--stories
+invented by poets, or ancient facts which became gradually changed into
+romances. The Romans believed them, but that is no reason why we should.
+They believed many things which we doubt. And yet these romantic stories
+are the only existing foundation-stones of actual Roman history, and we
+can do no better than give them for what little kernel of fact they may
+contain.
+
+In our tales from Greek history it has been told how the city of Troy
+was destroyed, and how AEneas, one of its warrior chiefs, escaped. After
+many adventures this fugitive Trojan prince reached Italy and founded
+there a new kingdom. His son Ascanius afterwards built the city of Alba
+Longa (the long white city) not far from the site of the later city of
+Rome. Three hundred years passed away, many kings came and went, and
+then Numitor, a descendant of AEneas, came to the throne. But Numitor
+had an ambitious brother, Amulius, who robbed him of his crown, and,
+while letting him live, killed his only son and shut up his daughter
+Silvia in the temple of the goddess Vesta, to guard the ever-burning
+fire of that deity.
+
+Here Silvia had twin sons, whose father was said, in the old
+superstitious fashion, to be Mars, the God of War. The usurper, fearing
+that these sons of Mars might grow up and deprive him of his throne,
+ordered that they and their mother should be flung into the Tiber, then
+swollen with recent rains. The mother was drowned, but destiny, or Mars,
+preserved the sons. Borne onward in their basket cradle, they were at
+length swept ashore where the river had overflown its banks at the foot
+of the afterwards famous Palatine Hill. Here the cradle was over-turned
+near the roots of a wild fig-tree, and the infants left at the edge of
+the shallow waters.
+
+What follows sounds still more like fable. A she-wolf that came to the
+water to drink chanced to see the helpless children, and carried them to
+her cave, where she fed them with her milk. As they grew older a
+woodpecker brought them food, flying in and out of the cave. At length
+Faustulus, a herdsman of the king, found these lusty infants in the
+wolf's den, took them home, and gave them to his wife Laurentia to bring
+up with her own children. He gave them the names of Romulus and Remus.
+
+Years went by, and the river waifs grew to be strong, handsome, and
+brave young men. They became leaders among the shepherds and herdsmen,
+and helped them to fight the wild animals that troubled their flocks.
+Their home was on the Palatine Hill, and the cattle and sheep for which
+they cared were those of the wicked king Amulius. Near by was another
+hill, called the Aventine, and on this the deposed king Numitor fed his
+flocks. In course of time a quarrel arose between the herdsmen on the
+two hills, and Numitor's men, having laid an ambush, took Remus prisoner
+and carried him to Alba, where their master dwelt. This no sooner became
+known to Romulus than he gathered the young men of the Palatine Hill,
+and set out in all haste to the rescue of his brother.
+
+Meanwhile, Remus had been taken before Numitor, who gazed on him with
+surprise. His face and bearing were rather those of a prince than of a
+shepherd, and there was something in his aspect familiar to the old
+king. Numitor questioned him closely, and Remus told him the story of
+the river, the wolf, and the herdsman. Numitor listened intently. The
+story took him back to the day, many years before, when his daughter
+Silvia and her twin sons had been thrown into the swollen stream. Could
+the children have escaped? Could this handsome youth be his grandson? It
+must be so, for his age and his story agreed.
+
+But while they talked, Romulus and his followers reached the city, and,
+being forbidden entrance, made an assault on the gates. In the conflict
+that ensued Amulius took part and was killed, and thus Numitor and his
+daughter were at last revenged. Seeking Remus, the victorious shepherd
+prince found him with Numitor, who now fully recognized in the twin
+youths his long-lost grandsons. Romulus, who was now master of the city,
+restored his royal grandfather to the throne.
+
+As for Romulus and Remus, their life as shepherds was at an end. It was
+not for youths of royal blood and warlike aspirations to spend their
+lives in keeping sheep. But Numitor had been restored to the throne of
+Alba, and they decided to build a city of their own on those hills where
+all their lives had been passed and on which they preferred to dwell.
+The land belonged to Numitor, but he willingly granted it to them, and
+they led their followers to the spot.
+
+Here a dispute arose between the brothers. The story goes that Romulus
+wished to have the city built on the Palatine Hill, Remus on the
+Aventine Hill; and that, as they could not agree, they referred the
+matter to their grandfather, who advised them to settle it by
+augury,--or by watching and forming conclusions from the flight of
+birds. This long continued the favorite Roman mode of settling difficult
+questions. It was easier than the Greek plan of going to Delphi to
+consult the oracle.
+
+The two brothers now stationed themselves on the opposite hills, each
+with a portion of their followers, and waited patiently for what the
+heavens might send. The day slowly waned, and they waited in vain. Night
+came and deepened, and still their vigil lasted. At length, just as the
+sun of a new day rose in the east, Remus saw a flight of vultures, six
+in all. He exulted at the sight, for the vulture, as a bird which was
+seldom seen and did no harm to cattle or crops, was looked upon as an
+excellent augury. Word of his success was sent to Romulus, but he capped
+the story with a better one, saying that twelve vultures had just passed
+over his hill.
+
+The dispute was still open. Remus had seen the birds first; Romulus had
+seen the most. Which had won? The question was offered to the decision
+of their followers, the majority of whom raised their voices in favor of
+Romulus. The Palatine Hill was therefore chosen as the city's site. This
+event took place, so Roman chronology tells us, in the year 753 B.C.
+
+The day fixed for the beginning of the work on the new city--the 21st of
+April--was a day of religious ceremony and festival among the shepherds.
+On this day they offered sacrifices of cakes and milk to their god
+Pales, asked for blessings on the flocks and herds, and implored pardon
+for all offences against the dryads of the woods, the nymphs of the
+streams, and other deities. They purified themselves by flame and their
+flocks by smoke, and afterwards indulged in rustic feasts and games.
+This day of religious consecration was deemed by Romulus the fittest one
+for the important ceremony of founding his projected city.
+
+Far back in time as it was when this took place, Italy seems to have
+already possessed numerous cities, many of which were to become enemies
+of Rome in later days. The most civilized of the Italian peoples were
+the Etruscans, a nation dwelling north of the Tiber, and whose many
+cities displayed a higher degree of civilization than those around
+them. From these the Romans in later days borrowed many of their
+religious customs, and to them Romulus sent to learn what were the
+proper ceremonies to use in founding a city.
+
+The ceremonies he used were the following. At the centre of the chosen
+area he dug a circular pit through the soil to the hard clay beneath,
+and cast into this, with solemn observances, some of the first fruits of
+the season. Each of his men also threw in a handful of earth brought
+from his native land. Then the pit was filled up, an altar erected upon
+it, and a fire kindled on the altar. In this way was the city
+consecrated to the gods.
+
+Then, having harnessed a cow and a bull of snow-white color to a plough
+whose share was made of brass, Romulus ploughed a furrow along the line
+of the future walls. He took care that the earth of the furrow should
+fall inward towards the city, and also to lift the plough and carry it
+over the places where gates were to be made. As he ploughed he uttered a
+prayer to Jupiter, Mars, Vesta, and other deities, invoking their favor,
+and praying that the new city should long endure and become an
+all-ruling power upon the earth.
+
+The Romans tell us that his prayer was answered by Jupiter, who sent
+thunder from one side of the heavens and lightning from the other. These
+omens encouraged the people, who went cheerfully to the work of building
+the walls. But the consecration of the city was not yet completed. Its
+walls were to be cemented by noble blood. There is reason to believe
+that in those days the line of a city's walls was held as sacred, and
+that it was desecration to enter the enclosure at any place except those
+left for the gates. This may be the reason that Romulus gave orders to a
+man named Celer, who had charge of the building of the walls, not to let
+any one pass over the furrow made by the plough. However this be, the
+story goes that Remus, who was still angry about his brother's victory,
+leaped scornfully over the furrow, exclaiming, "Shall such defences as
+these keep your city?"
+
+Celer, who stood by, stirred to sudden fury by this disdain, raised the
+spade with which he had been working, and struck Remus a blow that laid
+him dead upon the ground. Then, fearing vengeance for his hasty act, he
+rushed away with such speed that his name has since been a synonyme for
+quickness. Our word "celerity" is derived from it. But Romulus seems to
+have borne the infliction with much of that spirit of fortitude which
+distinguished the Romans in after-times. At least, the only effect the
+death of his brother had upon him, so far as we know, was in the remark,
+"So let it happen to all who pass over my walls!" Thus were consecrated
+in the blood of a brother the walls of that city which in later years
+was to be bathed in the blood of the brotherhood of mankind, and from
+which was destined to outflow a torrent of desolation over the earth.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SABINE VIRGINS._
+
+
+A tract of ground surrounded by walls does not make a city. Men are
+wanted, and of these the new city of Rome had but few. The band of
+shepherds who were sufficient to build a wall, or perhaps only a wooden
+palisade, were not enough to inhabit a city and defend it from its foes.
+The neighboring people had cities of their own, except bandits and
+fugitives, men who had shed blood, exiles driven from their homes by
+their enemies, or slaves who had fled from their lords and masters.
+These were the only people to be had, and Romulus invited them in by
+proclaiming that his city should be an asylum for all who were
+oppressed, a place of refuge to which any man might flee and be safe
+from his pursuers. He erected a temple to a god named Asylaeus,--from
+whom comes the word asylum,--and in this he "received and protected all,
+delivering none back, neither the servant to his master, the debtor to
+his creditor, nor the murderer into the hands of the magistrate, saying
+that it was a privileged place, and they could so maintain it by an
+order of the holy oracle, insomuch that the city grew presently very
+populous."
+
+It was a quick and easy way of peopling a city. Doubtless the country
+held many such fugitives,--men lurking in woods or caves, hiding in
+mountain clefts, abiding wherever a place of safety offered,--hundreds
+of whom, no doubt, were glad to find a shelter among men and behind
+walls of defence. But it was probably a sorry population, made up of the
+waifs of mankind, many of whom had been slaves or murderers. There were
+certainly no women among this desperate horde, and Romulus appealed in
+vain to the neighboring cities to let his people obtain wives from among
+their maidens. It was not safe for the citizens of Rome to go abroad to
+seek wives for themselves; the surrounding peoples rejected the appeal
+of Romulus with scorn and disdain; unless something was done Rome bade
+fair to remain a city of bachelors.
+
+In this dilemma Romulus conceived a plan to win wives for his people. He
+sent word abroad that he had discovered the altar of the god Consus, who
+presided over secret counsels, and he invited the citizens of the
+neighboring towns to come to Rome and take part in a feast with which he
+proposed to celebrate the festal day of the deity. This was the 21st of
+August, just four months after the founding of the city,--that is, if it
+was the same year.
+
+There were to be sacrifices to Consus, where libations would be poured
+into the flames that consumed the victims. These would be followed by
+horse-and chariot-races, banquets, and other festivities. The promise of
+merry-making brought numerous spectators from the nearer cities, some
+doubtless drawn by curiosity to see what sort of a commonwealth this
+was that had grown up so suddenly on the sheep pastures of the Palatine
+Hill; and they found their wives and daughters as curious and eager for
+enjoyment as themselves, and brought them along, ignoring the scorn with
+which they had lately rejected the Roman proposals for wives. It was a
+religious festival, and therefore safe; so visitors came from the cities
+of Coenina, Crustumerium, and Antemna, and a multitude from the
+neighboring country of the Sabines.
+
+The sacrifices over, the games began. The visitors, excited by the
+races, became scattered about among the Romans. But as the chariots,
+drawn by flying horses, sped swiftly over the ground, and the eyes of
+the visitors followed them in their flight, Romulus gave a preconcerted
+signal, and immediately each Roman seized a maiden whom he had managed
+to get near and carried her struggling and screaming from the ground. As
+they did so, each called out "Talasia," a word which means spinning, and
+which afterwards became the refrain of a Roman marriage song.
+
+The games at once broke up in rage and confusion. But the visitors were
+unarmed and helpless. Their anger could be displayed only in words, and
+Romulus told them boldly that they owed their misfortune to their pride.
+But all would go well with their daughters, he said, since their new
+husbands would take the place with them of home and family.
+
+This reasoning failed to satisfy the fathers who had been robbed so
+violently of their daughters, and they had no sooner reached home than
+many of them seized their arms and marched against their faithless
+hosts. First came the people of Coenina; but the Romans defeated them,
+and Romulus killed their king. Then came the people of Crustumerium and
+Antemna, but they too were defeated. The prisoners were taken into Rome
+and made citizens of the new commonwealth.
+
+But it was the Sabines who had most to deplore, for they had come in
+much the greatest number, and it was principally the Sabine virgins whom
+the Romans had borne off from the games. Titus Tatius, the king of the
+Sabines, therefore resolved upon a signal revenge, and took time to
+gather a large army, with which he marched against Rome.
+
+The war that followed was marked by two romantic incidents. Near the
+Tiber is a hill,--afterwards known as the Capitoline Hill,--which was
+divided from the Palatine Hill by a low and swampy valley. On this hill
+Romulus had built a fortress, as a sort of outwork of his new city. It
+happened that Tarpeius, the chief who held this fortress, had a daughter
+named Tarpeia, who was deeply affected by that love of finery which has
+caused abundant mischief since her day. When she saw the golden collars
+and bracelets which many of the Sabines wore, her soul was filled with
+longing, and she managed to let them know that she would betray the
+fortress into their hands if they would give her the bright things which
+they wore upon their arms.
+
+They consented, and she secretly opened to them a gate of the fortress.
+But as they marched through the gate, and the traitress waited to
+receive her reward, the Sabine soldiers threw on her the bright shields
+which they wore on their arms, and she was crushed to death beneath
+their weight. The steep rock of the Capitoline Hill from which traitors
+were afterwards thrown was called, after her, the Tarpeian Rock.
+
+[Illustration: ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S.]
+
+The fortress thus captured, the valley between the hill and the city
+became the scene of battle. Here the Sabines repulsed the Romans,
+driving them back to one of their gates, through which the fugitives
+rushed in confusion, shutting it hastily behind them. But--if we may
+trust the legend--the gate refused to stay shut. It opened again of its
+own accord. They closed it twice more, and twice more it swung open. The
+victorious Sabines, who had now reached it, began to rush in; but just
+then, from the Temple of Janus, near by, there burst forth a mighty
+stream of water, which swept the Sabines away and saved Rome from
+capture. Therefore, in after-days, the gates of the Temple of Janus
+stood always wide open in time of war, that the god might go out, if he
+would, to fight for the Romans.
+
+Another battle took place in the valley, and the Romans again began to
+flee. Romulus now prayed to Jupiter, and vowed to erect to him a temple
+as Jupiter Stator,--that is, the "stayer,"--if he would stay the Romans
+in their flight. Jupiter did so, or, at any rate, the Romans turned
+again to the fight, which now waxed furious. What would have been its
+result we cannot tell, for it was brought to an end by the other
+romantic incident of which we have spoken.
+
+In fact, while the fathers of the Sabine virgins retained their anger
+against the Romans, the virgins themselves, who had now long been
+brides, had become comforted, most of them being as attached to their
+husbands as they had been to their parents before; and in the midst of
+the furious battle between their nearest relatives the lately abducted
+damsels were seen rushing down the Palatine Hill, and forcing their way,
+with appealing eyes and dishevelled hair, in between the combatants.
+
+"Make us not twice captives!" they earnestly exclaimed, saying
+pathetically that if the war went on they would be widowed or
+fatherless, both of which sad alternatives they deplored.
+
+The result of this appeal was a happy one. Both sides let fall their
+arms, and peace was declared upon the spot, it being recognized that
+there could be no closer bond of unity than that made by the daughters
+of the Sabines and wives of the Romans. The two people agreed to become
+one, the Sabines making their new home on the Capitoline and Quirinal
+Hills, and the Romans continuing to occupy the Palatine. As for the
+women, there was established in their honor the feast called Matronalia,
+in which husbands gave presents to their wives and lovers to their
+betrothed. Romulus and Tatius were to rule jointly, and afterwards the
+king of Rome should be alternately of Roman and Sabine birth.
+
+After five years Tatius was killed in a quarrel, and Romulus became sole
+king. Under him Rome grew rapidly. He was successful in his wars, and
+enriched his people with the spoils of his enemies In rule he was just
+and gentle, and punished those guilty of crime not by death, but by
+fines of sheep or oxen. It is said, though, that he grew somewhat
+arrogant, and was accustomed to receive his people dressed in scarlet
+and lying on a couch of state, where he was surrounded by a body of
+young men called _Celeres_, from the speed with which they flew to
+execute his orders.
+
+For nearly forty years his reign continued, and then his end came
+strangely. One day he called the people together in the Field of Mars.
+But suddenly there arose a frightful storm, with such terrible thunder
+and lightning and such midnight darkness that the people fled homeward
+in affright through the drenching rain. That was the last of Romulus. He
+was never seen in life again. He may have been slain by enemies, but the
+popular belief was that Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven
+in his chariot. All that the people knew was that one night, when
+Proculus Julius, a friend of the king, was on his way from Alba to Rome,
+he met Romulus by the way, his stature beyond that of man, and his face
+showing the beauty of the gods.
+
+Proculus asked him why he had left the people to sorrow and wicked
+surmises, for some said that the senators had made away with him.
+Romulus replied that it was the wish of the gods that, after building a
+city that was destined to the greatest empire and glory, he should go to
+heaven and dwell with the gods.
+
+"Go and tell my people that they must not weep for me any more," he
+said; "but bid them to be brave and warlike, and so shall they make my
+city the greatest on the earth."
+
+This story satisfied the people that their king had been made a god; so
+they built a temple to him, and always afterwards worshipped him under
+the name of the god Quirinus. A festival called the Quirinalia was
+celebrated each year on the 17th of February, the day on which he had
+vanished from the eyes of men.
+
+
+
+
+_THE HORATII AND CURIATII._
+
+
+Romulus was succeeded by a king named Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin,
+who so loved peace that during his reign Rome had no wars and no
+enemies, so that the doors of the Temple of Janus were never once opened
+while he was on the throne. He built a temple to Faith, that men might
+learn to avoid falsehood and to act honestly. He taught the people to
+sacrifice nothing but the fruits of the earth, cakes of flour, and
+roasted corn, and to shed no blood upon the altars. And so Home was
+peaceful and prosperous throughout his long reign, and grew rapidly in
+wealth and population. He died at length when eighty years of age, and
+was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, a king of Roman birth.
+
+The new king loved war as much as the gentle Numa had loved peace. Under
+his rule the gates of the Temple of Janus were soon thrown open again,
+long to remain so. His first war was with the city of Alba Longa, the
+foster-parent of Rome. Some border troubles brought on hostilities, war
+broke out, and an Alban army marched until within fifteen miles of Rome.
+And here took place a celebrated incident. The two armies were drawn out
+on the field, and were about to plunge into the dreadful work of
+battle, when the Alban king, to whom the war seemed a foolish and
+useless one, stood out between the two armies and spoke in the hearing
+of both.
+
+He reminded them that the Romans and Albans were of the same origin, and
+that they were surrounded by nations who would like to see both of them
+weakened. He proposed, therefore, that the dispute between them should
+be decided not by battle, but by a duel between a few soldiers, and that
+the side which won should rule the other. This proposal seemed to Tullus
+a sensible one, and he accepted it, offering as the combatants on his
+side three brothers known as the Horatii.
+
+The Alban army had also three brave brothers, of about the same age as
+the Roman champions, known as the Curiatii, and these were chosen to
+uphold the honor and dominion of Alba against Rome. So, with the two
+armies as spectators, and a broad space between for the deadly duel, the
+six champions, fully armed, faced each other in the field.
+
+The onset was fierce, and set every heart in the two armies throbbing in
+hope or dread. But after a short time a shout of triumph went up from
+the Alban host. Two of the Horatii lay stretched in death on the field.
+The Curiatii were all wounded, but they were now three to one, so the
+remaining Horatius turned and fled, though he was still unhurt. Dismay
+fell on the Romans as they saw their single champion in full flight,
+pursued by his opponents. The glad shouts of the Albans redoubled.
+
+Suddenly a change came. The fugitive, whose flight had been a feint, to
+separate his foes, now turned and saw that the wounded men were lagging
+in pursuit and were widely separated. Running quickly back, he met the
+nearest, and killed him with a blow. The other two were met and slain in
+succession before they could aid each other. Then, holding up his bloody
+sword in triumph, the victor invited the plaudits of his friends, while
+shedding dismay on Alban hearts.
+
+The Romans, now lords of the Albans, returned to Rome in triumph, their
+advent to the city being marked by the first of those pompous
+processions which in after-years became known as Roman Triumphs, and
+were celebrated with the utmost splendor and costliness of display.
+
+But the affair of the Horatii and Curiatii was not yet at an end. It was
+to be finished in blood and crime. A sister of the Horatii was the
+affianced bride of one of the Curiatii, and as she saw her victorious
+brother enter the city, bearing on his shoulders the military cloak
+which she had wrought for her lover with her own hands, she broke into
+wild invectives, tearing her hair, and upbraiding her brother with
+bitter words. Roused to fury by this accusation, the victor, in a
+paroxysm of rage, struck his sister to the heart with the sword which
+had slain her lover, crying out, "So perish the Roman maiden who shall
+weep for her country's enemy."
+
+This dreadful deed filled with horror the hearts of all who beheld it.
+Men cried that it was a crime against the law and the gods, too great to
+be atoned for by the victor's services. He was seized and dragged to the
+tribunal of the two judges who dealt with crimes of bloodshed. These
+heard the evidence of the crime, and condemned him to death, in despite
+of what he had done for Rome.
+
+But the Roman law permitted an appeal from the judges to the people.
+This appeal Horatius made, and it was tried before the assembly of
+Romans. Here his father spoke in his favor, saying that in his opinion
+the maiden deserved her fate. Remembrance of the great service performed
+by Horatius was also strong with the people, and the voice of the
+assembly freed him from the sentence of death. But blood had been shed,
+and blood required atonement, so a sum of money was set aside to pay for
+sacrifices to atone for this dreadful deed. Ever afterwards these
+sacrifices were performed by members of the Horatian clan.
+
+In a later war the Albans failed to aid the Romans, as they were
+required to do by the terms of alliance. As a result the city of Alba
+was destroyed, and the Albans forced to come and live in Rome, the
+Caelial Hill being given them for a dwelling-place.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS._
+
+
+The tale we have now to tell forces us to pass rapidly over years of
+history. After several kings of Roman and Sabine birth had reigned, a
+foreigner, of Greek descent, came to the throne of Rome. This was one
+Lucomo, the son of a native of Corinth, who had settled at Tarquinii in
+Italy. Growing weary of Tarquinii, Lucomo left that city, with his
+family and wealth, and made his way to Rome. As he came near the gates
+of the city an eagle swooped down, lifted the cap from his head, and,
+bearing it high into the air, descended and placed it on his head again.
+His wife Tanaquil, who was skilled in augury, told him this was a happy
+omen, and that he was destined to become great.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORUM OF ROME.]
+
+And so he did. His riches, courage, and wisdom brought him great favor
+in Rome, and on the death of their king Ancus the people chose Lucius
+Tarquinius--as they called him, from his native city--to reign over them
+in his stead. He proved a valiant and successful warrior, and in times
+of peace did noble work. He built great sewers to drain the city,
+constructed a large circus or race-course, and a forum or market-place,
+and built a wall of stone around the city in place of the old wooden
+wall. He also began to build a great temple on the Capitoline Hill,
+which was designed to be the temple of the gods of Rome. In the end
+Lucius was murdered by the sons of King Ancus, who declared that he had
+robbed them of the throne.
+
+There is a story of the deed of an augur in his reign which is worth
+repeating, whether we believe it or not. Lucius had little trust in the
+augur, and said to him, "Come, tell me by your auguries whether the
+thing I have in my mind may be done or not." "It may," said Attus, the
+augur. "It is this," said the king, laughing: "it was in my mind that
+you should cut this whetstone in two with this razor. Take them and see
+if you can do it."
+
+Attus took the razor and whetstone, and with a bold stroke cut the
+latter in two. From that time on Lucius did nothing without first
+consulting the augurs, and testing the purposes of the gods by the
+flight of birds, and--so say the legends--he prospered accordingly.
+
+The cause of the death of Lucius was this. One day a boy who dwelt in
+the palace fell asleep in its portico, and as he lay there some
+attendants who passed by saw a flame playing lambently around his head.
+Alarmed at the sight, they were about to throw water upon him to
+extinguish the flame, when Tanaquil, the queen, who had also seen it,
+forbade them. She told the king of what had happened, and said that the
+boy whom they were bringing up so meanly was destined to become great
+and noble. She bade him, therefore, to rear the child in a way befitting
+his destiny.
+
+The boy, whose name was Servius Tullius, was thereupon brought up as a
+prince, and when old enough married the king's daughter. Lucius reigned
+forty years, and then the sons of Ancus, fearing to be robbed of their
+claim to the throne by young Servius, who had become very popular,
+managed to get an audience with and kill the king.
+
+The murderers gained nothing by their deed of blood. Queen Tanaquil
+shrewdly told the people that Lucius was only stunned by the blow, and
+that he wished them to obey the orders of Servius. To the young man she
+said, "The kingdom is yours; if you have no plans of your own, then
+follow mine." For several days Servius acted as king, and then, the
+people and senate having grown used to seeing him on the throne, the
+death of Lucius was declared and Servius proclaimed king. He had the
+consent of the senate, but had not asked that of the people, being the
+first king of Rome who reigned without the votes of the assembly of the
+Roman people.
+
+Servius Tullius reigned long and won victories, but his greatest
+triumphs were those of peace. He formed a league with the thirty cities
+of Latium, and is said to have taken a census of the people of the city,
+which was found to have eighty-three thousand inhabitants. To strengthen
+his power he married his two daughters to two sons of Lucius Tarquinius,
+a well-intended act which led to a tragic and dreadful deed.
+
+The daughters of Servius were very unlike in nature, and the same may be
+said of their husbands, and they became unequally mated. Lucius
+Tarquinius was proud and full of evil, while his wife, the elder Tullia,
+was good and gentle. Aruns Tarquinius was of a mild and kindly nature,
+while his wife, the younger Tullia, was cruel and ambitious. They were
+thus sadly mismated. But the evil pair saw in each other kindred
+spirits, and in the end Lucius secretly killed his wife, and the younger
+Tullia her husband. The wicked pair then married, and proceeded to carry
+out the purposes of their base hearts.
+
+Servius, being himself of humble birth, had favored the people at the
+expense of the nobles. He even made a law that no king should rule after
+him, but that two men chosen by the people should govern them year by
+year. Thus it was that the commons came to love him and the nobles to
+hate him, and when he asked for a vote of the people on his king-ship
+there was not a voice raised against him.
+
+Lucius, whom his wicked wife steadily goaded to ambitious aims,
+conspired with the nobles against the king. There were brotherhoods of
+the young nobles, pledged to support each other in deeds of oppression.
+These he joined, and gained their aid. Then he waited till the harvest
+season, when the commons were in the fields, gathering the ripened corn.
+
+This absence of the king's friends gave him the opportunity he wished.
+Gathering a band of armed men, he suddenly entered the Forum, and took
+his seat on the king's throne, before the door of the senate-chamber,
+from which Servius was accustomed to judge the people. Word of this act
+of treason was borne to the old king, who at once hastened to the Forum
+and sternly asked the usurper why he had dared to take that seat.
+
+Lucius insolently answered that it was his father's throne, and that he
+had the best right to it. Then, as the aged and unguarded king mounted
+the steps of the senate-house, his ambitious son-in-law sprang up,
+caught him by the middle, and flung him headlong down the steps to the
+ground. Then he went into the senate-chamber and called the senators
+together, as though he were already king.
+
+The old monarch, sadly shaken by his fall, rose to his feet and made his
+way slowly towards his home on the Esquiline Hill. But when he came near
+it he was overtaken by some bravos whom Lucius had sent in pursuit.
+These killed the unprotected old man, and left him lying in his blood in
+the middle of the street.
+
+And now was done a deed which has aroused the execrations of mankind in
+all later ages. Tullia, who had instigated her husband to the murder of
+her father, waited with impatience until it was performed. Then,
+mounting her chariot, she bade the coachman to drive to the Forum,
+where, heedless of the crowd of men who had assembled, she called Lucius
+from the senate-house, and cried to him, in accents of triumph, "Hail to
+thee, King Tarquinius!"
+
+Wicked as Lucius was, he was not as shameless as his wife, and sternly
+bade her to go home. She obeyed, taking the same street as her father
+had followed. Soon reaching the spot where the bleeding body of the old
+king lay stretched across the way, the coachman drew up his horses and
+pointed out to Tullia the dreadful spectacle.
+
+"Drive on," she harshly commanded. "I cannot," he replied. "The street
+is too narrow to pass without crushing the king's body." "Drive on," she
+again fiercely ordered, and the coachman did so. Tullia went to her home
+with her father's blood upon the wheels of her chariot, and with the
+execration of all good men upon her head. And thus it was that Lucius
+Tarquinius and his wicked wife succeeded the good king Servius upon the
+throne.
+
+We may tell here briefly the end of this evil pair. Tarquin the Proud,
+as he is known in history, reigned as a tyrant and oppressor, while his
+wife was viewed with horror by all virtuous matrons. At length the
+people rose against a base deed of the tyrant's son, and the wicked
+Tullia fled in terror from her house. No one sought to stop her in her
+flight; but all, men and women alike, cursed her as she passed, and
+prayed that the furies of her father's blood might take revenge for her
+dreadful deed.
+
+She never saw Rome again. Tarquin sought long to regain his crown, but
+in vain, and the wicked usurpers died in exile. No king ever again ruled
+over the Romans. Tarquin's tyranny had given the people enough of kings,
+and the law of good Servius Tullius was at last carried out.
+
+
+
+
+_THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL._
+
+
+While Tarquin the Proud was king a strange thing happened at Rome. One
+day an unknown woman came to the king, bearing in her arms nine books,
+which she offered to sell to him at a certain price. She told him that
+they contained the prophecies of the Sibyl of Cumae, and that from them
+might be learned the destiny of Rome and the way to carry out this
+destiny.
+
+But the price she asked for her books seemed to the king exorbitant, and
+he refused to buy them, whereupon the woman went away from the palace
+and burned three of the volumes. She then returned with six only and
+offered them to the king, but demanded the same price for the six as she
+had before done for the nine. King Tarquin heard this demand with
+laughter and mockery, and again refused to buy. The woman once more left
+the palace, and burned three more of the books.
+
+To the king's astonishment his strange visitor soon returned, bearing
+the three books that remained. On being asked their price, she named the
+same sum as she had demanded for the six and the nine. This was ceasing
+to be matter for mockery. There might be some important mystery
+concealed behind this strange demand. The king sent for the augurs of
+the court, told them what had happened, and asked what he should do.
+They told him that he had done very wrong. In refusing the books he had
+refused a gift of the gods. By all means he must buy the books that were
+left. He bought them, therefore, at the Sibyl's price. As for the woman,
+she was never seen again.
+
+The books were placed in a chest of stone, and kept underground in the
+great temple which his father had begun on the Capitoline Hill, and
+which he had completed. Two men were appointed to guard them, who were
+called the two men of the sacred books; and no treasure could have been
+kept with more care and devotion than these mysterious rolls.
+
+The temple in which these books were kept was the grandest edifice Rome
+had yet known. When Tarquin proposed to build it he found the chosen
+site already occupied by many holy places, sacred to the gods of the
+Sabines, the first dwellers on the Capitoline Hill. The augurs consulted
+the gods to see if these holy places could safely be removed, to make
+room for the new temple. The answer came that they might take away all
+except the holy places of the god of Youth and of Terminus, the god of
+boundaries. This was accounted a happy augury, for it seemed to mean
+that the city should always retain its youth and that no enemy should
+remove its boundaries. And when the foundations of the temple were dug a
+human head was found, which was held to be a sign that the Capitoline
+Hill should be the head of all the earth. So a great temple was built,
+and consecrated to Jupiter and to Juno and to Minerva, the greatest of
+the Etruscan gods. This edifice, afterwards known as the Capitol, was
+the most sacred and revered edifice of later Rome.
+
+In the vaults of this temple the sacred books of the Sibyl were
+sedulously kept, and here they were consulted from time to time, as
+occasions arose in the history of the city when divine guidance seemed
+necessary. None of the people were permitted to gaze within the sacred
+cell in which they lay. Only the augurs consulted them, and the word of
+the augurs had to be taken for what they revealed. It may be that the
+augurs themselves invented all that they told, for the books at length
+perished in the flames, and no man knows what secret lore they really
+contained.
+
+It was during the wars of Sulla and Marius (83 B.C.) that this disaster
+occurred. The Capitol was burned, and with it those famous oracles,
+which had so long directed the counsels of the nation. Their loss threw
+Rome into the deepest consternation, the loss of the Capitol itself
+seeming small beside that of these famous scrolls.
+
+To replace them as far as possible, the senate sent ambassadors to the
+various temples of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, within which were
+Sibyls, or oracle-speaking priestesses. These collected such oracles
+referring to Rome as they could find, about one thousand lines in all,
+and brought them to Rome, where they were placed in the same locality in
+the new Capitol that they had occupied in the old.
+
+These oracles do not appear to have predicted future events, but were
+consulted to discover the religious observances necessary to avert great
+calamities and to expiate prodigies. During the reign of Augustus they
+were removed to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and all the
+false Sibylline leaves which were extant were collected and burned. They
+remained here until shortly after the year 400 A.D., when they were
+publicly burned by Stilicho, a famous general of Christian Rome, as
+impious documents of heathen times.
+
+
+
+
+_THE STORY OF LUCRETIA._
+
+
+We have next to tell how Tarquin the Proud lost his throne, through his
+own tyranny and the criminal action of his son. Once upon a time, when
+this king was at the height of his power, he, as was usual, offered
+sacrifices to the gods on the altar in the palace court-yard. But from
+the altar there crawled out a snake, which devoured the offerings before
+the flames could reach them.
+
+This was an alarming omen. The augurs were consulted, but none of them
+could explain it. So Tarquin sent two of his sons to the Temple of
+Delphi, in Greece, whose oracle was famous in all lands, to ask counsel
+of Apollo concerning this prodigy. With these two princes, Titus and
+Aruns by name, went their cousin, Lucius Junius, a youth who seemed so
+lacking in wit that men called him Brutus,--that is, the "Dullard." One
+evidence of his lack of wit was that he would eat wild figs with honey.
+Just in what way this was an evidence of want of good sense we do not
+know, though doubtless the Romans did.
+
+But Brutus was by no means the fool that men fancied him. He was shrewd
+instead of stupid. His father had left him abundant wealth, to which
+his uncle, King Tarquin, might at any time take a fancy, and sweep him
+away to enjoy it. The king had killed his brother for his wealth, and
+would be likely to serve him in the same way if he deemed him wise
+enough to fight for his inheritance. So, preferring life to money,
+Brutus feigned to be wanting in sense.
+
+When he went to Delphi he took with him a hollow staff of horn, which he
+had filled with gold, and offered this staff to the oracle as a likeness
+of himself,--perhaps as one empty of wit and whose whole merit lay in
+his gold. When the three young men had performed the bidding of the
+king, and asked the oracle the meaning of the prodigy, they were told
+that it portended the fall of Tarquin. Then they said, "O Lord Apollo,
+tell us which of us shall be king of Rome." From the depth of the
+sanctuary there came a voice in reply, "The one among you who shall
+first kiss his mother."
+
+This was one of those enigmas in which the Delphian oracle usually
+spoke, saying things with a double meaning, and which men were apt to
+take amiss. It was so now. The two princes drew lots which of them
+should first kiss their mother on his return; and they agreed to keep
+the oracle secret from their brother Sextus, lest he should be king
+rather than they. But Brutus was wiser than them both. As they left the
+temple together, he pretended to stumble and fell with his face to the
+ground. He then kissed the earth, saying, "The earth is the true mother
+of us all."
+
+On their return to Rome the princes found that their father was at war.
+He was besieging the city of Ardea, which lay south of Rome; and as this
+city was strong and well defended the king and his army were kept a long
+while before it, waiting until famine, their ally, should force the
+inhabitants to surrender. While the army was thus waiting in idleness
+its officers had leisure for feasts and diversions, and one of the
+king's sons found time to indulge in fatal mischief. This arose from a
+supper in the tent of Prince Sextus, at which his brothers Titus and
+Aruns, and his cousin Tarquin of Collatia, were present.
+
+While they feasted a dispute arose between them, as to which had the
+worthiest wife. It ended in a proposition of Tarquin, "Let us go and see
+with our own eyes what our wives are doing, and we can then best decide
+which is the worthiest." This proposition hit with their humor, and,
+mounting their horses, they rode to Rome. Here they found the wives of
+the three princes merrily engaged at a banquet. They then rode on to
+Collatia. It was now late at night, but they found Lucretia, the wife of
+their cousin, neither sleeping nor feasting, but working at the loom,
+with her handmaids busily engaged around her.
+
+On seeing this, they all cried, "Lucretia is the worthiest lady." She
+ceased her work to entertain them, after which they took to their horses
+again, and rode back to the camp before Ardea.
+
+But Sextus was seized with a vile passion for his cousin's wife, and a
+few days afterwards went alone to Collatia, where Lucretia received him
+with much hospitality, as her husband's kinsman. He treated her
+shamefully in return, forcing her, with wicked threats, to accept him as
+her lover and husband, in defiance of the laws of God and man.
+
+As soon as Sextus had left her and returned to the camp, Lucretia sent
+to Rome for her father and to Ardea for her husband. Tarquin brought
+with him his cousin Lucius Junius, or Brutus the Dullard. When they
+arrived the lady, with bitter tears, told them of the wickedness of
+Sextus, and said, "If you are men, avenge it!" They heard her tale in
+horror, and swore to deeply revenge her wrong.
+
+"I am not guilty," she now said; "yet I too must share in the punishment
+of this deed, lest any should think that they may be false to their
+husbands and live." As she spoke she drew a knife from her bosom and
+stabbed herself to the heart.
+
+As they saw her fall, a cry of horror arose from her husband and father.
+But Brutus, who saw that the time had come for him to throw off his
+pretence of stupidity and act the man, drew the knife from the bleeding
+wound and held it up, saying, in solemn accents, "By this blood, I swear
+that I will visit this deed upon King Tarquin and all his accursed race!
+And no man hereafter shall reign as king in Rome, lest he may do the
+like wickedness."
+
+He then handed the knife to the others, and bade them to take the same
+oath. This they did, wondering at the sudden transformation in Brutus.
+They then took up the body of the slain woman and carried it into the
+forum of the town, crying to the gathering people, "Behold the deeds of
+the wicked family of Tarquin, the tyrant of Rome!"
+
+The people, maddened by the sight, hastily sought their arms, and while
+some guarded the gates, that none might carry the news to the king, the
+others followed Brutus to Rome. Here the story of the wickedness of
+Sextus and the self-sacrifice of Lucretia ran through the city like
+wildfire, and a multitude gathered in the Forum, where Brutus addressed
+them in fervent words. He recalled to them all the tyranny of Tarquin
+and the vices of his sons, reminding them of the murder of Servius, the
+impious act of Tullia, and ending with an earnest recital of the wrongs
+of the virtuous Lucretia, whose bleeding corpse still lay in evidence in
+the forum of Collatia.
+
+[Illustration: BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS.]
+
+His words went to the souls of his hearers. An assembly of the people
+being quickly called, it was voted that the Tarquins should be banished,
+and the office of king should be forever abolished in Rome. Tullia,
+learning of the cause of the tumult, hastily left the palace, and fled
+from Rome in her chariot through throngs that followed her with threats
+and curses. Brutus, perhaps with the crimsoned knife still in his hand,
+bade the young men to follow him, and set off in haste to Ardea, to
+spread through the army the story of the deed of crime and blood.
+
+Meanwhile, Tarquin had been told of the revolt, and was hurrying to Rome
+to put it down. Brutus turned aside from the road that he might not meet
+him, and hastened on to the camp, where the story of the revolt and its
+cause was told the soldiers. On hearing the story the whole army broke
+into a tumult of indignation, drove the king's sons from the camp, and
+demanded to be led to Rome. The siege of Ardea was at once abandoned and
+the backward march began.
+
+Meanwhile, Tarquin had reached the city, but only to find the gates
+closed against him and stern men on the walls. "You cannot enter here,"
+they cried. "You are banished from Rome, you and all of yours, and shall
+never set foot within its walls again. And you are the last of our
+kings. No man after you shall ever call himself king of Rome."
+
+Just in what threats, promises, and persuasions Tarquin indulged we do
+not know. But the men on the walls were not to be moved by threats or
+promises, and he was obliged to take himself away, a crownless wanderer.
+As for Sextus, to whom all the trouble was due, some say that he was
+killed in a town whose people he had betrayed, while others say that he
+was slain in battle while his father was fighting to regain his throne.
+
+But this is certain, no king ever reigned in Rome again. The people,
+talking among each other, said, "Let us follow the wise laws of good
+King Servius. He bade us to meet in our centuries (or hundreds) and to
+choose two men year by year to govern us, instead of a king. This let us
+do, as Servius would have done himself had he not been basely murdered."
+
+So the centuries of the people met in the Campus Martius (Field of
+Mars), and there chose two men,--Brutus, the leader in the revolution,
+and Lucius Tarquin, the husband of the fated Lucretia. These officials
+were afterwards called Consuls, and were given ruling power in Rome.
+But they had to lay down their office at the end of the year and be
+succeeded by two others elected in their stead. The people, however,
+were afraid of the very name of Tarquin, and in electing Lucius to the
+consulate it seemed as if they had put a new Tarquin on the throne. So
+they prayed him to leave the city; and, taking all his goods, he went
+away and settled at Lavinium, a new consul being elected in his place. A
+law was now passed that all the house of the Tarquins should be
+banished, whether they were of the king's family or not.
+
+Thus ended the kingly period in Rome, after six kings had followed
+Romulus. With the consuls many of the laws of King Servius, which
+Tarquin had set aside, were restored, and a much greater degree of
+freedom came to the people of Rome. But that there might not now seem to
+be two kings instead of one, it was decreed that only one of the consuls
+should rule at a time, each of them acting as ruler for a month, and
+then giving over the power to his associate.
+
+
+
+
+_HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE._
+
+
+The banished King Tarquin did not lightly yield his realm. He roused the
+neighboring cities against Rome and fought fiercely for his throne. Soon
+after he was exiled from Rome he sent messengers there for his goods.
+These the senate decreed should be given him. But his messengers had
+more secret work to do. They formed a plot with many of the young nobles
+to bring back the king, and among these traitors were Titus and
+Tiberius, the sons of Brutus.
+
+A slave overheard the conspirators and betrayed them to the consuls, and
+they were seized and brought to the judgment-seat in the Forum. Here
+Brutus, sitting in judgment, beheld his two sons among the culprits. He
+loved them, but he loved justice more, and though he grieved deeply
+inwardly, his face was grave and stern as he gave judgment that the law
+must take its course. So the sons of this stern old Roman were scourged
+with rods before his eyes, and then, with the other conspirators, were
+beheaded by the lictors, while he looked steadily on, never turning his
+eyes from the dreadful sight. But men could see that his heart bled for
+his sons.
+
+Soon afterwards Tarquin led an army of Etruscans against Rome, and the
+two consuls marched against them at the head of the Roman army. In the
+battle that followed Brutus met Aruns, the king's son, in advance of the
+lines of battle. Aruns, seeing Brutus dressed in royal robes and
+attended by the lictors of a king, was filled with anger, and levelled
+his spear and spurred his horse against him. Brutus met him in
+mid-career with levelled spear. Both were run through, and together fell
+dead upon the field.
+
+The day ended with neither party victors. But during the night a
+woodland deity was heard speaking from a forest near by. "One man more
+has fallen of the Etruscans than of the Romans," it said; "the Romans
+are to conquer." This strange oracle ended the war. It was a reason,
+surely, for which war was never ended before or since. The Etruscans,
+affrighted, marched hastily home; while the Romans carried home their
+slain patriot, for whom their women mourned a whole year, in honor of
+his noble service in avenging Lucretia.
+
+The banished king still craved his lost kingdom, and made other efforts
+to regain it. Having failed in his first attempt, he went to another
+city, named Clusium, in the distant part of Etruria, and here besought
+Lars Porsenna, the king of that city, to aid him recover his throne.
+Lars Porsenna, with a fellow-feeling for his dethroned brother king,
+raised a large army and marched with Tarquin and his fellow-exiles
+against defiant Rome.
+
+The Romans now awaited him at home, and the two armies met on the hill
+called Janiculum, beyond the river from the city. Here came the crash of
+battle, but the men of Clusium proved the stronger, and after a sharp
+struggle the Romans gave way and were driven pell-mell down the hill and
+across the bridge which spanned the Tiber at this point. This was a
+wooden bridge on which the Romans set great store, as it was their only
+means of crossing the stream. But it now was likely to serve as a means
+of the loss of their city. Their flying army was pouring in panic across
+it, with the Etruscans in hot pursuit, seeking strenuously to win the
+bridge.
+
+The bridge must be speedily destroyed or the city would be lost, but it
+seemed too late for this; unless the enemy could in some way be kept
+back till the bridge was cut down, Tarquin and his allies would be in
+the streets of Rome.
+
+At this juncture a brave and stalwart son of Rome, Horatius Cocles by
+name, stepped forward and offered his life in his city's defence. "Cut
+away with all haste," he said; "I will keep the bridge until it falls."
+Two others, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius, sprang to his side, and
+the three, fully armed and stout of heart, ranged themselves across the
+narrow causeway, while behind them the axes of the Romans played
+ringingly upon the supports of the bridge.
+
+On came the Etruscans in force. But the bridge was so narrow that only a
+few could advance at once, and these found in the way the sharp spears
+and keen-edged blades of the patriot three. Down went the leading
+Etruscans, and others pressed on, only to fall, till the defenders of
+the bridge had a bulwark of the slain in their front.
+
+[Illustration: HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE.]
+
+And now the bridge creaked and groaned as the axes kept up their lively
+play, the ring of steel finding its chorus in the cheering shouts of the
+Romans on the bank.
+
+"Back! back!" cried the axemen. "It will be down in a minute more; back
+for your lives!"
+
+"Back!" cried Horatius to his comrades, and they hastily retreated; but
+he stood unmoving, still boldly facing the foe.
+
+"Fly! It is about to fall!" was the shout.
+
+"Let it," cried Horatius, without yielding a step.
+
+And there he stood alone, defying the whole army of the Etruscans. From
+a distance they showered their javelins on him, but he caught them on
+his shield and stood unhurt. Furious that they should be kept from their
+prey by a single man, they gathered to rush upon him and drive him from
+his post by main force; but just then the creaking beams gave way, and
+the half of the bridge behind him fell with a mighty crash into the
+stream below.
+
+The Etruscans paused in their course at this crashing fall, and gazed,
+not without admiration, at the stalwart champion who had stayed an army
+in its victorious career. He was theirs now; he could not escape; his
+life should pay the penalty for their failure.
+
+But Horatius had no such thought. He looked down on the stream, and
+prayed to the god of the river, "O Father Tiber, I pray thee to receive
+these arms and me who bear them, and to let thy waters befriend and
+save me."
+
+Then, with a quick spring, he plunged, heavy with armor, into the
+swift-flowing stream, and struck out boldly for the shore. The foemen
+rushed upon the bridge and poured their darts thick about him; yet none
+struck him, and he swam safely to the shore, where his waiting friends
+drew him in triumph from the stream.
+
+For this grand deed of heroism the Romans set up a statue to Horatius in
+the comitium, and gave him in reward as much land as he could drive his
+plough round in the space of a whole day. Such deeds cannot be fitly
+told in halting prose, and Lord Macaulay, in his "Lays of Ancient Rome,"
+has most ably and picturesquely told
+
+  "How well Horatius kept the bridge
+    In the brave days of old."
+
+But though Rome was saved from capture by assault, the war was not
+ended, and other deeds of Roman heroism were to be done. Porsenna
+pressed the siege of the city so closely that hunger became his ally,
+and the Romans suffered greatly. Then another patriot devoted his life
+to his city's good. This man, a young noble named Caius Mucius, went to
+the senate and offered to go to the Etruscan camp and slay Lars Porsenna
+in the midst of his men.
+
+His proposal acceded to, he crossed the stream by stealth and slipped
+covertly into the camp, through which he made his way, seeking the king.
+At length he saw a man dressed in a scarlet robe and seated on a lofty
+seat, while many were about him, coming and going. "This must be King
+Porsenna," he said to himself, and he glided stealthily through the
+crowd until he came near by, when, drawing a concealed dagger from
+beneath his cloak, he sprang upon the man and stabbed him to the heart.
+
+But the bold assassin had made a sad mistake. The man he had slain was
+not the king, but his scribe, the king's chief officer. Being instantly
+seized, he was brought before Porsenna, where the guards threatened him
+with sharp torments unless he would truly answer all their questions.
+
+"Torments!" he said. "You shall see how little I care for them."
+
+And he thrust his right hand into the fire that was burning on the
+altar, and held it there till it was completely consumed.
+
+King Porsenna looked at him with an admiration that subdued all anger.
+Never had he seen a man of such fortitude.
+
+"Go your way," he cried, "for you have harmed yourself more than me. You
+are a brave man, and I send you back to Rome free and unhurt."
+
+"And you are a generous king," said Caius, "and shall learn more from me
+for your kindness than tortures could have wrung from my lips. Know,
+then, that three hundred noble youths of Rome have bound themselves by
+oath to take your life. I am but the first; the others will in turn lie
+in wait for you. I warn you to look well to yourself."
+
+He was then set free, and went back to the city, where he was
+afterwards known as Scaevola, the left-handed.
+
+The warning of Caius moved King Porsenna to offer the Romans terms of
+peace, which they gladly accepted. They were forced to give up all the
+land they had conquered on the west bank of the Tiber, and to agree not
+to use iron except to cultivate the earth. They were also to give as
+hostages ten noble youths and as many maidens. These were sent; but one
+of the maidens, Cloelia by name, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and,
+bidding the other maidens to follow, fled to the river, into which they
+all plunged and swam safely across to Rome.
