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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and
+Fletcher by S. T. Coleridge
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher
+
+Author: S. T. Coleridge
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2008 [Ebook #25585]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
+
+
+                              *Shakespeare*
+
+                                Ben Jonson
+
+                          Beaumont And Fletcher
+
+                            Notes and Lectures
+
+                            by S. T. Coleridge
+
+                               New Edition
+
+                                Liverpool
+
+                              Edward Howell
+
+                                MDCCCLXXIV
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Shakespeare
+   Definition Of Poetry.
+   Greek Drama.
+   Progress Of The Drama.
+   The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+   Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+   Shakespeare’s Judgment equal to his Genius.
+   Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare’s
+   Dramas.
+   Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+   Order Of Shakespeare’s Plays.
+   Notes On The “Tempest.�
+   “Love’s Labour’s Lost.�
+   “Midsummer Night’s Dream.�
+   “Comedy Of Errors.�
+   “As You Like It.�
+   “Twelfth Night.�
+   “All’s Well That Ends Well.�
+   “Merry Wives Of Windsor.�
+   “Measure For Measure.�
+   “Cymbeline.�
+   “Titus Andronicus.�
+   “Troilus And Cressida.�
+   “Coriolanus.�
+   “Julius Cæsar.�
+   “Antony And Cleopatra.�
+   “Timon Of Athens.�
+   “Romeo And Juliet.�
+   Shakespeare’s English Historical Plays.
+   “King John.�
+   “Richard II.�
+   “Henry IV.—Part I.�
+   “Henry IV.—Part II.�
+   “Henry V.�
+   “Henry VI.—Part I.�
+   “Richard III.�
+   “Lear.�
+   “Hamlet.�
+   “Macbeth.�
+   “Winter’s Tale.�
+   “Othello.�
+Notes on Ben Jonson.
+   Whalley’s Preface.
+   “Whalley’s ‘Life Of Jonson.’ �
+   “Every Man Out Of His Humour.�
+   “Poetaster.�
+   “Fall Of Sejanus.�
+   “Volpone.�
+   “Apicæne.�
+   “The Alchemist.�
+   “Catiline’s Conspiracy.�
+   “Bartholomew Fair.�
+   “The Devil Is An Ass.�
+   “The Staple Of News.�
+   “The New Inn.�
+Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.
+   Harris’s Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+   Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale’s Edition, 1811.
+   “Maid’s Tragedy.�
+   “A King And No King.�
+   “The Scornful Lady.�
+   “The Custom Of The Country.�
+   “The Elder Brother.�
+   “The Spanish Curate.�
+   “Wit Without Money.�
+   “The Humorous Lieutenant.�
+   “The Mad Lover.�
+   “The Loyal Subject.�
+   “Rule A Wife And Have A Wife.�
+   “The Laws Of Candy.�
+   “The Little French Lawyer.�
+   “Valentinian.�
+   “Rollo.�
+   “The Wildgoose Chase.�
+   “A Wife For A Month.�
+   “The Pilgrim.�
+   “The Queen Of Corinth.�
+   “The Noble Gentleman.�
+   “The Coronation.�
+   “Wit At Several Weapons.�
+   “The Fair Maid Of The Inn.�
+   “The Two Noble Kinsmen.�
+   “The Woman Hater.�
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SHAKESPEARE, WITH INTRODUCTORY MATTER ON POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND THE STAGE.
+
+
+
+
+Definition Of Poetry.
+
+
+Poetry is not the proper antithesis to prose, but to science. Poetry is
+opposed to science, and prose to metre. The proper and immediate object of
+science is the acquirement, or communication, of truth; the proper and
+immediate object of poetry is the communication of immediate pleasure.
+This definition is useful; but as it would include novels and other works
+of fiction, which yet we do not call poems, there must be some additional
+character by which poetry is not only divided from opposites, but likewise
+distinguished from disparate, though similar, modes of composition. Now
+how is this to be effected? In animated prose, the beauties of nature, and
+the passions and accidents of human nature, are often expressed in that
+natural language which the contemplation of them would suggest to a pure
+and benevolent mind; yet still neither we nor the writers call such a work
+a poem, though no work could deserve that name which did not include all
+this, together with something else. What is this? It is that pleasurable
+emotion, that peculiar state and degree of excitement, which arises in the
+poet himself in the act of composition;—and in order to understand this,
+we must combine a more than ordinary sympathy with the objects, emotions,
+or incidents contemplated by the poet, consequent on a more than common
+sensibility, with a more than ordinary activity of the mind in respect of
+the fancy and the imagination. Hence is produced a more vivid reflection
+of the truths of nature and of the human heart, united with a constant
+activity modifying and correcting these truths by that sort of pleasurable
+emotion, which the exertion of all our faculties gives in a certain
+degree; but which can only be felt in perfection under the full play of
+those powers of mind, which are spontaneous rather than voluntary, and in
+which the effort required bears no proportion to the activity enjoyed.
+This is the state which permits the production of a highly pleasurable
+whole, of which each part shall also communicate for itself a distinct and
+conscious pleasure; and hence arises the definition, which I trust is now
+intelligible, that poetry, or rather a poem, is a species of composition,
+opposed to science, as having intellectual pleasure for its object, and as
+attaining its end by the use of language natural to us in a state of
+excitement,—but distinguished from other species of composition, not
+excluded by the former criterion, by permitting a pleasure from the whole
+consistent with a consciousness of pleasure from the component parts;—and
+the perfection of which is, to communicate from each part the greatest
+immediate pleasure compatible with the largest sum of pleasure on the
+whole. This, of course, will vary with the different modes of poetry;—and
+that splendour of particular lines, which would be worthy of admiration in
+an impassioned elegy, or a short indignant satire, would be a blemish and
+proof of vile taste in a tragedy or an epic poem.
+
+It is remarkable, by the way, that Milton in three incidental words has
+implied all which for the purposes of more distinct apprehension, which at
+first must be slow-paced in order to be distinct, I have endeavoured to
+develope in a precise and strictly adequate definition. Speaking of
+poetry, he says, as in a parenthesis, “which is simple, sensuous,
+passionate.� How awful is the power of words!—fearful often in their
+consequences when merely felt, not understood; but most awful when both
+felt and understood!—Had these three words only been properly understood
+by, and present in the minds of, general readers, not only almost a
+library of false poetry would have been either precluded or still-born,
+but, what is of more consequence, works truly excellent and capable of
+enlarging the understanding, warming and purifying the heart, and placing
+in the centre of the whole being the germs of noble and manlike actions,
+would have been the common diet of the intellect instead. For the first
+condition, simplicity,—while, on the one hand, it distinguishes poetry
+from the arduous processes of science, labouring towards an end not yet
+arrived at, and supposes a smooth and finished road, on which the reader
+is to walk onward easily, with streams murmuring by his side, and trees
+and flowers and human dwellings to make his journey as delightful as the
+object of it is desirable, instead of having to toil with the pioneers and
+painfully make the road on which others are to travel,—precludes, on the
+other hand, every affectation and morbid peculiarity;—the second
+condition, sensuousness, insures that framework of objectivity, that
+definiteness and articulation of imagery, and that modification of the
+images themselves, without which poetry becomes flattened into mere
+didactics of practice, or evaporated into a hazy, unthoughtful,
+day-dreaming; and the third condition, passion, provides that neither
+thought nor imagery shall be simply objective, but that the _passio vera_
+of humanity shall warm and animate both.
+
+To return, however, to the previous definition, this most general and
+distinctive character of a poem originates in the poetic genius itself;
+and though it comprises whatever can with any propriety be called a poem
+(unless that word be a mere lazy synonym for a composition in metre), it
+yet becomes a just, and not merely discriminative, but full and adequate,
+definition of poetry in its highest and most peculiar sense, only so far
+as the distinction still results from the poetic genius, which sustains
+and modifies the emotions, thoughts, and vivid representations of the poem
+by the energy without effort of the poet’s own mind,—by the spontaneous
+activity of his imagination and fancy, and by whatever else with these
+reveals itself in the balancing and reconciling of opposite or discordant
+qualities, sameness with difference, a sense of novelty and freshness with
+old or customary objects, a more than usual state of emotion with more
+than usual order, self-possession and judgment with enthusiasm and
+vehement feeling,—and which, while it blends and harmonizes the natural
+and the artificial, still subordinates art to nature, the manner to the
+matter, and our admiration of the poet to our sympathy with the images,
+passions, characters, and incidents of the poem:—
+
+“Doubtless, this could not be, but that she turns
+Bodies to _spirit_ by sublimation strange,
+As fire converts to fire the things it burns—
+As we our food into our nature change!
+
+“From their gross matter she abstracts _their_ forms,
+And draws a kind of quintessence from things,
+Which to her proper nature she transforms
+To bear them light on her celestial wings!
+
+“_Thus_ doth she, when from _individual states_
+She doth abstract the universal kinds,
+_Which then reclothed in divers names and fates_
+_Steal access thro’ our senses to our minds_.�
+
+
+
+
+Greek Drama.
+
+
+It is truly singular that Plato,—whose philosophy and religion were but
+exotic at home, and a mere opposition to the finite in all things, genuine
+prophet and anticipator as he was of the Protestant Christian æra,—should
+have given in his Dialogue of the Banquet, a justification of our
+Shakespeare. For he relates that, when all the other guests had either
+dispersed or fallen asleep, Socrates only, together with Aristophanes and
+Agathon, remained awake, and that, while he continued to drink with them
+out of a large goblet, he compelled them, though most reluctantly, to
+admit that it was the business of one and the same genius to excel in
+tragic and comic poetry, or that the tragic poet ought, at the same time,
+to contain within himself the powers of comedy. Now, as this was directly
+repugnant to the entire theory of the ancient critics, and contrary to all
+their experience, it is evident that Plato must have fixed the eye of his
+contemplation on the innermost essentials of the drama, abstracted from
+the forms of age or country. In another passage he even adds the reason,
+namely, that opposites illustrate each other’s nature, and in their
+struggle draw forth the strength of the combatants, and display the
+conqueror as sovereign even on the territories of the rival power.
+
+Nothing can more forcibly exemplify the separative spirit of the Greek
+arts than their comedy as opposed to their tragedy. But as the immediate
+struggle of contraries supposes an arena common to both, so both were
+alike ideal; that is, the comedy of Aristophanes rose to as great a
+distance above the ludicrous of real life, as the tragedy of Sophocles
+above its tragic events and passions,—and it is in this one point, of
+absolute ideality, that the comedy of Shakespeare and the old comedy of
+Athens coincide. In this also alone did the Greek tragedy and comedy
+unite; in every thing else they were exactly opposed to each other.
+Tragedy is poetry in its deepest earnest; comedy is poetry in unlimited
+jest. Earnestness consists in the direction and convergence of all the
+powers of the soul to one aim, and in the voluntary restraint of its
+activity in consequence; the opposite, therefore, lies in the apparent
+abandonment of all definite aim or end, and in the removal of all bounds
+in the exercise of the mind,—attaining its real end, as an entire
+contrast, most perfectly, the greater the display is of intellectual
+wealth squandered in the wantonness of sport without an object, and the
+more abundant the life and vivacity in the creations of the arbitrary
+will.
+
+The later comedy, even where it was really comic, was doubtless likewise
+more comic, the more free it appeared from any fixed aim.
+Misunderstandings of intention, fruitless struggles of absurd passion,
+contradictions of temper, and laughable situations there were; but still
+the form of the representation itself was serious; it proceeded as much
+according to settled laws, and used as much the same means of art, though
+to a different purpose, as the regular tragedy itself. But in the old
+comedy the very form itself is whimsical; the whole work is one great
+jest, comprehending a world of jests within it, among which each maintains
+its own place without seeming to concern itself as to the relation in
+which it may stand to its fellows. In short, in Sophocles, the
+constitution of tragedy is monarchical, but such as it existed in elder
+Greece, limited by laws, and therefore the more venerable,—all the parts
+adapting and submitting themselves to the majesty of the heroic
+sceptre:—in Aristophanes, comedy, on the contrary, is poetry in its most
+democratic form, and it is a fundamental principle with it, rather to risk
+all the confusion of anarchy, than to destroy the independence and
+privileges of its individual constituents,—place, verse, characters, even
+single thoughts, conceits, and allusions, each turning on the pivot of its
+own free will.
+
+The tragic poet idealizes his characters by giving to the spiritual part
+of our nature a more decided preponderance over the animal cravings and
+impulses, than is met with in real life: the comic poet idealizes his
+characters by making the animal the governing power, and the intellectual
+the mere instrument. But as tragedy is not a collection of virtues and
+perfections, but takes care only that the vices and imperfections shall
+spring from the passions, errors, and prejudices which arise out of the
+soul;—so neither is comedy a mere crowd of vices and follies, but whatever
+qualities it represents, even though they are in a certain sense amiable,
+it still displays them as having their origin in some dependence on our
+lower nature, accompanied with a defect in true freedom of spirit and
+self-subsistence, and subject to that unconnection by contradictions of
+the inward being, to which all folly is owing.
+
+The ideal of earnest poetry consists in the union and harmonious melting
+down, and fusion of the sensual into the spiritual,—of man as an animal
+into man as a power of reason and self-government. And this we have
+represented to us most clearly in the plastic art, or statuary; where the
+perfection of outward form is a symbol of the perfection of an inward
+idea; where the body is wholly penetrated by the soul, and spiritualized
+even to a state of glory, and like a transparent substance, the matter, in
+its own nature darkness, becomes altogether a vehicle and fixture of
+light, a means of developing its beauties, and unfolding its wealth of
+various colours without disturbing its unity, or causing a division of the
+parts. The sportive ideal, on the contrary, consists in the perfect
+harmony and concord of the higher nature with the animal, as with its
+ruling principle and its acknowledged regent. The understanding and
+practical reason are represented as the willing slaves of the senses and
+appetites, and of the passions arising out of them. Hence we may admit the
+appropriateness to the old comedy, as a work of defined art, of allusions
+and descriptions, which morality can never justify, and, only with
+reference to the author himself, and only as being the effect or rather
+the cause of the circumstances in which he wrote, can consent even to
+palliate.
+
+The old comedy rose to its perfection in Aristophanes, and in him also it
+died with the freedom of Greece. Then arose a species of drama, more fitly
+called dramatic entertainment than comedy, but of which, nevertheless, our
+modern comedy (Shakespeare’s altogether excepted) is the genuine
+descendant. Euripides had already brought tragedy lower down and by many
+steps nearer to the real world than his predecessors had ever done, and
+the passionate admiration which Menander and Philemon expressed for him,
+and their open avowals that he was their great master, entitle us to
+consider their dramas as of a middle species, between tragedy and
+comedy,—not the tragi-comedy, or thing of heterogeneous parts, but a
+complete whole, founded on principles of its own. Throughout we find the
+drama of Menander distinguishing itself from tragedy, but not as the
+genuine old comedy, contrasting with, and opposing it. Tragedy, indeed,
+carried the thoughts into the mythologic world, in order to raise the
+emotions, the fears, and the hopes, which convince the inmost heart that
+their final cause is not to be discovered in the limits of mere mortal
+life, and force us into a presentiment, however dim, of a state in which
+those struggles of inward free will with outward necessity, which form the
+true subject of the tragedian, shall be reconciled and solved;—the
+entertainment or new comedy, on the other hand, remained within the circle
+of experience. Instead of the tragic destiny, it introduced the power of
+chance; even in the few fragments of Menander and Philemon now remaining
+to us, we find many exclamations and reflections concerning chance and
+fortune, as in the tragic poets concerning destiny. In tragedy, the moral
+law, either as obeyed or violated, above all consequences—its own
+maintenance or violation constituting the most important of all
+consequences—forms the ground; the new comedy, and our modern comedy in
+general (Shakespeare excepted as before) lies in prudence or imprudence,
+enlightened or misled self-love. The whole moral system of the
+entertainment exactly like that of fable, consists in rules of prudence,
+with an exquisite conciseness, and at the same time an exhaustive fulness
+of sense. An old critic said that tragedy was the flight or elevation of
+life, comedy (that of Menander) its arrangement or ordonnance.
+
+Add to these features a portrait-like truth of character,—not so far
+indeed as that a _bona fide_ individual should be described or imagined,
+but yet so that the features which give interest and permanence to the
+class should be individualized. The old tragedy moved in an ideal
+world,—the old comedy in a fantastic world. As the entertainment, or new
+comedy, restrained the creative activity both of the fancy and the
+imagination, it indemnified the understanding in appealing to the judgment
+for the probability of the scenes represented. The ancients themselves
+acknowledged the new comedy as an exact copy of real life. The grammarian,
+Aristophanes, somewhat affectedly exclaimed:—“O Life and Menander! which
+of you two imitated the other?� In short the form of this species of drama
+was poetry, the stuff or matter was prose. It was prose rendered
+delightful by the blandishments and measured motions of the muse. Yet even
+this was not universal. The mimes of Sophron, so passionately admired by
+Plato, were written in prose, and were scenes out of real life conducted
+in dialogue. The exquisite feast of Adonis (Συ�ακούσιαι ῆ Ἀδωνιάζουσαι) in
+Theocritus, we are told, with some others of his eclogues, were close
+imitations of certain mimes of Sophron—free translations of the prose into
+hexameters.
+
+It will not be improper, in this place, to make a few remarks on the
+remarkable character and functions of the chorus in the Greek tragic
+drama.
+
+The chorus entered from below, close by the orchestra, and there, pacing
+to and fro during the choral odes, performed their solemn measured dance.
+In the centre of the _orchestra_, directly over against the middle of the
+_scene_, there stood an elevation with steps in the shape of a large
+altar, as high as the boards of the _logeion_ or moveable stage. This
+elevation was named the _thymele_ (θυμέλη), and served to recall the
+origin and original purpose of the chorus, as an altar-song in honour of
+the presiding deity. Here, and on these steps the persons of the chorus
+sate collectively, when they were not singing; attending to the dialogue
+as spectators, and acting as (what in truth they were) the ideal
+representatives of the real audience, and of the poet himself in his own
+character, assuming the supposed impressions made by the drama, in order
+to direct and rule them. But when the chorus itself formed part of the
+dialogue, then the leader of the band, the foreman, or _coryphæus_,
+ascended, as some think, the level summit of the _thymele_ in order to
+command the stage, or, perhaps, the whole chorus advanced to the front of
+the orchestra, and thus put themselves in ideal connection, as it were,
+with the _dramatis personæ_ there acting. This _thymele_ was in the centre
+of the whole edifice, all the measurements were calculated, and the
+semi-circle of the amphitheatre was drawn from this point. It had a double
+use, a twofold purpose; it constantly reminded the spectators of the
+origin of tragedy as a religious service, and declared itself as the ideal
+representative of the audience by having its place exactly in the point,
+to which all the radii from the different seats or benches converged.
+
+In this double character, as constituent parts, and yet at the same time
+as spectators, of the drama, the chorus could not but tend to enforce the
+unity of place;—not on the score of any supposed improbability, which the
+understanding or common sense might detect in a change of place;—but
+because the senses themselves put it out of the power of any imagination
+to conceive a place coming to, and going away from the persons, instead of
+the persons changing their place. Yet there are instances, in which,
+during the silence of the chorus, the poets have hazarded this by a change
+in that part of the scenery which represented the more distant objects to
+the eye of the spectator—a demonstrative proof, that this alternately
+extolled and ridiculed unity (as ignorantly ridiculed as extolled) was
+grounded on no essential principle of reason, but arose out of
+circumstances which the poet could not remove, and therefore took up into
+the form of the drama, and co-organised it with all the other parts into a
+living whole.
+
+The Greek tragedy may rather be compared to our serious opera than to the
+tragedies of Shakespeare; nevertheless, the difference is far greater than
+the likeness. In the opera all is subordinated to the music, the dresses,
+and the scenery;—the poetry is a mere vehicle for articulation, and as
+little pleasure is lost by ignorance of the Italian language, so is little
+gained by the knowledge of it. But in the Greek drama all was but as
+instruments and accessaries to the poetry; and hence we should form a
+better notion of the choral music from the solemn hymns and psalms of
+austere church music than from any species of theatrical singing. A single
+flute or pipe was the ordinary accompaniment; and it is not to be
+supposed, that any display of musical power was allowed to obscure the
+distinct hearing of the words. On the contrary, the evident purpose was to
+render the words more audible, and to secure by the elevations and pauses
+greater facility of understanding the poetry. For the choral songs are,
+and ever must have been, the most difficult part of the tragedy; there
+occur in them the most involved verbal compounds, the newest expressions,
+the boldest images, the most recondite allusions. Is it credible that the
+poets would, one and all, have been thus prodigal of the stores of art and
+genius, if they had known that in the representation the whole must have
+been lost to the audience,—at a time too, when the means of after
+publication were so difficult and expensive, and the copies of their works
+so slowly and narrowly circulated?
+
+The masks also must be considered—their vast variety and admirable
+workmanship. Of this we retain proof by the marble masks which represented
+them; but to this in the real mask we must add the thinness of the
+substance and the exquisite fitting on to the head of the actor; so that
+not only were the very eyes painted with a single opening left for the
+pupil of the actor’s eye, but in some instances, even the iris itself was
+painted, when the colour was a known characteristic of the divine or
+heroic personage represented.
+
+Finally, I will note down those fundamental characteristics which
+contradistinguish the ancient literature from the modern generally, but
+which more especially appear in prominence in the tragic drama. The
+ancient was allied to statuary, the modern refers to painting. In the
+first there is a predominance of rhythm and melody, in the second of
+harmony and counterpoint. The Greeks idolized the finite, and therefore
+were the masters of all grace, elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity,
+majesty—of whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely conveyed by
+defined forms or thoughts: the moderns revere the infinite, and affect the
+indefinite as a vehicle of the infinite;—hence their passions, their
+obscure hopes and fears, their wandering through the unknown, their
+grander moral feelings, their more august conception of man as man, their
+future rather than their past—in a word, their sublimity.
+
+
+
+
+Progress Of The Drama.
+
+
+Let two persons join in the same scheme to ridicule a third, and either
+take advantage of, or invent, some story for that purpose, and mimicry
+will have already produced a sort of rude comedy. It becomes an inviting
+treat to the populace, and gains an additional zest and burlesque by
+following the already established plan of tragedy; and the first man of
+genius who seizes the idea, and reduces it into form,—into a work of
+art,—by metre and music, is the Aristophanes of the country.
+
+How just this account is will appear from the fact that in the first or
+old comedy of the Athenians, most of the _dramatis personæ_ were living
+characters introduced under their own names; and no doubt, their ordinary
+dress, manner, person and voice were closely mimicked. In less favourable
+states of society, as that of England in the middle ages, the beginnings
+of comedy would be constantly taking place from the mimics and satirical
+minstrels; but from want of fixed abode, popular government, and the
+successive attendance of the same auditors, it would still remain in
+embryo. I shall, perhaps, have occasion to observe that this remark is not
+without importance in explaining the essential differences of the modern
+and ancient theatres.
+
+Phenomena, similar to those which accompanied the origin of tragedy and
+comedy among the Greeks, would take place among the Romans much more
+slowly, and the drama would, in any case, have much longer remained in its
+first irregular form from the character of the people, their continual
+engagements in wars of conquest, the nature of their government, and their
+rapidly increasing empire. But, however this might have been, the conquest
+of Greece precluded both the process and the necessity of it; and the
+Roman stage at once presented imitations or translations of the Greek
+drama. This continued till the perfect establishment of Christianity. Some
+attempts, indeed, were made to adapt the persons of Scriptural or
+ecclesiastical history to the drama; and sacred plays, it is probable,
+were not unknown in Constantinople under the emperors of the East. The
+first of the kind is, I believe, the only one preserved,—namely, the
+Χ�ιστὸς Πάσχων, or, “Christ in his sufferings,� by Gregory
+Nazianzen,—possibly written in consequence of the prohibition of profane
+literature to the Christians by the apostate Julian. In the West, however,
+the enslaved and debauched Roman world became too barbarous for any
+theatrical exhibitions more refined than those of pageants and
+chariot-races; while the spirit of Christianity, which in its most corrupt
+form still breathed general humanity, whenever controversies of faith were
+not concerned, had done away the cruel combats of the gladiators, and the
+loss of the distant provinces prevented the possibility of exhibiting the
+engagements of wild beasts.
+
+I pass, therefore, at once to the feudal ages which soon succeeded,
+confining my observation to this country; though, indeed, the same remark
+with very few alterations will apply to all the other states, into which
+the great empire was broken. Ages of darkness succeeded;—not, indeed, the
+darkness of Russia or of the barbarous lands unconquered by Rome; for from
+the time of Honorius to the destruction of Constantinople and the
+consequent introduction of ancient literature into Europe, there was a
+continued succession of individual intellects;—the golden chain was never
+wholly broken, though the connecting links were often of baser metal. A
+dark cloud, like another sky, covered the entire cope of heaven,—but in
+this place it thinned away, and white stains of light showed a half
+eclipsed star behind it,—in that place it was rent asunder, and a star
+passed across the opening in all its brightness, and then vanished. Such
+stars exhibited themselves only; surrounding objects did not partake of
+their light. There were deep wells of knowledge, but no fertilizing rills
+and rivulets. For the drama, society was altogether a state of chaos, out
+of which it was, for a while at least, to proceed anew, as if there had
+been none before it. And yet it is not undelightful to contemplate the
+education of good from evil. The ignorance of the great mass of our
+countrymen was the efficient cause of the reproduction of the drama; and
+the preceding darkness and the returning light were alike necessary in
+order to the creation of a Shakespeare.
+
+The drama re-commenced in England, as it first began in Greece, in
+religion. The people were not able to read,—the priesthood were unwilling
+that they should read; and yet their own interest compelled them not to
+leave the people wholly ignorant of the great events of sacred history.
+They did that, therefore, by scenic representations, which in after ages
+it has been attempted to do in Roman Catholic countries by pictures. They
+presented Mysteries, and often at great expense; and reliques of this
+system still remain in the south of Europe, and indeed throughout Italy,
+where at Christmas the convents and the great nobles rival each other in
+the scenic representation of the birth of Christ and its circumstances. I
+heard two instances mentioned to me at different times, one in Sicily and
+the other in Rome, of noble devotees, the ruin of whose fortunes was said
+to have commenced in the extravagant expense which had been incurred in
+presenting the _præsepe_ or manger. But these Mysteries, in order to
+answer their design, must not only be instructive, but entertaining; and
+as, when they became so, the people began to take pleasure in acting them
+themselves—in interloping—(against which the priests seem to have fought
+hard and yet in vain) the most ludicrous images were mixed with the most
+awful personations; and whatever the subject might be, however sublime,
+however pathetic, yet the Vice and the Devil, who are the genuine
+antecessors of Harlequin and the Clown, were necessary component parts. I
+have myself a piece of this kind, which I transcribed a few years ago at
+Helmstadt, in Germany, on the education of Eve’s children, in which after
+the fall and repentance of Adam, the offended Maker, as in proof of his
+reconciliation, condescends to visit them, and to catechise the
+children,—who with a noble contempt of chronology are all brought together
+from Abel to Noah. The good children say the ten Commandments, the Belief,
+and the Lord’s Prayer; but Cain and his rout, after he had received a box
+on the ear for not taking off his hat, and afterwards offering his left
+hand, is prompted by the devil so to blunder in the Lord’s Prayer as to
+reverse the petitions and say it backward!
+
+Unaffectedly I declare I feel pain at repetitions like these, however
+innocent. As historical documents they are valuable; but I am sensible
+that what I can read with my eye with perfect innocence, I cannot without
+inward fear and misgivings pronounce with my tongue.
+
+Let me, however, be acquitted of presumption if I say that I cannot agree
+with Mr. Malone, that our ancestors did not perceive the ludicrous in
+these things, or that they paid no separate attention to the serious and
+comic parts. Indeed his own statement contradicts it. For what purpose
+should the Vice leap upon the Devil’s back and belabour him, but to
+produce this separate attention? The people laughed heartily, no doubt.
+Nor can I conceive any meaning attached to the words “separate attention,�
+that is not fully answered by one part of an exhibition exciting
+seriousness or pity, and the other raising mirth and loud laughter. That
+they felt no impiety in the affair is most true. For it is the very
+essence of that system of Christian polytheism, which in all its
+essentials is now fully as gross in Spain, in Sicily, and the South of
+Italy, as it ever was in England in the days of Henry VI. (nay, more so,
+for a Wicliffe had not then appeared only, but scattered the good seed
+widely),—it is an essential part, I say, of that system to draw the mind
+wholly from its own inward whispers and quiet discriminations, and to
+habituate the conscience to pronounce sentence in every case according to
+the established verdicts of the church and the casuists. I have looked
+through volume after volume of the most approved casuists,—and still I
+find disquisitions whether this or that act is right, and under what
+circumstances, to a minuteness that makes reasoning ridiculous, and of a
+callous and unnatural immodesty, to which none but a monk could harden
+himself, who has been stripped of all the tender charities of life, yet is
+goaded on to make war against them by the unsubdued hauntings of our
+meaner nature, even as dogs are said to get the _hydrophobia_ from
+excessive thirst. I fully believe that our ancestors laughed as heartily,
+as their posterity do at Grimaldi;—and not having been told that they
+would be punished for laughing, they thought it very innocent;—and if
+their priests had left out murder in the catalogue of their prohibitions
+(as indeed they did under certain circumstances of heresy), the greater
+part of them,—the moral instincts common to all men having been smothered
+and kept from development,—would have thought as little of murder.
+
+However this may be, the necessity of at once instructing and gratifying
+the people produced the great distinction between the Greek and the
+English theatres;—for to this we must attribute the origin of
+tragi-comedy, or a representation of human events more lively, nearer the
+truth, and permitting a larger field of moral instruction, a more ample
+exhibition of the recesses of the human heart, under all the trials and
+circumstances that most concern us, than was known or guessed at by
+Æschylus, Sophocles, or Euripides;—and at the same time we learn to
+account for, and—relatively to the author—perceive the necessity of, the
+Fool or Clown or both, as the substitutes of the Vice and the Devil, which
+our ancestors had been so accustomed to see in every exhibition of the
+stage, that they could not feel any performance perfect without them. Even
+to this day in Italy, every opera—(even Metastasio obeyed the claim
+throughout)—must have six characters, generally two pairs of cross lovers,
+a tyrant and a confidant, or a father and two confidants, themselves
+lovers;—and when a new opera appears, it is the universal fashion to
+ask—which is the tyrant, which the lover? &c.
+
+It is the especial honour of Christianity, that in its worst and most
+corrupted form it cannot wholly separate itself from morality;—whereas the
+other religions in their best form (I do not include Mohammedanism, which
+is only an anomalous corruption of Christianity, like Swedenborgianism)
+have no connection with it. The very impersonation of moral evil under the
+name of Vice, facilitated all other impersonations; and hence we see that
+the Mysteries were succeeded by Moralities, or dialogues and plots of
+allegorical personages. Again, some character in real history had become
+so famous, so proverbial, as Nero for instance, that they were introduced
+instead of the moral quality, for which they were so noted;—and in this
+manner the stage was moving on to the absolute production of heroic and
+comic real characters, when the restoration of literature, followed by the
+ever-blessed Reformation, let in upon the kingdom not only new knowledge,
+but new motive. A useful rivalry commenced between the metropolis on the
+one hand,—the residence, independently of the court and nobles, of the
+most active and stirring spirits who had not been regularly educated, or
+who, from mischance or otherwise, had forsaken the beaten track of
+preferment,—and the universities on the other. The latter prided
+themselves on their closer approximation to the ancient rules and ancient
+regularity—taking the theatre of Greece, or rather its dim reflection, the
+rhetorical tragedies of the poet Seneca, as a perfect ideal, without any
+critical collation of the times, origin, or circumstances;—whilst, in the
+mean time, the popular writers, who could not and would not abandon what
+they had found to delight their countrymen sincerely, and not merely from
+inquiries first put to the recollection of rules, and answered in the
+affirmative, as if it had been an arithmetical sum, did yet borrow from
+the scholars whatever they advantageously could, consistently with their
+own peculiar means of pleasing.
+
+And here let me pause for a moment’s contemplation of this interesting
+subject.
+
+We call, for we see and feel, the swan and the dove both transcendantly
+beautiful. As absurd as it would be to institute a comparison between
+their separate claims to beauty from any abstract rule common to both,
+without reference to the life and being of the animals themselves,—or as
+if, having first seen the dove, we abstracted its outlines, gave them a
+false generalization, called them the principles or ideal of bird-beauty,
+and then proceeded to criticise the swan or the eagle;—not less absurd is
+it to pass judgment on the works of a poet on the mere ground that they
+have been called by the same class-name with the works of other poets in
+other times and circumstances, or on any ground, indeed, save that of
+their inappropriateness to their own end and being, their want of
+significance, as symbols or physiognomy.
+
+O! few have there been among critics, who have followed with the eye of
+the imagination the imperishable yet ever wandering spirit of poetry
+through its various metempsychoses, and consequent metamorphoses;—or who
+have rejoiced in the light of clear perception at beholding with each new
+birth, with each rare _avatar_, the human race frame to itself a new body,
+by assimilating materials of nourishment out of its new circumstances, and
+work for itself new organs of power appropriate to the new sphere of its
+motion and activity!
+
+I have before spoken of the Romance, or the language formed out of the
+decayed Roman and the Northern tongues; and comparing it with the Latin,
+we find it less perfect in simplicity and relation—the privileges of a
+language formed by the mere attraction of homogeneous parts;—but yet more
+rich, more expressive and various, as one formed by more obscure
+affinities out of a chaos of apparently heterogeneous atoms. As more than
+a metaphor,—as an analogy of this, I have named the true genuine modern
+poetry the romantic; and the works of Shakespeare are romantic poetry,
+revealing itself in the drama. If the tragedies of Sophocles are in the
+strict sense of the word tragedies, and the comedies of Aristophanes
+comedies, we must emancipate ourselves from a false association arising
+from misapplied names, and find a new word for the plays of Shakespeare.
+For they are, in the ancient sense, neither tragedies nor comedies, nor
+both in one,—but a different _genus_, diverse in kind, and not merely
+different in degree. They may be called romantic dramas, or dramatic
+romances.
+
+A deviation from the simple forms and unities of the ancient stage is an
+essential principle, and, of course, an appropriate excellence, of the
+romantic drama. For these unities were to a great extent the natural form
+of that which in its elements was homogeneous, and the representation of
+which was addressed pre-eminently to the outward senses;—and though the
+fable, the language, and the characters appealed to the reason rather than
+to the mere understanding, inasmuch as they supposed an ideal state rather
+than referred to an existing reality,—yet it was a reason which was
+obliged to accommodate itself to the senses, and so far became a sort of
+more elevated understanding. On the other hand, the romantic poetry—the
+Shakespearian drama—appealed to the imagination rather than to the senses,
+and to the reason as contemplating our inward nature, and the workings of
+the passions in their most retired recesses. But the reason, as reason, is
+independent of time and space; it has nothing to do with them: and hence
+the certainties of reason have been called eternal truths. As for
+example—the endless properties of the circle:—what connection have they
+with this or that age, with this or that country?—The reason is aloof from
+time and space; the imagination is an arbitrary controller over both;—and
+if only the poet have such power of exciting our internal emotions as to
+make us present to the scene in imagination chiefly, he acquires the right
+and privilege of using time and space as they exist in imagination, and
+obedient only to the laws by which the imagination itself acts. These laws
+it will be my object and aim to point out as the examples occur, which
+illustrate them. But here let me remark what can never be too often
+reflected on by all who would intelligently study the works either of the
+Athenian dramatists, or of Shakespeare, that the very essence of the
+former consists in the sternest separation of the diverse in kind and the
+disparate in the degree, whilst the latter delights in interlacing, by a
+rainbow-like transfusion of hues, the one with the other.
+
+And here it will be necessary to say a few words on the stage and on
+stage-illusion.
+
+A theatre, in the widest sense of the word, is the general term for all
+places of amusement through the ear or eye, in which men assemble in order
+to be amused by some entertainment presented to all at the same time and
+in common. Thus an old Puritan divine says:—“Those who attend public
+worship and sermons only to amuse themselves, make a theatre of the
+church, and turn God’s house into the devil’s. _Theatra ædes
+diabololatricæ._� The most important and dignified species of this _genus_
+is, doubtless, the stage (_res theatralis histrionica_), which, in
+addition to the generic definition above given, may be characterized in
+its idea, or according to what it does, or ought to, aim at, as a
+combination of several or of all the fine arts in an harmonious whole,
+having a distinct end of its own, to which the peculiar end of each of the
+component arts, taken separately, is made subordinate and
+subservient,—that, namely, of imitating reality—whether external things,
+actions, or passions—-under a semblance of reality. Thus, Claude imitates
+a landscape at sunset, but only as a picture; while a forest-scene is not
+presented to the spectators as a picture, but as a forest; and though, in
+the full sense of the word, we are no more deceived by the one than by the
+other, yet are our feelings very differently affected; and the pleasure
+derived from the one is not composed of the same elements as that afforded
+by the other, even on the supposition that the _quantum_ of both were
+equal. In the former, a picture, it is a condition of all genuine delight
+that we should not be deceived; in the latter, stage-scenery (inasmuch as
+its principle end is not in or for itself, as is the case in a picture,
+but to be an assistance and means to an end out of itself), its very
+purpose is to produce as much illusion as its nature permits. These, and
+all other stage presentations, are to produce a sort of temporary
+half-faith, which the spectator encourages in himself and supports by a
+voluntary contribution on his own part, because he knows that it is at all
+times in his power to see the thing as it really is. I have often observed
+that little children are actually deceived by stage-scenery, never by
+pictures; though even these produce an effect on their impressible minds,
+which they do not on the minds of adults. The child, if strongly
+impressed, does not indeed positively think the picture to be the reality;
+but yet he does not think the contrary. As Sir George Beaumont was shewing
+me a very fine engraving from Rubens, representing a storm at sea without
+any vessel or boat introduced, my little boy, then about five years old,
+came dancing and singing into the room, and all at once (if I may so say)
+_tumbled in_ upon the print. He instantly started, stood silent and
+motionless, with the strongest expression, first of wonder and then of
+grief in his eyes and countenance, and at length said “And where is the
+ship? But that is sunk, and the men are all drowned!� still keeping his
+eyes fixed on the print. Now what pictures are to little children, stage
+illusion is to men, provided they retain any part of the child’s
+sensibility; except, that in the latter instance, the suspension of the
+act of comparison, which permits this sort of negative belief, is somewhat
+more assisted by the will, than in that of a child respecting a picture.
+
+The true stage-illusion in this and in all other things consists—not in
+the mind’s judging it to be a forest, but, in its remission of the
+judgment that it is not a forest. And this subject of stage-illusion is so
+important, and so many practical errors and false criticisms may arise,
+and indeed have arisen, either from reasoning on it as actual delusion
+(the strange notion, on which the French critics built up their theory,
+and on which the French poets justify the construction of their
+tragedies), or from denying it altogether (which seems the end of Dr.
+Johnson’s reasoning, and which, as extremes meet, would lead to the very
+same consequences, by excluding whatever would not be judged probable by
+us in our coolest state of feeling, with all our faculties in even
+balance), that these few remarks will, I hope, be pardoned, if they should
+serve either to explain or to illustrate the point. For not only are we
+never absolutely deluded—or any thing like it, but the attempt to cause
+the highest delusion possible to beings in their senses sitting in a
+theatre, is a gross fault, incident only to low minds, which, feeling that
+they cannot affect the heart or head permanently, endeavour to call forth
+the momentary affections. There ought never to be more pain than is
+compatible with coexisting pleasure, and to be amply repaid by thought.
+
+Shakespeare found the infant stage demanding an intermixture of ludicrous
+character as imperiously as that of Greece did the chorus, and high
+language accordant. And there are many advantages in this;—a greater
+assimilation to nature, a greater scope of power, more truths, and more
+feelings;—the effects of contrast, as in Lear and the Fool; and especially
+this, that the true language of passion becomes sufficiently elevated by
+your having previously heard, in the same piece, the lighter conversation
+of men under no strong emotion. The very nakedness of the stage, too, was
+advantageous,—for the drama thence became something between recitation and
+a representation; and the absence or paucity of scenes allowed a freedom
+from the laws of unity of place and unity of time, the observance of which
+must either confine the drama to as few subjects as may be counted on the
+fingers, or involve gross improbabilities, far more striking than the
+violation would have caused. Thence, also, was precluded the danger of a
+false ideal,—of aiming at more than what is possible on the whole. What
+play of the ancients, with reference to their ideal, does not hold out
+more glaring absurdities than any in Shakespeare? On the Greek plan a man
+could more easily be a poet than a dramatist; upon our plan more easily a
+dramatist than a poet.
+
+
+
+
+The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+
+
+Unaccustomed to address such an audience, and having lost by a long
+interval of confinement the advantages of my former short schooling, I had
+miscalculated in my last Lecture the proportion of my matter to my time,
+and by bad economy and unskilful management, the several heads of my
+discourse failed in making the entire performance correspond with the
+promise publicly circulated in the weekly annunciation of the subjects to
+be treated. It would indeed have been wiser in me, and perhaps better on
+the whole, if I had caused my Lectures to be announced only as
+continuations of the main subject. But if I be, as perforce I must be,
+gratified by the recollection of whatever has appeared to give you
+pleasure, I am conscious of something better, though less flattering, a
+sense of unfeigned gratitude for your forbearance with my defects. Like
+affectionate guardians, you see without disgust the awkwardness, and
+witness with sympathy the growing pains, of a youthful endeavour, and look
+forward with a hope, which is its own reward, to the contingent results of
+practice—to its intellectual maturity.
+
+In my last address I defined poetry to be the art, or whatever better term
+our language may afford, of representing external nature and human
+thoughts, both relatively to human affections, so as to cause the
+production of as great immediate pleasure in each part, as is compatible
+with the largest possible sum of pleasure on the whole. Now this
+definition applies equally to painting and music as to poetry; and in
+truth the term poetry is alike applicable to all three. The vehicle alone
+constitutes the difference; and the term “poetry� is rightly applied by
+eminence to measured words, only because the sphere of their action is far
+wider, the power of giving permanence to them much more certain, and
+incomparably greater the facility, by which men, not defective by nature
+or disease, may be enabled to derive habitual pleasure and instruction
+from them. On my mentioning these considerations to a painter of great
+genius, who had been, from a most honourable enthusiasm, extolling his own
+art, he was so struck with their truth, that he exclaimed, “I want no
+other arguments;—poetry, that is, verbal poetry, must be the greatest; all
+that proves final causes in the world, proves this; it would be shocking
+to think otherwise!�—And in truth, deeply, O! far more than words can
+express, as I venerate the Last Judgment and the Prophets of Michel Angelo
+Buonarotti,—yet the very pain which I repeatedly felt as I lost myself in
+gazing upon them, the painful consideration that their having been painted
+in _fresco_ was the sole cause that they had not been abandoned to all the
+accidents of a dangerous transportation to a distant capital, and that the
+same caprice, which made the Neapolitan soldiery destroy all the exquisite
+masterpieces on the walls of the church of _Trinitado Monte_, after the
+retreat of their antagonist barbarians, might as easily have made vanish
+the rooms and open gallery of Raffael, and the yet more unapproachable
+wonders of the sublime Florentine in the Sixtine Chapel, forced upon my
+mind the reflection: How grateful the human race ought to be that the
+works of Euclid, Newton, Plato, Milton, Shakespeare, are not subjected to
+similar contingencies,—that they and their fellows, and the great, though
+inferior, peerage of undying intellect, are secured;—secured even from a
+second irruption of Goths and Vandals, in addition to many other
+safeguards, by the vast empire of English language, laws, and religion
+founded in America, through the overflow of the power and the virtue of my
+country;—and that now the great and certain works of genuine fame can only
+cease to act for mankind, when men themselves cease to be men, or when the
+planet on which they exist, shall have altered its relations, or have
+ceased to be. Lord Bacon, in the language of the gods, if I may use an
+Homeric phrase, has expressed a similar thought:—
+
+
+    “Lastly, leaving the vulgar arguments, that by learning man
+    excelleth man in that wherein man excelleth beasts; that by
+    learning man ascendeth to the heavens and their motions, where in
+    body he cannot come, and the like; let us conclude with the
+    dignity and excellency of knowledge and learning in that whereunto
+    man’s nature doth most aspire, which is immortality or
+    continuance: for to this tendeth generation, and raising of houses
+    and families; to this tend buildings, foundations, and monuments;
+    to this tendeth the desire of memory, fame, and celebration, and
+    in effect the strength of all other human desires. We see then how
+    far the monuments of wit and learning are more durable than the
+    monuments of power, or of the hands. For have not the verses of
+    Homer continued twenty-five hundred years, or more, without the
+    loss of a syllable or letter; during which time, infinite palaces,
+    temples, castles, cities, have been decayed and demolished? It is
+    not possible to have the true pictures or statues of Cyrus,
+    Alexander, Cæsar; no, nor of the kings or great personages of much
+    later years; for the originals cannot last, and the copies cannot
+    but lose of the life and truth. But the images of men’s wits and
+    knowledges remain in books, exempted from the wrong of time, and
+    capable of perpetual renovation. Neither are they fitly to be
+    called images, because they generate still, and cast their seeds
+    in the minds of others, provoking and causing infinite actions and
+    opinions in succeeding ages: so that, if the invention of the ship
+    was thought so noble, which carrieth riches and commodities from
+    place to place, and consociateth the most remote regions in
+    participation of their fruits; how much more are letters to be
+    magnified, which, as ships, pass through the vast seas of time,
+    and make ages so distant to participate of the wisdom,
+    illuminations, and inventions, the one of the other?�
+
+
+But let us now consider what the drama should be. And first, it is not a
+copy, but an imitation, of nature. This is the universal principle of the
+fine arts. In all well laid out grounds what delight do we feel from that
+balance and antithesis of feelings and thoughts! How natural! we say;—but
+the very wonder that caused the exclamation, implies that we perceived art
+at the same moment. We catch the hint from nature itself. Whenever in
+mountains or cataracts we discover a likeness to any thing artificial
+which yet we know is not artificial—what pleasure! And so it is in
+appearances known to be artificial, which appear to be natural. This
+applies in due degrees, regulated by steady good sense, from a clump of
+trees to the _Paradise Lost_ or _Othello_. It would be easy to apply it to
+painting and even, though with greater abstraction of thought, and by more
+subtle yet equally just analogies—to music. But this belongs to others;
+suffice it that one great principle is common to all the fine arts, a
+principle which probably is the condition of all consciousness, without
+which we should feel and imagine only by discontinuous moments, and be
+plants or brute animals instead of men;—I mean that ever-varying balance,
+or balancing, of images, notions, or feelings, conceived as in opposition
+to each other;—in short, the perception of identity and contrariety; the
+least degree of which constitutes likeness, the greatest absolute
+difference; but the infinite gradations between these two form all the
+play and all the interest of our intellectual and moral being, till it
+leads us to a feeling and an object more awful than it seems to me
+compatible with even the present subject to utter aloud, though I am most
+desirous to suggest it. For there alone are all things at once different
+and the same; there alone, as the principle of all things, does
+distinction exist unaided by division; there are will and reason,
+succession of time and unmoving eternity, infinite change and ineffable
+rest!—
+
+“Return Alpheus! the dread voice is past
+Which shrunk thy streams!�
+
+    ——“Thou honour’d flood,
+Smooth-_flowing_ Avon, crown’d with vocal reeds,
+That strain I heard, was of a higher mood!—
+But now my _voice_ proceeds.�
+
+We may divide a dramatic poet’s characteristics before we enter into the
+component merits of any one work, and with reference only to those things
+which are to be the materials of all, into language, passion, and
+character; always bearing in mind that these must act and react on each
+other,—the language inspired by the passion, and the language and the
+passion modified and differenced by the character. To the production of
+the highest excellencies in these three, there are requisite in the mind
+of the author;—good sense, talent, sensibility, imagination;—and to the
+perfection of a work we should add two faculties of lesser importance, yet
+necessary for the ornaments and foliage of the column and the roof—fancy
+and a quick sense of beauty.