+
+They were sent back by the Romans, whose way it was to keep their
+pledges; but King Porsenna, admiring the courage of Cloelia, set her
+free, and bade her choose such of the youths as she wished to go with
+her. She chose those of tenderest age, and the king set them free.
+
+The Romans rewarded Caius by a gift of land, and had a statue made of
+Cloelia, which was set up in the highest part of the Sacred Way. And
+King Porsenna led his army home, with Tarquin still dethroned.
+
+
+
+
+_THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS._
+
+
+A third time Tarquin the Proud marched against Rome, this time in
+alliance with the Latins, whose thirty cities had joined together and
+declared war against the Romans. But as many of the Romans had married
+Latin wives, and many of the Latins had got their wives from Rome, it
+was resolved that the women on both sides, who preferred their native
+land to their husbands, might leave their new homes and take with them
+their virgin daughters. And, as the legend tells, all the Latin women
+but two remained in Rome, while all the Roman women returned with their
+daughters to their fathers' homes.
+
+The two armies met by the side of Lake Regillus, and there was fought a
+battle the story of which reads like a tale from the Iliad of Homer; for
+we are told not of how the armies fought, but of how their champions met
+and fought in single combats upon the field. King Tarquin was there, now
+hoary with years, yet sitting his horse and bearing his lance with the
+grace and strength of a young man. And there was Titus his son, leading
+into battle all the banished band of the Tarquins. And with them was
+Octavius Mamilius, the leader of the Latins, who swore to seat Tarquin
+again on his throne and to make the Romans subjects of the Latins.
+
+On the Roman side were many true and tried warriors, among them Titus
+Herminius, one of those who fought on the bridge by the side of Horatius
+Cocles, when that champion fought so well for Rome.
+
+It is too long to tell how warrior rode against warrior with levelled
+lances, and how this one was struck through the breast and that one
+through the arm, and so on in true Homeric style. The battle was a
+series of duels, like those fought on the plain of Troy. But at length
+the Tarquin band, under the lead of Titus, charged so fiercely that the
+Romans began to give way, many of their bravest having been slain.
+
+At this juncture Aulus, the leader of the Romans, rode up with his own
+chosen band, and bade them level their lances and slay all, friend or
+foe, whose faces were turned towards them. There was to be no mercy for
+a Roman whose face was turned from the field. This onset stopped the
+flight, and Aulus charged fiercely upon the Tarquins, praying, as he did
+so, to the divine warriors Castor and Pollux, to whom he vowed to
+dedicate a temple if they would aid him in the fight. And he promised
+the soldiers that the two who should first break into the camp of the
+enemy should receive a rich reward.
+
+Then suddenly, at the head of the chosen band, appeared two unknown
+horsemen, in the first bloom of youth and taller and fairer than mortal
+men, while the horses they rode were white as the driven snow. On went
+the charge, led by these two noble strangers, before whom the enemy fled
+in mortal terror, while Titus, the last of the sons of King Tarquin,
+fell dead from his steed. The camp of the Latins being reached, these
+two horsemen were the first to break into it, and soon the whole army of
+the enemy was in disorderly flight and the battle won.
+
+Aulus now sought the two strange horsemen, to give them the reward he
+had promised; but he sought in vain; they were not to be found, among
+either the living or the dead, and no man had set eyes upon them since
+the camp was won. They had vanished as suddenly as they had appeared.
+But on the hard black rock which surrounds the lake was visible the mark
+of a horse's hoof, such as no earthly steed could ever have made. For
+ages afterwards this mark remained.
+
+But the strangers appeared once again. It was known in Rome that the
+armies were joined in battle, and the longing for tidings from the field
+grew intense. Suddenly, as the sun went down behind the city walls,
+there were seen in the Forum two horsemen on milk-white steeds, taller
+and fairer than the tallest and fairest of men. Their horses were bathed
+in foam, and they looked like men fresh from battle.
+
+Alighting near the Temple of Vesta, where a spring of water bubbles from
+the ground, these men, whom no Romans had ever seen before, washed from
+their persons the battle-stains. As they did so men crowded round and
+eagerly questioned them. In reply, they told them how the battle had
+been fought and won,--though in truth the battle ended only as the sun
+went down over Lake Regillus. They then mounted their horses and rode
+from the Forum, and were seen no more. Men sought them far and wide, but
+no one set eyes on them again.
+
+Then Aulus told the Romans how he had prayed to Castor and Pollux, the
+divine twins, and said that it could be none but they who had broken so
+fiercely into the enemy's camp, and had borne the news of victory with
+more than mortal speed to Rome. So he built the temple he had vowed to
+the hero gods, and gave there rich offerings as the rewards he had
+promised to the two who should first enter the camp of the foe.
+
+Thus ended the hopes of King Tarquin, against whom the gods had taken
+arms. His sons and all his family slain, he was left ruined and
+hopeless, and retired to the city of Cumae, whence formerly the Sibyl had
+come to his court. Here he died, and thus passed away the last of the
+Roman kings.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE._
+
+
+The overthrow of the kings of Rome did not relieve the people from all
+their oppression. The inhabitants of that city had long been divided
+into two great classes, the Patricians, or nobles, and the Plebeians, or
+common people, and the former held in their hand nearly all the wealth
+and power of the state. The senate, the law-making body, were all
+Patricians; the consuls, the executors of the law, were chosen from
+their ranks; and the Plebeians were left with few rights and little
+protection.
+
+It was through the avarice of money-lending nobles that the people were
+chiefly oppressed. There were no laws limiting the rate of interest, and
+the rich lent to the poor at extravagant rates of usury. The interest,
+when not paid, was added to the debt, so that in time it became
+impossible for many debtors to pay.
+
+And the laws against debtors had become terribly severe. They might,
+with all their families, be held as slaves. Or if the debtor refused to
+sell himself to his creditor, and still could not pay his debt, he might
+be imprisoned in fetters for sixty days. At the end of that time, if no
+friend had paid his debt, he could be put to death, or sold as a slave
+into a foreign state. If there were several creditors, they could
+actually cut his body to pieces, each taking a piece proportional in
+size to his claim.
+
+This cruel severity was more than any people could long endure. It led
+to a revolution in Rome. In the year 495 B.C., fifteen years after the
+Tarquins had been expelled, a poor debtor, who had fought valiantly in
+the wars, broke from his prison, and--with his clothes in tatters and
+chains clanking upon his limbs--appealed eloquently to the people in the
+Forum, and showed them on his emaciated body the scars of the many
+battles in which he had fought.
+
+His tale was a sad one. While he served in the Sabine war, the enemy had
+pillaged and burned his house; and when he returned home, it was to find
+his cattle stolen and his farm heavily taxed. Forced to borrow money,
+the interest had brought him deeply into debt. Finally he had been
+attacked by pestilence, and being unable to work for his creditor, he
+had been thrown into prison and cruelly scourged, the marks of the lash
+being still evident upon his bleeding back.
+
+This piteous story roused its hearers to fury. The whole city broke into
+tumult, as the woful tale passed from lip to lip. Many debtors escaped
+from their prisons and begged protection from the incensed multitude.
+The consuls found themselves powerless to restore order; and in the
+midst of the uproar horsemen came riding hotly through the gates, crying
+out that a hostile army was near at hand, marching to besiege the city.
+
+Here was a splendid opportunity for the Plebeians. When called upon to
+enroll their names and take arms for the city's defence, they refused.
+The Patricians, they said, might fight their own battles. As for them,
+they had rather die together at home than perish separate upon the
+battle-field.
+
+This refusal left the Patricians in a quandary. With riot in the streets
+and war beyond the walls they were at the mercy of the commons. They
+were forced to promise a mitigation of the laws, declaring that no one
+should henceforth seize the goods of a soldier while he was in camp, or
+hinder a citizen from enlisting by keeping him in prison. This promise
+satisfied the people. The debtors' prisons were emptied, and their late
+tenants crowded with enthusiasm into the ranks. Through the gates the
+army marched, met the foe, and drove him in defeat from the soil of the
+Roman state.
+
+Victory gained, the Plebeians looked for laws to sustain the promises
+under which they had fought. They looked in vain; the senate took no
+action for their redress. But they had learned their power, and were not
+again to be enslaved. Their action was deliberate but decided. Taking
+measures to protect their homes on the Aventine Hill, they left the city
+the next year in a body, and sought a hill beyond the Anio, about three
+miles beyond the walls of Rome. Here they encamped, built
+fortifications, and sent word to their lordly rulers that they were done
+with empty promises, and would fight no more for the state until the
+state kept its faith. All the good of their fighting came to the
+Patricians, they said, and these might now defend themselves and their
+wealth.
+
+The senate was thrown into a panic by this decided action. When the
+hostile cities without should learn of it, they might send armies in
+haste to undefended Rome. The people left in the city feared the
+Patricians, and the Patricians feared them. All was doubt and anxiety.
+At length the senate, driven to desperation, sent an embassy to the
+rebels to treat for peace, being in deadly fear that some enemy might
+assail and capture the city in the absence of the bulk of its
+inhabitants.
+
+The messenger sent, Menenius Agrippa Lanatus, was a man famed for
+eloquence, and a popular favorite. In his address to the people in their
+camp he repeated to them the following significant fable:
+
+"At a time when all the parts of the body did not agree together, as
+they do now, but each had its own method and language, the other parts
+rebelled against the belly. They said that it lay quietly enjoying
+itself in the centre, while they, by care, labor, and service, kept it
+in luxury. They therefore conspired that the hands should not convey
+food to the mouth, the mouth receive it, nor the teeth chew it. They
+thus hoped to subdue the belly by famine; but they found that they and
+all the other parts of the body suffered as much. Then they saw that the
+belly by no means rested in sloth; that it supplied instead of receiving
+nourishment, sending to all parts of the body the blood that gave life
+and strength to the whole system."
+
+It was the same, he said, with the body of the state. All must work in
+unity, if all would prosper. This homely argument hit the popular fancy.
+The people consented to treat for their return if their liberties could
+be properly secured. But they must now have deeds instead of words. It
+was not political power they sought, but protection, and protection they
+would have.
+
+Their demands were as follows: All debts should be cancelled, and all
+debtors held by their creditors should be released. And hereafter the
+Plebeians should have as their protectors two officials, who should have
+power to veto all oppressive laws, while their persons should be held as
+sacred and inviolable as those of the messengers of the gods. These
+officials were to be called Tribunes, and to be the chief officers of
+the commons as the consuls were of the nobles.
+
+This proposition was accepted by the senate, and a treaty signed between
+the contesting parties, as solemnly as if they had been two separate
+nations. It was an occasion as important to the liberties of Romans as
+the treaty signed many centuries afterwards on the field of Runnymede,
+between King John and his barons, was to the liberties of Englishmen,
+and was held by the Romans in like high regard. The hill on which the
+treaty had been made was ever after known as the Sacred Mount. Its top
+was consecrated and an altar built upon it, on which sacrifices were
+made to Jupiter, the god who strikes men with terror and then delivers
+them from fear; for the people had fled thither in dread, and were now
+to return home in safety.
+
+Thus ended the great revolt of the people, who had gained in the
+Tribunes defenders of more power and importance than they or the senate
+knew. They were never again to suffer from the bitter oppression to
+which they had been subjected in preceding years. As for Lanatus, to
+whose pleadings they had yielded, he died before the year ended, and was
+found to have not left enough to pay for his funeral. Therefore the
+Plebeians collected funds to give him a splendid burial; but the senate
+having decreed that the state should bear this expense, the money raised
+by the grateful people was formed into a fund for the benefit of his
+children.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS._
+
+
+Caius Marcius, a noble Roman youth, descended from the worthy king Ancus
+Marcius, fought valiantly when but seventeen years of age in the battle
+of Lake Regillus, and was there crowned with an oaken wreath, the Roman
+reward for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. This he showed with the
+greatest joy to his mother, Volumnia, whom he loved exceedingly, it
+being his greatest pleasure to receive praise from her lips for his
+exploits. He afterwards won many more crowns in battle, and became one
+of the most famous of Roman soldiers.
+
+One of his memorable exploits took place during a war with the
+Volscians, in which the Romans attacked the city of Corioli. The
+citizens made a sally, and drove the Romans back to their camp. But
+Caius, with a few followers, stopped them and turned the tide of battle,
+driving the Volscians back. As they fled into the city through the open
+gates, he cried, "Those gates are set open for us rather than for the
+Volscians. Why are we afraid to rush in?" And suiting his act to his
+words, the daring soldier pursued the enemy into the town.
+
+Here he found himself almost alone, for very few had followed him. The
+enemy turned on the bold invaders, but Caius proved so strong of hand
+and stout of heart that he drove them all before him, keeping a way
+clear for the Romans, who soon thronged in through the open gate and
+took the city. The army gave Caius the sole credit for the victory,
+saying that he alone had taken Corioli; and the general said, "Let him
+be called after the name of the city." He was, therefore, afterwards
+known by the name of Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
+
+Courage was not the only marked quality of Coriolanus. His pride was
+equally great. He was a noble of the nobles, so haughty in demeanor and
+so disdainful of the commons that they grew to hate him bitterly. At
+length came a time of great scarcity of food. The people were on the
+verge of famine, to relieve which shiploads of corn were sent from
+Sicily to Rome. The senate resolved to distribute this corn among the
+suffering people, but Coriolanus opposed this, saying, "If they want
+corn let them show their obedience to the Patricians, as their fathers
+did, and give up their tribunes. If they do this we will let them have
+corn, and take care of them."
+
+When the people heard of what the proud noble had said they broke into
+such fury that a mob gathered around the doors of the senate house,
+prepared to seize and tear him to pieces when he came out. They were
+checked in this by the tribunes, who said, "Let us not have violence. We
+will accuse him of treason before the assembly, and you shall be his
+judges."
+
+The tribunes, therefore, as the law gave them the right, summoned
+Coriolanus to appear before the popular tribunal and answer to the
+charges against him. But he, knowing how deeply he had offended them,
+and that they would show him no mercy, stayed not for the trial, but
+fled from Rome, exiled from his native land by his pride and disdain of
+the people.
+
+The exile made his way to the land of the Volscians, and seating himself
+by the hearth-fire of Attius Tullius, their chief, waited there with
+covered head till his late bitter foe should come in. How Attius would
+receive him he knew not; but he was homeless, and had now only his
+enemies to trust. But when the chieftain entered, and learned that the
+man who sat crouched beside his hearth, subject to his will, was the
+great warrior who by his own hands had taken a Volscian city, but was
+now banished and a fugitive, he was filled with compassion. He greeted
+him kindly and offered him a home, saying to himself, "Caius, our worst
+foe, is now our friend and a foe to Rome; we will make war against that
+proud city, and by his aid will conquer it."
+
+But the Volscians were not eager for war. They were afraid of the
+Romans, who had so often defeated them, and Attius sought in vain to
+stir them to hostility. Failing to rouse them by eloquence, he practised
+craft. There was a great festival at Rome, to which had come the people
+of various cities, among them many of the Volscians. Attius now went
+privately to the Roman consuls and bade them beware of the Volscians,
+lest they should stir up a riot and make trouble in the city, hinting
+that mischief was intended. In consequence of this warning proclamation
+was made that every Volscian should leave Rome before the setting of the
+sun.
+
+This produced the effect which Attius had hoped. He met the Volscians on
+their way home, and found them fired with indignation against Rome. He
+pretended similar indignation. "You have been made a show of before all
+the nations," he cried. "You and your wives and children have been
+basely insulted. They have made war on us while their guests; if you are
+men you will make them rue this deed."
+
+His words inflamed his countrymen. The story of the insult spread widely
+through the country, all the tribes of the Volscians took up the
+quarrel, and a great army was raised and set in march towards Rome, with
+Attius and Coriolanus at its head.
+
+The Volscian force was greater than the Romans were prepared to meet,
+and the army marched victoriously onward, taking city after city, and
+finally encamping within five miles of Rome. When the Volscians entered
+Roman territory they laid waste, by order of Coriolanus, the lands of
+the commons, but spared those of the nobles, the exiled patrician
+deeming the former his foes and the latter his friends. The approach of
+this powerful army threw the Romans into dismay. They had been assailed
+so suddenly that they had made no preparations for defence, and the city
+seemed to lie at the mercy of its foes. The women ran to the temples to
+pray for the favor of the gods. The people demanded that the senate
+should send deputies to the invading army to treat for peace. The
+senate, apparently no less frightened than the people, obeyed, sending
+five leading Patricians to the Volscian camp.
+
+These deputies were haughtily received by Coriolanus, who offered them
+the following severe terms: "We will give you no peace till you restore
+to the Volscians all the land and cities which Rome has ever taken from
+them, and till you make them citizens of Rome, and give them all the
+rights in your city which you have yourselves."
+
+These conditions the deputies had no power to accept, and they threw the
+senate into dismay. The deputies were sent again, instructed to ask for
+gentler terms, but now, Coriolanus refused even to let them enter his
+camp.
+
+This harsh repulse plunged Rome into mortal terror. The senate, helpless
+to resist, now sent the priests of the gods and the augurs, all clothed
+in their sacred garments, and bearing the sacred emblems from the
+temples. But even this solemn delegation Coriolanus refused to receive,
+and sent them back to Rome unheard.
+
+Where all this time was the Roman army, which always before and after
+made itself heard and felt? This we are not told. We are in the land of
+legend, and cannot look for too much consistency. For once in its
+history Rome seems to have forgotten that its mission was not to plead,
+but to fight. Perhaps its armies had been beaten and demoralized in
+previous battles. At any rate we can but tell the story as it is told to
+us.
+
+The help of delegates, priests, and augurs having proved unavailing,
+that of women was next sought. A noble lady, Valeria by name, who with
+other suppliants had sought the Temple of Jupiter, was inspired by a
+sudden thought, which seemed sent by the god himself. Rising, and
+bidding the other noble ladies to accompany her, she proceeded to the
+house of Volumnia, the mother of Coriolanus, whom she found with
+Virgilia, his wife, and his little children.
+
+"We have come to ask you to join us," she said, "in order that we women,
+without aid from man, may deliver our country, and win for ourselves a
+name more glorious even than that of the Sabine wives of old, who
+stopped the battle between their husbands and fathers. Come with us to
+the camp of Caius, and let us pray him to show us mercy."
+
+"It is well thought of; we shall go with you," said Volumnia, and, with
+Virgilia and her children, the noble matron prepared to seek the camp
+and tent of her exiled son.
+
+It was a sad and solemn spectacle, as this train of noble ladies, clad
+in their habiliments of woe, and with bent heads and sorrowful faces,
+wound through the hostile camp, from which they were not excluded, like
+the men. Even the Volscian soldiers watched them with pitying eyes, and
+spoke no word as they moved slowly past. On reaching the midst of the
+camp, they saw Coriolanus on the general's seat, with the Volscian
+chiefs gathered around him.
+
+At first he wondered who these women could be. But when they came near,
+and he saw his mother at the head of the train, his deep love for her
+welled up so strongly in his heart that he could not restrain himself,
+but sprang up and ran to meet and kiss her. The Roman matron stopped him
+with a dignified gesture, saying,--
+
+"Ere you kiss me, let me know whether I am speaking to an enemy or to my
+son; whether I stand here as your prisoner or your mother."
+
+He stood before her in silence, with bent head, and unable to speak.
+
+"Must it then be that if I had never borne a son, Rome would have never
+seen the camp of an enemy?" said Volumnia, in sorrowful tones. "But I am
+too old to bear much longer your shame and my misery. Think not of me,
+but of your wife and children, whom you would doom to death or to life
+in bondage."
+
+Then Virgilia and the children came up and kissed him, and all the noble
+ladies in the train burst into tears and bemoaned the peril of their
+country. Coriolanus still stood silent, his face working with contending
+thoughts. At length he cried out, in heart-rending accents, "O mother,
+what have you done to me?"
+
+Clasping her hand, he wrung it vehemently, saying, "Mother, the victory
+is yours! A happy victory for you and Rome, but shame and ruin to your
+son."
+
+Then he embraced her with yearning heart, and afterwards clasped his
+wife and children to his breast, bidding them return with their tale of
+conquest to Rome. As for himself, he said, only exile and shame
+remained.
+
+Before the women reached home the army of the Volscians was on its
+homeward march. Coriolanus never led them against Rome again. He lived
+and died in exile, far from his wife and children. When very old, he
+sadly remarked, "That now in his old age he knew the full bitterness of
+banishment."
+
+The Romans, to honor Volumnia and those who had gone with her to the
+Volscian camp, built a temple to "Woman's Fortune" on the spot where
+Coriolanus had yielded to his mother's entreaties; and the first
+priestess of this temple was Valeria, who had been inspired in the
+temple of Jupiter with the thought that saved Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_CINCINNATUS AND THE AEQUIANS._
+
+
+In the old days of Rome, not far from the time when Coriolanus yielded
+up his revenge at his mother's entreaty, the Roman state possessed a
+citizen as patriotic as Coriolanus was proud, and who did as much good
+as the other did evil to his native land. This citizen, Lucius Quinctius
+by name, was usually called Cincinnatus, or the "crisp-haired," from the
+fact that he let his hair grow long, and curled and crisped it so
+carefully as to gain as much fame for his hair as for his wisdom and
+valor.
+
+Cincinnatus was the simplest and least ambitious of men. He cared
+nothing for wealth, and had no craving for city life, but dwelt on his
+small farm beyond the Tiber, which he worked with his own hands,
+content, so his crops grew well, to let the lovers of power and wealth
+pursue their own devices within the city walls. But he was soon to be
+drawn from the plough to the sword.
+
+While Cincinnatus was busy ploughing his land, Rome kept at its old work
+of ploughing the nations. War at this time broke out with the AEquians, a
+neighboring people; but for this war the AEquians were to blame. They had
+plundered the lands of some of the allies of Rome, and when deputies
+were sent to complain of this wrong, Gracchus, their chief, received
+them with insulting mockery.
+
+He was sitting in his tent, which was pitched in the shade of a great
+evergreen oak, when the deputies arrived.
+
+"I am busy with other matters," he answered them; "I cannot hear you;
+you had better tell your message to the oak yonder."
+
+"Yes," said one of the deputies, "let this sacred oak hear, and let all
+the gods hear also, how treacherously you have broken the peace. They
+shall hear it now, and shall soon avenge it; for you have scorned alike
+the laws of the gods and of men."
+
+The deputies returned to Rome, and reported how they had been insulted.
+The senate at once declared war, and an army was sent towards Algidus,
+where the enemy lay. But Gracchus, who was a skilled soldier, cunningly
+pretended to be afraid of the Romans, and retreated before them, drawing
+them gradually into a narrow valley, on each side of which rose high,
+steep, and barren hills.
+
+When he had lured them fairly into this trap, he sent a force to close
+up the entrance of the valley. The Romans suddenly found that they had
+been entrapped into a _cul-de-sac_, with impassable hills in front and
+on each side, and a strong body of AEquians guarding the entrance to the
+ravine. There was neither grass for the horses nor food for the men.
+Gracchus held not only the entrance, but the hill-tops all round, so
+that escape in any direction was impossible. But before the road in the
+rear was quite closed up five horsemen had managed to break out; and
+these rode with all speed to Rome, where they told the senate of the
+imminent danger of the consul and his army.
+
+These tidings threw the senate into dismay. What was to be done? The
+other consul was with his army in the country of the Sabines. He was at
+once sent for, and hastened with all speed to Rome. Here a consultation
+took place, which ended in the leading senators saying, "There is only
+one man who can deliver us. We must make Lucius Quinctius Master of the
+People." Master of the People meant in Rome what we now mean by
+Dictator,--that is, a man above the law, an autocrat supreme. What
+service this unambitious tiller of the ground had previously done for
+Rome to make him worthy of this distinction we are not told, but it is
+evident that he was looked upon as the man of highest wisdom and
+soldiership in Rome.
+
+Caius Nautius, the consul, appointed Cincinnatus to this high office, as
+he alone was privileged to do, and then hastened back to his army. Early
+the next morning deputies from the senate sought the farm of the new
+dictator, to apprise him of the honor conferred on him. Early as it was,
+Cincinnatus was already at work in his fields. He was without his toga,
+or cloak, and vigorously digging in the ground with his spade, never
+dreaming that he, a simple husbandman, had been chosen to save a state.
+
+"We bring you a message from the senate," said the deputies. "You must
+put on your cloak to receive it with the fitting respect."
+
+"Has evil befallen the state?" asked the farmer, as he bade his wife to
+bring him his cloak. When he had put it on he returned to the deputies.
+
+"Hail to you, Lucius Quinctius!" they now said. "The senate has declared
+you Master of the People, and have sent us to call you to the city; for
+the consul and the army in the country of the AEquians are in imminent
+danger."
+
+Without further words, Cincinnatus accompanied them to the boat in which
+they had crossed the Tiber, and was rowed in it to the city. As he left
+the boat he was met by a deputation consisting of his three sons, his
+kinsmen and friends, and many of the senators of Rome. They received him
+with the highest honor, and led him in great state to his city
+residence, the twenty-four lictors walking before him, with their rods
+and axes, while a great multitude of the people crowded round with
+shouts of welcome. The presence of the lictors signified that this plain
+farmer had been invested with all the power of the former kings.
+
+The new dictator quickly proved himself worthy of the trust that had
+been placed in him. He chose at once as his Master of the Horse Lucius
+Tarquinius, a brave man, of noble descent, but so poor that he had been
+forced to serve among the foot-soldiers instead of the horse. Then the
+two entered the Forum, where orders were given that all booths should be
+closed and all lawsuits stopped. All men were forbidden to look after
+their own affairs while a Roman army lay in peril of destruction.
+
+Orders were next given that every man old enough to go to battle should
+appear before sunset with his arms and with five days' food in the
+Field of Mars, and should bring with him twelve stakes. These they were
+to cut where they chose, without hinderance from any person. While the
+soldiers occupied themselves in cutting these stakes, the women and
+older men dressed their food. Such haste was made, under the energetic
+orders of the dictator, that an army was ready, equipped as commanded,
+in the Field of Mars before the sun had set. The march was at once
+begun, and was continued with such rapidity that by midnight the
+vicinity of Algidus was reached. On the enemy being perceived, a halt
+was called.
+
+Cincinnatus now rode forward and inspected the camp of the enemy, so far
+as it could be seen by night. He then ordered the soldiers to throw down
+their baggage, and to keep only their arms and stakes. Marching
+stealthily forward, they now extended their lines until they had
+completely surrounded the hostile camp. Then, upon a given signal, a
+simultaneous shout was raised, and each soldier began to dig a ditch
+where he stood and to plant his stakes in the ground.
+
+The shout rang like a thunder-clap through the camp of the AEquians,
+waking them suddenly and filling them with dismay. It also reached the
+ears of the Romans who lay in the valley, and inspired them with hope,
+for they recognized the Roman war-cry. They raised their own
+battle-shout in response, and, seizing their arms, sallied out and made
+a fierce attack upon the foe, fighting so desperately that the AEquians
+were prevented from interrupting the work of the outer army. All the
+remainder of the night the battle went on, and when day broke the
+AEquians found that a ditch and a palisade of stakes had been made around
+their entire camp.
+
+This work accomplished, Cincinnatus ordered his men to attack the foe,
+and thus aid their entrapped countrymen. The AEquians, finding themselves
+between two armies, and as closely walled in as the Romans in the valley
+had before been, fell into a panic of hopelessness, threw down their
+arms, and begged their foes for mercy. Cincinnatus now signalled for the
+fighting to cease, and, meeting those who came to ask on what terms he
+would spare their lives, said,--
+
+"Give me Gracchus and your other chiefs bound. As for you, you can have
+your lives on one condition. I will set two spears upright in the
+ground, and put a third spear across, and every man of you, giving up
+your arms and your cloaks, shall pass under this yoke, and may then go
+away free."
+
+To go under the yoke was accounted the greatest dishonor to a soldier.
+But the AEquians had no alternative and were obliged to submit. They
+delivered up to the Romans their king and their chiefs, left their camp
+with all its spoil to the foe, and passed without cloaks or arms under
+the crossed spears, their heads bowed with shame. They then went home,
+leaving their chiefs as Roman prisoners. Thus was Gracchus punished for
+his pride.
+
+In less than a day's time Cincinnatus had saved a Roman army and
+humiliated the AEquian foe. As for the battle-spoils, he distributed them
+among his own men, giving none to the consul's army, and degraded the
+consul, making him his under-officer. He then marched the two armies
+back to Rome, which he reached that same evening, and where he was
+received with as much astonishment as joy. The rescued army were too
+full of thankfulness at their escape to feel chagrin at their loss of
+spoil, and voted to give Cincinnatus a golden crown, calling him their
+protector and father.
+
+The senate decreed that Cincinnatus should enter the city in triumph. He
+rode in his chariot through the gates, Gracchus and the chiefs of the
+AEquians being led in fetters before him. In front of all the standards
+were borne, while in the rear marched the soldiers, laden with their
+spoil. At the door of every house tables were set, with meat and drink
+for the soldiers, while the people, singing and rejoicing, danced with
+joy as they followed the conqueror's chariot, and all Rome was given up
+to feasting and merry-making.
+
+As for Cincinnatus, he laid down his power and returned to his farm,
+glad to have rescued a Roman army, but caring nothing for the pomp and
+authority he might have gained. And for all we know, he lived and died
+thereafter a simple tiller of the ground.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA._
+
+
+In the year 504 B.C. a citizen of Regillum, of much wealth and
+importance, finding himself at odds with his fellow-citizens, left that
+city and proceeded to Rome, with a long train of followers, much as the
+elder Tarquin had come from Tarquinii. His name was Atta Clausus, but in
+Rome he became known as Appius Claudius. He was received as a patrician,
+was given ample lands, and he and his descendants in later years became
+among the chief of those who hated and oppressed the plebeians.
+
+[Illustration: THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA.]
+
+About half a century after this date, one of these descendants, also
+named Appius Claudius, was a principal actor in one of the most dramatic
+events of ancient Rome. The trouble which had long existed between the
+patricians and the plebeians now grew so pronounced, and the demand for
+a reform in the laws so great, that in the year 451 B.C. a commission
+was sent to the city of Athens, to report on the system of government
+they found there and elsewhere in Greece. After this commission had
+returned and given its report, a body of ten patricians was appointed,
+under the title of Decemvirs (or ten men), to prepare a new code of laws
+for Rome. They were chosen for one year, and took the place of the
+consuls, tribunes, and all the chief officials of Rome.
+
+At the head of this body was Appius Claudius. The laws of Rome had
+previously been only partly written, the remainder being held in memory
+or transmitted as traditions. A complete code of written laws was
+desired, and to this work the decemvirs set themselves diligently. After
+a few months they prepared a code of laws, which was accepted by nobles
+and people alike as fair and satisfactory, and it was ordered that these
+laws should be engraved upon ten tables of brass and hung up in the
+comitium, or place of assembly of the people, where all might read them
+and learn under what laws they lived. It is probable that the plebeian
+demand for reform was so great that the decemvirs did not dare to
+disregard it.
+
+At the end of the year of office of these officials it was felt that
+they had done so well that it was thought wise to continue them in power
+for another year. But when the time for election came round, Appius
+Claudius managed to have his nine associates defeated, he alone being
+re-elected. The other nine chosen were men whom he felt sure he could
+control. And now, having a year's rule assured him, he threw off the
+cloak of moderation he had worn, and began a career of oppression of the
+plebeians, aided by his subservient associates. The first step taken was
+to add two new laws to the code, which became known, therefore, as the
+"Twelve Tables." These new laws proved so distasteful to the people that
+they almost broke into open rebellion. It was evident that the haughty
+decemvirs were seeking to increase the power of their class.
+
+The decemvirs did not confine themselves to passing oppressive laws.
+They began a career of outrage and oppression that filled Rome with woe.
+The youthful patricians followed their lead, and insult and murder
+became common incidents in Rome. When the second year of the decemvirate
+expired, Appius and his colleagues, knowing that they could not be
+elected again, showed no intention of yielding up their authority. They
+were supported by the senate and the patricians, and had gained such
+power that they defied the plebeians. Those of the people who were
+active in opposition were quietly disposed of, and so intolerable became
+the tyranny that numbers of the plebeian party fled from Rome.
+
+While this was going on war broke out with the Sabines and the AEquians.
+Of the armies sent against these nations, one was commanded by Lucius
+Sicinius Dentatus, among the bravest of the Romans, and who had fought
+in one hundred and twenty battles and was covered with the scars of old
+wounds. On his way to his post this veteran was murdered by bravos sent
+by Appius Claudius. Decemvirs were now appointed to command the armies,
+Appius and one of his colleagues remaining in Rome to look after the
+safety of the city.
+
+The story goes that both armies were beaten by their foes, and forced to
+retreat within Roman territory. While they lay encamped, not many miles
+from Rome, an event occurred in the city which gave them new work to do,
+and proved that the worst enemies of Rome were not without, but within,
+her walls.
+
+In the army sent against the AEquians was a centurion named Lucius
+Virginius, who had a beautiful daughter named Virginia, whom he had
+betrothed to Lucius Icilius, recently one of the tribunes of Rome. But
+the tyranny of the decemvirs was directed against the wives and
+daughters as well as the men of the plebeians, as was now to be
+strikingly shown.
+
+One day, as the beautiful maiden was on her way, attended by her nurse,
+to school in the Forum (around which the schools were placed), she was
+seen by Appius Claudius, who was so struck by her beauty that he
+determined to gain possession of her, and sought to win her by insidious
+words. The innocent girl repelled his advances, but this only increased
+his desire to possess her, and he determined, as she was not to be had
+by fair means, to have her by foul. He therefore laid a wicked plot for
+her capture.
+
+Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, instigated by him, seized the girl
+as she entered the Forum, claiming that she was his slave. The nurse
+screamed for help, and a crowd quickly gathered. Many of these well knew
+the maiden, her father, and her betrothed, and vowed to protect her from
+wrong. But the villain declared that he meant no harm, and that he only
+claimed his own, and was quite willing to submit his claim to the
+decision of the law.
+
+Followed by the crowd, he led the weeping maiden to where Appius
+Claudius occupied the judgment-seat, and demanded justice at his hands.
+He declared that the wife of Virginius, being childless, had got this
+child from its mother and presented it to Virginius as her own, and said
+that the real mother had been his slave, and that, therefore, the
+daughter was his slave also. This he would prove to Virginius on his
+return to Rome. Meanwhile it was but just that the master should keep
+possession of his slave.
+
+This specious appeal was earnestly combated by the friends of the
+maiden, many of whom were present in the throng. Virginius, they said,
+was absent from Rome in the service of the commonwealth. To take such
+action in his absence was unjust. They would send him word at once, and
+in two days he would be in the city.
+
+"Let the case stand until he can appear," they demanded. "The law
+expressly declares that in cases like this every one shall be considered
+free till proved a slave. The maiden, therefore, should legally be left
+with her friends till the day of trial. Put not her fair fame in peril
+by giving up a free-born maiden into the hands of a man whom she knows
+not."
+
+To this reasonable appeal Appius, with a show of judicial moderation,
+replied,--
+
+"Truly, I know the law you speak of, and hold it just and good, for it
+was enacted by myself. But this maiden cannot in any case be free; she
+belongs either to her father or to her master. And as her father is not
+here, who but her master can have any claim to her? I decide, therefore,
+that M. Claudius shall keep her till Virginius comes, and shall require
+him to give sureties to bring her before my judgment-seat when the day
+comes for hearing the case between them."
+
+This illegal decision was far from satisfying the multitude. The
+decemvirs and their adherents had gained an unholy reputation for
+dishonorable treatment of the wives and daughters of the people, and it
+was not safe to trust a maiden in their hands. Word had been hastily
+sent to Numitorius, the uncle of Virginia, and Icilius, her betrothed,
+and they now came up in great haste, and protested so vigorously against
+the sentence, that the surrounding people became roused to fury. Appius,
+seeing the temper of the throng, and fearing a riotous demonstration,
+felt forced to change his decision. He said, therefore, that, in view of
+the rights of fathers over their children, he would let the case rest
+till the next day.
+
+"If, then," he said, with a show of stern dignity, "Virginius does not
+appear, I plainly tell Icilius and his fellows that I will support the
+laws which I have made. Violence shall not prevail over justice at this
+tribunal."
+
+Obliged to be content with this, the friends of Virginia conducted her
+home, and Icilius sent messengers in all haste to the camp, to bid
+Virginius come without an hour's delay to Rome. Surety was given that
+the maiden should appear before Appius the next day.
+
+It was fortunate that the army in which Virginius was a centurion had
+been obliged to retreat, and then lay not many miles from Rome. The
+messengers sent reached the camp that same evening, and told Virginius
+of the peril of his daughter. Appius had also sent messengers to his
+colleagues in command of the army, secretly instructing them not to let
+Virginius leave the camp on any pretence. But the messengers of right
+outstripped those of wrong, and when word came from the decemvirs in
+command to restrain Virginius he had already been given leave of
+absence, and was speeding on the road to Rome, spurred by love and
+indignation.
+
+Morning came, and Appius resumed his judgment-seat, under the delusion
+that his vile scheme was safe. To his surprise and dismay, he saw
+Virginius, whom he supposed detained in camp, dressed in mean attire,
+like a suppliant, and leading his daughter into the Forum. With him came
+a body of Roman matrons and a great troop of friends, for the affair had
+roused the people almost to the point of revolt.
+
+"This is not my cause only, but the cause of all," said Virginius, in
+moving accents, to the people. "If my daughter shall be robbed from me,
+what father and mother among you all is safe?"
+
+Icilius earnestly seconded this appeal, and the mothers who stood by
+wept with pity, their tears moving the people even more than the words
+of the father and lover.
+
+But Appius was not to be moved by tears or appeals. Bent on gaining his
+unholy ends, he did not even give Virginius time to address the
+tribunal, but before Claudius had done speaking he hastened to give
+sentence. The maiden, he said, should be considered a slave until proved
+to be free-born. In the mean time she should remain in the custody of
+her master Claudius.
+
+This monstrous decision, a perversion of all law, natural and civil,
+filled the people with astonishment. Could the maker of the laws of Rome
+thus himself set them at defiance? They stood as if stunned, until
+Claudius approached to lay hands on the maiden, when the women and her
+friends gathered around her and kept him off, while Virginius broke out
+in passionate threats that he would not tamely submit to so great a
+wrong.
+
+Appius had prepared for this. He had brought with him a body of armed
+patricians, and, supported by them, he bade his lictors to drive back
+the crowd. Before their threatening axes the unarmed people fell back,
+and the weeping maiden was left standing alone. Virginius looked on in
+despair. Was he to be robbed of his daughter in the face of Rome, and in
+defiance of all justice and honor? There was one way still to save her,
+and only one.
+
+With an aspect of humility he asked Appius to let him speak one word to
+the nurse in the maiden's hearing, that he might learn whether she were
+really his child or not. "If I am not indeed her father, I shall bear
+her loss the lighter," he said.
+
+Appius, with a show of moderation, consented, and the distracted father
+drew the nurse and his daughter aside to a spot where stood some
+butchers' booths, for the Forum of Rome was then a place of trade as
+well as of justice. Here he snatched a knife from a butcher, and,
+holding the poor girl in his arm, he cried, "This is the only way, my
+child, to keep thee free," and plunged the weapon to her heart.
+
+Then, turning to Appius, he cried, in threatening accents, "On you and
+on your head be the curse of this blood!"
+
+"Seize the madman!" yelled Appius.
+
+But, brandishing the bloody knife, Virginius broke through the
+multitude, which readily made way for his passage, and flew to the city
+gates, where, seizing a horse, he rode with wild haste to the camp of
+Tusculum.
+
+Meanwhile Icilius and Numitorius held up the maiden's body, and bade the
+people see the bloody result of the decemvir's unholy purpose. A tumult
+instantly arose, the people rushing in such fury upon the tribunal that
+the lictors and armed patricians were driven back, and Appius, stricken
+with fear, covered his face with his robe and fled into a neighboring
+house.
+
+Never had Rome been so stirred to fury. The colleague of Appius rushed
+with his followers to the Forum, but the people were too strong for all
+the force he could gather. The senate met, but could do nothing in the
+excited state of public feeling. An attempt to support the decemvirs now
+might cause the commons once more to secede to the Sacred Hill.
+
+While this was going on in the city, Virginius, followed by many
+citizens, had reached the camp. Here the encrimsoned knife he held, the
+blood on his face and body, and the many unarmed citizens who followed
+him, brought the soldiers crowding round to learn what all this meant.
+
+The tale was told in moving accents. On hearing it the whole army burst
+into a storm of indignation. Heedless of the orders of their generals,
+they rushed excitedly to arms, pulled up their standards, and put
+themselves in hasty march for Rome. The only leader they recognized was
+Virginius, who, knife in hand, led the way in the van.
+
+Reaching the city, the soldiers called on the commons to assert their
+liberties and elect new tribunes, the decemvirs having deprived them of
+these officials. They then marched to the Aventine Hill, where they
+selected ten military tribunes. The senate sent to them to know what
+they wanted, but they replied that they had no answer to give except to
+their own friends.
+
+The other army had also heard of the outrage, and soon appeared at the
+Aventine, led by Icilius and Numitorius, who had hastened with the
+dreadful story to its camp. It, too, elected ten tribunes, and waited to
+hear what the senate had to propose. They waited in vain. No word came
+to them. The senate, distracted by the sudden occurrence, sought to
+temporize, but the people were in too deadly earnest to be thus dealt
+with. In the end the armies left the Aventine, marched through the city,
+and made their way to the Sacred Hill, where the seceding commoners had
+established themselves on a famous occasion long before. Men, women, and
+children followed them in multitudes. Once more the city was deserted by
+the plebeians, and the patricians were left to keep Rome together as
+they could.
+
+This brought the senate to terms. The decemvirs agreed to resign.
+Deputies were sent to ask what the people demanded. They replied that
+they wanted their tribunes and the right of appeal restored, full
+indemnity for all the leaders in the secession, and the punishment of
+their oppressors.
+
+"These decemvirs," said Icilius, "are public enemies, and we will have
+them die the death of such. Give them up to us, that they may be burnt
+with fire, as they have richly deserved."
+
+This blood-thirsty desire, however, was not insisted on. All their other
+requests were granted, and the people returned to Rome. The decemvirs
+had resigned. Ten tribunes were chosen, among them Virginius and
+Icilius. The people of Rome had regained the liberty of which they had
+been robbed by their late oppressors.
+
+But though the decemvirs had been spared from death by fire, they were
+not forgiven. Virginius, as a tribune, impeached Appius for having given
+a decision in defiance of the law. The proud patrician appeared in the
+Forum surrounded by a body of young nobles, but he gained nothing by
+this bravado. He refused to go before the judge, appealed to the people,
+and demanded to be released on bail. This Virginius refused. He could
+not be trusted at liberty. He was therefore thrown into prison, to await
+the judgment of the people.
+
+This judgment he did not live to hear. Whether he killed himself in
+prison, or was killed by order of his accusers, we do not know. We only
+know that he died. His colleague, who had come to his aid on that fatal
+day, was also thrown into prison, on the charge of having wantonly
+scourged an old and distinguished soldier. He also died there. The other
+decemvirs, with M. Claudius, who had claimed Virginia as his slave, were
+allowed to give bail, and all fled from Rome. The property of all of
+them was confiscated and sold.
+
+Rome had experienced enough of decemvirate rule. The tribunes of the
+people were restored, and thereafter they were both freely chosen by the
+people, which had not been the case before.
+
+And thus it was that Virginia was revenged and justice once more reigned
+in Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII._
+
+
+We have now to tell the story of another dictator of Rome. Like
+Cincinnatus, Camillus is largely a creature of legend, but he plays an
+active part in old Roman annals, and the tale of his doings is well
+worth repeating.
+
+Rome was at war with the city of Veii, a large and strong city beyond
+the Tiber, and not many miles away. In the year of Rome 350 (or 403
+B.C.) the siege of Veii began, and was continued for seven years. We are
+told that the Romans surrounded the city, five miles in circumference,
+with a double wall, but it could not have been complete, or the
+Veientians could not have held out against starvation so long. For the
+end of the siege and the taking of the city we must revert to the
+legendary tale.
+
+For seven years and more, so the legend says, the Romans had been
+besieging Veii. During the last year of the siege, in late summer, the
+springs and rivers all ran low; but of a sudden the waters of the Lake
+of Alba began to rise, and the flood continued until the banks were
+overflowed and the fields and houses by its side were drowned. Still
+higher and higher the waters swelled till they reached the tops of the
+hills which rose like a wall around the lake. In the end they
+overflowed these hills at their lowest points, and poured in a mighty
+torrent into the plain beyond.
+
+The prayers and sacrifices of the Romans had failed to check the flood,
+which threatened their city and fields, and despairing of any redress
+from their own gods they sent to Delphi, in Greece, and applied there to
+the famous oracle of Apollo. While the messengers were on their way, it
+chanced that a Roman centurion talked with an old Veientian on the walls
+whom he had known in times of peace, and knew to be skilled in the
+secrets of Fate. The Roman condoled with his friend, and hoped that no
+harm would come to him in the fall of Veii, sure to happen soon. The old
+man laughed in reply, and said,--
+
+"You think, then, to take Veii. You shall not take it till the waters of
+the Lake of Alba are all spent, and flow out into the sea no more."
+
+This remark troubled the Roman, who knew the prophetic foresight of his
+friend. The next day he talked with him again, and finally enticed him
+to leave the city, saying that he wished to meet him at a certain secret
+place and consult with him on a matter of his own. But on getting him in
+this way out of the city, he seized and carried him off to the camp,
+where he brought him before the generals. These, learning what the old
+man had said, sent him to the senate at Rome.
+
+The prisoner here spoke freely. "If the lake overflow," he said, "and
+its waters run out into the sea, woe unto Rome; but if it be drawn off,
+and the waters reach the sea no longer, then it is woe unto Veii."
+
+This he gave as the decree of the Fates; but the senate would not accept
+his words, and preferred to wait until the messengers should return from
+Delphi with the reply of the oracle.
+
+When they did come, they confirmed what the old prophet had said. "See
+that the waters be not confined within the basin of the lake," was the
+message of Apollo's priestess: "see that they take not their own course
+and run into the sea. Thou shalt take the water out of the lake, and
+thou shalt turn it to the watering of the fields, and thou shalt make
+courses for it till it be spent and come to nothing."
+
+What all this could possibly have to do with the siege of Veii the
+oracle did not say. But the people of the past were not given to ask
+such inconvenient questions. The oracle was supposed to know better than
+they, so workmen were sent with orders to bore through the sides of the
+hills and make a passage for the water. This tunnel was made, and the
+waters of the lake were drawn off, and divided into many courses, being
+given the duty of watering the fields of the Romans. In this way the
+water of the lake was all used up, and no drop of it flowed to the sea.
+Then the Romans knew that it was the will of the gods that Veii should
+be theirs.
+
+Despite all this, the army of Rome must have met with serious
+difficulties and dangers at Veii, for the senate chose a dictator to
+conduct the war. This was their ablest and most famous man, Marcus
+Furius Camillus, a leader among the aristocrats, and a statesman of
+distinguished ability.
+
+Under the command of Camillus the army hotly pressed the siege. So
+straitened became the Veientians that they sent envoys to Rome to beg
+for peace. The senate refused. In reply, one of the chief men of the
+embassy, who was a skilled prophet, rebuked the Romans for their
+arrogance, and predicted coming retribution.
+
+"You heed neither the wrath of the gods nor the vengeance of men," he
+said. "Yet the gods shall requite you for your pride; as you destroy our
+country, so shall you shortly after lose your own."
+
+This prediction was verified before many years in the invasion of the
+Gauls and the destruction of Rome,--a tale which we have next to tell.
+
+Camillus, finding that Veii was not to be taken by assault over its
+walls, began to approach it from below. Men were set to dig an
+underground tunnel, which should pass beneath the walls, and come to the
+surface again in the Temple of Juno, which stood in the citadel of Veii.
+Night and day they worked, and the tunnel was in course of time
+completed, though the ground was not opened at its inner extremity.
+
+Then many Romans came to the camp through desire to have a share in the
+spoil of Veii. A tenth part of this spoil was vowed by Camillus to
+Apollo, in reward for his oracle; and the dictator also prayed to Juno,
+the goddess of Veii, begging her to desert this city and follow the
+Romans home, where a temple worthy of her dignity should be built.
+
+All being ready, a fierce assault was made on the city from every side.
+The defenders ran to the walls to repel their foes, and the fight went
+vigorously on. While it continued the king of Veii repaired to the
+Temple of Juno, where he offered a sacrifice for the deliverance of the
+city. The prophet who stood by, on seeing the sacrifice, said, "This is
+an accepted offering. There is victory for him who offers the entrails
+of this victim upon the altar."
+
+The Romans who were in the secret passage below heard these words.
+Instantly the earth was heaved up above them, and they sprang, arms in
+hand, from the tunnel. The entrails were snatched from the hands of
+those who were sacrificing, and Camillus, the Roman dictator, not the
+Veientian king, offered them upon the altar. While he did so his
+followers rushed from the citadel into the streets, flung open the city
+gates, and let in their comrades. Thus both from within and without the
+army broke into the town, and Veii was taken and sacked.
+
+From the height of the citadel Camillus looked down upon the havoc in
+the city streets, and said in pride of heart, "What man's fortune was
+ever so great as mine?" But instantly the thought came to him how little
+a thing can bring the highest fortune down to the lowest, and he prayed
+that if some evil should befall him or his country it might be light.
+
+As he prayed he veiled his head, according to the Roman custom, and
+turned toward the right. In doing so his foot slipped, and he fell upon
+his back on the ground. "The gods have heard my prayer," he said. "For
+the great fortune of my victory over Veii they have sent me only this
+little evil."