+
+As to language;—it cannot be supposed that the poet should make his
+characters say all that they would, or that, his whole drama considered,
+each scene, or paragraph should be such as, on cool examination, we can
+conceive it likely that men in such situations would say, in that order,
+or with that perfection. And yet, according to my feelings, it is a very
+inferior kind of poetry, in which, as in the French tragedies, men are
+made to talk in a style which few indeed even of the wittiest can be
+supposed to converse in, and which both is, and on a moment’s reflection
+appears to be, the natural produce of the hot-bed of vanity, namely, the
+closet of an author, who is actuated originally by a desire to excite
+surprise and wonderment at his own superiority to other men,—instead of
+having felt so deeply on certain subjects, or in consequence of certain
+imaginations, as to make it almost a necessity of his nature to seek for
+sympathy,—no doubt, with that honourable desire of permanent action, which
+distinguishes genius.—Where then is the difference?—In this that each part
+should be proportionate, though the whole may be perhaps, impossible. At
+all events, it should be compatible with sound sense and logic in the mind
+of the poet himself.
+
+It is to be lamented that we judge of books by books, instead of referring
+what we read to our own experience. One great use of books is to make
+their contents a motive for observation. The German tragedies have in some
+respects been justly ridiculed. In them the dramatist often becomes a
+novelist in his directions to the actors, and thus degrades tragedy into
+pantomime. Yet still the consciousness of the poet’s mind must be diffused
+over that of the reader or spectator; but he himself, according to his
+genius, elevates us, and by being always in keeping, prevents us from
+perceiving any strangeness, though we feel great exultation. Many
+different kinds of style may be admirable, both in different men, and in
+different parts of the same poem.
+
+See the different language which strong feelings may justify in Shylock,
+and learn from Shakespeare’s conduct of that character the terrible force
+of every plain and calm diction, when known to proceed from a resolved and
+impassioned man.
+
+It is especially with reference to the drama, and its characteristics in
+any given nation, or at any particular period, that the dependence of
+genius on the public taste becomes a matter of the deepest importance. I
+do not mean that taste which springs merely from caprice or fashionable
+imitation, and which, in fact, genius can, and by degrees will, create for
+itself; but that which arises out of wide-grasping and heart-enrooted
+causes, which is epidemic, and in the very air that all breathe. This it
+is which kills, or withers, or corrupts. Socrates, indeed, might walk arm
+in arm with Hygeia, whilst pestilence, with a thousand furies running to
+and fro, and clashing against each other in a complexity and agglomeration
+of horrors, was shooting her darts of fire and venom all around him. Even
+such was Milton; yea, and such, in spite of all that has been babbled by
+his critics in pretended excuse for his damning, because for them too
+profound excellencies,—such was Shakespeare. But alas! the exceptions
+prove the rule. For who will dare to force his way out of the crowd,—not
+of the mere vulgar,—but of the vain and banded aristocracy of intellect,
+and presume to join the almost supernatural beings that stand by
+themselves aloof?
+
+Of this diseased epidemic influence there are two forms especially
+preclusive of tragic worth. The first is the necessary growth of a sense
+and love of the ludicrous, and a morbid sensibility of the assimilative
+power,—an inflammation produced by cold and weakness,—which in the boldest
+bursts of passion will lie in wait for a jeer at any phrase, that may have
+an accidental coincidence in the mere words with something base or
+trivial. For instance,—to express woods, not on a plain, but clothing a
+hill, which overlooks a valley, or dell, or river, or the sea,—the trees
+rising one above another, as the spectators in an ancient theatre,—I know
+no other word in our language (bookish and pedantic terms out of the
+question), but _hanging_ woods, the _sylvæ superimpendentes_ of Catullus;
+yet let some wit call out in a slang tone,—“the gallows!� and a peal of
+laughter would damn the play. Hence it is that so many dull pieces have
+had a decent run, only because nothing unusual above, or absurd below,
+mediocrity furnished an occasion,—a spark for the explosive materials
+collected behind the orchestra. But it would take a volume of no ordinary
+size, however laconically the sense were expressed, if it were meant to
+instance the effects, and unfold all the causes, of this disposition upon
+the moral, intellectual, and even physical character of a people, with its
+influences on domestic life and individual deportment. A good document
+upon this subject would be the history of Paris society and of French,
+that is, Parisian, literature from the commencement of the latter half of
+the reign of Louis XIV. to that of Buonaparte, compared with the preceding
+philosophy and poetry even of Frenchmen themselves.
+
+The second form, or more properly, perhaps, another distinct cause, of
+this diseased disposition is matter of exultation to the philanthropist
+and philosopher, and of regret to the poet, the painter, and the statuary
+alone, and to them only as poets, painters, and statuaries;—namely, the
+security, the comparative equability, and ever increasing sameness of
+human life. Men are now so seldom thrown into wild circumstances, and
+violences of excitement, that the language of such states, the laws of
+association of feeling with thought, the starts and strange far-flights of
+the assimilative power on the slightest and least obvious likeness
+presented by thoughts, words, or objects,—these are all judged of by
+authority, not by actual experience,—by what men have been accustomed to
+regard as symbols of these states, and not the natural symbols, or
+self-manifestations of them.
+
+Even so it is in the language of man, and in that of nature. The sound
+_sun_, or the figures _s_, _u_, _n_, are purely arbitrary modes of
+recalling the object, and for visual mere objects they are not only
+sufficient, but have infinite advantages from their very nothingness _per
+se_. But the language of nature is a subordinate _Logos_, that was in the
+beginning, and was with the thing it represented, and was the thing it
+represented.
+
+Now the language of Shakespeare, in his _Lear_ for instance, is a
+something intermediate between these two; or rather it is the former
+blended with the latter,—the arbitrary, not merely recalling the cold
+notion of the thing, but expressing the reality of it, and, as arbitrary
+language is an heir-loom of the human race, being itself a part of that
+which it manifests. What shall I deduce from the preceding positions? Even
+this,—the appropriate, the never to be too much valued advantage of the
+theatre, if only the actors were what we know they have been,—a
+delightful, yet most effectual remedy for this dead palsy of the public
+mind. What would appear mad or ludicrous in a book, when presented to the
+senses under the form of reality, and with the truth of nature, supplies a
+species of actual experience. This is indeed the special privilege of a
+great actor over a great poet. No part was ever played in perfection, but
+nature justified herself in the hearts of all her children, in what state
+soever they were, short of absolute moral exhaustion, or downright
+stupidity. There is no time given to ask questions, or to pass judgments;
+we are taken by storm, and, though in the histrionic art many a clumsy
+counterfeit, by caricature of one or two features, may gain applause as a
+fine likeness, yet never was the very thing rejected as a counterfeit. O!
+when I think of the inexhaustible mine of virgin treasure in our
+Shakespeare, that I have been almost daily reading him since I was ten
+years old,—that the thirty intervening years have been unintermittingly
+and not fruitlessly employed in the study of the Greek, Latin, English,
+Italian, Spanish, and German _belle lettrists_, and the last fifteen years
+in addition, far more intensely in the analysis of the laws of life and
+reason as they exist in man,—and that upon every step I have made forward
+in taste, in acquisition of facts from history or my own observation, and
+in knowledge of the different laws of being and their apparent exceptions,
+from accidental collision of disturbing forces,—that at every new
+accession of information, after every successful exercise of meditation,
+and every fresh presentation of experience, I have unfailingly discovered
+a proportionate increase of wisdom and intuition in Shakespeare;—when I
+know this, and know too, that by a conceivable and possible, though hardly
+to be expected, arrangement of the British theatres, not all, indeed, but
+a large, a very large, proportion of this indefinite all—(round which no
+comprehension has yet drawn the line of circumscription, so as to say to
+itself, “I have seen the whole�)—might be sent into the heads and
+hearts—into the very souls of the mass of mankind, to whom, except by this
+living comment and interpretation, it must remain for ever a sealed
+volume, a deep well without a wheel or a windlass;—it seems to me a
+pardonable enthusiasm to steal away from sober likelihood, and share in so
+rich a feast in the faery world of possibility! Yet even in the grave
+cheerfulness of a circumspect hope, much, very much, might be done;
+enough, assuredly, to furnish a kind and strenuous nature with ample
+motives for the attempt to effect what may be effected.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+
+
+Clothed in radiant armour, and authorized by titles sure and manifold, as
+a poet, Shakespeare came forward to demand the throne of fame, as the
+dramatic poet of England. His excellences compelled even his
+contemporaries to seat him on that throne, although there were giants in
+those days contending for the same honour. Hereafter I would fain
+endeavour to make out the title of the English drama as created by, and
+existing in, Shakespeare, and its right to the supremacy of dramatic
+excellence in general. But he had shown himself a poet, previously to his
+appearance as a dramatic poet; and had no _Lear_, no _Othello_, no _Henry
+IV._, no _Twelfth Night_ ever appeared, we must have admitted that
+Shakespeare possessed the chief, if not every, requisite of a poet,—deep
+feeling and exquisite sense of beauty, both as exhibited to the eye in the
+combinations of form, and to the ear in sweet and appropriate melody; that
+these feelings were under the command of his own will; that in his very
+first productions he projected his mind out of his own particular being,
+and felt, and made others feel, on subjects no way connected with himself,
+except by force of contemplation and that sublime faculty by which a great
+mind becomes that on which it meditates. To this must be added that
+affectionate love of nature and natural objects, without which no man
+could have observed so steadily, or painted so truly and passionately, the
+very minutest beauties of the external world:—
+
+“And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare,
+Mark the poor wretch; to overshoot his troubles,
+How he outruns the wind, and with what care,
+He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles;
+The many musits through the which he goes
+Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes.
+
+“Sometimes he runs among the flock of sheep,
+To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell;
+And sometime where earth-delving conies keep,
+To stop the loud pursuers in their yell;
+And sometime sorteth with the herd of deer:
+Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear.
+
+“For there his smell with others’ being mingled,
+The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt,
+Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled
+With much ado, the cold fault cleanly out,
+Then do they spend their mouths; echo replies,
+As if another chase were in the skies.
+
+“By this poor Wat far off, upon a hill,
+Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear,
+To harken if his foes pursue him still:
+Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,
+And now his grief may be compared well
+To one sore-sick, that hears the passing bell.
+
+“Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch
+Turn, and return, indenting with the way:
+Each envious briar his weary legs doth scratch,
+Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.
+For misery is trodden on by many,
+And being low, never relieved by any.�
+
+_Venus and Adonis._
+
+And the preceding description:—
+
+“But lo! from forth a copse that neighbours by,
+A breeding jennet, lusty, young and proud,� &c.
+
+is much more admirable, but in parts less fitted for quotation.
+
+Moreover Shakespeare had shown that he possessed fancy, considered as the
+faculty of bringing together images dissimilar in the main by some one
+point or more of likeness, as in such a passage as this:—
+
+“Full gently now she takes him by the hand,
+A lily prisoned in a jail of snow,
+Or ivory in an alabaster band:
+So white a friend ingirts so white a foe!�—_Ib._
+
+And still mounting the intellectual ladder, he had as unequivocally proved
+the indwelling in his mind of imagination, or the power by which one image
+or feeling is made to modify many others, and by a sort of fusion to force
+many into one;—that which afterwards showed itself in such might and
+energy in Lear, where the deep anguish of a father spreads the feeling of
+ingratitude and cruelty over the very elements of heaven;—and which,
+combining many circumstances into one moment of consciousness, tends to
+produce that ultimate end of all human thought and human feeling, unity,
+and thereby the reduction of the spirit to its principle and fountain, who
+is alone truly one. Various are the workings of this the greatest faculty
+of the human mind, both passionate and tranquil. In its tranquil and
+purely pleasurable operation, it acts chiefly by creating out of many
+things, as they would have appeared in the description of an ordinary
+mind, detailed in unimpassioned succession, a oneness, even as nature, the
+greatest of poets, acts upon us, when we open our eyes upon an extended
+prospect. Thus the flight of Adonis in the dusk of the evening:—
+
+“Look! how a bright star shooteth from the sky;
+So glides he in the night from Venus’ eye!�
+
+How many images and feelings are here brought together without effort and
+without discord, in the beauty of Adonis, the rapidity of his flight, the
+yearning, yet hopelessness, of the enamoured gazer, while a shadowy ideal
+character is thrown over the whole! Or this power acts by impressing the
+stamp of humanity, and of human feelings, on inanimate or mere natural
+objects:—
+
+“Lo! here the gentle lark, weary of rest,
+From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,
+And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast
+The sun ariseth in his majesty,
+Who doth the world so gloriously behold,
+The cedar-tops and hills seem burnish’d gold.�
+
+Or again, it acts by so carrying on the eye of the reader as to make him
+almost lose the consciousness of words,—to make him see every thing
+flashed, as Wordsworth has grandly and appropriately said:—
+
+“_Flashed_ upon the inward eye
+Which is the bliss of solitude;�—
+
+and this without exciting any painful or laborious attention, without any
+anatomy of description (a fault not uncommon in descriptive poetry),—but
+with the sweetness and easy movement of nature. This energy is an absolute
+essential of poetry, and of itself would constitute a poet, though not one
+of the highest class;—it is, however, a most hopeful symptom, and the
+_Venus and Adonis_ is one continued specimen of it.
+
+In this beautiful poem there is an endless activity of thought in all the
+possible associations of thought with thought, thought with feeling, or
+with words, of feelings with feelings, and of words with words.
+
+“Even as the sun, with purple-colour’d face,
+Had ta’en his last leave of the weeping morn,
+Rose-cheek’d Adonis hied him to the chase:
+Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn.
+Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him,
+And like a bold-faced suitor ’gins to woo him.�
+
+Remark the humanizing imagery and circumstances of the first two lines,
+and the activity of thought in the play of words in the fourth line. The
+whole stanza presents at once the time, the appearance of the morning, and
+the two persons distinctly characterised, and in six simple lines puts the
+reader in possession of the whole argument of the poem.
+
+“Over one arm the lusty courser’s rein,
+Under the other was the tender boy,
+Who blush’d and pouted in a dull disdain,
+With leaden appetite, unapt to toy,
+She red and hot, as coals of glowing fire,
+He red for shame, but frosty to desire:�—
+
+This stanza and the two following afford good instances of that poetic
+power, which I mentioned above, of making every thing present to the
+imagination—both the forms, and the passions which modify those forms,
+either actually, as in the representations of love or anger, or other
+human affections; or imaginatively, by the different manner in which
+inanimate objects, or objects unimpassioned themselves, are caused to be
+seen by the mind in moments of strong excitement, and according to the
+kind of the excitement,—whether of jealousy, or rage, or love, in the only
+appropriate sense of the word, or of the lower impulses of our nature, or
+finally of the poetic feeling itself. It is, perhaps, chiefly in the power
+of producing and reproducing the latter that the poet stands distinct.
+
+The subject of the _Venus and Adonis_ is unpleasing; but the poem itself
+is for that very reason the more illustrative of Shakespeare. There are
+men who can write passages of deepest pathos and even sublimity on
+circumstances personal to themselves and stimulative of their own
+passions; but they are not, therefore, on this account poets. Read that
+magnificent burst of woman’s patriotism and exultation, _Deborah’s Song of
+Victory_; it is glorious, but nature is the poet there. It is quite
+another matter to become all things and yet remain the same,—to make the
+changeful god be felt in the river, the lion, and the flame;—this it is,
+that is the true imagination. Shakespeare writes in this poem, as if he
+were of another planet, charming you to gaze on the movements of Venus and
+Adonis, as you would on the twinkling dances of two vernal butterflies.
+
+Finally, in this poem and the _Rape of Lucrece_, Shakespeare gave ample
+proof of his possession of a most profound, energetic, and philosophical
+mind, without which he might have pleased, but could not have been a great
+dramatic poet. Chance and the necessity of his genius combined to lead him
+to the drama his proper province: in his conquest of which we should
+consider both the difficulties which opposed him, and the advantages by
+which he was assisted.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare’s Judgment equal to his Genius.
+
+
+Thus then Shakespeare appears, from his _Venus and Adonis_ and _Rape of
+Lucrece_ alone, apart from all his great works, to have possessed all the
+conditions of the true poet. Let me now proceed to destroy, as far as may
+be in my power, the popular notion that he was a great dramatist by mere
+instinct, that he grew immortal in his own despite, and sank below men of
+second or third rate power, when he attempted aught beside the drama—even
+as bees construct their cells and manufacture their honey to admirable
+perfection; but would in vain attempt to build a nest. Now this mode of
+reconciling a compelled sense of inferiority with a feeling of pride,
+began in a few pedants, who having read that Sophocles was the great model
+of tragedy, and Aristotle the infallible dictator of its rules, and
+finding that the _Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_ and other master-pieces were
+neither in imitation of Sophocles, nor in obedience to Aristotle,—and not
+having (with one or two exceptions) the courage to affirm, that the
+delight which their country received from generation to generation, in
+defiance of the alterations of circumstances and habits, was wholly
+groundless,—took upon them, as a happy medium and refuge, to talk of
+Shakespeare as a sort of beautiful _lusus naturæ_, a delightful
+monster,—wild, indeed, and without taste or judgment, but like the
+inspired idiots so much venerated in the East, uttering, amid the
+strangest follies, the sublimest truths. In nine places out of ten in
+which I find his awful name mentioned, it is with some epithet of “wild,�
+“irregular,� “pure child of nature,� &c. If all this be true, we must
+submit to it; though to a thinking mind it cannot but be painful to find
+any excellence, merely human, thrown out of all human analogy, and thereby
+leaving us neither rules for imitation, nor motives to imitate;—but if
+false, it is a dangerous falsehood;—for it affords a refuge to secret
+self-conceit,—enables a vain man at once to escape his reader’s
+indignation by general swoln panegyrics, and merely by his _ipse dixit_ to
+treat, as contemptible, what he has not intellect enough to comprehend, or
+soul to feel, without assigning any reason, or referring his opinion to
+any demonstrative principle;—thus leaving Shakespeare as a sort of grand
+Lama, adored indeed, and his very excrements prized as relics, but with no
+authority or real influence. I grieve that every late voluminous edition
+of his works would enable me to substantiate the present charge with a
+variety of facts, one-tenth of which would of themselves exhaust the time
+allotted to me. Every critic, who has or has not made a collection of
+black letter books—in itself a useful and respectable amusement,—puts on
+the seven-league boots of self-opinion, and strides at once from an
+illustrator into a supreme judge, and blind and deaf, fills his
+three-ounce phial at the waters of Niagara; and determines positively the
+greatness of the cataract to be neither more nor less than his three-ounce
+phial has been able to receive.
+
+I think this a very serious subject. It is my earnest desire—my passionate
+endeavour—to enforce at various times and by various arguments and
+instances the close and reciprocal connection of just taste with pure
+morality. Without that acquaintance with the heart of man, or that
+docility and childlike gladness to be made acquainted with it, which those
+only can have, who dare look at their own hearts—and that with a
+steadiness which religion only has the power of reconciling with sincere
+humility;—without this, and the modesty produced by it, I am deeply
+convinced that no man, however wide his erudition, however patient his
+antiquarian researches, can possibly understand, or be worthy of
+understanding, the writings of Shakespeare.
+
+Assuredly that criticism of Shakespeare will alone be genial which is
+reverential. The Englishman who, without reverence—a proud and
+affectionate reverence—can utter the name of William Shakespeare, stands
+disqualified for the office of critic. He wants one at least of the very
+senses, the language of which he is to employ, and will discourse at best
+but as a blind man, while the whole harmonious creation of light and shade
+with all its subtle interchange of deepening and dissolving colours rises
+in silence to the silent _fiat_ of the uprising Apollo. However inferior
+in ability I may be to some who have followed me, I own I am proud that I
+was the first in time who publicly demonstrated to the full extent of the
+position, that the supposed irregularity and extravagances of Shakespeare
+were the mere dreams of a pedantry that arraigned the eagle because it had
+not the dimensions of the swan. In all the successive courses of lectures
+delivered by me, since my first attempt at the Royal Institution, it has
+been, and it still remains, my object, to prove that in all points from
+the most important to the most minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is
+commensurate with his genius,—nay, that his genius reveals itself in his
+judgment, as in its most exalted form. And the more gladly do I recur to
+this subject from the clear conviction, that to judge aright, and with
+distinct consciousness of the grounds of our judgment, concerning the
+works of Shakespeare, implies the power and the means of judging rightly
+of all other works of intellect, those of abstract science alone excepted.
+
+It is a painful truth, that not only individuals, but even whole nations,
+are ofttimes so enslaved to the habits of their education and immediate
+circumstances, as not to judge disinterestedly even on those subjects, the
+very pleasure arising from which consists in its disinterestedness,
+namely, on subjects of taste and polite literature. Instead of deciding
+concerning their own modes and customs by any rule of reason, nothing
+appears rational, becoming, or beautiful to them, but what coincides with
+the peculiarities of their education. In this narrow circle, individuals
+may attain to exquisite discrimination, as the French critics have done in
+their own literature; but a true critic can no more be such without
+placing himself on some central point, from which he may command the
+whole,—that is, some general rule, which, founded in reason, or the
+faculties common to all men, must therefore apply to each,—than an
+astronomer can explain the movements of the solar system without taking
+his stand in the sun. And let me remark, that this will not tend to
+produce despotism, but, on the contrary, true tolerance, in the critic. He
+will, indeed, require, as the spirit and substance of a work, something
+true in human nature itself, and independent of all circumstances; but in
+the mode of applying it, he will estimate genius and judgment according to
+the felicity with which the imperishable soul of intellect shall have
+adapted itself to the age, the place, and the existing manners. The error
+he will expose, lies in reversing this, and holding up the mere
+circumstances as perpetual to the utter neglect of the power which can
+alone animate them. For art cannot exist without, or apart from nature;
+and what has man of his own to give to his fellow man, but his own
+thoughts and feelings, and his observations, so far as they are modified
+by his own thoughts or feelings?
+
+Let me, then, once more submit this question to minds emancipated alike
+from national, or party, or sectarian prejudice:—Are the plays of
+Shakespeare works of rude uncultivated genius, in which the splendour of
+the parts compensates, if aught can compensate, for the barbarous
+shapelessness and irregularity of the whole?—Or is the form equally
+admirable with the matter, and the judgment of the great poet not less
+deserving our wonder than his genius?—Or, again, to repeat the question in
+other words:—is Shakespeare a great dramatic poet on account only of those
+beauties and excellences which he possesses in common with the ancients,
+but with diminished claims to our love and honour to the full extent of
+his differences from them?—Or are these very differences additional proofs
+of poetic wisdom, at once results and symbols of living power as
+contrasted with lifeless mechanism—of free and rival originality as
+contradistinguished from servile imitation, or, more accurately, a blind
+copying of effects, instead of a true imitation of the essential
+principles?—Imagine not that I am about to oppose genius to rules. No! the
+comparative value of these rules is the very cause to be tried. The spirit
+of poetry, like all other living powers, must of necessity circumscribe
+itself by rules, were it only to unite power with beauty. It must embody
+in order to reveal itself; but a living body is of necessity an organized
+one; and what is organization but the connection of parts in and for a
+whole, so that each part is at once end and means?—This is no discovery of
+criticism;—it is a necessity of the human mind; and all nations have felt
+and obeyed it, in the invention of metre, and measured sounds, as the
+vehicle and _involucrum_ of poetry—itself a fellow-growth from the same
+life,—even as the bark is to the tree!
+
+No work of true genius dares want its appropriate form, neither indeed is
+there any danger of this. As it must not, so genius cannot, be lawless;
+for it is even this that constitutes it genius—the power of acting
+creatively under laws of its own origination. How then comes it that not
+only single _Zoili_, but whole nations have combined in unhesitating
+condemnation of our great dramatist, as a sort of African nature, rich in
+beautiful monsters—as a wild heath where islands of fertility look the
+greener from the surrounding waste, where the loveliest plants now shine
+out among unsightly weeds, and now are choked by their parasitic growth,
+so intertwined that we cannot disentangle the weed without snapping the
+flower?—In this statement I have had no reference to the vulgar abuse of
+Voltaire, save as far as his charges are coincident with the decisions of
+Shakespeare’s own commentators and (so they would tell you) almost
+idolatrous admirers. The true ground of the mistake lies in the
+confounding mechanical regularity with organic form. The form is mechanic,
+when on any given material we impress a pre-determined form, not
+necessarily arising out of the properties of the material;—as when to a
+mass of wet clay we give whatever shape we wish it to retain when
+hardened. The organic form, on the other hand is innate; it shapes, as it
+developes, itself from within, and the fulness of its development is one
+and the same with the perfection of its outward form. Such as the life is,
+such is the form. Nature, the prime genial artist, inexhaustible in
+diverse powers, is equally inexhaustible in forms;—each exterior is the
+physiognomy of the being within,—its true image reflected and thrown out
+from the concave mirror;—and even such is the appropriate excellence of
+her chosen poet, of our own Shakespeare,—himself a nature humanized, a
+genial understanding directing self-consciously a power and an implicit
+wisdom deeper even than our consciousness.
+
+I greatly dislike beauties and selections in general; but as proof
+positive of his unrivalled excellence, I should like to try Shakespeare by
+this criterion. Make out your amplest catalogue of all the human
+faculties, as reason or the moral law, the will, the feeling of the
+coincidence of the two (a feeling _sui generis et demonstratio
+demonstrationum_) called the conscience, the understanding or prudence,
+wit, fancy, imagination, judgment,—and then of the objects on which these
+are to be employed, as the beauties, the terrors, and the seeming caprices
+of nature, the realities and the capabilities, that is, the actual and the
+ideal, of the human mind, conceived as an individual or as a social being,
+as in innocence or in guilt, in a play-paradise, or in a war-field of
+temptation;—and then compare with Shakespeare under each of these heads
+all or any of the writers in prose and verse that have ever lived! Who,
+that is competent to judge, doubts the result?—And ask your own hearts—ask
+your own common-sense—to conceive the possibility of this man being—I say
+not, the drunken savage of that wretched sciolist, whom Frenchmen, to
+their shame, have honoured before their elder and better worthies,—but the
+anomalous, the wild, the irregular, genius of our daily criticism! What!
+are we to have miracles in sport?—Or, I speak reverently, does God choose
+idiots by whom to convey divine truths to man?
+
+
+
+
+Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare’s
+Dramas.
+
+
+In lectures, of which amusement forms a large part of the object, there
+are some peculiar difficulties. The architect places his foundation out of
+sight, and the musician tunes his instrument before he makes his
+appearance; but the lecturer has to try his chords in the presence of the
+assembly; an operation not likely, indeed, to produce much pleasure, but
+yet indispensably necessary to a right understanding of the subject to be
+developed.
+
+Poetry in essence is as familiar to barbarous as to civilized nations. The
+Laplander and the savage Indian are cheered by it as well as the
+inhabitants of London and Paris;—its spirit takes up and incorporates
+surrounding materials, as a plant clothes itself with soil and climate,
+whilst it exhibits the working of a vital principle within independent of
+all accidental circumstances. And to judge with fairness of an author’s
+works, we ought to distinguish what is inward and essential from what is
+outward and circumstantial. It is essential to poetry that it be simple,
+and appeal to the elements and primary laws of our nature; that it be
+sensuous, and by its imagery elicit truth at a flash; that it be
+impassioned, and be able to move our feelings and awaken our affections.
+In comparing different poets with each other, we should inquire which have
+brought into the fullest play our imagination and our reason, or have
+created the greatest excitement and produced the completest harmony. If we
+consider great exquisiteness of language and sweetness of metre alone, it
+is impossible to deny to Pope the character of a delightful writer; but
+whether he be a poet, must depend upon our definition of the word; and,
+doubtless, if everything that pleases be poetry, Pope’s satires and
+epistles must be poetry. This, I must say, that poetry, as distinguished
+from other modes of composition, does not rest in metre, and that it is
+not poetry, if it make no appeal to our passions or our imagination. One
+character belongs to all true poets, that they write from a principle
+within, not originating in any thing without; and that the true poet’s
+work in its form, its shapings, and its modifications, is distinguished
+from all other works that assume to belong to the class of poetry, as a
+natural from an artificial flower, or as the mimic garden of a child from
+an enamelled meadow. In the former the flowers are broken from their stems
+and stuck into the ground; they are beautiful to the eye and fragrant to
+the sense, but their colours soon fade, and their odour is transient as
+the smile of the planter;—while the meadow may be visited again and again
+with renewed delight; its beauty is innate in the soil, and its bloom is
+of the freshness of nature.
+
+The next ground of critical judgment, and point of comparison, will be as
+to how far a given poet has been influenced by accidental circumstances.
+As a living poet must surely write, not for the ages past, but for that in
+which he lives, and those which are to follow, it is on the one hand
+natural that he should not violate, and on the other necessary that he
+should not depend on, the mere manners and modes of his day. See how
+little does Shakespeare leave us to regret that he was born in his
+particular age! The great æra in modern times was what is called the
+Restoration of Letters;—the ages preceding it are called the dark ages;
+but it would be more wise, perhaps, to call them the ages in which we were
+in the dark. It is usually overlooked that the supposed dark period was
+not universal, but partial and successive, or alternate; that the dark age
+of England was not the dark age of Italy, but that one country was in its
+light and vigour, whilst another was in its gloom and bondage. But no
+sooner had the Reformation sounded through Europe like the blast of an
+archangel’s trumpet, than from king to peasant there arose an enthusiasm
+for knowledge; the discovery of a manuscript became the subject of an
+embassy; Erasmus read by moonlight, because he could not afford a torch,
+and begged a penny, not for the love of charity, but for the love of
+learning. The three great points of attention were religion, morals, and
+taste; men of genius, as well as men of learning, who in this age need to
+be so widely distinguished, then alike became copyists of the ancients;
+and this, indeed, was the only way by which the taste of mankind could be
+improved, or their understandings informed. Whilst Dante imagined himself
+a humble follower of Virgil, and Ariosto of Homer, they were both
+unconscious of that greater power working within them, which in many
+points carried them beyond their supposed originals. All great discoveries
+bear the stamp of the age in which they are made;—hence we perceive the
+effects of the purer religion of the moderns visible for the most part in
+their lives; and in reading their works we should not content ourselves
+with the mere narratives of events long since passed, but should learn to
+apply their maxims and conduct to ourselves.
+
+Having intimated that times and manners lend their form and pressure to
+genius, let me once more draw a slight parallel between the ancient and
+modern stage,—the stages of Greece and of England. The Greeks were
+polytheists; their religion was local; almost the only object of all their
+knowledge, art, and taste, was their gods; and, accordingly, their
+productions were, if the expression may be allowed, statuesque, whilst
+those of the moderns are picturesque. The Greeks reared a structure,
+which, in its parts, and as a whole, filled the mind with the calm and
+elevated impression of perfect beauty, and symmetrical proportion. The
+moderns also produced a whole—a more striking whole; but it was by
+blending materials, and fusing the parts together. And as the Pantheon is
+to York Minster or Westminster Abbey, so is Sophocles compared with
+Shakespeare; in the one a completeness, a satisfaction, an excellence, on
+which the mind rests with complacency; in the other a multitude of
+interlaced materials, great and little, magnificent and mean, accompanied,
+indeed, with the sense of a falling short of perfection, and yet, at the
+same time, so promising of our social and individual progression, that we
+would not, if we could, exchange it for that repose of the mind which
+dwells on the forms of symmetry in the acquiescent admiration of grace.
+This general characteristic of the ancient and modern drama might be
+illustrated by a parallel of the ancient and modern music;—the one
+consisting of melody arising from a succession only of pleasing
+sounds,—the modern embracing harmony also, the result of combination, and
+the effect of a whole.
+
+I have said, and I say it again, that great as was the genius of
+Shakespeare, his judgment was at least equal to it. Of this any one will
+be convinced, who attentively considers those points in which the dramas
+of Greece and England differ, from the dissimilitude of circumstances by
+which each was modified and influenced. The Greek stage had its origin in
+the ceremonies of a sacrifice, such as of the goat to Bacchus, whom we
+most erroneously regard as merely the jolly god of wine;—for among the
+ancients he was venerable, as the symbol of that power which acts without
+our consciousness in the vital energies of nature—the _vinum mundi_—as
+Apollo was that of the conscious agency of our intellectual being. The
+heroes of old, under the influences of this Bacchic enthusiasm, performed
+more than human actions; hence tales of the favourite champions soon
+passed into dialogue. On the Greek stage the chorus was always before the
+audience; the curtain was never dropped, as we should say; and change of
+place being therefore, in general, impossible, the absurd notion of
+condemning it merely as improbable in itself was never entertained by any
+one. If we can believe ourselves at Thebes in one act, we may believe
+ourselves at Athens in the next.
+
+If a story lasts twenty-four hours or twenty-four years, it is equally
+improbable. There seems to be no just boundary but what the feelings
+prescribe. But on the Greek stage, where the same persons were perpetually
+before the audience, great judgment was necessary in venturing on any such
+change. The poets never, therefore, attempted to impose on the senses by
+bringing places to men, but they did bring men to places, as in the
+well-known instance in the _Eumenides_, where, during an evident
+retirement of the chorus from the orchestra, the scene is changed to
+Athens, and Orestes is first introduced in the temple of Minerva, and the
+chorus of Furies come in afterwards in pursuit of him.
+
+In the Greek drama there were no formal divisions into scenes and acts;
+there were no means, therefore, of allowing for the necessary lapse of
+time between one part of the dialogue and another, and unity of time in a
+strict sense was, of course, impossible. To overcome that difficulty of
+accounting for time, which is effected on the modern stage by dropping a
+curtain, the judgment and great genius of the ancients supplied music and
+measured motion, and with the lyric ode filled up the vacuity. In the
+story of the _Agamemnon_ of Æschylus, the capture of Troy is supposed to
+be announced by a fire lighted on the Asiatic shore, and the transmission
+of the signal by successive beacons to Mycenæ. The signal is first seen at
+the 21st line, and the herald from Troy itself enters at the 486th, and
+Agamemnon himself at the 783rd line. But the practical absurdity of this
+was not felt by the audience, who, in imagination stretched minutes into
+hours, while they listened to the lofty narrative odes of the chorus which
+almost entirely filled up the interspace. Another fact deserves attention
+here, namely, that regularly on the Greek stage a drama, or acted story,
+consisted in reality of three dramas, called together a trilogy, and
+performed consecutively in the course of one day. Now you may conceive a
+tragedy of Shakespeare’s as a trilogy connected in one single
+representation. Divide _Lear_ into three parts, and each would be a play
+with the ancients; or take the three Æschylean dramas of _Agamemnon_, and
+divide them into, or call them, as many acts, and they together would be
+one play. The first act would comprise the usurpation of Ægisthus, and the
+murder of Agamemnon; the second, the revenge of Orestes, and the murder of
+his mother; and the third, the penance and absolution of
+Orestes;—occupying a period of twenty-two years.
+
+The stage in Shakespeare’s time was a naked room with a blanket for a
+curtain; but he made it a field for monarchs. That law of unity, which has
+its foundations, not in the factitious necessity of custom, but in nature
+itself, the unity of feeling, is everywhere and at all times observed by
+Shakespeare in his plays. Read _Romeo and Juliet_;—all is youth and
+spring;—youth with its follies, its virtues, its precipitancies;—spring
+with its odours, its flowers, and its transiency; it is one and the same
+feeling that commences, goes through, and ends the play. The old men, the
+Capulets and Montagues, are not common old men; they have an eagerness, a
+heartiness, a vehemence, the effect of spring; with Romeo, his change of
+passion, his sudden marriage, and his rash death, are all the effects of
+youth;—whilst in Juliet love has all that is tender and melancholy in the
+nightingale, all that is voluptuous in the rose, with whatever is sweet in
+the freshness of spring; but it ends with a long deep sigh like the last
+breeze of the Italian evening. This unity of feeling and character
+pervades every drama of Shakespeare.
+
+It seems to me that his plays are distinguished from those of all other
+dramatic poets by the following characteristics:—
+
+1. Expectation in preference to surprise. It is like the true reading of
+the passage—“God said, Let there be light, and there was _light_;�—not,
+there _was_ light. As the feeling with which we startle at a shooting star
+compared with that of watching the sunrise at the pre-established moment,
+such and so low is surprise compared with expectation.
+
+2. Signal adherence to the great law of nature, that all opposites tend to
+attract and temper each other. Passion in Shakespeare generally displays
+libertinism, but involves morality; and if there are exceptions to this,
+they are, independently of their intrinsic value, all of them indicative
+of individual character, and, like the farewell admonitions of a parent,
+have an end beyond the parental relation. Thus the Countess’s beautiful
+precepts to Bertram, by elevating her character, raise that of Helena her
+favourite, and soften down the point in her which Shakespeare does not
+mean us not to see, but to see and to forgive, and at length to justify.
+And so it is in Polonius, who is the personified memory of wisdom no
+longer actually possessed. This admirable character is always
+misrepresented on the stage. Shakespeare never intended to exhibit him as
+a buffoon; for although it was natural that Hamlet—a young man of fire and
+genius, detesting formality, and disliking Polonius on political grounds,
+as imagining that he had assisted his uncle in his usurpation—should
+express himself satirically, yet this must not be taken as exactly the
+poet’s conception of him. In Polonius a certain induration of character
+had arisen from long habits of business; but take his advice to Laertes,
+and Ophelia’s reverence for his memory, and we shall see that he was meant
+to be represented as a statesman somewhat past his faculties,—his
+recollections of life all full of wisdom, and showing a knowledge of human
+nature, whilst what immediately takes place before him, and escapes from
+him, is indicative of weakness.
+
+But as in Homer all the deities are in armour, even Venus; so in
+Shakespeare all the characters are strong. Hence real folly and dulness
+are made by him the vehicles of wisdom. There is no difficulty for one
+being a fool to imitate a fool; but to be, remain, and speak like a wise
+man and a great wit, and yet so as to give a vivid representation of a
+veritable fool,—_hic labor, hoc opus est_. A drunken constable is not
+uncommon, nor hard to draw; but see and examine what goes to make up a
+Dogberry.
+
+3. Keeping at all times in the high road of life. Shakespeare has no
+innocent adulteries, no interesting incests, no virtuous vice;—he never
+renders that amiable which religion and reason alike teach us to detest,
+or clothes impurity in the garb of virtue, like Beaumont and Fletcher, the
+Kotzebues of the day. Shakespeare’s fathers are roused by ingratitude, his
+husbands stung by unfaithfulness; in him, in short, the affections are
+wounded in those points in which all may, nay, must, feel. Let the
+morality of Shakespeare be contrasted with that of the writers of his own,
+or the succeeding age, or of those of the present day, who boast their
+superiority in this respect. No one can dispute that the result of such a
+comparison is altogether in favour of Shakespeare;—even the letters of
+women of high rank in his age were often coarser than his writings. If he
+occasionally disgusts a keen sense of delicacy, he never injures the mind;
+he neither excites, nor flatters, passion, in order to degrade the subject
+of it; he does not use the faulty thing for a faulty purpose, nor carries
+on warfare against virtue, by causing wickedness to appear as no
+wickedness, through the medium of a morbid sympathy with the unfortunate.
+In Shakespeare vice never walks as in twilight; nothing is purposely out
+of its place;—he inverts not the order of nature and propriety,—does not
+make every magistrate a drunkard or glutton, nor every poor man meek,
+humane, and temperate; he has no benevolent butchers, nor any sentimental
+rat-catchers.
+
+4. Independence of the dramatic interest on the plot. The interest in the
+plot is always in fact on account of the characters, not _vice versa_, as
+in almost all other writers; the plot is a mere canvass and no more. Hence
+arises the true justification of the same stratagem being used in regard
+to Benedict and Beatrice,—the vanity in each being alike. Take away from
+the _Much Ado about Nothing_ all that which is not indispensable to the
+plot, either as having little to do with it, or, at best, like Dogberry
+and his comrades, forced into the service, when any other less ingeniously
+absurd watchmen and night-constables would have answered the mere
+necessities of the action;—take away Benedict, Beatrice, Dogberry, and the
+reaction of the former on the character of Hero,—and what will remain? In
+other writers the main agent of the plot is always the prominent
+character; in Shakespeare it is so, or is not so, as the character is in
+itself calculated, or not calculated, to form the plot. Don John is the
+main-spring of the plot of this play; but he is merely shown and then
+withdrawn.
+
+5. Independence of the interest on the story as the ground-work of the
+plot. Hence Shakespeare never took the trouble of inventing stories. It
+was enough for him to select from those that had been already invented or
+recorded such as had one or other, or both, of two recommendations,
+namely, suitableness to his particular purpose, and their being parts of
+popular tradition,—names of which we had often heard, and of their
+fortunes, and as to which all we wanted was, to see the man himself. So it
+is just the man himself—the Lear, the Shylock, the Richard—that
+Shakespeare makes us for the first time acquainted with. Omit the first
+scene in _Lear_, and yet everything will remain; so the first and second
+scenes in the _Merchant of Venice_. Indeed it is universally true.
+
+6. Interfusion of the lyrical—that which in its very essence is
+poetical—not only with the dramatic, as in the plays of Metastasio, where
+at the end of the scene comes the _aria_ as the _exit_ speech of the
+character,—but also in and through the dramatic. Songs in Shakespeare are
+introduced as songs only, just as songs are in real life, beautifully as
+some of them are characteristic of the person who has sung or called for
+them, as Desdemona’s “Willow,� and Ophelia’s wild snatches, and the sweet
+carollings in _As You Like It_. But the whole of the _Midsummer Night’s
+Dream_ is one continued specimen of the dramatised lyrical. And observe
+how exquisitely the dramatic of Hotspur;—
+
+“Marry, and I’m glad on’t with all my heart;
+I’d rather be a kitten and cry—mew.� &c.
+
+melts away into the lyric of Mortimer;—
+
+“I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh
+Which thou pourest down from these swelling heavens,
+I am too perfect in,� &c.
+
+_Henry IV._ part i. act iii, sc. 1.
+
+7. The characters of the _dramatis personæ_, like those in real life, are
+to be inferred by the reader;—they are not told to him. And it is well
+worth remarking that Shakespeare’s characters, like those in real life,
+are very commonly misunderstood, and almost always understood by different
+persons in different ways. The causes are the same in either case. If you
+take only what the friends of the character say, you may be deceived, and
+still more so, if that which his enemies say; nay, even the character
+himself sees himself through the medium of his character, and not exactly
+as he is. Take all together, not omitting a shrewd hint from the clown or
+the fool, and perhaps your impression will be right; and you may know
+whether you have in fact discovered the poet’s own idea, by all the
+speeches receiving light from it, and attesting its reality by reflecting
+it.
+
+Lastly, in Shakespeare the heterogeneous is united, as it is in nature.
+You must not suppose a pressure or passion always acting on or in the
+character!—passion in Shakespeare is that by which the individual is
+distinguished from others, not that which makes a different kind of him.
+Shakespeare followed the main march of the human affections. He entered
+into no analysis of the passions or faiths of men, but assured himself
+that such and such passions and faiths were grounded in our common nature,
+and not in the mere accidents of ignorance or disease. This is an
+important consideration, and constitutes our Shakespeare the morning star,
+the guide and the pioneer, of true philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+
+
+Of that species of writing termed tragi-comedy, much has been produced and
+doomed to the shelf. Shakespeare’s comic are continually reacting upon his
+tragic characters. Lear, wandering amidst the tempest, has all his
+feelings of distress increased by the overflowings of the wild wit of the
+Fool, as vinegar poured upon wounds exacerbates their pain. Thus, even his
+comic humour tends to the development of tragic passion.
+
+The next characteristic of Shakespeare is his keeping at all times in the
+high road of life, &c. Another evidence of his exquisite judgment is, that
+he seizes hold of popular tales; _Lear_ and the _Merchant of Venice_ were
+popular tales, but are so excellently managed, that both are the
+representations of men in all countries and of all times.
+
+His dramas do not arise absolutely out of some one extraordinary
+circumstance, the scenes may stand independently of any such one
+connecting incident, as faithful representations of men and manners. In
+his mode of drawing characters there are no pompous descriptions of a man
+by himself; his character is to be drawn, as in real life, from the whole
+course of the play, or out of the mouths of his enemies or friends. This
+may be exemplified in Polonius, whose character has been often
+misrepresented. Shakespeare never intended him for a buffoon, &c.
+
+Another excellence of Shakespeare, in which no writer equals him, is in
+the language of nature. So correct is it, that we can see ourselves in
+every page. The style and manner have also that felicity, that not a
+sentence can be read, without its being discovered if it is Shakespearian.
+In observation of living characters—of landlords and postilions—Fielding
+has great excellence; but in drawing from his own heart, and depicting
+that species of character, which no observation could teach, he failed in
+comparison with Richardson, who perpetually places himself, as it were, in
+a day-dream. Shakespeare excels in both. Witness the accuracy of character
+in Juliet’s name; while for the great characters of Iago, Othello, Hamlet,
+Richard III., to which he could never have seen anything similar, he seems
+invariably to have asked himself—How should I act or speak in such
+circumstances? His comic characters are also peculiar. A drunken constable
+was not uncommon; but he makes folly a vehicle for wit, as in Dogberry:
+everything is a _sub-stratum_ on which his genius can erect the mightiest
+superstructure.
+
+To distinguish that which is legitimate in Shakespeare from what does not
+belong to him, we must observe his varied images symbolical of novel
+truth, thrusting by, and seeming to trip up each other, from an
+impetuosity of thought, producing a flowing metre, and seldom closing with
+the line. In _Pericles_, a play written fifty years before, but altered by
+Shakespeare, his additions may be recognised to half a line, from the
+metre, which has the same perfection in the flowing continuity of
+interchangeable metrical pauses in his earliest plays, as in _Love’s
+Labour’s Lost_.
+
+Lastly, contrast his _morality_ with the writers of his own or of the
+succeeding age, &c. If a man speak injuriously of our friend, our
+vindication of him is naturally warm. Shakespeare has been accused of
+profaneness. I for my part have acquired from perusal of him, a habit of
+looking into my own heart, and am confident that Shakespeare is an author
+of all others the most calculated to make his readers better as well as
+wiser.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Shakespeare, possessed of wit, humour, fancy, and imagination, built up an
+outward world from the stores within his mind, as the bee finds a hive
+from a thousand sweets gathered from a thousand flowers. He was not only a
+great poet but a great philosopher. Richard III., Iago, and Falstaff are
+men who reverse the order of things, who place intellect at the head,
+whereas it ought to follow, like Geometry, to prove and to confirm. No
+man, either hero or saint, ever acted from an unmixed motive; for let him
+do what he will rightly, still Conscience whispers “it is your duty.�
+Richard, laughing at conscience and sneering at religion, felt a
+confidence in his intellect, which urged him to commit the most horrid
+crimes, because he felt himself, although inferior in form and shape,
+superior to those around him; he felt he possessed a power which they had
+not. Iago, on the same principle, conscious of superior intellect, gave
+scope to his envy, and hesitated not to ruin a gallant, open, and generous
+friend in the moment of felicity, because he was not promoted as he
+expected. Othello was superior in place, but Iago felt him to be inferior
+in intellect, and, unrestrained by conscience, trampled upon him.
+Falstaff, not a degraded man of genius, like Burns, but a man of degraded
+genius, with the same consciousness of superiority to his companions,
+fastened himself on a young Prince, to prove how much his influence on an
+heir-apparent would exceed that of a statesman. With this view he
+hesitated not to adopt the most contemptible of all characters, that of an
+open and professed liar: even his sensuality was subservient to his
+intellect: for he appeared to drink sack, that he might have occasion to
+show off his wit. One thing, however, worthy of observation, is the
+perpetual contrast of labour in Falstaff to produce wit, with the ease
+with which Prince Henry parries his shafts; and the final contempt which
+such a character deserves and receives from the young king, when Falstaff
+exhibits the struggle of inward determination with an outward show of
+humility.
+
+
+
+
+Order Of Shakespeare’s Plays.
+
+
+Various attempts have been made to arrange the plays of Shakespeare, each
+according to its priority in time, by proofs derived from external
+documents. How unsuccessful these attempts have been might easily be
+shewn, not only from the widely different results arrived at by men, all
+deeply versed in the black-letter books, old plays, pamphlets, manuscript
+records, and catalogues of that age, but also from the fallacious and
+unsatisfactory nature of the facts and assumptions on which the evidence
+rests. In that age, when the press was chiefly occupied with controversial
+or practical divinity,—when the law, the Church, and the State engrossed
+all honour and respectability,—when a degree of disgrace, _levior quædam
+infamiæ macula_, was attached to the publication of poetry, and even to
+have sported with the Muse, as a private relaxation, was supposed to be—a
+venial fault, indeed, yet—something beneath the gravity of a wise
+man,—when the professed poets were so poor, that the very expenses of the
+press demanded the liberality of some wealthy individual, so that
+two-thirds of Spenser’s poetic works, and those most highly praised by his
+learned admirers and friends, remained for many years in manuscript, and
+in manuscript perished,—when the amateurs of the stage were comparatively
+few, and therefore for the greater part more or less known to each
+other,—when we know that the plays of Shakespeare, both during and after
+his life, were the property of the stage, and published by the players,
+doubtless according to their notions of acceptability with the visitants
+of the theatre,—in such an age, and under such circumstances, can an
+allusion or reference to any drama or poem in the publication of a
+contemporary be received as conclusive evidence, that such drama or poem
+had at that time been published? Or, further, can the priority of
+publication itself prove anything in favour of actually prior composition?
+
+We are tolerably certain, indeed, that the _Venus and Adonis_, and the
+_Rape of Lucrece_, were his two earliest poems, and though not printed
+until 1593, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, yet there can be little
+doubt that they had remained by him in manuscript many years. For Mr.
+Malone has made it highly probable that he had commenced as a writer for
+the stage in 1591, when he was twenty-seven years old, and Shakespeare
+himself assures us that the _Venus and Adonis_ was the first heir of his
+invention.
+
+Baffled, then, in the attempt to derive any satisfaction from outward
+documents, we may easily stand excused if we turn our researches towards
+the internal evidences furnished by the writings themselves, with no other
+positive _data_ than the known facts that the _Venus and Adonis_ was
+printed in 1593, the _Rape of Lucrece_ in 1594, and that the _Romeo and
+Juliet_ had appeared in 1595,—and with no other presumptions than that the
+poems, his very first productions, were written many years earlier—(for
+who can believe that Shakespeare could have remained to his twenty-ninth
+or thirtieth year without attempting poetic composition of any kind?),—and
+that between these and _Romeo and Juliet_ there had intervened one or two
+other dramas, or the chief materials, at least of them, although they may
+very possibly have appeared after the success of the _Romeo and Juliet_,
+and some other circumstances, had given the poet an authority with the
+proprietors, and created a prepossession in his favour with the theatrical
+audiences.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1802.
+
+FIRST EPOCH.
+
+      The London Prodigal.
+      Cromwell.
+      Henry VI., three parts, first edition.
+      The old King John.
+      Edward III.
+      The old Taming of the Shrew.
+      Pericles.
+
+All these are transition works, _Uebergangswerke_; not his, yet of him.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      All’s Well that Ends Well;—but afterwards worked up afresh
+      (_umgearbeitet_), especially Parolles.
+      The Two Gentlemen of Verona; a sketch.
+      Romeo and Juliet; first draft of it.
+
+THIRD EPOCH
+
+rises into the full, although youthful, Shakespeare; it was the negative
+period of his perfection.
+
+      Love’s Labour’s Lost.
+      Twelfth Night.
+      As You Like It.
+      Midsummer Night’s Dream.
+      Richard II.
+      Henry IV. and V.
+      Henry VIII.; _Gelegenheitsgedicht_.
+      Romeo and Juliet, as at present.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH.
+
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor; first edition.
+      Henry VI.; _rifacimento_.
+
+FIFTH EPOCH.
+
+The period of beauty was now past; and that of δεινότης and grandeur
+succeeds.
+
+      Lear.
+      Macbeth.
+      Hamlet.
+      Timon of Athens; an after vibration of Hamlet.
+      Troilus and Cressida; _Uebergang in die Ironie_.
+      The Roman Plays.
+      King John, as at present.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor
+      Taming of the Shrew _umgearbeitet._
+      Measure for Measure.
+      Othello.
+      Tempest.
+      Winter’s Tale.
+      Cymbeline.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1810.
+
+Shakespeare’s earliest dramas I take to be—
+
+      Love’s Labour’s Lost.
+      All’s Well that Ends Well.
+      Comedy of Errors.
+      Romeo and Juliet.
+
+In the second class I reckon—
+
+      Midsummer Night’s Dream.
+      As You Like It.
+      Tempest.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+In the third, as indicating a greater energy—not merely of poetry, but of
+all the world of thought, yet still with some of the growing pains, and
+the awkwardness of growth—I place—
+
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+      Cymbeline.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Taming of the Shrew.
+
+In the fourth, I place the plays containing the greatest characters—
+
+      Macbeth.
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Othello.
+
+And lastly, the historic dramas, in order to be able to show my reasons
+for rejecting some whole plays, and very many scenes in others.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1819.
+
+I think Shakespeare’s earliest dramatic attempt—perhaps even prior in
+conception to the _Venus and Adonis_, and planned before he left
+Stratford—was _Love’s Labour’s Lost_. Shortly afterwards I suppose
+_Pericles_ and certain scenes in _Jeronymo_ to have been produced; and in
+the same epoch, I place the _Winter’s Tale_ and _Cymbeline_, differing
+from the _Pericles_ by the entire _rifacimento_ of it, when Shakespeare’s
+celebrity as poet, and his interest, no less than his influence, as
+manager, enabled him to bring forward the laid-by labours of his youth.
+The example of _Titus Andronicus_, which, as well as _Jeronymo_, was most
+popular in Shakespeare’s first epoch, had led the young dramatist to the
+lawless mixture of dates and manners. In this same epoch I should place
+the _Comedy of Errors_, remarkable as being the only specimen of poetical
+farce in our language, that is, intentionally such; so that all the
+distinct kinds of drama, which might be educed _a priori_, have their
+representatives in Shakespeare’s works. I say intentionally such; for many
+of Beaumont and Fletcher’s plays, and the greater part of Ben Jonson’s
+comedies, are farce plots. I add _All’s Well that Ends Well_, originally
+intended as the counterpart of _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, _Taming of the
+Shrew_, _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, _Much Ado about Nothing_, and _Romeo
+and Juliet_.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      Richard II.
+      King John.
+      Henry VI.,—_rifacimento_ only.
+      Richard III.
+
+THIRD EPOCH.
+
+      Henry IV.
+      Henry V.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor.
+      Henry VIII.,—a sort of historical masque, or show play.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH
+
+gives all the graces and facilities of a genius in full possession and
+habitual exercise of power, and peculiarly of the feminine, the _lady’s_
+character.
+
+      Tempest.
+      As You Like It
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+And, finally, at its very point of culmination—
+
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Macbeth.
+      Othello.
+
+LAST EPOCH.
+
+when the energies of intellect in the cycle of genius were, though in a
+rich and more potentiated form, becoming predominant over passion and
+creative self-manifestation—
+
+      Measure for Measure,
+      Timon of Athens.
+      Coriolanus.
+      Julius Cæsar.
+      Antony and Cleopatra.
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+
+Merciful, wonder-making Heaven! what a man was this Shakespeare!
+Myriad-minded, indeed, he was.
+
+
+
+
+Notes On The “Tempest.�
+
+
+There is a sort of improbability with which we are shocked in dramatic
+representation, not less than in a narrative of real life. Consequently,
+there must be rules respecting it; and as rules are nothing but means to
+an end previously ascertained—(inattention to which simple truth has been
+the occasion of all the pedantry of the French school),—we must first
+determine what the immediate end or object of the drama is. And here, as I
+have previously remarked, I find two extremes of critical decision;—the
+French, which evidently presupposes that a perfect delusion is to be aimed
+at,—an opinion which needs no fresh confutation; and the exact opposite to
+it, brought forward by Dr. Johnson, who supposes the auditors throughout
+in the full reflective knowledge of the contrary. In evincing the
+impossibility of delusion, he makes no sufficient allowance for an
+intermediate state, which I have before distinguished by the term
+illusion, and have attempted to illustrate its quality and character by
+reference to our mental state when dreaming. In both cases we simply do
+not judge the imagery to be unreal; there is a negative reality, and no
+more. Whatever, therefore, tends to prevent the mind from placing itself,
+or being placed, gradually in that state in which the images have such
+negative reality for the auditor, destroys this illusion, and is
+dramatically improbable.
+
+Now, the production of this effect—a sense of improbability—will depend on
+the degree of excitement in which the mind is supposed to be. Many things
+would be intolerable in the first scene of a play, that would not at all
+interrupt our enjoyment in the height of the interest, when the narrow
+cockpit may be made to hold
+
+“The vasty field of France, or we may cram
+Within its wooden O, the very casques,
+That did affright the air at Agincourt.�
+
+Again, on the other hand, many obvious improbabilities will be endured, as
+belonging to the groundwork of the story rather than to the drama itself,
+in the first scenes, which would disturb or disentrance us from all
+illusion in the acme of our excitement; as for instance, Lear’s division
+of his kingdom, and the banishment of Cordelia.
+
+But, although the other excellences of the drama besides this dramatic
+probability, as unity of interest, with distinctness and subordination of
+the characters, and appropriateness of style, are all, so far as they tend
+to increase the inward excitement, means towards accomplishing the chief
+end, that of producing and supporting this willing illusion,—yet they do
+not on that account cease to be ends themselves; and we must remember
+that, as such, they carry their own justification with them, as long as
+they do not contravene or interrupt the total illusion. It is not even
+always, or of necessity, an objection to them, that they prevent the
+illusion from rising to as great a height as it might otherwise have
+attained;—it is enough that they are simply compatible with as high a
+degree of it as is requisite for the purpose. Nay, upon particular
+occasions, a palpable improbability may be hazarded by a great genius for
+the express purpose of keeping down the interest of a merely instrumental
+scene, which would otherwise make too great an impression for the harmony
+of the entire illusion. Had the panorama been invented in the time of Pope
+Leo X., Raffael would still, I doubt not, have smiled in contempt at the
+regret, that the broom twigs and scrubby bushes at the back of some of his
+grand pictures were not as probable trees as those in the exhibition.
+
+The _Tempest_ is a specimen of the purely romantic drama, in which the
+interest is not historical, or dependent upon fidelity of portraiture, or
+the natural connection of events, but is a birth of the imagination, and
+rests only upon the coaptation and union of the elements granted to, or
+assumed by, the poet. It is a species of drama which owes no allegiance to
+time or space, and in which, therefore, errors of chronology and
+geography—no mortal sins in any species—are venial faults, and count for
+nothing. It addresses itself entirely to the imaginative faculty; and
+although the illusion may be assisted by the effect on the senses of the
+complicated scenery and decorations of modern times, yet this sort of
+assistance is dangerous. For the principal and only genuine excitement
+ought to come from within—from the moved and sympathetic imagination;
+whereas, where so much is addressed to the mere external senses of seeing
+and bearing, the spiritual vision is apt to languish, and the attraction
+from without will withdraw the mind from the proper and only legitimate
+interest which is intended to spring from within.
+
+The romance opens with a busy scene admirably appropriate to the kind of
+drama, and giving, as it were, the key-note to the whole harmony. It
+prepares and initiates the excitement required for the entire piece, and
+yet does not demand anything from the spectators, which their previous
+habits had not fitted them to understand. It is the bustle of a tempest,
+from which the real horrors are abstracted;—therefore it is poetical,
+though not in strictness natural—(the distinction to which I have so often
+alluded)—and is purposely restrained from concentering the interest on
+itself, but used merely as an induction or tuning for what is to follow.
+
+In the second scene, Prospero’s speeches, till the entrance of Ariel,
+contain the finest example I remember of retrospective narration for the
+purpose of exciting immediate interest, and putting the audience in
+possession of all the information necessary for the understanding of the
+plot. Observe, too, the perfect probability of the moment chosen by
+Prospero (the very Shakespeare himself, as it were, of the tempest) to
+open out the truth to his daughter, his own romantic bearing, and how
+completely anything that might have been disagreeable to us in the
+magician, is reconciled and shaded in the humanity and natural feelings of
+the father. In the very first speech of Miranda, the simplicity and
+tenderness of her character are at once laid open;—it would have been lost
+in direct contact with the agitation of the first scene. The opinion once
+prevailed, but happily is now abandoned, that Fletcher alone wrote for
+women;—the truth is, that with very few, and those partial exceptions, the
+female characters in the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are, when of the
+light kind, not decent; when heroic, complete viragos. But in Shakespeare
+all the elements of womanhood are holy, and there is the sweet yet
+dignified feeling of all that _continuates_ society, as sense of ancestry
+and of sex, with a purity unassailable by sophistry, because it rests not
+in the analytic processes, but in that sane equipoise of the faculties,
+during which the feelings are representative of all past experience,—not
+of the individual only, but of all those by whom she has been educated,
+and their predecessors, even up to the first mother that lived.
+Shakespeare saw that the want of prominence, which Pope notices for
+sarcasm, was the blessed beauty of the woman’s character, and knew that it
+arose not from any deficiency, but from the more exquisite harmony of all
+the parts of the moral being constituing one living total of head and
+heart. He has drawn it, indeed, in all its distinctive energies of faith,
+patience, constancy, fortitude,—shown in all of them as following the
+heart, which gives its results by a nice tact and happy intuition, without
+the intervention of the discursive faculty, sees all things in and by the
+light of the affections, and errs, if it ever err, in the exaggerations of
+love alone. In all the Shakespearian women there is essentially the same
+foundation and principle; the distinct individuality and variety are
+merely the result of modification of circumstances, whether in Miranda the
+maiden, in Imogen the wife, or in Katherine the queen.
+
+But to return. The appearance and characters of the super or ultra natural
+servants are finely contrasted. Ariel has in everything the airy tint
+which gives the name; and it is worthy of remark that Miranda is never
+directly brought into comparison with Ariel, lest the natural and human of
+the one and the supernatural of the other should tend to neutralise each
+other; Caliban, on the other hand, is all earth, all condensed and gross
+in feelings and images; he has the dawnings of understanding without
+reason or the moral sense, and in him, as in some brute animals, this
+advance to the intellectual faculties, without the moral sense, is marked
+by the appearance of vice. For it is in the primacy of the moral being
+only that man is truly human; in his intellectual powers he is certainly
+approached by the brutes, and, man’s whole system duly considered, those
+powers cannot be considered other than means to an end—that is, to
+morality.
+
+In this scene, as it proceeds, is displayed the impression made by
+Ferdinand and Miranda on each other; it is love at first sight;—
+
+       ... “At the first sight
+They have chang’d eyes;�—
+
+and it appears to me, that in all cases of real love, it is at one moment
+that it takes place. That moment may have been prepared by previous
+esteem, admiration, or even affection,—yet love seems to require a
+momentary act of volition, by which a tacit bond of devotion is imposed,—a
+bond not to be thereafter broken without violating what should be sacred
+in our nature. How finely is the true Shakespearian scene contrasted with
+Dryden’s vulgar alteration of it, in which a mere ludicrous psychological
+experiment, as it were, is tried—displaying nothing but indelicacy without
+passion.
+
+Prospero’s interruption of the courtship has often seemed to me to have
+had no sufficient motive; still, his alleged reason—
+
+      ... “Lest too light winning
+Make the prize light�—
+
+is enough for the ethereal connections of the romantic imagination,
+although it would not be so for the historical. The whole courting scene,
+indeed, in the beginning of the third act, between the lovers, is a
+masterpiece; and the first dawn of disobedience in the mind of Miranda to
+the command of her father is very finely drawn, so as to seem the working
+of the Scriptural command—“Thou shalt leave father and mother,� &c. Oh!
+with what exquisite purity this scene is conceived and executed!
+Shakespeare may sometimes be gross, but I boldly say that he is always
+moral and modest. Alas! in this our day, decency of manners is preserved
+at the expense of morality of heart, and delicacies for vice are allowed,
+whilst grossness against it is hypocritically, or at least morbidly,
+condemned.
+
+In this play are admirably sketched the vices generally accompanying a low
+degree of civilisation; and in the first scene of the second act
+Shakespeare has, as in many other places, shown the tendency in bad men to
+indulge in scorn and contemptuous expressions as a mode of getting rid of
+their own uneasy feelings of inferiority to the good, and also, by making
+the good ridiculous, of rendering the transition of others to wickedness
+easy. Shakespeare never puts habitual scorn into the mouths of other than
+bad men, as here in the instances of Antonio and Sebastian. The scene of
+the intended assassination of Alonzo and Gonzalo is an exact counterpart
+of the scene between Macbeth and his lady, only pitched in a lower key
+throughout, as designed to be frustrated and concealed, and exhibiting the
+same profound management in the manner of familiarising a mind, not
+immediately recipient, to the suggestion of guilt, by associating the
+proposed crime with something ludicrous or out of place,—something not
+habitually matter of reverence. By this kind of sophistry the imagination
+and fancy are first bribed to contemplate the suggested act, and at length
+to become acquainted with it. Observe how the effect of this scene is
+heightened by contrast with another counterpart of it in low life,—that
+between the conspirators Stephano, Caliban, and Trinculo in the second
+scene of the third act, in which there are the same essential
+characteristics.
+
+In this play, and in this scene of it, are also shown the springs of the
+vulgar in politics,—of that kind of politics which is inwoven with human
+nature. In his treatment of this subject, wherever it occurs, Shakespeare
+is quite peculiar. In other writers we find the particular opinions of the
+individual; in Massinger it is rank republicanism; in Beaumont and
+Fletcher even _jure divino_ principles are carried to excess;—but
+Shakespeare never promulgates any party tenets. He is always the
+philosopher and the moralist, but at the same time with a profound
+veneration for all the established institutions of society, and for those
+classes which form the permanent elements of the State,—especially never
+introducing a professional character, as such, otherwise than as
+respectable. If he must have any name, he should be styled a philosophical
+aristocrat, delighting in those hereditary institutions which have a
+tendency to bind one age to another, and in that distinction of ranks, of
+which, although few may be in possession, all enjoy the advantages. Hence,
+again, you will observe the good nature with which he seems always to make
+sport with the passions and follies of a mob, as with an irrational
+animal. He is never angry with it, but hugely content with holding up its
+absurdities to its face; and sometimes you may trace a tone of almost
+affectionate superiority, something like that in which a father speaks of
+the rogueries of a child. See the good-humoured way in which he describes
+Stephano passing from the most licentious freedom to absolute despotism
+over Trinculo and Caliban. The truth is, Shakespeare’s characters are all
+_genera_ intensely individualised; the results of meditation, of which
+observation supplied the drapery and the colours necessary to combine them
+with each other. He had virtually surveyed all the great component powers
+and impulses of human nature,—had seen that their different combinations
+and subordinations were in fact the individualisers of men, and showed how
+their harmony was produced by reciprocal disproportions of excess or
+deficiency. The language in which these truths are expressed was not drawn
+from any set fashion, but from the profoundest depths of his moral being,
+and is therefore for all ages.
+
+
+
+
+“Love’s Labour’s Lost.�
+
+
+The characters in this play are either impersonated out of Shakespeare’s
+own multiformity by imaginative self-position, or out of such as a country
+town and schoolboy’s observation might supply,—the curate, the
+schoolmaster, the Armado (who even in my time was not extinct in the
+cheaper inns of North Wales), and so on. The satire is chiefly on follies
+of words. Biron and Rosaline are evidently the pre-existent state of
+Benedict and Beatrice, and so, perhaps, is Boyet of Lafeu, and Costard of
+the tapster in _Measure for Measure_; and the frequency of the rhymes, the
+sweetness as well as the smoothness of the metre, and the number of acute
+and fancifully illustrated aphorisms, are all as they ought to be in a
+poet’s youth. True genius begins by generalising and condensing; it ends
+in realising and expanding. It first collects the seeds.
+
+Yet, if this juvenile drama had been the only one extant of our
+Shakespeare, and we possessed the tradition only of his riper works, or
+accounts of them in writers who had not even mentioned this play,—how many
+of Shakespeare’s characteristic features might we not still have
+discovered in _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, though as in a portrait taken of him
+in his boyhood.
+
+I can never sufficiently admire the wonderful activity of thought
+throughout the whole of the first scene of the play, rendered natural, as
+it is, by the choice of the characters, and the whimsical determination on
+which the drama is founded. A whimsical determination certainly;—yet not
+altogether so very improbable to those who are conversant in the history
+of the middle ages, with their Courts of Love, and all that lighter
+drapery of chivalry, which engaged even mighty kings with a sort of
+serio-comic interest, and may well be supposed to have occupied more
+completely the smaller princes, at a time when the noble’s or prince’s
+court contained the only theatre of the domain or principality. This sort
+of story, too, was admirably suited to Shakespeare’s times, when the
+English court was still the foster-mother of the state and the muses; and
+when, in consequence, the courtiers, and men of rank and fashion, affected
+a display of wit, point, and sententious observation, that would be deemed
+intolerable at present,—but in which a hundred years of controversy,
+involving every great political, and every dear domestic, interest, had
+trained all but the lowest classes to participate. Add to this the very
+style of the sermons of the time, and the eagerness of the Protestants to
+distinguish themselves by long and frequent preaching, and it will be
+found that, from the reign of Henry VIII. to the abdication of James II.
+no country ever received such a national education as England.
+
+Hence the comic matter chosen in the first instance is a ridiculous
+imitation or apery of this constant striving after logical precision and
+subtle opposition of thoughts, together with a making the most of every
+conception or image, by expressing it under the least expected property
+belonging to it, and this, again, rendered specially absurd by being
+applied to the most current subjects and occurrences. The phrases and
+modes of combination in argument were caught by the most ignorant from the
+custom of the age, and their ridiculous misapplication of them is most
+amusingly exhibited in Costard; whilst examples suited only to the gravest
+propositions and impersonations, or apostrophes to abstract thoughts
+impersonated, which are in fact the natural language only of the most
+vehement agitations of the mind, are adopted by the coxcombry of Armado as
+mere artifices of ornament.
+
+The same kind of intellectual action is exhibited in a more serious and
+elevated strain in many other parts of this play. Biron’s speech at the
+end of the Fourth Act is an excellent specimen of it. It is logic clothed
+in rhetoric;—but observe how Shakespeare, in his two-fold being of poet
+and philosopher, avails himself of it to convey profound truths in the
+most lively images,—the whole remaining faithful to the character supposed
+to utter the lines, and the expressions themselves constituting a further
+development of that character:—
+
+“Other slow arts entirely keep the brain:
+And therefore finding barren practisers,
+Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil:
+But love, first learned in a lady’s eyes,
+Lives not alone immured in the brain;
+But, with the motion of all elements,
+Courses as swift as thought in every power;
+And gives to every power a double power,
+Above their functions and their offices.
+It adds a precious seeing to the eye,
+A lover’s eyes will gaze an eagle blind;
+A lover’s ear will hear the lowest sound,
+When the suspicious head of theft is stopp’d:
+Love’s feeling is more soft and sensible,
+Than are the tender horns of cockled snails;
+Love’s tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste;
+For valour, is not love a Hercules,
+Still climbing trees in the Hesperides?
+Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical,
+As bright Apollo’s lute, strung with his hair;
+And when love speaks, the voice of all the gods
+Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.
+Never durst poet touch a pen to write,
+Until his ink were tempered with love’s sighs;
+Oh, then his lines would ravish savage ears,
+And plant in tyrants mild humility.
+From women’s eyes this doctrine I derive:
+They sparkle still the right Promethean fire;
+They are the books, the arts, the academes,
+That show, contain, and nourish all the world;
+Else, none at all in aught proves excellent;
+Then fools you were these women to forswear;
+Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools.
+For wisdom’s sake, a word that all men love;
+Or for love’s sake, a word that loves all men;
+Or for men’s sake, the authors of these women;
+Or women’s sake, by whom we men are men;
+Let us once lose our oaths, to find ourselves,
+Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths:
+It is religion to be thus forsworn:
+For charity itself fulfils the law:
+And who can sever love from charity?�—
+
+This is quite a study;—sometimes you see this youthful god of poetry
+connecting disparate thoughts purely by means of resemblances in the words
+expressing them,—a thing in character in lighter comedy, especially of
+that kind in which Shakespeare delights, namely, the purposed display of
+wit, though sometimes too, disfiguring his graver scenes;—but more often
+you may see him doubling the natural connection or order of logical
+consequence in the thoughts by the introduction of an artificial and
+sought for resemblance in the words, as, for instance, in the third line
+of the play,—
+
+“And then grace us in the disgrace of death;�—
+
+this being a figure often having its force and propriety, as justified by
+the law of passion, which, inducing in the mind an unusual activity, seeks
+for means to waste its superfluity,—when in the highest degree—in lyric
+repetitions and sublime tautology—“At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay
+down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down
+dead,�—and, in lower degrees, in making the words themselves the subjects
+and materials of that surplus action, and for the same cause that agitates
+our limbs, and forces our very gestures into a tempest in states of high
+excitement.
+
+The mere style of narration in _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, like that of Ægeon
+in the first scene of the _Comedy of Errors_, and of the Captain in the
+second scene of _Macbeth_, seems imitated with its defects and its
+beauties from Sir Philip Sidney; whose _Arcadia_, though not then
+published, was already well known in manuscript copies, and could hardly
+have escaped the notice and admiration of Shakespeare as the friend and
+client of the Earl of Southampton. The chief defect consists in the
+parentheses and parenthetic thoughts and descriptions, suited neither to
+the passion of the speaker, nor the purpose of the person to whom the
+information is to be given, but manifestly betraying the author
+himself,—not by way of continuous undersong, but—palpably, and so as to
+show themselves addressed to the general reader. However, it is not
+unimportant to notice how strong a presumption the diction and allusions
+of this play afford, that, though Shakespeare’s acquirements in the dead
+languages might not be such as we suppose in a learned education, his
+habits had, nevertheless, been scholastic, and those of a student. For a
+young author’s first work almost always bespeaks his recent pursuits, and
+his first observations of life are either drawn from the immediate
+employments of his youth, and from the characters and images most deeply
+impressed on his mind in the situations in which those employments had
+placed him;—or else they are fixed on such objects and occurrences in the
+world, as are easily connected with, and seem to bear upon, his studies
+and the hitherto exclusive subjects of his meditation. Just as Ben Jonson,
+who applied himself to the drama after having served in Flanders, fills
+his earliest plays with true or pretended soldiers, the wrongs and
+neglects of the former, and the absurd boasts and knavery of their
+counterfeits. So Lessing’s first comedies are placed in the universities,
+and consist of events and characters conceivable in an academic life.
+
+I will only further remark the sweet and tempered gravity, with which
+Shakespeare in the end draws the only fitting moral which such a drama
+afforded. Here Rosaline rises up to the full height of Beatrice:—
+
+“_Ros._ Oft have I heard of you, my lord Biron,
+Before I saw you: and the world’s large tongue
+Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks;
+Full of comparisons, and wounding flouts,
+Which you on all estates will execute
+That lie within the mercy of your wit:
+To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain,
+And therewithal, to win me, if you please
+(Without the which I am not to be won),
+You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day
+Visit the speechless sick, and still converse
+With groaning wretches; and your talk shall be,
+With all the fierce endeavour of your wit,
+To enforce the pained impotent to smile.
+
+_Biron._ To move wild laughter in the throat of death?
+It cannot be; it is impossible;
+Mirth cannot move a soul in agony.
+
+_Ros._ Why, that’s the way to choke a gibing spirit,
+Whose influence is begot of that loose grace,
+Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools;
+A jest’s prosperity lies in the ear
+Of him that hears it, never in the tongue
+Of him that makes it: then, if sickly ears,
+Deaf’d with the clamours of their own dear groans,
+Will hear your idle scorns, continue then,
+And I will have you, and that fault withal:
+But, if they will not, throw away that spirit,
+And I shall find you empty of that fault,
+Right joyful of your reformation.�
+
+Act v. sc. 2. In Biron’s speech to the Princess:
+
+          “And, therefore, like the eye,
+Full of _straying_ shapes, of habits, and of forms�—
+
+either read _stray_, which I prefer; or throw _full_ back to the preceding
+lines,—
+
+        “Like the eye, full
+Of straying shapes,� &c,
+
+In the same scene:—
+
+“_Biron._ And what to me, my love? and what to me?
+
+_Ros._ You must be purged too, your sins are rank;
+You are attaint with fault and perjury:
+Therefore, if you my favour mean to get,
+A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest,
+But seek the weary beds of people sick.�
+
+There can be no doubt, indeed, about the propriety of expunging this
+speech of Rosaline’s; it soils the very page that retains it. But I do not
+agree with Warburton and others in striking out the preceding line also.
+It is quite in Biron’s character; and Rosaline, not answering it
+immediately, Dumain takes up the question for him, and, after he and
+Longaville are answered, Biron, with evident propriety, says:—
+
+“_Studies_ my mistress?� &c.
+
+
+
+
+“Midsummer Night’s Dream.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Her._ O cross! too high to be enthrall’d to low—
+
+_Lys._ Or else misgrafted in respect of years;
+
+_Her._ O spite! too old to be engaged to young—
+
+_Lys._ Or else it stood upon the choice of friends;
+
+_Her._ O hell! to chuse love by another’s eye!�
+
+There is no authority for any alteration;—but I never can help feeling how
+great an improvement it would be, if the two former of Hermia’s
+exclamations were omitted;—the third and only appropriate one would then
+become a beauty, and most natural.
+
+_Ib._ Helena’s speech:—
+
+“I will go tell him of fair Hermia’s flight,� &c.
+
+I am convinced that Shakespeare availed himself of the title of this play
+in his own mind, and worked upon it as a dream throughout, but especially,
+and perhaps unpleasingly, in this broad determination of ungrateful
+treachery in Helena, so undisguisedly avowed to herself, and this, too,
+after the witty cool philosophising that precedes. The act itself is
+natural, and the resolve so to act is, I fear, likewise too true a picture
+of the lax hold which principles have on a woman’s heart, when opposed to,
+or even separated from, passion and inclination. For women are less
+hypocrites to their own minds than men are, because in general they feel
+less proportionate abhorrence of moral evil in and for itself, and more of
+its outward consequences, as detection and loss of character, than
+men,—their natures being almost wholly extroitive. Still, however just in
+itself, the representation of this is not poetical; we shrink from it, and
+cannot harmonise it with the ideal.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Theobald’s edition—
+
+“_Through_ bush, _through_ briar—
+
+_Through_ flood, _through fire_—�
+
+What a noble pair of ears this worthy Theobald must have had! The eight
+amphimacers or cretics,—
+
+“Ovĕr hīll, �vĕr d�le,
+Th�r�’ būsh, th�r�’ brīar,
+Ovĕr p�rk, �vĕr p�le,
+Thr�r�’ fl��d, th�r�’ fīre�—
+
+have a delightful effect on the ear in their sweet transition to the
+trochaic,—
+
+“I d� w�ndĕr ēv’ry whērĕ
+Swīftĕr th�n thĕ m��nĕs sphērĕ,� &c.
+
+The last words, as sustaining the rhyme, must be considered, as in fact
+they are, trochees in time.
+
+It may be worth while to give some correct examples in English of the
+principle metrical feet:—
+
+Pyrrhic or Dibrach, u u = _b�dy_, _spĭrĭt_.
+Tribrach, u u u = _n�b�dy_, hastily pronounced.
+Iambus, u - = _dĕlīght_.
+Trochee, - u  = _līghtlȳ_.
+Spondee, - - = _G�d sp�ke_.
+
+The paucity of spondees in single words in English, and indeed in the
+modern languages in general, makes perhaps the greatest distinction,
+metrically considered, between them and the Greek and Latin.
+
+Dactyl, - u u = _mērrĭlȳ_.
+Anapæst, u u - = _ă pr�p�s_, or the first three syllables of _cĕrĕm�ny_.
+Amphibrachys, u - u = _dĕlīghtfŭl_.
+Amphimacer, - u - = _�vĕr hīll_.
+Antibacchius, u -  = _thĕ L�rd G�d_.
+Bacchius, - - u = _Hēlvēllȳn_.
+Molossus, - - - = _J�hn J�mes J�nes_.
+
+These simple feet may suffice for understanding the metres of Shakespeare,
+for the greater part at least;—but Milton cannot be made harmoniously
+intelligible without the composite feet, the Ionics, Pæons, and Epitrites.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Titania’s speech (Theobald, adopting Warburton’s reading):—
+
+“Which she, with pretty and with swimming gate
+_Follying_ (her womb then rich with my young squire)
+Would imitate,� &c.
+
+Oh! oh! Heaven have mercy on poor Shakespeare, and also on Mr. Warburton’s
+mind’s eye!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Theseus’ speech (Theobald):—
+
+“And what poor [_willing_] duty cannot do,
+Noble respect takes it in might, not merit.�
+
+To my ears it would read far more Shakespearian thus:—
+
+“And what poor duty cannot do, _yet would_,
+Noble respect,� &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Puck._ Now the hungry lion roars,
+  And the wolf behowls the moon;
+Whilst the heavy ploughman snores
+  All with weary task foredone,� &c.
+
+Very Anacreon in perfectness, proportion, grace, and spontaneity! So far
+it is Greek;—but then add, O! what wealth, what wild ranging, and yet what
+compression and condensation of, English fancy! In truth, there is nothing
+in Anacreon more perfect than these thirty lines, or half so rich and
+imaginative. They form a speckless diamond.
+
+
+
+
+“Comedy Of Errors.�
+
+
+The myriad-minded man, our, and all men’s Shakespeare, has in this piece
+presented us with a legitimate farce in exactest consonance with the
+philosophical principles and character of farce, as distinguished from
+comedy and from entertainments. A proper farce is mainly distinguished
+from comedy by the licence allowed, and even required, in the fable, in
+order to produce strange and laughable situations. The story need not be
+probable, it is enough that it is possible. A comedy would scarcely allow
+even the two Antipholuses; because, although there have been instances of
+almost indistinguishable likeness in two persons, yet these are mere
+individual accidents, _casus ludentis naturæ_, and the _verum_ will not
+excuse the _inverisimile_. But farce dares add the two Dromios, and is
+justified in so doing by the laws of its end and constitution. In a word,
+farces commence in a postulate, which must be granted.
+
+
+
+
+“As You Like It.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.
+
+“_Oli._ What, boy!
+
+_Orla._ Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this.
+
+_Oli._ Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain?�
+
+There is a beauty here. The word “boy� naturally provokes and awakens in
+Orlando the sense of his manly powers; and with the retort of “elder
+brother,� he grasps him with firm hands, and makes him feel he is no boy.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Oli._ Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester: I hope, I
+shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why, hates nothing
+more than him. Yet he’s gentle; never school’d, and yet learn’d; full of
+noble device; of all sorts enchantingly beloved! and, indeed, so much in
+the heart of the world, and especially of my own people, who best know
+him, that I am altogether misprised: but it shall not be so long; this
+wrestler shall clear all.�
+
+This has always appeared to me one of the most un-Shakespearian speeches
+in all the genuine works of our poet; yet I should be nothing surprised,
+and greatly pleased, to find it hereafter a fresh beauty, as has so often
+happened to me with other supposed defects of great men.—1810.
+
+It is too venturous to charge a passage in Shakespeare with want of truth
+to nature; and yet at first sight this speech of Oliver’s expresses
+truths, which it seems almost impossible that any mind should so
+distinctly, so livelily, and so voluntarily, have presented to itself, in
+connection with feelings and intentions so malignant, and so contrary to
+those which the qualities expressed would naturally have called forth. But
+I dare not say that this seeming unnaturalness is not in the nature of an
+abused wilfulness, when united with a strong intellect. In such characters
+there is sometimes a gloomy self-gratification in making the absoluteness
+of the will (_sit pro ratione voluntas!_) evident to themselves by setting
+the reason and the conscience in full array against it.—1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Celia._ If your saw yourself with _your_ eyes, or knew yourself with
+_your_ judgment, the fear of your adventure would counsel you to a more
+equal enterprise.�
+
+Surely it should be “_our_ eyes� and “_our_ judgment.�
+
+_Ib._ sc 3.—
+
+“_Cel._ But is all this for your father?
+
+_Ros._ No; some of it is for _my child’s father_.�
+
+Theobald restores this as the reading of the older editions. It may be so:
+but who can doubt that it is a mistake for “my father’s child,� meaning
+herself? According to Theobald’s note, a most indelicate anticipation is
+put into the mouth of Rosalind without reason;—and besides, what a strange
+thought, and how out of place and unintelligible!
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+
+“Take thou no scorn
+To wear the horn, the lusty horn;
+It was a crest ere thou wast born.�
+
+I question whether there exists a parallel instance of a phrase, that like
+this of “horns� is universal in all languages, and yet for which no one
+has discovered even a plausible origin.
+
+
+
+
+“Twelfth Night.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Duke’s speech:—
+
+      ... “So full of shapes is fancy,
+That it alone is high fantastical.�
+
+Warburton’s alteration of _is_ into _in_ is needless. “Fancy� may very
+well be interpreted “exclusive affection,� or “passionate preference.�
+Thus, bird-fanciers; gentlemen of the fancy, that is, amateurs of boxing,
+&c. The play of assimilation,—the meaning one sense chiefly, and yet
+keeping both senses in view, is perfectly Shakespearian.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3. Sir Andrew’s speech:—
+
+An explanatory note on _Pigrogromitus_ would have been more acceptable
+than Theobald’s grand discovery that “lemon� ought to be “leman.�
+
+_Ib._ Sir Toby’s speech (Warburton’s note on the Peripatetic philosophy):—
+
+“Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch, that will draw three
+“souls out of one weaver?�
+
+O genuine, and inimitable (at least I hope so) Warburton! This note of
+thine, if but one in five millions, would be half a one too much.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.—
+
+“_Duke._ My life upon’t, young though thou art, thine eye
+Hath stay’d upon some favour that it loves;
+Hath it not, boy?
+
+_Vio._ A little, by your favour.
+
+_Duke._ What kind of woman is’t?�
+
+And yet Viola was to have been presented to Orsino as a eunuch!—Act i. sc.
+2. Viola’s speech. Either she forgot this, or else she had altered her
+plan.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Vio._ A blank, my lord: she never told her love!—
+But let concealment,� &c.
+
+After the first line (of which the last five words should be spoken with,
+and drop down in, a deep sigh), the actress ought to make a pause; and
+then start afresh, from the activity of thought, born of suppressed
+feelings, and which thought had accumulated during the brief interval, as
+vital heat under the skin during a dip in cold water.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+“_Fabian._ Though our silence be drawn from us by _cars_, yet
+peace.�
+
+Perhaps, “cables.�
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Clown._ A sentence is but a _cheveril_ glove to a good wit.�
+(Theobald’s note.)
+
+Theobald’s etymology of “cheveril� is, of course, quite right;—but he is
+mistaken in supposing that there were no such things as gloves of
+chicken-skin. They were at one time a main article in chirocosmetics.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Clown’s speech:—
+
+“So that, _conclusions to be as kisses_, if your four negatives make
+your two affirmatives, why, then, the worse for my friends, and the
+better for my foes.�
+
+(Warburton reads “conclusion to be asked, is.�)
+
+Surely Warburton could never have wooed by kisses and won, or he would not
+have flounder-flatted so just and humorous, nor less pleasing than
+humorous, an image into so profound a nihility. In the name of love and
+wonder, do not four kisses make a double affirmative? The humour lies in
+the whispered “No!� and the inviting “Don’t!� with which the maiden’s
+kisses are accompanied, and thence compared to negatives, which by
+repetition constitute an affirmative.
+
+
+
+
+“All’s Well That Ends Well.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Count._ If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes
+it soon mortal.
+
+_Bert._ _Madam, I desire your holy wishes._
+
+_Laf._ _How understand we that?_�
+
+Bertram and Lafeu, I imagine, both speak together,—Lafeu referring to the
+Countess’s rather obscure remark.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. (Warburton’s note.)
+
+“_King._   ... let _higher_ Italy
+(Those _’bated_, that inherit but the fall
+Of the last monarchy) see, that you come
+Not to woo honour, but to wed it.�
+
+It would be, I own, an audacious and unjustifiable change of the text; but
+yet, as a mere conjecture, I venture to suggest “bastards,� for “’bated.�
+As it stands, in spite of Warburton’s note, I can make little or nothing
+of it. Why should the king except the then most illustrious states, which,
+as being republics, were the more truly inheritors of the Roman
+grandeur?—With my conjecture, the sense would be;—“let higher, or the more
+northern part of Italy—(unless ‘higher’ be a corruption for ‘hir’d,’—the
+metre seeming to demand a monosyllable) (those bastards that inherit the
+infamy only of their fathers) see,� &c. The following “woo� and “wed� are
+so far confirmative as they indicate Shakespeare’s manner of connection by
+unmarked influences of association from some preceding metaphor. This it
+is which makes his style so peculiarly vital and organic. Likewise “those
+girls of Italy� strengthen the guess. The absurdity of Warburton’s gloss,
+which represents the king calling Italy superior, and then excepting the
+only part the lords were going to visit, must strike every one.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3.—
+
+“_Laf._ They say, miracles are past; and we have our philosophical
+persons to make modern and familiar, things supernatural
+and _causeless_.�
+
+Shakespeare, inspired, as it might seem, with all knowledge, here uses the
+word “causeless� in its strict philosophical sense;—cause being truly
+predicable only of _phenomena_, that is, things natural, and not of
+_noumena_, or things supernatural.
+
+Act iii. sc. 5.—
+
+“_Dia._ The Count Rousillon:—know you such a one?
+
+_Hel._ But by the ear that hears most nobly of him;
+His face I know not.�
+
+Shall we say here, that Shakespeare has unnecessarily made his loveliest
+character utter a lie?—Or shall we dare think that, where to deceive was
+necessary, he thought a pretended verbal verity a double crime, equally
+with the other a lie to the hearer, and at the same time an attempt to lie
+to one’s own conscience?
+
+
+
+
+“Merry Wives Of Windsor.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish, the salt fish is an old coat.�
+
+I cannot understand this. Perhaps there is a corruption both of words and
+speakers. Shallow no sooner corrects one mistake of Sir Hugh’s, namely,
+“louse� for “luce,� a pike, but the honest Welchman falls into another,
+namely, “cod� (_baccalà_). _Cambrice_—“cot� for coat.
+
+“_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish—
+
+_Evans._ The salt fish is an old cot.�
+
+“Luce is a fresh fish, and not a louse;� says Shallow. “Aye, aye,� quoth
+Sir Hugh; “the _fresh_ fish is the luce; it is an old cod that is the salt
+fish.� At all events, as the text stands, there is no sense at all in the
+words.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3—
+
+“_Fal._ Now, the report goes, she has all the rule of her husband’s
+purse; He hath a legion of angels.
+
+_Pist._ As many devils entertain; and _To her, boy_, say I.�
+
+Perhaps it is—
+
+“As many devils enter (or enter’d) swine; and _to her, boy_,
+say I:�—
+
+a somewhat profane, but not un-Shakespearian, allusion to the “legion� in
+St. Luke’s “gospel.�
+
+
+
+
+“Measure For Measure.�
+
+
+This play, which is Shakespeare’s throughout, is to me the most
+painful—say rather, the only painful—part of his genuine works. The comic
+and tragic parts equally border on the μισητὸν,—the one being disgusting,
+the other horrible; and the pardon and marriage of Angelo not merely
+baffles the strong indignant claim of justice—(for cruelty, with lust and
+damnable baseness, cannot be forgiven, because we cannot conceive them as
+being morally repented of); but it is likewise degrading to the character
+of woman. Beaumont and Fletcher, who can follow Shakespeare in his errors
+only, have presented a still worse, because more loathsome and
+contradictory, instance of the same kind in the _Night-Walker_, in the
+marriage of Alathe to Algripe. Of the counter-balancing beauties of
+_Measure for Measure_, I need say nothing; for I have already remarked
+that the play is Shakespeare’s throughout.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+
+“Ay, but to die, and go we know not where,� &c.
+
+
+    “This natural fear of Claudio, from the antipathy we have to
+    death, seems very little varied from that infamous wish of
+    Mæcenas, recorded in the 101st epistle of Seneca:—
+
+    “_Debilem facito manu,_
+    _Debilem pede, coxa_� &c.—Warburton’s note.
+
+
+I cannot but think this rather a heroic resolve, than an infamous wish. It
+appears to me to be the grandest symptom of an immortal spirit, when even
+that bedimmed and overwhelmed spirit recked not of its own immortality,
+still to seek to be,—to be a mind, a will.
+
+As fame is to reputation, so heaven is to an estate, or immediate
+advantage. The difference is, that the self-love of the former cannot
+exist but by a complete suppression and habitual supplantation of
+immediate selfishness. In one point of view, the miser is more estimable
+than the spendthrift;—only that the miser’s present feelings are as much
+of the present as the spendthrift’s. But _cæteris paribus_, that is, upon
+the supposition that whatever is good or lovely in the one coexists
+equally in the other, then, doubtless, the master of the present is less a
+selfish being, an animal, than he who lives for the moment with no
+inheritance in the future. Whatever can degrade man, is supposed in the
+latter case; whatever can elevate him, in the former. And as to
+self;—strange and generous self! that can only be such a self by a
+complete divestment of all that men call self,—of all that can make it
+either practically to others, or consciously to the individual himself,
+different from the human race in its ideal. Such self is but a perpetual
+religion, an inalienable acknowledgment of God, the sole basis and ground
+of being. In this sense, how can I love God, and not love myself, as far
+as it is of God?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“Pattern in himself to know,
+Grace to stand, and virtue go.�
+
+Worse metre, indeed, but better English would be,—
+
+“Grace to stand, virtue to go.�
+
+
+
+
+“Cymbeline.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“You do not meet a man, but frowns: our bloods
+No more obey the heavens, than our courtiers’
+Still seem, as does the king’s.�
+
+There can be little doubt of Mr. Tyrwhitt’s emendations of “courtiers� and
+“king,� as to the sense;—only it is not impossible that Shakespeare’s
+dramatic language may allow of the word “brows� or “faces� being
+understood after the word “courtiers’,� which might then remain in the
+genitive case plural. But the nominative plural makes excellent sense, and
+is sufficiently elegant, and sounds to my ear Shakespearian. What,
+however, is meant by “our bloods no more obey the heavens?�—Dr. Johnson’s
+assertion that “bloods� signify “countenances,� is, I think, mistaken both
+in the thought conveyed—(for it was never a popular belief that the stars
+governed men’s countenances)—and in the usage, which requires an
+antithesis of the blood,—or the temperament of the four humours, choler,
+melancholy, phlegm, and the red globules, or the sanguine portion, which
+was supposed not to be in our own power, but to be dependent on the
+influences of the heavenly bodies,—and the countenances which are in our
+power really, though from flattery we bring them into a no less apparent
+dependence on the sovereign, than the former are in actual dependence on
+the constellations.