+
+He then bade some young men, chosen from the whole army, to wash
+themselves in pure water, and clothe themselves in white, so that there
+would be about them no stain or sign of blood. This done, they entered
+the Temple of Juno, bowing low, and taking care not to touch the statue
+of the goddess, which only the priest could touch. They asked the
+goddess whether it was her pleasure to go with them to Rome.
+
+Then a wonder happened; from the mouth of the image came the words "I
+will go." And when they now touched it, it moved of its own accord. It
+was carried to Rome, where a temple was built and consecrated to Juno on
+the Aventine Hill.
+
+On his return to Rome Camillus entered the city in triumph, and rode to
+the Capitol in a chariot drawn by four white horses, like the horses of
+Jupiter or those of the sun. Such was his ostentation that wise men
+shook their heads. "Marcus Camillus makes himself equal to the blessed
+gods," they said. "See if vengeance come not on him, and he be not made
+lower than other men."
+
+There is one further legend about Camillus. After the fall of Veii he
+besieged Falerii. During this siege a school-master, who had charge of
+the sons of the principal citizens, while walking with his boys outside
+the walls, played the traitor and led them into the Roman camp.
+
+But the villain received an unexpected reward. Camillus, justly
+indignant at the act, put thongs in the boys' hands and bade them flog
+their master back into the town, saying that the Romans did not war on
+children. On this the people of Falerii, overcome by his magnanimity,
+surrendered themselves, their city, and their country into the hands of
+this generous foe, assured of just treatment from so noble a man.
+
+But trouble came upon Camillus, as the wise men had predicted. He was an
+enemy of the commons and was to feel their power. It was claimed that he
+had kept for himself part of the plunder of Veii, and on this charge he
+was banished from Rome. But the time was near at hand when his foes
+would have to pray for his return. The next year the Gauls were to come,
+and Camillus was to be revenged upon his ungrateful country. This story
+we have next to tell.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GAULS AT ROME._
+
+
+We have related in the preceding tale how a Veientian prophet predicted
+the ruin of Rome, in retribution for the cruelty of the Romans to the
+people of Veii. It is the story of this disaster which we have now to
+tell. While the Romans were assailing Veii and making other conquests
+among the neighboring cities, a new people had come into Central Italy,
+a fair-faced, light-haired, great-bodied tribe of barbarians, fierce in
+aspect, warlike in character, the first contingent of that great
+invasion from the north which, centuries afterwards, was to overthrow
+the empire of Rome.
+
+These were the Gauls, barbarian tribes from the region now known as
+France, who had long before crossed the Alps and made themselves lords
+of much of Northern Italy. Just when this took place we do not know, but
+about the time with which we are now concerned they pushed farther
+south, overthrew the Etruscans, and in the year 389 B.C. crossed the
+Apennines and penetrated into Central Italy.
+
+And now the proud city of Rome was to come face to face with an enemy
+more powerful and courageous than any it had hitherto known. In the year
+named the Gauls besieged the city of Clusium, in Etruria, the city of
+Lars Porsenna, who in former years had aided Tarquin against Rome. The
+Roman senate, alarmed at their approach, sent three deputies to observe
+these barbarian bands. What follows is the story as told in Roman
+annals. It cannot be accepted as the exact truth, though no one
+questions the destruction of Rome by the Gauls.
+
+The story goes, then, that the deputies sent to the barbarians, and
+asked by what right they sought to take a part of the territory of
+Clusium, a city in alliance with Rome. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls,
+who knew little and cared less about Rome, replied, with insolent pride,
+that all things belonged to the brave, and that their right lay in their
+swords.
+
+Soon after, in a sortie that was made from the city, one of the Roman
+deputies joined the soldiers, and killed a Gaulish champion of great
+size and stature. On this being reported to Brennus he sent messengers
+to Rome, demanding that the man who had slain one of his chiefs, when no
+war existed between the Gauls and Romans, should be delivered into his
+hands for punishment. The senate voted to do so, as the demand seemed
+reasonable; but an appeal was made to the people, and they declared that
+the culprit should not be given up. On this answer being taken to
+Brennus, he at once ordered that the siege of Clusium should be
+abandoned, and marched with his whole army upon Rome.
+
+A Roman army, forty thousand strong, was hastily raised, and crossed the
+Tiber, marching towards Veii, where they expected to meet the advancing
+enemy. But they reckoned wrongly: the Gauls came down the left bank of
+the river, plundering and burning as they marched. This threw the Romans
+into the greatest alarm. For many miles above Rome the Tiber could not
+be forded, there were no bridges, and boats could not be had to convey
+so large an army. The Romans were forced to march back with all speed to
+the city, cross the river there, and hasten to meet their foes before
+they got too near at hand. But when they came within sight of the Gauls
+the latter were already within twelve miles of Rome.
+
+The Roman army was drawn up behind the Alia, a little stream whose deep
+bed formed a line of defence. But the Gauls made their attack upon the
+weakest section of the Roman army, hewing them down with their great
+broadswords, and assailing their ears with frightful yells. The Roman
+right wing, formed of new recruits, gave way before this vigorous
+charge, and in its flight threw the regular legions of the left wing
+into disorder. The Gauls pursued so fiercely that in a short time the
+whole army was in total rout, and flying as Roman army had never fled
+before.
+
+Many plunged into the river, in hope of escaping by swimming across it.
+But of these the Gauls slew multitudes on the banks, and killed most of
+those in the stream with their javelins. Others took refuge in a dense
+wood near the road, where they lay hidden till nightfall. The remainder
+fled back to the city, where they brought the frightful tidings of the
+utter ruin of the Roman army.
+
+The news threw Rome into a panic. Of those who escaped from the battle,
+the majority had crossed the river and made their way to Veii. No other
+army could be raised. Most of the other inhabitants left the city, as
+the people of Athens had done when the army of Xerxes approached. It was
+resolved to abandon the city to the barbarians, but to maintain the
+citadel, the home of the gods of Rome. The holy articles in the temples
+were buried or removed, the Vestal Virgins sent away, and the flower of
+the patricians took refuge in the Capitol, determined to defend to the
+last that abiding-place of the guardian gods of Rome.
+
+But there were aged members of the senate, old patricians who had filled
+the highest offices in the state, and venerable ministers of the gods,
+who felt that they had a different duty to perform. They could not serve
+their country by their deeds; they might by their death. They devoted
+themselves and the army of the Gauls, in solemn invocations, to the
+spirits of the dead and to the earth, the common grave of man. Then,
+attiring themselves in their richest robes of office, each took his seat
+on his ivory chair of magistracy in the gate-way of his house.
+
+Meanwhile the Gauls had delayed for a day their attack on the city,
+fearing that the silence portended some snare. When they did enter, the
+people had escaped with such valuables as they could carry. The Capitol
+was provisioned and garrisoned, and the aged senators awaited death in
+solemn calm.
+
+On seeing these venerable men, sitting in motionless silence amid the
+confusion of the sack of the city, the Gauls viewed them with awe,
+regarding them at first as more than human. One of the soldiers
+approached M. Papirius, and began reverently to stroke his long white
+beard. Papirius was a minister of the gods, and looked on this touch of
+a barbarian hand as profanation. With an impulse of anger he struck the
+Gaul on the head with his ivory sceptre. Instantly the barbarian,
+breaking into rage, cut him down with his sword. This put an end to the
+feeling of awe. All the old men were attacked and slain, their vow being
+thus fulfilled.
+
+Rome, except its Capitol, was now in the hands of the Gauls. The sack
+and ruin of the city went mercilessly on. But the Capitol defied their
+efforts. It stood on a hill which, except at a single point, presented
+precipitous sides. The Gauls tried to storm it by this single approach,
+but were driven back with loss. They then blockaded the hill, and spent
+their time in devastating the city and neighboring country.
+
+While this was going on the fugitives from Rome had gathered at Veii,
+where they daily became more reorganized. And now they turned in their
+distress to a man whom they had injured in their prosperity. Camillus,
+the conqueror of Veii, had been exiled from Rome on a charge of having
+been dishonest in distributing the spoils of the conquered city. He was
+now living at Ardea, whither messengers were sent, begging him to come
+to the aid of Rome. He sent word back that he had been condemned for an
+offence of which he was not guilty, and would not return unless
+requested to do so by the senate.
+
+But the senate was shut up in the Capitol. How could it be reached? In
+this dilemma a young man, Pontius Cominius, volunteered for the
+adventure. He swam the Tiber at night, climbed the hill by the aid of
+shrubs and projecting stones, obtained for Camillus the appointment as
+dictator, and returned by the same route.
+
+The feat of Cominius, whatever its real purpose, came near being a fatal
+one to Rome. He had left his marks on the cliff. Here the soil had been
+trodden away and stones loosened; there bushes had been broken or torn
+from the soil. The sharp eyes of the Gauls saw, in the morning light,
+these proofs that some one had climbed or descended the hill. The cliff,
+then, could be climbed. Some Roman had climbed it; why not they? The
+spot, supposed to be inaccessible, was not guarded. There was no wall at
+its top. Here was an open route to that stubborn citadel. They resolved
+to attempt it as soon as night should fall.
+
+It was midnight when the Gauls began to make their way slowly and with
+difficulty up the steep cliff. The moon may have aided them with its
+rays, but, if so, it revealed them to no sentinel above. The very
+watch-dogs failed to scent and signal their approach. They reached the
+summit, and, to their gratification, no alarm had been given. The Romans
+slept on.
+
+The fate of Rome in that hour hung in the balance. Had the citadel been
+taken and its defenders slain, Rome might never have recovered from the
+blow. The whole course of history might have been changed. It was the
+merest chance that saved the city from this impending disaster.
+
+It chanced that on this part of the hill stood the temple of the
+guardian gods of Rome,--Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva,--and in this temple
+were kept a number of geese, sacred to Juno. Though food was not
+abundant, the garrison had spared these sacred geese. They were now to
+be amply repaid, for the geese alone heard the noise of the ascending
+Gauls, and in alarm began a loud screaming and flapping of wings.
+
+The noise aroused Marcus Manlius, who slept near. Hastily seizing his
+sword and shield, he called to his comrades and ran to the edge of the
+cliff. He reached there just in time to see the head and shoulders of a
+burly Gaul, who had nearly attained the summit. Dashing the rim of his
+shield into the face of the barbarian, Manlius tumbled him down the
+rock, and with him those who followed in his track. The others,
+dismayed, dropped their arms to cling more closely to the rocks. Unable
+to ascend or descend, they were easily slaughtered by the guards who
+followed Manlius. The Capitol was saved. As for the captain of the
+watch, from whose neglect of duty this peril had come, he was punished
+the next morning by being hurled down the cliff upon the slaughtered
+Gauls.
+
+Manlius was rewarded, says the story, by each man giving him from his
+scanty store a day's allowance of food,--namely, half a pound of corn
+and five ounces in weight of wine. As for the real defenders of Rome,
+the geese of the Capitol, they were ever after held in the highest honor
+and veneration.
+
+As the Capitol could not be taken by assault or surprise, there
+remained only the slow process of siege. For six or eight months the
+Gauls blockaded the hill. So says the story, but it was probably not so
+long. However, in the end the Romans were brought to the point of
+famine, and offered to ransom their city by paying a large sum of gold.
+Brennus, the Gaulish king, was ready to accept the offer. His men were
+suffering from the Roman fever; food had grown scarce; he agreed, if
+paid a thousand pounds' weight of gold, to withdraw his army from Rome.
+
+Much gold had been brought by the fugitive patricians into the Capitol.
+From this the delegates brought down and placed in the scales a
+sufficient quantity. But while they found the gold, the Gauls found the
+weights, and it was soon discovered that the wily barbarians were
+cheating. Their weights were too heavy. Complaint of this fraud was made
+by the Roman tribune of the soldiers. In reply Brennus drew his heavy
+broadsword and threw it into the scale with the weights.
+
+"What does this mean?" asked the tribune.
+
+"It means," answered the barbarian, haughtily, "woe to the vanquished!"
+"_Vae victis esse!_"
+
+While this was going on, says the legend, Camillus, the dictator, was
+marching to Rome with the legions he had organized at Veii. He appeared
+at the right minute for the dramatic interest of the story, entered the
+Forum while the gold was being weighed, bade the Romans take back their
+gold, threw the weights to the Gauls, and told Brennus proudly that it
+was the Roman custom to pay their debts in iron, not in gold.
+
+A fight ensued, as might be expected. The Gauls were driven from the
+city. The next day Camillus attacked them in their camp, eight miles
+from Rome, and defeated them so utterly that not a man was left alive to
+carry home the tale of the slaughter.
+
+This story of the coming of Camillus is too much like the last act of a
+stage-play, or the denouement of a novel, to be true. Most likely the
+Gauls marched off with their gold, though they may have been attacked on
+their retreat, and most or all of the gold regained.
+
+Camillus, however, is said to have saved Rome in still another way. The
+old city was in ashes. Most of the citizens were at Veii, where they had
+found or built new homes. They were loath to come back to rebuild a
+ruined city. This Camillus induced them to do. Every appeal was made to
+the local pride and the religious sentiments of the people. A centurion,
+marching with his company, and being obliged to halt in front of the
+senate-house, called to the standard-bearer, "Pitch your standard here,
+for this is the best place to stop at." This casual remark was looked
+upon as an omen from heaven, and by this and the like means the people
+were induced to return.
+
+Then the rebuilding of Rome began. The sites of the temples were
+retraced as far as could be done in the ruins. The laws of the twelve
+tables and some other records were recovered, but the mass of the
+historical annals of Rome had been destroyed. Some relics were said to
+have been miraculously preserved, among them the shepherd's crook of
+Romulus.
+
+But the bulk of the possessions of the Romans had vanished in the
+flames; the streets were mere heaps of ashes; the very walls had been in
+part pulled down; rubbish and ruin lay everywhere. Rome, like the
+phoenix, had to be born again from its ashes. Men built wherever they
+could find a clear spot. Stones and roofing-material were brought from
+Veii, and one city was dismantled that another might be restored. Stones
+and timber were supplied to any man from the public lands. The city
+rapidly rose again. But it was an irregular city; the streets ran
+anywhere; no effort was made at rule or system in the making of the new
+Rome.
+
+As for Camillus, he came to be honored as the second founder of Rome.
+While the Romans were at work on their new homes they were harassed by
+their foes, and he was kept busy with the army in the field. He lived
+for twenty-five years longer, and in the year 367 B.C., when some eighty
+years of age, he marched again to meet the Gauls in a new assault upon
+Rome, and defeated them with such slaughter that they left Rome alone
+for many years afterwards.
+
+Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, was not so fortunate. He
+came forward as the patron of the poor, who began to suffer again from
+the severe laws against debtors. Finally he began to use his large
+fortune to relieve suffering debtors, and is said to have paid the debts
+of four hundred debtors, thus saving them from bondage. This generosity
+won him the unbounded affection of the people, who called him the
+"Father of the Commons." But it aroused the suspicion of the patricians,
+and some of these, against whom he had used violent language, had him
+arrested on a charge of treason, perhaps with good reason. Though he
+showed the many honors he had received for services to his country, he
+was condemned to death and his house razed to the ground. Thus the
+patricians dealt with the benefactors of the poor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CURTIAN GULF._
+
+
+During three years--363 to 361 B.C.--Rome was ravaged by the plague,
+which was so violent and fatal as to carry off the citizens by hundreds.
+In its first year it found a noble victim in Camillus, the conqueror of
+Veii and the second founder of Rome, who four years before had a second
+time defeated the Gauls. He was the last of the old heroes of Rome,
+those whose glory belongs to romance rather than history. The Gauls had
+destroyed the records of old Rome, and left only legend and romance.
+With the new Rome history fairly began.
+
+But we have another romantic tale to tell before we bid adieu to the
+story of early Rome. In the second year of the pestilence a strange and
+portentous event occurred. The Tiber rose to an unusual height,
+overflowed with its waters the great circus (_Circus Maximus_), and put
+a stop to the games then going on, which were intended to propitiate the
+wrath of heaven, and induce the gods to relieve man from the evil of the
+plague.
+
+And now, in the midst of the Forum, there yawned open a fearful gulf, so
+wide and deep that the superstitious Romans viewed it with awe and
+affright. Whether it was due to an earthquake or the wrath of the gods
+is not for us to say. The Romans believed the latter; those who prefer
+may believe the former. But, so we are told, it seemed bottomless.
+Throw what they would in it, it stood unfilled, and the feeling grew
+that no power of man could ever fill its yawning depths.
+
+Man being powerless, the oracles of the gods were consulted. Must this
+gaping wound always stand open in the soil of Rome? or could it in any
+way be filled and the offended deities who had caused it be propitiated?
+From the oracle came the reply that it must stand open till that which
+constituted the best and true strength of the Roman commonwealth was
+cast as an offering into the gulf. Then only would it close, and
+thereafter forever would the state live and flourish.
+
+[Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS.]
+
+The true strength of Rome! In what did this consist? This question men
+asked each other anxiously and none seemed able to answer. But there was
+one man in Rome who interpreted rightly the meaning of the oracle. This
+was a noble youth, M. Curtius by name, who had played his part valiantly
+in war, and gained great fame by brave and manly deeds. The true
+strength of Rome? he said to the people. In what else could it lie but
+in the arms and valor of her children? This was the sacrifice the gods
+demanded.
+
+Going home, he put on his armor and mounted his horse. Riding to the
+brink of the gulf, he, before the eyes of the trembling and awe-struck
+multitude, devoted himself to death for the safety and glory of Rome,
+and plunged, with his horse, headlong into the gaping void. The people
+rushed after him to the brink, flung in their offerings, and with a
+surge the lips of the gap came together, and the gulf was forever
+closed. The place was afterwards known by the name of the Curtian Lake,
+in honor of this sacrifice.
+
+There are two other stories of this date worth repeating, as giving rise
+to two great names in Rome. T. Manlius, the future conqueror of the
+Latins, fought with a gigantic Gaul on the bridge over the Anio on the
+Salarian road. Slaying his enemy, he took from his neck a chain of gold
+(_torques_), which he afterwards wore upon his own. From this the
+soldiers called him Torquatus, which name his descendants ever
+afterwards bore.
+
+In a later battle Marcus Valerius fought with a second gigantic Gaul.
+During the combat a wonderful thing happened. A crow perched on the
+helmet of the Roman, and continued there as the combatants fought.
+Occasionally it flew up into the air, and darted down upon the Gaul,
+striking at his eyes with its beak and claws. The Gaul, confounded by
+this attack, soon fell by the sword of his foe, and then the crow flew
+up again, and vanished towards the east. The name of Corvus (crow) was
+added to that of Valerius, and was long afterwards borne by his
+descendants.
+
+These stories are rather to be enjoyed than believed. They probably
+contain more poetry than history, particularly that of Curtius and the
+gulf. Yet they were accepted as history by the Romans, and are given in
+all their detail in the fine old work of Livy, the rarest and raciest of
+the story-tellers of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS._
+
+
+The conquest of Italy by Rome was attended by many interesting events,
+of which we propose to relate here some of the more striking. The
+capture and burning of Rome by the Gauls, and the dispersal of her army
+and people, ruinous as it seemed, was but an event in her career of
+conquest. The city was no sooner rebuilt than the old regime of war was
+resumed, and it was no longer a struggle between neighboring cities, but
+of Rome against powerful confederacies and peoples, such as the
+Volscians, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Campanians, and the Samnites,
+the final conquest of which gave her the dominion of Italy.
+
+The war with the Latins was attended with some circumstances showing
+strongly the stern and indomitable spirit of the Romans. This war was
+carried into Campania, in Southern Italy; and here, on a celebrated
+occasion, when the two armies lay encamped in close vicinity on the
+plain of Capua, the Roman consuls issued a strict order against
+skirmishing or engaging in single encounters with the enemy. The two
+peoples were alike in arms and in language, and it was feared that such
+chance combats might lead to confusion and disaster.
+
+The only man to disobey this order was T. Manlius, the son of one of
+the consuls. A Latin warrior, Geminus Metius, of Tusculum, challenged
+young Manlius to meet him in single combat; and the youthful warrior,
+fired by ambition and warlike zeal, and eager to sustain the honor of
+Rome, accepted the challenge, despite his father's order. If killed, his
+fault would be atoned; if successful, victory over a noted warrior must
+win him pardon and praise.
+
+The duel that ensued was a fierce and gallant one. It ended in the
+triumph of the young Roman, who laid his antagonist dead at his feet.
+Shouts of triumph from the Roman soldiers hailed his victory; and when
+he had despoiled his slain foe of his arms, and borne them triumphantly
+from the field, the exultation of the Romans was as unbounded as the
+chagrin of the Latins was deep. Towards his father's tent the young
+victor proudly went, through exulting lines of troops, and laid his
+spoils in triumph at the feet of the stern old man.
+
+The poor youth, the rejoicing soldiers, knew not the man with whom they
+had to deal. A military order had been disobeyed. To old Manlius the
+fact that the culprit was his son, and that he had added honor to the
+Roman arms, weighed nothing. Discipline stood above affection or
+victory. Turning coldly away, the iron-hearted old Roman ordered that
+the soldiers should be immediately summoned to the praetorium, or
+general's tent, and that his son should be beheaded before them.
+
+This cruel and inhuman order filled the whole army with horror. Yet none
+dared interfere, and the unnatural mandate was obeyed, in full view of
+an army whose late exultation was turned to deepest woe and indignation.
+The youngest soldiers never forgave the consul for his inhuman act, but
+regarded him with abhorrence to the end of his life. But their hatred
+was mingled with fear and respect, and the stern lesson taught was
+doubtless felt for years in the discipline of the armies of Rome.
+
+The next event worthy of record took place in the vicinity of Mount
+Vesuvius, under whose very shadow a fierce battle was fought between the
+Latin and Roman armies, with the then silent volcano as witness. Two
+centuries more were to pass before Rome would learn what fearful power
+lay sleeping in this long voiceless mountain.
+
+Before the battle joined, the gods, as usual, were appealed to. During
+the night both consuls had dreamed the same dream. A figure of more than
+human stature and majesty had appeared to them, and told them that the
+earth and the gods of the dead claimed as their victims the general of
+one party and the army of the other. When the sacrifices were made, the
+signs given by the entrails of the victims signified the same thing. It
+was resolved, therefore, that if the army of Rome anywhere gave way, the
+general commanding on that side should devote himself, and the army of
+the enemy with him, to the gods of death and the grave. "Fate," said the
+augurs, "requires the sacrifice of a general from one party and an army
+from the other. Let it be our general and the Latin army that shall
+perish."
+
+It was the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul Publius
+Decius, that first gave way. The consul at once accepted his fate. By
+the direction of the chief priest, he wrapped his consular toga around
+his head, holding it to his face with his hand, and then set his feet
+upon a javelin, and repeated after the priest the words devoting him to
+the gods of death. Then, arming himself at all points, and wrapping his
+toga around his body in the manner usual in sacrifices, he sprang upon
+his horse, and spurred headlong into the ranks of the enemy, where he
+soon fell dead.
+
+This sacrifice filled the Romans with hope, and the Latins, who
+understood its meaning, with dismay. Yet the latter, after being driven
+back, soon recovered, and, despite the self-devotion of Decius, would
+probably have won the victory had not the remaining consul brought up
+his reserve troops just in time. In the end the Latins were utterly
+defeated, and Vesuvius looked down on the massacre of one army by the
+swords of another, scarcely a fourth of the Latins escaping. Thus the
+gods seemed to keep their word, though probably the Roman reserve force
+had more to do with the victory than all the gods of Rome.
+
+The next event which we have to relate took place during the second
+Samnite war. Its hero was L. Papirius Cursor, one of the favorite heroes
+of Roman tradition, and the avenger of the disgrace of the Caudine
+Forks, the story of which we have next to tell. This famous soldier is
+said to have possessed marvellous swiftness of foot and gigantic
+strength, with extraordinary capacity for food, while his iron
+strictness of discipline was at times relieved by a rough humor. All
+this made his memory popular with the Romans, who boasted that Alexander
+the Great would have found in him a worthy champion, had that conqueror
+invaded Italy.
+
+The event we have now to narrate occurred early in the war. One of the
+consuls, being taken ill, was ordered to name a dictator to replace him,
+and chose Papirius Cursor. This champion appointed Q. Fabius Rullianus,
+another famous soldier, his master of the horse, and marched out to
+attack the Samnites.
+
+As it happened, the auspices taken by the dictator at Rome before
+marching to the seat of war were of no particular significance. Not
+satisfied with them, he decided to take them again, and returned to Rome
+for this purpose, the auspices being of a kind which could only be taken
+within the city walls. He ordered the master of the horse to remain
+strictly on the defensive during his absence.
+
+Fabius did not obey this order. He attacked the enemy and gained some
+advantage. The annals say that he won a great victory, defeating the
+Samnites with a loss of twenty thousand men; but the annals have a habit
+of magnifying small affairs into large ones where they have any object
+to gain.
+
+On hearing that his orders had been disobeyed, Papirius hurried back to
+the camp in a violent rage, and with the intention of making such an
+example of discipline as Manlius had made in the execution of his son.
+On reaching camp he ordered that Fabius should be immediately executed.
+His authority as dictator gave him power for this violent act; but he
+failed to reckon on the spirit of the soldiers, who supported Fabius to
+a man, and broke into a violent demonstration that was almost mutiny. So
+strong was their feeling that the furious dictator found himself obliged
+to halt in his purpose.
+
+But Fabius knew too well the iron nature of his antagonist to trust his
+life in his hands. That night he fled from the camp to Rome, and
+immediately appealed to the senate for protection. Papirius followed in
+hot haste, and while the senators were still assembling arrived in Rome,
+where, under his authority as dictator, he gave order for the arrest of
+the culprit. In this critical situation the prisoner's father, M.
+Fabius, appealed to the tribunes for the protection of his son, saying
+that he proposed to carry the case before the assembly of the people.
+
+The tribunes found themselves in a dilemma. Papirius warned them not to
+sanction so flagrant a breach of military discipline, nor to lessen the
+majesty of the office of dictator, and they found themselves hesitating
+between their duty to support the absolute power of the dictator and
+their abhorrence of an exercise of this power that must shock the
+feelings of the whole Roman people. The people themselves relieved their
+tribunes from this difficulty. They hastily met in assembly, and by a
+unanimous vote implored the dictator to be merciful, and for their sakes
+to forgive Fabius. His authority thus acknowledged, Papirius yielded,
+and declared that he pardoned the master of the horse. "And the
+authority of the Roman generals," says Livy, "was established no less
+firmly by the peril of Q. Fabius than by the actual death of the young
+T. Manlius."
+
+It was well for Rome that Fabius was spared, for he afterwards proved
+one of their ablest generals. The time came, also, when he was able to
+confer a benefit upon Papirius Cursor. This was during a subsequent war
+with the Etruscans, in which he commanded as consul and gained great
+victories. Meanwhile a Roman army was defeated by the Samnites, and on
+the news of this defeat reaching Rome the senate at once resolved to
+appoint Papirius once more as dictator.
+
+But this appointment must be made by a consul. One consul was with the
+defeated army, perhaps dead. It was necessary to apply to Fabius, the
+other consul, and the declared enemy of the proposed dictator. To
+overcome his personal feelings, a deputation of the highest senators was
+sent him, who read him the senate's decree and strongly urged him to
+support it. Fabius listened in dead silence, not answering by word or
+look. When they had ended, he abruptly withdrew from the room. But at
+dead of night he pronounced, in the usual form, the nomination of
+Papirius as dictator. When the deputies thanked him for his noble
+conquest over his feelings, he listened still in dead silence, and
+dismissed them without a word in answer.
+
+We must now pass over years of war, in which both Fabius and Papirius
+gained honor and fame, and come to an occasion in which the son of
+Fabius led a Roman army as consul, and met with a severe defeat by a
+Samnite army. He had been tricked by the Samnites, and great indignation
+was aroused against him in Rome. It was proposed to remove him from his
+office, a disgrace which no consul ever experienced in Roman history. It
+was also proposed that old Fabius should be appointed dictator. But the
+aged soldier, to preserve the honor of his son, offered to go with him
+as his lieutenant, and the offer was accepted by the senate.
+
+A second battle ensued, in the heat of which the consul became
+surrounded by the enemy, and his aged father led the charge to his
+rescue. His example animated the Romans, they followed him in a vigorous
+assault, and a complete victory was won. Twenty thousand Samnites were
+slain, four thousand taken prisoners, and with them their general, C.
+Pontius. After other victories the younger Fabius returned to Rome and
+was given a triumph, while behind him rode his old father on horseback,
+as one of his lieutenants, delighting in the honor conferred on his son.
+The Samnite general was made to walk in the procession, and at its end
+was taken to the prison under the Capitoline Hill and there beheaded. It
+was thus that Rome dealt with its captured foes.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CAUDINE FORKS._
+
+
+Westward from Rome rise the Apennine Mountains, the backbone of Italy;
+and amid their highest peaks, where the snow lies all the year long, and
+whence streams flow into the two seas, dwelt the Sabines, an important
+people, from whom came the mothers of the Roman state. There is a legend
+concerning this people which we have now to tell. For many years they
+had been at war with their neighbors, the Umbrians; and at length,
+failing to conquer their enemies by their own strength, they sought to
+obtain the help of the divinities. They made a vow that if victory was
+given to them, all the living creatures born that year in their land
+should be held as sacred to the gods.
+
+The victory came, and they sacrificed all the lambs, calves, kids, and
+pigs of that year's birth, while they redeemed from the gods such
+animals as were not suitable for sacrifice. But, as it appeared, the
+deities were not satisfied. The land refused to yield its fruits, and
+the Sabines were not long in deciding why their crops had failed. They
+had neither sacrificed nor redeemed the children born that year, and had
+thus failed in their duty to the gods.
+
+To atone for this fault, all their children of that year's birth were
+devoted to the god Mamers, and when they had grown up they were sent
+away to make themselves a home in a new land. As the young men started
+on their pilgrimage a bull went before them, and, as they fancied that
+Mamers had sent this animal for their guide, they piously followed him.
+He first lay down to rest when he had come to the land of the Opicans.
+This the Sabines took for a sign, and they fell on the Opicans, who
+dwelt in villages without walls, and drove them out from their country,
+of which the new-comers took possession. They then sacrificed the bull
+to Mamers; and in after-ages they bore the bull for their device. They
+also took a new name, and were afterwards known as Samnites.
+
+While the Romans were extending their dominion in Central Italy, the
+Samnites were conquering the peoples farther south. Their dominion
+became great, and at one time included the famous cities of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii and many others of the cities of the southern plains. In the
+centre of the Samnite country stood a remarkable mountain mass, an
+offshoot from the Apennines. This mountain, now called the Matese, is
+nearly eight miles in circumference, and rises abruptly in huge
+wall-like cliffs of limestone to the height of three thousand feet. Its
+surface is greatly varied in character, now sloping into deep valleys,
+now rising into elevated cliffs, of which the loftiest is six thousand
+feet high. It is rich in springs, which gush out in full flow, and
+disappear again in the caverns with which limestone rocks abound. Its
+valleys yield abundant pasture and magnificent beech forests, while on
+its highest summits the snow tarries till late summer, and in the
+hottest months of summer the upland pastures continue cool.
+
+This mountain fastness formed the citadel from which the Samnites issued
+in conquering excursions over the surrounding country, and enabled them
+in time to extend their dominion far and wide, and to rival Rome in the
+width and importance of their state. Thus Rome and Samnium approached
+each other step by step, and the time inevitably came when they were to
+join issue in war.
+
+Three wars took place between the Romans and the Samnites. In the first
+of these Valerius Corvus (the origin of whose name of Corvus we have
+already told) led the Roman army to victory. In honor of this victory
+Rome received from Carthage (with which city it was to engage in a
+desperate contest in later years) a golden crown, for the shrine of
+Jupiter in the Capitol.
+
+In 329 B.C. Rome finally overcame the Volscians, with whom they had been
+many years at war, and three years afterwards war with the Samnites was
+again declared. The latter were invading Campania, in which country lay
+the volcano of Vesuvius and the city of Naples. Rome came to the aid of
+the Campanians, and a war began which lasted for more than twenty years.
+
+Of this war we have but one event to tell, that in which Rome suffered
+the greatest humiliation it had met with in its entire career, the
+famous affair of the Caudine Forks. It was in the fifth campaign of the
+war that this event took place. Two Roman armies had marched into
+Campania and threatened the southern border of Samnium, which the
+Samnite general Pontius was prepared to defend. His force occupied the
+passes which led from the plain of Naples into the higher mountain
+valleys; but he deceived the Romans by spreading the report that the
+whole Samnite army had gone to Apulia, where they were besieging the
+city of Luceria. His purpose was to lure the Romans into these difficult
+defiles under the impression that the Samnites were trusting to the
+natural strength of their country for its defence.
+
+The trick succeeded. The Roman consuls believed the story, and, in their
+haste to go to the aid of their allies in Apulia, chose the shortest
+route, that which led through the Samnian hills. The absence of the
+Samnite army would enable them, they thought, to force their way through
+Samnium without difficulty; and, blinded by their false confidence, the
+consuls recklessly led their men into the fatal pass of Caudium.
+
+This pass was a narrow opening in the outer wall of the Apennines, which
+led from the plain of Campania to Maleventum. To-day it is traversed by
+the road from Naples to Benevento, and is called the valley of Arpaia.
+In the past it was famous as Caudium.
+
+Into this defile the Romans marched between the rugged mountain
+acclivities that bounded its sides, and through the deep silence that
+reigned around. The pass seemed utterly deserted, and they expected
+soon to emerge into a more open valley in the interior of the hills.
+
+But as they advanced the pass contracted, until it became but a narrow
+gorge, and this they found to be blocked up with great stones and felled
+trees. Brought to a halt, the troops stood gazing in dismay and dread on
+these obstacles, when suddenly the silence was broken, loud war-cries
+filled the air, and armed Samnites appeared as if by magic, covering the
+hills on both flanks, and crowding into the pass in the rear.
+
+The Romans were caught in such a trap as that from which Cincinnatus had
+rescued a Roman army many years before. But there was here no
+Cincinnatus with his stakes, and they were far from Rome. The entrapped
+army made a desperate effort to escape, attacking the Samnites in the
+rear, and seeking to force their way up the rugged surrounding hills.
+They fought in vain. Many of them fell. The Samnite foe pressed them
+still more closely into the rocky pass. Only the coming of night saved
+them from total destruction.
+
+But escape was impossible. The gorge in front was completely blocked up.
+The pass in the rear was held by the enemy in force. The flanking hills
+could hardly have been climbed by an army, even if they had not been
+occupied. No resource remained to the Romans but to encamp in the
+broader part of the narrow valley, and there wait in hopeless despair
+the outcome of their folly.
+
+The Samnites could well afford to let them wait. The rear was held by
+the bulk of their army. The obstacles in front were strongly guarded.
+Every possible track by which the Romans might try to scale the hills
+was held. Some desperate attempts to break out were made, but they were
+easily repulsed. Nothing remained but surrender, or death by famine.
+
+One or other of these alternatives had soon to be chosen. A large army,
+surprised on its march, and confined within a barren pass, could not
+have subsistence for any long period. Nothing was to be gained by delay,
+and they might as well yield themselves prisoners of war at once.
+
+So the Romans evidently thought, and without delay they put themselves
+at the mercy of their conquerors. "We yield ourselves your captives,"
+they said, "to do with as you will. Put us all to the sword, if such be
+your decision; sell us into slavery; or hold us as prisoners until we
+are ransomed: one thing only we ask, save our bodies, whether living or
+dead, from all unworthy insults."
+
+In this request they forgot the record that Rome had made; forgot how
+often noble captives had been forced to walk in Roman triumphs and been
+afterwards slain in cold blood in the common prison; forgot how they had
+recently refused the rites of burial to the body of a noble Samnite. But
+Pontius, the Samnite general, was much less of a barbarian than the
+Romans of that age. He was acquainted with Greek philosophy, had even
+held conversation, it is said, with Plato, and was not the man to
+indulge in cruel or insulting acts.
+
+"Restore to us," he said to the consuls, "the towns and territory you
+have taken from us, and withdraw the colonists whom you have unjustly
+placed on our soil. Conclude with us a treaty of peace, in which each
+nation shall be acknowledged to be independent of the other. Swear to do
+this, and I will grant you your lives and release you without ransom.
+Each man of you shall give up his arms, but may keep his clothes
+untouched; and you shall pass before our army as prisoners who have been
+in our power and whom we have set free of our own will, when we might
+have killed or sold them, or held them for ransom."
+
+These terms the consuls were glad enough to accept. They were far better
+than they would have granted the Samnites under similar circumstances.
+Pontius now called for the Roman fecialis, whose duty it was to conclude
+all treaties and take all oaths for the Roman people. But there was no
+fecialis with the army. The senate had sent none, having resolved to
+make no terms with the Samnites, and to accept only their absolute
+submission. They had never dreamed of such a turn of the tide as this.
+
+In the absence of the proper officer, the consuls and all the surviving
+officers took the oath, while it was agreed that six hundred knights
+should be held as hostages until the Roman people had ratified the
+treaty. Why Pontius did not insist on treating with the senate and
+people of Rome at once, instead of trusting to them to ratify a treaty
+made with prisoners of war, we are not told. He was soon to learn how
+weak a reed to lean upon was the Roman faith.
+
+The treaty made, the humiliating part of the affair came. The Roman
+army was obliged to march under the yoke, which consisted of two spears
+set upright and a third fastened across their tops. Under this the
+soldiers of the legions without their arms, and wearing but a single
+article of clothing,--the campestre or kilt, which reached from the
+waist to the knees,--passed in gloomy succession. Even the consuls were
+obliged to appear in this humble plight, the six hundred hostage knights
+alone being spared.
+
+This was no peculiar insult, but a common usage on such occasions. The
+Romans had imposed it more than once on defeated enemies. They were now
+to endure it themselves, and the affair, under the name of the Caudine
+Forks, has become famous in history.
+
+Pontius proved, indeed, generous to his foes. He supplied carriages for
+the sick and wounded, and furnished provisions to last the army until it
+should arrive at Home. When that city was reached the senate and people
+came out and welcomed the soldiers with the greatest kindness. But the
+wounded pride of the legionaries could not be soothed. Those who had
+homes in the country stole from the ranks and sought their several
+dwellings. Those who lived in Rome lingered without the walls until
+after the sun had fallen, and then made their way home through the
+darkness. The consuls were obliged to enter in open day, but as soon as
+possible they sought their homes, and shut themselves up in privacy.
+
+As for the city, it went into mourning. All business was suspended; the
+patricians laid aside their gold rings and took off the red border of
+their dresses which marked their rank; the plebeians appeared in
+mourning garbs; there was as much weeping for those who had returned in
+dishonor as for those left dead on the field; all rejoicings, festivals,
+and marriages were set aside for a year of happier omen.
+
+The final result was such as might have been expected from the earlier
+record of Rome. The senate refused to recognize the treaty. The defeated
+consuls themselves sustained this bad faith, saying that they and all
+the officers should be given up to the Samnites, as having promised what
+they were unable to perform.
+
+This was done. Half stripped, as when they passed under the yoke, and
+their hands bound behind their backs, the officers were conducted by the
+fecialis to the Samnian frontier, and delivered to the Samnites as men
+who had forfeited their liberty by their breach of faith. The surrender
+completed, Postumius, one of the consuls, struck a fecialis violently
+with his knee,--his hands and feet being bound,--and cried out,--
+
+"I now belong to the Samnites, and I have done violence to the sacred
+person of a Roman fecialis and ambassador. You will rightfully wage war
+with us, Romans, to avenge this outrage."
+
+This transparent trick was wasted on Pontius. He refused the victims
+offered him. They were not the guilty ones, he said. The legions must be
+placed again in the Caudium Valley, or Rome keep the treaty. Anything
+else would be base and faithless.
+
+The treaty was not kept. The war went on. And nearly thirty years
+afterwards, as we have told in the preceding story, Pontius, who had
+behaved so generously to the Romans, was led as a prisoner in a Roman
+triumph, and then basely beheaded while the triumphal car of the victor
+ascended the Capitoline Hill. His death is one of the darkest blots on
+the Roman name. "Such a murder," we are told, "committed or sanctioned
+by such a man as Q. Fabius, is peculiarly a national crime, and proves
+but too clearly that in their dealings with foreigners the Romans had
+neither magnanimity, nor humanity, nor justice."
+
+
+
+
+_THE FATE OF REGULUS._
+
+
+We have followed the growth of Rome from its seed in the cradle of
+Romulus and Remus to its early maturity in the conquest of Italy. Its
+triumph over the Latins, Samnites, and Etruscans had made it virtually
+master of that peninsula. In the year 280 B.C. it was first called upon
+to meet a great foreign soldier in the celebrated Pyrrhus of Epirus, who
+had invaded Italy. How this great soldier scared the Romans with his
+elephants and defeated them in the field, but was finally baffled and
+left the country in disgust, we have told in "Historical Tales of
+Greece." It was not many years after this that Rome herself went abroad
+in search of new foes, and her long and bitter struggle with Carthage
+began.
+
+The great city of Carthage lay on the African side of the Mediterranean,
+where it had won for itself a great empire, and had added to its
+dominion by important conquests in Spain and Sicily. Settled many
+centuries before by emigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, it
+had, like its mother city, grown rich through commerce, and was now lord
+of the Mediterranean and one of the great cities of the earth. With this
+city Rome was now to begin a mighty struggle, which would last for many
+years and end in the utter destruction of the great African city and
+state.
+
+Pyrrhus of Epirus, on leaving Sicily, had said, "What a grand arena this
+would be for Rome and Carthage to contend upon!" And it was in the
+island of Sicily that the struggle between these two mighty powers
+began. In the year 264 B.C., nearly five centuries after the founding of
+Rome, that city first sent its armies beyond the borders of Italy, and
+the long contest between Rome and Carthage was inaugurated.
+
+Some soldiers of fortune, who had invaded Sicily and found themselves in
+trouble, called upon Rome for help. Carthage, which held much of the
+island, was also appealed to, and both sent armies. The result was a
+collision between these armies. In two years' time most of Sicily
+belonged to Rome, and Carthage retained hardly a foothold upon that
+island.
+
+This rapid success of the Romans in foreign conquest encouraged them
+greatly. But they were soon to find themselves at a disadvantage. Being
+an inland power, they knew nothing of ocean warfare, and possessed none
+but small ships. Carthage, on the contrary, had a large and powerful
+fleet, and now began to use it with great effect. By its aid the
+Carthaginians took from Rome many towns on the coast of Sicily. They
+also landed on and ravaged the coasts of Italy. It was made evident to
+the Roman senate that if they looked for success they must meet the
+enemy on their own element, and dispute with Carthage the dominion of
+the sea.
+
+How was this to be done? The largest ships they knew of had only three
+banks of oars. Carthage possessed war vessels with five banks of oars,
+and built on a plan different from that of the smaller vessels. Rome had
+no model for these ships, and was at a loss what to do. Fortunately a
+Carthaginian quinquereme (a ship with five banks of oars) ran ashore on
+the coast of Italy, and was captured and sent to Rome. This served as a
+model for the shipwrights of that city, and so energetically did they
+set to work that in two months after the first cutting of the timber
+they had built and launched more than a hundred ships of this class.
+
+And while the ships were building the crews selected for the
+quinqueremes were practising. Most of them had never even seen an oar,
+and they were now placed on benches ashore, ranged like those in the
+ships, and carefully taught the movements of rowing, so that when the
+ships were launched they were quite ready to drive them through the
+waves. The Romans, who could fight best hand to hand, added a new and
+important device, providing their ships with wooden bridges attached to
+the masts, and ready to fall on an enemy's vessel whenever one came
+near. A great spike at the end was driven into the deck of the enemy's
+ship by the weight of the falling bridge, and held her while the Romans
+charged across the bridge.
+
+The new fleet was soon tried. It met a Carthaginian fleet on the north
+coast of Sicily. The Romans proved poor sailors, but the bridges gave
+them the victory. These could be wheeled round the mast and dropped in
+any direction, and, however the Carthaginians approached, they found
+themselves grappled and boarded by the Romans, whose formidable swords
+soon did the rest. In the end Carthage lost fifty ships and ten thousand
+men, and with them the dominion of the seas.
+
+This success was a great event in the history of Rome. The victory was
+celebrated by a great naval triumph, and a column was set up in the
+Forum, which was adorned with the ornamental prows of ships.
+
+Three years afterwards Rome resolved to carry the war into Africa, and
+for this purpose built a great fleet of three hundred and thirty ships,
+and manned by one hundred and forty thousand seamen, in addition to its
+soldiers or fighting men. These were largely made up of prisoners from
+Sardinia and Corsica, Carthaginian islands which had been attacked by
+the Roman fleets. The two consuls in command were L. Manlius Vulso and
+M. Atilius Regulus.
+
+The great fleet of Rome met a still greater Carthaginian one at Ecnomus,
+on the southern coast of Sicily, and here one of the greatest sea-fights
+of history took place. In the end the Romans lost twenty-four ships,
+while of those of the enemy thirty were sunk and sixty-four captured.
+The remainder of the enemy's fleet fled in all haste to Carthage.
+
+The Romans now prepared to take one of the greatest steps in their
+history,--to cross the sea to the unknown African world. The soldiers
+murmured loudly at this. They were to be taken to a new and strange
+land, burnt by scorching heats and infested with noisome beasts and
+monstrous serpents; and they were to be led into the very stronghold of
+the enemy, where they would be at their mercy. Even one of their
+tribunes supported the soldiers in this complaint. But Regulus was equal
+to the occasion: he threatened the tribune with death, forced the
+soldiers on board, and sailed for the African coast.
+
+The event proved very different from what the soldiers had feared. The
+army of Carthage was so miserably commanded that the Romans landed
+without trouble and ravaged the country at their will; and instead of
+the scorching heats and deadly animals they had feared, they found
+themselves in a fertile and thickly-settled country, where grew rich
+harvests of corn, and where were broad vineyards and fruitful orchards
+of figs and olives. Towns were numerous, and villas of wealthy citizens
+covered the hills.
+
+On this rich and undefended country the hungry Roman army was let loose.
+Villas were plundered and burnt, horses and cattle driven off in vast
+numbers, and twenty thousand persons, many of them doubtless of wealth
+and rank, were carried away to be sold as slaves. Meanwhile the army of
+Carthage lurked on the hills, and was defeated wherever encountered.
+Regulus, who had been left in sole command of the Roman army, overran
+the country without opposition, and boasted that he had taken and
+plundered more than three hundred walled towns or villages.
+
+The Carthaginians, who were also attacked by roving desert tribes, who
+proved even worse than the Romans, were in distress, and begged for
+peace. But the terms offered by Regulus were so intolerable that it was
+impossible to accept them. "Men who are good for anything should either
+conquer or submit to their betters," said Regulus, haughtily. He had not
+yet learned how unwise it is to drive a strong foe to desperation, and
+was to pay dearly for his arrogance and pride.
+
+The tide of war turned when Carthage obtained a general fit to command
+an army. An officer who had been sent to Greece for soldiers of fortune
+brought with him on his return a Spartan named Xanthippus, a man who had
+been trained in the rigid Spartan discipline and had played his part
+well in the wars of Greece. He openly and strongly condemned the conduct
+of the generals of Carthage; and, on his words being reported to the
+government, he was sent for, and so clearly pointed out the causes of
+the late disasters that the direction of all the forces of Carthage was
+placed in his hands.
+
+And now a new spirit awakened in Carthage. Xanthippus reviewed the
+troops, taught them how they should meet the Roman charge, and filled
+them with such enthusiasm and hope that loud shouts broke from the
+ranks, and they eagerly demanded to be led at once to battle.
+
+The army numbered only twelve thousand foot, but had four thousand
+cavalry and a hundred elephants, in which much confidence was placed.
+The demand of the soldiers was complied with; they boldly marched out,
+and now no longer to the hills, but to the lower ground, where the
+devastation of the enemy was at once checked.
+
+Regulus was forced to risk a battle, for his supply of food was in
+peril. He marched out and encamped within a mile of the foe. The
+Carthaginian generals, on seeing these hardy Roman legions, so long
+victorious, were stricken with something like panic. But the soldiers
+were eager to fight, and Xanthippus bade the wavering generals not to
+lose so precious an opportunity. They yielded, and bade him to draw up
+the army on his own plan.
+
+In the battle that ensued the victory was due to the cavalry and
+elephants. The cavalry drove that of Italy from the field, and attacked
+the Roman rear. The elephants broke through the Roman lines in front,
+furiously trampling the bravest underfoot. Those who penetrated the line
+of the elephants were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian infantry. Of the
+whole Roman army, two thousand of the left wing alone escaped; Regulus,
+with five hundred others, fled, but was pursued and taken prisoner; the
+remainder of the army was destroyed to a man. The defeat was total. Rome
+retained but a single African port, which was soon given up. Xanthippus,
+crowned with glory and richly rewarded, returned to Greece to enjoy the
+fame he had won.
+
+For five years Regulus remained a prisoner in Carthage, while the war
+went on in Sicily. Here, in the year 250 B.C., the Romans gained an
+important victory at Panormus (now Palermo), and Carthage, weary of the
+struggle, sent to Rome to ask for terms of peace. With the ambassadors
+came Regulus, who had promised to return to Carthage if the negotiations
+should fail, and whom the Carthaginians naturally expected to use his
+utmost influence in favor of peace.
+
+They did not know their man. Regulus proved himself one of those
+indomitable patriots of whom there are few examples in the ages. On
+reaching the walls of Rome he refused at first to enter, saying that he
+was no longer a citizen, and had lost his rights in that city. When the
+ambassadors of Carthage had offered their proposal to the senate,
+Regulus, who had remained silent, was ordered by the senate to give his
+opinion of the proposed treaty. Thus commanded, he astonished all who
+heard by strongly advising the senate not to make the treaty. He might
+die for his words, he might perish in torture, but the good of his
+country was dearer to him than his own life, and he would not counsel a
+treaty that might prove of advantage to the enemy. He even spoke against
+an exchange of prisoners, saying that he had not long to live, having,
+he believed, been given a secret poison by his captors, and would not
+make a fair exchange for a hale and hearty Carthaginian general.