+
+I have sometimes thought that the word “courtiers� was a misprint for
+“countenances,� arising from an anticipation, by foreglance of the
+compositor’s eye, of the word “courtier� a few lines below. The written
+_r_ is easily and often confounded with, the written _n_. The compositor
+read the first syllable _court_, and—his eye at the same time catching the
+word “courtier� lower down—he completed the word without reconsulting the
+copy. It is not unlikely that Shakespeare intended first to express,
+generally, the same thought, which a little afterwards he repeats with a
+particular application to the persons meant;—a common usage of the
+pronominal “our,� where the speaker does not really mean to include
+himself; and the word “you� is an additional confirmation of the “our,�
+being used in this place for “men� generally and indefinitely,—just as
+“you do not meet� is the same as “one does not meet.�
+
+Act i. sc. 1 Imogen’s speech:—
+
+          ... “My dearest husband,
+I something fear my father’s wrath; but nothing
+(Always reserved my holy duty) what
+His rage can do on me;�
+
+Place the emphasis on “me�; for “rage� is a mere repetition of “wrath.�
+
+“_Cym._ O disloyal thing;
+That should’st repair my youth; thou heapest
+A year’s age on me!�
+
+How is it that the commentators take no notice of the un-Shakespearian
+defect in the metre of the second line, and what in Shakespeare is the
+same, in the harmony with the sense and feeling? Some word or words must
+have slipped out after “youth,�—possibly “and see�:—
+
+“That should’st repair my youth!—and see, thou heap’st,� &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Pisanio’s speech:—
+
+          ... “For so long
+As he could make me with _this_ eye or ear
+Distinguish him from others,� &c.
+
+But “_this_ eye,� in spite of the supposition of its being used δεικτικῶς,
+is very awkward. I should think that either “or� or “the� was
+Shakespeare’s word;—
+
+“As he could make me or with eye or ear.�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Iachimo’s speech:—
+
+        ... “Hath nature given them eyes
+To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop
+Of sea and land, which can distinguish ’twixt
+The fiery orbs above, and the twinn’d stones
+Upon the number’d beach.�
+
+I would suggest “cope� for “crop.� As to “twinn’d stones�—may it not be a
+bold _catachresis_ for muscles, cockles, and other empty shells with
+hinges, which are truly twinned? I would take Dr. Farmer’s “umber’d,�
+which I had proposed before I ever heard of its having been already
+offered by him: but I do not adopt his interpretation of the word, which I
+think is not derived from _umbra_, a shade, but from _umber_, a dingy
+yellow-brown soil, which most commonly forms the mass of the sludge on the
+sea-shore, and on the banks of tide-rivers at low water. One other
+possible interpretation of this sentence has occurred to me, just barely
+worth mentioning;—that the “twinn’d stones� are the _augrim_ stones upon
+the number’d beech,—that is, the astronomical tables of beech-wood.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.—
+
+“_Sooth._ When, as a lion’s whelp,� &c.
+
+It is not easy to conjecture why Shakespeare should have introduced this
+ludicrous scroll, which answers no one purpose, either propulsive, or
+explicatory, unless as a joke on etymology.
+
+
+
+
+“Titus Andronicus.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Theobald’s note:—
+
+
+    “I never heard it so much as intimated, that he (Shakespeare) had
+    turned his genius to stage-writing, before he associated with the
+    players, and became one of their body.�
+
+
+That Shakespeare never “turned his genius to stage-writing,� as Theobald
+most _Theobaldice_ phrases it, before he became an actor, is an assertion
+of about as much authority as the precious story that he left Stratford
+for deer-stealing, and that he lived by holding gentlemen’s horses at the
+doors of the theatre, and other trash of that arch-gossip, old Aubrey. The
+metre is an argument against _Titus Andronicus_ being Shakespeare’s, worth
+a score such chronological surmises. Yet I incline to think that both in
+this play and in _Jeronymo_, Shakespeare wrote some passages, and that
+they are the earliest of his compositions.
+
+Act v. sc. 2. I think it not improbable that the lines from—
+
+“I am not mad; I know thee well enough;
+
+to
+
+So thou destroy Rapine, and Murder there�—
+
+were written by Shakespeare in his earliest period. But instead of the
+text—
+
+    “Revenge, _which makes the foul offenders quake._
+_Tit. Art thou_ Revenge? and art thou sent to me?�—
+
+the words in italics ought to be omitted.
+
+
+
+
+“Troilus And Cressida.�
+
+
+    “Mr. Pope (after Dryden) informs us that the story of _Troilus and
+    Cressida_ was originally the work of one Lollius, a Lombard: but
+    Dryden goes yet further; he declares it to have been written in
+    Latin verse, and that Chaucer translated it. _Lollius was a
+    historiographer of Urbino in Italy._�—Note in Stockdale’s edition,
+    1807.
+
+
+“Lollius was a historiographer of Urbino in Italy.� So affirms the notary
+to whom the Sieur Stockdale committed the _disfaciménto_ of Ayscough’s
+excellent edition of Shakespeare. Pity that the researchful notary has not
+either told us in what century, and of what history, he was a writer, or
+been simply content to depose, that Lollius, if a writer of that name
+existed at all, was a somewhat somewhere. The notary speaks of the _Troy
+Boke_ of Lydgate, printed in 1513. I have never seen it; but I deeply
+regret that Chalmers did not substitute the whole of Lydgate’s works from
+the MSS. extant, for the almost worthless Gower.
+
+The _Troilus and Cressida_ of Shakespeare can scarcely be classed with his
+dramas of Greek and Roman history; but it forms an intermediate link
+between the fictitious Greek and Roman histories, which we may call
+legendary dramas, and the proper ancient histories,—that is, between the
+_Pericles_ or _Titus Andronicus_, and the _Coriolanus_ or _Julius Cæsar_.
+_Cymbeline_ is a _congener_ with _Pericles_, and distinguished from _Lear_
+by not having any declared prominent object. But where shall we class the
+_Timon of Athens_? Perhaps immediately below _Lear_. It is a _Lear_ of the
+satirical drama; a _Lear_ of domestic or ordinary life;—a local eddy of
+passion on the high road of society, while all around is the week-day
+goings on of wind and weather; a _Lear_, therefore, without its
+soul-searching flashes, its ear-cleaving thunder-claps, its meteoric
+splendours,—without the contagion and the fearful sympathies of nature,
+the fates, the furies, the frenzied elements, dancing in and out, now
+breaking through and scattering,—now hand in hand with,—the fierce or
+fantastic group of human passions, crimes, and anguishes, reeling on the
+unsteady ground, in a wild harmony to the shock and the swell of an
+earthquake. But my present subject was _Troilus and Cressida_; and I
+suppose that, scarcely knowing what to say of it, I by a cunning of
+instinct ran off to subjects on which I should find it difficult not to
+say too much, though certain after all that I should still leave the
+better part unsaid, and the gleaning for others richer than my own
+harvest.
+
+Indeed, there is no one of Shakespeare’s plays harder to characterise. The
+name and the remembrances connected with it, prepare us for the
+representation of attachment no less faithful than fervent on the side of
+the youth, and of sudden and shameless inconstancy on the part of the
+lady. And this is, indeed, as the gold thread on which the scenes are
+strung, though often kept out of sight and out of mind by gems of greater
+value than itself. But as Shakespeare calls forth nothing from the
+mausoleum of history, or the catacombs of tradition, without giving, or
+eliciting, some permanent and general interest, and brings forward no
+subject which he does not moralise or intellectualise,—so here he has
+drawn in Cressida the portrait of a vehement passion, that, having its
+true origin and proper cause in warmth of temperament, fastens on, rather
+than fixes to, some one object by liking and temporary preference.
+
+“There’s language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,
+Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirit looks out
+At every joint and motive of her body.�
+
+This Shakespeare has contrasted with the profound affection represented in
+Troilus, and alone worthy the name of love;—affection, passionate
+indeed,—swoln with the confluence of youthful instincts and youthful
+fancy, and growing in the radiance of hope newly risen, in short, enlarged
+by the collective sympathies of nature;—but still having a depth of calmer
+element in a will stronger than desire, more entire than choice, and which
+gives permanence to its own act by converting it into faith and duty.
+Hence, with excellent judgment, and with an excellence higher than mere
+judgment can give, at the close of the play, when Cressida has sunk into
+infamy below retrieval and beneath hope, the same will, which had been the
+substance and the basis of his love, while the restless pleasures and
+passionate longings, like sea-waves, had tossed but on its surface,—this
+same moral energy is represented as snatching him aloof from all
+neighbourhood with her dishonour, from all lingering fondness and
+languishing regrets, whilst it rushes with him into other and nobler
+duties, and deepens the channel, which his heroic brother’s death had left
+empty for its collected flood. Yet another secondary and subordinate
+purpose Shakespeare has inwoven with his delineation of these two
+characters,—that of opposing the inferior civilisation, but purer morals,
+of the Trojans to the refinements, deep policy, but duplicity and sensual
+corruptions of the Greeks.
+
+To all this, however, so little comparative projection is given,—nay, the
+masterly group of Agamemnon, Nestor, and Ulysses, and, still more in
+advance, that of Achilles, Ajax, and Thersites, so manifestly occupying
+the fore-ground, that the subservience and vassalage of strength and
+animal courage to intellect and policy seems to be the lesson most often
+in our poet’s view, and which he has taken little pains to connect with
+the former more interesting moral impersonated in the titular hero and
+heroine of the drama. But I am half inclined to believe, that
+Shakespeare’s main object, or shall I rather say his ruling impulse, was
+to translate the poetic heroes of paganism into the not less rude, but
+more intellectually vigorous, and more _featurely_, warriors of Christian
+chivalry,—and to substantiate the distinct and graceful profiles or
+outlines of the Homeric epic into the flesh and blood of the romantic
+drama;—in short, to give a grand history-piece in the robust style of
+Albert Durer.
+
+The character of Thersites, in particular, well deserves a more careful
+examination, as the Caliban of demagogic life;—the admirable portrait of
+intellectual power deserted by all grace, all moral principle, all not
+momentary impulse;—just wise enough to detect the weak head, and fool
+enough to provoke the armed fist of his betters;—one whom malcontent
+Achilles can inveigle from malcontent Ajax, under the one condition, that
+he shall be called on to do nothing but abuse and slander, and that he
+shall be allowed to abuse as much and as purulently as he likes, that is,
+as he can;—in short, a mule,—quarrelsome by the original discord of his
+nature;—a slave by tenure of his own baseness,—made to bray and be brayed
+at, to despise and be despicable. “Aye, Sir, but say what you will, he is
+a very clever fellow, though the best friends will fall out. There was a
+time when Ajax thought he deserved to have a statue of gold erected to him
+and handsome Achilles, at the head of the Myrmidons, gave no little credit
+to his _friend Thersites_!�
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Speech of Ulysses:—
+
+“O, these encounterers, so glib of tongue,
+That give a _coasting_ welcome ere it comes�—
+
+Should it be “accosting?� “Accost her, knight, accost!� in the _Twelfth
+Night_. Yet there sounds a something so Shakespearian in the phrase—“give
+a coasting welcome� (“coasting� being taken as the epithet and adjective
+of “welcome�), that had the following words been, “ere _they land_,�
+instead of “ere it comes,� I should have preferred the interpretation. The
+sense now is, “that give welcome to a salute ere it comes.�
+
+
+
+
+“Coriolanus.�
+
+
+This play illustrates the wonderfully philosophic impartiality of
+Shakespeare’s politics. His own country’s history furnished him with no
+matter but what was too recent to be devoted to patriotism. Besides, he
+knew that the instruction of ancient history would seem more
+dispassionate. In _Coriolanus_ and _Julius Cæsar_, you see Shakespeare’s
+good-natured laugh at mobs. Compare this with Sir Thomas Brown’s
+aristocracy of spirit.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Marcius’ speech:—
+
+          ... “He that depends
+Upon your favours, swims with fins of lead,
+And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye?�
+
+I suspect that Shakespeare wrote it transposed!
+
+“Trust ye? Hang ye!�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 10. Speech of Aufidius:—
+
+          ... “Mine emulation
+Hath not that honour in’t, it had; for where
+I thought to crush him in an equal force,
+True sword to sword; I’ll potch at him some way
+Or wrath, or craft may get him.—
+          ... My valour (poison’d
+With only suffering stain by him) for him
+Shall fly out of itself: nor sleep, nor sanctuary,
+Being naked, sick, nor fane, nor capitol,
+The prayers of priests, nor times of sacrifices,
+Embankments all of fury, shall lift up
+Their rotten privilege and custom ’gainst
+My hate to Marcius.�
+
+I have such deep faith in Shakespeare’s heart-lore, that I take for
+granted that this is in nature, and not as a mere anomaly; although I
+cannot in myself discover any germ of possible feeling, which could wax
+and unfold itself into such sentiment as this. However, I perceive that in
+this speech is meant to be contained a prevention of shock at the
+after-change in Aufidius’s character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Menenius:—
+
+“The most sovereign prescription in _Galen_,� &c.
+
+Was it without, or in contempt of, historical information that Shakespeare
+made the contemporaries of Coriolanus quote Cato and Galen? I cannot
+decide to my own satisfaction.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Coriolanus:—
+
+“Why in this wolvish toge should I stand hero�
+
+That the gown of the candidate was of whitened wool, we know. Does
+“wolvish� or “woolvish� mean “made of wool?� If it means “wolfish,� what
+is the sense?
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Speech of Aufidius:—
+
+“All places yield to him ere he sits down,� &c.
+
+I have always thought this, in itself so beautiful speech, the least
+explicable from the mood and full intention of the speaker of any in the
+whole works of Shakespeare. I cherish the hope that I am mistaken, and
+that, becoming wiser, I shall discover some profound excellence in that,
+in which I now appear to detect an imperfection.
+
+
+
+
+“Julius Cæsar.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Mar._ What meanest _thou_ by that? Mend me, thou saucy
+fellow!�
+
+The speeches of Flavius and Marullus are in blank verse. Wherever regular
+metre can be rendered truly imitative of character, passion, or personal
+rank, Shakespeare seldom, if ever, neglects it. Hence this line should be
+read:—
+
+“What mean’st by that? mend me, thou saucy fellow!�
+
+I say regular metre: for even the prose has in the highest and lowest
+dramatic personage, a Cobbler or a Hamlet, a rhythm so felicitous and so
+severally appropriate, as to be a virtual metre.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Bru._ A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March.�
+
+If my ear does not deceive me, the metre of this line was meant to express
+that sort of mild philosophic contempt, characterising Brutus even in his
+first casual speech. The line is a trimeter,—each _dipodia_ containing two
+accented and two unaccented syllables, but variously arranged, as thus:—
+
+u -   - u  |  -    u   u -   |  u  -  u  -
+A soothsayer   | bids you beware     | the Ides of March.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:—
+
+“Set honour in one eye, and death i’ the other,
+And I will look on _both_ indifferently.�
+
+Warburton would read “death� for “both;� but I prefer the old text. There
+are here three things, the public good, the individual Brutus’ honour, and
+his death. The latter two so balanced each other, that he could decide for
+the first by equipoise; nay—the thought growing—that honour had more
+weight than death. That Cassius understood it as Warburton, is the beauty
+of Cassius as contrasted with Brutus.
+
+_Ib._ Cæsar’s speech:—
+
+          ... “He loves no plays
+As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music,� &c.
+
+
+    “This is not a trivial observation, nor does our poet mean barely
+    by it, that Cassius was not a merry, sprightly man; but that he
+    had not a due temperament of harmony in his
+    disposition.�—Theobald’s note.
+
+
+O Theobald! what a commentator wast thou, when thou would’st affect to
+understand Shakespeare, instead of contenting thyself with collating the
+text! The meaning here is too deep for a line ten-fold the length of thine
+to fathom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Cæsar’s speech:—
+
+“Be _factious_ for redress of all these griefs;
+And I will set this foot of mine as far,
+As who goes farthest.�
+
+I understand it thus: “You have spoken as a conspirator; be so in _fact_,
+and I will join you. Act on your principles, and realize them in a fact.�
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Brutus:—
+
+“It must be by his death; and, for my part,
+I know no personal cause to spurn at him,
+But for the general. He would be crown’d:
+How that might change his nature, there’s the question.
+          ... And, to speak truth of Cæsar,
+I have not known when his affections sway’d
+More than his reason.
+          ... So Cæsar may;
+Then, lest he may, prevent.�
+
+This speech is singular;—at least, I do not at present see into
+Shakespeare’s motive, his _rationale_, or in what point of view he meant
+Brutus’ character to appear. For surely—(this, I mean, is what I say to
+myself, with my present _quantum_ of insight, only modified by my
+experience in how many instances I have ripened into a perception of
+beauties, where I had before descried faults;) surely, nothing can seem
+more discordant with our historical preconceptions of Brutus, or more
+lowering to the intellect of the Stoico-Platonic tyrannicide, than the
+tenets here attributed to him—to him, the stern Roman republican;
+namely,—that he would have no objection to a king, or to Cæsar, a monarch
+in Rome, would Cæsar but be as good a monarch as he now seems disposed to
+be! How, too, could Brutus say that he found no personal cause—none in
+Cæsar’s past conduct as a man? Had he not passed the Rubicon? Had he not
+entered Rome as a conqueror? Had he not placed his Gauls in the
+Senate?—Shakespeare, it may be said, has not brought these things
+forward—True;—and this is just the ground of my perplexity. What character
+did Shakespeare mean his Brutus to be?
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:—
+
+“For if thou _path_, thy native semblance on.�
+
+Surely, there need be no scruple in treating this “path� as a mere
+misprint or mis-script for “put.� In what place does Shakespeare—where
+does any other writer of the same age—use “path� as a verb for “walk?�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cæsar’s speech:—
+
+“She dreamt to-night, she saw my _statue_.�
+
+No doubt, it should be _statua_, as in the same age, they more often
+pronounced “heroes� as a trisyllable than dissyllable. A modern tragic
+poet would have written,—
+
+“Last night she dreamt that she my statue saw.�
+
+But Shakespeare never avails himself of the supposed license of
+transposition, merely for the metre. There is always some logic either of
+thought or passion to justify it.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Antony’s speech:—
+
+“Pardon me, Julius—here wast thou bay’d, brave hart:
+Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand
+Sign’d in thy spoil, and crimson’d in thy lethe.
+_O world! thou wast the forest to this hart,_
+_And this, indeed, O world! the heart of thee._�
+
+I doubt the genuineness of the last two lines;—not because they are vile;
+but first, on account of the rhythm, which is not Shakespearian, but just
+the very tune of some old play, from which the actor might have
+interpolated them;—and secondly, because they interrupt, not only the
+sense and connection, but likewise the flow both of the passion, and (what
+is with me still more decisive) of the Shakespearian link of association.
+As with many another parenthesis or gloss slipt into the text, we have
+only to read the passage without it, to see that it never was in it. I
+venture to say there is no instance in Shakespeare fairly like this.
+Conceits he has; but they not only rise out of some word in the lines
+before, but also lead to the thought in the lines following. Here the
+conceit is a mere alien: Antony forgets an image, when he is even touching
+it, and then recollects it, when the thought last in his mind must have
+led him away from it.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Brutus:—
+
+          ... “What, shall one of us,
+That struck the foremost man of all this world,
+But for _supporting robbers_.�
+
+This seemingly strange assertion of Brutus is unhappily verified in the
+present day. What is an immense army, in which the lust of plunder has
+quenched all the duties of the citizen, other than a horde of robbers, or
+differenced only as fiends are from ordinarily reprobate men? Cæsar
+supported, and was supported by, such as these;—and even so Buonaparte in
+our days.
+
+I know no part of Shakespeare that more impresses on me the belief of his
+genius being superhuman, than this scene between Brutus and Cassius. In
+the Gnostic heresy it might have been credited with less absurdity than
+most of their dogmas, that the Supreme had employed him to create,
+previously to his function of representing, characters.
+
+
+
+
+“Antony And Cleopatra.�
+
+
+Shakespeare can be complimented only by comparison with himself: all other
+eulogies are either heterogeneous, as when they are in reference to
+Spenser or Milton; or they are flat truisms, as when he is gravely
+preferred to Corneille, Racine, or even his own immediate successors,
+Beaumont and Fletcher, Massinger and the rest. The highest praise, or
+rather form of praise, of this play, which I can offer in my own mind, is
+the doubt which the perusal always occasions in me, whether the _Antony
+and Cleopatra_ is not, in all exhibitions of a giant power in its strength
+and vigour of maturity, a formidable rival of _Macbeth_, _Lear_, _Hamlet_,
+and _Othello_. _Feliciter audax_ is the motto for its style comparatively
+with that of Shakespeare’s other works, even as it is the general motto of
+all his works compared with those of other poets. Be it remembered, too,
+that this happy valiancy of style is but the representative and result of
+all the material excellencies so expressed.
+
+This play should be perused in mental contrast with _Romeo and Juliet_;—as
+the love of passion and appetite opposed to the love of affection and
+instinct. But the art displayed in the character of Cleopatra is profound;
+in this, especially, that the sense of criminality in her passion is
+lessened by our insight into its depth and energy, at the very moment that
+we cannot but perceive that the passion itself springs out of the habitual
+craving of a licentious nature, and that it is supported and reinforced by
+voluntary stimulus and sought-for associations, instead of blossoming out
+of spontaneous emotion.
+
+Of all Shakespeare’s historical plays, _Antony and Cleopatra_ is by far
+the most wonderful. There is not one in which he has followed history so
+minutely, and yet there are few in which he impresses the notion of
+angelic strength so much;—perhaps none in which he impresses it more
+strongly. This is greatly owing to the manner in which the fiery force is
+sustained throughout, and to the numerous momentary flashes of nature
+counteracting the historic abstraction. As a wonderful specimen of the way
+in which Shakespeare lives up to the very end of this play, read the last
+part of the concluding scene. And if you would feel the judgment as well
+as the genius of Shakespeare in your heart’s core, compare this
+astonishing drama with Dryden’s _All For Love_.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Philo’s speech:—
+
+          ... “His captain’s heart
+Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+The buckles on his breast, _reneges_ all temper.�
+
+It should be “reneagues,� or “reniegues,� as “fatigues,� &c.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“Take but good note, and you shall see in him
+The triple pillar of the world transform’d
+Into a strumpet’s _fool_.�
+
+Warburton’s conjecture of “stool� is ingenious, and would be a probable
+reading, if the scene opening had discovered Antony with Cleopatra on his
+lap. But, represented as he is walking and jesting with her, “fool� must
+be the word. Warburton’s objection is shallow, and implies that he
+confounded the dramatic with the epic style. The “pillar� of a state is so
+common a metaphor as to have lost the image in the thing meant to be
+imaged.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+          ... “Much is breeding;
+Which, like the courser’s hair, hath yet but life,
+And not a serpent’s poison.�
+
+This is so far true to appearance, that a horse-hair, “laid,� as
+Hollinshed says, “in a pail of water,� will become the supporter of
+seemingly one worm, though probably of an immense number of small slimy
+water-lice. The hair will twirl round a finger, and sensibly compress it.
+It is a common experiment with school boys in Cumberland and Westmoreland.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Speech of Enobarbus:—
+
+“Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides,
+So many _mermaids_, tended her i’ th’ eyes,
+And made their bends adornings. At the helm
+A seeming mermaid steers.�
+
+I have the greatest difficulty in believing that Shakespeare wrote the
+first “mermaids.� He never, I think, would have so weakened by useless
+anticipation the fine image immediately following. The epithet “seeming�
+becomes so extremely improper after the whole number had been positively
+called “so many mermaids.�
+
+
+
+
+“Timon Of Athens.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Tim._ The man is honest.
+
+_Old Ath._ _Therefore he will be_, Timon.
+His honesty rewards him in itself.�
+
+Warburton’s comment—“If the man be honest, for that reason he will be so
+in this, and not endeavour at the injustice of gaining my daughter without
+my consent�—is, like almost all his comments, ingenious in blunder; he can
+never see any other writer’s thoughts for the mist-working swarm of his
+own. The meaning of the first line the poet himself explains, or rather
+unfolds, in the second. “The man is honest!�—“True;—and for that very
+cause, and with no additional or extrinsic motive, he will be so. No man
+can be justly called honest, who is not so for honesty’s sake, itself
+including its own reward.� Note, that “honesty� in Shakespeare’s age
+retained much of its old dignity, and that contradistinction of the
+_honestum_ from the _utile_, in which its very essence and definition
+consist. If it be _honestum_, it cannot depend on the _utile_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Apemantus, printed as prose in Theobald’s edition:—
+
+“So, so! aches contract, and starve your supple joints!�
+
+I may remark here the fineness of Shakespeare’s sense of musical period,
+which would almost by itself have suggested (if the hundred positive
+proofs had not been extant) that the word “aches� was then _ad libitum_, a
+dissyllable—_aitches_. For read it “aches,� in this sentence, and I would
+challenge you to find any period in Shakespeare’s writings with the same
+musical or, rather dissonant, notation. Try the one, and then the other,
+by your ear, reading the sentence aloud, first with the word as a
+dissyllable and then as a monosyllable, and you will feel what I mean.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cupid’s speech: Warburton’s correction of—
+
+“There taste, touch, all pleas’d from thy table rise�—
+
+into
+
+“Th’ ear, taste, touch, smell,� &c.
+
+This is indeed an excellent emendation.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Senator’s speech:—
+
+          ... “Nor then silenc’d with
+“Commend me to your master�—_and the cap_
+_Plays in the right hand, thus_.�
+
+Either, methinks, “plays� should be “play’d,� or “and� should be changed
+to “while.� I can certainly understand it as a parenthesis, an
+interadditive of scorn; but it does not sound to my ear as in
+Shakespeare’s manner.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Timon’s speech (Theobald):—
+
+“And that unaptness made _you_ minister,
+Thus to excuse yourself.�
+
+Read _your_;—at least I cannot otherwise understand the line. You made my
+chance indisposition and occasional inaptness your minister—that is, the
+ground on which you now excuse yourself. Or, perhaps, no correction is
+necessary, if we construe “made you� as “did you make;� “and that
+unaptness did you make help you thus to excuse yourself.� But the former
+seems more in Shakespeare’s manner, and is less liable to be
+misunderstood.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Servant’s speech:—
+
+
+    “How fairly this lord strives to appear foul!—takes virtuous
+    copies to be wicked; _like those that under hot, ardent zeal would
+    set whole realms on fire. Of such a nature is his politic love_.�
+
+
+This latter clause I grievously suspect to have been an addition of the
+players, which had hit, and, being constantly applauded, procured a
+settled occupation in the prompter’s copy. Not that Shakespeare does not
+elsewhere sneer at the Puritans; but here it is introduced so _nolenter
+volenter_ (excuse the phrase) by the head and shoulders!—and is besides so
+much more likely to have been conceived in the age of Charles I.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Timon’s speech:—
+
+“Raise me this beggar, and _deny’t_ that lord.�
+
+Warburton reads “denude.�
+
+I cannot see the necessity of this alteration. The editors and
+commentators are, all of them, ready enough to cry out against
+Shakespeare’s laxities and licenses of style, forgetting that he is not
+merely a poet, but a dramatic poet; that, when the head and the heart are
+swelling with fulness, a man does not ask himself whether he has
+grammatically arranged, but only whether (the context taken in) he has
+conveyed his meaning. “Deny� is here clearly equal to “withhold;� and the
+“it,� quite in the genius of vehement conversation, which a syntaxist
+explains by ellipses and _subauditurs_ in a Greek or Latin classic, yet
+triumphs over as ignorances in a contemporary, refers to accidental and
+artificial rank or elevation, implied in the verb “raise.� Besides, does
+the word “denude� occur in any writer before, or of, Shakespeare’s age?
+
+
+
+
+“Romeo And Juliet.�
+
+
+I have previously had occasion to speak at large on the subject of the
+three unities of time, place, and action, as applied to the drama in the
+abstract, and to the particular stage for which Shakespeare wrote, as far
+as he can be said to have written for any stage but that of the universal
+mind. I hope I have in some measure succeeded in demonstrating that the
+former two, instead of being rules, were mere inconveniences attached to
+the local peculiarities of the Athenian drama; that the last alone
+deserved the name of a principle, and that in the preservation of this
+unity Shakespeare stood pre-eminent. Yet, instead of unity of action, I
+should greatly prefer the more appropriate, though scholastic and uncouth,
+words homogeneity, proportionateness, and totality of
+interest,—expressions, which involve the distinction, or rather the
+essential difference, betwixt the shaping skill of mechanical talent, and
+the creative, productive, life-power of inspired genius. In the former
+each part is separately conceived, and then by a succeeding act put
+together;—not as watches are made for wholesale—(for there each part
+supposes a pre-conception of the whole in some mind),—but more like
+pictures on a motley screen. Whence arises the harmony that strikes us in
+the wildest natural landscapes,—in the relative shapes of rocks, the
+harmony of colours in the heaths, ferns, and lichens, the leaves of the
+beech and the oak, the stems and rich brown branches of the birch and
+other mountain trees, varying from verging autumn to returning
+spring,—compared with the visual effect from the greater number of
+artificial plantations?—From this, that the natural landscape is effected,
+as it were, by a single energy modified _ab intra_ in each component part.
+And as this is the particular excellence of the Shakespearian drama
+generally, so is it especially characteristic of the _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+The groundwork of the tale is altogether in family life, and the events of
+the play have their first origin in family feuds. Filmy as are the eyes of
+party-spirit, at once dim and truculent, still there is commonly some real
+or supposed object in view, or principle to be maintained; and though but
+the twisted wires on the plate of rosin in the preparation for electrical
+pictures, it is still a guide in some degree, an assimilation to an
+outline. But in family quarrels, which have proved scarcely less injurious
+to states, wilfulness, and precipitancy, and passion from mere habit and
+custom can alone be expected. With his accustomed judgment, Shakespeare
+has begun by placing before us a lively picture of all the impulses of the
+play; and, as nature ever presents two sides, one for Heraclitus, and one
+for Democritus, he has, by way of prelude, shown the laughable absurdity
+of the evil by the contagion of it reaching the servants who have so
+little to do with it, but who are under the necessity of letting the
+superfluity of sensoreal power fly off through the escape-valve of
+wit-combats, and of quarrelling with weapons of sharper edge, all in
+humble imitation of their masters. Yet there is a sort of unhired
+fidelity, an _ourishness_ about all this that makes it rest pleasant on
+one’s feelings. All the first scene, down to the conclusion of the
+Prince’s speech, is a motley dance of all ranks and ages to one tune, as
+if the horn of Huon had been playing behind the scenes.
+
+Benvolio’s speech:—
+
+“Madam, an hour before the worshipp’d sun
+Peer’d forth the golden window of the east�—
+
+and, far more strikingly, the following speech of old Montague:—
+
+“Many a morning hath he there been seen
+With tears augmenting the fresh morning dew�—
+
+prove that Shakespeare meant the _Romeo and Juliet_ to approach to a poem,
+which, and indeed its early date, may be also inferred from the multitude
+of rhyming couplets throughout. And if we are right, from the internal
+evidence, in pronouncing this one of Shakespeare’s early dramas, it
+affords a strong instance of the fineness of his insight into the nature
+of the passions, that Romeo is introduced already love-bewildered. The
+necessity of loving creates an object for itself in man and woman; and yet
+there is a difference in this respect between the sexes, though only to be
+known by a perception of it. It would have displeased us if Juliet had
+been represented as already in love, or as fancying herself so;—but no
+one, I believe, ever experiences any shock at Romeo’s forgetting his
+Rosaline, who had been a mere name for the yearning of his youthful
+imagination, and rushing into his passion for Juliet. Rosaline was a mere
+creation of his fancy; and we should remark the boastful positiveness of
+Romeo in a love of his own making, which is never shown where love is
+really near the heart.
+
+“When the devout religion of mine eye
+Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fires!
+
+One fairer than my love! the all-seeing sun
+Ne’er saw her match, since first the world begun.�
+
+The character of the Nurse is the nearest of any thing in Shakespeare to a
+direct borrowing from mere observation; and the reason is, that as in
+infancy and childhood the individual in nature is a representative of a
+class,—just as in describing one larch tree, you generalise a grove of
+them,—so it is nearly as much so in old age. The generalisation is done to
+the poet’s hand. Here you have the garrulity of age strengthened by the
+feelings of a long-trusted servant, whose sympathy with the mother’s
+affections gives her privileges and rank in the household; and observe the
+mode of connection by accidents of time and place, and the childlike
+fondness of repetition in a second childhood, and also that happy humble,
+ducking under, yet constant resurgence against, the check of her
+superiors!—
+
+“Yes, madam!—Yet I cannot choose but laugh,� &c.
+
+In the fourth scene we have Mercutio introduced to us. O! how shall I
+describe that exquisite ebullience and overflow of youthful life, wafted
+on over the laughing waves of pleasure and prosperity, as a wanton beauty
+that distorts the face on which she knows her lover is gazing enraptured,
+and wrinkles her forehead in the triumph of its smoothness! Wit ever
+wakeful, fancy busy and procreative as an insect, courage, an easy mind
+that, without cares of its own, is at once disposed to laugh away those of
+others, and yet to be interested in them,—these and all congenial
+qualities, melting into the common _copula_ of them all, the man of rank
+and the gentleman, with all its excellencies and all its weaknesses,
+constitute the character of Mercutio!
+
+Act i. sc. 5.—
+
+“_Tyb._ It fits when such a villain is a guest;
+I’ll not endure him.
+
+_Cap._ He shall be endur’d.
+What, goodman boy!—I say, he shall:—Go to;—
+Am I the master here, or you?—Go to.
+You’ll not endure him!—God shall mend my soul—
+You’ll make a mutiny among my guests!
+You will set cock-a-hoop! you’ll be the man!
+
+_Tyb._ Why, uncle, ’tis a shame.
+
+_Cap._ Go to, go to,
+You are a saucy boy!� &c.
+
+How admirable is the old man’s impetuosity at once contrasting, yet
+harmonised, with young Tybalt’s quarrelsome violence! But it would be
+endless to repeat observations of this sort. Every leaf is different on an
+oak tree; but still we can only say—our tongues defrauding our eyes— “This
+is another oak-leaf!�
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. The garden scene.
+
+Take notice in this enchanting scene of the contrast of Romeo’s love with
+his former fancy; and weigh the skill shown in justifying him from his
+inconstancy by making us feel the difference of his passion. Yet this,
+too, is a love in, although not merely of, the imagination.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Jul._ Well, do not swear; although I joy in thee,
+I have no joy in this contract to-night:
+It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden,� &c.
+
+With love, pure love, there is always an anxiety for the safety of the
+object, a disinterestedness, by which it is distinguished from the
+counterfeits of its name. Compare this scene with Act iii. sc. 1 of the
+_Tempest_. I do not know a more wonderful instance of Shakespeare’s
+mastery in playing a distinctly rememberable variety on the same
+remembered air, than in the transporting love confessions of Romeo and
+Juliet and Ferdinand and Miranda. There seems more passion in the one, and
+more dignity in the other; yet you feel that the sweet girlish lingering
+and busy movement of Juliet, and the calmer and more maidenly fondness of
+Miranda, might easily pass into each other.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Friar’s speech.
+
+The reverend character of the Friar, like all Shakespeare’s
+representations of the great professions, is very delightful and
+tranquillising, yet it is no digression, but immediately necessary to the
+carrying on of the plot.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.—
+
+
+    “_Rom._ Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give you?�
+    &c.
+
+
+Compare again Romeo’s half-exerted, and half real, ease of mind with his
+first manner when in love with Rosaline! His will had come to the
+clenching point.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.—
+
+“_Rom._ Do thou but close our hands with holy words,
+Then love-devouring death do what he dare,
+It is enough I may but call her mine.�
+
+The precipitancy, which is the character of the play, is well marked in
+this short scene of waiting for Juliet’s arrival.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+
+
+    “_Mer._ No, ’tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
+    door; but ’tis enough: ’twill serve: ask for me to-morrow, and you
+    shall find me a grave man,� &c.
+
+
+How fine an effect the wit and raillery habitual to Mercutio, even
+struggling with his pain, give to Romeo’s following speech, and at the
+same time so completely justifying his passionate revenge on Tybalt!
+
+_Ib._ Benvolio’s speech:—
+
+          ... “But that he tilts
+With piercing steel at bold Mercutio’s breast.�
+
+This small portion of untruth in Benvolio’s narrative is finely conceived.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Juliet’s speech:—
+
+“For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night
+Whiter than new snow on a raven’s back.�
+
+Indeed the whole of this speech is imagination strained to the highest;
+and observe the blessed effect on the purity of the mind. What would
+Dryden have made of it?
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Nurse._ Shame come to Romeo.
+
+_Jul._ Blister’d be thy tongue
+For such a wish!�
+
+Note the Nurse’s mistake of the mind’s audible struggles with itself for
+its decision _in toto_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo’s speech:—
+
+“’Tis torture, and not mercy: heaven’s here,
+Where Juliet lives,� &c.
+
+All deep passions are a sort of atheists, that believe no future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+“_Cap._ Soft! take me with you, take me with you, wife—How!
+will she none?� &c.
+
+A noble scene! Don’t I see it with my own eyes?—Yes! but not with
+Juliet’s. And observe in Capulet’s last speech in this scene his mistake,
+as if love’s causes were capable of being generalised.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Juliet’s speech.:—
+
+“O, look! methinks I see my cousin’s ghost
+Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body
+Upon a rapier’s point:—Stay, Tybalt, stay!—
+Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee.�
+
+Shakespeare provides for the finest decencies. It would have been too bold
+a thing for a girl of fifteen;—but she swallows the draught in a fit of
+fright.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+As the audience know that Juliet is not dead, this scene is, perhaps,
+excusable. But it is a strong warning to minor dramatists not to introduce
+at one time many separate characters agitated by one and the same
+circumstance. It is difficult to understand what effect, whether that of
+pity or of laughter, Shakespeare meant to produce;—the occasion and the
+characteristic speeches are so little in harmony! For example, what the
+Nurse says is excellently suited to the Nurse’s character, but grotesquely
+unsuited to the occasion.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Romeo’s speech:—
+
+          ... “O mischief! thou art swift
+To enter in the thoughts of desperate men!
+I do remember an apothecary,� &c.
+
+This famous passage is so beautiful as to be self-justified; yet, in
+addition, what a fine preparation it is for the tomb scene!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo’s speech:—
+
+“Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man,
+Fly hence and leave me.�
+
+The gentleness of Romeo was shown before, as softened by love; and now it
+is doubled by love and sorrow and awe of the place where he is.
+
+_Ib._ Romeo’s speech:—--
+
+“How oft when men are at the point of death
+Have they been merry! which their keepers call
+A lightning before death. O, how may I
+Call this a lightning?—--O, my love, my wife!� &c.
+
+Here, here, is the master example how beauty can at once increase and
+modify passion!
+
+_Ib._ Last scene.
+
+How beautiful is the close! The spring and the winter meet;—winter assumes
+the character of spring, and spring the sadness of winter.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare’s English Historical Plays.
+
+
+The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence of which may be stated
+as the successive in events and characters. This must be distinguished
+from narration, in which there must always be a narrator, from whom the
+objects represented receive a colouring and a manner;—whereas in the epic,
+as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole is completely objective, and
+the representation is a pure reflection. The next form into which poetry
+passed was the dramatic;—both forms having a common basis with a certain
+difference, and that difference not consisting in the dialogue alone. Both
+are founded on the relation of providence to the human will; and this
+relation is the universal element, expressed under different points of
+view according to the difference of religion, and the moral and
+intellectual cultivation of different nations. In the epic poem fate is
+represented as overruling the will, and making it instrumental to the
+accomplishment of its designs:—
+
+... Διὸς τελείετο βονλή
+
+In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling with fate, a great and
+beautiful instance and illustration of which is the _Prometheus_ of
+Æschylus; and the deepest effect is produced when the fate is represented
+as a higher and intelligent will, and the opposition of the individual as
+springing from a defect.
+
+In order that a drama may be properly historical, it is necessary that it
+should be the history of the people to whom it is addressed. In the
+composition, care must be taken that there appear no dramatic
+improbability, as the reality is taken for granted. It must, likewise, be
+poetical;—that only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent in our
+nature, which is common, and therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The
+events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than as the clothing and
+manifestation of the spirit that is working within. In this mode, the
+unity resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied by a unity
+of a higher order, which connects the events by reference to the workers,
+gives a reason for them in the motives, and presents men in their
+causative character. It takes, therefore, that part of real history which
+is the least known, and infuses a principle of life and organisation into
+the naked facts, and makes them all the framework of an animated whole.
+
+In my happier days, while I had yet hope and onward-looking thoughts, I
+planned an historical drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare.
+Indeed, it would be desirable that some man of dramatic genius should
+dramatise all those omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry VII.
+Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting drama. A few scenes of
+Marlow’s _Edward II._ might be preserved. After Henry VIII., the events
+are too well and distinctly known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,
+crowded together in one night’s exhibition. Whereas, the history of our
+ancient kings—the events of the reigns, I mean—are like stars in the
+sky;—whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem
+close to each other. The stars—the events—strike us and remain in our eye,
+little modified by the difference of dates. An historic drama is,
+therefore, a collection of events borrowed from history, but connected
+together in respect of cause and time, poetically and by dramatic fiction.
+It would be a fine national custom to act such a series of dramatic
+histories in orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays, and
+could not but tend to counteract that mock cosmopolitism, which under a
+positive term really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference
+to, the particular love of our country. By its nationality must every
+nation retain its independence;—I mean a nationality _quoad_ the nation.
+Better thus;—nationality in each individual, _quoad_ his country, is equal
+to the sense of individuality _quoad_ himself; but himself as sub-sensuous
+and central. Patriotism is equal to the sense of individuality reflected
+from every other individual. There may come a higher virtue in both—just
+cosmopolitism. But this latter is not possible but by antecedence of the
+former.
+
+Shakespeare has included the most important part of nine reigns in his
+historical dramas;—namely—King John, Richard II.—Henry IV. (two)—Henry
+V.—Henry VI. (three) including Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten
+plays. There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception of a single
+scene or two that should be adopted from Marlow—eleven reigns—of which the
+first two appear the only unpromising subjects;—and those two dramas must
+be formed wholly or mainly of invented private stories, which, however,
+could not have happened except in consequence of the events and measures
+of these reigns, and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting
+the manners and oppressions of the times, and of narrating dramatically
+the great events;—if possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at least
+of the latter, should be made to have some influence on the finale of the
+story. All the rest are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being the
+struggle between the men of arms and of letters, in the persons of Henry
+and Becket), Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.
+
+
+
+
+“King John.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Bast._ James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?
+
+_Gur._ Good leave, good Philip.
+
+_Bast._ Philip? _sparrow!_ James,� &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton’s conjecture of “_spare me_.�
+
+O true Warburton! and the _sancta simplicitas_ of honest dull Theobald’s
+faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than “Philip?
+Sparrow!� Had Warburton read old Skelton’s _Philip Sparrow_, an exquisite
+and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare’s time, even
+Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into the _bathetic_ as
+to have deathified “_sparrow_� into “_spare me_!�
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:—
+
+“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;
+Some _airy_ devil hovers in the sky,� &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton’s conjecture of “fiery.�
+
+I prefer the old text: the word “devil� implies “fiery.� You need only
+read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on “devil,� to perceive
+the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton’s alteration.
+
+
+
+
+“Richard II.�
+
+
+I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the
+drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate
+gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments,
+whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to
+each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained
+in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a
+final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more
+intelligent will.
+
+From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one
+exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results,
+not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this
+tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and
+for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most
+admirable of all Shakespeare’s purely historical plays. For the two parts
+of _Henry IV._ form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed
+drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical
+events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much
+history in _Macbeth_ as in _Richard_, but in the relation of the history
+to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot;
+in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, as _Macbeth_, _Hamlet_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Lear_, it subserves it. But, however unsuited to the stage
+this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the
+hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say—_præteriit
+gloria mundi!_ For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the
+all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely
+historical of Shakespeare’s dramas. There are not in it, as in the others,
+characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater
+individuality and realness, as in the comic parts of _Henry IV._, by
+presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every
+opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,—that,
+namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country,
+and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a
+respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind
+men together:—
+
+“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
+This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
+This other Eden, demi-paradise;
+This fortress, built by nature for herself,
+Against infection, and the hand of war;
+This happy breed of men, this little world;
+This precious stone set in the silver sea,
+Which serves it in the office of a wall,
+Or as a moat defensive to a home,
+Against the envy of less happier lands;
+This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,
+This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,
+Fear’d by their breed, and famous by their birth,� &c.
+
+Add the famous passage in _King John_:—
+
+“This England never did nor ever shall,
+Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,
+But when it first did help to wound itself.
+Now these her princes are come home again,
+Come the three corners of the world in arms,
+And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,
+If England to itself do rest but true.�
+
+And it certainly seems that Shakespeare’s historic dramas produced a very
+deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they
+were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the
+relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to
+confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived
+from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our
+old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly,
+to Shakespeare.
+
+Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first
+scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for
+the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after
+events in Richard’s insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and
+favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In
+the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard’s
+character, which is never forgotten throughout the play—his attention to
+decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show
+with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect
+the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and
+reminiscence.
+
+It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of
+the play—
+
+“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour’d Lancaster,
+Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,� &c.
+
+each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse
+in _Henry VI._ and _Titus Andronicus_, in order that the difference,
+indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be felt _etiam in simillimis
+prima superficie_. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the
+relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the
+mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke’s first
+line—
+
+“Many years of happy days befal�—
+
+with Prospero’s—
+
+“Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.�
+
+The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first
+syllable of each of these verses.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke’s speech:—
+
+“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),
+In the devotion of a subject’s love,� &c.
+
+I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the τὸ
+π�έπον καὶ σεμνὸν than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines
+well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke’s scheme so beautifully
+contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.
+
+_Ib._ Bolingbroke’s speech:—
+
+“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel’s, cries,
+Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,
+To _me_, for justice and rough chastisement.�
+
+Note the δεινὸν of this “to me,� which is evidently felt by Richard:—
+
+“How high a pitch his resolution soars!�
+
+and the affected depreciation afterwards;—
+
+“As he is but my father’s brother’s son.�
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray’s speech:—
+
+“In haste whereof, most heartily I pray
+Your highness to assign our trial day.�
+
+The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up
+of a speech therewith—what purpose was this designed to answer? In the
+earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to
+collect himself and be cool at the close?—I can see that in the following
+speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes
+the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not
+exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the
+excellence of Shakespeare’s plays. One thing, however, is to be
+observed,—that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal
+characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in
+mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and
+Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation
+the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is
+observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to
+a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving
+sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray’s unaffected lamentation. In
+the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it
+is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Gaunt._ God’s is the quarrel; for God’s substitute,
+His deputy anointed in his right,
+Hath caus’d his death: the which, if wrongfully,
+Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift
+An angry arm against his minister.�
+
+Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher’s ultra-royalism,
+how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal
+distinction between the mere individual, and the symbolic or
+representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends.
+The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone
+and character of the play at large.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare’s fictitious dramas, or in those
+founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is
+this violent rupture of the succession of time found:—a proof, I think,
+that the pure historic drama, like _Richard II._ and _King John_, had its
+own laws.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray’s speech:—
+
+“A dearer _merit_
+Have I deserved at your highness’ hand.�
+
+O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!
+
+_Ib._ Richard’s speech:—
+
+“Nor never by advised purpose meet,
+To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,
+’Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.�
+
+Already the selfish weakness of Richard’s character opens. Nothing will
+such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to their
+_quasi_-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray’s speech:—
+
+... “All the world’s my way.�
+
+“The world was all before him.�—_Milt._
+
+_Ib._—
+
+  “_Boling._ How long a time lies in one little word!
+Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,
+End in a word: such is the breath of kings.�
+
+Admirable anticipation!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,—letting the
+reader into the secret;—having before impressed us with the dignified and
+kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on
+to the full gratification of pleasure in our own penetration. In this
+scene a new light is thrown on Richard’s character. Until now he has
+appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to
+himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It
+is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of
+personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an
+intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the
+breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known
+to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all
+Richard’s vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole
+operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties.
+Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry
+which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one
+and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare
+has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made
+him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn
+those faults without reserve, relying on Richard’s disproportionate
+sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and
+this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring
+entirely from defect of character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+
+“_K. Rich._ Can sick men play so nicely with their names?�
+
+Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear
+but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its
+own excess by plays on words as naturally, and, therefore, as
+appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This
+belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits
+from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this
+consists Shakespeare’s vulgarisms, as in Macbeth’s—
+
+“The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac’d loon!� &c.
+
+This is (to equivocate on Dante’s words) in truth the _nobile volgare
+eloquenza_. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an
+almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong
+feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it;
+especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in
+any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of
+Richard’s unkind language:—
+
+“Misery makes sport to mock itself.�
+
+No doubt, something of Shakespeare’s punning must be attributed to his
+age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of
+the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the
+whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being
+thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds.
+But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if
+it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in
+the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives
+of passion.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_K. Rich._ Right; you say true, as Hereford’s love, so his;
+As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.�
+
+The depth of this compared with the first scene:—
+
+“How high a pitch,� &c.
+
+There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably
+drawn than York’s character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep
+grief and indignation at the king’s follies; his adherence to his word and
+faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You
+see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of
+circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,—the junction of
+both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act;
+and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at
+the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and
+adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard’s continually
+increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of
+acting;—and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into
+all the characters of the play.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Queen._ To please the king I did; to please myself
+I cannot do it; yet I know no cause
+Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,
+Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,
+Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow’s womb,
+Is coming toward me; and my inward soul
+With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,
+More than with parting from my lord the king.�
+
+It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar
+debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a
+feminine _friendism_, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately
+about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love
+of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare’s gentleness in touching the
+tender superstitions, the _terræ incognitæ_ of presentiments, in the human
+mind; and how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these
+obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the
+vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as
+the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius,
+always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never
+profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and
+general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.
+
+The amiable part of Richard’s character is brought full upon us by his
+queen’s few words—
+
+      ... “So sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard:�—
+
+and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country,
+well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him
+in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something
+feminine and personal:—
+
+“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—
+As a long parted mother with her child
+Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;
+So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,
+And do thee favour with my royal hands.�
+
+With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total
+incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which
+should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere
+resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid
+alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,—every feeling being
+abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident.
+And yet when Richard’s inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his
+despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of
+kingliness, the effect of flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon
+producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more
+clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third
+act combine and illustrate all this:—
+
+“_Aumerle._ He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;
+Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,
+Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.
+
+_K. Rich._ Discomfortable cousin! know’st thou not,
+That when the searching eye of heaven is hid
+Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,
+Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,
+In murders and in outrage, bloody here;
+But when, from under this terrestrial ball,
+He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,
+And darts his light through every guilty hole,
+Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,
+The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,
+Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?
+So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ Where is the Duke my father with his power?
+
+_K. Rich._ No matter where; of comfort no man speak:
+Let’s talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,
+Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes
+Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ My father hath a power, enquire of him;
+And learn to make a body of a limb.
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou chid’st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come
+To change blows with thee for our day of doom.
+This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;
+An easy task it is to win our own.
+
+_Scroop._ Your uncle York hath join’d with Bolingbroke.—
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou hast said enough,
+Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth
+Of that sweet way I was in to despair!
+What say you now? what comfort have we now?
+By heaven, I’ll hate him everlastingly,
+That bids me be of comfort any more.�
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke’s speech:—
+
+“Noble lord,
+Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,� &c.
+
+Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in
+Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality
+and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic
+plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an
+islet of repose—a melancholy repose, indeed—is this scene with the
+Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the
+incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the
+last act!—
+
+“_Groom._ I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,
+When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,
+With much ado, at length have gotten leave
+To look upon my sometimes master’s face.
+O, how it yearn’d my heart, when I beheld,
+In London streets, that coronation day,
+When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!
+That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;
+That horse, that I so carefully have dress’d!
+
+_K. Rich._ Rode he on Barbary?�
+
+Bolingbroke’s character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes
+one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for
+Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part of _Henry VI._ is for Richard III.
+
+I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty
+developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;—the vast importance of
+the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at
+the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to,
+and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and
+exponent of the life and power of the state.
+
+The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in
+the progressiveness of, the animal man;—but the problem is so complicated
+with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for
+the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of
+government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a
+check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would,
+nevertheless, defeat its own aim;—for man is destined to be guided by
+higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in
+this state of existence,—by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be
+accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato’s Republic is like
+Bunyan’s Town of Man-Soul,—a description of an individual, all of whose
+faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this
+it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual.
+But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human
+faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could
+never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly
+understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on
+through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the
+others.
+
+
+
+
+“Henry IV.—Part I.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. King Henry’s speech:—
+
+“No more the thirsty entrance of this soil
+Shall daub her lips with her own children’s blood.�
+
+A most obscure passage: but I think Theobald’s interpretation right,
+namely, that “thirsty entrance� means the dry penetrability, or bibulous
+drought, of the soil. The obscurity of this passage is of the
+Shakespearian sort.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. In this, the first introduction of Falstaff, observe the
+consciousness and the intentionality of his wit, so that when it does not
+flow of its own accord, its absence is felt, and an effort visibly made to
+recall it. Note also throughout how Falstaff’s pride is gratified in the
+power of influencing a prince of the blood, the heir apparent, by means of
+it. Hence his dislike to Prince John of Lancaster, and his mortification
+when he finds his wit fail on him:—
+
+“_P. John._ Fare you well, Falstaff: I, in my condition,
+Shall better speak of you than you deserve.
+
+_Fal._ I would you had but the wit; ’twere better than your
+dukedom.—Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth
+not love me;—nor a man cannot make him laugh.�
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Second Carrier’s speech:—
+
+... “breeds fleas like a _loach_.�
+
+Perhaps it is a misprint, or a provincial pronunciation, for “leach,� that
+is, blood-suckers. Had it been gnats, instead of fleas, there might have
+been some sense, though small probability, in Warburton’s suggestion of
+the Scottish “loch.� Possibly “loach,� or “lutch,� may be some lost word
+for dovecote, or poultry-lodge, notorious for breeding fleas. In Stevens’s
+or my reading, it should properly be “loaches,� or “leeches,� in the
+plural; except that I think I have heard anglers speak of trouts like _a_
+salmon.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Glend._ _Nay_, if you melt, then will she run mad.�
+
+This “nay� so to be dwelt on in speaking, as to be equivalent to a
+dissyllable - u, is characteristic of the solemn Glendower; but the
+imperfect line
+
+“_She bids you_
+Upon the wanton rushes lay you down,� &c.,
+
+is one of those fine hair-strokes of exquisite judgment peculiar to
+Shakespeare;—thus detaching the Lady’s speech, and giving it the
+individuality and entireness of a little poem, while he draws attention to
+it.
+
+
+
+
+“Henry IV.—Part II.�
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 2—
+
+“_P. Hen._ Sup any women with him?
+
+_Page._ None, my lord, but old mistress Quickly, and mistress
+Doll Tear-sheet.
+
+_P. Hen._ This Doll Tear-sheet should be some road.�
+
+I am sometimes disposed to think that this respectable young lady’s name
+is a very old corruption for Tear-street—street-walker, _terere stratam_
+(_viam_). Does not the Prince’s question rather show this?—
+
+“This Doll Tear-street should be some road?�
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. King Henry’s speech:—
+
+        ... “Then, _happy low, lie down_;
+Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.�
+
+I know no argument by which to persuade any one to be of my opinion, or
+rather of my feeling; but yet I cannot help feeling that “Happy
+low-lie-down!� is either a proverbial expression, or the burthen of some
+old song, and means, “Happy the man, who lays himself down on his straw
+bed or chaff pallet on the ground or floor!�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Shallow’s speech:—
+
+“_Rah, tah, tah_, would ’a say; _bounce_, would ’a say,� &c.
+
+That Beaumont and Fletcher have more than once been guilty of sneering at
+their great master, cannot, I fear, be denied; but the passage quoted by
+Theobald from the _Knight of the Burning Pestle_ is an imitation. If it be
+chargeable with any fault, it is with plagiarism, not with sarcasm.
+
+
+
+
+“Henry V.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Westmoreland’s speech:—
+
+“They know your _grace_ hath cause, and means, and might;
+So hath your _highness_; never King of England
+Had nobles richer,� &c.
+
+Does “grace� mean the king’s own peculiar domains and legal revenue, and
+“highness� his feudal rights in the military service of his nobles?—I have
+sometimes thought it possible that the words “grace� and “cause� may have
+been transposed in the copying or printing;—
+
+“They know your cause hath grace,� &c.
+
+What Theobald meant, I cannot guess. To me his pointing makes the passage
+still more obscure. Perhaps the lines ought to be recited dramatically
+thus:—
+
+“They know your Grace hath cause, and means, and might:—
+So _hath_ your Highness—never King of England
+_Had_ nobles richer,� &c.
+
+He breaks off from the grammar and natural order from earnestness, and in
+order to give the meaning more passionately.
+
+_Ib._ Exeter’s speech:—
+
+“Yet that is but a _crush’d_ necessity.�
+
+Perhaps it may be “crash� for “crass� from _crassus_, clumsy; or it may be
+“curt,� defective, imperfect: anything would be better than Warburton’s
+“’scus’d,� which honest Theobald, of course, adopts. By the by, it seems
+clear to me that this speech of Exeter’s properly belongs to Canterbury,
+and was altered by the actors for convenience.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. King Henry’s speech:—
+
+“We would not _die_ in that man’s company
+That fears his fellowship to die with us.�
+
+Should it not be “live� in the first line?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+“_Const._ _O diable!_
+
+_Orl._ _O seigneur! le jour est perdu, tout est perdu!_
+
+_Dan._ _Mort de ma vie!_ all is confounded, all!
+Reproach and everlasting shame
+Sit mocking in our plumes!—_O meschante fortune!_
+Do not run away!�
+
+Ludicrous as these introductory scraps of French appear, so instantly
+followed by good, nervous mother-English, yet they are judicious, and
+produce the impression which Shakespeare intended,—a sudden feeling struck
+at once on the ears, as well as the eyes, of the audience, that “here come
+the French, the baffled French braggards!�—And this will appear still more
+judicious, when we reflect on the scanty apparatus of distinguishing
+dresses in Shakespeare’s tyring-room.
+
+
+
+
+“Henry VI.—Part I.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bedford’s speech:—
+
+“Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night!
+Comets, importing change of times and states,
+Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;
+And with them scourge the bad revolting stars
+That have consented unto Henry’s death!
+Henry the fifth, too famous to live long!
+England ne’er lost a king of so much worth.�
+
+Read aloud any two or three passages in blank verse even from
+Shakespeare’s earliest dramas, as _Love’s Labour’s Lost_, or _Romeo and
+Juliet_; and then read in the same way this speech, with especial
+attention to the metre; and if you do not feel the impossibility of the
+latter having been written by Shakespeare, all I dare suggest is, that you
+may have ears,—for so has another animal,—but an ear you cannot have, _me
+judice_.
+
+
+
+
+“Richard III.�
+
+
+This play should be contrasted with _Richard II._ Pride of intellect is
+the characteristic of Richard, carried to the extent of even boasting to
+his own mind of his villany, whilst others are present to feed his pride
+of superiority; as in his first speech, act ii. sc. 1. Shakespeare here,
+as in all his great parts, developes in a tone of sublime morality the
+dreadful consequences of placing the moral, in subordination to the mere
+intellectual, being. In Richard there is a predominance of irony,
+accompanied with apparently blunt manners to those immediately about him,
+but formalised into a more set hypocrisy towards the people as represented
+by their magistrates.
+
+
+
+
+“Lear.�
+
+
+Of all Shakespeare’s plays _Macbeth_ is the most rapid, _Hamlet_ the
+slowest, in movement. _Lear_ combines length with rapidity,—like the
+hurricane and the whirlpool, absorbing while it advances. It begins as a
+stormy day in summer, with brightness; but that brightness is lurid, and
+anticipates the tempest.
+
+It was not without forethought, nor is it without its due significance,
+that the division of Lear’s kingdom is in the first six lines of the play
+stated as a thing already determined in all its particulars, previously to
+the trial of professions, as the relative rewards of which the daughters
+were to be made to consider their several portions. The strange, yet by no
+means unnatural, mixture of selfishness, sensibility, and habit of feeling
+derived from, and fostered by, the particular rank and usages of the
+individual;—the intense desire of being intensely beloved,—selfish, and
+yet characteristic of the selfishness of a loving and kindly nature
+alone;—the self-supportless leaning for all pleasure on another’s
+breast;—the craving after sympathy with a prodigal disinterestedness,
+frustrated by its own ostentation, and the mode and nature of its
+claims;—the anxiety, the distrust, the jealousy, which more or less
+accompany all selfish affections, and are amongst the surest
+contradistinctions of mere fondness from true love, and which originate
+Lear’s eager wish to enjoy his daughter’s violent professions, whilst the
+inveterate habits of sovereignty convert the wish into claim and positive
+right, and an incompliance with it into crime and treason;—these facts,
+these passions, these moral verities, on which the whole tragedy is
+founded, are all prepared for, and will to the retrospect be found
+implied, in these first four or five lines of the play. They let us know
+that the trial is but a trick; and that the grossness of the old king’s
+rage is in part the natural result of a silly trick suddenly and most
+unexpectedly baffled and disappointed.
+
+It may here be worthy of notice, that _Lear_ is the only serious
+performance of Shakespeare, the interest and situations of which are
+derived from the assumption of a gross improbability; whereas Beaumont and
+Fletcher’s tragedies are, almost all of them, founded on some out of the
+way accident or exception to the general experience of mankind. But
+observe the matchless judgment of our Shakespeare. First, improbable as
+the conduct of Lear is in the first scene, yet it was an old story rooted
+in the popular faith,—a thing taken for granted already, and consequently
+without any of the effects of improbability. Secondly, it is merely the
+canvass for the characters and passions,—a mere occasion for,—and not, in
+the manner of Beaumont and Fletcher, perpetually recurring as the cause,
+and _sine qua non_ of,—the incidents and emotions. Let the first scene of
+this play have been lost, and let it only be understood that a fond father
+had been duped by hypocritical professions of love and duty on the part of
+two daughters to disinherit the third, previously, and deservedly, more
+dear to him;—and all the rest of the tragedy would retain its interest
+undiminished, and be perfectly intelligible.
+
+The accidental is nowhere the groundwork of the passions, but that which
+is catholic, which in all ages has been, and ever will be, close and
+native to the heart of man,—parental anguish from filial ingratitude, the
+genuineness of worth, though coffined in bluntness, and the execrable
+vileness of a smooth iniquity. Perhaps I ought to have added the _Merchant
+of Venice_; but here too the same remarks apply. It was an old tale; and
+substitute any other danger than that of the pound of flesh (the
+circumstance in which the improbability lies), yet all the situations and
+the emotions appertaining to them remain equally excellent and
+appropriate. Whereas take away from the _Mad Lover_ of Beaumont and
+Fletcher the fantastic hypothesis of his engagement to cut out his own
+heart, and have it presented to his mistress, and all the main scenes must
+go with it.
+
+Kotzebue is the German Beaumont and Fletcher, without their poetic powers,
+and without their _vis comica_. But, like them, he always deduces his
+situations and passions from marvellous accidents, and the trick of
+bringing one part of our moral nature to counteract another; as our pity
+for misfortune and admiration of generosity and courage to combat our
+condemnation of guilt as in adultery, robbery, and other heinous
+crimes;—and, like them too, he excels in his mode of telling a story
+clearly and interestingly, in a series of dramatic dialogues. Only the
+trick of making tragedy-heroes and heroines out of shopkeepers and
+barmaids was too low for the age, and too unpoetic for the genius, of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, inferior in every respect as they are to their
+great predecessor and contemporary. How inferior would they have appeared,
+had not Shakespeare existed for them to imitate;—which in every play, more
+or less, they do, and in their tragedies most glaringly:—and yet—(O shame!
+shame!)—they miss no opportunity of sneering at the divine man, and
+sub-detracting from his merits!
+
+To return to _Lear_. Having thus in the fewest words, and in a natural
+reply to as natural a question,—which yet answers the secondary purpose of
+attracting our attention to the difference or diversity between the
+characters of Cornwall and Albany,—provided the _prémisses_ and _data_, as
+it were, for our after insight into the mind and mood of the person, whose
+character, passions, and sufferings are the main subject-matter of the
+play;—from Lear, the _persona patiens_ of his drama, Shakespeare passes
+without delay to the second in importance, the chief agent and prime
+mover, and introduces Edmund to our acquaintance, preparing us with the
+same felicity of judgment, and in the same easy and natural way, for his
+character in the seemingly casual communication of its origin and
+occasion. From the first drawing up of the curtain Edmund has stood before
+us in the united strength and beauty of earliest manhood. Our eyes have
+been questioning him. Gifted as he is with high advantages of person, and
+further endowed by nature with a powerful intellect and a strong energetic
+will, even without any concurrence of circumstances and accident, pride
+will necessarily be the sin that most easily besets him. But Edmund is
+also the known and acknowledged son of the princely Gloster: he,
+therefore, has both the germ of pride, and the conditions best fitted to
+evolve and ripen it into a predominant feeling. Yet hitherto no reason
+appears why it should be other than the not unusual pride of person,
+talent, and birth,—a pride auxiliary, if not akin, to many virtues, and
+the natural ally of honourable impulses. But alas! in his own presence his
+own father takes shame to himself for the frank avowal that he is his
+father,—he has “blushed so often to acknowledge him that he is now brazed
+to it!� Edmund hears the circumstances of his birth spoken of with a most
+degrading and licentious levity,—his mother described as a wanton by her
+own paramour, and the remembrance of the animal sting, the low criminal
+gratifications connected with her wantonness and prostituted beauty,
+assigned as the reason why “the whoreson must be acknowledged!� This, and
+the consciousness of its notoriety; the gnawing conviction that every show
+of respect is an effort of courtesy, which recalls, while it represses, a
+contrary feeling;—this is the ever trickling flow of wormwood and gall
+into the wounds of pride,—the corrosive _virus_ which inoculates pride
+with a venom not its own, with envy, hatred, and a lust for that power
+which in its blaze of radiance would hide the dark spots on his disc,—with
+pangs of shame personally undeserved, and therefore felt as wrongs, and
+with a blind ferment of vindictive working towards the occasions and
+causes, especially towards a brother, whose stainless birth and lawful
+honours were the constant remembrancers of his own debasement, and were
+ever in the way to prevent all chance of its being unknown, or overlooked
+and forgotten. Add to this, that with excellent judgment, and provident
+for the claims of the moral sense,—for that which, relatively to the
+drama, is called poetic justice, and as the fittest means for reconciling
+the feelings of the spectators to the horrors of Gloster’s after
+sufferings,—at least, of rendering them somewhat less unendurable—(for I
+will not disguise my conviction, that in this one point the tragic in this
+play has been urged beyond the outermost mark and _ne plus ultra_ of the
+dramatic);—Shakespeare has precluded all excuse and palliation of the
+guilt incurred by both the parents of the base-born Edmund, by Gloster’s
+confession that he was at the time a married man, and already blest with a
+lawful heir of his fortunes. The mournful alienation of brotherly love,
+occasioned by the law of primogeniture in noble families, or rather by the
+unnecessary distinctions engrafted thereon, and this in children of the
+same stock, is still almost proverbial on the continent,—especially, as I
+know from my own observation, in the south of Europe,—and appears to have
+been scarcely less common in our own island before the Revolution of 1688,
+if we may judge from the characters and sentiments so frequent in our
+elder comedies. There is the younger brother, for instance, in Beaumont
+and Fletcher’s play of the _Scornful Lady_, on the one side, and Oliver in
+Shakespeare’s _As You Like It_, on the other. Need it be said how heavy an
+aggravation, in such a case, the stain of bastardy must have been, were it
+only that the younger brother was liable to hear his own dishonour and his
+mother’s infamy related by his father with an excusing shrug of the
+shoulders, and in a tone betwixt waggery and shame!
+
+By the circumstances here enumerated as so many predisposing causes,
+Edmund’s character might well be deemed already sufficiently explained;
+and our minds prepared for it. But in this tragedy the story or fable
+constrained Shakespeare to introduce wickedness in an outrageous form in
+the persons of Regan and Goneril. He had read nature too heedfully not to
+know that courage, intellect, and strength of character are the most
+impressive forms of power, and that to power in itself, without reference
+to any moral end, an inevitable admiration and complacency appertains,
+whether it be displayed in the conquests of a Buonaparte or Tamerlane, or
+in the foam and the thunder of a cataract. But in the exhibition of such a
+character it was of the highest importance to prevent the guilt from
+passing into utter monstrosity,—which again depends on the presence or
+absence of causes and temptations sufficient to account for the
+wickedness, without the necessity of recurring to a thorough fiendishness
+of nature for its origination. For such are the appointed relations of
+intellectual power to truth, and of truth to goodness, that it becomes
+both morally and poetically unsafe to present what is admirable—what our
+nature compels us to admire—in the mind, and what is most detestable in
+the heart, as co-existing in the same individual without any apparent
+connection, or any modification of the one by the other. That Shakespeare
+has in one instance, that of Iago, approached to this, and that he has
+done it successfully, is perhaps the most astonishing proof of his genius,
+and the opulence of its resources. But in the present tragedy, in which he
+was compelled to present a Goneril and a Regan, it was most carefully to
+be avoided;—and therefore the only one conceivable addition to the
+inauspicious influences on the preformation of Edmund’s character is
+given, in the information that all the kindly counteractions to the
+mischievous feelings of shame, which might have been derived from
+co-domestication with Edgar and their common father, had been cut off by
+his absence from home, and foreign education from boyhood to the present
+time, and a prospect of its continuance, as if to preclude all risk of his
+interference with the father’s views for the elder and legitimate son:—
+
+“He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again.�
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Cor._ Nothing my lord.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing?
+
+_Cor._ Nothing.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing can come of nothing: speak again.
+
+_Cor._ Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave
+My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty
+According to my bond; nor more, nor less.�
+
+There is something of disgust at the ruthless hypocrisy of her sisters,
+and some little faulty admixture of pride and sullenness in Cordelia’s
+“Nothing;� and her tone is well contrived, indeed, to lessen the glaring
+absurdity of Lear’s conduct, but answers the yet more important purpose of
+forcing away the attention from the nursery-tale, the moment it has served
+its end, that of supplying the canvas for the picture. This is also
+materially furthered by Kent’s opposition, which displays Lear’s moral
+incapability of resigning the sovereign power in the very act of disposing
+of it. Kent is, perhaps, the nearest to perfect goodness in all
+Shakespeare’s characters, and yet the most individualised. There is an
+extraordinary charm, in his bluntness, which is that only of a nobleman,
+arising from a contempt of overstrained courtesy, and combined with easy
+placability where goodness of heart is apparent. His passionate affection
+for, and fidelity to, Lear act on our feelings in Lear’s own favour:
+virtue itself seems to be in company with him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Edmund’s speech:—
+
+“Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take
+More composition and fierce quality
+Than doth,� &c.
+
+Warburton’s note upon a quotation from Vanini.
+
+Poor Vanini!—Any one but Warburton would have thought this precious
+passage more characteristic of Mr. Shandy than of atheism. If the fact
+really were so (which it is not, but almost the contrary) I do not see why
+the most confirmed theist might not very naturally utter the same wish.
+But it is proverbial that the youngest son in a large family is commonly
+the man of the greatest talents in it; and as good an authority as Vanini
+has said—“incalescere in venerem ardentius, spei sobolis injuriosum esse.�
+
+In this speech of Edmund you see, as soon as a man cannot reconcile
+himself to reason, how his conscience flies off by way of appeal to
+nature, who is sure upon such occasions never to find fault, and also how
+shame sharpens a predisposition in the heart to evil. For it is a profound
+moral, that shame will naturally generate guilt; the oppressed will be
+vindictive, like Shylock, and in the anguish of undeserved ignominy the
+delusion secretly springs up of getting over the moral quality of an
+action by fixing the mind on the mere physical act alone.
+
+_Ib._ Edmund’s speech:—
+
+
+    “This is the excellent foppery of the world! that, when we are
+    sick in fortune (often the surfeit of our own behaviour), we make
+    guilty of our disasters, the sun, the moon, and the stars,� &c.
+
+
+Thus scorn and misanthropy are often the anticipations and mouth-pieces of
+wisdom in the detection of superstitions. Both individuals and nations may
+be free from such prejudices by being below them, as well as by rising
+above them.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Steward should be placed in exact antithesis to Kent, as
+the only character of utter irredeemable baseness in Shakespeare. Even in
+this the judgment and invention of the poet are very observable;—for what
+else could the willing tool of a Goneril be? Not a vice but this of
+baseness was left open to him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. In Lear old age is itself a character,—its natural
+imperfections being increased by life-long habits of receiving a prompt
+obedience. Any addition of individuality would have been unnecessary and
+painful; for the relations of others to him, of wondrous fidelity and of
+frightful ingratitude, alone sufficiently distinguish him. Thus Lear
+becomes the open and ample play-room of nature’s passions.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Knight._ Since my young lady’s going into France, Sir; the
+fool hath much pined away.�
+
+The Fool is no comic buffoon to make the groundlings laugh,—no forced
+condescension of Shakespeare’s genius to the taste of his audience.
+Accordingly the poet prepares for his introduction, which he never does
+with any of his common clowns and fools, by bringing him into living
+connection with the pathos of the play. He is as wonderful a creation as
+Caliban;—his wild babblings, and inspired idiocy, articulate and gauge the
+horrors of the scene.
+
+The monster Goneril prepares what is necessary, while the character of
+Albany renders a still more maddening grievance possible—namely, Regan and
+Cornwall in perfect sympathy of monstrosity. Not a sentiment, not an
+image, which can give pleasure on its own account is admitted; whenever
+these creatures are introduced, and they are brought forward as little as
+possible, pure horror reigns throughout. In this scene and in all the
+early speeches of Lear, the one general sentiment of filial ingratitude
+prevails as the main-spring of the feelings;—in this early stage the
+outward object causing the pressure on the mind, which is not yet
+sufficiently familiarised with the anguish for the imagination to work
+upon it.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Gon._ Do you mark that, my lord?
+
+_Alb._ I cannot be so partial, Goneril,
+To the great love I bear you.
+
+_Gon._ Pray you content,� &c.
+
+Observe the baffled endeavour of Goneril to act on the fears of Albany,
+and yet his passiveness, his _inertia_; he is not convinced, and yet he is
+afraid of looking into the thing. Such characters always yield to those
+who will take the trouble of governing them, or for them. Perhaps the
+influence of a princess, whose choice of him had royalised his state, may
+be some little excuse for Albany’s weakness.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+“_Lear._ O let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven!
+Keep me in temper! I would not be mad!�
+
+The mind’s own anticipation of madness! The deepest tragic notes are often
+struck by a half sense of an impending blow. The Fool’s conclusion of this
+act by a grotesque prattling seems to indicate the dislocation of feeling
+that has begun and is to be continued.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Edmund’s speech:—
+
+          ... “He replied,
+Thou unpossessing bastard!� &c.
+
+Thus the secret poison in Edmund’s own heart steals forth; and then
+observe poor Gloster’s—
+
+“Loyal and _natural_ boy!�—
+
+as if praising the crime of Edmund’s birth!
+
+_Ib._ Compare Regan’s—
+
+“What, did _my father’s_ godson seek your life?
+He whom _my father_ named?�—
+
+with the unfeminine violence of her—
+
+“All vengeance comes too short,� &c.—
+
+and yet no reference to the guilt, but only to the accident, which she
+uses as an occasion for sneering at her father. Regan is not, in fact, a
+greater monster than Goneril, but she has the power of casting more venom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cornwall’s speech:—-
+
+          ... “This is some fellow,
+Who, having been praised for bluntness, doth affect
+A saucy roughness,� &c.
+
+In thus placing these profound general truths in the mouths of such men as
+Cornwall, Edmund, Iago, &c., Shakespeare at once gives them utterance, and
+yet shows how indefinite their application is.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Edgar’s assumed madness serves the great purpose of taking
+off part of the shock which would otherwise be caused by the true madness
+of Lear, and further displays the profound difference between the two. In
+every attempt at representing madness throughout the whole range of
+dramatic literature, with the single exception of Lear, it is mere
+lightheadedness, as especially in Otway. In Edgar’s ravings Shakespeare
+all the while lets you see a fixed purpose, a practical end in view;—in
+Lear’s, there is only the brooding of the one anguish, an eddy without
+progression.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Lear’s speech:—
+
+“The king would speak with Cornwall; the dear father
+Would with his daughter speak, &c.
+
+No, but not yet: may be he is not well,� &c.
+
+The strong interest now felt by Lear to try to find excuses for his
+daughter is most pathetic.
+
+_Ib._ Lear’s speech:—
+
+          ... “Beloved Regan,
+Thy sister’s naught;—O Regan, she hath tied
+Sharp-tooth’d unkindness, like a vulture, here.
+I can scarce speak to thee;—thou’lt not believe
+Of how deprav’d a quality—O Regan!
+
+_Reg._ I pray you, Sir, take patience; I have hope,
+You less know how to value her desert,
+Than she to scant her duty.
+
+_Lear._ Say, how is that?�
+
+Nothing is so heart-cutting as a cold unexpected defence or palliation of
+a cruelty passionately complained of, or so expressive of thorough
+hard-heartedness. And feel the excessive horror of Regan’s “O, Sir, you
+are old!�—and then her drawing from that universal object of reverence and
+indulgence the very reason for her frightful conclusion—
+
+“Say, you have wrong’d her!�
+
+All Lear’s faults increase our pity for him. We refuse to know them
+otherwise than as means of his sufferings, and aggravations of his
+daughters’ ingratitude.
+
+_Ib._ Lear’s speech:—
+
+“O, reason not the need: our basest beggars
+Are in the poorest thing superfluous,� &c.
+
+Observe that the tranquillity which follows the first stunning of the blow
+permits Lear to reason.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4. O, what a world’s convention of agonies is here! All
+external nature in a storm, all moral nature convulsed,—the real madness
+of Lear, the feigned madness of Edgar, the babbling of the Fool, the
+desperate fidelity of Kent—surely such a scene was never conceived before
+or since! Take it but as a picture for the eye only, it is more terrific
+than any which a Michael Angelo, inspired by a Dante, could have
+conceived, and which none but a Michael Angelo could have executed. Or let
+it have been uttered to the blind, the howlings of nature would seem
+converted into the voice of conscious humanity. This scene ends with the
+first symptoms of positive derangement; and the intervention of the fifth
+scene is particularly judicious,—the interruption allowing an interval for
+Lear to appear in full madness in the sixth scene.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Gloster’s blinding.
+
+What can I say of this scene?—There is my reluctance to think Shakespeare
+wrong, and yet—
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Lear’s speech:—
+
+
+    “Ha! Goneril!—with a white beard!—They flattered me like a dog;
+    and told me, I had white hairs in my beard, ere the black ones
+    were there. To say _Ay_ and _No_ to every thing I said!—Ay and No
+    too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me once,� &c.
+
+
+The thunder recurs, but still at a greater distance from our feelings.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Lear’s speech:—
+
+“Where have I been? Where am I?—Fair daylight?—
+I am mightily abused.—I should even die with pity
+To see another thus,� &c.
+
+How beautifully the affecting return of Lear to reason, and the mild
+pathos of these speeches prepare the mind for the last sad, yet sweet,
+consolation of the aged sufferer’s death!
+
+
+
+
+“Hamlet.�
+
+
+Hamlet was the play, or rather Hamlet himself was the character, in the
+intuition and exposition of which I first made my turn for philosophical
+criticism, and especially for insight into the genius of Shakespeare,
+noticed. This happened first amongst my acquaintances, as Sir George
+Beaumont will bear witness; and subsequently, long before Schlegel had
+delivered at Vienna the lectures on Shakespeare, which he afterwards
+published, I had given on the same subject eighteen lectures substantially
+the same, proceeding from the very same point of view, and deducing the
+same conclusions, so far as I either then agreed, or now agree, with him.
+I gave these lectures at the Royal Institution, before six or seven
+hundred auditors of rank and eminence, in the spring of the same year, in
+which Sir Humphrey Davy, a fellow-lecturer, made his great revolutionary
+discoveries in chemistry. Even in detail the coincidence of Schlegel with
+my lectures was so extraordinary, that all who at a later period heard the
+same words, taken by me from my notes of the lectures at the Royal
+Institution, concluded a borrowing on my part from Schlegel. Mr. Hazlitt,
+whose hatred of me is in such an inverse ratio to my zealous kindness
+towards him, as to be defended by his warmest admirer, Charles Lamb—(who,
+God bless him! besides his characteristic obstinacy of adherence to old
+friends, as long at least as they are at all down in the world, is linked
+as by a charm to Hazlitt’s conversation)—only as “frantic;�—Mr. Hazlitt, I
+say, himself replied to an assertion of my plagiarism from Schlegel in
+these words;—“That is a lie; for I myself heard the very same character of
+Hamlet from Coleridge before he went to Germany, and when he had neither
+read nor could read a page of German!� Now Hazlitt was on a visit to me at
+my cottage at Nether Stowey, Somerset, in the summer of the year 1798, in
+the September of which year I first was out of sight of the shores of
+Great Britain.—Recorded by me, S. T. Coleridge, 7th January, 1819.
+
+The seeming inconsistencies in the conduct and character of Hamlet have
+long exercised the conjectural ingenuity of critics; and, as we are always
+loth to suppose that the cause of defective apprehension is in ourselves,
+the mystery has been too commonly explained by the very easy process of
+setting it down as in fact inexplicable, and by resolving the phenomenon
+into a misgrowth or _lusus_ of the capricious and irregular genius of
+Shakespeare. The shallow and stupid arrogance of these vulgar and indolent
+decisions I would fain do my best to expose. I believe the character of
+Hamlet may be traced to Shakespeare’s deep and accurate science in mental
+philosophy. Indeed, that this character must have some connection with the
+common fundamental laws of our nature may be assumed from the fact, that
+Hamlet has been the darling of every country in which the literature of
+England has been fostered. In order to understand him, it is essential
+that we should reflect on the constitution of our own minds. Man is
+distinguished from the brute animals in proportion as thought prevails
+over sense: but in the healthy processes of the mind, a balance is
+constantly maintained between the impressions from outward objects and the
+inward operations of the intellect;—for if there be an overbalance in the
+contemplative faculty, man thereby becomes the creature of mere
+meditation, and loses his natural power of action. Now one of
+Shakespeare’s modes of creating characters is, to conceive any one
+intellectual or moral faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself,
+Shakespeare, thus mutilated or diseased, under given circumstances. In
+Hamlet he seems to have wished to exemplify the moral necessity of a due
+balance between our attention to the objects of our senses, and our
+meditation on the workings of our minds,—an _equilibrium_ between the real
+and the imaginary worlds. In Hamlet this balance is disturbed: his
+thoughts, and the images of his fancy, are far more vivid than his actual
+perceptions, and his very perceptions, instantly passing through the
+_medium_ of his contemplations, acquire, as they pass, a form and a colour
+not naturally their own. Hence we see a great, an almost enormous,
+intellectual activity, and a proportionate aversion to real action,
+consequent upon it, with all its symptoms and accompanying qualities. This
+character Shakespeare places in circumstances, under which it is obliged
+to act on the spur of the moment:—Hamlet is brave and careless of death;
+but he vacillates from sensibility, and procrastinates from thought, and
+loses the power of action in the energy of resolve. Thus it is that this
+tragedy presents a direct contrast to that of _Macbeth_; the one proceeds
+with the utmost slowness, the other with a crowded and breathless
+rapidity.
+
+The effect of this overbalance of the imaginative power is beautifully
+illustrated in the everlasting broodings and superfluous activities of
+Hamlet’s mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is constantly
+occupied with the world within, and abstracted from the world
+without,—giving substance to shadows, and throwing a mist over all
+commonplace actualities. It is the nature of thought to be
+indefinite;—definiteness belongs to external imagery alone. Hence it is
+that the sense of sublimity arises, not from the sight of an outward
+object, but from the beholder’s reflection upon it;—not from the sensuous
+impression, but from the imaginative reflex. Few have seen a celebrated
+waterfall without feeling something akin to disappointment: it is only
+subsequently that the image comes back full into the mind, and brings with
+it a train of grand or beautiful associations. Hamlet feels this; his
+senses are in a state of trance, and he looks upon external things as
+hieroglyphics. His soliloquy—
+
+“O! that this too too solid flesh would melt,� &c.—
+
+springs from that craving after the indefinite—for that which is not—which
+most easily besets men of genius; and the self-delusion common to this
+temper of mind is finely exemplified in the character which Hamlet gives
+of himself;—
+
+          ... “It cannot be
+But I am pigeon-liver’d, and lack gall
+To make oppression bitter.�
+
+He mistakes the seeing his chains for the breaking them, delays action
+till action is of no use, and dies the victim of mere circumstance and
+accident.
+
+There is a great significancy in the names of Shakespeare’s plays. In the
+_Twelfth Night_, _Midsummer __ Night’s Dream_, _As You Like It_, and
+_Winter’s Tale_, the total effect is produced by a co-ordination of the
+characters as in a wreath of flowers. But in _Coriolanus_, _Lear_, _Romeo
+and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, &c., the effect arises from the
+subordination of all to one, either as the prominent person, or the
+principal object. _Cymbeline_ is the only exception; and even that has its
+advantages in preparing the audience for the chaos of time, place, and
+costume, by throwing the date back into a fabulous king’s reign.
+
+But as of more importance, so more striking, is the judgment displayed by
+our truly dramatic poet, as well as poet of the drama, in the management
+of his first scenes. With the single exception of _Cymbeline_, they either
+place before us at one glance both the past and the future in some effect,
+which implies the continuance and full agency of its cause, as in the
+feuds and party-spirit of the servants of the two houses in the first
+scene of _Romeo and Juliet_; or in the degrading passion for shows and
+public spectacles, and the overwhelming attachment for the newest
+successful war-chief in the Roman people, already become a populace,
+contrasted with the jealousy of the nobles in _Julius Cæsar_;—or they at
+once commence the action so as to excite a curiosity for the explanation
+in the following scenes, as in the storm of wind and waves, and the
+boatswain in the _Tempest_, instead of anticipating our curiosity, as in
+most other first scenes, and in too many other first acts;—or they act, by
+contrast of diction suited to the characters, at once to heighten the
+effect, and yet to give a naturalness to the language and rhythm of the
+principal personages, either as that of Prospero and Miranda by the
+appropriate lowness of the style, or as in _King John_, by the equally
+appropriate stateliness of official harangues or narratives, so that the
+after blank verse seems to belong to the rank and quality of the speakers,
+and not to the poet;—or they strike at once the key-note, and give the
+predominant spirit of the play, as in the _Twelfth Night_ and in
+_Macbeth_;—or finally, the first scene comprises all these advantages at
+once, as in _Hamlet_.
+
+Compare the easy language of common life, in which this drama commences,
+with the direful music and wild wayward rhythm and abrupt lyrics of the
+opening of _Macbeth_. The tone is quite familiar;—there is no poetic
+description of night, no elaborate information conveyed by one speaker to
+another of what both had immediately before their senses—(such as the
+first distich in Addison’s _Cato_, which is a translation into poetry of
+“Past four o’clock and a dark morning!�);—and yet nothing bordering on the
+comic on the one hand, nor any striving of the intellect on the other. It
+is precisely the language of sensation among men who feared no charge of
+effeminacy for feeling what they had no want of resolution to bear. Yet
+the armour, the dead silence, the watchfulness that first interrupts it,
+the welcome relief of the guard, the cold, the broken expressions of
+compelled attention to bodily feelings still under control—all excellently
+accord with, and prepare for, the after gradual rise into tragedy;—but,
+above all, into a tragedy, the interest of which is as eminently _ad et
+apud intra_, as that of _Macbeth_ is directly _ad extra_.
+
+In all the best attested stories of ghosts and visions, as in that of
+Brutus, of Archbishop Cranmer, that of Benvenuto Cellini recorded by
+himself, and the vision of Galileo communicated by him to his favourite
+pupil Torricelli, the ghost-seers were in a state of cold or chilling damp
+from without, and of anxiety inwardly. It has been with all of them as
+with Francisco on his guard,—alone, in the depth and silence of the night;
+“’twas bitter cold, and they were sick at heart, and _not a mouse
+stirring_.� The attention to minute sounds,—naturally associated with the
+recollection of minute objects, and the more familiar and trifling, the
+more impressive from the unusualness of their producing any impression at
+all—gives a philosophic pertinency to this last image; but it has likewise
+its dramatic use and purpose. For its commonness in ordinary conversation
+tends to produce the sense of reality, and at once hides the poet, and yet
+approximates the reader or spectator to that state in which the highest
+poetry will appear, and in its component parts, though not in the whole
+composition, really is, the language of nature. If I should not speak it,
+I feel that I should be thinking it;—the voice only is the poet’s,—the
+words are my own. That Shakespeare meant to put an effect in the actor’s
+power in the very first words—“Who’s there?�—is evident from the
+impatience expressed by the startled Francisco in the words that
+follow—“Nay, answer me: stand and unfold yourself.� A brave man is never
+so peremptory, as when he fears that he is afraid. Observe the gradual
+transition from the silence and the still recent habit of listening in
+Francisco’s—“I think I hear them�—to the more cheerful call out, which a
+good actor would observe, in the—“Stand ho! Who is there?� Bernardo’s
+inquiry after Horatio, and the repetition of his name and in his own
+presence indicate a respect or an eagerness that implies him as one of the
+persons who are in the foreground; and the scepticism attributed to him,—
+
+“Horatio says, ’tis but our fantasy;
+And will not let belief take hold of him,�—
+
+prepares us for Hamlet’s after eulogy on him as one whose blood and
+judgment were happily commingled. The actor should also be careful to
+distinguish the expectation and gladness of Bernardo’s “Welcome, Horatio!�
+from the mere courtesy of his “Welcome, good Marcellus!�
+
+Now observe the admirable indefiniteness of the first opening out of the
+occasion of all this anxiety. The preparation informative of the audience
+is just as much as was precisely necessary, and no more;—it begins with
+the uncertainty appertaining to a question:—
+
+“_Mar._ What, has _this thing_ appear’d again to-night?�—
+
+Even the word “again� has its _credibilising_ effect. Then Horatio, the
+representative of the ignorance of the audience, not himself, but by
+Marcellus to Bernardo, anticipates the common solution—“’tis but our
+fantasy!� upon which Marcellus rises into—
+
+“This dreaded sight, twice seen of us�—
+
+which immediately afterwards becomes “this apparition,� and that, too, an
+intelligent spirit—that is, to be spoken to! Then comes the confirmation
+of Horatio’s disbelief;—
+
+“Tush! tush! ’twill not appear!�—
+
+and the silence, with which the scene opened, is again restored in the
+shivering feeling of Horatio sitting down, at such a time, and with the
+two eye-witnesses, to hear a story of a ghost, and that, too, of a ghost
+which had appeared twice before at the very same hour. In the deep feeling
+which Bernardo has of the solemn nature of what he is about to relate, he
+makes an effort to master his own imaginative terrors by an elevation of
+style,—itself a continuation of the effort,—and by turning off from the
+apparition, as from something which would force him too deeply into
+himself, to the outward objects, the realities of nature, which had
+accompanied it:—
+
+“_Ber._ Last night of all,
+When yon same star, that’s westward from the pole
+Had made his course to illume that part of heaven
+Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself,
+The bell then beating one.�
+
+This passage seems to contradict the critical law that what is told, makes
+a faint impression compared with what is beholden; for it does indeed
+convey to the mind more than the eye can see; whilst the interruption of
+the narrative at the very moment when we are most intensely listening for
+the sequel, and have our thoughts diverted from the dreaded sight in
+expectation of the desired, yet almost dreaded, tale—this gives all the
+suddenness and surprise of the original appearance:—
+
+“_Mar._ Peace, break thee off; look, where it comes again!�
+
+Note the judgment displayed in having the two persons present, who, as
+having seen the Ghost before, are naturally eager in confirming their
+former opinions,—whilst the sceptic is silent, and after having been twice
+addressed by his friends, answers with two hasty syllables—“Most
+like,�—and a confession of horror:—
+
+“It harrows me with fear and wonder.�
+
+O heaven! words are wasted on those who feel, and to those who do not feel
+the exquisite judgment of Shakespeare in this scene, what can be said?
+Hume himself could not but have had faith in this Ghost dramatically, let
+his anti-ghostism have been as strong as Sampson against other ghosts less
+powerfully raised.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Mar._ Good now, sit down, and tell me, he that knows,
+Why this same strict and most observant watch,� &c.
+
+How delightfully natural is the transition, to the retrospective
+narrative! And observe, upon the Ghost’s reappearance, how much Horatio’s
+courage is increased by having translated the late individual spectator
+into general thought and past experience,—and the sympathy of Marcellus
+and Bernardo with his patriotic surmises in daring to strike at the Ghost;
+whilst in a moment, upon its vanishing, the former solemn awe-stricken
+feeling returns upon them:—
+
+“We do it wrong, being so majestical,
+To offer it the show of violence.�
+
+_Ib._ Horatio’s speech:—
+
+          ... “I have heard,
+The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
+Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
+Awake the god of day,� &c.
+
+No Addison could be more careful to be poetical in diction than
+Shakespeare in providing the grounds and sources of its propriety. But how
+to elevate a thing almost mean by its familiarity, young poets may learn
+in this treatment of the cock-crow.