+
+Such an instance of self-abnegation has rarely been heard of in history.
+It has made Regulus famous for all time. His advice was taken, the
+treaty was refused; he, refusing to break his parole, or even to see his
+family, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors, knowing that he was
+going to his death. The rulers of that city, so it is said, furious
+that the treaty had been rejected through his advice, resolved to
+revenge themselves on him by horrible tortures. His eyelids were cut
+off, and he was exposed to the full glare of the African sun. He was
+then placed in a cask driven full of nails, and left there to die.
+
+It is fortunate to be able to say that there is no historical warrant
+for this story of torture, or for the companion story that the wife and
+son of Regulus treated two Carthaginian prisoners in the same manner. We
+have reason to believe that it is untrue, and that Regulus suffered no
+worse tortures than those of shame, exile, and imprisonment.
+
+
+
+
+_HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS._
+
+
+In the year 235 B.C. the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed, for
+the first time since the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of
+Rome, nearly five centuries before. During all that long period war had
+hardly ever ceased in Rome. And these gates were soon to be thrown open
+again, in consequence of the greatest war that the Roman state had ever
+known, a war which was to bring it to the very brink of destruction.
+
+The end of the first Punic War--as the war with Carthage was
+called--left Rome master of the large island of Sicily, the first
+province gained by that ambitious city outside of Italy. Advantage was
+also taken of some home troubles in Carthage to rob that city of the
+islands of Sardinia and Corsica,--a piece of open piracy which redoubled
+the hatred of the Carthaginians.
+
+Yet Rome just now was not anxious for war with her southern rival. There
+was enough to do in the north, for another great invasion of Gauls was
+threatened. And about this time the Capitol was struck by lightning, a
+prodigy which plunged all Rome into terror. The books of the Sibyl were
+hastily consulted, and were reported to say, "When the lightning shall
+strike the Capitol and the Temple of Apollo, then must thou, O Roman,
+beware of the Gauls." Another prophecy said that the time would come
+"when the race of the Greeks and the race of the Gauls should occupy the
+Forum of Rome."
+
+But Rome had its own way of dealing with prophecies and discounting the
+decrees of destiny. A man and woman alike of the Gaulish and of the
+Greek race were buried alive in the Forum Boarium, and in this cruel way
+the public fear was allayed. As for the invasion of the Gauls, Rome met
+and dealt with them in its usual fashion, defeating them in two battles,
+in the last of which the Gaulish army was annihilated. This ended this
+peril, and the dominion of Rome was extended northward to the Alps.
+
+It was fortunate for the Romans that they had just at this time rid
+themselves of the Gauls, for they were soon to have a greater enemy to
+meet. In the first Punic War, Carthage had been destitute of a
+commander, and had only saved herself by borrowing one from Greece. In
+the second war she had a general of her own, one who has hardly had his
+equal before or since, the far-famed Hannibal, one of the few soldiers
+of supreme ability which the world has produced.
+
+During the peace which followed the first Punic War Carthage sent an
+expedition to Spain, with the purpose of extending her dominions in that
+land. This was under the leadership of Hamilcar, a soldier of much
+ability. As he was about to set sail he offered a solemn sacrifice for
+the success of the enterprise. Having poured the libation on the
+victim, which was then duly offered on the altar, he requested all those
+present to step aside, and called up his son Hannibal, at that time a
+boy of but nine years of age. Hamilcar asked him if he would like to go
+to the war. With a child's eagerness the boy implored his father to take
+him. Then Hamilcar, taking the boy by the hand, led him up to the altar,
+and bade him lay his hand on the sacrifice, and swear "that he would
+never be the friend of the Romans." Hannibal took the oath, and he never
+forgot it. His whole mature life was spent in warfare with Rome.
+
+From the city of New Carthage (or Carthagena), founded by Carthage in
+Spain, Hamilcar gradually won a wide dominion in that land. He was
+killed in battle after nine years of success, and was succeeded by
+Hasdrubal, another soldier of fine powers. On the death of Hasdrubal,
+Hannibal, then twenty-six years of age, was made commander-in-chief of
+the Carthaginian armies in Spain. Shortly afterwards his long struggle
+with Rome began.
+
+Hannibal had laid siege to and captured the city of Saguntum. The people
+of Saguntum were allies of Rome. That city, being once more ready for
+war with its rival, sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand that Hannibal
+and his officers should be surrendered as Roman prisoners, for a breach
+of the treaty of peace. After a long debate, Fabius, the Roman envoy,
+gathered up his toga as if something was wrapped in it, and said, "Look;
+here are peace and war; take which you choose." "Give whichever you
+please," was the haughty Carthaginian reply. "Then we give you war,"
+said Fabius, shaking out the folds of the toga. "With all our hearts we
+welcome it," cried the Carthaginians. The Romans left at once for Rome.
+Had they dreamed what a war it was they were inviting it is doubtful if
+they would have been so hasty in seeking it.
+
+War with Rome was what Hannibal most desired. He was pledged to
+hostility with that faithless city, and had assailed Saguntum for the
+purpose of bringing it about. On learning that war was declared, he
+immediately prepared to invade Italy itself, leading his army across the
+great mountain barrier of the Alps. He had already sent messengers to
+the Gauls, to invite their aid. They were found to be friendly, and
+eager for his coming. They had little reason to love Rome.
+
+A significant dream strengthened Hannibal's purpose. In his vision he
+seemed to see the supreme god of his fathers, who called him into the
+presence of all the gods of Carthage, seated in council on their
+thrones. They solemnly bade him to invade Italy, and one of the council
+went with him into that land as guide. As they passed onward the divine
+guide warned, "See that you look not behind you." But at length,
+heedless of the command, the dreamer turned and looked back. He saw
+behind him a monstrous form, covered thickly with serpents, while as it
+moved houses, orchards, and woods fell crashing to the earth. "What
+mighty thing is this?" he asked in wonder. "You see the desolation of
+Italy," replied the heavenly guide; "go on your way, straight forward,
+and cast no look behind." And thus, at the age of twenty-seven,
+Hannibal, at the command of his country's gods, went forward to the
+accomplishment of his early vow.
+
+His route lay through northern Spain, where he conquered all before him.
+Then he marched through Gaul to the Rhone. This he crossed in the face
+of an army of hostile Gauls, who had gathered to oppose him. He had more
+difficulty with his elephants, of which he had thirty-seven. Rafts were
+built to convey these great beasts across the stream, but some of them,
+frightened, leaped overboard and drowned their drivers. They then swam
+across themselves, and all were safely landed.
+
+[Illustration: HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS.]
+
+Other difficulties arose, but all were overcome, and at length the
+mountains were reached. Here Hannibal was to perform the most famous of
+his exploits, the crossing of the great chain of the Alps with an army,
+an exploit more remarkable than that which brought similar fame to
+Napoleon in our own days, for with Hannibal it was pioneer work, while
+Napoleon profited by his example.
+
+The mountaineers proved to be hostile, and gathered at all points that
+commanded the narrow pass. But they left their posts at night, and
+Hannibal, when nightfall came, set out with a body of light troops and
+occupied all these posts. When morning dawned the natives, to their
+dismay, found that they had been outgeneralled.
+
+Soon after the day began the head of the army entered a dangerous
+defile, and made its way in a long slender line along the terrace-like
+path which overhung the valley far below. The route proved
+comparatively easy for the foot-soldiers, but the cavalry and the
+baggage-animals only made their way with great difficulty, finding
+obstacles at almost every step.
+
+The sight of the struggling cavalcade was too much for the caution of
+the natives. Here was abundant plunder at their hands. From many points
+of the mountain above the road they rushed down upon the Carthaginians,
+arms in hand. A frightful disorder followed. So narrow was the path that
+the least confusion was likely to throw the heavily-laden
+baggage-animals down the precipitous steep. The cavalry horses, wounded
+by the arrows and javelins of the mountaineers, plunged wildly about and
+doubled the confusion.
+
+It was fortunate for Hannibal that he had taken the precaution of the
+night before. From the post he had taken with his light troops the whole
+scene of peril and disorder was visible to his eyes. Charging down the
+hill, he attacked the mountaineers and drove them from their prey. But
+it was a dearly bought victory, for the fight on the narrow road
+increased the confusion, and in seeking the relief of his army he caused
+the destruction of many of his own men.
+
+At length the perilous defile was safely passed, and the army reached a
+wide and rich valley beyond. Here was the town of Montmelian, the
+principal stronghold of the mountaineers. This Hannibal took by storm,
+and recovered there many of his own men, horses, and cattle which the
+natives had taken, while he found an abundant store of food for the use
+of his weary soldiers.
+
+After a day's rest here the march was resumed. During the next three
+days the army moved up the valley of the river Isere without difficulty.
+The natives met them with wreaths on their heads and branches in their
+hands, promising peace, offering hostages, and supplying cattle.
+Hannibal mistrusted the sudden friendliness of his late foes, but they
+seemed so honest that he accepted some of them as guides through a
+difficult region which he was now approaching.
+
+He had reason for his mistrust, for they treacherously led him into a
+narrow and dangerous defile, which might have easily been avoided; and
+while the army was involved in this straitened pass an attack was
+suddenly made by the whole force of the mountaineers. Climbing along the
+mountain-sides above the defile, they hurled down stones on the
+entangled foe, and loosened and rolled great rocks down upon their
+defenceless heads.
+
+Fortunately Hannibal, moved by his doubts, had sent his cavalry and
+baggage on first. The attack fell on the infantry, and with a body of
+these he forced his way to the summit of one of the cliffs above the
+defile, drove away the foe, and held it while the army made its way
+slowly on. As for the elephants, they were safe from attack. The very
+sight of these huge beasts filled the barbarians with such terror that
+they dared not even approach them. There was no further peril, and on
+the ninth day of its march the army reached the summit of the Alps.
+
+It was now the end of October. The grass and flowers which carpet that
+elevated spot in summer had become replaced by snow. In truth, the
+climate of the Alps was colder at that period than now, and snow lay on
+the higher passes all through the year. The soldiers were disheartened
+by cold and fatigue. The scene around them was desolate and dreary. New
+perils awaited their onward course. But no such feeling entered
+Hannibal's courageous soul. Fired by hope and ambition, he sought to
+plant new courage in the hearts of his men.
+
+"The valley you see yonder is Italy," he said, pointing to the sunny
+slope which, from their elevated position, appeared not far away. "It
+leads to the country of our friends, the Gauls; and yonder is our way to
+Rome." Their eyes followed the direction of his pointing hand, and their
+hearts grew hopeful again with the cheerfulness and enthusiasm of his
+words.
+
+Two days the army remained there, resting, and waiting for the
+stragglers to come up. Then the route was resumed.
+
+The mountaineers, severely punished, made no further attacks; but the
+road proved more difficult than that by which the ascent had been made.
+Snow thickly covered the passes. Men and horses often lost their way,
+and plunged to their death down the precipitous steep. Onward struggled
+the distressed host, through appalling dangers and endless difficulties,
+losing men and animals at every step. But these troubles were trifling
+compared with those which they were now to endure. They suddenly found
+that the track before them had entirely disappeared. An avalanche had
+carried it bodily away for about three hundred yards, leaving only a
+steep and impassable slope covered with loose rocks and snow.
+
+A man of less resolution than Hannibal might well have succumbed before
+this supreme difficulty. The way forward had vanished. To go back was
+death. It was impossible to climb round the lost path, for the heights
+above were buried deep in snow. Nothing remained but to perish where
+they were, or to make a new road across the mountain's flank.
+
+The energetic commander lost not an hour in deciding. Moving back to a
+space of somewhat greater breadth, the snow was removed and the army
+encamped. Then the difficult engineering work began. Hands were
+abundant, for every man was working for his life. Tools were improvised.
+So energetically did the soldiers work that the road rapidly grew before
+them. As it was cut into the rock it was supported by solid foundations
+below. Many ancient authors say that Hannibal used vinegar to soften the
+rocks, but this we have no sufficient reason to believe.
+
+So vigorously did the work go on, so many were the hands engaged, that
+in a single day a track was made over which the horses and
+baggage-animals could pass. These were sent over and reached the lower
+valley in safety, where pasture was found.
+
+The passage of the elephants was a more difficult task. The road for
+them must be solid and wide. It took three days of hard labor to make
+it. Meanwhile the great beasts suffered severely from hunger, for
+forage there was none, nor trees on whose leaves they might browse.
+
+At length the road was strong enough to bear them. They safely passed
+the perilous reach. After them came Hannibal with the rear of the army,
+soon reaching the cavalry and baggage. Three days more the wearied host
+struggled on, down the southward slopes of the Alps, until finally they
+reached the wide plain of Northern Italy, having safely accomplished the
+greatest military feat of ancient times.
+
+But Hannibal found himself here with a frightfully reduced army. The
+Alps had taken toll of their invader. He had reached Gaul from Spain
+with fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. He reached Italy with
+only twenty thousand foot and six thousand horse. No fewer than
+thirty-three thousand men had perished by the way. It was a puny force
+with which to invade a country that could oppose it with hundreds of
+thousands of men. But it had Hannibal at its head.
+
+
+
+
+_HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED._
+
+
+The career of Hannibal was a remarkable one. For fifteen years he
+remained in Italy, frequently fighting, never losing a battle, keeping
+Rome in a state of terror, and dwelling with his army in comfort and
+plenty on the rich Italian plains. Yet he represented a commercial city
+against a warlike state. He was poorly supported by Carthage; Rome was
+indomitable; great generals rose to command her armies; in the end the
+mighty effort of Hannibal failed, and he was forced to leave Rome
+unconquered and Italy unsubdued.
+
+The story of his deeds is a long one, a record of war and bloodshed
+which our readers would be little the wiser and none the better for
+hearing. We shall therefore only give it in the barest outline.
+
+Hannibal defeated the Romans on first meeting them, and the Gauls
+flocked to his army. But of the elephants, which he had brought with
+such difficulty over the Rhone and the Alps, the cold of December killed
+all but one. But without them he met a large Roman army at Lake
+Trasimenus, and defeated it so utterly that but six thousand escaped.
+
+Rome, in alarm, chose a dictator, Fabius Maximus by name. This leader
+adopted a new method of warfare, which has ever since been famous as
+the "Fabian policy." This was the policy of avoiding battle and seeking
+to wear the enemy out, while harassing him at every opportunity. Fabius
+kept to the hills, followed and annoyed his great antagonist, yet
+steadily avoided being drawn into battle.
+
+For more than a year this continued, during all which time Fabius grew
+more and more unpopular at Rome. The waiting policy was not that which
+the Romans had hitherto employed, and they became more impatient as days
+and months passed without an effort to drive this eating ulcer from
+their plains. In time the discontent grew too strong to be ignored. A
+_man of business_, who was said to have begun life as a butcher's son,
+Varro by name, became the favorite leader of the populace, and was in
+time raised to the consulship. He enlisted a powerful army, ninety
+thousand strong, and marched away to the field of Cannae, where Hannibal
+was encamped, with the purpose of driving this Carthaginian wasp from
+the Italian fields.
+
+It was a dwarf contending with a giant. The vainglorious Varro gave
+Hannibal the opportunity for which he had long waited. The Roman army
+met with such a crushing defeat that its equal is scarcely known in
+history. Baffled, beaten, and surrounded by Hannibal's army, the Romans
+were cut down in thousands, no quarter being asked or given, till when
+the sun set scarce three thousand men were left alive and unhurt of
+Varro's hopeful host. Of Hannibal's army less than six thousand had
+fallen. Of the Roman forces more than eighty thousand paid the penalty
+of their leader's incompetence.
+
+Hannibal did not advance to Rome, which seemed to lie helpless before
+him. He doubtless had good reasons for not attempting to capture it.
+Maharbal, his cavalry general, said, "Let me advance with the horse, and
+do you follow; in four days from this time you shall sup in the
+Capitol." Hannibal, on the contrary, sent terms of peace to Rome. These
+the Romans, unconquerable in spirit despite their disaster, refused. He
+then marched to southern Italy and established his head-quarters in the
+rich city of Capua, which opened its gates to him, and which he promised
+to make the capital of all Italy.
+
+Hannibal won no more great victories in Italy, though he was victor in
+many small conflicts. The Romans had paid dearly for their impatience.
+Fabius was again called to the head of the army, and his old policy was
+restored. And thus years went on, Hannibal's army gradually decreasing
+and receiving few reinforcements from home, while Rome in time regained
+Capua and other cities.
+
+At length, in the year 208 B.C., Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, who
+commanded the Carthaginian armies in Spain, resolved to go to his
+brother's aid. He crossed the Alps, as Hannibal had done, following the
+same pass, and making use of the bridges, rock cuttings, and mountain
+roads which his brother had made eleven years before.
+
+Had this movement been successful, it might have been the ruin of Rome.
+But the despatches of Hasdrubal were intercepted by the Romans.
+Perceiving their great danger, they raised an army in haste, marched
+against the invader, and met him before he could effect a junction with
+his brother. The Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter.
+Hasdrubal fell on the field, and his head was cruelly sent to Hannibal,
+who, as he looked with bitter anguish on the gruesome spectacle, sadly
+remarked, "I recognize in this the doom of Carthage."
+
+Yet for four years more Hannibal remained in the mountains of Southern
+Italy, holding his own against Rome, though he had lost all hopes of
+conquering that city. But Rome had now a new general, with a new policy.
+This was the famous Scipio, and the policy was to carry the war into
+Carthage. Fabius had done his work, and new measures came with new men.
+Scipio led an army into Spain, which he conquered from Carthage. Then he
+invaded Africa, and Hannibal was recalled home, after his long and
+victorious career in Italy.
+
+Hannibal had never yet suffered a defeat. He was now to experience a
+crushing one. With a new army, largely made up of raw levies, he met the
+veteran troops of Scipio on the plains of Zama. Hannibal displayed here
+his usual ability, but fortune was against him, his army was routed, the
+veterans he had brought from Italy were cut down where they stood, and
+he escaped with difficulty from the field on which twenty thousand of
+his men had fallen. It was an earlier Waterloo.
+
+His flight was necessary, if Carthage was to be preserved. He was the
+only man capable of saving that great city from ruin. Terms of peace
+were offered by Scipio, severe ones, but Hannibal accepted them,
+knowing that nothing else could be done. Then he devoted himself to the
+restoration of his country's power, and for seven years worked
+diligently to this end.
+
+His efforts were successful. Carthage again became prosperous. Rome
+trembled for fear of her old foe. Commissioners were sent to Carthage to
+demand the surrender of Hannibal, on the plea that he was secretly
+fomenting a new war. His reforms had made enemies in Carthage, his
+liberty was in danger, and nothing remained for him but to flee.
+
+Escaping secretly from the city, the fugitive made his way to Tyre, the
+mother-city of Carthage, where he was received as one who had shed
+untold glory on the Phoenician name. Thence he proceeded to Antioch,
+the capital of Antiochus, king of Syria, and one of the successors of
+Alexander the Great.
+
+During the period over which we have so rapidly passed the empire of
+Rome had been steadily extending. In addition to her conquests in Spain
+and Africa, Macedonia, the home-realm of Alexander the Great, had been
+successfully invaded, and the first great step taken by Rome towards the
+conquest of the East.
+
+The loss of Macedonia stirred up Antiochus, who resolved on war with
+Rome, and marched with his army towards Europe. Hannibal, who had failed
+to find him at Antioch, overtook him at Ephesus, and found him glad
+enough to secure the services of a warrior of such world-wide fame.
+
+Antiochus, unfortunately, was the reverse of a great warrior, and by no
+means the man to cope with Rome. Hannibal saw at a glance that his army
+was not fit to fight with a Roman force, and strongly advised him to
+equip a fleet and invade Southern Italy, saying that he himself would
+take the command. But nothing was to be done with Antiochus. He was
+filled with conceit of his own greatness, was ignorant of the power of
+Rome, and was jealous of the glory which Hannibal might attain. His
+guest then advised that an alliance should be made with Philip, king of
+Macedonia. This, too, was neglected, and the Romans hastened to ally
+themselves with Philip. Antiochus, puffed up with pride, pointed to his
+great army, and asked Hannibal if he did not think that these were
+enough for the Romans.
+
+"Yes," he replied, sarcastically, "enough for the Romans, however greedy
+they may be."
+
+[Illustration: THE BATHS OF CARACALLA.]
+
+It proved as he feared. The Romans triumphed. Hannibal was employed only
+in a subordinate naval command, in which field of warfare he had no
+experience. Peace was made, and Antiochus agreed to deliver him up to
+Rome. The greatest of Rome's enemies was again forced to fly for his
+life.
+
+Hannibal now took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Here he
+remained for five years. But even here the implacable enmity of Rome
+followed him. Envoys were sent to the court of Prusias to demand his
+surrender. Prusias, who was a king on a small scale, could not, or would
+not, defend his guest, and promised to deliver him into the hands of his
+unrelenting foes.
+
+Only one course remained. Death was tenfold preferable to figuring in a
+Roman triumph. Finding the avenues to his house secured by the king's
+guards, the great Carthaginian took poison, which he is said to have
+long carried with him in a ring, in readiness for such an emergency. He
+died at Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the sea of Marmora, in his
+sixty-fourth year, as closely as we know. In the same year, 183 B.C.,
+died his great and successful antagonist, Scipio Africanus.
+
+Thus perished, in exile, one of the greatest warriors of any age, who,
+almost without aid from home, supported himself for fifteen years in
+Italy against all the power of Rome and the greatest generals she could
+supply. Had Carthage shown the military spirit of Rome, Hannibal might
+have stopped effectually the conquering career of that warlike city.
+
+
+
+
+_ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE._
+
+
+The city of Syracuse, the capital of Sicily, rose to prominence in
+ancient history through its three famous sieges. The first of these was
+that long siege which ruined Athens and left Syracuse uncaptured. The
+second was the siege by Timoleon, who took the city almost without a
+blow. The third was the siege by the Romans, in which the genius of one
+man, the celebrated mathematician and engineer Archimedes, long set at
+naught all the efforts of the besieging army and fleet.
+
+This remarkable defence took place during the wars with Hannibal. Such
+was the warlike energy of the Romans, that, while their city itself was
+threatened by this great general, they sent armies abroad, one into
+Spain and another into Sicily. The latter, under a consul named Appius,
+besieged Syracuse by sea and land. Hoping to take the city by sudden
+assault, before it could be properly got ready for defence, Appius
+pushed forward his land force, fully provided with blinds and ladders,
+against the walls. At the same time a fleet of sixty quinqueremes under
+the consul Marcellus advanced to the assault from the side of the
+harbor. Among these vessels were eight which had been joined together
+two and two, and which carried machines called sackbuts. These consisted
+of immensely long ladders, projecting far beyond the bows, and so
+arranged that they could be raised by ropes and pulleys, and the end let
+fall upon the top of the wall. Four men, well protected by wooden
+blinds, occupied the top of each ladder, ready to attack the defenders
+of the walls while their comrades hastened up the ladder to their aid.
+
+There was only one thing on which the consuls had not counted, and that
+was that Syracuse possessed the greatest artificer of ancient times.
+They had to fight not Syracuse alone but Syracuse and Archimedes; and
+they found the latter their most formidable foe. In short, the skill of
+this one man did more to baffle the Romans than the strength and courage
+of all the garrison.
+
+The historian Polybius has so well told the story of this famous
+defence, that we cannot do better than quote from his work. He remarks,
+after describing at length the Roman preparations,--
+
+"In this manner, then, when all things were ready, the Romans designed
+to attack the towers. But Archimedes had prepared machines that were
+fitted to every distance. While the vessels were yet far removed from
+the walls, he, employing catapults and balistae that were of the largest
+size and worked by the strongest springs, wounded the enemy with his
+darts and stones, and threw them into great disorder. When the darts
+passed beyond them he then used other machines, of a smaller size, and
+proportioned to the distance. By these means the Romans were so
+effectually repulsed that it was not possible for them to approach.
+
+"Marcellus, therefore, perplexed with this resistance, was forced to
+advance silently with his vessels in the night. But when they came so
+near to the land as to be within the reach of darts, they were exposed
+to a new danger, which Archimedes had contrived. He had caused openings
+to be made in many parts of the wall, equal in height to the stature of
+a man, and to the palm of the hand in breadth. Then, having planted on
+the inside archers and little scorpions, he discharged a multitude of
+arrows through the openings, and disabled the soldiers that were on
+board. In this manner, whether the Romans were at a great distance or
+whether they were near, he not only rendered useless all their efforts,
+but destroyed also many of their men.
+
+"When they attempted also to raise the sackbuts, certain machines which
+he had erected along the whole wall inside, and which were before
+concealed from view, suddenly appeared above the wall and stretched
+their long beaks far beyond the battlements. Some of these machines
+carried masses of lead and stone not less than ten talents [about eight
+hundred pounds] in weight. Accordingly, when the vessels with the
+sackbuts came near, the beaks, being first turned by ropes and pulleys
+to the proper point, let fall their stones, which broke not only the
+sackbuts but the vessels likewise, and threw all those who were on board
+into the greatest danger.
+
+"In the same manner also the rest of the machines, as often as the enemy
+approached under cover of their blinds, and had secured themselves by
+that protection against the darts that were discharged through the
+openings in the wall, let fall upon them stones of so large a size that
+all the combatants on the prow were forced to retire from their station.
+
+"He invented, likewise, a hand of iron, hanging by a chain from the beak
+of a machine, which was used in the following manner. The person who,
+like a pilot, guided the beak, having let fall the hand and caught hold
+of the prow of any vessel, drew down the opposite end of the machine,
+that was inside of the walls. When the vessel was thus raised erect upon
+its stern, the machine itself was held immovable; but the chain being
+suddenly loosened from the beak by means of pulleys, some of the vessels
+were thrown upon their sides, others turned with their bottoms upward,
+and the greatest part, as the prows were plunged from a considerable
+height into the sea, were filled with water, and all that were on board
+thrown into tumult and disorder.
+
+"Marcellus was in no small degree embarrassed when he found himself
+encountered in every attempt by such resistance. He perceived that all
+his efforts were defeated with loss, and were even derided by the enemy.
+But, amidst all the anxiety that he suffered, he could not help jesting
+upon the inventions of Archimedes.
+
+"'This man,' said he, 'employs our ships as buckets to draw water, and,
+boxing about our sackbuts, as if they were unworthy to be associated
+with him, drives them from his company with disgrace.' Such was the
+success of the siege on the side of the sea.
+
+"Appius also, on his part, having met with the same obstacles in his
+approaches, was in like manner forced to abandon his design. For while
+he was yet at a considerable distance, great number of his men were
+destroyed by the balistae and the catapults, so wonderful was the
+quantity of stones and darts, and so astonishing the force with which
+they were thrown. The means, indeed, were worthy of Hiero, who had
+furnished the expense, and of Archimedes, who designed them, and by
+whose directions they were made.
+
+"If the troops advanced nearer to the city, they either were stopped in
+their advance by the arrows that were discharged through the openings in
+the walls, or, if they attempted to force their way under cover of their
+bucklers, they were destroyed by stones and beams that were let fall
+upon their heads. Great mischief also was occasioned by these hands of
+iron that have been mentioned; for they lifted men with their armor into
+the air and dashed them upon the ground. Appius, therefore, was at last
+constrained to return back again into his camp."
+
+This ended the assault. For eight months the Romans remained, but never
+again had the courage to make a regular attack, depending rather on the
+hope of reducing the crowded city by famine. "So wonderful, and of such
+importance on some occasions, is the power of a single man, and the
+force of science properly employed. With so great armies both by sea and
+land the Romans could scarcely have failed to take the city, if one old
+man had been removed. But while he was present they did not even dare
+to make the attempt; in the manner, at least, which Archimedes was able
+to oppose." The story was told in past times that the great scientist
+set the Roman ships on fire by means of powerful burning glasses, but
+this is not believed.
+
+The end of this story may be briefly told. The Romans finally took the
+city by surprise. Tradition tells that, as the assailants were rushing
+through the streets, with death in their hands, they found Archimedes
+sitting in the public square, with a number of geometrical figures drawn
+before him in the sand, which he was studying in oblivion of the tumult
+of war around. As a Roman soldier rushed upon him sword in hand, he
+called out to the rude warrior not to spoil the circle. But the soldier
+cut him down. Another story says that this took place in his room.
+
+When Cicero, years afterwards, came to Syracuse, he found the tomb of
+Archimedes overgrown with briers, and on it the figure of a sphere
+inscribed in a cylinder, to commemorate one of his most important
+mathematical discoveries.
+
+
+
+
+_THE FATE OF CARTHAGE._
+
+
+In all the history of Rome there is no act of more flagrant treachery
+and cruelty than that of her dealings with the great rival city of
+Carthage. In the whole history of the world there is nothing more base
+and frightful than the utter destruction of that mighty mart of
+commerce. The jealousy of Rome would not permit a rival to exist. It was
+not enough to drive Hannibal into exile; Carthage was recovering her
+trade and regaining her strength; new Hannibals might be born; the
+terror of the great invasion, the remembrance of the defeat at Cannae,
+still remained in Roman memories.
+
+Cato the Censor, a famous old Roman, now eighty-four years of age, and
+who had served in the wars against Hannibal, hated Carthage with the
+hatred of a fanatic, and declared that Rome would never be safe while
+this rival was permitted to exist.
+
+Rising from his seat in the senate, the stern old man glowingly
+described the power and wealth of Carthage. He held up some great figs,
+and said, "These figs grow but three days' sail from Rome." There could
+be no safety for Rome, he declared, while Carthage survived.
+
+"Every speech which I shall make in this house," he sternly declared,
+"shall finish with these words: 'My opinion is that _Carthage must be
+destroyed_ (_delenda est Carthago_.)'"
+
+These words sealed the fate of Carthage. Men of moderate views spoke
+more mercifully, but Cato swayed the senate, and from that day the doom
+of Carthage was fixed.
+
+The Carthaginian territory was being assailed and ravaged by Masinissa,
+the king of Numidia. Rome was appealed to for aid, but delayed and
+temporized. Carthage raised an army, which was defeated by Masinissa,
+then over ninety years of age. The war went on, and Carthage was reduced
+to such straits that resistance became impossible, and in the end the
+city and all its possessions were placed at the absolute disposal of the
+senate of Rome, which, absolutely without provocation, had declared war.
+
+An army of eighty thousand foot and four thousand horse was sent to
+Africa. Before the consuls commanding it there appeared deputies from
+Carthage, stating what acts of submission had already been made, and
+humbly asking what more Rome could demand.
+
+"Carthage is now under the protection of Rome," answered Censorinus, the
+consul, "and can no longer have occasion to engage in war; she must
+therefore deliver without reserve to Rome all her arms and engines of
+war."
+
+Hard as was this condition, the humiliated city accepted it. We may have
+some conception of the strength of the city when it is stated that the
+military stores given up included two hundred thousand stand of arms and
+two thousand catapults. It was a condition to which only despair could
+have yielded, seemingly the last act of humiliation to which any city
+could consent.
+
+But if Carthage thought that the end had been reached, she was destined
+to be rudely awakened from her dream. The consuls, thinking the city now
+to be wholly helpless, dropped the mask they had worn, and made known
+the senate's treacherous decree.
+
+"The decision of the senate is this," said Censorinus, coldly, to the
+unhappy envoys of Carthage: "so long as you possess a fortified city
+near the sea, Rome can never feel sure of your submission. The senate
+therefore decrees that you must remove to some point ten miles distant
+from the coast. _Carthage must be destroyed._"
+
+The trembling Carthaginians heard these fatal words in stupefied
+amazement. On recovering their senses they broke out into passionate
+exclamations against the treachery of Rome, and declared that the
+freedom of Carthage had been guaranteed.
+
+"The guarantee refers to the people of Carthage, not to her houses,"
+answered the consul. "You have heard the will of the senate; it must be
+obeyed, and quickly."
+
+Carthage, meanwhile, waited in gloomy dread the return of the
+commissioners. When they gave in the council-chamber the ultimatum of
+Rome, a cry of horror broke from the councillors. The crowd in the
+street, on hearing this ominous sound, broke open the doors and demanded
+what fatal news had been received.
+
+On being told, they burst into a paroxysm of fury. The members of the
+government who had submitted to Rome were obliged to fly for their
+lives. Every Italian found in the city was killed. The party of the
+people seized the government, and resolved to defend themselves to the
+uttermost. An armistice of thirty days was asked from the consuls, that
+a deputation might be sent to Rome. This was refused. Despair gave
+courage and strength. The making of new arms was energetically begun.
+Temples and public buildings were converted into workshops; men and
+women by thousands worked night and day; every day there were produced
+one hundred shields, three hundred swords, five hundred pikes and
+javelins, and one thousand bolts for catapults. The women even cut off
+their hair to be twisted into strings for the catapults. Corn was
+gathered in all haste from every quarter.
+
+The consuls were astonished and disappointed. They had not counted on
+such energy as this. They did not know what it meant to drive a foe to
+desperation. They laid siege to Carthage, but found it too strong for
+all their efforts. They proceeded against the Carthaginian army in the
+field, but gained no success. Summer and winter passed, and Carthage
+still held out. Another year (148 B.C.) went by, and Rome still lost
+ground. Old Cato, the bitter foe of Carthage, had died, at the age of
+eighty-five. Masinissa, the warlike Numidian, had died at ninety-five.
+The hopes of the Carthaginians grew. Those of Rome began to fall. The
+rich booty that was looked for from the sack of Carthage was not to be
+handled so easily as had been expected.
+
+What Rome lacked was an able general. One was found in Scipio, the
+adopted son of Publius Scipio, son of the great Scipio Africanus. This
+young man had proved himself the only able soldier in the war. The army
+adored him. Though too young for the consulship, he was elected to that
+high office, and in 147 B.C. sailed for Carthage.
+
+The new commander found the army disorganized, and immediately restored
+strict discipline to its ranks. The suburb of Megara, from which the
+people of the city obtained their chief supply of fresh provisions, was
+quickly taken. Want of food began to be felt. The isthmus which
+connected the city with the mainland was strongly occupied, and
+land-supplies were thus cut off. The fleet blockaded the harbor, but, as
+vessels still made their way in, Scipio determined to build an
+embankment across the harbor's mouth.
+
+This was a work of great labor, and slowly proceeded. By the time it was
+done the Carthaginians had cut a new channel from their harbor to the
+sea, and Scipio had the mortification to see a newly-built fleet of
+fifty ships sail out through this fresh passage. On the third day a
+naval battle took place, in which the greater part of the new fleet was
+destroyed.
+
+Another winter came and went. It was not until the spring of 146 B.C.
+that the Romans succeeded in forcing their way into the city, and their
+legions bivouacked in the Forum of Carthage.
+
+But Carthage was not yet taken. Its death-struggle was to be a
+desperate one. The streets leading from the Forum towards the Citadel
+were all strongly barricaded, and the houses, six stories in height,
+occupied by armed men. For three days a war of desperation was waged in
+the streets. The Romans had to take the first houses of each street by
+assault, and then force their way forward by breaking from house to
+house. The cross streets were passed on bridges of planks.
+
+Thus they slowly advanced till the wall of Bosra--the high ground of the
+Citadel--was reached. Behind them the city was in flames. For six days
+and nights it burned, destroying the wealth and works of years. When the
+fire declined passages were cleared through the ruins for the army to
+advance.
+
+Scipio, who had scarcely slept night or day during the assault, now lay
+down for a short repose, on an eminence from which could be seen the
+Temple of Esculapius, whose gilded roof glittered on the highest point
+of the hill of Bosra. He was aroused to receive an offer from the
+garrison to surrender if their lives were spared. Scipio consented to
+spare all but Roman deserters, and from the gates of the Citadel marched
+out fifty thousand men as prisoners of war.
+
+Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian commander, who had made so brave a defence
+against Rome, retired with his family and nine hundred deserters and
+others into the Temple of Esculapius, as if to make a final desperate
+defence. But his heart failed him at the last moment, and, slipping out
+alone, he cast himself at Scipio's feet, and begged his pardon and
+mercy. His wife, who saw his dastardly act, reproached him bitterly for
+cowardice, and threw herself and her children into the flames which
+enveloped the Citadel. Most of the deserters perished in the same
+flames.
+
+"Assyria has fallen," said Scipio, as he looked with eyes of prevision
+on the devouring flames. "Persia and Macedonia have likewise fallen.
+Carthage is burning. The day of Rome's fall may come next."
+
+For five days the soldiers plundered the city, yet enough of statues and
+other valuables remained to yield the consul a magnificent triumph on
+his return to Rome. Before doing so he celebrated the fall of Carthage
+with grand games, in which the spoil of that great city was shown the
+army. To Rome he sent the brief despatch, "Carthage is taken. The army
+waits for further orders."
+
+The orders sent were that the walls should be destroyed and every house
+levelled to the ground. A curse was pronounced by Scipio on any one who
+should seek to build a town on the site. The curse did not prove
+effective. Julius Caesar afterwards projected a new Carthage, and
+Augustus built it. It grew to be a noble city, and in the third century
+A.D. became one of the principal cities of the Roman empire and an
+important seat of Western Christianity. It was finally destroyed by the
+Arabs.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL._
+
+
+In the assault by the Roman forces on Megara, the suburb of Carthage,
+the first to mount the wall was a young man named Tiberius Gracchus,
+brother-in-law of Scipio, the commander, and grandson of the famous
+Scipio Africanus. This young man and his brother were to play prominent
+parts in Rome.
+
+One day when the great Scipio was feasting in the Capitol, with other
+senators of Rome, he was asked by some friends to give his daughter
+Cornelia in marriage to Tiberius Gracchus, a young plebeian. Proud
+patrician as he was, he consented, for Gracchus was highly esteemed for
+probity, and had done him a personal service.
+
+On his return home he told his wife that he had promised his daughter to
+a plebeian. The good woman, who had higher aims, blamed him severely for
+his folly, as she deemed it. But when she was told the name of her
+proposed son-in-law she changed her mind, saying that Gracchus was the
+only man worthy of the gift.
+
+Of Cornelia's children three became notable, a daughter, who became the
+wife of the younger Scipio, and two sons, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus,
+who are known in history as "The Gracchi." Their father became famous
+in war and peace, taking important steps in the needed movement of
+reform. He died, and after his death many sought the hand of the noble
+Cornelia in marriage, among them King Ptolemy of Egypt. But she refused
+them all, devoting her life to the education of her children, for which
+she was admirably fitted by her lofty spirit and high attainments.
+
+Concerning this lady, one of the greatest and noblest which Rome
+produced, there is an anecdote, often repeated, yet well worth repeating
+again. A Campanian lady who called upon her, and boastfully spoke of her
+wealth in gold and precious stones, asked Cornelia for the pleasure of
+seeing her jewels. Leading her visitor to another room, the noble matron
+pointed to her sleeping children, and said, "There are my jewels; the
+only ones of which I am proud."
+
+These children were born to troublous times. Rome had grown in
+corruption and ostentation as she had grown in wealth and dominion. When
+the first Punic War broke out Rome ruled only over Central and Southern
+Italy. When the third Punic War ended Rome was lord of all Italy, Spain,
+and Greece, and had wide possessions in Asia Minor and Northern Africa.
+Wealth had flowed abundantly into the imperial city, and with it pride,
+corruption, and oppression. The great grew greater, the poor poorer, and
+the old simplicity and frugality of Rome were replaced by overweening
+luxury and greed of wealth.
+
+The younger Tiberius Gracchus, who was nine years older than his
+brother, after taking part in the siege of Carthage, went to Spain,
+where also was work for a soldier. On his way thither he passed through
+Etruria, and saw that in the fields the old freeman farmers had
+disappeared, and been replaced by foreign slaves, who worked with chains
+upon their limbs. No Cincinnatus now ploughed his own small fields, but
+the land was divided up into great estates, cultivated by the captives
+taken in war; while the poor Romans, by whose courage these lands had
+been won, had not a foot of soil to call their own.
+
+This spectacle was a sore one to Tiberius, in whose mind the wise
+teachings of his mother had sunk deep. Here were great spaces of fertile
+land lying untilled, broad parks for the ostentation of their proud
+possessors, while thousands of Romans languished in poverty, and Rome
+had begun to depend for food largely upon distant realms.
+
+There was a law, more than two hundred years old, which forbade any man
+from holding such large tracts of land. Tiberius thought that this law
+should be enforced. On his return to Rome his indignant eloquence soon
+roused trouble in that city of rich and poor.
+
+"The wild beasts of the waste have their caves and dens," he said; "but
+you, the people of Rome, who have fought and bled for its growth and
+glory, have nothing left you but the air and the sunlight. There are far
+too many Romans," he continued, "who have no family altar nor ancestral
+tomb. They have fought well for Rome, and are falsely called the masters
+of the world; but the results of their fighting can only be seen in the
+luxury of the great, while not one of them has a clod of dirt to call
+his own."
+
+Cornelia urged her son to do some work to ennoble his name and benefit
+Rome.
+
+"I am called the 'daughter of Scipio,'" she said. "I wish to be known as
+'the mother of the Gracchi.'"
+
+It was not personal glory, but the good of Rome, that the young reformer
+sought. He presented himself for the office of tribune, and was elected
+by the people, who looked upon him as their friend and advocate. And at
+his appeal they crowded from all quarters into the city to vote for the
+re-establishment of the Licinian laws,--those forbidding the rich to
+hold great estates.
+
+These laws were re-enacted, and those lands which the aristocrats had
+occupied by fraud or force were taken from them by a commission and
+returned to the state.
+
+All this stirred the proud land-holders to fury. They hated Gracchus
+with a bitter hatred, and began to plot secretly for his overthrow.
+About this time Attalus, king of Pergamus, moved by some erratic whim,
+left his estates by will to the city of Rome. Those who had been
+deprived of their lands claimed these estates, to repay them for their
+outlays in improvement. Gracchus opposed this, and proposed to divide
+this property among the plebeians, that they might buy cattle and tools
+for their new estates.
+
+His opponents were still more infuriated by this action. He had offered
+himself for re-election to the office of tribune, promising the people
+new and important reforms. His patrician foes took advantage of the
+opportunity. As he stood in the Forum, surrounded by his partisans, an
+uproar arose, in the midst of which Gracchus happened to raise his hand
+to his head. His enemies at once cried out that he wanted to make
+himself king, and that this was a sign that he sought a crown.
+
+A fierce fight ensued. The opposing senators attacked the crowd so
+furiously that those around Gracchus fled, leaving him unsupported. He
+hastened for refuge towards the Temple of Jupiter, but the priests had
+closed the doors, and in his haste he stumbled over a bench. Before he
+could rise one of his enemies struck him over the head with a stool. A
+second repeated the blow. Before the statues of the old kings, which
+graced the portals of the temple, the tribune fell dead.
+
+Many of his supporters were slain before the tumult ceased. Many were
+forced over the wall at the edge of the Tarpeian Rock, and were killed
+by their fall. Three hundred in all were slain in the fray.
+
+Thus was shed the first blood that flowed in civil strife at Rome. It
+was a crimson prelude to the streams of blood that were to follow, in
+the long series of butcheries which were afterwards to disgrace the
+Roman name.
+
+Tiberius Gracchus may well be called the Great, for the effect of his
+life upon the history of Rome was stupendous. He held office for not
+more than seven months, yet in that short time the power of the senate
+was so shaken by him that it never fully recovered its strength. Had he
+been less gentle, or more resolute, in disposition his work might have
+been much greater still. Fiery indignation led him on, but soldierly
+energy failed him at the end.
+
+Caius Gracchus was in Spain at the time of his brother's murder. On his
+return to Rome he lived in quiet retirement for some years. The senate
+thought he disapproved of his brother's laws. They did not know him. At
+length he offered himself as a candidate for the tribuneship, and so
+convincing was his eloquence that the people supported him in numbers,
+and he was elected to the office.
+
+He at once made himself an ardent advocate of his brother's reforms, and
+with such impassioned oratory that he gained adherents on every side. He
+made himself active in all measures of public progress, advocating the
+building of roads and bridges, the erection of mile-stones, the giving
+the right to vote to Italians in general, and the selling of grain at
+low rates to the deserving poor. The laws passed for these purposes are
+known as the Sempronian laws, from the name of the family to which the
+Gracchi belonged.
+
+By this time the rich senators had grown highly alarmed. Here was a new
+Gracchus in the field, as eloquent and as eager for reform as his
+brother, and who was daily growing more and more in favor with the
+people. Something must be done at once, or this new demagogue--as they
+called him--would do them more harm than that for which they had slain
+his brother.
+
+They adopted the policy of fraud in place of that of violence. The
+people were gullible; they might be made to believe that the senators of
+Rome were their best friends. A rich and eloquent politician, Drusus by
+name, proposed measures more democratic even than those which Gracchus
+had advocated. This effort had the effect that was intended. The
+influence of Gracchus over the popular mind was lessened. The people had
+proved fully as gullible as the shrewd senators had expected.
+
+Among other measures proposed by Gracchus was one for planting a colony
+and building a new city on the site of Carthage. The senate appeared to
+approve this, and appointed him one of the commissioners for laying out
+the settlement. He was forced to leave Rome, and during his absence his
+enemies worked more diligently than ever. Gracchus was defeated in the
+election for tribune that followed.
+
+And now the plans of his enemies matured. It was said that the new
+colony at Carthage had been planted on the ground cursed by Scipio.
+Wolves had torn down the boundary-posts, which signified the wrath of
+the gods. The tribes were called to meet at the Capitol, and repeal the
+law for colonizing Carthage.
+
+A tumult arose. A man who insulted Gracchus was slain by an unknown
+hand. The senate proclaimed Gracchus and his friends public enemies, and
+roused many of the people against him by parading the body of the slain
+man. Gracchus and his friends took up a position on the Aventine Hill.
+Here they were assailed by a strong armed force.
+
+There was no resistance. Gracchus sought refuge at first in the Temple
+of Diana, and afterwards made his way to the Grove of the Furies,
+several of his friends dying in defence of his flight. A single slave
+accompanied him. When the grove was reached by his pursuers both were
+found dead. The faithful slave had pierced his master's heart, and then
+slain himself by the same sword.
+
+Slaughter ruled in Rome. The Tiber flowed thick with the corpses of the
+friends of Gracchus, who were slain by the fierce patricians. The houses
+of the murdered reformers were plundered by the mob, for whose good they
+had lost their lives. For the time none dared speak the name of Gracchus
+except in reprobation. Yet he and his brother had done yeoman service
+for the ungrateful people of Rome.
+
+Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she lived for many years. But she
+lived not in grief for her sons, but in pride and triumph. They had died
+the deaths of heroes and patriots, and she gloried in their fame,
+declaring that they had found worthy graves in the temples of the gods.
+
+So came the people to think, in after-years, and they set up in the
+Forum a bronze statue to the great Roman matron, on which were inscribed
+only these words: TO CORNELIA, THE MOTHER OF THE GRACCHI.
+
+
+
+
+_JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME._
+
+
+Masinissa, the valiant old king of Numidia, who had ravaged Carthage in
+its declining days, left his kingdom to his three sons. On the death of
+Micipsa, the last remaining of these, in 118 B.C., he, in turn, left the
+kingdom to his two sons. They were still young, and Jugurtha, their
+cousin, was appointed their guardian and the regent of the kingdom.
+
+Shrewd, bold, ambitious, and unscrupulous, Jugurtha was the most
+dangerous man in Numidia to whose care the young princes could have been
+confided. Scipio read his character rightly, and said to him, "Trust to
+your own good qualities, and power will come of itself. Seek it by base
+arts, and you will lose all."
+
+Some of the young nobles in Scipio's camp gave baser advice. "At Rome,"
+they told him, "all things could be had for money." They advised him to
+buy the support of Rome, and seize the crown of Numidia.
+
+Jugurtha took this base advice, instead of the wise counsel of Scipio.
+He was destined to pay dearly for his ambition and lack of faith and
+honor. One of the young princes showed a high spirit, and Jugurtha had
+him assassinated. The other fled to Rome and sought the support of the
+senate. Jugurtha now, following the suggestions of his false friends,
+sent gold and promises to Rome, purchased the support of venal senators,
+and had voted to him the strongest half of the kingdom; Adherbal, the
+young prince, being given the weaker half.
+
+But the young man was not left in peace, even in this reduced
+inheritance. Jugurtha sent more presents to Rome, and, confident of his
+strength there, boldly invaded the dominions of Adherbal. A Roman
+commission threatened him with Rome's displeasure if he did not keep
+within his own dominions. He affected to submit, but as soon as the
+commissioners turned their backs the daring adventurer renewed his
+efforts, got possession of his cousin through treachery, and at once
+ordered him to be put to death with torture.
+
+Since Rome had become great and powerful no one had dared so openly to
+contemn its decrees. But Jugurtha knew the Romans of that day, and
+trusted to his gold. He bought a majority in the senate, defied the
+minority, and would have gained his aim but for one honest man. This was
+the tribune Memmius, who, seeing that the senate was hopelessly corrupt,
+called the people together in the Forum, told them of the crimes of
+Jugurtha, and demanded justice and redress at their hands.
+
+And now a struggle arose like that between the Gracchi and the rich
+senators. Jugurtha sent more gold to Rome. An army was despatched
+against him, but he purchased it also. He gave up his elephants in
+pledge of good faith, and then bought them back at a high price. The
+officers divided the money, and the army failed to advance.
+
+Jugurtha would have triumphed but for Memmius, who resolutely kept up
+his attacks. In the end the usurper was ordered to come to Rome,--under
+a safe-conduct. He came, and here by his gold purchased one of the
+tribunes, who protected him against the wrath of Memmius and the people.
+But Memmius was resolute and determined. Another Numidian prince was
+found and asked to demand the crown from the senate. Jugurtha learned
+what was afoot, and sent an agent, Bomilcar by name, to assassinate the
+new prince. An indictment was laid against Bomilcar, but Jugurtha,
+fearing to have his own share in the murder exposed, sent him off
+secretly to Africa.
+
+This was too much, even for the purchased members of the senate. Such
+open disdain of the majesty of Rome no man, however avaricious, dared
+support. Jugurtha had a safe-conduct, and could not be seized, but he
+was ordered to quit Rome immediately. He did so, and as he passed out of
+the gates he looked back and said, "A city for sale if she can find a
+purchaser."
+
+The remainder of Jugurtha's history is one of war. The time for winning
+power by bribery was past. The people were so thoroughly aroused and
+incensed that none dared yield to cupidity. The indignation grew. The
+first army sent against Jugurtha was baffled by the wily African, caught
+in a defile, and only escaped by passing under the yoke, and agreeing
+to evacuate Numidia.
+
+This disgrace stirred Rome more deeply still. A new consul was elected
+and a new army raised. A commission was appointed to inquire into the
+conduct of the senate, and several of the leading members were found
+guilty of high treason and put to death without mercy. Rome had begun to
+purge itself.
+
+The new general, Metellus, was not one to be sent under the yoke. He
+defeated Jugurtha in the field and pursued him so unrelentingly that
+soon the African usurper was a fugitive, without an army, and with only
+some fortresses under his control.
+
+Metellus had with him as his principal officer a man who was to become
+famous in Roman history. This man, Caius Marius, was then fifty years of
+age. Yet he had years enough before him to play a mighty part. He was a
+man of the people, rough and uneducated; scorned learning, but had a
+vigorous ambition and a striking military genius. He claimed to be a
+_New Man_, knew no Greek, and boasted that he had no images but "prizes
+won by valor and scars upon his breast."
+
+This man made himself the favorite of the populace, was elected consul,
+and by undisguised trickery took the conduct of the war out of the hands
+of Metellus just as the latter was about to succeed. With him to Africa
+went another man who was to become equally famous, L. Cornelius Sulla,
+the future chief of Rome. Sulla was not a _New Man_. He was an
+aristocrat, knew Greek better than Marius knew Latin, was educated and
+dissipated, and showed the marks of a dissolute life in his face. When
+he rode into the camp of Marius at the head of the cavalry he had seen
+no service, and the rugged soldier looked with contempt on this
+effeminate pleasure-seeker who had been sent as his lieutenant. He soon
+learned his mistake, and before the campaign ended Sulla was his most
+trusted officer and chief adviser.
+
+In the subsequent conduct of the war there is an interesting story to
+tell. There were two hill-forts in Numidia which still remained in
+Jugurtha's control. One of these was taken easily. The other--which
+contained all that was left of the usurper's treasures--was a formidable
+place, which long defied the Roman engineers. It stood on a precipitous
+rock, with only a single narrow ascent; was well garrisoned and supplied
+with arms, food, and water; and so long defied all the efforts of Marius
+that he almost despaired of its capture.
+
+In this dilemma a happy chance came to his aid. A Ligurian soldier, a
+practised mountaineer, being in search of water, saw a number of snails
+crawling up the rock in the rear of the castle. These were a favorite
+food with him, and he gathered what he saw, and climbed the cliff in
+search of more. Higher and higher he went, till he had nearly reached
+the summit of the rock. Here he found himself near a large oak, which
+had rooted itself in the rock crevices, and grew upward so as to overtop
+the castle hill.
+
+The Ligurian, led by curiosity, climbed the tree, and gained a point
+from which he could see the castle, undefended on this side, and
+without sentinels. Having taken a close observation, he descended,
+carefully examining every point as he went. He now hastened to the tent
+of Marius, recounted to him his exploit, and offered to guide a party up
+the perilous ascent.
+
+Marius was quick to seize this hopeful chance. Five trumpeters and four
+centurions were selected, who were placed under the leadership of the
+mountaineer. Laying aside all clothing and arms that would obstruct
+them, they followed the Ligurian up the rock. He, an alert and skilful
+climber, here and there tied ropes to projecting points, here lent them
+the aid of his hand, here sent them up ahead and carried their arms
+after them. At length, with great toil and risk, they reached the
+summit, and found the castle at this point undefended and unwatched, the
+Numidians being all on the opposite side.
+
+Marius, being apprised of their success, ordered a vigorous assault in
+front. The garrison rushed to the defence of their outer works. In the
+heat of the action a sudden clangor of trumpets was heard in their rear.
+This unexpected sound spread instant alarm. The women and children who
+had come out to watch the contest fled in terror. The soldiers nearest
+the walls followed. At length the whole body, stricken suddenly with
+panic, took to flight, followed in hot pursuit by their foes.
+
+Over the deserted works the Romans clambered, into the castle they
+burst, all who opposed them were cut down, and in a short time the place
+which had so long defied them was theirs, while the four trumpets to
+which their victory was due sounded loudly the war-peal of triumph.
+
+Jugurtha was still at large. He was supported by Bocchus, king of
+Mauritania, whose daughter he had married. Sulla was sent to demand his
+surrender. Bocchus refused at first, but at length, through fear of
+Rome, consented, and the bold usurper was betrayed into Sulla's hands.
+
+The end of Jugurtha was one in accordance with the brutal cruelty of
+Rome, yet it was one which he richly deserved. It was in the month of
+January, 104 B.C., three years after his capture, that Marius entered
+Rome in triumphal procession, displaying to the people the spoils of his
+victories, while before his car walked his captive in chains.
+
+The African seemed sunk in stupor as he walked. He was roused by the
+brutal mob, who tore off his clothes and plucked the gold rings from his
+ears. Then he was thrust into the dungeon at the foot of the Capitoline
+Hill. "Hercules, what a cold bath this is!" he exclaimed. There he who
+had defied Rome and lorded it over Africa starved to death. A prince of
+the line of Masinissa succeeded him on the throne.
+
+
+
+
+_THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS._
+
+
+Marius and Sulla, the heroes of the Jugurthine War, in later years led
+in greater wars, in which they gained much fame. They ended their
+careers in frightful massacres, in which they gained great infamy. Rome,
+which had made the world its slaughter-house, was itself turned into a
+slaughter-house by these cruel and revengeful rivals.
+
+There was rarely any lack of work for the swords of Rome. While Marius
+was absent in Africa a frightful peril threatened the Roman state. A
+vast horde of barbarians was sweeping downward from the north. The
+Germans of Central Europe had ravaged Switzerland and invaded Gaul.
+Every army sent against them had been defeated with great slaughter.
+Italy was in immediate danger of invasion, Rome in imminent peril.
+Marius was sadly needed, and on his return from Africa was hailed as the
+only man who could save the state.
+
+Instantly he gathered an army and set out for Gaul, Sulla going with him
+as a subordinate officer. Two years were spent in marches and
+counter-marches, and then (B.C. 102) he met the enemy and defeated them
+with immense slaughter. Reserving the richest of the spoils, he devoted
+the remainder to the gods, and, as he stood in a purple robe, torch in
+hand, about to apply the flame to the costly funeral pile, horsemen
+dashed at full speed through the open lines of the troops, and announced
+that for a fifth time he had been elected consul of Rome.
+
+In this war Sulla also showed valor and won fame. But he had grown
+jealous of the glory of Marius, and left his army to join that of the
+consul Catulus, who was being driven backward by another great horde of
+barbarians. Marius, having beaten his own foes, hastened to the relief
+of his associate; the flight was stopped, and a battle ensued in which
+the invading army was swept from the face of the earth, and Rome freed
+for centuries from danger of barbarian invasion.
+
+Sulla and Catulus had their share in this victory, but the people gave
+Marius the whole honor, called him the third founder of their city (as
+Camillus had been the second), and gathered in rejoicing multitudes to
+witness his triumph.
+
+While this war was going on there was dreadful work at home. The slaves
+had, for the second time, broken into insurrection. This servile war was
+mainly in Sicily, where thousands of slaves were slain. Of the captives,
+many were taken to Rome to fight with wild beasts in the arena, but they
+disappointed the eager spectators by killing each other. This outbreak
+only made slavery at Rome harder and harsher than before.
+
+Years passed on, and then another war broke out. The Italian allies, who
+had helped to make Rome great, claimed rights of citizenship and
+suffrage. These were denied, and what is known as the Social War began.
+Sulla and Marius took part in this conflict, which ended in favor of
+Rome, though the franchise fought for was in large measure gained. It
+was of little value, however, since all who held it were obliged to go
+to the city of Rome to vote.
+
+During these various conflicts the rivalry between Marius and Sulla grew
+steadily more declared. The old plebeian, now seventy years of age, was
+jealous of the honors which his aristocratic rival had gained in the
+Social War, and a spirit of bitter hatred, which was to bear dire
+results, arose in his heart.
+
+Events to come were to blow this spark of hatred into a glowing flame. A
+new war threatened Rome. Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, in Asia
+Minor, was pursuing a career of conquest, and the Roman provinces in
+Asia were in danger. War was determined on, and Sulla, who had already
+held successful command in the East, claimed the command of the new
+army. Marius, old as he was, wanted it, too, and by his influence with
+the new citizens of Rome succeeded in defeating Sulla and gaining the
+appointment of general in the war against Pontus.
+
+This vote of the tribes precipitated a contest. The Social War was not
+yet fully ended, and Sulla hastened to the camp where his soldiers were
+besieging a Samnite town. It was his purpose to set sail for the East
+before he could be superseded. He was too late. Officials from Rome
+reached the camp almost as soon as he, bearing a commission from Marius
+to assume the command. It was a critical moment. Sulla must either yield
+or inaugurate a civil war.
+
+He chose the latter. Calling the soldiers together, he told them that
+he had been insulted and injured, and that, unless they supported him,
+they would be left at home, and a new army raised by Marius would obtain
+the spoils of the Mithridatic war. Stirred by this appeal to their
+avarice, the legions stoned to death the officers sent by Marius, and
+loudly demanded to be led to Rome.
+
+Their coming took Marius by surprise, and threw the city into
+consternation. No one had dreamed of such daring and audacity. To lead a
+Roman army against Rome was unprecedented. The senate sent an embassy
+asking Sulla to halt till the Fathers could come to some decision. He
+promised to do so, but as soon as the envoys had gone he sent a force
+that seized the Colline Gate and entered the city streets. Here their
+progress was stopped by the people, who hurled tiles and stones upon
+their heads from the house-tops.
+
+The whole army soon followed, and Sulla entered the city with two
+legions at his back. The people again opposed their march, but Sulla
+seized a torch and threatened to burn the city if any hostility were
+shown. This ended all opposition, except that made by Marius, who
+retreated to the Capitol, where he proclaimed liberty to all slaves who
+would join his banner. This did him much more harm than good; his
+adherents dispersed; he and his chief supporters were forced to seek
+safety in flight.
+
+And now we have a story of striking interest to tell. It would need the
+powers of invention of a romancer to devise a series of adventures as
+remarkable as those which befell old Marius in his flight. It is one of
+the strangest stories in all the annals of history, a marked
+illustration of the saying that fact is often stranger than fiction.
+
+Marius fled to Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, in company with
+Granius, his son-in-law, and five slaves. He proposed to take ship there
+for Africa, where his influence was great. His son followed him by a
+different route, and arrived at Ostia to find that his father had put to
+sea. There was another vessel about to sail, which the son took, and in
+which he succeeded in reaching Africa.
+
+The older fugitive had no such good fortune. The elements pronounced
+against him, and a storm drove the vessel ashore near Circeii. Here the
+party wandered in distress along the desolate coast, in imminent danger
+of capture, for emissaries of Sulla were scouring the shores of Italy in
+his pursuit. Fortunately for the old general, he was recognized by some
+herdsmen, who warned him that a troop of cavalry was approaching. Not
+knowing who they were, and fearing their purpose, the fugitives hastily
+left the road and sought shelter in the forest that there came down near
+to the coast.
+
+Here the night was miserably passed, the fugitives suffering for want of
+food and shelter. When the dawn of the next day broke, their forlorn
+walk was resumed, there being no enemy in sight. By this time the whole
+party, with the exception of Marius, was greatly depressed. He alone
+kept up his spirits, telling his followers that he had been six times
+consul of Rome, and that a seventh consulship would yet be his.
+
+There seemed little hope of such a turn of fortune as the hungry
+fugitives dragged wearily onward. For two days they kept on, making
+about forty miles of distance. At the end of that time peril of capture
+came frightfully near. A body of horsemen was visible at a distance,
+coming rapidly on. No friendly forest here offered shelter. The only
+hope of escape lay in two merchant vessels, which were moving slowly
+close in shore.
+
+Calling loudly for aid, Marius and those with him plunged into the water
+and swam for these vessels. Granius reached one of them. Marius was so
+exhausted that he could not swim, and was supported with difficulty
+above the water by two slaves till the seamen of the other vessel drew
+him on board.
+
+He had barely reached the deck when the troop of horsemen rode to the
+water's edge, and their leader called to the captain of the vessel,
+telling him that it was the proscribed Marius he had rescued, and
+bidding him at once to deliver him up.
+
+What to do the captain did not know. The officer on shore threatened him
+with the vengeance of Sulla if he failed to yield the fugitive. Marius,
+with tears in his eyes, earnestly begged for protection from the captain
+and crew. The captain wavered in purpose, but finally yielded to Marius
+and sailed on. But he did so in doubt and fear, and on reaching the
+mouth of the river Liris he persuaded Marius to go ashore, saying that
+the vessel must lie to till the land-wind rose. The instant the boat
+returned the faithless captain sailed away, leaving the aged fugitive
+absolutely alone on the beach.
+
+Walking wearily to the sorry hut of an old peasant, which stood near,
+Marius told him who he was, and begged for shelter. The old man hid him
+in a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds. While he lay there
+the horsemen, who had followed the vessel along the shore, came up, and
+asked the tenant of the hut where Marius was.
+
+The shivering fugitive, in fear of being betrayed, rose hastily from his
+hiding-place and dashed into the stream. Some of the horsemen saw him,
+he was pursued, and, covered with mud and nearly naked, the old
+conqueror was dragged from the river, placed on a horse, and carried as
+a captive to the neighboring town of Miturnae. Here he was confined in
+the house of a woman named Fannia till his fate could be determined.
+
+A circular letter had been received by the magistrates from the consuls
+at Rome, ordering them to put Marius to death if he should fall into
+their hands. This was more than they cared to do on their own
+responsibility, and they called a meeting of the town council to decide
+the momentous question. The council decided that Marius should die, and
+sent a Gaulish slave to put him to death.
+
+It was dark when the executioner entered the house of Fannia. The slave,
+little relishing the task committed to his hands, entered the room where
+Marius lay. All the trembling wretch could see in the darkness were the
+glaring eyes of the old man fixed fiercely on him, while a deep voice
+came from the couch, "Fellow, darest thou slay Caius Marius?"
+
+Throwing down his sword, the Gaul fled in terror from those accusing
+eyes, crying out, loudly, "I cannot slay Caius Marius!"
+
+The magistrates made no further effort to put their prisoner to death.
+They managed that he should escape, and he made his way to the island of
+Ischia, which Granius had already reached. Here a friendly ship took
+them on board, and they sailed for Africa.
+
+But the perils of the fugitive were not yet at an end. The ship was
+forced to stop at Erycina, in Sicily, for water. Here a Roman official
+recognized Marius, fell upon the party with a company of soldiers, and
+slew sixteen of them. Marius was nearly taken, but managed to escape,
+the vessel hastily setting sail. He now reached Africa without further
+adventure.
+
+His son and other friends had arrived earlier, and, encouraging news
+being told him, he landed near the site of ancient Carthage. The praetor,
+learning of his presence, and advised of the revolution at Rome, sent
+him word to quit the province without delay. As the messenger spoke
+Marius looked at him with silent indignation.
+
+"What answer shall I take back to the praetor?" asked the man.
+
+"Tell him," said the old general, with impressive dignity, "that you
+have seen Caius Marius sitting among the ruins of Carthage."
+
+Meanwhile his son had reached Numidia, where he was outwardly well
+received by the king, yet held in captivity. He was at length enabled
+to escape by the aid of the king's daughter, and joined his father.
+Marius was not further molested.
+
+Yet it would have been well for the fame of Caius Marius had his life
+ended here. He would nave escaped the infamy of his later years, and the
+flood of blood and vengeance in which his career reached its end. He had
+friends still in Rome. Sulla had made many foes by his capture of the
+city. Among the new consuls elected was Cornelius Cinna, who quickly
+made trouble for the ruler of Rome. Sulla, finding his power abating,
+and fearing assassination by friends of Marius, concluded to let the
+senate fight its own battles, and shipped his troops for Greece, leaving
+Rome to its own devices, while he occupied himself with fighting its
+enemy in the East.
+
+No sooner had he gone than civil war began. Fighting took place in the
+streets of Rome. Cinna moved in the senate that Marius should be
+restored to his rights. Failing in this, he gathered an army and
+threatened his enemies in Rome.
+
+News of all this soon reached old Marius in Africa. At the head of a
+thousand desperate men he took ship and landed in Etruria. Here he
+proclaimed liberty to all slaves who would join him, and soon had a
+large force. He also gained a small fleet. He and Cinna now joined
+forces and marched on Rome.
+
+The senate, which stood for Sulla, had meanwhile been gathering an army
+for the defence of the city. But few of those ordered from afar reached
+the gates, and of the principal force the greater part deserted to
+Marius. The city was soon invested on all sides. The ships of Marius
+captured the corn-vessels from Sicily and Africa. A plague broke out in
+the city, which decimated the army of the senate. In the end beleaguered
+Rome was forced to open its gates to a new conqueror.
+
+All the senate asked for was that Cinna would not permit a general
+massacre. This he promised. But behind his chair, in which he sat in
+state as consul, stood old Marius, whose face threatened disaster. He
+was dressed in mean attire; his hair and beard hung down rough and long,
+for neither had been cut since the day he fled from Rome; on his brow
+was a sullen frown that boded only evil to his foes.
+
+Evil it was, evil without stint. Rome was treated as a conquered city.
+The slaves and desperadoes who followed Marius were let loose to plunder
+at their will. Octavius, the consul who had supported the senate, was
+slain in his consular chair. A series of horrible butcheries followed.
+Marius was bent on dire vengeance, and his enemies fell in multitudes.
+Followed by a band of ruffians known as the Bardiaei, the remorseless old
+man roamed in search of victims through the city streets, and any man of
+rank whom he passed without a salute was at once struck dead.
+
+The senators who had opposed his recall from exile fell first. Others
+followed in multitudes. Those who had private wrongs to revenge followed
+the example of their chief. The slaves of the army killed at will all
+whom they wished to plunder. So great became the licentious outrages of
+these slaves that in the end Cinna, who had taken no part in the
+massacres, fell upon them with a body of troops and slew several
+thousands. This reprisal in some measure restored order in Rome.
+
+Sulla, meanwhile, was winning victories in the East, and the news of
+them somewhat disturbed the ruthless conquerors. But for the present
+they were absolute, and the saturnalia of blood went on. It ended at
+length in the death of Marius.
+
+Since his return he had given himself to wine and riotous living. This,
+after the privations and hardships he had recently suffered, sapped his
+iron constitution. He was elected to the seventh consulship, which he
+had predicted while wandering as a fugitive on the south Italian shores.
+But he fell now into an inflammatory fever, and in two weeks after his
+election he ceased to breathe. Great and successful soldier as he had
+been, his late conduct had won him wide-spread detestation, and he died
+hated by his enemies and feared even by his friends.
+
+
+
+
+_THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA._
+
+
+While Marius and his friends were ruling and murdering in Rome, Sulla,
+their bitter enemy, was commanding and conquering in the East, biding
+his time for revenge. He drove the Asiatic foe out of Greece, taking and
+pillaging Athens as an episode. He carried the war into Asia, forced
+Mithridates to sue for peace, and exacted enormous sums (more than one
+hundred million dollars in our money) from the rich cities of the East.
+Then, after giving his soldiers a winter's rest in Asia, he turned his
+face towards Rome, writing to the senate that he was coming, and that he
+intended to take revenge on his enemies.
+
+It was now the year 83 B.C. Three years had passed since the death of
+Marius. During the interval the party of the plebeians had been at the
+head of affairs. Now Sulla, the aristocrat, was coming to call them to a
+stern account, and they trembled in anticipation. They remembered
+vividly the Marian carnival of blood. What retribution would his
+merciless rival exact?
+
+Cinna, who had most to fear, proposed to meet the conqueror in the
+field. But his soldiers were not in the mood to fight, and settled the
+question by murdering their commander. When spring was well advanced,
+Sulla left Asia, and in sixteen hundred ships transported his men to
+Italy, landing at the port of Brundusium.
+
+On the 6th of July, shortly after his landing, an event occurred that
+threw all Rome into consternation. The venerable buildings of the
+Capitol took fire and were burned to the ground, the cherished Sibylline
+books perishing in the flames. Such a disaster seemed to many Romans a
+fatal prognostic. The gods were surely against them, and all things were
+at risk.
+
+Onward marched Sulla, opposed by a much greater army collected by his
+opponents. But he led the veterans of the Mithridatic War, and in the
+ranks of his opponents no man of equal ability appeared. Battle after
+battle was fought, Sulla steadily advancing. At length an army of
+Samnites, raised to defend the Marian cause, marched on Rome. Caius
+Pontius, their commander, was bent on terribly avenging the sufferings
+of his people on that great city.
+
+"Rome's last day," he said to his soldiers, "is come. The city must be
+annihilated. The wolves that have so long preyed upon Italy will never
+cease from troubling till their lair is utterly destroyed."
+
+Rome was in despair, for all seemed at an end. The Samnites had not
+forgotten a former Pontius, who had sent a Roman army under the Caudine
+Forks, and had been cruelly murdered in the Capitol They thundered on
+the Colline Gate. But at that critical moment a large body of cavalry
+appeared and charged the foe. It was the vanguard of Sulla's army,
+marching in haste to the relief of Rome.
+
+A fierce battle ensued. Sulla fought gallantly. He rode a white horse,
+and was the mark of every javelin. But despite his efforts his men were
+forced back against the wall, and when night came to their relief it
+looked as if nothing remained for them but to sell their lives as dearly
+as possible the next morning.
+
+But during the night Sulla received favorable news. Crassus, who
+commanded his right wing, had completely defeated a detachment of the
+Marian army. With quick decision, Sulla marched during the night round
+the enemy's camp, joined Crassus, and at day-break attacked the foe.
+
+The battle that ensued was a terrible one. Fifty thousand men fell on
+each side. Pontius and other Marian leaders were slain. In the end Sulla
+triumphed, taking eight thousand prisoners, of whom six thousand were
+Samnites. The latter were, by order of the victor, ruthlessly butchered
+in cold blood.
+
+This was but the prelude to an equally ruthless but more protracted
+butchery. Sulla was at last lord of Rome, as absolute in power as any
+emperor of later days. In fact, he had himself appointed dictator, an
+office which had vanished more than a century before, and which raised
+him above the law. He announced that he would give a better government
+to Rome, but to do so he must first rid that city of its enemies.
+
+Marius, whom Sulla hated with intense bitterness, had escaped him by
+death. By his orders the bones of the old general were torn from their
+tomb near the Anio and flung into that stream. The son of Marius had
+slain himself to prevent being taken. His head was brought to Sulla at
+Rome, who gazed on the youthful face with grim satisfaction, saying,
+"Those who take the helm must first serve at the oar." As for himself,
+his fortune was now accomplished, he said, and henceforth he should be
+known as Felix.
+
+The cruel work which Sulla had promised immediately began. Adherents of
+the popular party were slaughtered daily and hourly at Rome. Some who
+had taken no part in the late war were slain. No man knew if he was
+safe. Some of the senators asked that the names of the guilty should be
+made known, that the innocent might be relieved from uncertainty. The
+proposition hit with Sulla's humor. He ordered that a list of those
+doomed to death should be made out and published. This was called a
+Proscription.
+
+But the uncertainty continued as great as ever. The list contained but
+eighty names. It was quickly followed by another containing one hundred
+and twenty. Day after day new lists of the doomed were issued. To make
+death sure, a reward of two talents was promised any one who should kill
+a proscribed man,--even if the killer were his son or his slave. Those
+who in any way aided the proscribed became themselves doomed to death.
+
+Men who envied others their property managed to have their names put on
+the list. A partisan of Sulla was exulting over the doomed, when his
+eye fell on his own name in the list. He hastily fled, and the
+bystanders, judging the cause, followed and cut him down. Catiline, who
+afterwards became notorious in Roman history, murdered his own brother,
+and to legalize the murder had the name of his victim placed on the
+list.
+
+How many were murdered we do not know. Probably little less than three
+thousand in Rome. The stream of murder flowed to other cities. Several
+of these defied the conqueror, but were taken one by one and their
+defenders slain. To all cities which had taken part with the Marians the
+proscription made its way. Of the total number slain during this reign
+of terror no record exists, but the deliberate butchery of Sulla went
+far beyond the ferocious but temporary slaughter of Marius.
+
+Murder was followed by confiscation. Sulla ordered that the property of
+the slain should be sold at auction and the proceeds put in the
+treasury. But the favorites of the dictator were the chief bidders, the
+property was sold at a tithe of its value, and the unworthy and
+dissolute obtained the lion's share of the spoil.
+
+During this period of murder and confiscation we first hear the names of
+a number of afterwards famous Romans. Catiline we have named. Pompey
+took part in the war on Sulla's side, was victorious in Sicily and
+Africa, and on his return was hailed by his chief with the title of
+Pompey the Great. Another still more famous personage was Julius Caesar.
+Sulla had ordered that all persons connected by marriage with the
+Marian party should divorce their wives. Pompey obeyed. Caesar, who was a
+nephew of Marius and had married the daughter of Cinna, boldly refused.
+He was then a youth of nineteen. His boldness would have brought him
+death had not powerful friends asked for his life.
+
+"You know not what you ask," said Sulla; "that profligate boy will be
+more dangerous than many Mariuses."
+
+Caesar, not trusting Sulla's doubtful humor, escaped from Rome, and hid
+in the depths of the Sabine mountains, awaiting a time when the streets
+of the capital city would be safer for those who dared speak their
+minds.
+
+Another young man of rising fame showed little less boldness. This was
+Cicero, who had just returned to Rome from his studies in Greece. He
+ventured to defend Roscius of Ameria against an accusation of murder
+made by Chrysogonus, a prime favorite of Sulla. Cicero lashed the
+favorite vigorously, and won a verdict for his client. But he found it
+advisable to leave Rome immediately and resume his studies at Rhodes.
+
+Sulla ended his work by organizing a new senate and making a new code of
+laws. Three hundred new members were added to the senate, and the laws
+of Rome were brought largely back to the state in which they had been
+before the Gracchi.
+
+This done, to the utter surprise of the people he laid down his power
+and retired from Rome, within whose streets he never again set foot. He
+had no occasion for fear. He had scattered his veterans throughout
+Italy on confiscated estates, and knew that he could trust to their
+support. Before his departure he gave a feast of costly meats and rich
+wines to the Roman commons, in such profusion that vast quantities that
+could not be eaten were cast into the Tiber. Then he dismissed his armed
+attendants, and walked on foot to his house, through a multitude of whom
+many had ample reason to strike him down.
+
+He now retired to his villa near Puteoli, on the Bay of Naples, with the
+purpose of enjoying that life of voluptuous ease which he craved more
+than power and distinction. Here he spent the brief remainder of his
+life in nocturnal orgies and literary converse, completing his
+"Memoirs," in which he told, in exaggerated phrase, the story of his
+life and exploits.
+
+He lived but about a year. His excesses brought on a complication of
+disorders, which ended, we are told, in a loathsome disease. The senate
+voted him a gorgeous funeral, after which his body was burned on the
+Campus Martius, that no future tyrant could treat his remains as he had
+done those of his great rival Marius.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS._
+
+
+At the beginning of the first Punic War, or war with Carthage, a new
+form of entertainment was introduced into Rome. This was the
+gladiatorial show, the fights of armed men in the arena, the first of
+which was given in the year 264 B.C., at the funeral of D. Junius
+Brutus. These exhibitions were long confined to funeral occasions, money
+being frequently left for this purpose in wills, but they gradually
+extended to other occasions, and finally became the choice amusement of
+the brutal Roman mob. The gladiators were divided into several classes,
+in accordance with their particular weapons and modes of fighting, and
+great pains were taken to instruct them in the use of their special
+arms. But in the period that followed the death of Sulla Rome was to
+have a gladiatorial exhibition of a different sort.
+
+In the city of Capua was a school of gladiators, kept by a man named
+Lentulus. It was his practice to hire out his trained pupils to nobles
+for battles in the arena during public festivals. His school was a large
+one, and included in its numbers a Thracian named Spartacus, who had
+been taken prisoner while leading his countrymen against the Romans, and
+was to be punished for his presumption by making sport for his
+conquerors.
+
+But Spartacus had other and nobler aims. He formed a plot of flight to
+freedom in which two hundred of his fellows joined, though only
+seventy-eight succeeded in making their escape. These men, armed merely
+with the knives and spits which they had seized as they fled, made their
+way to the neighboring mountains, and sought a refuge in the crater of
+Mount Vesuvius. It must be borne in mind that this mountain, in that
+year of 73 B.C., was silent and seemingly extinct, though before another
+century passed it was to awake to vital activity. It was only biding its
+time in slumber.
+
+It was better to die on the open field than in the amphitheatre, argued
+Spartacus, and his followers agreed with him. Their position in the
+crater was a strong one, and the news of their revolt soon brought them
+a multitude of allies,--slaves and outlaws of every kind. These
+Spartacus organized and drilled, supplying them with officers from the
+gladiators, mostly old soldiers, and placing them under rigid
+discipline. It was liberty he wanted, not rapine, and he did his utmost
+to restrain his lawless followers from acts of violence.
+
+Pompey, the chief Roman general of that day, was then absent in Spain,
+fighting with a remnant of the Marian forces. Two Roman praetors led
+their forces against the gladiators, but were driven back with loss, and
+the army of Spartacus swelled day by day. The wild herdsmen of Apulia
+joined him in large numbers. They were slaves to their lords, whom they
+hated bitterly, and here was an opening for freedom and revenge.
+
+It was soon evident that Rome had on its hands the greatest and most
+dangerous of its servile wars. Spartacus was brave and prudent, and
+possessed the qualities of an able leader. Unfortunately for him, he led
+an unmanageable host. In the next year both the consuls took the field
+against him. By this time his army had swelled to more than one hundred
+thousand men, and with these he pushed his way northward through the
+passes of the Apennines. But now insubordination appeared. Crixus, one
+of his lieutenants, ambitious of independent command, led off a large
+division of the army, chiefly Germans. He was quickly punished for his
+temerity, being surprised and slain with the whole of his force.
+
+Spartacus, wise enough to know that he could not long hold out against
+the whole power of Rome, kept on northward, hoping to pass the Alps and
+find a place of refuge remote from the stronghold of his foes. Both the
+consuls attacked him in his march, and both were defeated, while he
+retaliated on Rome by forcing his prisoners to fight as gladiators in
+memory of the slain Crixus.
+
+Reaching the provinces of the north, his diminished force was repulsed
+by Crassus, one of the richest men of Rome, who had taken the field as
+praetor. Spartacus would still have fought his way towards the Alps but
+for his followers, whose impatient thirst for rapine forced him to march
+southward again.
+
+Every Roman force that assailed him on this march was hurled back in
+defeat. He even meditated an attack on Rome itself, but relinquished
+this plan as too desperate, and instead employed his men in collecting
+arms and treasure from the cities of central and southern Italy.
+Discipline was almost at an end. The wild horde of slaves and outlaws
+were beyond any strict military control. So great and general were their
+ravages that in a later day the poet Horace promised his friend a jar of
+wine made in the Social War, "if he could find one that had escaped the
+ravages of roaming Spartacus."
+
+In the year 71 B.C. the most vigorous efforts were made to put down this
+dangerous revolt. Pompey was still in Spain. The only man at home of any
+military reputation was the praetor Crassus, who had amassed an enormous
+fortune by buying up property at famine prices during the Proscription
+of Sulla, and in speculative measures since.
+
+He was given full command, took the field with a large army, restored
+discipline to the beaten bands of the consuls by cruel and rigorous
+measures, and assailed Spartacus in Calabria, where he was seeking to
+rekindle the Servile War, or slave outbreak, in Sicily. He had even
+engaged with pirate captains to transport a part of his force to Sicily,
+but the freebooters took the money and sailed away without the men.
+
+And now began a struggle for life and death. Spartacus was in the
+narrowest part of the foot of Southern Italy. Crassus determined to keep
+him there by building strong lines of intrenchment across the neck of
+land. Spartacus attacked his works twice in one day, but each time was
+repulsed with great slaughter. But he defended himself vigorously.
+
+Pompey was now returning from Spain. Crassus, not caring to be robbed of
+the results of his labors, determined to assault Spartacus in his camp.
+But before he could do so the daring gladiator attacked his lines again,
+forced his way through, and marched for Brundusium, where he hoped to
+find ships that would convey him and his men from Italy.
+
+As it happened, a large body of Roman veterans, returning from
+Macedonia, had just reached Brundusium, and undertook its defence.
+Foiled in his purpose, Spartacus turned upon the pursuing army of
+Crassus, like a wolf at bay, and attacked it with the energy of
+desperation. The battle that ensued was contested with the fiercest
+courage. Spartacus and his men were fighting for their lives, and the
+result continued doubtful till the brave gladiator was wounded in the
+thigh by a javelin. Falling on his knee, he fought with the courage of a
+hero until, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead.
+
+His death decided the conflict. Most of his followers were slain on the
+field. A strong body escaped to the mountains, but these were pursued,
+and many fell. Five thousand of them made their way to the north of
+Italy, where they were met by Pompey, on his return from Spain, and
+slaughtered to a man.
+
+Crassus took six thousand prisoners, and these he disposed of in the
+cruel Roman way of dealing with revolted slaves, hanging or crucifying
+the whole of them along the road between Rome and Capua.
+
+Thus ended far the most important outbreak of Roman gladiators and
+slaves. The south of Italy suffered horribly from its ravages, but not
+through any act of Spartacus, who throughout showed a moderation equal
+to his courage and military ability. Had it not been for the lawless
+character of his followers his career might have had a very different
+ending, for he had shown himself a commander of rare ability and
+unconquerable courage.
+
+
+
+
+_CAESAR AND THE PIRATES._
+
+
+We have spoken of the pirates who agreed to convey the forces of
+Spartacus from Italy to Sicily, but faithlessly sailed away with his
+money and without his men. From times immemorial the Mediterranean had
+been ravaged by pirate fleets, which made the inlets of Asia Minor and
+the isles of the Archipelago their places of shelter, whence they dashed
+out on rapid raids, and within which they vanished when attacked.
+
+This piracy reached its highest power during and after the Social and
+Civil Wars of Rome, the outlaws taking prompt advantage of the
+distractions of the times, and gaining a strength and audacity unknown
+before. Their chief places of refuge were in the coast districts of
+Cilicia and Pisidia, in Asia Minor, while in the mountain valleys which
+led down from Taurus to that coast they had strongholds difficult of
+access, and enabling them to defy attack by land.
+
+They were now aided by Mithridates, who supplied them with money and
+encouraged their raids. So great became their audacity that they carried
+off important personages from the coast of Italy, among them two
+praetors, whom they held to ransom. They ravaged all unguarded shores,
+and are said to have captured in all four hundred important towns. The
+riches gained in these raids were displayed with the ostentation of
+conquerors. The sails of their ships were dyed with that costly Tyrian
+purple which at a later date was reserved for the robes of emperors;
+their oars were inlaid with silver, and their pennants glittered with
+gold. As for the merchant fleets of Rome, they made their journeys under
+constant risk, and there was danger, if the pirates were not suppressed,
+that they would cut off the entire grain-supply from Africa and Sicily.
+
+The most interesting story told in connection with these marauders is
+connected with the youthful days of Julius Caesar, afterwards so great a
+man in Rome.
+
+In the year 76 B.C. Caesar, then a young man of twenty-four, and
+seemingly given over to mere enjoyment of life, with no indications of
+political aspiration, was on his way to the island of Rhodes, where he
+wished to perfect himself in oratory in the famous school of Apollonius
+Melo, in which Cicero, a few years before, had gained instruction in the
+art. Cicero had taught Rome the full power of oratory, and Caesar, who
+was no mean orator by nature, and recognized the usefulness of the art,
+naturally sought instruction from Cicero's teacher.
+
+He was travelling as a gentleman of rank, but on his way was taken
+prisoner by pirates, who, deeming him a person of great distinction,
+held him at a high ransom. For six weeks Caesar remained in their hands,
+waiting until his ransom should be paid. He was in no respect downcast
+by his misfortune, but took part freely in the games and pastimes of
+the pirates, and, according to Plutarch, treated them with such disdain
+that whenever their noise disturbed his sleep he sent orders to them to
+keep silence. In his familiar conversations with the chiefs he plainly
+told them that he would one day crucify them all. Doubtless they laughed
+heartily at this pleasantry, as they deemed it, but they were to find it
+a grim sort of jest.
+
+Caesar was released at last, the ransom paid amounting to about fifty
+thousand dollars. He lost not a moment in carrying out his threat.
+Obtaining a fleet of Milesian vessels, he sailed immediately to the
+island in which he had been held captive, and descended upon the pirates
+so suddenly that he took them prisoners while they were engaged in
+dividing their plunder. Carrying them to Pergamus, he handed them over
+to the civil authorities, by whom his promise of crucifying them all was
+duly carried out. Then he went to Rhodes, and spent two years in the
+study of elocution. He had proved himself an awkward kind of prey for
+pirates.
+
+These worthies continued their depredations, and became at length so
+annoying that extraordinary measures were taken for their suppression.
+Pompey, then the most powerful man in Rome, was given absolute control
+over the Mediterranean. This was not done without opposition, for it was
+feared that he aspired to kingly rule. "You aspire to be Romulus; beware
+of the fate of Romulus," said some of the opposing senators.
+
+Despite opposition the power was given him, and he used it with
+remarkable results. A large fleet was at once got ready and put to sea,
+confining its operations at first to the west of the Mediterranean, and
+driving the piratical fleets towards their lurking-places in the east.
+Land troops meanwhile guarded the coasts. In the brief space of forty
+days he reported to the senate that the whole sea west of Greece was
+cleared of pirates.
+
+Then he sailed for the Archipelago, swept its inlets, spread his ships
+everywhere, and drove the foe towards Cilicia. Here they gathered their
+fleet and gave him battle, but suffered a total defeat. A surrender
+followed, to which he won them over by lenient terms. In three months
+from the day he began his work the war was ended, and the pirates who
+had so long troubled the republic of Rome had retired from business.
+
+
+
+
+_CAESAR AND POMPEY._
+
+
+There were three leaders in Rome, Pompey, whom Sulla had named the
+Great, Crassus, the rich, and Caesar, the shrewd and wise. Two of these
+had reached their utmost height. For Pompey there was to be no more
+greatness, for Crassus no more riches. But Caesar was the coming man of
+Rome. After a youth given to profligate pleasures, in which he spent
+money as fast as Crassus collected it, and accumulated debt more rapidly
+than Pompey accumulated fame, the innate powers of the man began to
+declare themselves. He studied oratory and made his mark in the Roman
+Forum; he studied the political situation, and step by step made himself
+a power among men. He was shrewd enough to cultivate Pompey, then the
+Roman favorite, and brought himself into closer relations with him by
+marrying his relative. Steadily he grew into public favor and respect,
+and laid his hands on the reins of control.
+
+There was a fourth man of prominence, Cicero, the great scholar,
+philosopher, and orator. He prosecuted Verres, who, as governor of
+Sicily, had committed frightful excesses, and drove him from Rome. He
+prosecuted Catiline, who had made a conspiracy to seize the government,
+and even to burn Rome. The conspirators were foiled and Catiline killed.
+But Cicero, earnest and eloquent as he was, lacked manliness and
+courage, and was driven into exile by his enemies.
+
+There remained the three leaders, Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, and these
+three made a secret compact to control the government, forming what
+became known as a _triumvirate_, or three man power. Pompey married
+Julia, the young and beautiful daughter of Caesar, and the two seemed
+very closely united.
+
+Caesar was elected consul, and in this position won public favor by
+proposing some highly popular laws. After his year as consul he was made
+governor of Gaul, and now began an extraordinary career. The man who had
+by turns shown himself a dissolute spendthrift, an orator, and a
+political leader, suddenly developed a new power, and proved himself one
+of the greatest soldiers the world has ever known.
+
+Gaul, as then known, had two divisions,--Cisalpine Gaul, or the Gaulish
+settlements in Northern Italy; and Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the
+Alps, including the present countries of France and Switzerland. In the
+latter country Rome possessed only a narrow strip of land, then known as
+the Province, since then known as the country of Provence.
+
+From this centre Caesar, with the small army under his command,
+consisting of three legions, entered upon a career of conquest which
+astonished Rome and drew upon him the eyes of the civilized world. He
+had hardly been appointed when he received word that the Helvetian
+tribes of Switzerland were advancing on Geneva, the northern outpost of
+the Province, with a view of invading the West. He hastened thither, met
+and defeated them, killed a vast multitude, and drove the remnant back
+to their own country. Then, invited by some northern tribes, he attacked
+a great German band which had invaded Northern Gaul, and defeated them
+so utterly that few escaped across the Rhine. From that point he made
+his way into and conquered Belgium. In a year's time he had vastly
+extended the Roman dominion in the West.
+
+For nine years this career of conquest continued. The barbarian Gauls
+proved fierce and valiant soldiers, but at the end of that time they had
+been completely subdued and made passive subjects of Rome. Caesar even
+crossed the sea into Britain, and look the first step towards the
+conquest of that island, of which Rome had barely heard before.
+
+During this career of conquest many hundreds of thousands of men were
+slain. But, then, Caesar was victorious and Rome triumphant, and what
+mattered it if a million or two of barbarians were sacrificed to the
+demon of conquest? It mattered little to Rome, in which great city
+barbarian life was scarcely worth a second thought. It mattered little
+to Caesar, who, like all great conquerors, was quite willing to mount to
+power on a ladder of human lives.
+
+Meanwhile what were Caesar's partners in the Triumvirate doing? When
+Caesar was given the province of Gaul, Pompey was made governor of
+Spain, and Crassus of Syria. Crassus, who had gained some military fame
+by overcoming Spartacus the gladiator, wished to gain more, and sailed
+for Asia, where he stirred up a war with distant Parthia. That was the
+end of Crassus. He marched into the desert of Mesopotamia, and left his
+body on the sands. His head was sent to Orodes, the Parthian king, who
+ordered molten gold to be poured into his mouth,--a ghastly commentary
+on his thirst for wealth.
+
+Pompey left Spain to take care of itself, and remained in Rome, where he
+sought to add to his popularity by building a great stone theatre, large
+enough to hold forty thousand people, where for many days he amused the
+people with plays and games. Here, for the first time, a rhinoceros was
+shown. Eighteen elephants were killed by Libyan hunters, and five
+hundred lions were slain, while hosts of gladiators fought for life and
+honor.
+
+While thus seeking popular favor, Pompey was secretly working against
+the interests of Caesar, of whose fame he had grown jealous. His wife
+Julia died, and he joined his strength with that of the aristocrats;
+while Caesar, a nephew of old Marius, was looked upon as a leader of the
+party of the people.
+
+Pompey's power and influence over the senate increased until he was
+virtually dictator in Rome. Caesar's ten years' governorship in Gaul
+would expire on the 1st of January, 49 B.C., and it was resolved by
+Pompey and the senate to deprive him of the command of the army. But
+Caesar was not the man to be dealt with in this summary manner. His
+career of conquest ended, he entered his province of Cisalpine Gaul, or
+Northern Italy, where he was received as a great hero and conqueror.
+From here he sent secret agents to Rome, bribed with large sums a number
+of important persons, and took other steps to guard his interests.
+
+Meanwhile the senate tried to disarm Caesar by unfair means. They had the
+power to shorten or lengthen the year as they pleased, and announced
+that that year would end on November 12, and that Caesar must resign his
+authority on the 13th. Curio, a tribune of Rome and Caesar's agent, said
+that it was only fair that Pompey also should give up the command of the
+army which he had near Rome. This he refused to do, and Curio publicly
+declared that he was trying to make himself a tyrant.
+
+Finally the senate decreed that each general should give up one legion,
+to be used in a war with the Parthians. There was no such war, but it
+was pretended that there soon would be. Pompey agreed, but he called
+upon Caesar to send him back a legion which he had lent him three years
+before. Caesar did not hesitate to do so: he sent Pompey's legion and his
+own; but he took care to win the soldiers by giving each a valuable
+present as he went away. These legions were not sent to Asia, but to
+Capua. The senate wanted them for use nearer than Parthia.
+
+Caesar was then at Ravenna, a sea-side city on the southern limit of his
+province. South of it flowed a little stream called the Rubicon, which
+formed his border-line. Here he took a bold step. He sent a letter to
+the senate, offering to give up his command if Pompey would do the same.
+A violent debate followed in the senate, and a decree was passed that
+unless Caesar laid down his command by a certain day he should be
+declared an outlaw and enemy of Rome. At the same time the two consuls
+were made dictators, and the two tribunes who favored Caesar--one of them
+the afterwards famous Marc Antony--fled for safety from Rome.
+
+The decree of the senate was equivalent to a declaration of war. On the
+one side was Pompey, proud, over-confident, and unprepared. On the other
+was Caesar, knowing his strength, satisfied in the power of the money he
+had so freely distributed, and sure of his men. He called his soldiers
+together and asked if they would support him. They answered that they
+would follow wherever he led. At once he marched for the Rubicon, the
+limit of his province, to cross which stream meant an invasion of Italy
+and civil war.
+
+Plutarch tells us that he halted here and deeply meditated, troubled by
+the thought that to cross that stream meant the death of thousands of
+his countrymen. After a period of such meditation, he cried aloud, "The
+die is cast; let us go where the gods and the injustice of our foes
+direct!" and, spurring his horse forward, he plunged into the stream.
+
+This story, which has been effectively used by a great epic poet of
+Rome, probably relates what never happened. From all we know of Caesar,
+the question of bloodshed in attaining the aims of his ambition did not
+greatly trouble his mind. Yet the story has taken hold, and "to cross
+the Rubicon" has become a proverb, signifying the taking of a step of
+momentous importance.
+
+Caesar, after the legions sent the senate, had but a single legion left
+with him. He sent orders to others to join him with all haste, but they
+were distant. As for Pompey, knowing and despising the weakness of his
+rival, he had made no preparations. He had Caesar's two legions at Capua
+and one of his own at Rome, while thousands of Sulla's veterans were
+settled in the country round. "I have but to stamp my foot," he said,
+"and armed men will start from the soil of Italy."
+
+He did not stamp, or, if he did, the armed men did not start. Caesar
+marched southward with his accustomed rapidity. Town after town opened
+its gates to him. Labienus, one of his principal officers, deserted to
+Pompey. Caesar showed his contempt by sending his baggage after him. Two
+legions from Gaul having reached him, he pushed more boldly still to the
+south. The cities taken were treated as friends; there was no pillage,
+no violence. Everywhere Caesar won golden opinions by his humanity.
+
+Meanwhile Pompey's armed men came not; his rival was rapidly
+approaching; he and his party of the senate fled from Rome. They reached
+Brundusium, where Caesar with six legions quickly appeared. The town was
+strong, and Pompey took his time to embark his men and sail from Italy.
+Disappointed of his prey, Caesar turned back, and entered Rome on April
+1, now full lord and master of Italy and its capital city. In the
+treasury of that city was a sacred hoard of money, which had been set
+aside since the invasion of the Gauls, centuries before. The people
+voted this money for his use. There was no more danger from the Gauls,
+it was said, for they had all become subjects of Rome. Yet the keeper of
+the treasury refused to produce the keys, and when Caesar ordered the
+doors to be broken open, tried to bar his passage into the sacred
+chamber.
+
+"Stand aside, young man," said Caesar, with stern dignity; "it is easier
+for me to do than to say."
+
+Caesar was not the man to rest while an enemy was at large. Pompey had
+gone to the East. There was no fleet with which to follow him; and in
+Spain Pompey had an army of veterans, who might enter Italy as soon as
+he left it. These must first be dealt with.
+
+This did not delay him long. Before the year closed all Spain was his.
+Most of the soldiers of Pompey joined his army. Those who did not were
+dismissed unharmed. Everywhere he showed the greatest leniency, and
+everywhere won friends. On his return to Rome he gained new friends by
+passing laws relieving debtors and restoring their civil rights to the
+children of Sulla's victims.
+
+He remained in Rome only eleven days, and then sailed for Greece, where
+Pompey had gathered a large army. It was January 4, 48 B.C., when he
+sailed. On June 6 of the same year was fought, at Pharsalia, in
+Thessaly, a great battle which decided the fate of the Roman world.
+
+Pompey's army consisted of about forty-four thousand men. Caesar had but
+half as many. But his men were all veterans; many of those of Pompey
+were new levies, collected in Asia and Macedonia. The battle was fierce
+and desperate. During its course the cavalry of Pompey attacked Caesar's
+weak troops and drove them back. The infantry advanced to their support,
+and struck straight at the faces of the foe. Plutarch tells us that this
+cavalry was made up of young Romans, of the aristocratic class and proud
+of their beauty, and that the order was given to Caesar's soldiers to
+spoil their beauty for them. But this story, like many told by Plutarch,
+lacks proof.
+
+Whatever was the cause, the cavalry were broken and fled in disorder.
+Caesar's reserve force now attacked Pompey's worn troops, who gave way
+everywhere. Caesar ordered that all Romans should be spared, and only the
+Asiatics pursued. The legions, hearing of this, ceased to resist. The
+foreign soldiers fled, after great slaughter. Pompey rode hastily from
+the field.
+
+The camp was taken. The booty captured was immense. But Caesar would not
+let his soldiers rest or plunder till they had completed their work.
+This proved easy; all the Romans submitted; the Asiatics fled. Pompey
+put to sea, where he had still a powerful fleet. Africa was his, and he
+determined to take refuge in Egypt. It proved that he had enemies there.