+
+_Ib._ Horatio’s speech:—
+
+          ... “And, by my advice,
+Let us impart what we have seen to-night
+Unto young Hamlet; for, upon my life,
+The spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him.�
+
+Note the inobtrusive and yet fully adequate mode of introducing the main
+character, “young Hamlet,� upon whom it transferred all the interest
+excited for the acts and concerns of the king his father.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. The audience are now relieved by a change of scene to the
+royal court, in order that Hamlet may not have to take up the leavings of
+exhaustion. In the king’s speech, observe the set and pedantically
+antithetic form of the sentences when touching that which galled the heels
+of conscience,—the strain of undignified rhetoric,—and yet in what follows
+concerning the public weal, a certain appropriate majesty. Indeed was he
+not a royal brother?—
+
+_Ib._ King’s speech:—
+
+“And now, Laertes, what’s the news with you?� &c.
+
+Thus with great art Shakespeare introduces a most important, but still
+subordinate character first, Laertes, who is yet thus graciously treated
+in consequence of the assistance given to the election of the late king’s
+brother instead of his son by Polonius.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ A little more than kin, and less than kind.
+
+_King._ How is it that the clouds still hang on you?
+
+_Ham._ Not so, my lord, I am too much i’ the sun.�
+
+Hamlet opens his mouth with a playing on words, the complete absence of
+which throughout characterises Macbeth. This playing on words may be
+attributed to many causes or motives, as either to an exuberant activity
+of mind, as in the higher comedy of Shakespeare generally;—or to an
+imitation of it as a mere fashion, as if it were said—“Is not this better
+than groaning?�—or to a contemptuous exultation in minds vulgarised and
+overset by their success, as in the poetic instance of Milton’s Devils in
+the battle;—or it is the language of resentment, as is familiar to every
+one who has witnessed the quarrels of the lower orders, where there is
+invariably a profusion of punning invective, whence, perhaps, nicknames
+have in a considerable degree sprung up;—or it is the language of
+suppressed passion, and especially of a hardly smothered personal dislike.
+The first and last of these combine in Hamlet’s case; and I have little
+doubt that Farmer is right in supposing the equivocation carried on in the
+expression “too much i’ the sun,� or son.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ Ay, madam, it is common.�
+
+Here observe Hamlet’s delicacy to his mother, and how the suppression
+prepares him for the overflow in the next speech, in which his character
+is more developed by bringing forward his aversion to externals, and which
+betrays his habit of brooding over the world within him, coupled with a
+prodigality of beautiful words, which are the half embodyings of thought,
+and are more than thought, and have an outness, a reality _sui generis_,
+and yet retain their correspondence and shadowy affinity to the images and
+movements within. Note also Hamlet’s silence to the long speech of the
+king which follows, and his respectful, but general, answer to his mother.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet’s first soliloquy:—
+
+“O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,
+Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!� &c.
+
+This _tædium vitæ_ is a common oppression on minds cast in the Hamlet
+mould, and is caused by disproportionate mental exertion, which
+necessitates exhaustion of bodily feeling. Where there is a just
+coincidence of external and internal action, pleasure is always the
+result; but where the former is deficient, and the mind’s appetency of the
+ideal is unchecked, realities will seem cold and unmoving. In such cases,
+passion combines itself with the indefinite alone. In this mood of his
+mind the relation of the appearance of his father’s spirit in arms is made
+all at once to Hamlet:—it is—Horatio’s speech in particular—a perfect
+model of the true style of dramatic narrative;—the purest poetry, and yet
+in the most natural language, equally remote from the ink-horn and the
+plough.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This scene must be regarded as one of Shakespeare’s lyric
+movements in the play, and the skill with which it is interwoven with the
+dramatic parts is peculiarly an excellence of our poet. You experience the
+sensation of a pause without the sense of a stop. You will observe in
+Ophelia’s short and general answer to the long speech of Laertes the
+natural carelessness of innocence, which cannot think such a code of
+cautions and prudences necessary to its own preservation.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius (in Stockdale’s edition):—
+
+“Or (not to crack the wind of the poor phrase),
+Wronging it thus, you’ll tender me a fool.�
+
+I suspect this “wronging� is here used much in the same sense as
+“wringing� or “wrenching,� and that the parenthesis should be extended to
+“thus.�
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius:—
+
+          ... “How prodigal the soul
+Lends the tongue vows:—these blazes, daughter,� &c.
+
+A spondee has, I doubt not, dropped out of the text. Either insert “Go to�
+after “vows�;—
+
+“Lends the tongue vows: Go to, these blazes, daughter�—
+
+or read—
+
+“Lends the tongue vows:—These blazes, daughter, mark you�—
+
+Shakespeare never introduces a catalectic line without intending an
+equivalent to the foot omitted in the pauses, or the dwelling emphasis, or
+the diffused retardation. I do not, however, deny that a good actor might,
+by employing the last mentioned means—namely, the retardation, or solemn
+knowing drawl—supply the missing spondee with good effect. But I do not
+believe that in this or any other of the foregoing speeches of Polonius,
+Shakespeare meant to bring out the senility or weakness of that
+personage’s mind. In the great ever-recurring dangers and duties of life,
+where to distinguish the fit objects for the application of the maxims
+collected by the experience of a long life, requires no fineness of tact,
+as in the admonitions to his son and daughter, Polonius is uniformly made
+respectable. But if an actor were even capable of catching these shades in
+the character, the pit and the gallery would be malcontent at their
+exhibition. It is to Hamlet that Polonius is, and is meant to be,
+contemptible, because in inwardness and uncontrollable activity of
+movement, Hamlet’s mind is the logical contrary to that of Polonius; and
+besides, as I have observed before, Hamlet dislikes the man as false to
+his true allegiance in the matter of the succession to the crown.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. The unimportant conversation with which this scene opens is a
+proof of Shakespeare’s minute knowledge of human nature. It is a well
+established fact, that on the brink of any serious enterprise, or event of
+moment, men almost invariably endeavour to elude the pressure of their own
+thoughts by turning aside to trivial objects and familiar circumstances:
+thus this dialogue on the platform begins with remarks on the coldness of
+the air, and inquiries, obliquely connected, indeed, with the expected
+hour of the visitation, but thrown out in a seeming vacuity of topics, as
+to the striking of the clock and so forth. The same desire to escape from
+the impending thought is carried on in Hamlet’s account of, and moralizing
+on, the Danish custom of wassailing: he runs off from the particular to
+the universal, and, in his repugnance to personal and individual concerns,
+escapes, as it were, from himself in generalisations, and smothers the
+impatience and uneasy feelings of the moment in abstract reasoning.
+Besides this, another purpose is answered;—for by thus entangling the
+attention of the audience in the nice distinctions and parenthetical
+sentences of this speech of Hamlet’s, Shakespeare takes them completely by
+surprise on the appearance of the Ghost, which comes upon them in all the
+suddenness of its visionary character. Indeed, no modern writer would have
+dared, like Shakespeare, to have preceded this last visitation by two
+distinct appearances,—or could have contrived that the third should rise
+upon the former two in impressiveness and solemnity of interest.
+
+But in addition to all the other excellences of Hamlet’s speech concerning
+the wassail-music—so finely revealing the predominant idealism, the
+ratiocinative meditativeness, of his character—it has the advantage of
+giving nature and probability to the impassioned continuity of the speech
+instantly directed to the Ghost. The _momentum_ had been given to his
+mental activity; the full current of the thoughts and words had set in,
+and the very forgetfulness, in the fervour of his argumentation, of the
+purpose for which he was there, aided in preventing the appearance from
+benumbing the mind. Consequently, it acted as a new impulse,—a sudden
+stroke which increased the velocity of the body already in motion, whilst
+it altered the direction. The co-presence of Horatio, Marcellus, and
+Bernardo is most judiciously contrived; for it renders the courage of
+Hamlet, and his impetuous eloquence, perfectly intelligible. The
+knowledge,—the unthought of consciousness,—the sensation of human
+auditors—of flesh and blood sympathists—acts as a support and a
+stimulation _a tergo_, while the front of the mind, the whole
+consciousness of the speaker, is filled, yea, absorbed, by the apparition.
+Add too, that the apparition itself has, by its previous appearances, been
+brought nearer to a thing of this world. This accrescence of objectivity
+in a Ghost that yet retains all its ghostly attributes and fearful
+subjectivity, is truly wonderful.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Hamlet’s speech:—
+
+“O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?
+And shall I couple hell?�
+
+I remember nothing equal to this burst, unless it be the first speech of
+Prometheus in the Greek drama, after the exit of Vulcan and the two
+Afrites. But Shakespeare alone could have produced the vow of Hamlet to
+make his memory a blank of all maxims and generalised truths, that
+“observation had copied there,�—followed immediately by the speaker noting
+down the generalised fact,—
+
+“That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!�
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Mar._ Hillo, ho, ho, my lord!
+
+_Ham._ Hillo, ho, ho, boy! come bird, come,� &c.
+
+This part of the scene, after Hamlet’s interview with the Ghost, has been
+charged with an improbable eccentricity. But the truth is, that after the
+mind has been stretched beyond its usual pitch and tone, it must either
+sink into exhaustion and inanity, or seek relief by change. It is thus
+well known, that persons conversant in deeds of cruelty contrive to escape
+from conscience by connecting something of the ludicrous with them, and by
+inventing grotesque terms, and a certain technical phraseology, to
+disguise the horror of their practices. Indeed, paradoxical as it may
+appear, the terrible by a law of the human mind always touches on the
+verge of the ludicrous. Both arise from the perception of something out of
+the common order of things—something, in fact, out of its place; and if
+from this we can abstract danger, the uncommonness will alone remain, and
+the sense of the ridiculous be excited. The close alliance of these
+opposites—they are not contraries—appears from the circumstance, that
+laughter is equally the expression of extreme anguish and horror as of
+joy: as there are tears of sorrow and tears of joy, so is there a laugh of
+terror and a laugh of merriment. These complex causes will naturally have
+produced in Hamlet the disposition to escape from his own feelings of the
+overwhelming and supernatural by a wild transition to the ludicrous,—a
+sort of cunning bravado, bordering on the flights of delirium. For you
+may, perhaps, observe that Hamlet’s wildness is but half false; he plays
+that subtle trick of pretending to act only when he is very near really
+being what he acts.
+
+The subterraneous speeches of the Ghost are hardly defensible;—but I would
+call your attention to the characteristic difference between this Ghost,
+as a superstition connected with the most mysterious truths of revealed
+religion,—and Shakespeare’s consequent reverence in his treatment of
+it,—and the foul earthly witcheries and wild language in _Macbeth_.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Polonius and Reynaldo.
+
+In all things dependent on, or rather made up of, fine address, the manner
+is no more or otherwise rememberable than the light notions, steps, and
+gestures of youth and health. But this is almost everything:—no wonder,
+therefore, if that which can be put down by rule in the memory should
+appear to us as mere poring, maudlin, cunning,—slyness blinking through
+the watery eye of superannuation. So in this admirable scene, Polonius,
+who is throughout the skeleton of his own former skill and statecraft,
+hunts the trail of policy at a dead scent, supplied by the weak
+fever-smell in his own nostrils.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Speech of Polonius:—
+
+“My liege, and madam, to expostulate,� &c.
+
+Warburton’s note.
+
+
+    “Then as to the jingles, and play on words, let us but look into
+    the sermons of Dr. Donne (the wittiest man of that age), and we
+    shall find them full of this vein.�
+
+
+I have, and that most carefully, read Dr. Donne’s sermons, and find none
+of these jingles. The great art of an orator—to make whatever he talks of
+appear of importance—this, indeed, Donne has effected with consummate
+skill.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ Excellent well;
+You are a fishmonger.�
+
+That is, you are sent to fish out this secret. This is Hamlet’s own
+meaning.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog,
+Being a god, kissing carrion.�
+
+These purposely obscure lines, I rather think, refer to some thought in
+Hamlet’s mind, contrasting the lovely daughter with such a tedious old
+fool, her father, as he, Hamlet, represents Polonius to himself:—“Why,
+fool as he is, he is some degrees in rank above a dead dog’s carcase; and
+if the sun, being a god that kisses carrion, can raise life out of a dead
+dog,—why may not good fortune, that favours fools, have raised a lovely
+girl out of this dead-alive old fool?� Warburton is often led astray, in
+his interpretations, by his attention to general positions without the due
+Shakespearian reference to what is probably passing in the mind of his
+speaker, characteristic, and expository of his particular character and
+present mood. The subsequent passage,—
+
+“O Jephthah, judge of Israel! what a treasure hadst thou!�
+
+is confirmatory of my view of these lines.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ You cannot, Sir, take from me any thing that I will
+more willingly part withal; except my life, except my life, except
+my life.�
+
+This repetition strikes me as most admirable.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ Then are our beggars, bodies; and our monarchs, and
+out-stretched heroes, the beggars’ shadows?�
+
+I do not understand this; and Shakespeare seems to have intended the
+meaning not to be more than snatched at:—“By my fay, I cannot reason!�
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“The rugged Pyrrhus—he whose sable arms,� &c.
+
+This admirable substitution of the epic for the dramatic, giving such a
+reality to the impassioned dramatic diction of Shakespeare’s own dialogue,
+and authorised too, by the actual style of the tragedies before his time
+(_Porrex and Ferrex_, _Titus Andronicus_, &c.)—is well worthy of notice.
+The fancy, that a burlesque was intended, sinks below criticism: the
+lines, as epic narrative, are superb.
+
+In the thoughts, and even in the separate parts of the diction, this
+description is highly poetical: in truth, taken by itself, that is its
+fault that it is too poetical!—the language of lyric vehemence and epic
+pomp, and not of the drama. But if Shakespeare had made the diction truly
+dramatic, where would have been the contrast between Hamlet and the play
+in _Hamlet_?
+
+_Ib._—
+
+... “Had seen the _mobled_ queen,� &c.
+
+A mob-cap is still a word in common use for a morning cap, which conceals
+the whole head of hair, and passes under the chin. It is nearly the same
+as the night-cap, that is, it is an imitation of it, so as to answer the
+purpose (“I am not drest for company�), and yet reconciling it with
+neatness and perfect purity.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet’s soliloquy:—
+
+“O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!� &c.
+
+This is Shakespeare’s own attestation to the truth of the idea of Hamlet
+which I have before put forth.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“The spirit that I have seen,
+May be a devil: and the devil hath power
+To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps
+Out of my weakness, and my melancholy
+(As he is very potent with such spirits),
+Abuses me to damn me.�
+
+See Sir Thomas Brown:—
+
+
+    “I believe ... that those apparitions and ghosts of departed
+    persons are not the wandering souls of men, but the unquiet walks
+    of devils, prompting and suggesting us unto mischief, blood, and
+    villany, instilling and stealing into our hearts, that the blessed
+    spirits are not at rest in their graves, but wander solicitous of
+    the affairs of the world.�—_Relig. Med._ part. i. sect. 37.
+
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Hamlet’s soliloquy:—
+
+“To be, or not to be, that is the question,� &c.
+
+This speech is of absolutely universal interest,—and yet to which of all
+Shakespeare’s characters could it have been appropriately given but to
+Hamlet? For Jaques it would have been too deep, and for Iago too habitual
+a communion with the heart; which in every man belongs, or ought to
+belong, to all mankind.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn
+No traveller returns.�
+
+Theobald’s note in defence of the supposed contradiction of this in the
+apparition of the Ghost.
+
+O miserable defender! If it be necessary to remove the apparent
+contradiction,—if it be not rather a great beauty,—surely, it were easy to
+say, that no traveller returns to this world, as to his home, or
+abiding-place.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ Ha, ha! are you honest?
+
+_Oph._ My lord?
+
+_Ham._ Are you fair?�
+
+Here it is evident that the penetrating Hamlet perceives, from the strange
+and forced manner of Ophelia, that the sweet girl was not acting a part of
+her own, but was a decoy; and his after speeches are not so much directed
+to her as to the listeners and spies. Such a discovery in a mood so
+anxious and irritable accounts for a certain harshness in him;—and yet a
+wild up-working of love, sporting with opposites in a wilful
+self-tormenting strain of irony, is perceptible throughout. “I did love
+you once:�—“I lov’d you not:�—and particularly in his enumeration of the
+faults of the sex from which Ophelia is so free, that the mere freedom
+therefrom constitutes her character. Note Shakespeare’s charm of composing
+the female character by the absence of characters, that is, marks and
+out-juttings.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet’s speech:—
+
+
+    “I say, we will have no more marriages: those that are married
+    already, all but one, shall live: the rest shall keep as they
+    are.�
+
+
+Observe this dallying with the inward purpose, characteristic of one who
+had not brought his mind to the steady acting point. He would fain sting
+the uncle’s mind;—but to stab his body!—The soliloquy of Ophelia, which
+follows, is the perfection of love—so exquisitely unselfish!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This dialogue of Hamlet with the players is one of the
+happiest instances of Shakespeare’s power of diversifying the scene while
+he is carrying on the plot.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ham._ My lord, you played once i’ the university, you say?�
+(_To Polonius._)
+
+To have kept Hamlet’s love for Ophelia before the audience in any direct
+form, would have made a breach in the unity of the interest;—but yet to
+the thoughtful reader it is suggested by his spite to poor Polonius, whom
+he cannot let rest.
+
+_Ib._ The style of the interlude here is distinguished from the real
+dialogue by rhyme, as in the first interview with the players by epic
+verse.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Ros._ My lord, you once did love me.
+
+_Ham._ _So_ I do still, by these pickers and stealers.�
+
+I never heard an actor give this word “so� its proper emphasis.
+Shakespeare’s meaning is—“lov’d you? Hum!—_so_ I do still,� &c. There has
+been no change in my opinion:—I think as ill of you as I did. Else Hamlet
+tells an ignoble falsehood, and a useless one, as the last speech to
+Guildenstern—“Why look you now,� &c.—proves.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet’s soliloquy:—
+
+    “Now could I drink hot blood,
+And do such business as the bitter day
+Would quake to look on.�
+
+The utmost at which Hamlet arrives, is a disposition, a mood, to do
+something:—but what to do, is still left undecided, while every word he
+utters tends to betray his disguise. Yet observe how perfectly equal to
+any call of the moment is Hamlet, let it only not be for the future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Polonius. Polonius’s volunteer obtrusion of himself
+into this business, while it is appropriate to his character, still
+itching after former importance, removes all likelihood that Hamlet should
+suspect his presence, and prevents us from making his death injure Hamlet
+in our opinion.
+
+_Ib._ The king’s speech:—
+
+“O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven,� &c.
+
+This speech well marks the difference between crime and guilt of habit.
+The conscience here is still admitted to audience. Nay, even as an audible
+soliloquy, it is far less improbable than is supposed by such as have
+watched men only in the beaten road of their feelings. But the final—“all
+may be well!� is remarkable;—the degree of merit attributed by the
+self-flattering soul to its own struggle, though baffled, and to the
+indefinite half-promise, half-command, to persevere in religious duties.
+The solution is in the divine _medium_ of the Christian doctrine of
+expiation:—not what you have done, but what you are, must determine.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet’s speech:—
+
+“Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying:
+And now I’ll do’t:—And so he goes to heaven:
+And so am I revenged? That would be scann’d,� &c.
+
+Dr. Johnson’s mistaking of the marks of reluctance and procrastination for
+impetuous, horror-striking, fiendishness!—Of such importance is it to
+understand the germ of a character. But the interval taken by Hamlet’s
+speech is truly awful! And then—
+
+“My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:
+Words, without thoughts, never to heaven go.�
+
+O what a lesson concerning the essential difference between wishing and
+willing, and the folly of all motive-mongering, while the individual self
+remains!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.—
+
+“_Ham._ A bloody deed;—almost as bad, good mother,
+As kill a king, and marry with his brother.
+
+_Queen._ As kill a king?�
+
+I confess that Shakespeare has left the character of the Queen in an
+unpleasant perplexity. Was she, or was she not, conscious of the
+fratricide?
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+
+“_Ros._ Take you me for a spunge, my lord?
+
+_Ham._ Ay, Sir; that soaks up the King’s countenance, his
+rewards, his authorities,� &c.
+
+Hamlet’s madness is made to consist in the free utterance of all the
+thoughts that had passed through his mind before;—in fact, in telling
+home-truths.
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Ophelia’s singing. O, note the conjunction here of these
+two thoughts that had never subsisted in disjunction, the love for Hamlet,
+and her filial love, with the guileless floating on the surface of her
+pure imagination of the cautions so lately expressed, and the fears not
+too delicately avowed, by her father and brother, concerning the dangers
+to which her honour lay exposed. Thought, affliction, passion, murder
+itself—she turns to favour and prettiness. This play of association is
+instanced in the close:—
+
+
+    “My brother shall know of it, and I thank you for your good
+    counsel.�
+
+
+_Ib._ Gentleman’s speech:—
+
+“And as the world were now but to begin
+Antiquity forgot, custom not known,
+The ratifiers and props of every word—
+They cry,� &c.
+
+Fearful and self-suspicious as I always feel, when I seem to see an error
+of judgment in Shakespeare, yet I cannot reconcile the cool, and, as
+Warburton calls it, “rational and consequential,� reflection in these
+lines with the anonymousness, or the alarm, of this Gentleman or
+Messenger, as he is called in other editions.
+
+_Ib._ King’s speech:—
+
+“There’s such divinity doth hedge a king,
+That treason can but peep to what it would,
+Acts little of his will.�
+
+Proof, as indeed all else is, that Shakespeare never intended us to see
+the King with Hamlet’s eyes; though, I suspect, the managers have long
+done so.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Laertes:—
+
+“To hell, allegiance! vows, to the blackest devil!�
+
+
+    “Laertes is a _good_ character, but,� &c.—WARBURTON.
+
+
+Mercy on Warburton’s notion of goodness! Please to refer to the seventh
+scene of this act;—
+
+“I will do’t;
+And for that purpose I’ll anoint my sword,� &c.—
+
+uttered by Laertes after the King’s description of Hamlet;—
+
+          ... “He being remiss,
+Most generous, and free from all contriving,
+Will not peruse the foils.�
+
+Yet I acknowledge that Shakespeare evidently wishes, as much as possible,
+to spare the character of Laertes,—to break the extreme turpitude of his
+consent to become an agent and accomplice of the King’s treachery;—and to
+this end he re-introduces Ophelia at the close of this scene to afford a
+probable stimulus of passion in her brother.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Hamlet’s capture by the pirates. This is almost the only play
+of Shakespeare, in which mere accidents, independent of all will, form an
+essential part of the plot;—but here how judiciously in keeping with the
+character of the over-meditative Hamlet, ever at last determined by
+accident or by a fit of passion!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Note how the King first awakens Laertes’s vanity by praising
+the reporter, and then gratifies it by the report itself, and finally
+points it by—
+
+          ... “Sir, this report of his
+Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy!�
+
+_Ib._ King’s speech:—
+
+“For goodness, growing to a _pleurisy_,
+Dies in his own too much.�
+
+Theobald’s note from Warburton, who conjectures “plethory.�
+
+I rather think that Shakespeare meant “pleurisy,� but involved in it the
+thought of _plethora_, as supposing pleurisy to arise from too much blood;
+otherwise I cannot explain the following line—
+
+“And then this _should_ is like a spendthrift sigh,
+That hurts by easing.�
+
+In a stitch in the side every one must have heaved a sigh that “hurt by
+easing.�
+
+Since writing the above I feel confirmed that “pleurisy� is the right
+word; for I find that in the old medical dictionaries the pleurisy is
+often called the “plethory.�
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Queen._ Your sister’s drown’d, Laertes.
+
+_Laer._ Drown’d! O, where?�
+
+That Laertes might be excused in some degree for not cooling, the Act
+concludes with the affecting death of Ophelia,—who in the beginning lay
+like a little projection of land into a lake or stream, covered with
+spray-flowers, quietly reflected in the quiet waters, but at length is
+undermined or loosened, and becomes a faery isle, and after a brief
+vagrancy sinks almost without an eddy!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. O, the rich contrast between the Clowns and Hamlet, as two
+extremes! You see in the former the mockery of logic, and a traditional
+wit valued, like truth, for its antiquity, and treasured up, like a tune,
+for use.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 1 and 2. Shakespeare seems to mean all Hamlet’s character to be
+brought together before his final disappearance from the scene;—his
+meditative excess in the grave-digging, his yielding to passion with
+Laertes, his love for Ophelia blazing out, his tendency to generalise on
+all occasions in the dialogue with Horatio, his fine gentlemanly manners
+with Osrick, and his and Shakespeare’s own fondness for presentment:—
+
+
+    “But thou wouldst not think, how ill all’s here about my heart:
+    but it is no matter.�
+
+
+
+
+“Macbeth.�
+
+
+“Macbeth� stands in contrast throughout with _Hamlet_; in the manner of
+opening more especially. In the latter, there is a gradual ascent from the
+simplest forms of conversation to the language of impassioned
+intellect,—yet the intellect still remaining the seat of passion: in the
+former, the invocation is at once made to the imagination and the emotions
+connected therewith. Hence the movement throughout is the most rapid of
+all Shakespeare’s plays; and hence also, with the exception of the
+disgusting passage of the Porter (Act ii. sc. 3), which I dare pledge
+myself to demonstrate to be an interpolation of the actors, there is not,
+to the best of my remembrance, a single pun or play on words in the whole
+drama. I have previously given an answer to the thousand times repeated
+charge against Shakespeare upon the subject of his punning, and I here
+merely mention the fact of the absence of any puns in _Macbeth_, as
+justifying a candid doubt, at least, whether even in these figures of
+speech and fanciful modifications of language, Shakespeare may not have
+followed rules and principles that merit and would stand the test of
+philosophic examination. And hence, also, there is an entire absence of
+comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic contemplation in _Macbeth_,—the
+play being wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause, there are no
+reasonings of equivocal morality, which would have required a more
+leisurely state and a consequently greater activity of mind;—no sophistry
+of self-delusion,—except only that previously to the dreadful act, Macbeth
+mistranslates the recoilings and ominous whispers of conscience into
+prudential and selfish reasonings; and, after the deed done, the terrors
+of remorse into fear from external dangers,—like delirious men who run
+away from the phantoms of their own brains, or, raised by terror to rage,
+stab the real object that is within their reach:—whilst Lady Macbeth
+merely endeavours to reconcile his and her own sinkings of heart by
+anticipations of the worst, and an affected bravado in confronting them.
+In all the rest, Macbeth’s language is the grave utterance of the very
+heart, conscience-sick, even to the last faintings of moral death. It is
+the same in all the other characters. The variety arises from rage, caused
+ever and anon by disruption of anxious thought, and the quick transition
+of fear into it.
+
+In _Hamlet_ and _Macbeth_ the scene opens with superstition; but, in each
+it is not merely different, but opposite. In the first it is connected
+with the best and holiest feelings; in the second with the shadowy,
+turbulent, and unsanctified cravings of the individual will. Nor is the
+purpose the same; in the one the object is to excite, whilst in the other
+it is to mark a mind already excited. Superstition, of one sort or
+another, is natural to victorious generals; the instances are too
+notorious to need mentioning. There is so much of chance in warfare, and
+such vast events are connected with the acts of a single individual,—the
+representative, in truth, of the efforts of myriads, and yet to the
+public, and doubtless to his own feelings, the aggregate of all,—that the
+proper temperament for generating or receiving superstitious impressions
+is naturally produced. Hope, the master element of a commanding genius,
+meeting with an active and combining intellect, and an imagination of just
+that degree of vividness which disquiets and impels the soul to try to
+realise its images, greatly increases the creative power of the mind; and
+hence the images become a satisfying world of themselves, as is the case
+in every poet and original philosopher:—but hope fully gratified, and yet
+the elementary basis of the passion remaining, becomes fear; and, indeed,
+the general, who must often feel, even though he may hide it from his own
+consciousness, how large a share chance had in his successes, may very
+naturally be irresolute in a new scene, where he knows that all will
+depend on his own act and election.
+
+The Weird Sisters are as true a creation of Shakespeare’s, as his Ariel
+and Caliban,—fates, furies, and materialising witches being the elements.
+They are wholly different from any representation of witches in the
+contemporary writers, and yet presented a sufficient external resemblance
+to the creatures of vulgar prejudice to act immediately on the audience.
+Their character consists in the imaginative disconnected from the good;
+they are the shadowy obscure and fearfully anomalous of physical nature,
+the lawless of human nature,—elemental avengers without sex or kin:—
+
+“Fair is foul, and foul is fair;
+Hover through the fog and filthy air.�
+
+How much it were to be wished in playing _Macbeth_, that an attempt should
+be made to introduce the flexile character-mask of the ancient
+pantomime;—that Flaxman would contribute his genius to the embodying and
+making sensuously perceptible that of Shakespeare!
+
+The style and rhythm of the Captain’s speeches in the second scene should
+be illustrated by reference to the interlude in _Hamlet_, in which the
+epic is substituted for the tragic, in order to make the latter be felt as
+the real-life diction. In _Macbeth_ the poet’s object was to raise the
+mind at once to the high tragic tone, that the audience might be ready for
+the precipitate consummation of guilt in the early part of the play. The
+true reason for the first appearance of the Witches is to strike the
+key-note of the character of the whole drama, as is proved by their
+re-appearance in the third scene, after such an order of the king’s as
+establishes their supernatural power of information. I say
+information,—for so it only is as to Glamis and Cawdor; the “king
+hereafter� was still contingent,—still in Macbeth’s moral will; although,
+if he should yield to the temptation, and thus forfeit his free agency,
+the link of cause and effect _more physico_ would then commence. I need
+not say, that the general idea is all that can be required from the
+poet,—not a scholastic logical consistency in all the parts so as to meet
+metaphysical objectors. But O! how truly Shakespearian is the opening of
+Macbeth’s character given in the _unpossessedness_ of Banquo’s mind,
+wholly present to the present object,—an unsullied, unscarified mirror!
+And how strictly true to nature it is that Banquo, and not Macbeth
+himself, directs our notice to the effect produced on Macbeth’s mind,
+rendered temptible by previous dalliance of the fancy with ambitious
+thoughts:—
+
+“Good Sir, why do you start; and seem to fear
+Things that do sound so fair?�
+
+And then, again, still unintroitive, addresses the Witches:—
+
+      ... “I’ the name of truth,
+Are ye fantastical, or that indeed
+Which outwardly ye show?�
+
+Banquo’s questions are those of natural curiosity,—such as a girl would
+put after hearing a gipsy tell her schoolfellow’s fortune;—all perfectly
+general, or rather, planless. But Macbeth, lost in thought, raises himself
+to speech only by the Witches being about to depart:—
+
+“Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more:�—
+
+and all that follows is reasoning on a problem already discussed in his
+mind,—on a hope which he welcomes, and the doubts concerning the
+attainment of which he wishes to have cleared up. Compare his
+eagerness,—the keen eye with which he has pursued the Witches’ evanishing—
+
+“Speak, I charge you!�
+
+with the easily satisfied mind of the self-uninterested Banquo:—
+
+“The air hath bubbles, as the water has,
+And these are of them:—Whither are they vanish’d?�
+
+and then Macbeth’s earnest reply,—
+
+“Into the air; and what seem’d corporal, melted
+As breath into the wind.—_Would they had stay’d!_�
+
+Is it too minute to notice the appropriateness of the simile “as breath,�
+&c., in a cold climate?
+
+Still again Banquo goes on wondering like any common spectator,—
+
+“Were such things here as we do speak about?�
+
+whilst Macbeth persists in recurring to the self-concerning:—
+
+“Your children shall be kings.
+
+_Ban._ You shall be king.
+
+_Macb._ And thane of Cawdor too: went it not so?�
+
+So surely is the guilt in its germ anterior to the supposed cause, and
+immediate temptation! Before he can cool, the confirmation of the tempting
+half of the prophecy arrives, and the concatenating tendency of the
+imagination is fostered by the sudden coincidence:—
+
+“Glamis, and thane of Cawdor:
+The greatest is behind.�
+
+Oppose this to Banquo’s simple surprise:—
+
+“What, can the devil speak true?�
+
+_Ib._ Banquo’s speech:—
+
+“That, trusted home,
+Might yet enkindle you unto the crown,
+Besides the thane of Cawdor.�
+
+I doubt whether “enkindle� has not another sense than that of
+“stimulating;� I mean of “kind� and “kin,� as when rabbits are said to
+“kindle.� However, Macbeth no longer hears anything _ab extra_:—
+
+“Two truths are told,
+As happy prologues to the swelling act
+Of the imperial theme.�
+
+Then in the necessity of recollecting himself,—
+
+“I thank you, gentlemen.�
+
+Then he relapses into himself again, and every word of his soliloquy shows
+the early birth-date of his guilt. He is all-powerful without strength; he
+wishes the end, but is irresolute as to the means; conscience distinctly
+warns him, and he lulls it imperfectly:—
+
+“If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me
+Without my stir.�
+
+Lost in the prospective of his guilt, he turns round alarmed lest others
+may suspect what is passing in his own mind, and instantly vents the lie
+of ambition:—
+
+“My dull brain was wrought
+With things _forgotten_;�—
+
+and immediately after pours forth the promising courtesies of a usurper in
+intention:—
+
+        ... “Kind gentlemen, your pains
+Are register’d where every day I turn
+The leaf to read them.�
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth’s speech:—
+
+          ... “Present _fears_
+Are less than horrible imaginings.�
+
+Warburton’s note, and substitution of “feats� for “fears.�
+
+Mercy on this most wilful ingenuity of blundering, which, nevertheless,
+was the very Warburton of Warburton—his inmost being! “Fears,� here, are
+present fear-striking objects, _terribilia adstantia_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. O! the affecting beauty of the death of Cawdor, and the
+presentimental speech of the king:—
+
+“There’s no art
+To find the mind’s construction in the face:
+He was a gentleman on whom I built
+An absolute trust.�
+
+Interrupted by—
+
+“O worthiest cousin!�
+
+on the entrance of the deeper traitor for whom Cawdor had made way! And
+here in contrast with Duncan’s “plenteous joys,� Macbeth has nothing but
+the common-places of loyalty, in which he hides himself with “our duties.�
+Note the exceeding effort of Macbeth’s addresses to the king, his
+reasoning on his allegiance, and then especially when a new difficulty,
+the designation of a successor, suggests a new crime. This, however, seems
+the first distinct notion, as to the plan of realising his wishes; and
+here, therefore, with great propriety, Macbeth’s cowardice of his own
+conscience discloses itself. I always think there is something especially
+Shakespearian in Duncan’s speeches throughout this scene, such pourings
+forth, such abandonments, compared with the language of vulgar dramatists,
+whose characters seem to have made their speeches as the actors learn
+them.
+
+_Ib:_ Duncan’s speech:—
+
+          ... “Sons, kinsmen, thanes,
+And you whose places are the nearest, know,
+We will establish our estate upon
+Our eldest Malcolm, whom we name hereafter
+The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must
+Not unaccompanied, invest him only;
+But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine
+On all deservers.�
+
+It is a fancy;—but I can never read this and the following speeches of
+Macbeth, without involuntarily thinking of the Miltonic Messiah and Satan.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Macbeth is described by Lady Macbeth so as at the same time
+to reveal her own character. Could he have every thing he wanted, he would
+rather have it innocently;—ignorant, as alas! how many of us are, that he
+who wishes a temporal end for itself, does in truth will the means; and
+hence the danger of indulging fancies.
+
+Lady Macbeth, like all in Shakespeare, is a class individualised:—of high
+rank, left much alone, and feeding herself with day-dreams of ambition,
+she mistakes the courage of fantasy for the power of bearing the
+consequences of the realities of guilt. His is the mock fortitude of a
+mind deluded by ambition; she shames her husband with a superhuman
+audacity of fancy which she cannot support, but sinks in the season of
+remorse, and dies in suicidal agony. Her speech:—
+
+          ... “Come, you spirits
+That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,� &c.—
+
+is that of one who had habitually familiarised her imagination to dreadful
+conceptions, and was trying to do so still more. Her invocations and
+requisitions are all the false efforts of a mind accustomed only hitherto
+to the shadows of the imagination, vivid enough to throw the every-day
+substances of life into shadow, but never as yet brought into direct
+contact with their own correspondent realities. She evinces no womanly
+life, no wifely joy, at the return of her husband, no pleased terror at
+the thought of his past dangers, whilst Macbeth bursts forth naturally—
+
+“My dearest love�—
+
+and shrinks from the boldness with which she presents his own thoughts to
+him. With consummate art she at first uses as incentives the very
+circumstances, Duncan’s coming to their house, &c., which Macbeth’s
+conscience would most probably have adduced to her as motives of
+abhorrence or repulsion. Yet Macbeth is not prepared:—
+
+“We will speak further.�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. The lyrical movement with which this scene opens, and the
+free and unengaged mind of Banquo, loving nature, and rewarded in the love
+itself, form a highly dramatic contrast with the laboured rhythm and
+hypocritical over-much of Lady Macbeth’s welcome, in which you cannot
+detect a ray of personal feeling, but all is thrown upon the “dignities,�
+the general duty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Macbeth’s speech:—
+
+“We will proceed no further in this business:
+He hath honour’d me of late; and I have bought
+Golden opinions from all sorts of people,
+Which would be worn now in their newest gloss,
+Not cast aside so soon.�
+
+Note the inward pangs and warnings of conscience interpreted into
+prudential reasonings.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Banquo’s speech:—
+
+“A heavy summons lies like lead upon me,
+And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers!
+Restrain in me the cursed thoughts, that nature
+Gives way to in repose.�
+
+The disturbance of an innocent soul by painful suspicions of another’s
+guilty intentions and wishes, and fear of the cursed thoughts of sensual
+nature.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Now that the deed is done or doing—now that the first reality
+commences, Lady Macbeth shrinks. The most simple sound strikes terror, the
+most natural consequences are horrible, whilst previously every thing,
+however awful, appeared a mere trifle; conscience, which before had been
+hidden to Macbeth in selfish and prudential fears, now rushes in upon him
+in her own veritable person:—
+
+“Methought I heard a voice cry—Sleep no more!
+          I could not say Amen,
+When they did say, God bless us!�
+
+And see the novelty given to the most familiar images by a new state of
+feeling.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This low soliloquy of the Porter and his few speeches
+afterwards, I believe to have been written for the mob by some other hand,
+perhaps with Shakespeare’s consent; and that finding it take, he with the
+remaining ink of a pen otherwise employed, just interpolated the words—
+
+
+    “I’ll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in
+    some of all professions, that go the primrose way to the
+    everlasting bonfire.�
+
+
+Of the rest not one syllable has the ever-present being of Shakespeare.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Compare Macbeth’s mode of working on the murderers in this
+place with Schiller’s mistaken scene between Butler, Devereux, and
+Macdonald in _Wallenstein_.—(Part II. act iv. sc. 2.) The comic was wholly
+out of season. Shakespeare never introduces it, but when it may react on
+the tragedy by harmonious contrast.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Macbeth’s speech:—
+
+“But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,
+Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep
+In the affliction of these terrible dreams
+That shake us nightly.�
+
+Ever and ever mistaking the anguish of conscience for fears of
+selfishness, and thus as a punishment of that selfishness, plunging still
+deeper in guilt and ruin.
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth’s speech:—
+
+“Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck,
+Till thou applaud the deed.�
+
+This is Macbeth’s sympathy with his own feelings, and his mistaking his
+wife’s opposite state.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.—
+
+“_Macb._ It will have blood; they say, blood will have blood:
+Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak;
+Augurs, and understood relations, have
+By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth
+The secret’st man of blood.�
+
+The deed is done; but Macbeth receives no comfort, no additional security.
+He has by guilt torn himself live-asunder from nature, and is, therefore,
+himself in a preternatural state: no wonder, then, that he is inclined to
+superstition, and faith in the unknown of signs and tokens, and
+super-human agencies.
+
+Act iv. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Len._ ’Tis two or three, my lord, that bring you word
+Macduff is fled to England.
+
+_Macb._ Fled to England!�
+
+The acme of the avenging conscience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a relief, because a
+variety, because domestic, and therefore soothing, as associated with the
+only real pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady Macduff and her
+child heightens the pathos, and is preparatory for the deep tragedy of
+their assassination. Shakespeare’s fondness for children is everywhere
+shown;—in Prince Arthur, in _King John_; in the sweet scene in the
+_Winter’s Tale_ between Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest Evans’s
+examination of Mrs. Page’s schoolboy. To the objection that Shakespeare
+wounds the moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised description of the
+most hateful atrocity—that he tears the feelings without mercy, and even
+outrages the eye itself with scenes of insupportable horror—I, omitting
+_Titus Andronicus_, as not genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster’s
+blinding in _Lear_, answer boldly in the name of Shakespeare, not guilty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Malcolm’s speech:—
+
+         ... “Better Macbeth,
+Than such an one to reign.�
+
+The moral is—the dreadful effects even on the best minds of the
+soul-sickening sense of insecurity.
+
+_Ib._ How admirably Macduff’s grief is in harmony with the whole play! It
+rends, not dissolves, the heart. “The tune of it goes manly.� Thus is
+Shakespeare always master of himself and of his subject,—a genuine
+Proteus:—we see all things in him, as images in a calm lake, most
+distinct, most accurate,—only more splendid, more glorified. This is
+correctness in the only philosophical sense. But he requires your sympathy
+and your submission; you must have that recipiency of moral impression
+without which the purposes and ends of the drama would be frustrated, and
+the absence of which demonstrates an utter want of all imagination, a
+deadness to that necessary pleasure of being innocently—shall I say,
+deluded?—or rather, drawn away from ourselves to the music of noblest
+thought in harmonious sounds. Happy he, who not only in the public
+theatre, but in the labours of a profession, and round the light of his
+own hearth, still carries a heart so pleasure-fraught!
+
+Alas for Macbeth! now all is inward with him; he has no more prudential
+prospective reasonings. His wife, the only being who could have had any
+seat in his affections, dies; he puts on despondency, the final
+heart-armour of the wretched, and would fain think every thing shadowy and
+unsubstantial, as indeed all things are to those who cannot regard them as
+symbols of goodness:—
+
+          “Out, out, brief candle!
+Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player,
+That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
+And then is heard no more; it is a tale
+Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
+Signifying nothing.�
+
+
+
+
+“Winter’s Tale.�
+
+
+Although, on the whole, this play is exquisitely respondent to its title,
+and even in the fault I am about to mention, still a winter’s tale; yet it
+seems a mere indolence of the great bard not to have provided in the
+oracular response (Act ii. sc. 2.) some ground for Hermione’s seeming
+death and fifteen years’ voluntary concealment. This might have been
+easily effected by some obscure sentence of the oracle, as for example:—
+
+
+    “ ‘Nor shall he ever recover an heir, if he have a wife before
+    that recovery.’ �
+
+
+The idea of this delightful drama is a genuine jealousy of disposition,
+and it should be immediately followed by the perusal of _Othello_, which
+is the direct contrast of it in every particular. For jealousy is a vice
+of the mind, a culpable tendency of the temper, having certain well-known
+and well-defined effects and concomitants, all of which are visible in
+Leontes, and, I boldly say, not one of which marks its presence in
+Othello;—such as, first, an excitability by the most inadequate causes,
+and an eagerness to snatch at proofs; secondly, a grossness of conception,
+and a disposition to degrade the object of the passion by sensual fancies
+and images; thirdly, a sense of shame of his own feelings exhibited in a
+solitary moodiness of humour, and yet from the violence of the passion
+forced to utter itself, and therefore catching occasions to ease the mind
+by ambiguities, equivoques, by talking to those who cannot, and who are
+known not to be able to, understand what is said to them,—in short, by
+soliloquy in the form of dialogue, and hence a confused, broken, and
+fragmentary, manner; fourthly, a dread of vulgar ridicule, as distinct
+from a high sense of honour, or a mistaken sense of duty; and lastly, and
+immediately, consequent on this, a spirit of selfish vindictiveness.
+
+Act i. sc. 1, 2.—
+
+Observe the easy style of chitchat between Camillo and Archidamus as
+contrasted with the elevated diction on the introduction of the kings and
+Hermione in the second scene: and how admirably Polixenes’ obstinate
+refusal to Leontes to stay,—
+
+“There is no tongue that moves; none, none i’ the world
+So soon as yours, could win me;�—
+
+prepares for the effect produced by his afterwards yielding to
+Hermione;—which is, nevertheless, perfectly natural from mere courtesy of
+sex, and the exhaustion of the will by former efforts of denial, and well
+calculated to set in nascent action the jealousy of Leontes. This, when
+once excited, is unconsciously increased by Hermione,—
+
+          ... “Yet, good deed, Leontes,
+I love thee not a jar o’ the clock behind
+What lady she her lord;�—
+
+accompanied, as a good actress ought to represent it, by an expression and
+recoil of apprehension that she had gone too far.
+
+“At my request, he would not:�—
+
+The first working of the jealous fit;—
+
+“Too hot, too hot:�—
+
+The morbid tendency of Leontes to lay hold of the merest trifles, and his
+grossness immediately afterwards,—
+
+“Paddling palms and pinching fingers;�—
+
+followed by his strange loss of self-control in his dialogue with the
+little boy.
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Paulina’s speech:—
+
+“That thou betray’dst Polixenes, ’twas nothing;
+That did but show thee, of a _fool_, inconstant,
+And damnable ingrateful.�
+
+Theobald reads “soul.�
+
+I think the original word is Shakespeare’s. 1. My ear feels it to be
+Shakespearian; 2. The involved grammar is Shakespearian—“show thee, being
+a fool naturally, to have improved thy folly by inconstancy;� 3. The
+alteration is most flat, and un-Shakespearian. As to the grossness of the
+abuse—she calls him “gross and foolish� a few lines below.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Autolycus:—
+
+“For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it.�
+
+Fine as this is, and delicately characteristic of one who had lived and
+been reared in the best society, and had been precipitated from it by dice
+and drabbing; yet still it strikes against my feelings as a note out of
+tune, and as not coalescing with that pastoral tint which gives such a
+charm to this act. It is too Macbeth-like in the “snapper up of
+unconsidered trifles.�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Perdita’s speech:—
+
+“From Dis’s waggon! daffodils.�
+
+An epithet is wanted here, not merely or chiefly for the metre, but for
+the balance, for the æsthetic logic. Perhaps “golden� was the word which
+would set off the “violets dim.�
+
+_Ib._—
+
+          ... “Pale primroses
+That die unmarried.�
+
+Milton’s—
+
+“And the rathe primrose that forsaken dies.�
+
+_Ib._ Perdita’s speech:—
+
+“Even here undone:
+I was not much afraid; for once or twice
+I was about to speak, and tell him plainly,
+The self-same sun, that shines upon his court,
+Hides not his visage from our cottage, but
+Looks on alike. Will’t please you, Sir, be gone!
+          (_To Florizel._)
+I told you, what would come of this. Beseech you,
+Of your own state take care: this dream of mine,
+Being now awake, I’ll queen it no inch farther,
+But milk my ewes, and weep.�
+
+O how more than exquisite is this whole speech! And that profound nature
+of noble pride and grief venting themselves in a momentary peevishness of
+resentment toward Florizel:—
+
+... “Will’t please you, Sir, be gone!�
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Autolycus:—
+
+
+    “Let me have no lying; it becomes none but tradesmen, and they
+    often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them for it with
+    stamped coin, not stabbing steel;—therefore they do not _give_ us
+    the lie.�
+
+
+As we _pay_ them, they, therefore, do not _give_ it us.