+A small boat was sent off to bring him ashore. Among those on board was
+an officer named Septimius, who had served under Pompey in the war with
+the pirates.
+
+Pompey recognized his old officer, and entered the boat alone, his wife
+and friends watching from the vessel as he was rowed ashore. On the
+beach a number of persons were collected, as if to receive him with
+honor. The boat stopped. Pompey took the hand of the person next him to
+assist him to rise. As he did so Septimius, who stood behind, struck him
+with his sword. Pompey, finding that he was among enemies, made no
+resistance, and the next blow laid him low in death. His assassins cut
+off his head and left his body on the beach. Here one of his freedmen
+and an old soldier of his army broke up a fishing-boat and made him a
+rude funeral pile. Such were the obsequies of the one-time master of the
+world.
+
+The battle of Pharsalia practically ended the struggle that made Caesar
+lord of Rome. Some more fighting was necessary. Africa was still in
+arms. But a few short campaigns sufficed to bring it to terms, while a
+campaign against a son of Mithridates ended in five days, Caesar's
+victory being announced to the senate in three short words, "Veni, vidi,
+vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). Then he returned to Rome, where he
+shed not a drop of the blood of his enemies, though that of gladiators
+and wild animals was freely spilled in the gorgeous games and festivals
+with which he amused the sovereign people.
+
+
+
+
+_THE ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR._
+
+
+The republic of Rome was at an end. The army had become the power, and
+the will of the head of the army was the law, of the state. Caesar
+celebrated his victories with grand triumphs; but he celebrated them
+more notably still by a clemency that signified his innate nobility of
+character. Instead of dyeing the streets of Rome with blood, as Marius
+and Sulla had done before him, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and his
+rise to power was not signalized by the slaughter of one of his foes.
+
+[Illustration: THE ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR.]
+
+He signalized it, on the contrary, by an activity in civil reform as
+marked as had been his energy in war. The title and privilege of Roman
+citizenship had so far been confined to Italians. He extended it to many
+parts of Gaul and Spain. He formed plans to drain the Pontine marshes,
+to make a survey and map of the empire, to form a code of laws, and
+other great works, which he did not live to fulfil. Of all his reforms,
+the best known is the revision of the Calendar. Before his time the
+Roman year was three hundred and fifty-five days long, an extra month
+being occasionally added, so as to regain the lost days. But this was
+very irregularly done, and the civil year had got to be far away from
+the solar year. To correct this Caesar was obliged to add ninety days to
+the year 46 B.C., which was therefore given the unprecedented length of
+four hundred and forty-five days. He ordered that the year in future
+should be three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days in length, a
+change which brought it very nearly, but not quite, to the true length.
+A new reform was made in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII., which made the
+civil and solar years almost exactly agree.
+
+Caesar did not live to see his reforms consummated. He was murdered,
+perhaps because he had refused to murder. In a few months after he had
+brought the civil war to an end he fell the victim of assassins. The
+story of his death is famous in Roman history, and must here be told.
+
+After his triumphs Caesar, who had been dictator twice before, was named
+dictator for the term of ten years. He was also made censor for three
+years. These offices gave him such unlimited power that he was declared
+absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the citizens and subjects
+of Rome. Imperator men called him, a term we translate emperor, and
+after his return from Spain, where he overthrew the last army of his
+foes, the senate named him dictator and imperator for life.
+
+These high honors were not sufficient for Caesar's ambition. He wished to
+be made king. He had no son of his own, but desired to make his power
+hereditary, and chose his grandnephew Octavius as his heir. But he was
+to find the people resolutely bent on having no king over Rome.
+
+To try their temper some of his friends placed a crown on his statue in
+the Forum. Two of the tribunes tore it off, and the crowd loudly
+applauded. Later, at the festival of the Alban Mount, some voices in the
+crowd hailed him as king. But the mutterings of the multitude grew so
+loud, that he quickly cried, "I am no king, but Caesar."
+
+At the feast of the Lupercalia, on February 15, he was approached by
+Marc Antony, as he sat in his golden chair, and offered an embroidered
+band, such as the sovereigns of Asia wore on their heads. The crowd
+failed to applaud, and Caesar pushed it aside. Then the multitude broke
+out in a roar of applause. Again and again he rejected the glittering
+bauble, and again the people broke into loud cries of approval. It was
+evident that they would have no king. At a later date it was moved in
+the senate that Caesar should be king in the provinces; but he died
+before this decree could be put in effect.
+
+There was discontent at Rome. Even the clemency of Caesar had made him
+enemies, for there were many who hoped to profit by proscription. His
+justice made foes among those who wished to grow rich through extortion
+and oppression. He secluded himself while engaged on his reforms, and
+this lost him popularity. A conspiracy was organized against him by a
+soldier named Caius Cassius and others of the discontented. For leader
+they selected Marcus Junius Brutus, who believed himself a descendant of
+the Brutus of old, and was won to their plot by being told that, while
+his great ancestor had expelled the last king of Rome, he was resting
+content under the rule of a new king.
+
+Brutus, at length convinced that Caesar was seeking to overthrow the
+Roman republic, and that patriotism required him to emulate the famous
+Brutus of old, joined the conspiracy, which now included more than sixty
+persons, most of whom had received benefits and honors from the man they
+wished to kill. But no considerations of gratitude prevailed; they
+determined on Caesar's death; and the meeting of the senate called for
+the Ides of March (March 15) was fixed for the time and place of the
+projected murder.
+
+The morning of that day seemed full of omens and warnings. The secret
+was oozing out. Caesar received more than one intimation of impending
+danger. A soothsayer had even bidden him to "beware of the Ides of
+March." During the preceding night his wife was so disturbed by dreams
+that in the morning she begged him not to go that day to the senate, as
+she was sure some peril was at hand. Her words failed to trouble Caesar's
+resolute mind, but to quiet her apprehensions he agreed not to go, and
+directed Marc Antony to preside over the senate in his stead.
+
+When this word was brought to the assembled senate the conspirators were
+in despair. Their secret was known to too many to remain a secret long.
+Even a day's delay might be fatal. An hour might put Caesar on his guard.
+What was to be done? Unless their victim could be brought to the senate
+chamber all would be lost.
+
+Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators who had been favored by Caesar's
+bounty, went hastily to his house, and, telling him that the senate
+proposed that day to make him king of the provinces, bade him not to
+yield to such idle matters as auguries and dreams, but show himself
+above any such superstitious weakness. These cunning arguments induced
+Caesar to change his mind, and he called for his litter and was carried
+forth.
+
+On his way to the senate new intimations of danger came to him. A slave
+had in some way discovered the conspiracy, and tried to force himself
+through the crowd to the dictator's litter, but was driven back by the
+throng. Another informant was more fortunate. A Greek philosopher,
+Artemidorus by name, had also discovered the conspiracy, and succeeded
+in reaching Caesar's side. He thrust into his hand a roll of paper
+containing a full account of the impending peril. But the star of Caesar
+that day was against him. Thinking the roll to contain a petition of
+some sort, he laid it in the litter by his side, to examine at a more
+convenient time. And thus he went on to his death, despite all the
+warnings sent him by the fates.
+
+The conspirators meanwhile were far from easy in mind. There were signs
+among them that their plot had leaked out. Casca, one of their number,
+was accosted by a friend, "Ah, Casca, Brutus has told me your secret."
+The conspirator started in alarm, but was relieved by the next words,
+"Where will you find money for the expenses of the aedileship?" The man
+evidently referred to an expected office.
+
+Another senator, Popillius Laenas, hit the mark closer. "You have my
+good wishes; but what you do, do quickly," he said to Brutus and
+Cassius.
+
+The alarm caused by his words was doubled when he stepped up to Caesar,
+on his entrance to the chamber, and began to whisper in his ear. Cassius
+was so terrified that he grasped his dagger with the thought of killing
+himself. He was stopped by Brutus, who quietly said that Popillius
+seemed rather to be asking a favor than telling a secret. Whatever his
+purpose, Caesar was not checked, but moved quietly on and took his seat.
+
+Immediately Cimber, one of the conspirators, approached with a petition,
+in which he begged for the recall of his brother from banishment. The
+others pressed round, praying Caesar to grant his request. Displeased by
+their importunity, Caesar attempted to rise, but was pulled down into his
+seat by Cimber, while Casca stabbed him in the side, but inflicted only
+a slight wound. Then they all assailed him with drawn daggers.
+
+Caesar kept them off for a brief time by winding his gown as a shield
+round his left arm, and using his sharp writing style for a weapon. But
+when he saw Brutus approach prepared to strike he exclaimed in deep
+sorrow and reproach, "_Et tu, Brute!_" (Thou too, Brutus!) and covering
+his face with his gown, he ceased to resist. Their daggers pierced his
+body till he had received twenty-three wounds, when he fell dead at the
+base of the statue of Pompey, which looked silently down on the
+slaughter of his great and successful rival.
+
+What followed this base and fruitless deed may be briefly told. The
+senators not in the plot rose in alarm and fled from the house. When
+Brutus turned to seek to justify his deed only empty benches remained.
+Then the assassins hurried to the Forum, to tell the people that they
+had freed Rome from a despot. But the people were hostile, and the words
+of Brutus fell on unfriendly ears.
+
+Marc Antony followed, and delivered a telling oration, which Shakespeare
+has magnificently paraphrased. He showed the mob a waxen image of
+Caesar's body, pierced with wounds, and the garment rent by murderous
+blades. His words wrought his hearers to fury. They tore up benches,
+tables, and everything on which they could lay their hands, for a
+funeral pile, placed on it the corpse, and set it on fire. Then, seizing
+blazing embers from the pile, they rushed in quest of vengeance to the
+houses of the conspirators. They were too late; all had fled. The will
+of the dictator, in which he had made a large donation to every citizen
+of Rome, added to the popular fury, and a frenzy of vengeance took
+possession of the people of Rome.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CAESAR.]
+
+We must give the sequel of this murderous deed in a few words. Marc
+Antony was now master of Rome. He increased his power by pretending
+moderation, and having a law passed to abolish the dictatorship forever.
+But there were other actors on the scene. Octavius, whom Caesar's will
+had named as his heir, took quick steps to gain his heritage. Antony had
+taken possession of Caesar's wealth, but Octavius managed to raise money
+enough to pay his uncle's legacy to the citizens of Rome. A third man
+of power was Lepidus, who commanded an army near Rome, and was prepared
+to take part in the course of events.
+
+Octavius was still only a boy, not yet twenty years of age. But he was
+shrewd and ambitious, and soon succeeded in having himself elected
+consul and put at the head of a large army. Cicero aided him with a
+series of orations directed against Antony, which were so keen and
+bitter, and had such an effect upon the people, that Antony was declared
+a public enemy. Octavius marched to meet him and Lepidus, who were
+marching southward with another large army.
+
+Instead of fighting, however, the three leaders met in secret conclave,
+and agreed to divide the power in Rome between them. This compact is
+known as the Second Triumvirate. Its members followed the example of
+Marius and Sulla, not that of Caesar, and resolved to extirpate their
+enemies. Each of them gave up personal friends to the vengeance of the
+others. Of their victims the most famous was Cicero, who had delivered
+his orations against Antony in aid of Octavius. The ambitious boy was
+base enough to yield his friend to the vengeance of the incensed Antony.
+No less than three hundred senators and two thousand knights fell
+victims to this new proscription, which while it lasted made a reign of
+terror in Rome.
+
+Brutus and Cassius had meanwhile made themselves masters of Greece and
+the eastern provinces of Rome, and were ready to meet the forces of the
+Triumvirate in the field. The decisive battle was fought on the field
+of Philippi in Northern Greece. The division of Cassius was defeated,
+and he killed himself in despair. Twenty days afterwards another battle
+was fought on the same field, in which Brutus was defeated, and likewise
+put an end to his life. The triumvirs were undisputed lords of Rome. The
+imperial rule of Caesar had lasted but a few months, and ended with his
+life. But with Octavius began an imperial era which lasted till the end
+of the dominion of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA._
+
+
+The battles of Philippi and the death of Brutus and Cassius put an end
+to the republican party to whom Caesar owed his death. The whole realm
+was handed over to the imperial Triumvirate, who now made a new division
+of the vast Roman world. Antony took as his share all the mighty realm
+of the East; Octavius all the West. To Lepidus, whom his powerful
+confederates did not take the trouble to consult, only Africa was left.
+
+The after-career of Antony was a curious and impressive one. He loved a
+bewitching Egyptian queen, and for a false love lost the vast dominion
+he had won. The story is one of the most romantic and popular of all
+that have come to us from the past. It has been told in detail by
+Plutarch and richly dramatized by Shakespeare. We give it here in brief
+epitome.
+
+Fourteen years previously Antony had visited Alexandria, and had there
+seen the youthful Cleopatra, then a girl of fifteen, but already so
+beautiful and attractive that the susceptible Roman was deeply smitten
+with her charms. Later she had charmed Caesar, and now when the lord of
+the East set out on a tour of his new dominions, the love queen of Egypt
+left her capital for Cilicia with the purpose of making him her captive.
+
+It was midsummer of the year 41 B.C. when Antony arrived at Tarsus, on
+the river Cydnus. Up this stream to visit him came, in more than
+Oriental pomp, the beautiful Egyptian queen. The galley that bore her
+was gorgeous beyond comparison. Its sails were of Tyrian purple; silver
+oars fretted the yielding wave, while music timed their rise and fall;
+the poop glittered with burnished gold; rich perfumes filled the air
+with fragrance. Here, on a splendid couch, under a spangled canopy,
+reclined Cleopatra, attired as Venus, and surrounded by attendants
+dressed as Graces and Cupids. Beautiful slaves moved oars and ropes, and
+the whole array was one of wondrous charm. We cannot do better than
+quote Shakespeare's vivid description of this unequalled spectacle:
+
+  "The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne,
+  Burned on the water; the poop was beaten gold;
+  Purple the sails, and so perfumed that
+  The winds were love-sick with them; the oars were silver,
+  Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made
+  The water that they beat to follow faster,
+  As amorous of their strokes. For her own person,
+  It beggared all description; she did lie
+  In her pavilion--cloth-of-gold of tissue--
+  Outpicturing that Venus where we see
+  The fancy outwork nature; on each side her
+  Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,
+  With divers-colored fans, whose wind did seem
+  To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool."
+
+The people of Tarsus ran in crowds to gaze on this wondrous spectacle,
+leaving Antony alone in the Forum. At the request of Cleopatra he came
+also, and was so captivated at sight that he became her slave. He forgot
+Rome, forgot his wife Fulvia, forgot honor and dignity, through his wild
+passion for this Egyptian sorceress. Following her to Alexandria, he
+laid aside his Roman garb for the Oriental costume of the Egyptian
+court, gave way to all Cleopatra's pleasure-loving caprices, and lived
+in a perpetual round of orgies and festivities, heedless of honor and
+duty, and caring for naught but love and sensual enjoyment.
+
+Intoxicated with pleasure, Antony did not know what risk he ran. Shortly
+before Octavius had been spoken of as a boy, whom it would be easy to
+manage and control. He was feeble and sickly,--so much so, indeed, that
+just at this time his death was reported in Rome. But the "boy" was
+ambitious, astute, and far-seeing, and Marc Antony was descending to
+ruin with every step he took in his career of folly and profligacy.
+
+The history of the succeeding years is long, but must here be made
+short. The two lords of Rome were changed from friends to enemies by the
+act of Fulvia, the wife of Antony. Octavius had married her daughter
+Claudia, and now divorced her. Anger at this, and a hope of winning
+Antony from the seductions of the Egyptian queen, caused her to organize
+a formidable revolt against Octavius. She succeeded in raising a large
+army, but Antony was still too absorbed in Cleopatra to come to her aid,
+and Agrippa, the able general of Octavius, soon put down the revolt.
+
+Then, when it was too late to help her, Antony awoke from his lethargy,
+and sailed to battle with Octavius. He besieged Brundusium. But Fulvia
+had died, the soldiers had no heart for civil war, and the great rivals
+again made peace. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, they
+divided the Roman world between them as before, and Rome was made happy
+by a grand round of games and festivities.
+
+[Illustration: THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA.]
+
+For three years Antony remained true to his new wife, and aided Octavius
+in putting down the foes of Rome. Then, during a campaign in Syria, his
+old passion for the fascinating Egyptian returned, he called Cleopatra
+to him, dallied with her instead of prosecuting his march, and in the
+end was forced to retreat in haste from the barbarian foe.
+
+For three years now Antony was the willing slave of the enchanting
+queen. The courage and stoical endurance of the soldier vanished, and
+were replaced by the soft indulgence of the voluptuary. The rigid
+discipline of the camp was exchanged for the idle and often childish
+amusements of the Oriental court. Cleopatra enchained him with an
+endless round of pleasures and profligacies. Now, while in a
+fishing-boat on the Nile, the queen amused him by having salted fish
+fixed by divers on his hook, which he drew up amid the laughter of the
+party. Again she wagered that she would consume ten million sesterces at
+a meal, and won her wager by drinking vinegar in which she had dissolved
+a priceless pearl. All the enjoyments that the fancy of the cunning
+enchantress could devise were spread around him, and he let the world
+roll unheeded by while he yielded to their alluring charm.
+
+Antony posed at festive tables in the character of the god Osiris, while
+Cleopatra played the role of Isis. He issued coins which bore her head
+and his. He gave away kingdoms and principalities in the East to please
+her fancy. It was her hope and aim to lead her yielding lover to the
+conquest of Rome, and to rule as empress of that imperial city.
+
+But the madness of Antony led to destruction, not empire. The story of
+his doings was repeated at Rome, where the voluptuary lost credit as
+Octavius gained it. Antony's friends urged him to dismiss Cleopatra and
+fight for the empire. Instead of this the infatuated madman divorced
+Octavia and clung to the Egyptian queen.
+
+This act led to an open rupture. Octavius, by authority of the senate,
+declared war, not against Antony, but against Cleopatra. Antony was at
+length roused. He gathered an army in haste, passed to Ephesus and
+Athens, and everywhere levied men and collected ships. A last and great
+struggle for the supreme headship of the Roman world was at hand.
+
+Octavius was not skilled in war, but he had in Agrippa one of the ablest
+of ancient generals, and was wise enough to trust all warlike operations
+to him. Antony had strongly fortified himself at Actium, on the west
+coast of Greece, while the strong fleet he had gathered lay in its
+spacious bay. Here took place one of the decisive battles of the world's
+history.
+
+Antony had made the fatal mistake of bringing Cleopatra with him. Under
+her advice he played the part of a poltroon instead of a soldier. His
+chief officers, disgusted by his fascination, deserted him in numbers,
+and, yielding to her urgent fears, he resolved to fly with the fleet and
+abandon the army.
+
+In this act of folly he failed. A strong gale from the south kept the
+fleet for four days in the harbor. Then the ships of Octavius came up,
+and the two fleets joined battle off the headland of Actium.
+
+The ships of Antony were much larger and more powerful than those of
+Octavius. Little impression was made on them by the light Italian
+vessels, and had Antony been a soldier still, or Cleopatra possessed as
+much courage as guile, the victory might well have been theirs. But
+battle was no place for the pleasure-loving queen. Filled with terror,
+she took advantage of the first wind that came, and sailed hastily away,
+followed by sixty Egyptian ships.
+
+The moment Antony discovered her flight he gave up the world for love.
+Springing from his ship-of-war into a light galley, he hastened in wild
+pursuit after his flying mistress. Overtaking her vessel, he went on
+board, but seated himself in morose misery at a distance, and would have
+nothing to do with her. Ruin and despair were now his mistresses.
+
+Their commander fled, the ships fought on, and yielded not till the
+greater part of them were in flames. Before night they were all
+destroyed, and with them perished most of those on board, while all the
+treasure was lost. When the army heard of Antony's desertion the legions
+went over to the conqueror. That brief sea-fight had ended the war.
+
+For a year Octavius did not trouble his rival. He spent the time in
+cementing his power in Greece and Asia Minor. Cleopatra tried her
+fascinations on him, as she had on Caesar and Antony, but in vain. She
+sought to fly to some place beyond the reach of Rome, but Arabs
+destroyed her ships. At length Octavius came. Antony made some show of
+hostility, but Cleopatra betrayed the fleet to his rival and all
+resistance ended. Octavius entered the open gates of Alexandria as a
+conqueror.
+
+The queen shut herself up in a building which she had erected as a
+mausoleum. It had no door, being built to receive her body after death,
+and word was sent out that she was already dead.
+
+When these false tidings were brought to Antony all his anger against
+the fair traitress was replaced by a flood of his old tenderness. In
+despair he stabbed himself, bidding his attendants to lay his body
+beside that of Cleopatra.
+
+Still living, he was borne to the queen's retreat, where, moved by pity,
+she had him drawn up by cords into an upper window. Here she threw
+herself in agony on his body, bathed his face with her tears, and
+continued to bemoan his fate until he was dead.
+
+She afterwards consented to receive Octavius. He spoke her fairly, but
+she was wise enough to see that all her charms were lost on him, and
+that he proposed to degrade her by making her walk as a captive in his
+triumph.
+
+With a cunning greater than his own, Cleopatra promised to submit. She
+had no apparent means of taking her life in the cell, every dangerous
+weapon was removed by his orders, and he left her, as he supposed, a
+safe victim of his wiles.
+
+He did not know Cleopatra. When his messengers returned, at the hour
+fixed, to conduct her away, they found only the dead body of Cleopatra
+stretched upon her couch, and by her side her two faithful attendants,
+Iris and Charmion. It is said that she died from the bite of an asp, a
+venomous Egyptian serpent, which had been secretly conveyed to her
+concealed in a basket of fruit; but this story remains unconfirmed.
+
+Plutarch tells the story thus: "But when they opened the doors they
+found Cleopatra stark dead, laid upon a bed of gold, attired and arrayed
+in her royal robes, and one of her two women, who was called Iris, dead
+at her feet, and the other woman (called Charmion) half dead, and
+trembling, trimming the diadem which Cleopatra wore upon her head.
+
+"One of the soldiers, seeing her, angrily said to her, 'Is that well
+done, Charmion?' 'Very well,' said she again, 'and meet for a princess
+descended from the race of so many noble kings.' She said no more, but
+fell down dead, hard by the bed.
+
+"Now Caesar, though he was marvellous sorry for the death of Cleopatra,
+yet he wondered at her noble mind and courage, and therefore commanded
+that she should be nobly buried and laid by Antony."
+
+Thus ends the story of these two famous lovers of old. Octavius,
+afterwards known as Caesar Augustus, reigned sole emperor of Rome, and
+the republic was at an end. He was not formally proclaimed emperor, but
+liberty and independence were thereafter forgotten words in Rome. He
+ended the old era of Roman history by closing the Temple of Janus, for
+the third time since it was built, and by freely forgiving all the
+friends of Antony. He had nothing to fear and had no thirst for blood
+and misery. Base as he had shown himself in his youth, his reign was a
+noble one, and during it Rome reached its highest level of literary and
+military glory.
+
+
+
+
+_AN IMPERIAL MONSTER._
+
+
+A being, half monster, half madman, had come to empire in Rome. This was
+Caius Caesar, great-grandson of Augustus, who in his short career as
+emperor displayed a malignant cruelty unsurpassed by the worst of Roman
+emperors, and a mad folly unequalled by any. The only conceivable excuse
+for him is mental disease; but insanity which takes the form of thirst
+for blood, and is combined with unlimited power, is a spectacle to make
+the very gods weep. We describe his career as the most exaggerated
+instance on record of mingled folly and malignity.
+
+Brought up in the camp, he was christened by the soldiers Caligula, from
+the soldier's boots (_caligae_) which he wore. By shrewd dissimulation he
+preserved his life through the reign of Tiberius, and was left heir to
+the throne along with the emperor's grandson. But, deceiving the senate
+by his pretended moderation, he was appointed by that body sole emperor.
+
+They little knew what they did. Tiberius, who appears to have read him
+truly, spoke of educating him "for the destruction of the Roman people,"
+and Caligula seemed eager to make these words good. At first, indeed,
+he seemed generous and merciful, mingling this affectation with a savage
+profligacy and voluptuousness. Illness, however, apparently affected his
+brain or destroyed what little moral nature he possessed, and he quickly
+embarked on a career of frightful excess and barbarity.
+
+The great wealth left by Tiberius--over twenty-five million dollars--was
+expended by him in a single year, and to gain new funds he taxed and
+robbed his subjects to an incredible extent. One of his methods of
+finance was to force wealthy citizens to gamble with him for enormous
+sums, and when they lost their all (they dared not win), he would make
+their lives the stake and bid their friends redeem them. In addition to
+this open robbery of the rich, taxes of all sorts were laid and
+unlimited oppressions enforced. The new edicts of the emperor were
+written so small and posted so high as to be unreadable, yet no excuse
+of ignorance of the law was admitted in extenuation of a fault.
+
+The funds obtained by such oppressive means were lavished on the most
+extravagant follies. We are told of loaves of solid gold set before his
+guests, and the prows of galleys adorned with diamonds. His favorite
+horse was kept in an ivory stable and fed from a golden manger, and when
+invited to a banquet at his own table was regaled with gilded oats,
+served in a golden basin of exquisite workmanship.
+
+In addition to these domestic follies, he built villas and laid out
+gardens without regard to cost; and, that he might vie with Xerxes, he
+constructed a bridge of ships three miles long, from Baiae to Puteoli,
+on which he built houses and planted trees. This madness was concluded
+by throwing a great many of his guests from the bridge into the sea, and
+by driving recklessly with his war-galley through the throng of boats
+that had gathered to witness the spectacle.
+
+These cruelties were mild compared with his more deliberate ones. Rome
+was filled with executions, the estates of his victims being
+confiscated; and it was his choice delight to have these victims
+tortured and slain in his presence while at dinner, the officers being
+bidden to protract their sufferings, that they might "feel themselves
+die." On one occasion he expressed the mad wish that all the Roman
+people had but one neck, that he might strike it off at a blow.
+
+Priding himself on the indifference with which he could gaze on human
+torture, it was one of his enjoyments to witness criminals torn to
+pieces by wild beasts, and if criminals proved scarce he did not
+hesitate to order some of the spectators to be thrown into the arena. In
+the same manner, if a full supply of gladiators was wanting, he would
+command Roman knights to battle in the arena, taking delight in the fact
+that this was viewed as an infamous pursuit. He kept two lists
+containing names of knights and senators whom he intended to put to
+death, and these contained the majority of both those bodies of Roman
+patricians. He is said to have put one man to death for being better
+dressed than himself, and another for being better looking.
+
+He married more wives than he had years of empire; but when one of
+these wives, Drusilla by name, died, he affected the bitterest grief,
+exiling himself to Sicily, and letting his beard and hair grow into wild
+disorder. On his return to Rome his subjects found themselves in a
+dangerous quandary. Those who made a show of sadness were declared
+guilty of disrespect to the memory of the queen, who had been translated
+to the joys of heaven. Those who seemed glad were adjudged equally
+guilty for not mourning her loss. And those who showed neither joy nor
+sorrow were accused of criminal indifference to his feelings. One man,
+who sold warm water in the streets, was sentenced to death for daring to
+pursue his occupation on so solemn an occasion.
+
+At a loss, as it would appear, in what madness next to indulge, Caligula
+finally not only declared himself a god, but erected a temple to his own
+divinity, and created a college of priests to serve at his altar. Among
+these were some of the first senators of Rome, who vied with each other
+in adulation to this impious wretch. Not content with these, he made his
+wife a priest, then his horse, and at length became a priest to himself.
+He played with the dignities of the realm in the same manner as with its
+religion, raised the ministers of his lusts to the highest offices, and
+finally went so far as to make his horse a consul of Rome.
+
+In his position as a deity he pretended to be equal to and on friendly
+terms with Jupiter, and would whisper in the ears of his statue as if
+they were in familiar intercourse. He had a machine constructed to vie
+with Jupiter's thunder, and during the lightning of a storm would
+challenge the god to mortal combat by hurling stones into the air.
+
+This succession of mad frolics and ruthless cruelties should, it would
+seem, have satisfied even a Caligula, but he managed to overtop them all
+by a supreme piece of folly, which stands alone among human freaks.
+Hitherto his doings had been those of peace; he now resolved to gain
+glory in war, and show the Romans what a man of soldierly mettle they
+had in their emperor. There were no particular wars then afoot, but he
+would make one, and resolved on an invasion of Germany, whose people
+were at that time quiet subjects or allies of Rome.
+
+To decide with him was to act. The army was ordered to prepare with the
+utmost haste, and was driven so fiercely that all was in confusion, the
+roads everywhere being blocked up with hurrying troops and great convoys
+of provisions, all converging rapidly on the line of march. Not waiting
+their arrival, he put himself at the head of the first legions gathered,
+and set out on the march with such furious speed that the legionaries
+were utterly exhausted with fatigue. Then, suddenly changing his mood,
+he affected the slow progress and military pomp of an Oriental king.
+
+On reaching the borders of Germany the emperor found no foes and showed
+no fancy for fighting. Concealing some boys in a wood, he got up a mock
+battle with them, and at its end congratulated the troops on their valor
+and felicitated himself on his success. Next, the British island being
+still under process of conquest, he marched his army, two hundred
+thousand strong, to the sea-shore of Gaul, and drew them up in line of
+battle. The legionaries stolidly obeyed, wondering in their stern souls
+what new madness the emperor had in mind.
+
+They were soon to know. He bade them to fill their helmets with
+sea-shells, "the spoils of the ocean due to the Capitol and the palace."
+Then he distributed large sums of money among the troops, giving a
+reward for valor to each, and bidding them "henceforth to be happy and
+rich."
+
+This was all well for the army, but the people of Rome must be impressed
+with the glory and victorious success of their emperor. Such a career
+was worthy a triumph; and to the German hostages and criminals, destined
+to figure in the procession to the Capitol, he added a number of tall
+and martial Gauls, chosen without regard to rank or condition, whom he
+ordered to learn German, that they might pass for German captives.
+
+And now, his military expedition having ended without shedding the blood
+of a foe, Caligula's insane thirst for blood arose, and he determined to
+glut it out of the ranks of his own army. There were in it some
+regiments which had mutinied against his father on the death of
+Augustus. He ordered these to be slaughtered for their crime. Some of
+his higher officers representing to him the danger of such a proceeding,
+he changed his mind, and gave orders that these legions should be
+decimated. But the whole army showed such symptoms of discontent with
+this cruel order that Caligula was seized with consternation, and fled
+in a panic to Rome.
+
+On reaching the city the senate proved bold enough to vote him an
+ovation instead of the triumph on which he had set his mind. Incensed at
+this, he met the advances of the patricians with stinging insults, and
+perhaps determined in his mind to be deeply revenged for this
+premeditated slight.
+
+Whatever he had in view, he did not live much longer to afflict mankind.
+Four months more brought him to the end of his flagitious career. There
+was a brave soldier of the palace guard, Cassius Chaerea by name, who
+happened to have a weak voice, and whom Caligula frequently insulted in
+public for this fault of nature. These insults in time grew heavier and
+viler than the veteran could bear, and he organized a conspiracy with a
+few others against the emperor's life. Meeting him without guards, the
+conspirators assailed him with their daggers and put an end to his base
+life.
+
+Thus died, after twenty-nine years of life and four years of power, one
+of the vilest, cruellest, and maddest of the imperial demons who so long
+made Rome a slaughter-house and an abomination among the nations.
+
+
+
+
+_THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS._
+
+
+Nero was lord of Rome. Chance had placed a weak and immoral boy in
+unlimited control of the greatest of nations. Utterly destitute of
+principle, he gradually descended into the deepest vice and profligacy,
+which was soon succeeded by the basest cruelty and treachery. And one of
+the first victims of his treachery was his own mother, who had murdered
+her husband, the Emperor Claudius, to place him on the throne, and had
+now committed the deeper fault of attempting to control her worthless
+and faithless son.
+
+She had threatened to replace him on the throne with his half-brother
+Britannicus, and Nero had escaped this difficulty by poisoning
+Britannicus. She then opposed his vicious passions, and made a bitter
+foe of his mistress Poppaea, who by every artifice incensed the
+weak-minded emperor against his mother, representing her as the only
+obstacle to his full enjoyment of power and pleasure.
+
+At length the detestable son was wrought up to the resolution of
+murdering her to whom he owed his life. But how? He was too cowardly and
+irresolute to take open means. Should he remove her by poison or the
+poignard? The first was doubtful. Agrippina was too practised in guilt,
+too accustomed to vile deeds, to be easily deceived, and had, moreover,
+by taking poisons, hardened her frame against their effect. Nor could
+she be killed by the knife and the murder concealed. The murder-seeking
+wretch, who had no plan, and no stronger person than himself in whom he
+could confide, was at a loss how to carry out his wicked purpose.
+
+At this juncture his tutor Anicetus came to his aid. This villain, who
+bitterly hated Agrippina, was now in command of the fleet that lay at
+Misenum. He proposed to Nero to have a vessel built in such a manner
+that it might give way in the open sea, and plunge to the bottom with
+all not prepared to escape. If Agrippina could be lured on board such a
+vessel, her drowning would seem one of the natural disasters of the open
+sea.
+
+This suggestion filled with joy the mind of the unnatural son. The court
+was then at Baiae, celebrating the festival called the Quinquatria.
+Agrippina was invited to attend, and Nero, pretending a desire for
+reconciliation, went to the sea-shore to meet her on her arrival,
+embraced her tenderly, and conducted her to a villa in a pleasant
+situation, looking out on a charming bay of the Mediterranean.
+
+On the waters of the bay floated a number of vessels, among which was
+one superbly decorated, being prepared, as she was told, in her honor as
+the emperor's mother. This was intended to convey her to Baiae, where a
+banquet was to be given to her that evening.
+
+Agrippina was fond of sailing. She had frequently joined coasting
+parties and made pleasure trips of her own. But for some reason, perhaps
+through suspicion of Nero's dark project, she now took a carriage in
+preference, and arrived safely at Baiae, much to the discomfiture of her
+worthless son.
+
+Nero, however, was cunning enough to conceal his disappointment. He gave
+her the most gracious reception, placed her at table above himself, and
+by his affectionate attentions and his easy flow of talk succeeded in
+dispelling any suspicions his mother may have entertained.
+
+The banquet was continued till a late hour, and when Agrippina rose to
+go Nero attended her to the shore, where lay the sumptuously decorated
+vessel ready to convey her back to her villa. Here he lavished upon her
+marks of fond affection, clasped her warmly to his bosom, and bade her
+adieu in words of tender regret, disguising his fell purpose under the
+utmost show of tenderness.
+
+Agrippina went on board, attended by only two of her train, one of whom,
+a maid named Acerronia, lay at the foot of her mistress's couch, and
+gladly expressed her joy at the loving reconciliation which she had just
+perceived.
+
+The night was calm and serene. The stars shone with their brightest
+lustre. The sea extended with an unruffled surface. The vessel moved
+swiftly, at no great distance from the shore, under the regular sweep of
+the rowers' oars. Yet little way had been made when there came a
+disastrous change. A signal was given, and suddenly the deck over
+Agrippina's cabin sank in, borne down by a great weight of lead.
+
+One of the attendants of the empress was crushed to death, but the posts
+of Agrippina's couch proved strong enough to bear the weight, and she
+and Acerronia escaped and made their way hastily to the deck. Here
+confusion and consternation reigned. The plot had failed. The vessel had
+not fallen to pieces at once, as intended. Those who were not in the
+plot rushed wildly to and fro, hampering, by their distracted movements,
+the operations of the guilty. These sought to sink the vessel at once,
+but in spite of their efforts the ship sank but slowly, giving the
+intended victims an opportunity to escape.
+
+Acerronia, with instinctive devotion to her mistress, or a desire to
+save her own life, cried out that she was Agrippina, and pathetically
+implored the mariners to save her life. She won death instead. The
+assassins attacked her with oars and other weapons, and beat her down to
+the sinking deck. Agrippina, on the contrary, kept silent, and, with the
+exception of a wound on her shoulder, remained unhurt. Dashing into the
+dark waters of the bay, she swam towards the shore, and managed to keep
+herself afloat till taken up by a boat, in which some persons who had
+witnessed the accident from the shore had hastily put out. Telling her
+rescuers who she was, they conveyed her up the bay to her villa.
+
+Agrippina had been concerned in too many crimes of her own devising to
+be deceived. The treachery of her son was too evident. Without touching
+a rock, and in complete calm, the vessel had suddenly broken down, as
+if constructed for the purpose. Her own wound and the murder of her maid
+were further proofs of a preconcerted plot. Yet she was too shrewd to
+make her suspicions public. The plot had failed, and she was still
+alive. She at once despatched a messenger to her son, saying that by the
+favor of the gods and his good auspices she had escaped shipwreck, and
+that she thus hastened to quiet his affectionate fears. She then retired
+to her couch.
+
+Meanwhile Nero waited impatiently for the news of his mother's death.
+When word was at length brought him that she had escaped, his craven
+soul was filled with terror. If this should get abroad; if she should
+call on her slaves, on the army, on the senate; if the people should
+learn of the plot of murder, and rise in riot; if any of a dozen
+contingencies should happen, all might be lost.
+
+The terrified emperor was in a frightful quandary. He sent in all haste
+for his advisers, but none of them cared to offer any suggestions. At
+length the villanous Anicetus came to his aid. While they talked the
+messenger of Agrippina had arrived, and was admitted to give his message
+to the prince. As he was speaking Anicetus foxily let fall a dagger
+between his legs. He instantly seized him, snatched up the dagger and
+showed it to the company, and declared that the wretch had been sent by
+Agrippina to assassinate her son. The guards were called in, the man was
+ordered to be dragged away and put in fetters, and the story of the
+discovered plot of Agrippina was made public.
+
+"Death to the murderess!" cried Anicetus. "Let me hasten at once to
+her punishment."
+
+Nero gladly assented, and Anicetus hurried from the room, empowered to
+carry out his murderous intent.
+
+Meanwhile the news of the peril and escape of the empress had spread far
+and wide. A dreadful accident had occurred, it was said. The people
+rushed in numbers to the shore, crowded the piers, filled the boats, and
+gave voice to a medley of cries of alarm. The uproar was at length
+allayed by some men with lighted torches, who assured the excited
+multitude that Agrippina had escaped and was now safe in her villa.
+
+While they were speaking a body of soldiers, led by Anicetus, arrived,
+and with threats of violence dispersed the peasant throng. Then,
+planting a guard round the mansion, Anicetus burst open its doors,
+seized the slaves who appeared, and forced his way to the apartment of
+the empress.
+
+Here Agrippina waited in fear and agitation the return of her messenger.
+Why came he not? Was new murder in contemplation? She heard the tumult
+and confusion on the shore, and learned from her attendants what it
+meant. But the noise was suddenly hushed; a dismal silence prevailed;
+then came new noises, then loud tones of command, and violent blows on
+the outer doors. In dread of what was coming, the unhappy woman waited
+still, till loud steps sounded in the passage, the attendants at her
+door were thrust aside, and armed men entered her chamber.
+
+The room was in deep shadow, only the pale glimmer of a feeble light
+breaking the gloom. A single maid remained with the empress, and she,
+too, hastened to the door on hearing the tramp of warlike feet.
+
+"Do you, too, desert me?" cried Agrippina, in deep reproach.
+
+At that moment Anicetus entered the room, followed by two other
+ruffians. They approached her bed. She rose to receive them.
+
+"If you come from the prince," she said, "tell him I am well. If your
+intents are murderous, you are not sent by my son. The guilt of
+parricide is foreign to his heart."
+
+Her words were checked by a blow on the head with a club. A sword-thrust
+followed, and she expired under a number of mortal wounds. Thus died the
+niece, the wife, and the mother of an emperor, the daughter of the
+celebrated soldier Germanicus, herself so stained with vice that none
+can pity her fate, particularly as she had committed the further
+unconscious crime of giving birth to the monster named Nero.
+
+
+
+
+_BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN._
+
+
+Prasutagus, the king of the Icenians, a tribe of the ancient Britons,
+had amassed much wealth in the course of a long reign. On his death, in
+order to secure the favor of the Romans, now masters of the island, he
+left half his wealth by will to the emperor and half to his two
+daughters. This well-judged action of the barbarian king did not have
+the intended effect. No sooner was he dead than the Romans in the
+vicinity claimed the whole estate as theirs, ruthlessly pillaged his
+house, and seized all his effects.
+
+This base brigandage roused Boadicea, the widowed queen, to a vigorous
+protest, but with the sole result of bringing a worse calamity upon her
+head. She was seized and cruelly scourged by the ruthless Romans, her
+two daughters were vilely maltreated, and the noblest of the Icenians
+were robbed of their possessions by the plunderers, who went so far as
+to reduce to slavery the near relatives of the deceased king.
+
+Roused to madness by this inhuman treatment, the Icenians broke into
+open revolt. They were joined by a neighboring state, while the
+surrounding Britons, not yet inured to bondage, secretly resolved to
+join the cause of liberty. There had lately been planted a colony of
+Roman veterans at Camalodunum (Colchester), who had treated the Britons
+cruelly, driven them from their houses, and insulted them with the names
+of slaves and captives; while the common soldiers, a licentious and
+greedy crew, still further degraded and robbed the owners of the land.
+
+The invaders went too far for British endurance, and brought a terrible
+retribution upon themselves. Paulinus Suetonius, an able officer, who
+then commanded in Britain, was absent on an expedition to conquer the
+island of Mona. Of this expedition the historian Tacitus gives a vivid
+account. As the boats of the Romans approached the island they beheld on
+the shore the Britons prepared to receive them, while through their
+ranks rushed their women in funereal attire, their hair flying loose in
+the wind, flaming torches in their hands, and their whole appearance
+recalling the frantic rage of the fabled Furies. Near by, ranged in
+order, stood the venerable Druids, or Celtic priests, with uplifted
+hands, at once invoking the gods and pouring forth imprecations upon the
+foe.
+
+The novelty and impressiveness of this spectacle filled the Romans with
+awe and wonder. They stood in stupid amazement, riveted to the spot, and
+a mark for the foe had they been then attacked. From this brief
+paralysis the voice of their general recalled them, and, ashamed of
+being held in awe by a troop of women and a band of fanatic priests,
+they rushed to the assault, cut down all before them, and set fire to
+the edifices and the sacred groves of the island with the torches which
+the Britons themselves had kindled.
+
+But Suetonius had chosen a perilous time for this enterprise. During his
+absence the wrongs of the Icenians and the exhortations of Boadicea had
+roused a formidable revolt, and the undefended colonies of the Romans
+were in danger.
+
+In addition to the actual peril the Romans were frightened with dire
+omens. The statue of victory at Camalodunum fell without any visible
+cause, and lay prostrate on the ground. Clamors in a foreign accent were
+heard in the Roman council chamber, the theatres were filled with the
+sound of savage howlings, the sea ran purple as with blood, the figures
+of human bodies were traced on the sands, and the image of a colony in
+ruins was reflected from the waters of the Thames.
+
+These omens threw the Romans into despair and filled the minds of the
+Britons with joy. No effort was made by the soldiers for defence, no
+ditch was dug, no palisade erected, and the assault of the Britons found
+the colonists utterly unprepared. Taken by surprise, the Romans were
+overpowered, and the colony was laid waste with fire and sword. The
+fortified temple alone held out, but after a two days' siege it also was
+taken, and the legion which marched to its relief was cut to pieces.
+
+Boadicea was now the leading spirit among the Britons. Her wrongs had
+stirred them to revolt, and her warlike energy led them to victory and
+revenge. But she was soon to have a master-spirit to meet. Suetonius,
+recalled from the island of Mona by tidings of rebellion and disaster,
+marched hastily as far as London, which was even then the chief
+residence of the merchants and the centre of trade and commerce of the
+island.
+
+His army was small, not more than ten thousand men in all. That of the
+Britons was large. The interests of the empire were greater than those
+of any city, and Suetonius found himself obliged to abandon London to
+the barbarians, despite the supplications of its imperilled citizens.
+All he would agree to was to take under his protection those who chose
+to follow his banner. Many followed him, but many remained, and no
+sooner had he marched out than the Britons fell in rage on the
+settlement, and killed all they found. In like manner they ravaged
+Verulamium (St. Albans). Seventy thousand Romans are said to have been
+put to the sword.
+
+Meanwhile Suetonius marched through the land, and at length the two
+armies met. The skilled Roman general drew up his force in a place where
+a thick forest sheltered the rear and flanks, leaving only a narrow
+front open to attack. Here the Britons, twenty times his number, and
+confident of victory, approached. The warlike Boadicea, tall, stern of
+countenance, her hair hanging to her waist, a spear in her hand, drove
+along their front in a warlike car, with her two daughters by her side,
+and eloquently sought to rouse her countrymen to thirst for revenge.
+
+Telling them of the base cruelty with which she and her daughters had
+been treated, and painting in vivid words the arrogance and insults of
+the Romans, she besought them to fight for their country and their
+homes. "On this spot we must either conquer or die with glory," she
+said. "There is no alternative. Though I am a woman, my resolution is
+fixed. The men, if they prefer, may survive with infamy and live in
+bondage. For me there is only victory or death."
+
+Stirred to fury by her words, the British host poured like a deluge on
+their foes. But the Roman arms and discipline proved far too much for
+barbarian courage and ferocity. The British were repulsed, and, rushing
+forward in a wedge shape, the legions cut their way with frightful
+carnage through the disordered ranks. The cavalry seconded their
+efforts. Thousands fell. The rest took to flight. But the wagons of the
+British, which had been massed in the rear, impeded their flight, and a
+dreadful slaughter, in which neither sex nor age was spared, ensued.
+Tacitus tells us that eighty thousand Britons fell, while the Roman
+slain numbered no more than four hundred men.
+
+Boadicea, who had done her utmost to rally her flying hosts, kept to her
+resolution. When all was lost, she took poison, and perished upon the
+field where she had vowed to seek victory or death. With her decease the
+success of the Britons vanished. Though they still kept the field, they
+gradually yielded to the Roman arms, and Britain became in time a quiet
+and peaceful part of the great empire of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES._
+
+
+Nero, the cruel coward under whom Rome for its sins was made to suffer,
+could scarcely devise follies and atrocities enough to please his
+profligate fancy. He offended the pride and sense of decorum of Rome by
+forcing senators and women of the highest rank to appear as gladiators
+in the arena. He exposed himself to ridicule by appearing as an actor in
+the theatre at Naples, which theatre, as soon as the audience dispersed,
+tumbled to pieces,--a little late so far as Nero himself was concerned.
+Returning to Rome, he indulged in every species of vice and folly,
+lavishing the wealth of the state with the utmost prodigality. On the
+lake of Agrippa he had a pavilion erected on a great floating platform,
+which was moved from point to point by the aid of boats superbly
+decorated with gold and ivory, while to furnish the banquet here given,
+animals of the chase were sought in the whole country round, and fish
+were brought from every sea and even from the distant ocean. When night
+descended a sudden illumination burst forth from all sides, and music
+resounded from every grove. These are the mentionable parts of the
+festival. Vile scenes were exhibited of which nothing can be said.
+
+Finally, at a loss in what deeper excess of vice and ostentation to
+indulge, the crowned reprobate set fire to Rome that he might enjoy the
+spectacle of an unlimited conflagration. This wickedness, it is true, is
+doubted by some historians, but we are told that during the prevalence
+of the flames a crew of incendiaries threatened anyone with death who
+should seek to extinguish them, and flung flaming torches into the
+dwellings, crying that they acted under orders.
+
+In all the history of Rome this fire was far the most violent and
+destructive. Breaking out in a number of shops stored with combustible
+goods, and driven by the winds, it raged with the utmost fury, neither
+the thick walls of the houses nor the enclosures of the temples
+sufficing to stay its frightful progress. The form of the streets, long,
+narrow, and winding, added to the mischief, and the flames swiftly sped
+alike through the humblest and the stateliest quarters of the mighty
+capital.
+
+"The shrieks and lamentations of women, the infirmities of age, and the
+weakness of the young and tender," says Tacitus, "added misery to the
+dreadful scene. Some endeavored to provide for themselves, others to
+save their friends, in one part dragging along the lame and impotent, in
+another waiting to receive the tardy, or expecting relief themselves;
+they hurried, they lingered, they obstructed one another; they looked
+behind, and the fire broke out in front; they escaped from the flames,
+and in their place of refuge found no safety; the fire raged in every
+quarter; all were involved in one general conflagration.
+
+"The unhappy wretches fled to places remote, and thought themselves
+secure, but soon perceived the flames raging round them. Which way to
+turn, what to avoid, or what to seek, no one could tell. They crowded
+the streets; they fell prostrate on the ground; they lay stretched in
+the fields, in consternation and dismay resigned to their fate. Numbers
+lost their whole substance, even the tools and implements by which they
+gained their livelihood, and, in that distress, did not wish to survive.
+Others, wild with affliction for their friends and relations whom they
+could not save, embraced voluntary death, and perished in the flames."
+
+The story goes that, while the city was in its intensest blaze, Nero
+watched it with high enjoyment from a tower in the house of Maecenas, and
+finally went to his own theatre, where in his scenic dress he mounted
+the stage, tuned his harp, and sang the destruction of Troy.
+
+How far Nero was guilty and to what extent the stories told of him were
+true will never be known, but he was destined to feel the calamity
+himself, for in time the devouring flames reached the imperial palace,
+and laid it with all its treasures and surrounding buildings in ruins.
+For six days the fire raged uncontrolled, and then, when it seemed
+subdued, a new conflagration broke out and burned with all the old fury,
+spreading still more widely the area of ruin and devastation.
+
+The number of buildings destroyed cannot be ascertained. Not only
+dwellings and shops, but temples, porticos, and other public buildings,
+were destroyed, among them the most venerable monuments of antiquity,
+which the worship of ages had rendered sacred; and with these the
+trophies of uncounted victories, the inimitable works of the great
+artists of Greece, and precious monuments of literature and ancient
+genius, were irrecoverably lost.
+
+Whether or not this fire took place through Nero's orders, and was
+played to by him on the harp, he showed more feeling for the people and
+more good sense in the rebuilding of the city than could have been
+expected from one of his weak and vicious character. By his orders the
+Field of Mars, the magnificent buildings erected by Agrippa, and even
+the imperial gardens were thrown open to the houseless people, and sheds
+for their shelter were erected with all possible haste. Household
+utensils and all kinds of useful implements were brought from Ostia and
+other neighboring cities, and the price of grain was reduced. But all
+this failed to gain the good-will of the people, who were exasperated by
+the story that Nero had exulted in the grandeur of the flames, and
+harped over burning Rome.
+
+When the fire was at length subdued, of the fourteen quarters of Rome
+only four were left entire; the remainder presented more or less utter
+ruin. The conflagration in the time of the Gauls had been little more
+complete, while the wealth now consumed was incomparably greater. The
+whole world had been robbed of its treasures to feed the flames of Rome.
+But the haste and ill-judged confusion with which the city was rebuilt
+after the irruption of the Gauls was not now repeated. A regular plan
+was formed; the new streets were made wide and straight; the elevation
+of the houses was defined, and each was given an open area before the
+door, and was adorned with porticos. The expense of these porticos Nero
+took upon himself. He ordered also that the new houses should not be
+contiguous, but that each should be surrounded by its own enclosure;
+and, in order to hurry the work, he offered rewards to those who should
+finish their buildings in a fixed period. As for the refuse of the fire,
+it was removed at Nero's expense to the marshes of Ostia in the ships
+that brought corn up the Tiber.
+
+These regulations, while they must have made much confusion among the
+rival claimants of building sites, added greatly to the beauty and
+comfort of the new city, and the Rome which rose from the ruins was far
+more stately and handsome than the Rome which had vanished in ashes and
+smoke. But Nero, while showing some passing feeling for the people and
+some wisdom in the rebuilding of the city, did not hesitate to use a
+generous portion of the devastated space for his own advantage. His
+palace had been destroyed, and he built a new and most magnificent one
+on the Palatine Hill, the famous "golden house," which after-ages beheld
+with unstinted admiration.
+
+But he did not confine his ostentation to the palace itself. A great
+space around it was converted into pleasure-grounds for his amusement,
+in which, as Tacitus says, "expansive lakes and fields of vast extent
+were intermixed with pleasing variety; woods and forests stretched to
+an immeasurable length, presenting gloom and solitude amid scenes of
+open space, where the eye wandered with surprise over an unbounded
+prospect."
+
+But nothing that Nero could do sufficed to remove from men's minds the
+belief that on him rested the infamy of the fire. This public sentiment
+troubled and frightened him, and to remove it he sought to lay the
+burden of guilt on others. It was now the year 64 A.D., and for at least
+thirty years the new sect of the Christians had been spreading in Rome,
+where it had gained many adherents among the humbler and more moral
+section of the population. The Christians were far from popular. They
+were accused of secret and evil practices and debasing superstitions,
+and on this despised sect Nero determined to turn the fury of the
+populace.
+
+[Illustration: THE TOMB OF HADRIAN.]
+
+With his usual artifice he induced a number of abandoned wretches to
+confess themselves guilty, and on their purchased evidence numbers of
+the Christians were seized and convicted, mainly on the plea of their
+sullen hatred of the whole human race. A frightful persecution followed,
+Nero perhaps hoping, by an exhibition of human suffering, so dear to the
+rabble of Rome, to turn the thoughts of the people from their own
+losses.
+
+The captives were put to death with every cruelty the emperor could
+devise, and to their sufferings he added mockery and derision. Many were
+nailed to the cross; others were covered with the skins of wild beasts,
+and left to be devoured by dogs; numbers were burned alive, many of
+these, covered with inflammable matter, being set on fire to serve as
+torches during the night.
+
+That the public might see this tragic spectacle with the more
+satisfaction, it was given in the imperial gardens. The sports of the
+circus were added to the tortures of the victims, Nero himself driving
+his chariot in the races, or mingling with the rabble in his coachman's
+dress. These cruel proceedings continued until even the hardened Roman
+heart became softened with compassion, spectators failed to come, and
+Nero felt obliged to yield to a general demand that the persecutions
+should cease.
+
+While all this went on at Rome, the people of the whole empire suffered
+with those of the capital city. Italy was ravaged and the provinces
+plundered to supply the demand for the rebuilding of the city and palace
+and the unbounded prodigality of the emperor. The very gods were taxed,
+their temples being robbed of golden treasures which had been gathering
+for ages through the gifts of pious devotees; while in Greece and Asia
+not alone the treasures of the temples but the statues of the deities
+were seized. Nero was preparing for himself a load of infamy worthy of
+the most frightful retribution, and which would not fail soon to reap
+its fitting reward.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DOOM OF NERO._
+
+
+We have perhaps paid too much attention to the enormities of Caligula
+and Nero. Yet the mad freakishness of the one and the cowardly
+dissimulation of the other give to their stories a dramatic interest
+which seems to render them worth repeating. Nero, one of the basest and
+cruelest of the Roman emperors, is one of the best known to readers, and
+the interest felt in him is not alone due to the story of his life, but
+as well to that of his death, which we therefore here give.
+
+A conspiracy against him among some of the noblest citizens of Rome was
+discovered and punished with revengeful fury. It was followed, a few
+years afterwards, by a revolt of the armies in Gaul and Spain. This was
+in its turn quelled, and Nero triumphed in imagination over all his
+enemies. But he had lost favor alike with the army and the people, and
+an event now happened that threw the whole city into a ferment of anger
+against him.
+
+Food was scarce, and the arrival of a ship from Alexandria, supposed to
+be loaded with corn, filled the people with joy. It proved instead to be
+loaded with sand for the arena. In their disappointment the people broke
+at first into scurrilous jests against Nero, and then into rage and
+fury. A wild clamor filled the streets. On all sides rose the demand to
+be delivered from a monster. Even the Praetorian guards, who had hitherto
+supported the emperor, began to show signs of disaffection, and were
+wrought to a spirit of revolt by two of the choice companions of Nero's
+iniquities, who now deserted him as rats desert a sinking ship. The
+senate was approached and told that Nero was no longer supported by his
+friends, and that they might now regain the power of which they had been
+deprived.
+
+Some whisper of what was afloat reached Nero's ears. Filled with craven
+fury, he resolved to massacre the senate, to set fire again to the city,
+and to let loose his whole collection of wild beasts. He proposed to fly
+to Egypt during the consternation that would prevail. A trusted servant,
+to whom he told this design, revealed it to the senate. It filled them
+with fear and rage. Yet even in so dire a contingency they could not be
+prevailed upon to act with vigor, and all might have been lost by their
+procrastination and timidity but for the two men who had organized the
+revolt.
+
+These men, Nymphidius and Tigellinus by name, went to the palace, and
+with a show of deep affliction informed Nero of his danger. "All is
+lost," they said: "the people call aloud for vengeance; the Praetorian
+guards have abandoned your cause; the senate is ready to pronounce a
+dreadful judgment. Only one hope remains to you, to fly for your life,
+and seek a retreat in Egypt."
+
+It was as they said; revolt was everywhere in the air, and affected the
+armies near and far. Nero sought assistance, but sought it in vain. The
+palace, lately swarming with life, was now deserted. Nero wandered
+through its empty chambers, and found only solitude and gloom.
+Conscience awoke in his seared heart, and he was filled with horror and
+remorse. Of all his late crowd of courtiers only three friends now
+remained with him,--Sporus, a servant; Phaon, a freedman; and
+Epaphroditus, his secretary.
+
+"'My wife, my father, and my mother doom me dead!'" he bitterly cried,
+quoting a line from a Greek tragedy.
+
+With a last hope he bade the soldiers on duty to hasten to Ostia and
+prepare a ship, on which he might embark for Egypt. The men refused.
+
+"'Is it, then, so wretched a thing to die?'" said one of them, quoting
+from Virgil.
+
+This refusal threw Nero into despair. He hurried to the Servilian
+gardens, with a vial of deadly poison, which, on getting there, he had
+not the courage to take. He returned to the palace and threw himself on
+his bed. Then, too agitated to lie, he sprang up and called for some
+friendly hand to end his wretched life. No one consented, and in his
+wild despair he called out, in doleful accents, "My friends desert me,
+and I cannot find an enemy."
+
+The world had suddenly fallen away from the despicable Nero. A week
+before he had ordered it at his will, now "none so poor to do him
+reverence." His craven terror would have been pitiable in any one to
+whom the word pity could apply. In frantic dread he rushed from the
+palace, as if with intent to fling himself into the Tiber. Then as
+hastily he returned, saying that he would fly to Spain, and yield
+himself to the mercy of Galba, who commanded the revolted army. But no
+ship was to be had for either Spain or Egypt, and this plan was
+abandoned as quickly as formed.
+
+These and other projects passed in succession through his distracted
+brain. One of the most absurd of them was to go in a mourning garb to
+the Forum, and by his powers of eloquence seek to win back the favor of
+the people. If they would not have him as emperor, he might by
+persuasive oratory obtain from them the government of Egypt.
+
+Full of hope in this new project, he was about to put it into effect,
+when a fresh reflection filled his soul with horror. What if the
+populace should, without waiting to hear his harmonious accents and
+unequalled oratory, break out in sudden rage and rend him limb from
+limb? Might they not assail him in the palace? Might not a seditious mob
+be already on its way thither, bent on bloody work? Whither should he
+fly? Where find refuge?
+
+Turning in despair to his companions, he asked them, wildly, "Is there
+no hiding-place, no safe retreat, where I may have leisure to consider
+what is to be done?"
+
+Phaon, his freedman, told him that he owned an obscure villa, at a
+distance of about four miles from Rome, where he might remain for a time
+in concealment.
+
+This suggestion, in Nero's state of distraction, was eagerly
+embraced,--in such haste, indeed, that he left the palace without an
+instant's preparation, his feet destitute of shoes, and no garment but
+his close tunic, his outer garments and imperial robe having been
+discarded in his distraction. The utmost he did was to snatch up an old
+rusty robe as a disguise, covering his head with it, and holding a
+handkerchief before his face. Thus attired, he mounted his horse and
+fled in frantic fear, attended only by the three men we have mentioned,
+and a fourth named Neophytus.
+
+Meanwhile, the revolt in the city was growing more and more decided.
+When the coming day showed its first faint rays, the Praetorian guards,
+who had been on duty in the palace, left their post and marched to the
+camp. Here, under the influence of Nymphidius, Galba was nominated
+emperor. This was an important innovation in the government of Rome.
+Hitherto the imperial dignity had remained in the family of Caesar,
+descending by hereditary transmission. Nero was the last of that family
+to wear the crown. Henceforth the army and its generals controlled the
+destinies of the empire. The nomination of Galba by the Praetorian guard
+signalized the new state of things, in which the emperors would largely
+be chosen by that guard or by some army in the field.
+
+The action of the Praetorian guard was supported by the senate. That
+body, awaking from its late timidity, determined to mark the day with a
+decree worthy of its past history. With unanimous decision they
+pronounced Nero a tyrant who had trampled on all laws, human and divine,
+and condemned him to suffer death with all the rigor of the ancient
+laws.
+
+While this revolution was taking place in the city the terror-stricken
+Nero was still in frantic flight. He passed the Praetorian camp near
+enough to hear loud acclamations, among which the name of Galba reached
+his ear. As the small cavalcade hastened by a man early at work in the
+fields, he looked up and said, "These people must be hot in pursuit of
+Nero." A short distance farther another hailed them, asking, "What do
+they say of Nero in the city?"
+
+A more alarming event occurred soon. As they drew near Phaon's house the
+horse of Nero started at a dead carcass beside the road, shaking down
+the handkerchief by which he had concealed his face. The movement
+revealed him to a veteran soldier, then on his way to Rome, and ignorant
+of what was taking place in the city. He recognized and saluted the
+emperor by name.
+
+This incident increased Nero's fear. His route of flight would now be
+known. He pressed his horse to the utmost speed until Phaon's house was
+close at hand. They now halted and Nero dismounted, it being thought
+unsafe for him to enter the house publicly. He crossed a field overgrown
+with reeds, and, being tortured with thirst, scooped up some water from
+a muddy ditch and drank it, saying, dolefully, "Is this the beverage
+which Nero has been used to drink?"
+
+Phaon advised him to conceal himself in a neighboring sand-pit, from
+which could be opened for him a subterraneous passage to the house, but
+Nero refused, saying that he did not care to be buried alive. His
+companions then made an opening in the wall on one side of the house,
+through which Nero crept on his hands and knees. Entering a wretched
+chamber, he threw himself on a mean bed, which was covered with a
+tattered coverlet, and asked for some refreshment.
+
+All they could offer him was a little coarse bread, so black that the
+sight of it sickened his dainty taste, and some warm and foul water,
+which thirst forced him to drink. His friends meanwhile were in little
+less desperation than himself. They saw that no hope was left and that
+his place of concealment would soon be known, and entreated him to avoid
+a disgraceful death by taking his own life.
+
+Nero promised to do so, but still sought reasons for delay. His funeral
+must be prepared for, he said, and bade them to dig a grave, to prepare
+wood for a funeral pile, and bring marble to cover his remains.
+Meanwhile he piteously bewailed his unhappy lot; sighed and shed tears
+copiously; and said, with a last impulse of vanity, "What a musician the
+world will lose!"
+
+While he thus in cowardly procrastination delayed the inevitable end, a
+messenger, whom Phaon had ordered to bring news from Rome, arrived with
+papers. These Nero eagerly seized and read. He found himself dethroned,
+declared a public enemy, and condemned to suffer death with the rigor of
+ancient usage. Such was the decree of the senate, which hitherto had
+been his subservient slave.
+
+"Ancient usage?" he asked. "What do they mean? What kind of death is
+that?"
+
+"It is this," they told him. "Every traitor, by the law of the old
+republic, with his head fastened between two stakes, and his body
+stripped naked, was slowly flogged to death by the lictors' rods."
+
+Dread of this terrible and ignominious punishment roused the trembling
+wretch to some semblance of courage. He produced two daggers, which he
+had brought with him, and tried their points. Then he replaced them in
+their scabbards, saying, "The fatal moment is not yet come."
+
+Turning to Sporus, he said, "Sing the melancholy dirge, and offer the
+last obsequies to your friend." Then, rolling his eyes wildly around, he
+exclaimed, "Why will not some one of you kill himself, and teach me how
+to die?"
+
+He paused a moment. No one seemed inclined to adopt his suggestion. A
+flood of tears burst from his eyes. Starting up, he cried, in a tone of
+wild despair, "Nero, this is infamy; you linger in disgrace; this is no
+time for dejected passions; this moment calls for manly fortitude."
+
+These words were hardly spoken when the sound of horses was heard
+advancing rapidly towards the house. Theatrical to the end, he repeated
+a line from Homer which the noise of hoofs recalled to his mind. At
+length, driven to desperation, he seized his dagger and stabbed himself
+in the throat,--but cowardice made the stroke too feeble. Epaphroditus
+now lent his aid, and the next thrust was a mortal one.
+
+It was time. The horses were those of pursuers. The senate, informed of
+his probable place of refuge, had sent soldiers in haste to bring him
+back to Rome, there to suffer the punishment decreed. In a minute
+afterwards a centurion entered the room, and, seeing Nero prostrate and
+bleeding, ran to his aid, saying that he would bind the wound and save
+his life.
+
+Nero looked up languidly, and said, in faint tones, "You come too late.
+Is this your fidelity?" In a moment more he expired.
+
+In the words of Tacitus, "The ferocity of his nature was still visible
+in his countenance. His eyes fixed and glaring, and every feature
+swelled with warring passions, he looked more stern, more grim, more
+terrible than ever."
+
+Nero was in his thirty-second year. He had reigned nearly fourteen
+years. Tacitus says of him, "The race of Caesars ended with Nero; he was
+the last, and perhaps the worst, of that illustrious house."
+
+The tidings of his death filled Rome with joy. Men ran wildly about the
+streets, their heads covered with liberty caps. Acclamations of gladness
+resounded in the Forum. Icelus, Galba's freedman and agent in Rome, whom
+Nero had thrown into prison, was released and took control of affairs.
+He ordered that Nero's body should be burned where he had died, and this
+was done so quickly and secretly that many would not believe that he was
+dead. The report got abroad that he had escaped to Asia or Egypt, and
+from time to time impostors appeared claiming to be Nero. The Parthians
+were deluded by one of these impostors and offered to defend his cause.
+Another made trouble in the Greek islands. Nero's profligate companions
+in Rome, who alone mourned his death, while affecting to believe him
+still alive raised a tomb to his memory, which for several years they
+annually dressed with the flowers of spring and summer. But the world at
+large rejoiced in its delivery from the rule of a monster of iniquity.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE._
+
+
+In no other nation upon the earth and no other period of history has
+enjoyment taken so cruel and brutal a shape as in the Roman empire. The
+fierce people of the imperial city seemed to have a native thirst for
+blood and misery, which no amount of slaughter in the arena, of the
+sufferings of captives and slaves, or of the torments of persecuted
+Christians sufficed to assuage. The love of theatrical representations,
+which has proved so potent and unceasing with other nations, had but a
+brief period of prevalence in Rome, its milder enjoyment vanishing
+before the wild excitement of the gladiatorial struggle and the
+spectacle of rending beasts and slaughtered martyrs.
+
+It was not in the theatre, but in the amphitheatre, that the Romans
+sought their chief enjoyment, and few who wished the favor of the Roman
+people failed to seek it by the easy though costly means of gladiatorial
+shows. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre in forming a complete
+circle or oval instead of a semicircle, with an arena in the centre
+instead of a stage at the side. It also greatly surpassed the theatre in
+size, the purpose being to see, not to hear.
+
+These buildings were at first temporary edifices of wood, but of
+enormous size, since one which collapsed at Fidenae, during the reign of
+Tiberius, is said to have caused the death of fifty thousand spectators.
+The first of stone was built by the command of Augustus. But the great
+amphitheatre of Rome, the Flavian, whose mighty ruins we possess in the
+Colosseum, was that begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus ten years
+after the destruction of Jerusalem.
+
+This vast building is elliptical in shape and covers about five acres of
+ground, being six hundred and twelve feet in its greatest length and
+five hundred and fifteen in greatest breadth. It is based on rows of
+arches, eighty in number, and rises in four different orders of
+architecture to a height of about one hundred and sixty feet. The
+outside of this great edifice was encrusted with marble and decorated
+with statues. Interiorly its vast slopes presented sixty or eighty rows
+of marble seats, covered with cushions, and capable of seating more than
+eighty thousand spectators. There were sixty-four doors of entrance and
+exit, and the entrances, passages, and stairs were so skilfully
+constructed that every person could with ease and safety reach and leave
+his place.
+
+Nothing was omitted that could add to the pleasure and convenience of
+the spectators. An ample canopy, drawn over their heads, protected them
+from the sun and the rain. Fountains refreshed the air with cooling
+moisture, and aromatics profusely perfumed the air. In the centre was
+the arena or stage, strewn with fine sand, and capable of being changed
+to suit varied spectacles. Now it appeared to rise out of the earth,
+like the gardens of the Hesperides; now it was made to represent the
+rocks and caverns of Thrace. Water was abundantly supplied by concealed
+pipes, and the sand-strewn plain might at will be converted into a wide
+lake, sustaining armed vessels, and displaying the swimming monsters of
+the deep.
+
+In these spectacles the Roman emperors loved to display their wealth. On
+various occasions the whole furniture of the amphitheatre was of amber,
+silver, or gold, and in one display the nets provided for defence
+against wild beasts were of gold wire, the porticos were gilded, and the
+belt or circle that divided the several ranks of spectators was studded
+with a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. In the dedication of this
+mighty edifice five thousand wild beasts were slain in the arena, the
+games lasting one hundred days.
+
+The first show of gladiators in Rome was one given by Marcus and Decius
+Brutus, on the occasion of the death of their father, 264 B.C. Three
+pairs of gladiators fought in this first contest. This gladiatorial
+spectacle was continued on funeral occasions, but afterwards lost its
+religious character and became a popular amusement, there being schools
+for the training of gladiators, whose pupils were recruited from the
+captives of Rome, from condemned criminals, and from vigorous men
+desirous of fame.
+
+As time went on the magnificence of these spectacles increased. Julius
+Caesar gave one in which three hundred and twenty combatants fought.
+Trajan far surpassed this with a show that lasted for one hundred and
+twenty-three days, and in which ten thousand men fought with each other
+or with wild beasts for the pleasure of the Roman populace.
+
+The gladiators were variously armed, some with sword, shield, and body
+armor; some with net and trident; some with noose or lasso. The disarmed
+or overthrown gladiator was killed or spared in response to signals made
+by the thumbs of the spectators; while the successful combatant was
+rewarded at first with a palm branch, afterwards with money and rich and
+valuable presents.
+
+[Illustration: ROMAN CHARIOT RACE.]
+
+The gladiators were not always passive instruments of Roman cruelty. We
+have elsewhere described the revolt of Spartacus and his brave struggle
+for liberty. Other outbreaks took place. During the reign of Probus a
+revolt of about eighty gladiators out of a school of some six hundred
+filled Rome with death and alarm. Killing their keepers, they broke into
+the streets, which they set afloat with blood, and only after an
+obstinate resistance and ample revenge were they at length overpowered
+and cut to pieces by the soldiers of the city. But such outbreaks were
+but few, and the Roman multitude usually enjoyed its cruel sports in
+safety.
+
+We cannot here describe the many remarkable displays made by successive
+emperors, and which grew more lavish as time went on. Probus, about 280
+A.D., gave a show in which the arena was transformed into a forest,
+large trees, dug up by the roots, being transported and planted
+throughout its space. In this miniature forest were set free a thousand
+ostriches, and an equal number each of stags, fallow deer, and wild
+boars. These were given to the multitude to assail and slay at their
+will. On the following day, the populace being now safely screened from
+danger, there were slain in the arena a hundred lions, as many
+lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears.
+
+The younger Gordian, in his triumphal games, astonished the Romans by
+the strangeness of the animals displayed, in search of which the whole
+known world was ransacked. The curious mob now beheld the graceful forms
+of twenty zebras, and the remarkable stature of ten giraffes, brought
+from remote African plains. There were shown, in addition, ten elks, as
+many tigers from India, and thirty African hyenas. To these were added a
+troop of thirty-two elephants, and the uncouth forms of the hippopotamus
+of the Nile and the rhinoceros of the African wilds. These animals,
+familiar to us, were new to their observers, and filled the minds of
+their spectators with wonder and awe.
+
+Gladiators, as we have said, were not confined to slaves, captives, and
+criminals. Roman citizens, emulous of the fame and rewards of the
+successful combatant, entered their ranks, and men of birth and fortune,
+thirsting for the excitement of the arenal strife, were often seen in
+the lists. In the reign of Nero, senators, and even women of high birth,
+appeared as combatants; and Domitian arranged a battle between dwarfs
+and women. As late as 200 A.D. an edict forbidding women to fight became
+necessary.
+
+The emperors, as a rule, were content with sending their subjects to
+death in those frightful shows; but one of them, Commodus, proud of his
+strength and skill, himself entered the lists as a combatant. He was at
+first content with displaying his remarkable skill as an archer against
+wild animals. With arrows whose head was shaped like a crescent, he cut
+asunder the long neck of the ostrich, and with the strength of his bow
+pierced alike the thick skin of the elephant and the scaly hide of the
+rhinoceros. A panther was let loose and a slave forced to act as its
+prey. But at the instant when the beast leaped upon the man the shaft of
+Commodus flew, and the animal fell dead, leaving its prey unhurt. No
+less than a hundred lions were let loose at once in the arena, and the
+death-dealing darts of the emperor hurtled among them until they all
+were slain.
+
+During this exhibition of skill the emperor was securely protected
+against any chance danger from his victims. But later, to the shame and
+indignation of the people, he entered the arena as a gladiator, and
+fought there no less than seven hundred and thirty-five times. He was
+well protected, wearing the helmet, shield, and sword of the _Secutor_,
+while his antagonists were armed with the net and trident of the
+_Retiarius_. It was the aim of the latter to entangle his opponent in
+the net and then despatch him with the trident, and if he missed he was
+forced to fly till he had prepared his net for a second throw.
+
+As may be imagined, in these contests Commodus was uniformly successful.
+His opponents were schooled not to put forth their full skill, and were
+usually given their lives in reward. But the emperor claimed the prize
+of the successful gladiator, and himself fixed this reward at so high a
+price that to pay it became a new tax on the Roman people. Commodus, we
+may say here, met with the usual fate of the base and cruel emperors of
+Rome, falling by the hands of assassins.
+
+The gladiatorial shows were not without their opponents in Rome. Under
+the republic efforts were made to limit the number of combatants and the
+frequency of the displays, and the Emperor Augustus forbade more than
+two shows in a year. They were prohibited by Constantine, the first
+Christian emperor, in 325 A.D., but continued at intervals till 404. In
+that year Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, filled with horror at the cruelty
+of the practice, made his way to Rome, and during a contest rushed into
+the arena and tried to part two gladiators.
+
+The spectators, furious at this interruption of their sport, stoned the
+monk to death. But the Emperor Honorius proclaimed him a martyr, and
+issued an edict which finally brought such exhibitions to an end.
+
+There was another form of spectacle at Rome, in its way as significant
+of cruelty and ruthlessness, the Triumph, each occasion of which
+signified some nation conquered or army defeated, and thousands slain or
+plunged into misery and destitution. The victorious general to whom the
+senate granted the honor of a triumph was not allowed to enter the city
+in advance, and Lucullus, on his return from victory in Asia, waited
+outside Rome for three years, until the desired honor was granted him.
+
+Starting from the Field of Mars, outside the city walls, the procession
+passed through the gayly garlanded streets to the Capitol. It was headed
+by the magistrates and senate of Rome, who were followed by trumpeters,
+and then by the spoils of war, consisting not only of treasures and
+standards, but of representations of battles, towns, fortresses, rivers,
+etc.
+
+Next came the victims intended for sacrifice, largely composed of white
+oxen with gilded horns. They were followed by prisoners kept to grace
+the triumph, and who were put to death when the Capitol was reached.
+Afterwards came the gorgeous chariot of the conqueror, crowned with
+laurel and drawn by four horses. He wore robes of purple and gold taken
+from the temple of Jupiter, carried a laurel branch in his right hand,
+and in his left a sceptre of ivory with an eagle at its tip. After him
+came the soldiers, singing _Io triumphe_ and other songs of victory.
+
+On reaching the Capitol the victor placed the laurel branch on the cap
+of the seated Jupiter, and offered the thank-offerings. A feast of the
+dignitaries, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, followed. The
+ceremony at first occupied one day only, but in later times was extended
+through several days, and was frequently attended with gladiatorial
+shows and other spectacles for the greater enjoyment of the Roman
+multitude.
+
+
+
+
+_THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON._
+
+
+The death of Nero cut all the reins of order in Rome. Until now, as
+stated in a preceding tale, some form of hereditary succession had been
+followed, the emperors being of the family of Caesar, though not his
+direct descendants. Now confusion reigned supreme. The army took upon
+itself the task of nominating the emperor, and within less than two
+years four emperors came in succession to the royal seat, each the
+general of one of the armies of Rome.
+
+Galba, who headed the revolt against Nero, and succeeded him on the
+throne, reigned but seven months, being overthrown by Otho, who
+conspired against him with the Praetorian guards. The new emperor reigned
+only three months. The army of Germany proclaimed their
+general--Vitellius--emperor, marched against Otho, and defeated him. He
+ended the contest by committing suicide. Vitellius reigned less than a
+year. The army of the East rebelled against him, proclaimed their
+general--Vespasian--emperor, and a new civil war broke out, which was
+closed by the speedy downfall of Vitellius. It is the story of this man,
+emperor for less than a year, which we have here to describe.
+
+The three men named were alike unfit to reign over Rome. Galba was very
+old and very incompetent, Otho was a declared profligate, and Vitellius
+was a glutton of such extraordinary powers that his name has become a
+synonyme for voracity. He had by his arts and his skill as a courtier
+made himself a favorite with four emperors of widely differing
+character,--Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. The suicide of Otho
+had now made him emperor himself, and he gave way without stint to the
+peculiar vice which has made his name despicable, that of inordinate
+love of the pleasures of the table.
+
+After the death of Otho, says Tacitus, "Vitellius, sunk in sloth, and
+growing every day more contemptible, advanced by slow marches towards
+the city of Rome. In all the villas and municipal towns through which he
+passed, carousing festivals were sufficient to retard a man abandoned to
+his pleasures. He was followed by an unwieldy multitude, not less than
+sixty thousand men in arms, all corrupted by a life of debauchery. The
+number of retainers and followers of the army was still greater, all
+disposed to riot and insolence, even beyond the natural bent of the
+vilest slaves.
+
+"The crowd was still increased by a conflux of senators and Roman
+knights, who came from Rome to greet the prince on his way; some
+impelled by fear, others to pay their court, and numbers, not to be
+thought sullen or disaffected. All went with the current. The populace
+rushed forth in crowds, accompanied by an infamous band of pimps,
+players, buffoons, and charioteers, by their utility in vicious
+pleasures all well known and dear to Vitellius.
+
+"To supply so vast a body with provisions the colonies and municipal
+cities were exhausted; the fruits of the earth, then ripe and fit for
+use, were carried off; the husbandman was plundered; and his land, as if
+it were an enemy's country, was laid waste and ruined."
+
+[Illustration: THE COLISEUM AT ROME.]
+
+The followers of Vitellius were many of them Germans and Gauls, so
+savage of aspect as to create consternation in Rome. "Covered with the
+skins of savage beasts, and wielding large and massive spears, the
+spectacle which they exhibited to the Roman citizens was fierce and
+hideous." They were as savage as they looked, and many conflicts took
+place both outside and inside of Rome, in which numbers of citizens were
+slaughtered. In fact, the march of Vitellius to Rome was almost like
+that of a conqueror through a captive province.
+
+The conduct of Vitellius and his army in Rome was an abhorrent spectacle
+of sloth and licentiousness. All discipline vanished. The Germans and
+Gauls entered into the vilest habits of the city, and by their
+disorderly lives brought on an epidemic disease which swept thousands of
+them away. Vitellius, lost in sluggishness and gluttony, wasted the
+funds of the state on his pleasures, and laid severe taxes to raise new
+funds. "To squander with wild profusion," says Tacitus, "was the only
+use of money known to Vitellius. He built a set of stables for the
+charioteers, and kept in the circus a constant spectacle of gladiators
+and wild beasts; in this manner dissipating with prodigality, as if his
+treasury overflowed with riches."
+
+While the Vitellian army was indulging in riot, bloodshed, and vice,
+and the populace was kept amused by the frightful gladiatorial shows,
+the emperor spent his days in a sloth and gluttony that stand unrivalled
+in imperial records. We may quote from Whyte-Melville's romance of "The
+Gladiators" a sketch of a Vitellian banquet whose characteristic
+features are taken from exact history:
+
+"A banquet with Vitellius was no light and simple repast. Leagues of sea
+and miles of forest had been swept to furnish the mere groundwork of the
+entertainment. Hardy fishermen had spent their nights on the heaving
+wave, that the giant turbot might flap its snowy flakes on the emperor's
+table broader than its broad dish of gold. Many a swelling hill, clad in
+the dark oak coppice, had echoed to ringing shout of hunter and
+deep-mouthed bay of hound, ere the wild boar yielded his grim life by
+the morass, and the dark, grisly carcass was drawn off to provide a
+standing dish that was only meant to gratify the eye. Even the peacock
+roasted in its feathers was too gross a dainty for epicures who studied
+the art of gastronomy under Caesar; and that taste would have been
+considered rustic in the extreme which could partake of more than the
+mere fumes and savor of so substantial a dish. A thousand nightingales
+had been trapped and killed, indeed, for this one supper, but brains and
+tongues were all they contributed to the banquet; while even the wing of
+a roasted hare would have been considered far too coarse and common food
+for the imperial board.
+
+"It would be useless to go into the details of such a banquet as that
+which was placed before the guests of Caesar. Wild boar, pasties, goats,
+every kind of shell-fish, thrushes, beccaficoes, vegetables of all
+descriptions, and poultry, were removed to make way for the pheasant,
+the guinea-hen, the capon, venison, ducks, woodcocks, and turtle-doves.
+Everything that could creep, fly, or swim, and could boast a delicate
+flavor when cooked, was pressed into the service of the emperor; and
+when appetite was appeased and could do no more, the strongest
+condiments and other remedies were used to stimulate fresh hunger and
+consume a fresh supply of superfluous dainties."
+
+Deep drinking followed, merely to stimulate fresh hunger. The disgusting
+story is even told that the imperial glutton was in the habit of taking
+an emetic to empty his stomach, that he might begin a fresh course of
+gluttony.
+
+Certain artists in the preparation of original dishes employed
+themselves in devising new and appetizing compounds of food for the
+table of Vitellius. They were sure of an ample reward if they should
+succeed in pleasing the imperial palate. Failure, however, was attended
+by a severe penance. The artist was not permitted to eat any food but
+his own unsuccessful dish until he had atoned for his failure by a
+success.
+
+While Vitellius was thus sunk in sloth and gluttony his destiny was on
+its march. A terrible and disgraceful retribution awaited him. He had
+never been emperor of all the Roman empire. The army of Syria had
+declared for Vespasian, its general; and while Vitellius had been
+wasting his means and ruining his army by permitting it to indulge in
+every vice and excess, his rival in the East was carefully laying his
+plans to insure success. He finally seized Alexandria, thus being able
+at will to starve Rome, by cutting off its food-supply; and sent
+Antonius Primus, his principal general, with a strong force to Italy.
+
+The progress of Antonius in Italy was rapid. City after city fell into
+his hands. The fleet at Ravenna declared for Vespasian. The general of
+Vitellius sought to carry his whole army over to Antonius, but found his
+men more faithful than himself. The Vitellians were defeated in two
+battles; Cremona was taken and destroyed; all was at risk; and yet
+Vitellius remained absorbed in luxury. "Hid in the recess of his garden,
+he indulged his appetite, forgetting the past, the present, and all
+solicitude about future events; like those nauseous animals that know no
+care, and, while they are supplied with food, remain in one spot, torpid
+and insensible."
+
+At length awakened from his stupor, Vitellius took some steps for
+defence. He was too late. His men deserted their ranks; the army of
+Antonius steadily advanced. Filled with terror, the emperor called an
+assembly of the people and offered to resign. The people in violent
+uproar refused to accept his resignation. He then proposed to seek a
+retreat in his brother's house. This the populace also opposed and
+forced him to return to the palace.
+
+This attempted abdication brought civil war into the city. Sabinus, the
+brother of Vespasian, raised a force and took possession of the
+Capitol. He was besieged here, and in the conflict that ensued the
+Capitol was set on fire and burned to the ground. It was the second time
+this venerable edifice had been consumed by the flames. Sabinus was
+taken prisoner, and was murdered by the mob.
+
+News of this revolt and its disastrous end hastened the march of
+Antonius. Once more, as in the far-off days of the Gaulish invasion,
+Rome was to be attacked and taken by a hostile army. It was assailed at
+three points, each of which was obstinately defended. Finally an
+entrance was made at the Collinian gate, and the battle was transferred
+to the open streets, in which the Vitellians defended themselves as
+obstinately as before.
+
+And now was seen an extraordinary spectacle. While two armies--one from
+the East, one from the North--contended fiercely for the possession of
+Rome, the populace of that city flocked to behold the fight, as if it
+was a gladiatorial struggle got up for their diversion, and nothing in
+which they had any personal interest. Tacitus says,--
+
+"Whenever they saw the advantage inclining to either side, they favored
+the contestants with shouts and theatrical applause. If the men fled
+from their ranks, to take shelter in shops or houses, they roared to
+have them dragged forth and put to death like gladiators for their
+diversion. While the soldiers were intent on slaughter, these miscreants
+were employed in plundering. The greatest part of the booty fell to
+their share. Rome presented a scene truly shocking, a medley of savage
+slaughter and monstrous vice; in one place war and desolation; in
+another bathing, riot, and debauchery. The whole city seemed to be
+inflamed with frantic rage, and at the same time intoxicated with
+bacchanalian pleasures. In the midst of rage and massacre, pleasure knew
+no intermission. A dreadful carnage seemed to be a spectacle added to
+the public games."
+
+It was a spectacle certainly without its like in the history of nations.
+
+The battle ended in the complete overthrow of the army of Vitellius. The
+camp was taken, and all that defended it were slain. And now took place
+a scene which recalls that of the last days of Nero. Vitellius, seeing
+that all was lost, was in an agony of apprehension. He left the palace
+by a private way to seek shelter in his wife's house on the Aventine.
+Then irresolution brought him back to the palace, which he found
+deserted. The slaves had fled. The dead silence that reigned filled him
+with terror. All was solitude and desolation. He wandered pitiably from
+room to room, and finally, weary and utterly wretched, sought a humble
+hiding-place. Here he was discovered and dragged forth.
+
+And now the populace, who had lately refused his deposition, turned upon
+him with the bitterest insults and contumely. With his hands bound
+behind him and his garment torn, the obese old glutton was dragged
+through crowds who treated him with scoffs and words of contempt, not a
+voice of pity or sympathy being heard. A German soldier struck at him
+with his sword, and, missing his aim, cut off the ear of a tribune. He
+was killed on the spot.
+
+As Vitellius was thus dragged onward, his captors, with swords pointed
+at his throat, forced him to raise his head and expose his bloated face
+to scorn and derision. They made him look at his statues, which were
+being tumbled to the ground. They pointed out to him the place where
+Galba had perished. They pricked his body with their weapons. With
+endless contumely they brought him to the public charnel, where the body
+of Sabinus had been thrown among those of the vilest malefactors.
+
+A single expression is recorded as coming from his lips. "And yet," he
+said, to a tribune who insulted his misery, "I have been your
+sovereign."
+
+His torment soon ended. The rabble fell on him with swords and clubs and
+he died under a multitude of wounds. Even after his death those who had
+worshipped him in the height of his power continued to shower marks of
+rage and contempt upon his remains. Thus perished one of the most
+despicable of all the emperors who disgraced Rome, to make room for one
+whose wisdom and virtue would make still more contemptible the excesses
+of his gluttonous predecessor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE FAITHFUL EPONINA._
+
+
+Though Rome had extended its conquests over numerous tribes and nations
+of barbarians, and reduced them to subjection, much of the old love of
+liberty remained, and many of the later Roman wars were devoted to the
+suppression of outbreaks among these unwilling subjects. In the reign of
+Vespasian occurred such a rebellion, followed by so remarkable an
+instance of womanly devotion that it has since enlisted the sympathy of
+the world.
+
+Julius Sabinus, a leading chief among the Ligones, a tribe of the Gauls,
+led by ambition and daring, and stirred by hatred of the Roman dominion,
+resolved to shake off the yoke of conquest, and by his arts and
+eloquence kindled the flame of rebellion among his countrymen. Gathering
+an army, he drove the Romans from the territory of his own people, and
+then marched into the country of the Sequani, whom he hoped to bring
+into the revolt.
+
+But the discomfiture of the Romans lasted only until they could bring
+their forces together. A battle ensued between the hastily-levied
+followers of Sabinus and a disciplined Roman army, with the inevitable
+result. The barbarians were defeated with great slaughter, the death of
+most, the flight of the others, bringing the rebellion to a disastrous
+end.
+
+Sabinus was among those who escaped the general carnage. He sought
+shelter from his pursuers in an obscure cottage, and, being hotly and
+closely tracked, he set fire to his lurking-place and caused a report to
+be spread that he had perished in the flames. He had been attended in
+his flight by two faithful freedmen, and one of these, Martialis by
+name, sought Eponina, the loving wife of the chief, and told her that
+her husband was no more, that he had perished in the flames of the
+burning hut.
+
+Giving full credit to the story, Eponina was thrown into a transport of
+grief which went far to convince the spies of Rome that she must have
+received sure tidings of her husband's death, and that Sabinus had
+escaped the vengeance of Rome. For several days her grief continued
+unabated, and then the same messenger returned and told her that her
+husband still lived, having spread the report of his death to throw his
+pursuers off his track.
+
+This information brought Eponina as lively joy as the former news had
+brought her sorrow; but knowing that she was watched, she affected as
+deep grief as before, going about her daily duties with all the outward
+manifestations of woe. When night came she visited Sabinus secretly in
+his new hiding-place, and was received in his arms with all the joy of
+which loving souls are capable. Before the dawn of day she returned to
+her home, from which her absence had not been known.
+
+During seven months the devoted wife continued these clandestine visits,
+softening by caresses and brave words her husband's anxious care, and
+supplying his wants as far as she was capable. At the end of that time
+she grew hopeful of obtaining a pardon for the fugitive chief. For this
+purpose she induced him to disguise himself in a way that made detection
+impossible and accompany her on a long and painful journey to Rome.
+
+Here the earnest and faithful woman made every possible effort to gain
+the ear and favor of the emperor and to obtain influence in high places.
+She unhappily found that Roman officials had no time or thought to waste
+on fugitive rebels, and that compassion for those who dared oppose the
+supremacy of Rome was a sentiment that could find no place in the
+imperial heart. Repelled, disappointed, hopeless, the unhappy woman and
+her disguised husband retraced their long and weary journey, and Sabinus
+again sought shelter in the dens and caves which formed his only secure
+places of refuge.
+
+And now the faithful wife, abandoning her home, joined him in his
+lurking-place, and for nine long years the devoted couple lived as
+homeless fugitives, mutual love their only comfort, obtaining the
+necessaries of life by means of which we are not aware. By the tenderest
+affection Eponina softened the anxieties of her husband, the birth of
+two sons served still more to alleviate the misery of their distressful
+situation, and all the happiness that could possibly come to two so
+circumstanced attended the pair in their straitened place of refuge.
+
+At the end of nine years the hiding-place of the fugitives was
+discovered by their enemies, and they were seized and sent in chains to
+Rome. Here Vespasian, who had gained a reputation for kindness and
+clemency, acted with a cruelty worthy of the worst emperors of Rome. The
+pitiable tale of the captives had no effect upon him; the devotion of
+the wife roused no sympathy in his heart; Sabinus had dared rebel
+against Rome, no time nor circumstance could soften that flagitious
+crime; without hesitation the chief was condemned to death, and instant
+execution ordered.
+
+This cruel sentence changed the tone of Eponina. She had hitherto humbly
+and warmly supplicated her husband's pardon. Now that he was dead she
+resolved not to survive him. With the spirit and pride of a free-born
+princess she said to Vespasian, "Death has no terror for me. I have
+lived happier underground than you upon your throne. You have robbed me
+of all I loved, and I have no further use for life. Bid your assassins
+strike their blow; with joy I leave a world which is peopled by such
+tyrants as you."
+
+She was taken at her word and ordered by the emperor for execution. It
+was the darkest deed of Vespasian's life, a blot upon his character
+which all his record for clemency cannot remove, and which has ever
+since lain as a dark stain upon his memory.
+
+Plutarch, who has alone told this story of love unto death, concludes
+his tale by saying that there was nothing during Vespasian's reign to
+match the horror of this atrocious deed, and that, in retribution for
+it, the vengeance of the gods fell upon Vespasian, and in a short time
+after wrought the extirpation of his entire family.
+
+
+
+
+_THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM._
+
+
+Christ had not long passed away from the earth when the reign of peace
+and brotherly love which He had so warmly inculcated ceased to exist on
+the soil of Judaea. Forty years after He foretold the destruction of the
+Temple of Jerusalem that noble edifice had ceased to exist, Jerusalem
+itself was burned to the ground, and a million of people perished by
+sword and flames. It is this lamentable tale which we have now to tell.
+
+Caligula, the mad emperor, first roused the indignation of the Jews, by
+demanding that his statue should be placed in that holy shrine in which
+no image of man had ever been permitted. War would have followed, for
+the Jews were resolute against such an impious desecration of their
+Temple, had not the sword of the assassin removed the tyrant.
+
+But the discontent of the Jews was not ended. They were resolved that no
+image of the Caesars should be brought into their land, and carried this
+so far that when the governor of Syria wished to march through a part of
+their territory to attack the Arabs, they objected that the standards of
+the legions were crowded with profane images, which their sacred laws
+did not permit to be seen in their country. The governor yielded to
+their remonstrance, and marched around the land of Judaea.
+
+This concession did not allay the discontent. Felix, a governor under
+Claudius, by oppression and cruelty aroused a general spirit of revolt.
+Gessius Florus, appointed by Nero governor of Judaea, found his province
+in a state of irritation and tumult. His avarice and robbery of the
+people ripened this to war. The province broke into open rebellion. It
+was quickly invaded by Gallus, the governor of Syria, who marched
+through the country to the walls of Jerusalem. But he was not a soldier,
+and was quickly forced to abandon the siege and retreat in haste, losing
+six thousand men in his flight.
+
+[Illustration: THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM.]
+
+Nero now, finding that Rome had an obstinate struggle on its hands,
+chose Vespasian, a soldier of renown, to conduct the war. This he did
+with the true Roman energy and thoroughness, subduing the whole country,
+and capturing every stronghold except Jerusalem, within two years. He
+was called from this work to the struggle for the empire of Rome,
+leaving his able son Titus to complete the task.
+
+The taking of Jerusalem was not to be easily performed. The city was of
+immense strength. It stood upon two hills, Mount Sion to the south,
+Mount Acra to the north. The former, being the loftiest, was called the
+upper, and Acra the lower, city. Each of these hills was surrounded by a
+wall of great strength and elevation, their bases washed by a rapid
+stream that ran through the valleys of Hinnom and Cedron, to the foot of
+the Mount of Olives. A third hill, Mount Moriah, was the seat of the
+famous Temple, an immense group of courts and edifices which looked more
+like a citadel than a sanctuary of religious faith. The true temple
+stood separate, in the midst of these buildings, its interior being
+divided by a curtain into two parts, of which the inmost was the Holy of
+Holies. The total group of edifices was nearly a mile in circumference.
+
+Jerusalem, unfortunately for its defence, had, during the conquest of
+the country, become filled with fugitives. To these the celebration of
+the Passover, now at hand, added other great numbers, so that when the
+army of Titus invested it, it was crowded with a vast multitude of human
+beings. Filled with religious enthusiasm, accustomed to war, and
+believing that the Lord of Hosts would come to their aid, the garrison
+displayed a desperate resolution that the Romans were to find very
+difficult to overcome.
+
+Yet it was as much due to themselves as to the Roman arms that the city
+at length fell. Resolute as the Jews were in defence against the foreign
+foe, they were divided among themselves, the city being held by three
+factions bitterly hostile to each other. One of these, known as the
+Zealots, under Eleazer, held the Temple. Another, under John of Gisela,
+an artful orator but a man of infamous character, occupied another
+portion of the city. A third, whose leader was named Simon, a man known
+for crime and courage, held still another section. These three parties
+kept Jerusalem in tumult. There were ferocious battles in the streets;
+houses were plundered, families slain, and when Titus encamped before
+the walls, he had before him a city distracted by civil war and its
+streets filled with blood and carnage.
+
+The story of the siege of Jerusalem is far too long a one to be told in
+detail. Several times during the siege Titus offered terms of pardon and
+amnesty to the besieged, but all in vain. Divided as they were among
+themselves, they were united in hostility to Rome. The siege began and
+proceeded with the usual energy shown by a Roman army. Mounds were
+erected, forts built, warlike engines constructed. Darts and other
+weapons were rained into the city, great stones were flung from engines,
+every resource known to ancient war was practised. A breach was at
+length made in the walls, the soldiers rushed in, sword in hand, and the
+section of the city known as Salem was captured. Five days afterwards
+Bezetha, a hill to the north of the Temple, was taken by Titus, but he
+was here so furiously assailed by the garrison that he was forced to
+retreat to his camp.
+
+Some days of quiet now followed, while the Romans prepared for a second
+attack. The factions in the city, fancying that their foes had withdrawn
+in despair, at once resumed their feuds, and the streets again ran with
+blood. John invaded the Temple precincts, overcame the party of Eleazer,
+and a general massacre followed which desecrated With slaughter every
+part of the holy place.
+
+Soon the Romans advanced again, and the two remaining factions united in
+defence. Now the Romans penetrated the city, now they were driven out
+in a fierce charge, and their camp nearly taken. And now famine came to
+add to the horrors of the siege, and made frightful havoc in the dense
+multitude with which every part of the city was thronged. The dead and
+dying filled the streets, the wounded soldiers perished of starvation,
+groans and lamentations resounded in every quarter; to rid themselves of
+the hosts of dead John and Simon had them thrown from the walls, to
+fester in heaps before the Roman works. Among the scenes of horror
+related, a woman was seen to kill and devour her own infant child.
+
+At length the Romans made such progress that all the city was theirs
+except the Temple enclosure, into which the remainder of the garrison
+had gathered. Titus wished to save this famous structure, and made a
+last effort to end the siege by peaceful measures. Josephus, the Jewish
+historian, who had been taken prisoner during the war, and was now in
+his camp, was sent into the city, with an offer of amnesty if they would
+even now yield. The offer was refused, and Titus saw that but one thing
+remained.
+
+On the next day the assault on Mount Moriah began. The Jews fought with
+fierce courage, but the close lines and steady discipline of the legions
+prevailed. The defenders, after a bitter resistance, were forced back;
+the assailants furiously pursued; the inner court of the Temple was
+entered; in the uproar of the furious strife the orders of Titus and his
+officers to save the Temple were unheard; all was tumult, the roar of
+battle, the shedding of blood. The Jews fought with frantic obstinacy,
+but their undisciplined valor failed to affect the steady discipline or
+break the close array of the legions. Many fled in despair to the
+sanctuary. Here were gathered priests and prophets, who still declared
+the Lord of Hosts was on their side, and that He would protect His holy
+seat.