+
+
+
+
+“Othello.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+Admirable is the preparation, so truly and peculiarly Shakespearian, in
+the introduction of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first
+exercise his art, and in so doing display his own character. Roderigo,
+without any fixed principle, but not without the moral notions and
+sympathies with honour, which his rank and connections had hung upon him,
+is already well fitted and predisposed for the purpose; for very want of
+character and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an empty house,
+constitute his character. The first three lines happily state the nature
+and foundation of the friendship between him and Iago,—the purse,—as also
+the contrast of Roderigo’s intemperance of mind with Iago’s coolness,—the
+coolness of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere language of
+protestation,—
+
+“If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor me,�—
+
+which, falling in with the associative link, determines Roderigo’s
+continuation of complaint,—
+
+“Thou told’st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate,�—
+
+elicits at length a true feeling of Iago’s mind, the dread of contempt
+habitual to those who encourage in themselves, and have their keenest
+pleasure in, the expression of contempt for others. Observe Iago’s high
+self-opinion, and the moral, that a wicked man will employ real feelings,
+as well as assume those most alien from his own, as instruments of his
+purposes:—
+
+          “And, by the faith of man,
+I know my price, I am worth no worse a place.�
+
+I think Tyrwhitt’s reading of “life� for “wife�—
+
+“A fellow almost damn’d in a fair _wife_�—
+
+the true one, as fitting to Iago’s contempt for whatever did not display
+power, and that intellectual power. In what follows, let the reader feel
+how by and through the glass of two passions, disappointed vanity and
+envy, the very vices of which he is complaining, are made to act upon him
+as if they were so many excellences, and the more appropriately, because
+cunning is always admired and wished for by minds conscious of inward
+weakness;—but they act only by half, like music on an inattentive auditor,
+swelling the thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Rod._ What a full fortune does the _thick-lips_ owe,
+If he can carry ’t thus.�
+
+Roderigo turns off to Othello; and here comes one, if not the only,
+seeming justification of our blackamoor or negro Othello. Even if we
+supposed this an uninterrupted tradition of the theatre, and that
+Shakespeare himself, from want of scenes, and the experience that nothing
+could be made too marked for the senses of his audience, had practically
+sanctioned it,—would this prove aught concerning his own intention as a
+poet for all ages? Can we imagine him so utterly ignorant as to make a
+barbarous negro plead royal birth,—at a time, too, when negroes were not
+known except as slaves? As for Iago’s language to Brabantio, it implies
+merely that Othello was a Moor,—that is, black. Though I think the rivalry
+of Roderigo sufficient to account for his wilful confusion of Moor and
+Negro,—yet, even if compelled to give this up, I should think it only
+adapted for the acting of the day, and should complain of an enormity
+built on a single word, in direct contradiction to Iago’s “Barbary horse.�
+Besides, if we could in good earnest believe Shakespeare ignorant of the
+distinction, still why should we adopt one disagreeable possibility
+instead of a ten times greater and more pleasing probability? It is a
+common error to mistake the epithets applied by the _dramatis personæ_ to
+each other, as truly descriptive of what the audience ought to see or
+know. No doubt Desdemona saw Othello’s visage in his mind; yet, as we are
+constituted, and most surely as an English audience was disposed in the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, it would be something monstrous to
+conceive this beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable
+negro. It would argue a disproportionateness, a want of balance, in
+Desdemona, which Shakespeare does not appear to have in the least
+contemplated.
+
+_Ib._ Brabantio’s speech:—
+
+“This accident is not unlike my dream.�
+
+The old careful senator, being caught careless, transfers his caution to
+his dreaming power at least.
+
+_Ib._ Iago’s speech:—
+
+          ... “For their souls,
+Another of his fathom they have not,
+To lead their business.�
+
+The forced praise of Othello, followed by the bitter hatred of him in this
+speech! And observe how Brabantio’s dream prepares for his recurrence to
+the notion of philtres, and how both prepare for carrying on the plot of
+the arraignment of Othello on this ground.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.—
+
+“_Oth._ ’Tis better as it is.�
+
+How well these few words impress at the outset the truth of Othello’s own
+character of himself at the end—“that he was not easily wrought!� His
+self-government contradistinguishes him throughout from Leontes.
+
+_Ib._ Othello’s speech:—
+
+          ... “And my demerits
+May speak, _unbonneted_.�
+
+The argument in Theobald’s note, where “and bonneted� is suggested, goes
+on the assumption that Shakespeare could not use the same word differently
+in different places; whereas I should conclude, that as in the passage in
+_Lear_ the word is employed in its direct meaning, so here it is used
+metaphorically; and this is confirmed by what has escaped the editors,
+that it is not “I,� but “my demerits� that may speak unbonneted,—without
+the symbol of a petitioning inferior.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello’s speech:—
+
+“So please your grace, my ancient;
+A man he is of honesty and trust:
+To his conveyance I assign my wife.�
+
+Compare this with the behaviour of Leontes to his true friend Camillo.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Bra._ Look to her, Moor; if thou hast eyes to see;
+She has deceived her father, and may thee.
+
+_Oth._ My life upon her faith.�
+
+In real life, how do we look back to little speeches as presentimental of,
+or contrasted with, an affecting event! Even so, Shakespeare, as secure of
+being read over and over, of becoming a family friend, provides this
+passage for his readers, and leaves it to them.
+
+_Ib._ Iago’s speech:—
+
+“Virtue? a fig! ’tis in ourselves, that we are thus, or thus,� &c.
+
+This speech comprises the passionless character of Iago. It is all will in
+intellect; and therefore he is here a bold partizan of a truth, but yet of
+a truth converted into a falsehood by the absence of all the necessary
+modifications caused by the frail nature of man. And then comes the last
+sentiment:—
+
+
+    “Our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts,
+    whereof I take this, that you call—love, to be a sect or scion!�
+
+
+Here is the true Iagoism of, alas! how many! Note Iago’s pride of mastery
+in the repetition of “Go, make money!� to his anticipated dupe, even
+stronger than his love of lucre: and when Roderigo is completely won,—
+
+“I am chang’d. I’ll go sell all my land,�—
+
+when the effect has been fully produced, the repetition of triumph:—
+
+“Go to; farewell; put money enough in your purse!�
+
+The remainder—Iago’s soliloquy—the motive-hunting of a motiveless
+malignity—how awful it is! Yea, whilst he is still allowed to bear the
+divine image, it is too fiendish for his own steady view,—for the lonely
+gaze of a being next to devil, and only not quite devil,—and yet a
+character which Shakespeare has attempted and executed, without disgust
+and without scandal!
+
+Dr. Johnson has remarked that little or nothing is wanting to render the
+_Othello_ a regular tragedy, but to have opened the play with the arrival
+of Othello in Cyprus, and to have thrown the preceding act into the form
+of narration. Here then is the place to determine whether such a change
+would or would not be an improvement;—nay (to throw down the glove with a
+full challenge), whether the tragedy would or not by such an arrangement
+become more regular,—that is, more consonant with the rules dictated by
+universal reason, on the true common-sense of mankind, in its application
+to the particular case. For in all acts of judgment, it can never be too
+often recollected, and scarcely too often repeated, that rules are means
+to ends, and, consequently, that the end must be determined and understood
+before it can be known what the rules are or ought to be. Now, from a
+certain species of drama, proposing to itself the accomplishment of
+certain ends,—these partly arising from the idea of the species itself,
+but in part, likewise, forced upon the dramatist by accidental
+circumstances beyond his power to remove or control,—three rules have been
+abstracted;—in other words, the means most conducive to the attainment of
+the proposed ends have been generalised, and prescribed under the names of
+the three unities,—the unity of time, the unity of place, and the unity of
+action—which last would, perhaps, have been as appropriately, as well as
+more intelligibly, entitled the unity of interest. With this last the
+present question has no immediate concern: in fact, its conjunction with
+the former two is a mere delusion of words. It is not properly a rule, but
+in itself the great end not only of the drama, but of the epic poem, the
+lyric ode, of all poetry, down to the candle-flame cone of an
+epigram,—nay, of poesy in general, as the proper generic term inclusive of
+all the fine arts as its species. But of the unities of time and place,
+which alone are entitled to the name of rules, the history of their origin
+will be their best criterion. You might take the Greek chorus to a place,
+but you could not bring a place to them without as palpable an equivoque
+as bringing Birnam wood to Macbeth at Dunsinane. It was the same, though
+in a less degree, with regard to the unity of time:—the positive fact, not
+for a moment removed from the senses, the presence, I mean, of the same
+identical chorus, was a continued measure of time;—and although the
+imagination may supersede perception, yet it must be granted to be an
+imperfection—however easily tolerated—to place the two in broad
+contradiction to each other. In truth, it is a mere accident of terms; for
+the Trilogy of the Greek theatre was a drama in three acts, and
+notwithstanding this, what strange contrivances as to place there are in
+the Aristophanic Frogs. Besides, if the law of mere actual perception is
+once violated—as it repeatedly is, even in the Greek tragedies—why is it
+more difficult to imagine three hours to be three years than to be a whole
+day and night?
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+
+Observe in how many ways Othello is made, first, our acquaintance, then
+our friend, then the object of our anxiety, before the deeper interest is
+to be approached!
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Mont._ But, good lieutenant, is your general wived?
+
+_Cas._ Most fortunately: he hath achieved a maid
+That paragons description, and wild fame;
+One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens,
+And, in the essential vesture of creation,
+Does tire the ingener.�
+
+Here is Cassio’s warm-hearted, yet perfectly disengaged, praise of
+Desdemona, and sympathy with the “most fortunately� wived Othello;—and yet
+Cassio is an enthusiastic admirer, almost a worshipper, of Desdemona. Oh,
+that detestable code that excellence cannot be loved in any form that is
+female, but it must needs be selfish! Observe Othello’s “honest� and
+Cassio’s “bold� Iago, and Cassio’s full guileless-hearted wishes for the
+safety and love-raptures of Othello and “the divine Desdemona.� And also
+note the exquisite circumstance of Cassio’s kissing Iago’s wife, as if it
+ought to be impossible that the dullest auditor should not feel Cassio’s
+religious love of Desdemona’s purity. Iago’s answers are the sneers which
+a proud bad intellect feels towards women, and expresses to a wife. Surely
+it ought to be considered a very exalted compliment to women, that all the
+sarcasms on them in Shakespeare are put in the mouths of villains.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Des._ I am not merry; but I do beguile,� &c.
+
+The struggle of courtesy in Desdemona to abstract her attention.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+
+    “(_Iago aside_). He takes her by the palm: Ay, well said, whisper;
+    with as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as
+    Cassio. Ay, smile upon her, do,� &c.
+
+
+The importance given to trifles, and made fertile by the villany of the
+observer.
+
+_Ib._ Iago’s dialogue with Roderigo.
+
+This is the rehearsal on the dupe of the traitor’s intentions on Othello.
+
+_Ib._ Iago’s soliloquy:—
+
+“But partly led to diet my revenge,
+For that I do suspect the lusty Moor
+Hath leap’d into my seat.�
+
+This thought, originally by Iago’s own confession a mere suspicion, is now
+ripening, and gnaws his base nature as his own “poisonous mineral� is
+about to gnaw the noble heart of his general.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello’s speech:—
+
+“I know, Iago,
+Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter,
+Making it light to Cassio.�
+
+Honesty and love! Ay, and who but the reader of the play could think
+otherwise?
+
+_Ib._ Iago’s soliloquy:—
+
+“And what’s he then that says—I play the villain?
+When this advice is free I give, and honest,
+Provable to thinking, and, indeed, the course
+To win the Moor again.�
+
+He is not, you see, an absolute fiend; or, at least, he wishes to think
+himself not so.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3.—
+
+“_Des._ Before Æmilia here,
+I give thee warrant of thy place.�
+
+The over-zeal of innocence in Desdemona.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Enter Desdemona and Æmilia._
+
+_Oth._ If she be false, O, then, heaven mocks itself!
+I’ll not believe’t.�
+
+Divine! The effect of innocence and the better genius!
+
+Act iv. sc. 3.—
+
+“_Æmil._ Why, the wrong is but a wrong i’ the world; and
+having the world for your labour, ’tis a wrong in your own world,
+and you might quickly make it right.�
+
+Warburton’s note.
+
+What any other man, who had learning enough, might have quoted as a
+playful and witty illustration of his remarks against the Calvinistic
+_thesis_, Warburton gravely attributes to Shakespeare as intentional; and
+this, too, in the mouth of a lady’s woman!
+
+Act v. last scene. Othello’s speech:—
+
+... “Of one, whose hand,
+Like the base _Indian_, threw a pearl away
+Richer than all his tribe,� &c.
+
+Theobald’s note from Warburton.
+
+Thus it is for no-poets to comment on the greatest of poets! To make
+Othello say that he, who had killed his wife, was like Herod who killed
+Mariamne!—O, how many beauties, in this one line, were impenetrable to the
+ever thought-swarming, but idealess, Warburton! Othello wishes to excuse
+himself on the score of ignorance, and yet not to excuse himself,—to
+excuse himself by accusing. This struggle of feeling is finely conveyed in
+the word “base,� which is applied to the rude Indian, not in his own
+character, but as the momentary representative of Othello’s. “Indian�—for
+I retain the old reading—means American, a savage _in genere_.
+
+Finally, let me repeat that Othello does not kill Desdemona in jealousy,
+but in a conviction forced upon him by the almost superhuman art of Iago,
+such a conviction as any man would and must have entertained who had
+believed Iago’s honesty as Othello did. We, the audience, know that Iago
+is a villain, from the beginning; but in considering the essence of the
+Shakespearian Othello, we must perseveringly place ourselves in his
+situation, and under his circumstances. Then we shall immediately feel the
+fundamental difference between the solemn agony of the noble Moor, and the
+wretched fishing jealousies of Leontes, and the morbid suspiciousness of
+Leonatus, who is, in other respects, a fine character. Othello had no life
+but in Desdemona:—the belief that she, his angel, had fallen from the
+heaven of her native innocence, wrought a civil war in his heart. She is
+his counterpart; and, like him, is almost sanctified in our eyes by her
+absolute unsuspiciousness, and holy entireness of love. As the curtain
+drops, which do we pity the most?
+
+_Extremum hunc_——. There are three powers:—Wit, which discovers partial
+likeness hidden in general diversity; subtlety, which discovers the
+diversity concealed in general apparent sameness;—and profundity, which
+discovers an essential unity under all the semblances of difference.
+
+Give to a subtle man fancy, and he is a wit; to a deep man imagination,
+and he is a philosopher. Add, again, pleasurable sensibility in the
+threefold form of sympathy with the interesting in morals, the impressive
+in form, and the harmonious in sound,—and you have the poet.
+
+But combine all,—wit, subtlety, and fancy, with profundity, imagination,
+and moral and physical susceptibility of the pleasurable,—and let the
+object of action be man universal; and we shall have—O, rash prophecy!
+say, rather, we have—a SHAKESPEARE!
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEN JONSON.
+
+
+It would be amusing to collect out of our dramatists from Elizabeth to
+Charles I. proofs of the manners of the times. One striking symptom of
+general coarseness of manners, which may co-exist with great refinement of
+morals, as, alas! _vice versa_, is to be seen in the very frequent
+allusions to the olfactories with their most disgusting stimulants, and
+these, too, in the conversation of virtuous ladies. This would not appear
+so strange to one who had been on terms of familiarity with Sicilian and
+Italian women of rank: and bad as they may, too many of them, actually be,
+yet I doubt not that the extreme grossness of their language has impressed
+many an Englishman of the present era with far darker notions than the
+same language would have produced in the mind of one of Elizabeth’s or
+James’s courtiers. Those who have read Shakespeare only, complain of
+occasional grossness in his plays; but compare him with his
+contemporaries, and the inevitable conviction, is that of the exquisite
+purity of his imagination.
+
+The observation I have prefixed to the _Volpone_ is the key to the faint
+interest which these noble efforts of intellectual power excite, with the
+exception of the fragment of the _Sad Shepherd_; because in that piece
+only is there any character with whom you can morally sympathise. On the
+other hand, _Measure for Measure_ is the only play of Shakespeare’s in
+which there are not some one or more characters, generally many, whom you
+follow with affectionate feeling. For I confess that Isabella, of all
+Shakespeare’s female characters, pleases me the least; and _Measure for
+Measure_ is, indeed, the only one of his genuine works, which is painful
+to me.
+
+Let me not conclude this remark, however, without a thankful
+acknowledgment to the _manes_ of Ben Jonson, that the more I study his
+writings, I the more admire them; and the more my study of him resembles
+that of an ancient classic, in the _minutiæ_ of his rhythm, metre, choice
+of words, forms of connection, and so forth, the more numerous have the
+points of my admiration become. I may add, too, that both the study and
+the admiration cannot but be disinterested, for to expect therefrom any
+advantage to the present drama would be ignorance. The latter is utterly
+heterogeneous from the drama of the Shakespearian age, with a diverse
+object and contrary principle. The one was to present a model by imitation
+of real life, taking from real life all that in it which it ought to be,
+and supplying the rest;—the other is to copy what is, and as it is,—at
+best a tolerable but most frequently a blundering, copy. In the former the
+difference was an essential element; in the latter an involuntary defect.
+We should think it strange, if a tale in dance were announced, and the
+actors did not dance at all;—and yet such is modern comedy.
+
+
+
+
+Whalley’s Preface.
+
+
+    “But Jonson was soon sensible, how inconsistent this medley of
+    names and manners was in reason and nature; and with how little
+    propriety it could ever have a place in a legitimate and just
+    picture of real life.�
+
+
+But did Jonson reflect that the very essence of a play, the very language
+in which it is written, is a fiction to which all the parts must conform?
+Surely, Greek manners in English should be a still grosser improbability
+than a Greek name transferred to English manners. Ben’s _personæ_ are too
+often not characters, but derangements;—the hopeless patients of a
+mad-doctor rather,—exhibitions of folly betraying itself in spite of
+exciting reason and prudence. He not poetically, but painfully exaggerates
+every trait; that is, not by the drollery of the circumstance, but by the
+excess of the originating feeling.
+
+
+    “But to this we might reply, that far from being thought to build
+    his characters upon abstract ideas, he was really accused of
+    representing particular persons then existing; and that even those
+    characters which appear to be the most exaggerated, are said to
+    have had their respective archetypes in nature and life.�
+
+
+This degrades Jonson into a libeller, instead of justifying him as a
+dramatic poet. _Non quod verum est, sed quod verisimile_, is the
+dramatist’s rule. At all events, the poet who chooses transitory manners,
+ought to content himself with transitory praise. If his object be
+reputation, he ought not to expect fame. The utmost he can look forwards
+to, is to be quoted by, and to enliven the writings of, an antiquarian.
+Pistol, Nym, and _id genus omne_, do not please us as characters, but are
+endured as fantastic creations, foils to the native wit of Falstaff.—I say
+wit emphatically; for this character so often extolled as the masterpiece
+of humour, neither contains, nor was meant to contain, any humour at all.
+
+
+
+
+“Whalley’s ‘Life Of Jonson.’ �
+
+
+    “It is to the honour of Jonson’s judgment, that _the greatest poet
+    of our nation_ had the same opinion of Donne’s genius and wit; and
+    hath preserved part of him from perishing, by putting his thoughts
+    and satire into modern verse.�
+
+
+_Videlicet_ Pope!—
+
+
+    “He said further to Drummond, Shakespeare wanted art, and
+    sometimes sense; for in one of his plays he brought in a number of
+    men, saying they had suffered shipwreck in Bohemia, where is no
+    sea near by a hundred miles.�
+
+
+I have often thought Shakespeare justified in this seeming anachronism. In
+Pagan times a single name of a German kingdom might well be supposed to
+comprise a hundred miles more than at present. The truth is, these notes
+of Drummond’s are more disgraceful to himself than to Jonson. It would be
+easy to conjecture how grossly Jonson must have been misunderstood, and
+what he had said in jest, as of Hippocrates, interpreted in earnest. But
+this is characteristic of a Scotchman; he has no notion of a jest, unless
+you tell him—“This is a joke!�—and still less of that finer shade of
+feeling, the half-and-half, in which Englishmen naturally delight.
+
+
+
+
+“Every Man Out Of His Humour.�
+
+
+Epilogue.—
+
+“The throat of war be stopt within her land,
+And _turtle-footed_ peace dance fairie rings
+About her court.�
+
+“Turtle-footed� is a pretty word, a very pretty word: pray, what does it
+mean? Doves, I presume, are not dancers; and the other sort of turtle,
+land or sea, green-fat or hawksbill, would, I should suppose, succeed
+better in slow minuets than in the brisk rondillo. In one sense, to be
+sure, pigeons and ring-doves could not dance but with _éclat_—_a claw_!
+
+
+
+
+“Poetaster.�
+
+
+Introduction.—
+
+“Light! I salute thee, but with wounded nerves,
+Wishing thy golden splendour pitchy darkness.�
+
+There is no reason to suppose Satan’s address to the sun in the _Paradise
+Lost_, more than a mere coincidence with these lines; but were it
+otherwise, it would be a fine instance what usurious interest a great
+genius pays in borrowing. It would not be difficult to give a detailed
+psychological proof from these constant outbursts of anxious
+self-assertion, that Jonson was not a genius, a creative power. Subtract
+that one thing, and you may safely accumulate on his name all other
+excellences of a capacious, vigorous, agile, and richly-stored intellect.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Ovid._ While slaves be false, fathers hard, and bawds be
+whorish.�
+
+The roughness noticed by Theobald and Whalley, may be cured by a simple
+transposition:—
+
+“While fathers hard, slaves false, and bawds be whorish.�
+
+Act. iv. sc. 3—
+
+“_Crisp._ O—oblatrant—furibund—fatuate—strenuous.
+O—conscious.�
+
+It would form an interesting essay, or rather series of essays, in a
+periodical work, were all the attempts to ridicule new phrases brought
+together, the proportion observed of words ridiculed which have been
+adopted, and are now common, such as _strenuous_, _conscious_, &c., and a
+trial made how far any grounds can be detected, so that one might
+determine beforehand whether a word was invented under the conditions of
+assimilability to our language or not. Thus much is certain, that the
+ridiculers were as often wrong as right; and Shakespeare himself could not
+prevent the naturalisation of _accommodation_, _remuneration_, &c.; or
+Swift the gross abuse even of the word _idea_.
+
+
+
+
+“Fall Of Sejanus.�
+
+
+Act i.—
+
+“_Arruntius._ The name Tiberius,
+I hope, will keep, howe’er he hath foregone
+The dignity and power.
+
+_Silius._ Sure, while he lives.
+
+_Arr._ And dead, it comes to Drusus. Should he fail,
+To the brave issue of Germanicus;
+And they are three: too many (ha?) for him
+To have a plot upon?
+
+_Sil._ I do not know
+The heart of his designs; but, sure, their face
+Looks farther than the present.
+
+_Arr._ By the gods,
+If I could guess he had but such a thought,
+My sword should cleave him down,� &c.
+
+The anachronic mixture in this Arruntius of the Roman republican, to whom
+Tiberius must have appeared as much a tyrant as Sejanus, with his
+James-and-Charles-the-First zeal for legitimacy of descent in this
+passage, is amusing. Of our great names Milton was, I think, the first who
+could properly be called a republican. My recollections of Buchanan’s
+works are too faint to enable me to judge whether the historian is not a
+fair exception.
+
+Act ii. Speech of Sejanus:—
+
+“Adultery! it is the lightest ill
+I will commit. A race of wicked acts
+Shall flow out of my anger, and o’erspread
+The world’s wide face, which no posterity
+Shall e’er approve, nor yet keep silent,� &c.
+
+The more we reflect and examine, examine and reflect, the more astonished
+shall we be at the immense superiority of Shakespeare over his
+contemporaries;—and yet what contemporaries!—giant minds indeed! Think of
+Jonson’s erudition, and the force of learned authority in that age; and
+yet, in no genuine part of Shakespeare’s works is there to be found such
+an absurd rant and ventriloquism as this, and too, too many other passages
+ferruminated by Jonson from Seneca’s tragedies, and the writings of the
+later Romans. I call it ventriloquism, because Sejanus is a puppet, out of
+which the poet makes his own voice appear to come.
+
+Act v. Scene of the sacrifice to Fortune.
+
+This scene is unspeakably irrational. To believe, and yet to scoff at, a
+present miracle is little less than impossible. Sejanus should have been
+made to suspect priestcraft and a secret conspiracy against him.
+
+
+
+
+“Volpone.�
+
+
+This admirable, indeed, but yet more wonderful than admirable, play is,
+from the fertility and vigour of invention, character, language, and
+sentiment, the strongest proof how impossible it is to keep up any
+pleasurable interest in a tale, in which there is no goodness of heart in
+any of the prominent characters. After the third act, this play becomes
+not a dead, but a painful, weight on the feelings. _Zeluco_ is an instance
+of the same truth. Bonario and Celia should have been made in some way or
+other principals in the plot; which they might have been, and the objects
+of interest, without having been made characters. In novels, the person in
+whose fate you are most interested, is often the least marked character of
+the whole. If it were possible to lessen the paramountcy of Volpone
+himself, a most delightful comedy might be produced, by making Celia the
+ward or niece of Corvino, instead of his wife, and Bonario her lover.
+
+
+
+
+“Apicæne.�
+
+
+This is to my feelings the most entertaining of old Ben’s comedies, and,
+more than any other, would admit of being brought out anew, if under the
+management of a judicious and stage-understanding playwright; and an
+actor, who had studied Morose, might make his fortune.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Clerimont’s speech:—
+
+“He would have hang’d a pewterer’s ’prentice once upon a Shrove
+Tuesday’s riot, for being of that trade, when the rest were _quiet_.�
+
+
+    “The old copies read _quit_,—_i.e._, discharged from working, and
+    gone to divert themselves.�—Whalley’s note.
+
+
+It should be “quit� no doubt, but not meaning “discharged from working,�
+&c.—but quit, that is, acquitted. The pewterer was at his holiday
+diversion as well as the other apprentices, and they as forward in the
+riot as he. But he alone was punished under pretext of the riot, but in
+fact for his trade.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+
+
+    “_Morose._ Cannot I, yet, find out a more compendious method than
+    by this _trunk_, to save my servants the labour of speech, and
+    mine ears the discord of sounds?�
+
+
+What does “trunk� mean here, and in the first scene of the first act? Is
+it a large ear-trumpet?—or rather a tube, such as passes from parlour to
+kitchen, instead of a bell?
+
+Whalley’s note at the end:—
+
+
+    “Some critics of the last age imagined the character of Morose to
+    be wholly out of nature. But to vindicate our poet, Mr. Dryden
+    tells us from tradition, and we may venture to take his word, that
+    Jonson was really acquainted with a person of this whimsical turn
+    of mind: and as humour is a personal quality, the poet is
+    acquitted from the charge of exhibiting a monster, or an
+    extravagant unnatural _caricatura_.�
+
+
+If Dryden had not made all additional proof superfluous by his own plays,
+this very vindication would evince that he had formed a false and vulgar
+conception of the nature and conditions of drama and dramatic personation.
+Ben Jonson would himself have rejected such a plea:—
+
+“For he knew, poet never credit gain’d
+By writing _truths_, but things, like truths, well feign’d.�
+
+By “truths� he means “facts.� Caricatures are not less so because they are
+found existing in real life. Comedy demands characters, and leaves
+caricatures to farce. The safest and the truest defence of old Ben would
+be to call the _Epicœne_ the best of farces. The defect in Morose, as in
+other of Jonson’s _dramatis personæ_, lies in this;—that the accident is
+not a prominence growing out of, and nourished by, the character which
+still circulates in it; but that the character, such as it is, rises out
+of, or, rather, consists in, the accident. Shakespeare’s comic personages
+have exquisitely characteristic features; however awry, disproportionate,
+and laughable they may be, still, like Bardolph’s nose, they are features.
+But Jonson’s are either a man with a huge wen, having a circulation of its
+own, and which we might conceive amputated, and the patient thereby losing
+all his character; or they are mere wens themselves instead of men,—wens
+personified, or with eyes, nose, and mouth cut out, mandrake-fashion.
+
+_Nota bene._—All the above, and much more, will have justly been said, if,
+and whenever, the drama of Jonson is brought into comparisons of rivalry
+with the Shakespearian. But this should not be. Let its inferiority to the
+Shakespearian be at once fairly owned,—but at the same time as the
+inferiority of an altogether different _genius_ of the drama. On this
+ground, old Ben would still maintain his proud height. He, no less than
+Shakespeare stands on the summit of his hill, and looks round him like a
+master,—though his be Lattrig and Shakespeare’s Skiddaw.
+
+
+
+
+“The Alchemist.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Face’s speech:—
+
+“Will take his oath o’ the Greek _Xenophon_,
+If need be, in his pocket.�
+
+Another reading is “Testament.�
+
+Probably, the meaning is—that intending to give false evidence, he carried
+a Greek _Xenophon_ to pass it off for a Greek Testament, and so avoid
+perjury—as the Irish do, by contriving to kiss their thumb-nails instead
+of the book.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Mammon’s speech:—
+
+“I will have all my beds blown up; not stuft:
+Down is too hard.�
+
+Thus the air-cushions, though perhaps only lately brought into use, were
+invented in idea in the seventeenth century!
+
+
+
+
+“Catiline’s Conspiracy.�
+
+
+A fondness for judging one work by comparison with others, perhaps
+altogether of a different class, argues a vulgar taste. Yet it is chiefly
+on this principle that the _Catiline_ has been rated so low. Take it and
+_Sejanus_, as compositions of a particular kind, namely, as a mode of
+relating great historical events in the liveliest and most interesting
+manner, and I cannot help wishing that we had whole volumes of such plays.
+We might as rationally expect the excitement of the _Vicar of Wakefield_
+from Goldsmith’s _History of England_, as that of _Lear_, _Othello_, &c.,
+from the _Sejanus_ or _Catiline_.
+
+Act i. sc. 4.—
+
+“_Cat._ Sirrah, what ail you?
+
+          (_He spies one of his boys not answer._)
+
+_Pag._ Nothing.
+
+_Best._ Somewhat modest.
+
+_Cat._ Slave, I will strike your soul out with my foot,� &c.
+
+This is either an unintelligible, or, in every sense, a most unnatural,
+passage,—improbable, if not impossible, at the moment of signing and
+swearing such a conspiracy, to the most libidinous satyr. The very
+presence of the boys is an outrage to probability. I suspect that these
+lines down to the words “throat opens,� should be removed back so as to
+follow the words “on this part of the house,� in the speech of Catiline
+soon after the entry of the conspirators. A total erasure, however, would
+be the best, or, rather, the only possible, amendment.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Sempronia’s speech:—
+
+          ...“He is but a new fellow,
+An _inmate_ here in Rome, as Catiline calls him.�
+
+A “lodger� would have been a happier imitation of the _inquilinus_ of
+Sallust.
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Speech of Cethegus:—
+
+“Can these or such be any aids to us,� &c.
+
+What a strange notion Ben must have formed of a determined, remorseless,
+all-daring, foolhardiness, to have represented it in such a mouthing
+Tamburlane, and bombastic tonguebully as this Cethegus of his!
+
+
+
+
+“Bartholomew Fair.�
+
+
+Induction. Scrivener’s speech:—
+
+“If there be never a _servant-monster_ in the Fair, who can help it
+he says, nor a nest of antiques?�
+
+The best excuse that can be made for Jonson, and in a somewhat less degree
+for Beaumont and Fletcher, in respect of these base and silly sneers at
+Shakespeare is, that his plays were present to men’s minds chiefly as
+acted. They had not a neat edition of them, as we have, so as, by
+comparing the one with the other, to form a just notion of the mighty mind
+that produced the whole. At all events, and in every point of view, Jonson
+stands far higher in a moral light than Beaumont and Fletcher. He was a
+fair contemporary, and in his way, and as far as Shakespeare is concerned,
+an original. But Beaumont and Fletcher were always imitators of, and often
+borrowers from him, and yet sneer at him with a spite far more malignant
+than Jonson, who, besides, has made noble compensation by his praises.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3.—
+
+“_Just._ I mean a child of the horn-thumb, a babe _of booty_, boy, a
+cut purse.�
+
+Does not this confirm, what the passage itself cannot but suggest, the
+propriety of substituting “booty� for “beauty� in Falstaff’s speech,
+_Henry IV._ part i. act i. sc. 2. “Let not us, &c.?�
+
+It is not often that old Ben condescends to imitate a modern author; but
+Master Dan. Knockhum Jordan, and his vapours are manifest reflexes of Nym
+and Pistol.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.—
+
+“_Quarl._ She’ll make excellent geer for the coachmakers here in
+Smithfield, to anoint wheels and axletrees with.�
+
+Good! but yet it falls short of the speech of a Mr. Johnes, M.P., in the
+Common Council, on the invasion intended by Buonaparte:—“Houses
+plundered—then burnt;—sons conscribed—wives and daughters ravished,� &c.,
+&c.—“But as for you, you luxurious Aldermen! with your fat will he grease
+the wheels of his triumphant chariot!�
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.—
+
+“_Cok._ Avoid in your satin doublet, Numps.�
+
+This reminds me of Shakespeare’s “Aroint thee, witch!� I find in several
+books of that age the words _aloigne_ and _eloigne_—that is,—“keep your
+distance!� or “off with you!� Perhaps “aroint� was a corruption of
+“aloigne� by the vulgar. The common etymology from _ronger_ to gnaw seems
+unsatisfactory.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4.—
+
+“_Quarl._ How now, Numps! almost tired in your protectorship?
+overparted, overparted?�
+
+An odd sort of propheticality in this Numps and old Noll!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Knockhum’s speech:—
+
+“He eats with his eyes, as well as his teeth.�
+
+A good motto for the Parson in Hogarth’s _Election Dinner_,—who shows how
+easily he might be reconciled to the Church of Rome, for he worships what
+he eats.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.—
+
+“_Pup._ _Di._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ It is not profane, he says.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ Well said, confute him with Not, still.�
+
+An imitation of the quarrel between Bacchus and the Frogs in
+Aristophanes:—
+
+“Χο�ός.
+ἀλλὰ μὴν κεκ�αξόμεσθά γ’,
+�πόσον ἡ φά�υνξ ἂν ἡμῶν
+χανδάνη δι’ ἡμέ�ας,
+β�εκεκεκὲξ, κοὰξ, κοὰξ.
+
+Διόνυσος.
+τούτω γὰ� ο� νικήσετε.
+
+Χο�ός.
+ο�δὲ μὴν ἡμᾶς σὺ τάντως.
+
+Διόνυσος.
+ο�δὲ μὴν ὑμεῖς γε δή μ’ ο�δέποτε.�
+
+
+
+
+“The Devil Is An Ass.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Pug._ Why any: Fraud,
+Or Covetousness, or lady Vanity,
+Or old Iniquity, _I’ll call him hither_.�
+
+
+    “The words in italics should probably be given to the
+    master-devil, Satan.�—Whalley’s note.
+
+
+That is, against all probability, and with a (for Jonson) impossible
+violation of character. The words plainly belong to Pug, and mark at once
+his simpleness and his impatience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Fitz-dottrel’s soliloquy.
+
+Compare this exquisite piece of sense, satire, and sound philosophy in
+1616 with Sir M. Hale’s speech from the bench in a trial of a witch many
+years afterwards.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Meercraft’s speech:—
+
+“Sir, money’s a whore, a bawd, a drudge.�
+
+I doubt not that “money� was the first word of the line, and has dropped
+out:—
+
+“Money! Sir, money’s a,� &c.
+
+
+
+
+“The Staple Of News.�
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Pecunia’s speech:—
+
+“No, he would ha’ done,
+That lay not in his power: he had the use
+Of your bodies, Band and Wax, and sometimes Statute’s.�
+
+Read (1815)—
+
+         ... “he had the use of
+Your bodies,� &c.
+
+Now, however, I doubt the legitimacy of my transposition of the “of� from
+the beginning of this latter line to the end of the one preceding;—for
+though it facilitates the metre and reading of the latter line, and is
+frequent in Massinger, this disjunction of the preposition from its case
+seems to have been disallowed by Jonson. Perhaps the better reading is—
+
+“O’ your bodies,� &c.—
+
+the two syllables being slurred into one, or rather snatched, or sucked,
+up into the emphasised “your.� In all points of view, therefore, Ben’s
+judgment is just; for in this way, the line cannot be read, as metre,
+without that strong and quick emphasis on “your� which the sense
+requires;—and had not the sense required an emphasis on “your,� the
+_tmesis_ of the sign of its cases “of,� “to,� &c., would destroy almost
+all boundary between the dramatic verse and prose in comedy:—a lesson not
+to be rash in conjectural amendments.—1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.—
+
+“_P. jun._ I love all men of virtue, _frommy_ Princess.�
+
+“Frommy,� _fromme_—pious, dutiful, &c.
+
+Act v. sc. 4. Penny-boy, sen., and Porter.
+
+I dare not, will not, think that honest Ben had _Lear_ in his mind in this
+mock mad scene.
+
+
+
+
+“The New Inn.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Host’s speech:—
+
+“A heavy purse, and then two turtles, _makes_.�
+
+“Makes,� frequent in old books, and even now used in some counties for
+mates, or pairs.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Host’s speech:—
+
+          ...“And for a leap
+Of the vaulting horse, to _play_ the vaulting _house_.�
+
+Instead of reading with Whalley “ply� for “play,� I would suggest “horse�
+for “house.� The meaning would then be obvious and pertinent. The punlet,
+or pun-maggot, or pun intentional, “horse and house,� is below Jonson. The
+_jeu-de-mots_ just below—
+
+          ...“Read a lecture
+Upon _Aquinas_ at St. Thomas à _Water_ings�—
+
+had a learned smack in it to season its insipidity.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Lovel’s speech:—
+
+“Then shower’d his bounties on me, like the Hours,
+That open-handed sit upon the clouds,
+And press the liberality of heaven
+Down to the laps of thankful men!�
+
+Like many other similar passages in Jonson, this is εῖδος χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν—a
+sight which it is difficult to make one’s self see,—a picture my fancy
+cannot copy detached from the words.
+
+Act ii. sc. 5. Though it was hard upon old Ben, yet Felton, it must be
+confessed, was in the right in considering the Fly, Tipto, Bat Burst, &c.,
+of this play mere dotages. Such a scene as this was enough to damn a new
+play; and Nick Stuff is worse still,—most abominable stuff indeed!
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Lovel’s speech:—
+
+“So knowledge first begets benevolence,
+Benevolence breeds friendship, friendship love.�
+
+Jonson has elsewhere proceeded thus far; but the part most difficult and
+delicate, yet, perhaps, not the least capable of being both morally and
+poetically treated, is the union itself, and what, even in this life, it
+can be.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.
+
+
+SEWARD’S Preface. 1750.—
+
+
+    “The _King and No King_, too, is extremely spirited in all its
+    characters; Arbaces holds up a mirror to all men of virtuous
+    principles but violent passions. Hence he is, as it were, at once
+    magnanimity and pride, patience and fury, gentleness and rigour,
+    chastity and incest, and is one of the finest mixtures of virtues
+    and vices that any poet has drawn,� &c.
+
+
+These are among the endless instances of the abject state to which
+psychology had sunk from the reign of Charles I. to the middle of the
+present reign of George III.; and even now it is but just awaking.
+
+_Ib._ Seward’s comparison of Julia’s speech in the _Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_, act iv. last scene—
+
+“Madam, ’twas Ariadne passioning,� &c.
+
+with Aspatia’s speech in the _Maid’s Tragedy_—
+
+“I stand upon the sea-beach now,� &c.—Act ii.—
+
+and preference of the latter.
+
+It is strange to take an incidental passage of one writer, intended only
+for a subordinate part, and compare it with the same thought in another
+writer, who had chosen it for a prominent and principal figure.
+
+_Ib._ Seward’s preference of Alphonso’s poisoning in _A Wife for a Month_,
+act i. sc. 1, to the passage in _King John_, act v. sc. 7:—
+
+“Poison’d, ill fare! dead, forsook, cast off!�
+
+Mr. Seward! Mr. Seward! you may be, and I trust you are, an angel; but you
+were an ass.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+
+    “Every reader of _taste_ will see how superior this is to the
+    quotation from Shakespeare.�
+
+
+Of what taste?
+
+_Ib._ Seward’s classification of the plays.
+
+Surely _Monsieur Thomas_, the _Chances_, _Beggar’s Bush_, and the
+_Pilgrim_, should have been placed in the very first class! But the whole
+attempt ends in a woful failure.
+
+
+
+
+Harris’s Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+
+
+“I’d have a state of wit convok’d, which hath
+A _power_ to take up on common faith:�—
+
+This is an instance of that modifying of quantity by emphasis, without
+which our elder poets cannot be scanned. “Power,� here, instead of being
+one long syllable—pow’r—must be sounded, not indeed as a spondee, nor yet
+as a trochee; but as - u u;—the first syllable is 1-1/4.
+
+We can, indeed, never expect an authentic edition of our elder dramatic
+poets (for in those times a drama was a poem), until some man undertakes
+the work, who has studied the philosophy of metre. This has been found the
+main torch of sound restoration in the Greek dramatists by Bentley,
+Porson, and their followers;—how much more, then, in writers in our own
+language! It is true that quantity, an almost iron law with the Greek, is
+in English rather a subject for a peculiarly fine ear, than any law or
+even rule; but, then, instead of it, we have, first, accent; secondly,
+emphasis; and lastly, retardation, and acceleration of the times of
+syllables according to the meaning of the words, the passion that
+accompanies them, and even the character of the person that uses them.
+With due attention to these,—above all, to that, which requires the most
+attention and the finest taste, the character, Massinger, for example,
+might be reduced to a rich and yet regular metre. But then the _regulæ_
+must be first known; though I will venture to say, that he who does not
+find a line (not corrupted) of Massinger’s flow to the time total of a
+trimeter catalectic iambic verse, has not read it aright. But by virtue of
+the last principle—the retardation of acceleration of time—we have the
+proceleusmatic foot u u u u, and the _dispondæus_ - - - -, not to mention
+the _choriambus_, the ionics, pæons, and epitrites. Since Dryden, the
+metre of our poets leads to the sense; in our elder and more genuine
+bards, the sense, including the passion, leads to the metre. Read even
+Donne’s satires as he meant them to be read, and as the sense and passion
+demand, and you will find in the lines a manly harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale’s Edition, 1811.
+
+
+    “In general their plots are more regular than Shakespeare’s.�
+
+
+This is true, if true at all, only before a court of criticism, which
+judges one scheme by the laws of another and a diverse one. Shakespeare’s
+plots have their own laws of _regulæ_, and according to these they are
+regular.
+
+
+
+
+“Maid’s Tragedy.�
+
+
+Act i. The metrical arrangement is most slovenly throughout.
+
+“_Strat._ As well as masque can be,� &c.—
+
+and all that follows to “who is return’d�—is plainly blank verse, and
+falls easily into it.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:—
+
+“These soft and silken wars are not for me:
+The music must be shrill, and all confus’d,
+That stirs my blood; and then I dance with arms.�
+
+What strange self-trumpeters and tongue-bullies all the brave soldiers of
+Beaumont and Fletcher are! Yet I am inclined to think it was the fashion
+of the age from the Soldier’s speech in the Counter Scuffle; and deeper
+than the fashion B. and F. did not fashion.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Lysippus:—
+
+“Yes, but this lady
+Walks discontented, with her wat’ry eyes
+Bent on the earth,� &c.
+
+Opulent as Shakespeare was, and of his opulence prodigal, he yet would not
+have put this exquisite piece of poetry in the mouth of a no-character, or
+as addressed to a Melantius. I wish that B. and F. had written poems
+instead of tragedies.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Mel._ I might run fiercely, not more hastily,
+Upon my foe.�
+
+Read
+
+“I mĭght rūn _m�re_ fiērcelȳ, not more hastily.�
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Calianax:—
+
+
+    “Office! I would I could put it off! I am sure I sweat quite
+    through my office!�
+
+
+The syllable _off_ reminds the testy statesman of his robe, and he carries
+on the image.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:—
+
+          ... “Would that blood,
+That sea of blood, that I have lost in fight,� &c.
+
+All B. and F.’s generals are pugilists or cudgel-fighters, that boast of
+their bottom and of the _claret_ they have shed.
+
+_Ib._ The Masque;—Cinthia’s speech:—
+
+“But I will give a greater state and glory,
+And raise to time a _noble_ memory
+Of what these lovers are.�
+
+I suspect that “nobler,� pronounced as “nobiler� - u -, was the poet’s
+word, and that the accent is to be placed on the penultimate of “memory.�
+As to the passage—
+
+“Yet, while our reign lasts, let us stretch our power,� &c.—
+
+removed from the text of Cinthia’s speech, by these foolish editors as
+unworthy of B. and F.—the first eight lines are not worse, and the last
+couplet incomparably better, than the stanza retained.
+
+Act ii. Amintor’s speech:—
+
+“Oh, thou hast nam’d a word, that wipes away
+All thoughts revengeful! In that sacred name,
+‘The king,’ there lies a terror.�
+
+It is worth noticing that of the three greatest tragedians, Massinger was
+a democrat, Beaumont and Fletcher the most servile _jure divino_
+royalists, and Shakespeare a philosopher;—if aught personal, an
+aristocrat.
+
+
+
+
+“A King And No King.�
+
+
+Act iv. Speech of Tigranes:—
+
+“She, that forgat the greatness of her grief
+And miseries, that must follow such mad passions,
+Endless and wild as women!� &c.
+
+Seward’s note and suggestion of “in.�
+
+It would be amusing to learn from some existing friend of Mr. Seward what
+he meant, or rather dreamed, in this note. It is certainly a difficult
+passage, of which there are two solutions;—one, that the writer was
+somewhat more injudicious than usual;—the other, that he was very, very
+much more profound and Shakespearian than usual. Seward’s emendation, at
+all events, is right and obvious. Were it a passage of Shakespeare, I
+should not hesitate to interpret it as characteristic of Tigranes’ state
+of mind, disliking the very virtues, and therefore half-consciously
+representing them as mere products of the violence of the sex in general
+in all their whims, and yet forced to admire, and to feel and to express
+gratitude for, the exertion in his own instance. The inconsistency of the
+passage would be the consistency of the author. But this is above Beaumont
+and Fletcher.
+
+
+
+
+“The Scornful Lady.�
+
+
+Act ii. Sir Roger’s speech:—
+
+
+    “Did I for this consume my _quarters_ in meditations, vows, and
+    woo’d her in heroical epistles? Did I expound the _Owl_, and
+    undertake, with labour and expense, the recollection of those
+    thousand pieces, consum’d in cellars and tobacco-shops, of that
+    our honour’d Englishman, Nic. Broughton?� &c.
+
+
+Strange, that neither Mr. Theobald nor Mr. Seward should have seen that
+this mock heroic speech is in full-mouthed blank verse! Had they seen
+this, they would have seen that “quarters� is a substitution of the
+players for “quires� or “squares,� (that is) of paper:—
+
+“Consume my quires in meditations, vows,
+And woo’d her in heroical epistles.�
+
+They ought, likewise, to have seen that the abbreviated “Ni. Br.� of the
+text was properly “Mi. Dr.�—and that Michael Drayton, not Nicholas
+Broughton, is here ridiculed for his poem _The Owl_ and his _Heroical
+Epistles_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Younger Loveless:—
+
+“Fill him some wine. Thou dost not see me mov’d,� &c.
+
+These Editors ought to have learnt, that scarce an instance occurs in B.