+
+Even while these assurances were being given the assailants forced the
+gates. The eyes of the avaricious Romans rested on the golden and
+glittering ornaments of the Temple, and they sought more fiercely than
+ever to hew their way through flesh and blood to these alluring
+treasures. One soldier, frantic with the fury of the fight, snatched a
+flaming ember from some burning materials, and, lifted by a comrade, set
+fire to a gilded window of the Temple. Almost in an instant the flames
+flared upward, and the despairing Jews saw that their holy house was
+doomed. A great groan of agony burst from their lips. Many occupied
+themselves in vain efforts to quench the flames; others flung themselves
+in despairing rage on the Romans, heedless of life now that all they
+lived for was perishing.
+
+Titus, on learning what had been done, ran in all haste to the scene,
+and loudly ordered the soldiers to extinguish the flames, signalling to
+the same effect with his hand. But his voice was drowned in the uproar
+and his signals were not understood, while the thirst for plunder
+carried the soldiers beyond all restraint. The holy place of the Temple
+was still intact. This Titus entered, and was so impressed with its
+beauty and splendor that he made a strenuous effort to save it from
+destruction. In vain he begged and threatened. While some of the
+soldiery tore with wolfish fury at its gold, others fired its gates, and
+soon the Holy of Holies itself was in a blaze, and the whole Temple
+wrapped in devouring flames.
+
+The rapacious soldiers raged through the buildings, rending from them
+everything of value which the fire had left untouched. The defenders
+fell by thousands. Great numbers perished in the flames. A multitude of
+fugitives, including women and children, sought refuge in the outer
+cloisters. These were set on fire by the furious soldiers, and thousands
+were swept away by the pitiless hand of death. Word was brought to Titus
+that a number of priests stood on the outside wall, begging for their
+lives. "It is too late," he replied; "the priests ought not to survive
+their temple." Retiring to an outer fort, he gazed with deep regret on
+the devouring conflagration, saying, "The God of the Jews has fought
+against them: to him we owe our victory."
+
+Thus perished the Temple of Jerusalem, a magnificent structure, for ages
+the pride and glory of the Jews. First erected by Solomon, eleven
+centuries before, it was burnt by the Babylonians five hundred years
+afterwards. It was rebuilt by Haggai, in the reign of King Cyrus of
+Persia, and had now stood more than six hundred years, enlarged and
+adorned from time to time. But Christ had said, "There shall not be left
+one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down." This prophetic
+utterance was now fulfilled. Thenceforward there was no Temple of the
+Jews.
+
+But more fighting remained. The defenders made their way into the upper
+city on Mount Sion, and here held out bitterly still, rejecting the
+terms offered them by Titus of unconditional surrender. The place was
+strong, and defended by towers that were almost impregnable. Better
+terms might have been extorted from Titus had John and Simon, the
+leaders of the party of defence, been as brave as they were blatant. But
+after refusing surrender they lost heart, and hid themselves in
+subterranean vaults, leaving their deluded followers to their own
+devices. The end came soon. A breach was made in the walls. The legions
+entered, sword in hand, and with the rage of slaughter in heart. A
+dreadful carnage followed. Neither sex nor age was spared. According to
+Josephus, not less than one million one hundred thousand persons
+perished during this terrible siege. Of those that remained alive the
+most flagrant were put to death, some were reserved to grace the
+victor's triumph, and the others were sent to Egypt to be sold as
+slaves. As for the city, it had been in great part consumed by flames.
+Thus ended the rebellion of the Jews. To rule or ruin was the terrible
+motto of Rome.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII._
+
+
+On the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples, where it serves as a
+striking background to the city of that name, stands the renowned
+Vesuvius, the most celebrated volcano in the world. During many
+centuries before the Christian era it had been a dead and silent
+mountain. Throughout the earlier period of Roman history the people of
+Campania treated it with the contempt of ignorance, planting their
+vineyards on its fertile slopes and building their towns and villages
+around its base. Under the shadow of the silent mountain armies met and
+fought, and its crater was made the fort and lurking-place of Spartacus
+and his party of gladiators. But the time was at hand in which a more
+terrible enemy than a band of vengeful rebels was to emerge from that
+threatening cavity.
+
+The sleeping giant first showed signs of waking from his long slumber in
+63 A.D., when earthquake convulsions shook the surrounding lands. These
+tremblings of the earth continued at intervals for sixteen years, doing
+much damage. At length, on the 24th of August of the year 79, came the
+culminating event. With a tremendous and terrible explosion the whole
+top of the mountain was torn out, and vast clouds of steam and volcanic
+ashes were hurled high into the air, lit into lurid light by the crimson
+gleams of the boiling lava below.
+
+The scene was a frightful one. The vast, tree-like cloud, kindled
+throughout its length by almost incessant flashes of lightning; the
+fiery glare that gleamed upward from the glowing lava; the total
+darkness that overspread the surrounding country as the dense mass of
+volcanic dust floated outward, a darkness only relieved by the glare
+that attended each new explosion, formed a spectacle of terror to make
+the stoutest heart quail, and to fill the weak and ignorant with dread
+of a final overthrow of the earth and its inhabitants.
+
+The elder Pliny, the famous naturalist, was then in command of a fleet
+at Misenum, in the vicinity. Led by his scientific interest, he
+approached the volcano to examine the eruption more closely, and fell a
+victim to the falling ashes or the choking fumes of sulphur that filled
+the air. His nephew, Pliny the younger, then only a boy of eighteen, has
+given a lucid account of what took place, in letters to the historian
+Tacitus. After describing the journey and death of his uncle, he goes on
+to speak of the violent earthquakes that shook the ground during the
+night. He continues with the story of the next day:
+
+"Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid;
+the buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon open
+ground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining there without certain and great danger; we therefore resolved
+to leave the town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation,
+and, as to a mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more
+prudent than its own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out.
+
+"Being got at a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in
+the midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we
+had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backward and forward,
+though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady,
+even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back
+upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain, at least, that the shore was considerably
+enlarged, and several sea-animals were left upon it. At the other side a
+black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor,
+darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but
+much larger....
+
+"Soon afterwards the cloud seemed to descend and cover the whole ocean,
+as indeed it entirely hid the island of Capreae and the promontory of
+Misenum. My mother strongly conjured me to make my escape at any rate,
+which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, her
+age and corpulence rendered all attempts of that sort impossible.
+However, she would willingly meet death if she could have the
+satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But I
+absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand, I led her
+on; she complied with great reluctance, and not without many reproaches
+to herself for retarding my flight.
+
+"The ashes now began to fall on us, though in no great quantity. I
+turned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rolling
+after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turn
+out of the high-road, lest she should be pressed to death in the dark by
+the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path when
+darkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night or when there is
+no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinct.
+Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams of
+children, and the cries of men; some calling for their children, others
+for their parents, others for their husbands, and only distinguishing
+each other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, another that of
+his family; some wishing to die from the very fear of dying; some
+lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part imagining that the
+last and eternal night was come, which was to destroy the gods and the
+world together.
+
+"Among these were some who augmented the real terrors by imaginary ones,
+and made the frightened multitude falsely believe that Misenum was in
+flames. At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be
+rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it
+was, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at a distance from
+us; then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of
+ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake
+off, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. I
+might boast that during all this scene of horror not a sigh or
+expression of fear escaped from me, had not my support been found in
+that miserable, though strong, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with
+the world itself.
+
+"At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud
+of smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though very
+faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that
+presented itself to our eyes seemed changed, being covered over with
+white ashes, as with a deep snow."
+
+This graphic story repeats the experience of thousands on that fatal
+occasion, in which great numbers perished, while many lost their all.
+Villas of wealthy Romans were numerous in the vicinity of the volcano,
+while among the several towns which surrounded it three were utterly
+destroyed,--Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae. Of these much the most
+famous is Pompeii, which, being buried in ashes, has proved far easier
+of exploration than Herculaneum, which was overwhelmed with torrents of
+mud, caused by heavy rains on the volcanic ash.
+
+Pompeii was an old town, built more than six hundred years before, and
+occupied at the time of its destruction by the aristocracy of Rome.
+Triumphal arches were erected there in honor of Caligula and Nero, who
+probably honored it by visits. It possessed costly temples, handsome
+theatres and other public buildings, luxurious residences, and all the
+ostentatious magnificence arising from the wealth of the proud
+patricians of Rome.
+
+[Illustration: THE RUINS OF POMPEII.]
+
+What Pompeii was in its best days we are not now able to estimate. It
+was essentially, in its architecture, a Greek city, rich and artistic,
+gay and luxurious. But on February 5, 63 A.D., came the first of the
+long series of earthquakes, and when it ended nearly all of old Pompeii
+was levelled with the ground. It was not yet a lost city, but was a
+thoroughly ruined one. In the years that followed it was rapidly
+rebuilt, Roman architecture and decoration, of often tawdry and inferior
+character, replacing the chaste and artistic Greek. Once more the city
+became a centre of gayety, ostentation, and licentiousness, when, in 79
+A.D., the eruption of Vesuvius came, and the overwhelming storm of ashes
+came down like a thick-descending fall of snow on the doomed city.
+
+The description given by Pliny relates to a less endangered point. Upon
+Pompeii the ashes settled down in seemingly unending volumes, continuing
+for three days, during which all was enveloped in darkness and gloom.
+The citizens fled in terror, such as were able to, though many perished
+and were buried deep in their ruined homes. On the fourth day the sun
+began to reappear, as if shining through a fog, and the bolder fugitives
+returned in search of their lost property.
+
+What they saw must have been frightfully disheartening. Where the busy
+city had stood was now a level plain of white ashes, so deep that not a
+house-top could be seen, and only the upper walls of the great theatre
+and the amphitheatre were visible. Digging into the fleecy ashes, many
+of them recovered articles of value, while thieves also may have reaped
+a rich harvest. The emperor Titus even undertook to clear and rebuild
+the city, but soon abandoned the task as too costly a one, and for many
+centuries afterwards Pompeii remained buried in mud and ashes, lost to
+the world, its site forgotten, and the forms of many of its old
+inhabitants preserved intact in the bed of ashes in which they had
+perished.
+
+It was only in 1748 that its site was recognized, and only since 1860
+has there been a systematic effort to dig the old city out of its grave.
+At present nearly one-half--the most important half--of Pompeii has been
+laid bare, and we are able to see for ourselves how the Romans lived.
+The narrow streets, fourteen to twenty-four feet wide, are well paved
+with blocks of lava, which are cut into deep ruts by the wheels of
+chariots that rolled over them two thousand years ago. On each side rise
+the walls of houses, two, and sometimes three, stories in height, and
+some of them richly painted and adorned, while walls and columns are
+brightly painted in red, blue, and yellow, which must have given the old
+city a gay and festive hue.
+
+The ornaments, articles of furniture, and domestic utensils found in
+these houses go far to teach us the modes of life in Roman times, and
+reveal to us that the Romans possessed many comforts and conveniences
+for which we had not given them credit. Even the forms of the
+inhabitants have in many cases been recovered. Though these forms have
+long vanished, the hollows made by their bodies in the hardened ashes in
+which they lay and slowly decayed have remained unchanged, and by
+pouring liquid plaster of Paris into these cavities perfect casts have
+been obtained, showing the exact shape of face and body, and even every
+fold of the clothes of these victims of Vesuvius eighteen hundred years
+ago. They are not altogether pleasant to see, for they express the agony
+of those caught in the swift descending death of the falling volcanic
+shroud, but as tenants of an archaeological museum they stand unrivalled
+in lifelike fidelity.
+
+Herculaneum, which was buried to a depth of from forty to one hundred
+feet, and with wet material which has grown much harder than the ashes
+of Pompeii, has been but little explored. It was the larger and more
+important city of the two, while none of its treasures could have been
+recovered by their owners. The art relics found there far exceed in
+interest and value those of Pompeii, but the work is so difficult that
+as yet very little has been done in the task of restoring this "dead
+city of Campania" to the light of the modern day.
+
+
+
+
+_AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE._
+
+
+We have now reached the period in which began the decline and fall of
+the Roman empire. Its story is crowded with events, but lacks those
+dramatic and romantic incidents which give such interest to the history
+of early Rome. Now good emperors ruled, now bad ones followed, now peace
+prevailed, now war raged; the story grows monotonous as we advance. The
+reigns of virtuous emperors yield much to commend but little to
+describe; those of wicked emperors repel us by their enormities and
+disgust us by their follies. We must end our tales with a few selections
+from the long and somewhat dreary list.
+
+[Illustration: EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS.]
+
+After Vespasian came to the throne, a period of nearly two centuries
+elapsed during most of which Rome was governed by men of virtue and
+ability, though cursed for a time by the reigns of the cruel Domitian,
+the dissolute Commodus, the base Caracalla, and the foolish Elagabalus.
+Fortunately, none of the monsters who disgraced the empire reigned long.
+Assassination purified the throne. The total length of reign of the
+cruel monarchs of Rome covered no long space of time, though they occupy
+a great space in history.
+
+We have now to tell how the patrician families of Rome lost their hold
+upon the throne, and a barbarian peasant became lord and master of this
+vast empire, of which his ancestors of a few generations before had
+perhaps scarcely heard. The story is an interesting one, and well worth
+repeating.
+
+Just after the year 200 A.D. the emperor Septimius Severus, father of
+the notorious Caracalla, while returning from an expedition to the East,
+halted in Thrace to celebrate, with military games, the birthday of
+Geta, his youngest son. The spectacle was an enticing one, and the
+country-people for many miles round gathered in crowds to gaze upon
+their sovereign and behold the promised sports.
+
+Among those who came was a young barbarian of such gigantic stature and
+great muscular development as to excite the attention of all who saw
+him. In a rude dialect, which those who heard could barely understand,
+he asked if he might take part in the wrestling exercises and contend
+for the prize. This the officers would not permit. For a Roman soldier
+to be overthrown by a Thracian peasant, as seemed likely to be the
+result, would be a disgrace not to be risked. But he might try, if he
+would, with the camp followers, some of the stoutest of whom were chosen
+to contend with him. Of these he laid no less than sixteen, in
+succession, on the ground.
+
+Here was a man worth having in the ranks. Some gifts were given him, and
+he was told that he might enlist, if he chose; a privilege he was quick
+to accept. The next day the peasant, happy in the thought of being a
+soldier, was seen among a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting in
+rustic fashion, while his head towered above them all.
+
+The emperor, who was passing in the march, looked at him with interest
+and approval, and as he rode onward the new recruit ran up to his horse,
+and followed him on foot during a long and rapid journey without the
+least appearance of fatigue.
+
+This remarkable endurance astonished Severus. "Thracian," he said, "are
+you prepared to wrestle after your race?"
+
+"Ready and willing," answered the youth, with alacrity.
+
+Some of the strongest soldiers of the army were now selected and pitted
+against him, and he overthrew seven of them in rapid succession. The
+emperor, delighted with this matchless display of vigor and agility,
+presented him with a golden collar in reward, and ordered that he should
+be placed in the horse-guards that formed his personal escort.
+
+The new recruit, Maximin by name, was a true barbarian, though born in
+the empire. His father was a Goth, his mother of the nation of the
+Alani. But he had judgment and shrewdness, and a valor equal to his
+strength, and soon advanced in the favor of the emperor, who was a good
+judge of merit. Fierce and impetuous by nature, experience of the world
+taught him to restrain these qualities, and he advanced in position
+until he attained the rank of centurion.
+
+After the death of Severus the Thracian served with equal fidelity under
+his son Caracalla, whose favor and esteem he won. During the short
+reign of the profligate and effeminate Elagabalus, Maximin withdrew
+from the court, but he returned when Alexander Severus, one of the
+noblest of Roman emperors, came to the throne. The new monarch was
+familiar with his ability and the incidents of his unusual career, and
+raised him to the responsible post of tribune of the fourth legion,
+which, under his rigid care, soon became the best disciplined in the
+whole army. He was the favorite of the soldiers under his command, who
+bestowed on their gigantic leader the names of Ajax and Hercules, and
+rejoiced as he steadily rose in rank under the discriminating judgment
+of the emperor. Step by step he was advanced until he reached the
+highest rank in the army, and, but for the evident marks of his savage
+origin, the emperor might have given his own sister in marriage to the
+son of his favorite general.
+
+The incautious emperor was nursing a serpent. The favors poured upon the
+Thracian peasant failed to secure his fidelity, and only nourished his
+ambition. He began to aspire to the highest place in the empire, which
+had been won by many soldiers before him. Licentiousness and profligacy
+had sapped the strength of the army during the weak preceding reigns,
+and Alexander sought earnestly to overcome this corruption and restore
+the rigid ancient discipline. It was too great a task for one of his
+lenient disposition. The soldiers were furious at his restrictions, many
+mutinies broke out, his officers were murdered, his authority was widely
+insulted, he could scarcely repress the disorders that broke out in his
+immediate presence.
+
+This sentiment in the army offered the opportunity desired by Maximin.
+He sent his emissaries among the soldiers to enhance their discontent.
+For thirteen years, said these men, Rome had been governed by a weak
+Syrian, the slave of his mother and the senate. It was time the empire
+had a man at its head, a real soldier, who could add to its glory and
+win new treasures for his followers.
+
+Alexander had been engaged in a war with Persia. He had no sooner
+returned than an outbreak in Germany forced him to hasten to the Rhine.
+Here a large army was assembled, made up in part of new levies, whose
+training in the art of war was given to the care of Maximin. The
+discipline exacted by Alexander was no more acceptable to the soldiers
+here than elsewhere, and the secret agents of the ambitious Thracian
+found fertile ground for their insinuations.
+
+At length all was ripe for the outbreak. One day--March 19, 239 A.D.--as
+Maximin entered the field of exercise, the troops suddenly saluted him
+as emperor, and silenced by violent exclamations his obstinate show of
+refusal. The rebels rushed to the tent of Alexander and consummated
+their conspiracy by striking him dead. His most faithful friends
+perished with him; others were dismissed from court and army; and some
+suffered the cruelest treatment from the unfeeling usurper. Thus it was
+that the imperial dignity descended from the noblest citizens of Rome to
+a peasant of a distant province of barbarian origin. It was one of the
+most striking steps in the decline of the empire.
+
+The new emperor was a man of extraordinary physical powers. He is said
+to have been more than eight feet in height, while his strength and
+appetite were in accordance with his gigantic stature. It is stated that
+he could drink seven gallons of wine and eat thirty or forty pounds of
+meat in a day, and could move a loaded wagon with his arms, break a
+horse's leg with his fist, crumble stones in his hands, and tear up
+small trees by the roots. His mental powers did not accord with his
+physical ones. He was savage of aspect, ignorant of civilized arts,
+destitute of accomplishments, and ruthless in disposition.
+
+He had the virtues of the camp, and these had endeared him to the
+soldiers, but his barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his
+rudeness and ignorance were the contempt of cultivated people, and had
+gained him many rebuffs in his humbler days. He was now in a position to
+revenge himself, not only on the haughty nobles who had treated him with
+contempt, but even on former friends who were aware of his mean
+origin,--of which he was heartily ashamed. For both these crimes many
+were put to death, and the slaughter of several of his former
+benefactors has stained the memory of Maximin with the basest
+ingratitude.
+
+Rome, in the strange progress of its history, had raised a savage to the
+imperial seat, and it suffered accordingly. A scion of the despised
+barbarians of the northern forests was now its emperor, and he visited
+on the proud citizens of Rome the wrongs of his ancestors. The suspicion
+and cruelty of Maximin were unbounded and unrelenting. A consular
+senator named Magnus was accused of a conspiracy against his life.
+Without trial or opportunity for defence Magnus was put to death, with
+no less than four thousand supposed accomplices.
+
+This was but an incident in a frightful reign of terror. The emperor
+kept aloof from his capital, but he filled Rome, and the whole empire,
+in fact, with spies and informers. The slightest accusation or suspicion
+was sufficient for the blood-thirsty tyrant. On a mere unproved charge
+Roman nobles of the highest descent--men who had served as consuls,
+governed provinces, commanded armies, enjoyed triumphs--were seized,
+chained on the public carriages, and borne away to the distant camp of
+the low-born tyrant.
+
+Here they found neither justice nor compassion. Exile, confiscation, and
+ordinary execution were mild measures with Maximin. Some of the
+unfortunates were clubbed to death, some exposed to wild beasts, some
+sewed in the hides of slaughtered animals and left to perish. The worst
+enormities of Caligula and Nero were rivalled by this rude soldier, who,
+during the three years of his reign, disdained to visit either Rome or
+Italy, and permitted no men of high birth, elegant accomplishments, or
+knowledge of public business to approach his person. His imperial seat
+shifted from a camp on the Rhine to one on the Danube, and his sole idea
+of government seems to have been the execution of the suspected.
+
+It was the great that suffered, and to this the people were indifferent.
+But they all felt his avarice. The soldiers demanded rewards, and the
+empire was drained to supply them. By a single edict all the stored-up
+revenue of the cities was taken to supply Maximin's treasury. The
+temples were robbed of their treasures, and the statues of gods, heroes,
+and emperors were melted down and converted into coin. A general cry of
+indignation against this impiety rose throughout the Roman world, and it
+was evident that the end of this frightful tyranny was approaching.
+
+An insurrection broke out in Africa. It was supported in Rome. But it
+ended in failure, the Gordians, father and son, who headed it, were
+slain, and the senate and nobles of Rome fell into mortal terror. They
+looked for a frightful retribution from the imperial monster. With the
+courage of despair they took the only step that remained: two new
+emperors, Maximus and Balbinus, were appointed, and active steps taken
+to defend Italy and Rome.
+
+There was no time to be lost. News of these revolutionary movements had
+roused in Maximin the rage of a wild beast. All who approached his
+person were in danger, even his son and nearest friends. Under his
+command was a large, well-disciplined, and experienced army. He was a
+soldier of acknowledged valor and military ability. The rebels, with
+their hasty levies and untried commanders, had everything to fear.
+
+They took judicious steps. When the troops of Maximin, crossing the
+Julian Alps, reached the borders of Italy, they were terrified by the
+silence and desolation that prevailed. The villages and open towns had
+been abandoned, the bridges destroyed, the cattle driven away, the
+provisions removed, the country made a desert. The people had gathered
+into the walled cities, which were plentifully provisioned and
+garrisoned. The purpose of the senate was to weaken Maximin by famine
+and retard him by siege.
+
+The first city assailed was Aquileia, It was fully provisioned and
+vigorously defended, the inhabitants preferring death on their walls to
+death by the tyrant's order. Yet Rome was in imminent danger. Maximin
+might at any moment abandon the siege of a frontier city and march upon
+the capital. There was no army capable of opposing him. The fate of Rome
+hung upon a thread.
+
+The hand of an assassin cut that thread. The severity of the weather,
+the growth of disease, the lack of food, had spread disaffection through
+Maximin's army. Ignorant of the true state of affairs, many of the
+soldiers feared that the whole empire was in arms against them. The
+tyrant, vexed at the obstinate defence of Aquileia, visited his anger on
+his men, and roused a stern desire for revenge. The end came soon. A
+party of Praetorian guards, in dread for their wives and children, who
+were in the camp of Alba, near Rome, broke into sudden revolt, entered
+Maximin's tent, and killed him, his son, and the principal ministers of
+his tyranny.
+
+The whole army sympathized with this impulsive act. The heads of the
+dead, borne on the points of spears, were shown the garrison, and at
+once the gates were thrown open, the hungry troops supplied with food,
+and a general fraternization took place. Joy in the fall of the tyrant
+was universal throughout the empire, the two new emperors entered Rome
+in a triumphal procession, people and nobles alike went wild with
+enthusiasm, and the belief was entertained that a golden age was to
+succeed the age of iron that had come to an end. Yet within three months
+afterwards both the new emperors were massacred in the streets of Rome,
+and the hoped-for era of happiness and prosperity vanished before the
+swelling tide of oppression, demoralization, and decline.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE._
+
+
+In the century that followed the reign of Maximin great changes came
+upon the empire of Rome. The process of decline went steadily on. The
+city of Rome sank in importance as the centre of the empire. The armies
+were recruited from former barbarian tribes; many of the emperors
+reigned in the field; the savage inmates of the northern forests,
+hitherto sternly restrained, now began to gain a footing within the
+borders; the Goths plundered Greece; the Persians took Armenia; the day
+of the downfall of the great empire was coming, slowly but surely. One
+important event during this period, the rebellion of Zenobia and the
+ruin of Palmyra, we have told in "Tales of Greece." There are two other
+events to be told: the rise of Christianity, and the founding of a new
+capital of the empire.
+
+From the date of the death of Christ, the Christian religion made
+continual progress in the city and empire of Rome. Despite the contempt
+with which its believers were viewed, despite the persecution to which
+they were subjected, despite frequent massacres and martyrdoms, their
+numbers rapidly increased, and the many superstitions of the empire
+gradually gave way before the doctrines of human brotherhood, infinite
+love and mercy, and the eternal existence and happiness of those who
+believed in Christ and practised virtue. By the time of the accession of
+the great emperor Constantine, 306 A.D., the Christians were so numerous
+in the army and populace of the empire that they had to be dealt with
+more mercifully than of old, and their teachings were no longer confined
+to the lowly, but ascended to the level of the throne itself.
+
+The traditional story handed down to us is that Constantine, in his
+struggle with Maxentius for the empire of the West, saw in the sky,
+above the mid-day sun, a great luminous cross, marked with the words,
+"_In hoc signo vinces_" ("In this sign conquer"). The whole army beheld
+this amazing object; and during the following night Christ appeared to
+the emperor in a vision, and directed him to march against his enemies
+under the standard of the cross. Another writer claims that a whole army
+of divine warriors were seen descending from the sky, and flying to the
+aid of Constantine.
+
+[Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS, ROME.]
+
+It may be said that both these stories, though told by devout authors,
+greatly lack probability. But, whatever the cause, Constantine became a
+professed Christian, and as such availed himself of the enthusiastic
+support of the Christians of his army. By an edict issued at Milan, 313
+A.D., he gave civil rights and toleration to the Christians throughout
+the empire, and not long afterwards proclaimed Christianity the religion
+of the state, though the pagan worship was still tolerated.
+
+This highly important act of Constantine was followed by another of
+great importance, the establishment of a new capital of the Roman
+empire, one which was destined to keep alive some shadow of that empire
+for many centuries after Rome itself had become the capital of a kingdom
+of barbarians. On the European bank of the Bosphorus, the channel which
+connects the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea, had for ages stood the
+city of Byzantium, which played an important part in Grecian history.
+
+On the basis of this old city Constantine resolved to build a new one,
+worthy his greatness. The situation was much more central than that of
+Rome, and was admirably chosen for the government of an empire that
+extended as far to the east in Asia as to the west in Europe, while it
+was at once defended by nature against hostile attack and open to the
+benefits of commercial intercourse. This, then, was the site chosen for
+the new capital, and here the city of Constantinople arose.
+
+We have, in our first chapter, described how Romulus laid out the walls
+of Rome. With equally impressive ceremonies Constantine traced those of
+the new capital of the empire. Lance in hand, and followed by a solemn
+procession, the emperor walked over a route of such extent that his
+assistants cried out in astonishment that he had already exceeded the
+dimensions of a great city.
+
+"I shall still advance," said Constantine, "till He, the invisible guide
+who marches before me, thinks proper to stop."
+
+From the eastern promontory to that part of the Bosphorus known as the
+"Golden Gate," the city extended along the strait about three Roman
+miles. Its circumference measured between ten and eleven, the space
+embraced equalling about two thousand acres. Upon the five hills
+enclosed within this space, which, to those who approach Constantinople,
+rise above each other in beautiful order, was built the new city, the
+choicest marble and the most costly and showy materials being abundantly
+employed to add grandeur and splendor to the natural beauty of the site.
+
+A great multitude of builders and architects were employed in raising
+the walls and building the edifices of the imperial city, while the
+treasures of the empire were spent without stint in the effort to make
+it an unequalled monument. In that day the art of architecture had
+greatly declined, but for the adornment of the city there were to be had
+the noblest productions the world had ever known, the works of the most
+celebrated artists of the age of Pericles.
+
+These were amply employed. To adorn the new city, the cities of Greece
+and Asia were despoiled of their choicest treasures of art. In the Forum
+was placed a lofty column of porphyry, one hundred and twenty feet in
+height, on whose summit stood a colossal statue of Apollo, supposed to
+be the work of Phidias. In the stately circus or hippodrome, the space
+between the goals, round which the chariots turned in their swift
+flight, was filled with ancient statues and obelisks. Here was also a
+trophy of striking historical value, the bodies of three serpents
+twisted into a pillar of brass, which once supported the golden tripod
+that was consecrated by the Greeks in the temple of Delphi after the
+defeat of Xerxes. It still exists, as the choicest antiquarian relic of
+the city.
+
+The palace was a magnificent edifice, hardly surpassed by that of Rome
+itself. The baths were enriched with lofty columns, handsome marbles,
+and more than threescore statues of brass. The city contained numbers of
+other magnificent public buildings, and over four thousand noble
+residences, which towered above the multitude of plebeian dwellings. As
+for its wealth and population, these, in less than a century, vied with
+those of Rome itself.
+
+With such energy did Constantine push the work on his city that its
+principal edifices were finished in a few years,--or in a few months, as
+one authority states, though this statement seems to lack probability.
+This done, the founder dedicated his new capital with the most
+impressive ceremonies, and with games and largesses to the people of the
+greatest pomp and cost. An edict, engraved on a marble column, gave to
+the new city the title of Second or New Rome. But this official title
+died, as the accepted name of the city, almost as soon as it was born.
+Constantinople, the "city of Constantine," became the popular name, and
+so it continues till this day in Christian acceptation. In reality,
+however, the city has suffered another change of name, for its present
+possessors, the Turks, know it by the name of Stambol.
+
+An interesting ceremony succeeded. With every return of the birthday of
+the city, a statue of Constantine, made of gilt wood and bearing in its
+right hand a small image of the genius of the city, was placed on a
+triumphal car, and drawn in solemn procession through the Hippodrome,
+attended by the guards, who carried white tapers and were dressed in
+their richest robes. When it came opposite the throne of the reigning
+emperor, he rose from his seat, and, with grateful reverence, paid
+homage to the statue of the founder. Thus it was that Byzantium was
+replaced by Constantinople, and thus was the founder of the new capital
+held in honor.
+
+
+
+
+_THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE._
+
+
+The doom of Rome was at hand. Its empire had extended almost inimitably
+to the east and west, had crossed the sea and deeply penetrated the
+desert to the south, but had failed in its advances to the north. The
+Rhine and the Danube here formed its boundaries. The great forest region
+which lay beyond these, with its hosts of blue-eyed and fair-skinned
+barbarians, defied the armies of Rome. Here and there the forest was
+penetrated, hundreds of thousands of its tenants were slain, yet Rome
+failed to subdue its swarming tribes, and simply taught them the
+principle of combination and the art of war. Early in the history of
+Rome it was taken and burnt by the Gauls. Raids of barbarians across the
+border were frequent in its later history. As Rome grew weaker, the
+tribes of the north grew bolder and stronger. The armies of the empire
+were kept busy in holding the lines of the Rhine and the Danube. At
+length Roman weakness and incompetency permitted this barrier to be
+broken, and the beginning of the end was at hand. This is the important
+event which we have now to describe.
+
+In the year 375 A.D. there existed a great Gothic kingdom in the north,
+extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea, under the rule of an able
+monarch named Hermanric, who had conquered and combined numerous tribes
+into a single nation. On this nation, just as assassination removed the
+Gothic conqueror, descended a vast and frightful horde from northern
+Asia, the mighty invasion of the Huns, which was to shake to its heart
+the empire of Rome.
+
+The Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) were conquered by this savage horde. The
+Visigoths (Western Goths), stricken with mortal fear, hurried to the
+Danube and implored the Romans to save them from annihilation. For many
+miles along the banks of the river extended the panic-stricken
+multitude, with outstretched arms and pathetic lamentations, praying for
+permission to cross. If settled on the waste lands of Thrace they would
+pledge themselves to be faithful subjects of Rome, to obey its laws and
+guard its limits.
+
+Sympathy and pity counselled the emperor to grant the request. Political
+considerations bade him refuse. To admit such a host of warlike
+barbarians to the empire was full of danger. Finally they were permitted
+to cross, under two stringent conditions: they must deliver up their
+arms, and they must yield their children, who were to be taken to Asia,
+educated, and held as hostages. Such was the first fatal step in the
+overthrow of Rome.
+
+The task of crossing was a difficult one. The Danube there was more than
+a mile wide, and had been swollen with rains. A large fleet of boats and
+vessels was provided, but it took many days and nights to transport the
+mighty host, and numbers of them were swept away and drowned by the
+rapid current. Probably the whole multitude numbered nearly a million,
+of whom two hundred thousand were warriors.
+
+Of the conditions made only one was carried out. The children of the
+Goths were removed, and taken to the distant lands chosen for their
+residence. But the arms were not given up. The Roman officers were
+bribed to let the warriors retain their weapons, and in a short time a
+great army of armed barbarians was encamped on the southern bank of the
+Danube.
+
+These new subjects of Rome were treated in a way well calculated to
+convert them into enemies. The officials of Thrace disobeyed the orders
+of the emperor, sold the Goths the meanest food at extravagant prices,
+and by their rapacious avarice bitterly irritated them. While this was
+going on, the Ostrogoths also appeared on the Danube, and solicited
+permission to cross. Valens, the emperor, refused. He was beginning to
+fear that he had already too many subjects of that race. But the
+discontent of the Visigoths had drawn the soldiers from the stream and
+left it unguarded. The Ostrogoths seized vessels and built rafts. They
+crossed without opposition. Soon a new and hostile army was encamped
+upon the territory of the Roman empire.
+
+The discontent of the Visigoths was not long in breaking into open war.
+They had marched to Marcianopolis, seventy miles from the Danube. Here
+Lupicinus, one of the governors of Thrace, invited the Gothic chiefs to
+a splendid entertainment. Their guards remained under arms at the
+entrance to the palace. But the gates of the city were closely guarded,
+and the Goths outside were refused the use of a plentiful market, to
+which they claimed admission as subjects of Rome.
+
+The citizens treated them with insult and derision. The Goths grew
+angry. Words led to blows. A sword was drawn, and the first blood shed
+in a long and ruinous war. Lupicinus was told that many of his soldiers
+had been slain. Heated with wine, he gave orders that they should be
+revenged by the death of the Gothic guards at the palace gates.
+
+The shouts and groans in the street warned Fritigern, the Gothic king,
+of his danger. At a word from him his comrades at the banquet drew their
+swords, forced their way from the palace and through the streets, and,
+mounting their horses, rode with all speed to their camp, and told their
+followers what had occurred. Instantly cries of vengeance and warlike
+shouts arose, war was resolved upon by the chiefs, the banners of the
+host were displayed, and the sound of the trumpets carried afar the
+hostile warning.
+
+Lupicinus hastily collected such troops as he could command and advanced
+against the barbarians; but the Roman ranks were broken and the legions
+slaughtered, while their guilty leader was forced to fly for his life.
+"That successful day put an end to the distress of the barbarians and
+the security of the Romans," says a Gothic historian.
+
+The imprudence of Valens had introduced a nation of warriors into the
+heart of the empire; the venality of the officials had converted them
+into enemies; Valens, instead of seeking to remove their causes of
+hostility, marched with an army against them. We cannot here describe
+the various conflicts that took place. It will suffice to say that other
+barbarians crossed the Danube, and that even some of the Huns joined the
+army of Fritigern. The borders of the empire were effectually broken,
+and the forest myriads swarmed unchecked into the empire.
+
+On August 9, 378, the Emperor Valens, inspired by ambition and moved by
+the demands of the ignorant multitude, left the strong walls of
+Adrianople and marched to attack the Goths, who were encamped twelve
+miles away. The result was fatal. The Romans, exhausted with their
+march, suffering from heat and thirst, confused and ill-organized, met
+with a complete defeat. The emperor was slain on the field or burnt to
+death in a hut to which he had been carried wounded, hundreds of
+distinguished officers perished, more than two-thirds of the army were
+destroyed, and the darkness of the night only saved the rest. Valens had
+been badly punished for his imprudence and the Romans for their
+venality.
+
+This signal victory of the Goths was followed by a siege of Adrianople.
+But the barbarians knew nothing of the art of attacking stone walls, and
+quickly gave up the impossible task. From Adrianople they marched to
+Constantinople, but were forced to content themselves with ravaging the
+suburbs and gazing, with impotent desire, on the city's distant
+splendor. Then, laden with the rich spoils of the suburbs, they marched
+southward through Thrace, and spread over the face of a fertile and
+cultivated country extending as far as the confines of Italy, their
+course being everywhere marked with massacre, conflagration, and rapine,
+until some of the fairest regions of the empire were turned almost into
+a desert. It may be that the numbers of Romans who perished from this
+invasion equalled those of the Goths whom imprudent compassion had
+delivered from the Huns.
+
+As regards the children of the Goths, who had been distributed in the
+provinces of Asia Minor, there remains a cruel story to tell. Though
+given the education and taught the arts of the Romans, they did not
+forget their origin, and the suspicion arose that they were plotting to
+repeat in Asia the deeds of their fathers in Europe. Julius, who
+commanded the troops after the death of Valens, took bloody measures to
+prevent any such calamity. The youthful Goths were bidden to assemble,
+on a stated day, in the capital cities of their provinces, the hint
+being given that they were to receive gifts of land and money. On the
+appointed day they were collected unarmed in the Forum of each city, the
+surrounding streets being occupied by Roman troops, and the roofs of the
+houses covered with archers and slingers. At a fixed hour, in all the
+cities, the signal for slaughter was given, and in an hour more not one
+of these helpless wards of Rome remained alive. The cruel treachery of
+this blood-thirsty act remains almost unparalleled in history.
+
+
+
+
+_THE DOWNFALL OF ROME._
+
+
+Theodosius, the great and noble emperor who succeeded Valens, pacified
+and made quiet subjects of the Goths. He died in 395, and before the
+year ended the Gothic nation was again in arms. At the first sound of
+the trumpet the warriors, who had been forced to a life of labor,
+deserted their fields and flocked to the standards of war. The barriers
+of the empire were down. Across the frozen surface of the Danube flocked
+savage tribesmen from the northern forests, and joined the Gothic hosts.
+Under the leadership of an able commander, the famous Alaric, the
+barbarians swept from their fields and poured downward upon Greece, in
+search of an easier road to fortune than the toilsome one of industry.
+
+Many centuries had passed since the Persians invaded Greece, and the men
+of Marathon and Thermopylae were no more. Men had been posted to defend
+the world-famous pass, but, instead of fighting to the death, like
+Leonidas and his Spartans of old, they retired without a blow, and left
+Greece to the mercy of the Goth.
+
+Instantly a deluge of barbarians spread right and left, and the whole
+country was ravaged. Thebes alone resisted. Athens admitted Alaric
+within its gates, and saved itself by giving the barbarian chief a bath
+and a banquet. The other famous cities had lost their walls, and
+Corinth, Argos, and Sparta yielded without defence to the Goths. The
+wealth of the cities and the produce of the country were ravaged without
+stint, villages and towns were committed to the flames, thousands of the
+inhabitants were borne off to slavery, and for years afterwards the
+track of the Goths could be traced in ruin throughout the land.
+
+By a fortunate chance Rome possessed at that epoch a great general, the
+famous Stilicho, whose military genius has rarely been surpassed. He had
+before him a mighty task, the forcing back of the high tide of barbarian
+overflow, but he did it well while he lived. His death brought ruin on
+Rome. Stilicho hastened to Greece and quickly drove the Goths from the
+Peloponnesus. But jealousy between Constantinople and Rome tied his
+hands, he was recalled to Italy, and the weak emperor of the East
+rewarded the Gothic general for his destructive raid by making him
+master-general of Illyricum.
+
+Alaric, fired by ambition, used his new power in forcing the cities of
+his dominion to supply the Goths with the weapons of war. Then, Greece
+and the country to the north having been devastated, he turned his arms
+against Italy, and about 400 A.D. appeared at the foot of the Julian
+Alps, the first invader who had threatened Italy since the days of
+Hannibal, six hundred years before.
+
+There were at that time two rulers of the Roman empire,--Arcadius,
+emperor of the East, and Honorius, emperor of the West. The latter, a
+coward himself, had a brave man to command his armies,--Stilicho, who
+had driven the Goths from Greece. But Italy, though it had a general,
+was destitute of an army. To meet the invading foe, Stilicho was forced
+to empty the forts on the Rhine, and even to send to England for the
+legion that guarded the Caledonian wall. With the army thus raised he
+met the Gothic host at Pollentia, and defeated them with frightful
+slaughter, recovering from their camp many of the spoils of Greece.
+Another battle was fought at Verona, and the Goths were again defeated.
+They were now forced to retire from Italy, Stilicho and the emperor
+entered Rome, and that capital saw its last great triumph, and gloried
+in a revival of its magnificent ancient games.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS.]
+
+In these games the cruel combat of gladiators was shown for the last
+time to the blood-thirsty populace of Rome. The edict of Constantine had
+failed to stop these frightful sports. The appeal of a Christian poet
+was equally without effect. A more decisive action was necessary, and it
+came. In the midst of these bloody contests an Asiatic monk, named
+Telemachus, rushed into the arena and attempted to separate the
+gladiators. He paid for his rashness with his life, being stoned to
+death by the furious spectators, with whose pleasure he had dared to
+interfere. But his death had its effect. The fury of the people was
+followed by shame. Telemachus was looked upon as a martyr, and the
+gladiatorial shows came to an end, the emperor abolishing forever the
+spectacle of human slaughter and human cruelty in the amphitheatre of
+Rome.
+
+Rome triumphed too soon. Its ovation to victory was the expiring gleam
+in its long career of glory and dominion. Its downfall was at hand.
+Fight as it might in Italy, the gate-ways of the empire lay open in the
+north, and through them still poured barbarian hordes. The myriads of
+the Huns, rushing in a devouring wave from the borders of China, made a
+mighty stir in the forest region of the Baltic and the Danube. In the
+year 406 a vast host of Germans, known by the names of Vandals,
+Burgundians, and Suevi, under a leader named Rhodogast, or Radagaisus,
+crossed the Danube and made its way unopposed to Italy. Multitudes of
+Goths joined them, till the army numbered not less than two hundred
+thousand fighting men.
+
+As the flood of barbarians rushed southward through Italy, many cities
+were pillaged or destroyed, and the city of Florence sustained its first
+recorded siege. Alaric and his Goths were Christians. Radagaisus and his
+Germans were half-savage pagans. Florence, which had dared oppose them,
+was threatened with utter ruin. It was to be reduced to stones and
+ashes, and its noblest senators were to be sacrificed on the altars of
+the German gods. The Florentines, thus threatened, fought bravely, but
+they were reduced to the last extremity before deliverance came.
+
+Stilicho had not been idle during this destructive raid. By calling
+troops from the frontiers, by arming slaves, and by enlisting barbarian
+allies, he was at length able to take the field. He led the _last_ army
+of Rome, and dared not expose it to the wild valor of the savage foe. On
+the contrary, he surrounded their camp with strong lines which defied
+their efforts to break through, and waited till starvation should force
+them to surrender.
+
+Florence was relieved. The besiegers were in their turn besieged. Their
+bravest warriors were slain in efforts to break the Roman lines.
+Radagaisus surrendered to Stilicho, and was instantly executed. Such of
+his followers as had not been swept away by famine and disease were sold
+as slaves. The great host disappeared, and Stilicho a second time won
+the proud title of Deliverer of Italy.
+
+But the whole army of Radagaisus was not destroyed. Half of it had
+remained in the north. These were forced by Stilicho to retreat from
+Italy. But Gaul lay open to their fury. That great and rich section of
+the empire was invaded and frightfully ravaged, and its conquerors never
+afterwards left its fertile fields. The empire of Rome ceased to exist
+in the countries beyond the Alps, those great regions which had been won
+by the arms of Marius and Caesar.
+
+And now the time had come for Rome to destroy itself. The mind of the
+emperor was poisoned against Stilicho, the sole remaining bulwark of his
+power. He had sought to tie the hands of Alaric with gifts of power and
+gold, and was accused of treason by his enemies. The weak Honorius gave
+way, and Stilicho was slain. His friends shared his fate, and the
+cowardly imbecile who ruled Rome cut down the only safeguard of his
+throne.
+
+The result was what might have been foreseen. In a few months after the
+death of Stilicho, Alaric was again in Italy, exasperated by the bad
+faith of the court, which had promised and not performed. There was no
+army and no general to meet him. City after city was pillaged. Avoiding
+the strong walls of Ravenna, behind which the emperor lay secure, he
+marched on Rome, led his army under the stately arches, adorned with the
+spoils of countless victories, and pitched his tents beneath the walls
+of the imperial city.
+
+Six hundred and nineteen years had passed since a foreign foe had gazed
+upon those proud walls, within which lay the richest and most splendid
+city of the world, peopled by a population of more than a million souls.
+But Rome was no longer the city which had defied the hosts of Hannibal,
+and had sold at auction, for a fair price, the very ground on which the
+great Carthaginian had pitched his tent. Alaric was not a Hannibal, but
+much less were the Romans of his day the Romans of the past.
+
+Instead of striking for the honor of Rome, they lay and starved within
+their walls until thousands had died in houses and streets. No army came
+to their relief, and in despair the senate sent delegates to treat with
+the king of the Goths.
+
+"We are resolved to maintain the dignity of Rome, either in peace or
+war," said the envoys, with a show of pride and valor. "If you will not
+yield us honorable terms, you may sound your trumpets and prepare to
+fight with myriads of men used to arms and with the courage of despair."
+
+"The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed," answered Alaric, with a
+loud and insulting laugh.
+
+He then named the terms on which he would retreat,--_all_ the gold and
+silver in the city; _all_ the rich and precious movables; _all_ the
+slaves who were of barbarian origin.
+
+"If such are your demands," asked the envoys, now reduced to suppliant
+tones, "what do you intend to leave us?"
+
+"Your _lives_," said Alaric, in haughty tones.
+
+The envoys retired, trembling with fear.
+
+But Alaric moderated his demands, and was bought off by the payment of
+five thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, four
+thousand robes of silk, three thousand pieces of scarlet cloth, and
+three thousand pounds of pepper, then a costly and favorite spice. The
+gates were opened, the hungry multitude was fed, and the Gothic army
+marched away, but it left Rome poor.
+
+What followed is too long to tell. Alaric treated for peace with the
+ministers of the emperor. But he met with such bad faith and so many
+insults that exasperation overcame all his desire for peace, and once
+more the army of the Goths marched upon Rome.
+
+The crime and folly of the court of Honorius at Ravenna had at last
+brought about the ruin of the imperial city. The senate resolved on
+defence; but there were traitors within the walls. At midnight the
+Salarian Gate was silently opened, and a chosen band of barbarians
+entered the streets. The tremendous sound of the Gothic trumpet aroused
+the sleeping citizens to the fact that all was lost. Eleven hundred and
+sixty-three years after the foundation of Rome, and eight hundred years
+after its capture by the Gauls, it had again become the prey of
+barbarians, and the imperial mistress of the world was delivered to the
+fury of the German and Gothic hordes.
+
+Alaric, while permitting his followers to plunder at discretion, bade
+them to spare the lives of the unresisting; but thousands of Romans were
+slain, and the forty thousand slaves who had joined his ranks revenged
+themselves on their former masters with pitiless rage. Conflagration
+added to the horrors, and fire spread far over the captured city. The
+Goths held Rome only for six days, but in that time depleted it
+frightfully of its wealth. The costly furniture, the massive plate, the
+robes of silk and purple, were piled without stint into their wagons,
+and numerous works of art were wantonly destroyed.
+
+But Alaric and many of his followers were Christians, and the treasures
+of the Church escaped. A Christian Goth broke into the dwelling of an
+aged woman, and demanded all the gold and silver she possessed. To his
+astonishment, she showed him a hoard of massive plate, of the most
+curious workmanship. As he looked at it with wonder and delight, she
+solemnly said,--
+
+"These are the consecrated vessels belonging to St. Peter. If you
+presume to touch them, your conscience must answer for the sacrilege.
+For me, I dare not keep what I am not able to defend."
+
+The Goth, struck with awe by her words, sent word to Alaric of what he
+had found, and received an order that all this consecrated treasure
+should be transported without damage to St. Peter's Church. A remarkable
+spectacle, never before seen in a captured city, followed. From the
+Quirinal Hill to the distant Vatican marched a long train of devout
+Goths, bearing on their heads the sacred vessels of gold and silver, and
+guarded on each side by a detachment of their armed companions, while
+the martial shouts of the barbarians mingled with the hymns of devotees.
+A crowd of Christians flocked from the houses to join the procession,
+and through its sheltering aid a multitude of fugitives escaped to the
+secure retreat of the Vatican.
+
+Not satisfied with plundering the city, the conquerors ended by selling
+its citizens, save those who could ransom themselves, for slaves. Many
+of these were redeemed by the benevolent, but as a result of the taking
+of Rome hosts of indigent fugitives were scattered through the empire,
+from Italy to Syria.
+
+From this time forward the Western Empire of Rome was the prey of
+barbarians. In 451 the Huns under Attila invaded Gaul, besieged Orleans,
+and were defeated at Chalons in the last great victory of Rome. In the
+following year Attila invaded Italy, and Rome was only saved from the
+worst of horrors by a large ransom. Three years afterwards, in 455, an
+army of Vandals, who had invaded Africa, sailed to Italy, and Rome was
+again taken and sacked. For fourteen days and nights the pillage
+continued, and when it ended Rome was stripped bare of treasure; the
+Christian churches, which had been spared by the Goths, being
+mercilessly plundered by these heathen conquerors.
+
+A few years more and the Western Empire of Rome came to an end. In the
+year 476 or 479, Augustulus, the last emperor, was forced to resign, and
+Odoacer, a barbarian chief, assumed the title of King of Italy. As for
+the Eastern Empire, it maintained a half-life for nearly a thousand
+years after, Constantinople being finally taken by the Turks, and made
+the capital of Turkey, in 1453.
+
+  THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Historic Tales, Volume 11 (of 15), by
+Charles Morris
+
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