+and F. of a long speech not in metre. This is plain staring blank verse.
+
+
+
+
+“The Custom Of The Country.�
+
+
+I cannot but think that in a country conquered by a nobler race than the
+natives, and in which the latter became villeins and bondsmen, this
+custom, _lex merchetæ_, may have been introduced for wise purposes,—as of
+improving the breed, lessening the antipathy of different races, and
+producing a new bond of relationship between the lord and the tenant, who,
+as the eldest born, would at least have a chance of being, and a
+probability of being thought, the lord’s child. In the West Indies it
+cannot have these effects, because the mulatto is marked by nature
+different from the father, and because there is no bond, no law, no
+custom, but of mere debauchery.—1815.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Rutilio’s speech:—
+
+“Yet if you play not fair play,� &c.
+
+Evidently to be transposed, and read thus:—
+
+“Yet if you play not fair, above-board too,
+I’ll tell you what—
+I’ve a foolish engine here:—I say no more—
+But if your Honour’s guts are not enchanted.�
+
+Licentious as the comic metre of B. and F. is,—a far more lawless, and yet
+far less happy, imitation of the rhythm of animated talk in real life than
+Massinger’s—still it is made worse than it really is by ignorance of the
+halves, thirds, and two-thirds of a line which B. and F. adopted from the
+Italian and Spanish dramatists. Thus, in Rutilio’s speech:—
+
+“Though I confess
+Any man would desire to have her, and by any means,� &c.
+
+Correct the whole passage,—
+
+“Though I confess
+Any man would
+Desire to have her, and by any means,
+At any rate too, yet this common hangman
+That hath whipt off a thousănd măids heads already—
+That he should glean the harvest, sticks in my stomach!�
+
+In all comic metres the gulping of short syllables, and the abbreviation
+of syllables ordinarily long by the rapid pronunciation of eagerness and
+vehemence, are not so much a license as a law,—a faithful copy of nature,
+and let them be read characteristically, the times will be found nearly
+equal. Thus, the three words marked above make a _choriambus_ -- u u, or
+perhaps a _pæon primus_ - u u u; a dactyl, by virtue of comic rapidity,
+being only equal to an iambus when distinctly pronounced. I have no doubt
+that all B. and F.’s works might be safely corrected by attention to this
+rule, and that the editor is entitled to transpositions of all kinds, and
+to not a few omissions. For the rule of the metre once lost—what was to
+restrain the actors from interpolation?
+
+
+
+
+“The Elder Brother.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Charles’s speech:—
+
+          ... “For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil
+In his Georgicks? and to cure your herds,
+His Bucolicks is a master-piece.�
+
+Fletcher was too good a scholar to fall into so gross a blunder, as
+Messrs. Sympson and Colman suppose. I read the passage thus:—
+
+          ... “For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil,
+In his Georgicks, _or_ to cure your herds
+(His Bucolicks are a master-piece); but when,� &c.
+
+Jealous of Virgil’s honour, he is afraid lest, by referring to the
+_Georgics_ alone, he might be understood as undervaluing the preceding
+work. “Not that I do not admire the _Bucolics_ too, in their way.—But
+when,� &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Charles’s speech:—
+
+        ... “She has a face looks like a _story_;
+The _story_ of the heavens looks very like her.�
+
+Seward reads “glory;� and Theobald quotes from Philaster:—
+
+“That reads the story of a woman’s face.�
+
+I can make sense of this passage as little as Mr. Seward;—the passage from
+Philaster is nothing to the purpose. Instead of “a story,� I have
+sometimes thought of proposing “Astræa.�
+
+_Ib._ Angellina’s speech:—
+
+          ... “You’re old and dim, Sir,
+And the shadow of the earth eclips’d your judgment.�
+
+Inappropriate to Angellina, but one of the finest lines in our language.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Charles’s speech:—
+
+“And lets the serious part of life run by
+As thin neglected sand, whiteness of name.
+You must be mine,� &c.
+
+Seward’s note, and reading:—
+
+     ... “Whiteness of name,
+You must be mine!�
+
+Nonsense! “Whiteness of name� is in apposition to “the serious part of
+life,� and means a deservedly pure reputation. The following line—“You
+_must_ be mine!� means—“Though I do not enjoy you to-day, I shall
+hereafter, and without reproach.�
+
+
+
+
+“The Spanish Curate.�
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Amaranta’s speech:—
+
+“And still I push’d him on, as he had been _coming_.�
+
+Perhaps the true word is “conning,�—that is, learning, or reading, and
+therefore inattentive.
+
+
+
+
+“Wit Without Money.�
+
+
+Act i. Valentine’s speech:—
+
+“One without substance,� &c.
+
+The present text, and that proposed by Seward, are equally vile. I have
+endeavoured to make the lines sense, though the whole is, I suspect,
+incurable except by bold conjectural reformation. I would read thus:—
+
+“One without substance of herself, that’s woman;
+Without the pleasure of her life, that’s wanton;
+Tho’ she be young, forgetting it; tho’ fair,
+Making her glass the eyes of honest men,
+Not her own admiration.�
+
+“That’s wanton,� or, “that is to say, wantonness.�
+
+Act ii. Valentine’s speech:—
+
+“Of half-a crown a week for pins and puppets.�
+
+
+    “As there is a syllable wanting in the measure here.�—Seward.
+
+
+A syllable wanting! Had this Seward neither ears nor fingers? The line is
+a more than usually regular iambic hendecasyllable.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“With one man satisfied, with one rein guided;
+With one faith, one content, one bed;
+_Aged_, she makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;
+A widow is,� &c.
+
+Is “apaid�—contented—too obsolete for B. and F.? If not, we might read it
+thus:—
+
+“Content with one faith, with one bed apaid,
+She makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;�—
+
+Or, it may be,—
+
+... “with one breed apaid�—
+
+that is, satisfied with one set of children, in opposition to,—
+
+“A widow is a Christmas-box,� &c.
+
+Colman’s note on Seward’s attempt to put this play into metre.
+
+The editors, and their contemporaries in general, were ignorant of any but
+the regular iambic verse. A study of the Aristophanic and Plautine metres
+would have enabled them to reduce B. and F. throughout into metre, except
+where prose is really intended.
+
+
+
+
+“The Humorous Lieutenant.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Second Ambassador’s speech:—
+
+... “When your angers,
+_Like_ so many brother billows, rose together,
+And, curling up _your_ foaming crests, defied,� &c.
+
+This worse than superfluous “like� is very like an interpolation of some
+matter of fact critic—all _pus, prose atque venenum_. The “your� in the
+next line, instead of “their,� is likewise yours, Mr. Critic!
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Timon’s speech:—
+
+“Another of a new _way_ will be look’d at.�
+
+
+    “We must suspect the poets wrote, ‘of a new _day_.’ So immediately
+    after,
+
+              ... Time may
+    For all his wisdom, yet give us a day.�
+
+    Seward’s Note.
+
+
+For this very reason I more than suspect the contrary.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Leucippe:—
+
+“I’ll put her into action for a _wastcoat_.�
+
+What we call a riding-habit,—some mannish dress.
+
+
+
+
+“The Mad Lover.�
+
+
+Act iv. Masque of beasts:—
+
+          ... “This goodly tree,
+An usher that still grew before his lady,
+Wither’d at root: this, for he could not woo,
+A grumbling lawyer:� &c.
+
+Here must have been omitted a line rhyming to “tree;� and the words of the
+next line have been transposed:—
+
+          ... “This goodly tree,
+_Which leafless, and obscur’d with moss you see_,
+An usher this, that ’fore his lady grew,
+Wither’d at root: this, for he could not woo,� &c.
+
+
+
+
+“The Loyal Subject.�
+
+
+It is well worthy of notice, and yet has not been, I believe, noticed
+hitherto, what a marked difference there exists in the dramatic writers of
+the Elizabetho-Jacobæan age—(Mercy on me! what a phrase for “the writers
+during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.!�)—in respect of their
+political opinions. Shakespeare, in this, as in all other things, himself
+and alone, gives the permanent politics of human nature, and the only
+predilection which appears, shows itself in his contempt of mobs and the
+populacy. Massinger is a decided Whig;—Beaumont and Fletcher high-flying,
+passive-obedience, Tories. The Spanish dramatists furnished them with
+this, as with many other ingredients. By the by, an accurate and familiar
+acquaintance with all the productions of the Spanish stage previously to
+1620, is an indispensable qualification for an editor of B. and F.;—and
+with this qualification a most interesting and instructive edition might
+be given. This edition of Colman’s (Stockdale, 1811) is below criticism.
+
+In metre, B. and F. are inferior to Shakespeare, on the one hand, as
+expressing the poetic part of the drama, and to Massinger, on the other,
+in the art of reconciling metre with the natural rhythm of
+conversation,—in which, indeed, Massinger is unrivalled. Read him aright,
+and measure by time, not syllables, and no lines can be more
+legitimate,—none in which the substitution of equipollent feet, and the
+modifications by emphasis, are managed with such exquisite judgment. B.
+and F. are fond of the twelve syllable (not Alexandrine) line, as:—
+
+“Too many fears ’tis thought too: and to nourish those.�
+
+This has often a good effect, and is one of the varieties most common in
+Shakespeare.
+
+
+
+
+“Rule A Wife And Have A Wife.�
+
+
+Act iii. Old Woman’s speech:—
+
+          ... “I fear he will knock my
+Brains out for lying.�
+
+Mr. Seward discards the words “for lying,� because “most of the things
+spoke of Estifania are true, with only a little exaggeration, and because
+they destroy all appearance of measure.�—Colman’s note.
+
+Mr. Seward had his brains out. The humour lies in Estifania’s having
+ordered the Old Woman to tell these tales of her; for though an intriguer,
+she is not represented as other than chaste; and as to the metre, it is
+perfectly correct.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Marg._ As you love me, give way.
+
+_Leon._ It shall be better, I will give none, madam,� &c.
+
+The meaning is:—“It shall be a better way, first;—as it is, I will not
+give it, or any that you in your present mood would wish.�
+
+
+
+
+“The Laws Of Candy.�
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Melitus:—
+
+“Whose insolence and never yet match’d pride
+Can by no character be well express’d,
+But in her only name, the proud Erota.�
+
+Colman’s note.
+
+The poet intended no allusion to the word “Erota� itself; but says that
+her very name, “the proud Erota,� became a character and adage;—as we say,
+a Quixote or a Brutus: so to say an “Erota,� expressed female pride and
+insolence of beauty.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Antinous:—
+
+“Of my peculiar honours, not deriv’d
+From _successary_, but purchas’d with my blood.�
+
+The poet doubtless wrote “successry,� which, though not adopted in our
+language, would be, on many occasions, as here, a much more significant
+phrase than ancestry.
+
+
+
+
+“The Little French Lawyer.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Dinant’s speech:—
+
+“Are you become a patron too? ’Tis a new one,
+No more on’t,� &c.
+
+Seward reads:—
+
+“Are you become a patron too? _How long_
+_Have you been conning this speech?_ ’Tis a new one,� &c.
+
+If conjectural emendation like this be allowed, we might venture to read:—
+
+“Are you become a patron _to a new tune_?�
+
+or,—
+
+“Are you become a patron? ’Tis a new _tune_.�
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Din._ Thou wouldst not willingly
+Live a protested coward, or be call’d one?
+
+_Cler._ Words are but words.
+
+_Din._ Nor wouldst thou take a blow?�
+
+Seward’s note.
+
+O miserable! Dinant sees through Cleremont’s gravity, and the actor is to
+explain it. “Words are but words,� is the last struggle of affected
+morality.
+
+
+
+
+“Valentinian.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 3.—
+
+It is a real trial of charity to read this scene with tolerable temper
+towards Fletcher. So very slavish—so reptile—are the feelings and
+sentiments represented as duties. And yet, remember, he was a bishop’s
+son, and the duty to God was the supposed basis.
+
+Personals, including body, house, home, and religion;—property,
+subordination, and inter-community;—these are the fundamentals of society.
+I mean here, religion negatively taken,—so that the person be not
+compelled to do or utter, in relation of the soul to God, what would be,
+in that person, a lie;—such as to force a man to go to church, or to swear
+that he believes what he does not believe. Religion, positively taken, may
+be a great and useful privilege, but cannot be a right,—were it for this
+only, that it cannot be pre-defined. The ground of this distinction
+between negative and positive religion, as a social right, is plain. No
+one of my fellow-citizens is encroached on by my not declaring to him what
+I believe respecting the super-sensual; but should every man be entitled
+to preach against the preacher, who could hear any preacher? Now, it is
+different in respect of loyalty. There we have positive rights, but not
+negative rights;—for every pretended negative would be in effect a
+positive;—as if a soldier had a right to keep to himself whether he would,
+or would not, fight. Now, no one of these fundamentals can be rightfully
+attacked, except when the guardian of it has abused it to subvert one or
+more of the rest. The reason is, that the guardian, as a fluent, is less
+than the permanent which he is to guard. He is the temporary and mutable
+mean, and derives his whole value from the end. In short, as robbery is
+not high treason, so neither is every unjust act of a king the converse.
+All must be attacked and endangered. Why? Because the king, as _a_ to A,
+is a mean to A, or subordination, in a far higher sense than a proprietor,
+as _b_ to A, is a mean to B, or property.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Claudia’s speech:—
+
+“Chimney-pieces!� &c.
+
+The whole of this speech seems corrupt; and if accurately printed,—that
+is, if the same in all the prior editions,—irremediable but by bold
+conjecture. “_Till_ my tackle,� should be, I think, “_While_,� &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. B. and F. always write as if virtue or goodness were a
+sort of talisman, or strange something, that might be lost without the
+least fault on the part of the owner. In short, their chaste ladies value
+their chastity as a material thing,—not as an act or state of being; and
+this mere thing being imaginary, no wonder that all their women are
+represented with the minds of strumpets, except a few irrational
+humourists, far less capable of exciting our sympathy than a Hindoo who
+has had a basin of cow-broth thrown over him;—for this, though a debasing
+superstition, is still real, and we might pity the poor wretch, though we
+cannot help despising him. But B. and F.’s Lucinas are clumsy fictions. It
+is too plain that the authors had no one idea of chastity as a virtue, but
+only such a conception as a blind man might have of the power of seeing by
+handling an ox’s eye. In _The Queen of Corinth_, indeed, they talk
+differently; but it is all talk, and nothing is real in it but the dread
+of losing a reputation. Hence the frightful contrast between their women
+(even those who are meant for virtuous) and Shakespeare’s. So, for
+instance, _The Maid in the Mill_:—a woman must not merely have grown old
+in brothels, but have chuckled over every abomination committed in them
+with a rampant sympathy of imagination, to have had her fancy so drunk
+with the _minutiæ_ of lechery as this icy chaste virgin evinces hers to
+have been.
+
+It would be worth while to note how many of these plays are founded on
+rapes,—how many on incestuous passions, and how many on mere lunacies.
+Then their virtuous women are either crazy superstitions of a mere bodily
+negation of having been acted on, or strumpets in their imaginations and
+wishes, or, as in this _Maid in the Mill_, both at the same time. In the
+men, the love is merely lust in one direction,—exclusive preference of one
+object. The tyrant’s speeches are mostly taken from the mouths of
+indignant denouncers of the tyrant’s character, with the substitution of
+“I� for “he,�" and the omission of the prefatory “he acts as if he
+thought� so and so. The only feelings they can possibly excite are disgust
+at the Æciuses, if regarded as sane loyalists, or compassion if considered
+as Bedlamites. So much for their tragedies. But even their comedies are,
+most of them, disturbed by the fantasticalness, or gross caricature, of
+the persons or incidents. There are few characters that you can really
+like (even though you should have erased from your mind all the filth
+which bespatters the most likeable of them, as Piniero in _The Island
+Princess_ for instance),—scarcely one whom you can love. How different
+this from Shakespeare, who makes one have a sort of sneaking affection
+even for his Barnardines;—whose very Iagos and Richards are awful, and, by
+the counteracting power of profound intellects, rendered fearful rather
+than hateful;—and even the exceptions, as Goneril and Regan, are proofs of
+superlative judgment and the finest moral tact, in being left utter
+monsters, _nulla virtute redemptæ_, and in being kept out of sight as much
+as possible,—they being, indeed, only means for the excitement and
+deepening of noblest emotions towards the Lear, Cordelia, &c. and employed
+with the severest economy! But even Shakespeare’s grossness—that which is
+really so, independently of the increase in modern times of vicious
+associations with things indifferent (for there is a state of manners
+conceivable so pure, that the language of Hamlet at Ophelia’s feet might
+be a harmless rallying, or playful teazing, of a shame that would exist in
+Paradise)—at the worst, how diverse in kind is it from Beaumont and
+Fletcher’s! In Shakespeare it is the mere generalities of sex, mere words
+for the most part, seldom or never distinct images, all head-work, and
+fancy drolleries; there is no sensation supposed in the speaker. I need
+not proceed to contrast this with B. and F.
+
+
+
+
+“Rollo.�
+
+
+This, perhaps, the most energetic of Fletcher’s tragedies. He evidently
+aimed at a new Richard III. in Rollo;—but, as in all his other imitations
+of Shakespeare, he was not philosopher enough to bottom his original.
+Thus, in Rollo, he has produced a mere personification of outrageous
+wickedness, with no fundamental characteristic impulses to make either the
+tyrant’s words or actions philosophically intelligible. Hence the most
+pathetic situations border on the horrible, and what he meant for the
+terrible, is either hateful, τὸ μισητὸν, or ludicrous. The scene of
+Baldwin’s sentence in the third act is probably the grandest working of
+passion in all B. and F.’s dramas;—but the very magnificence of filial
+affection given to Edith, in this noble scene, renders the after scene (in
+imitation of one of the least Shakespearian of all Shakespeare’s works, if
+it be his, the scene between Richard and Lady Anne) in which Edith is
+yielding to a few words and tears, not only unnatural, but disgusting. In
+Shakespeare, Lady Anne is described as a weak, vain, very woman
+throughout.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+
+“_Gis._ He is indeed the perfect character
+Of a good man, and so his actions speak him.�
+
+This character of Aubrey, and the whole spirit of this and several other
+plays of the same authors, are interesting as traits of the morals which
+it was fashionable to teach in the reigns of James I. and his successor,
+who died a martyr to them. Stage, pulpit, law, fashion,—all conspired to
+enslave the realm. Massinger’s plays breathe the opposite spirit;
+Shakespeare’s the spirit of wisdom which is for all ages. By the by, the
+Spanish dramatists—Calderon, in particular,—had some influence in this
+respect, of romantic loyalty to the greatest monsters, as well as in the
+busy intrigues of B. and F.’s plays.
+
+
+
+
+“The Wildgoose Chase.�
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Belleur’s speech:—
+
+... “That wench, methinks,
+If I were but well set on, for she is a _fable_,
+If I were but hounded right, and one to teach me.�
+
+Sympson reads “affable,� which Colman rejects, and says, “the next line
+seems to enforce� the reading in the text.
+
+Pity, that the editor did not explain wherein the sense, “seemingly
+enforced by the next line,� consists. May the true word be “a sable�—that
+is, a black fox, hunted for its precious fur? Or “at-able,�—as we now
+say,—“she is come-at-able?�
+
+
+
+
+“A Wife For A Month.�
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 1. Alphonso’s speech:—
+
+“Betwixt the cold bear and the raging lion
+Lies my safe way.�
+
+Seward’s note and alteration to—
+
+“’Twixt the cold bears, far from the raging lion�—
+
+This Mr. Seward is a blockhead of the provoking species. In his itch for
+correction, he forgot the words—“lies my safe way!� The bear is the
+extreme pole, and thither he would travel over the space contained between
+it and “the raging lion.�
+
+
+
+
+“The Pilgrim.�
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+
+Alinda’s interview with her father is lively, and happily hit off; but
+this scene with Roderigo is truly excellent. Altogether, indeed, this play
+holds the first place in B. and F.’s romantic entertainments,
+_Lustspiele_, which collectively are their happiest performances, and are
+only inferior to the romance of Shakespeare in the _As You Like It_,
+_Twelfth Night_, &c.
+
+_Ib._—
+
+“_Alin._ To-day you shall wed Sorrow,
+And Repentance will come to-morrow.�
+
+Read “Penitence,� or else—
+
+“Repentance, she will come to-morrow.�
+
+
+
+
+“The Queen Of Corinth.�
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+
+Merione’s speech. Had the scene of this tragi-comedy been laid in
+Hindostan instead of Corinth, and the gods here addressed been the Vishnu
+and Co. of the Indian Pantheon, this rant would not have been much amiss.
+
+In respect of style and versification, this play and the following of
+_Bonduca_ may be taken as the best, and yet as characteristic, specimens
+of Beaumont and Fletcher’s dramas. I particularly instance the first scene
+of the _Bonduca_. Take Shakespeare’s _Richard II._, and having selected
+some one scene of about the same number of lines, and consisting mostly of
+long speeches, compare it with the first scene in _Bonduca_,—not for the
+idle purpose of finding out which is the better, but in order to see and
+understand the difference. The latter, that of B. and F., you will find a
+well-arranged bed of flowers, each having its separate root, and its
+position determined aforehand by the will of the gardener,—each fresh
+plant a fresh volition. In the former you see an Indian fig-tree, as
+described by Milton;—all is growth, evolution;—each line, each word
+almost, begets the following, and the will of the writer is an
+interfusion, a continuous agency, and not a series of separate acts.
+Shakespeare is the height, breadth, and depth of Genius: Beaumont and
+Fletcher the excellent mechanism, in juxta-position and succession, of
+talent.
+
+
+
+
+“The Noble Gentleman.�
+
+
+Why have the dramatists of the times of Elizabeth, James I., and the first
+Charles become almost obsolete, with the exception of Shakespeare? Why do
+they no longer belong to the English, being once so popular? And why is
+Shakespeare an exception?—One thing, among fifty, necessary to the full
+solution is, that they all employed poetry and poetic diction on unpoetic
+subjects, both characters and situations, especially in their comedy. Now
+Shakespeare is all, all ideal,—of no time, and therefore for all times.
+Read, for instance, Marine’s panegyric in the first scene of this play:—
+
+          ... “Know
+The eminent court, to them that can be wise,
+And fasten on her blessings, is a sun,� &c.
+
+What can be more unnatural and inappropriate (not only is, but must be
+felt as such) than such poetry in the mouth of a silly dupe? In short, the
+scenes are mock dialogues, in which the poet _solus_ plays the
+ventriloquist, but cannot keep down his own way of expressing himself.
+Heavy complaints have been made respecting the transposing of the old
+plays by Cibber; but it never occurred to these critics to ask, how it
+came that no one ever attempted to transpose a comedy of Shakespeare’s.
+
+
+
+
+“The Coronation.�
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Seleucus:—
+
+“Altho’ he be my enemy, should any
+Of the gay flies that buz about the court,
+_Sit_ to catch trouts i’ the summer, tell me so,
+I durst,� &c.
+
+Colman’s note.
+
+Pshaw! “Sit� is either a misprint for “set,� or the old and still
+provincial word for “set,� as the participle passive of “seat� or “set.� I
+have heard an old Somersetshire gardener say:—“Look, Sir! I set these
+plants here; those yonder I _sit_ yesterday.�
+
+Act ii. Speech of Arcadius:—
+
+“Nay, some will swear they love their mistress,
+Would hazard lives and fortunes,� &c.
+
+Read thus:—
+
+“Nay, some will swear they love their mistress so,
+They would hazard lives and fortunes to preserve
+One of her hairs brighter than Berenice’s,
+Or young Apollo’s; and yet, after this,� &c.
+
+“Thĕy woŭld h�zard�—furnishes an anapæst for an _iambus_. “And yet,� which
+must be read, _anyĕt_, is an instance of the enclitic force in an accented
+monosyllable. “And yēt,� is a complete _iambus_; but _anyet_ is, like
+_spirit_, a dibrach u u, trocheized, however, by the _arsis_ or first
+accent damping, though not extinguishing, the second.
+
+
+
+
+“Wit At Several Weapons.�
+
+
+Act i. Oldcraft’s speech:—
+
+“I’m arm’d at all points,� &c.
+
+It would be very easy to restore all this passage to metre, by supplying a
+sentence of four syllables, which the reasoning almost demands, and by
+correcting the grammar. Read thus:—
+
+“Arm’d at all points ’gainst treachery, I hold
+My humour firm. If, living, I can see thee
+Thrive by thy wits, I shall have the more courage,
+Dying, to trust thee with my lands. If not,
+The best wit, I can hear of, carries them.
+For since so many in my time and knowledge,
+Rich children of the city, have concluded
+_For lack of wit_ in beggary, I’d rather
+Make a wise stranger my executor,
+Than a fool son my heir, and have my lands call’d
+After my wit than name: and that’s my nature!�
+
+_Ib._ Oldcraft’s speech:—
+
+“To prevent which I have sought out a match for her.�
+
+Read—
+
+“Which to prevent I’ve sought a match out for her.�
+
+_Ib._ Sir Gregory’s speech:—
+
+          ... “_Do you think_
+I’ll have any of the wits hang upon me after I am married once?�
+
+Read it thus:—
+
+          ... “Do you think
+That I’ll have any of the wits to hang
+Upon me after I am married once?�
+
+and afterwards—
+
+         ... “Is it a fashion in London
+To marry a woman, and to never see her?�
+
+The superfluous “to� gives it the Sir Andrew Ague-cheek character.
+
+
+
+
+“The Fair Maid Of The Inn.�
+
+
+Act ii. Speech of Albertus:—
+
+          ... “But, Sir,
+By my life, I vow to take assurance from you,
+That right hand never more shall strike my son,
+
+Chop his hand off!�
+
+In this (as, indeed, in all other respects, but most in this) it is that
+Shakespeare is so incomparably superior to Fletcher and his friend,—in
+judgment! What can be conceived more unnatural and motiveless than this
+brutal resolve? How is it possible to feel the least interest in Albertus
+afterwards? or in Cesario after his conduct?
+
+
+
+
+“The Two Noble Kinsmen.�
+
+
+On comparing the prison scene of _Palamon and Arcite_, act ii. sc. 2, with
+the dialogue between the same speakers, act i. sc. 2, I can scarcely
+retain a doubt as to the first act’s having been written by Shakespeare.
+Assuredly it was not written by B. and F. I hold Jonson more probable than
+either of these two.
+
+The main presumption, however, for Shakespeare’s share in this play rests
+on a point, to which the sturdy critics of this edition (and indeed all
+before them) were blind,—that is, the construction of the blank verse,
+which proves beyond all doubt an intentional imitation, if not the proper
+hand, of Shakespeare. Now, whatever improbability there is in the former
+(which supposes Fletcher conscious of the inferiority, the too poematic
+_minus_-dramatic nature of his versification, and of which, there is
+neither proof nor likelihood) adds so much to the probability of the
+latter. On the other hand, the harshness of many of these very passages, a
+harshness unrelieved by any lyrical inter-breathings, and still more the
+want of profundity in the thoughts, keep me from an absolute decision.
+
+Act i. sc. 3. Emilia’s speech:—
+
+          ... “Since his depart, his _sports_,
+Tho’ craving seriousness and skill,� &c.
+
+I conjecture “imports,�—that is, duties or offices of importance. The flow
+of the versification in this speech seems to demand the trochaic ending -
+u; while the text blends jingle and _hisses_ to the annoyance of less
+sensitive ears than Fletcher’s—not to say, Shakespeare’s.
+
+
+
+
+“The Woman Hater.�
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2.—
+
+This scene from the beginning is prose printed as blank verse, down to the
+line—
+
+“E’en all the valiant stomachs in the court�—
+
+where the verse recommences. This transition from the prose to the verse
+enhances, and indeed forms the comic effect. Lazarillo concludes his
+soliloquy with a hymn to the goddess of plenty.
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Advertisement.
+
+
+_NEW EDITION, REVISED._
+
+AIDS TO REFLECTION
+
+IN THE FORMATION OF A MANLY CHARACTER, ON THE SEVERAL GROUNDS OF PRUDENCE,
+MORALITY, AND RELIGION.
+
+BY S. T. COLERIDGE.
+
+WITH A COPIOUS INDEX TO THE WORK, AND TRANSLATIONS OF THE GREEK AND LATIN
+QUOTATIONS.
+
+BY THOMAS FENBY.
+
+400 pp. _Fscp. 8vo, cloth extra_, 3/6.
+
+EDWARD HOWELL, PUBLISHER, LIVERPOOL
+
+MDCCCLXXIV.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and
+Fletcher by S. T. Coleridge
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher
+
+Author: S. T. Coleridge
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2008 [Ebook #25585]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
+
+
+                              *Shakespeare*
+
+                                Ben Jonson
+
+                          Beaumont And Fletcher
+
+                            Notes and Lectures
+
+                            by S. T. Coleridge
+
+                               New Edition
+
+                                Liverpool
+
+                              Edward Howell
+
+                                MDCCCLXXIV
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Shakespeare
+   Definition Of Poetry.
+   Greek Drama.
+   Progress Of The Drama.
+   The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+   Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+   Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.
+   Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's
+   Dramas.
+   Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+   Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.
+   Notes On The "Tempest."
+   "Love's Labour's Lost."
+   "Midsummer Night's Dream."
+   "Comedy Of Errors."
+   "As You Like It."
+   "Twelfth Night."
+   "All's Well That Ends Well."
+   "Merry Wives Of Windsor."
+   "Measure For Measure."
+   "Cymbeline."
+   "Titus Andronicus."
+   "Troilus And Cressida."
+   "Coriolanus."
+   "Julius Cæsar."
+   "Antony And Cleopatra."
+   "Timon Of Athens."
+   "Romeo And Juliet."
+   Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.
+   "King John."
+   "Richard II."
+   "Henry IV.--Part I."
+   "Henry IV.--Part II."
+   "Henry V."
+   "Henry VI.--Part I."
+   "Richard III."
+   "Lear."
+   "Hamlet."
+   "Macbeth."
+   "Winter's Tale."
+   "Othello."
+Notes on Ben Jonson.
+   Whalley's Preface.
+   "Whalley's 'Life Of Jonson.' "
+   "Every Man Out Of His Humour."
+   "Poetaster."
+   "Fall Of Sejanus."
+   "Volpone."
+   "Apicæne."
+   "The Alchemist."
+   "Catiline's Conspiracy."
+   "Bartholomew Fair."
+   "The Devil Is An Ass."
+   "The Staple Of News."
+   "The New Inn."
+Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.
+   Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+   Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.
+   "Maid's Tragedy."
+   "A King And No King."
+   "The Scornful Lady."
+   "The Custom Of The Country."
+   "The Elder Brother."
+   "The Spanish Curate."
+   "Wit Without Money."
+   "The Humorous Lieutenant."
+   "The Mad Lover."
+   "The Loyal Subject."
+   "Rule A Wife And Have A Wife."
+   "The Laws Of Candy."
+   "The Little French Lawyer."
+   "Valentinian."
+   "Rollo."
+   "The Wildgoose Chase."
+   "A Wife For A Month."
+   "The Pilgrim."
+   "The Queen Of Corinth."
+   "The Noble Gentleman."
+   "The Coronation."
+   "Wit At Several Weapons."
+   "The Fair Maid Of The Inn."
+   "The Two Noble Kinsmen."
+   "The Woman Hater."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SHAKESPEARE, WITH INTRODUCTORY MATTER ON POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND THE STAGE.
+
+
+
+
+Definition Of Poetry.
+
+
+Poetry is not the proper antithesis to prose, but to science. Poetry is
+opposed to science, and prose to metre. The proper and immediate object of
+science is the acquirement, or communication, of truth; the proper and
+immediate object of poetry is the communication of immediate pleasure.
+This definition is useful; but as it would include novels and other works
+of fiction, which yet we do not call poems, there must be some additional
+character by which poetry is not only divided from opposites, but likewise
+distinguished from disparate, though similar, modes of composition. Now
+how is this to be effected? In animated prose, the beauties of nature, and
+the passions and accidents of human nature, are often expressed in that
+natural language which the contemplation of them would suggest to a pure
+and benevolent mind; yet still neither we nor the writers call such a work
+a poem, though no work could deserve that name which did not include all
+this, together with something else. What is this? It is that pleasurable
+emotion, that peculiar state and degree of excitement, which arises in the
+poet himself in the act of composition;--and in order to understand this,
+we must combine a more than ordinary sympathy with the objects, emotions,
+or incidents contemplated by the poet, consequent on a more than common
+sensibility, with a more than ordinary activity of the mind in respect of
+the fancy and the imagination. Hence is produced a more vivid reflection
+of the truths of nature and of the human heart, united with a constant
+activity modifying and correcting these truths by that sort of pleasurable
+emotion, which the exertion of all our faculties gives in a certain
+degree; but which can only be felt in perfection under the full play of
+those powers of mind, which are spontaneous rather than voluntary, and in
+which the effort required bears no proportion to the activity enjoyed.
+This is the state which permits the production of a highly pleasurable
+whole, of which each part shall also communicate for itself a distinct and
+conscious pleasure; and hence arises the definition, which I trust is now
+intelligible, that poetry, or rather a poem, is a species of composition,
+opposed to science, as having intellectual pleasure for its object, and as
+attaining its end by the use of language natural to us in a state of
+excitement,--but distinguished from other species of composition, not
+excluded by the former criterion, by permitting a pleasure from the whole
+consistent with a consciousness of pleasure from the component parts;--and
+the perfection of which is, to communicate from each part the greatest
+immediate pleasure compatible with the largest sum of pleasure on the
+whole. This, of course, will vary with the different modes of poetry;--and
+that splendour of particular lines, which would be worthy of admiration in
+an impassioned elegy, or a short indignant satire, would be a blemish and
+proof of vile taste in a tragedy or an epic poem.
+
+It is remarkable, by the way, that Milton in three incidental words has
+implied all which for the purposes of more distinct apprehension, which at
+first must be slow-paced in order to be distinct, I have endeavoured to
+develope in a precise and strictly adequate definition. Speaking of
+poetry, he says, as in a parenthesis, "which is simple, sensuous,
+passionate." How awful is the power of words!--fearful often in their
+consequences when merely felt, not understood; but most awful when both
+felt and understood!--Had these three words only been properly understood
+by, and present in the minds of, general readers, not only almost a
+library of false poetry would have been either precluded or still-born,
+but, what is of more consequence, works truly excellent and capable of
+enlarging the understanding, warming and purifying the heart, and placing
+in the centre of the whole being the germs of noble and manlike actions,
+would have been the common diet of the intellect instead. For the first
+condition, simplicity,--while, on the one hand, it distinguishes poetry
+from the arduous processes of science, labouring towards an end not yet
+arrived at, and supposes a smooth and finished road, on which the reader
+is to walk onward easily, with streams murmuring by his side, and trees
+and flowers and human dwellings to make his journey as delightful as the
+object of it is desirable, instead of having to toil with the pioneers and
+painfully make the road on which others are to travel,--precludes, on the
+other hand, every affectation and morbid peculiarity;--the second
+condition, sensuousness, insures that framework of objectivity, that
+definiteness and articulation of imagery, and that modification of the
+images themselves, without which poetry becomes flattened into mere
+didactics of practice, or evaporated into a hazy, unthoughtful,
+day-dreaming; and the third condition, passion, provides that neither
+thought nor imagery shall be simply objective, but that the _passio vera_
+of humanity shall warm and animate both.
+
+To return, however, to the previous definition, this most general and
+distinctive character of a poem originates in the poetic genius itself;
+and though it comprises whatever can with any propriety be called a poem
+(unless that word be a mere lazy synonym for a composition in metre), it
+yet becomes a just, and not merely discriminative, but full and adequate,
+definition of poetry in its highest and most peculiar sense, only so far
+as the distinction still results from the poetic genius, which sustains
+and modifies the emotions, thoughts, and vivid representations of the poem
+by the energy without effort of the poet's own mind,--by the spontaneous
+activity of his imagination and fancy, and by whatever else with these
+reveals itself in the balancing and reconciling of opposite or discordant
+qualities, sameness with difference, a sense of novelty and freshness with
+old or customary objects, a more than usual state of emotion with more
+than usual order, self-possession and judgment with enthusiasm and
+vehement feeling,--and which, while it blends and harmonizes the natural
+and the artificial, still subordinates art to nature, the manner to the
+matter, and our admiration of the poet to our sympathy with the images,
+passions, characters, and incidents of the poem:--
+
+"Doubtless, this could not be, but that she turns
+Bodies to _spirit_ by sublimation strange,
+As fire converts to fire the things it burns--
+As we our food into our nature change!
+
+"From their gross matter she abstracts _their_ forms,
+And draws a kind of quintessence from things,
+Which to her proper nature she transforms
+To bear them light on her celestial wings!
+
+"_Thus_ doth she, when from _individual states_
+She doth abstract the universal kinds,
+_Which then reclothed in divers names and fates_
+_Steal access thro' our senses to our minds_."
+
+
+
+
+Greek Drama.
+
+
+It is truly singular that Plato,--whose philosophy and religion were but
+exotic at home, and a mere opposition to the finite in all things, genuine
+prophet and anticipator as he was of the Protestant Christian æra,--should
+have given in his Dialogue of the Banquet, a justification of our
+Shakespeare. For he relates that, when all the other guests had either
+dispersed or fallen asleep, Socrates only, together with Aristophanes and
+Agathon, remained awake, and that, while he continued to drink with them
+out of a large goblet, he compelled them, though most reluctantly, to
+admit that it was the business of one and the same genius to excel in
+tragic and comic poetry, or that the tragic poet ought, at the same time,
+to contain within himself the powers of comedy. Now, as this was directly
+repugnant to the entire theory of the ancient critics, and contrary to all
+their experience, it is evident that Plato must have fixed the eye of his
+contemplation on the innermost essentials of the drama, abstracted from
+the forms of age or country. In another passage he even adds the reason,
+namely, that opposites illustrate each other's nature, and in their
+struggle draw forth the strength of the combatants, and display the
+conqueror as sovereign even on the territories of the rival power.
+
+Nothing can more forcibly exemplify the separative spirit of the Greek
+arts than their comedy as opposed to their tragedy. But as the immediate
+struggle of contraries supposes an arena common to both, so both were
+alike ideal; that is, the comedy of Aristophanes rose to as great a
+distance above the ludicrous of real life, as the tragedy of Sophocles
+above its tragic events and passions,--and it is in this one point, of
+absolute ideality, that the comedy of Shakespeare and the old comedy of
+Athens coincide. In this also alone did the Greek tragedy and comedy
+unite; in every thing else they were exactly opposed to each other.
+Tragedy is poetry in its deepest earnest; comedy is poetry in unlimited
+jest. Earnestness consists in the direction and convergence of all the
+powers of the soul to one aim, and in the voluntary restraint of its
+activity in consequence; the opposite, therefore, lies in the apparent
+abandonment of all definite aim or end, and in the removal of all bounds
+in the exercise of the mind,--attaining its real end, as an entire
+contrast, most perfectly, the greater the display is of intellectual
+wealth squandered in the wantonness of sport without an object, and the
+more abundant the life and vivacity in the creations of the arbitrary
+will.
+
+The later comedy, even where it was really comic, was doubtless likewise
+more comic, the more free it appeared from any fixed aim.
+Misunderstandings of intention, fruitless struggles of absurd passion,
+contradictions of temper, and laughable situations there were; but still
+the form of the representation itself was serious; it proceeded as much
+according to settled laws, and used as much the same means of art, though
+to a different purpose, as the regular tragedy itself. But in the old
+comedy the very form itself is whimsical; the whole work is one great
+jest, comprehending a world of jests within it, among which each maintains
+its own place without seeming to concern itself as to the relation in
+which it may stand to its fellows. In short, in Sophocles, the
+constitution of tragedy is monarchical, but such as it existed in elder
+Greece, limited by laws, and therefore the more venerable,--all the parts
+adapting and submitting themselves to the majesty of the heroic
+sceptre:--in Aristophanes, comedy, on the contrary, is poetry in its most
+democratic form, and it is a fundamental principle with it, rather to risk
+all the confusion of anarchy, than to destroy the independence and
+privileges of its individual constituents,--place, verse, characters, even
+single thoughts, conceits, and allusions, each turning on the pivot of its
+own free will.
+
+The tragic poet idealizes his characters by giving to the spiritual part
+of our nature a more decided preponderance over the animal cravings and
+impulses, than is met with in real life: the comic poet idealizes his
+characters by making the animal the governing power, and the intellectual
+the mere instrument. But as tragedy is not a collection of virtues and
+perfections, but takes care only that the vices and imperfections shall
+spring from the passions, errors, and prejudices which arise out of the
+soul;--so neither is comedy a mere crowd of vices and follies, but whatever
+qualities it represents, even though they are in a certain sense amiable,
+it still displays them as having their origin in some dependence on our
+lower nature, accompanied with a defect in true freedom of spirit and
+self-subsistence, and subject to that unconnection by contradictions of
+the inward being, to which all folly is owing.
+
+The ideal of earnest poetry consists in the union and harmonious melting
+down, and fusion of the sensual into the spiritual,--of man as an animal
+into man as a power of reason and self-government. And this we have
+represented to us most clearly in the plastic art, or statuary; where the
+perfection of outward form is a symbol of the perfection of an inward
+idea; where the body is wholly penetrated by the soul, and spiritualized
+even to a state of glory, and like a transparent substance, the matter, in
+its own nature darkness, becomes altogether a vehicle and fixture of
+light, a means of developing its beauties, and unfolding its wealth of
+various colours without disturbing its unity, or causing a division of the
+parts. The sportive ideal, on the contrary, consists in the perfect
+harmony and concord of the higher nature with the animal, as with its
+ruling principle and its acknowledged regent. The understanding and
+practical reason are represented as the willing slaves of the senses and
+appetites, and of the passions arising out of them. Hence we may admit the
+appropriateness to the old comedy, as a work of defined art, of allusions
+and descriptions, which morality can never justify, and, only with
+reference to the author himself, and only as being the effect or rather
+the cause of the circumstances in which he wrote, can consent even to
+palliate.
+
+The old comedy rose to its perfection in Aristophanes, and in him also it
+died with the freedom of Greece. Then arose a species of drama, more fitly
+called dramatic entertainment than comedy, but of which, nevertheless, our
+modern comedy (Shakespeare's altogether excepted) is the genuine
+descendant. Euripides had already brought tragedy lower down and by many
+steps nearer to the real world than his predecessors had ever done, and
+the passionate admiration which Menander and Philemon expressed for him,
+and their open avowals that he was their great master, entitle us to
+consider their dramas as of a middle species, between tragedy and
+comedy,--not the tragi-comedy, or thing of heterogeneous parts, but a
+complete whole, founded on principles of its own. Throughout we find the
+drama of Menander distinguishing itself from tragedy, but not as the
+genuine old comedy, contrasting with, and opposing it. Tragedy, indeed,
+carried the thoughts into the mythologic world, in order to raise the
+emotions, the fears, and the hopes, which convince the inmost heart that
+their final cause is not to be discovered in the limits of mere mortal
+life, and force us into a presentiment, however dim, of a state in which
+those struggles of inward free will with outward necessity, which form the
+true subject of the tragedian, shall be reconciled and solved;--the
+entertainment or new comedy, on the other hand, remained within the circle
+of experience. Instead of the tragic destiny, it introduced the power of
+chance; even in the few fragments of Menander and Philemon now remaining
+to us, we find many exclamations and reflections concerning chance and
+fortune, as in the tragic poets concerning destiny. In tragedy, the moral
+law, either as obeyed or violated, above all consequences--its own
+maintenance or violation constituting the most important of all
+consequences--forms the ground; the new comedy, and our modern comedy in
+general (Shakespeare excepted as before) lies in prudence or imprudence,
+enlightened or misled self-love. The whole moral system of the
+entertainment exactly like that of fable, consists in rules of prudence,
+with an exquisite conciseness, and at the same time an exhaustive fulness
+of sense. An old critic said that tragedy was the flight or elevation of
+life, comedy (that of Menander) its arrangement or ordonnance.
+
+Add to these features a portrait-like truth of character,--not so far
+indeed as that a _bona fide_ individual should be described or imagined,
+but yet so that the features which give interest and permanence to the
+class should be individualized. The old tragedy moved in an ideal
+world,--the old comedy in a fantastic world. As the entertainment, or new
+comedy, restrained the creative activity both of the fancy and the
+imagination, it indemnified the understanding in appealing to the judgment
+for the probability of the scenes represented. The ancients themselves
+acknowledged the new comedy as an exact copy of real life. The grammarian,
+Aristophanes, somewhat affectedly exclaimed:--"O Life and Menander! which
+of you two imitated the other?" In short the form of this species of drama
+was poetry, the stuff or matter was prose. It was prose rendered
+delightful by the blandishments and measured motions of the muse. Yet even
+this was not universal. The mimes of Sophron, so passionately admired by
+Plato, were written in prose, and were scenes out of real life conducted
+in dialogue. The exquisite feast of Adonis ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}) in
+Theocritus, we are told, with some others of his eclogues, were close
+imitations of certain mimes of Sophron--free translations of the prose into
+hexameters.
+
+It will not be improper, in this place, to make a few remarks on the
+remarkable character and functions of the chorus in the Greek tragic
+drama.
+
+The chorus entered from below, close by the orchestra, and there, pacing
+to and fro during the choral odes, performed their solemn measured dance.
+In the centre of the _orchestra_, directly over against the middle of the
+_scene_, there stood an elevation with steps in the shape of a large
+altar, as high as the boards of the _logeion_ or moveable stage. This
+elevation was named the _thymele_ ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}), and served to recall the
+origin and original purpose of the chorus, as an altar-song in honour of
+the presiding deity. Here, and on these steps the persons of the chorus
+sate collectively, when they were not singing; attending to the dialogue
+as spectators, and acting as (what in truth they were) the ideal
+representatives of the real audience, and of the poet himself in his own
+character, assuming the supposed impressions made by the drama, in order
+to direct and rule them. But when the chorus itself formed part of the
+dialogue, then the leader of the band, the foreman, or _coryphæus_,
+ascended, as some think, the level summit of the _thymele_ in order to
+command the stage, or, perhaps, the whole chorus advanced to the front of
+the orchestra, and thus put themselves in ideal connection, as it were,
+with the _dramatis personæ_ there acting. This _thymele_ was in the centre
+of the whole edifice, all the measurements were calculated, and the
+semi-circle of the amphitheatre was drawn from this point. It had a double
+use, a twofold purpose; it constantly reminded the spectators of the
+origin of tragedy as a religious service, and declared itself as the ideal
+representative of the audience by having its place exactly in the point,
+to which all the radii from the different seats or benches converged.
+
+In this double character, as constituent parts, and yet at the same time
+as spectators, of the drama, the chorus could not but tend to enforce the
+unity of place;--not on the score of any supposed improbability, which the
+understanding or common sense might detect in a change of place;--but
+because the senses themselves put it out of the power of any imagination
+to conceive a place coming to, and going away from the persons, instead of
+the persons changing their place. Yet there are instances, in which,
+during the silence of the chorus, the poets have hazarded this by a change
+in that part of the scenery which represented the more distant objects to
+the eye of the spectator--a demonstrative proof, that this alternately
+extolled and ridiculed unity (as ignorantly ridiculed as extolled) was
+grounded on no essential principle of reason, but arose out of
+circumstances which the poet could not remove, and therefore took up into
+the form of the drama, and co-organised it with all the other parts into a
+living whole.
+
+The Greek tragedy may rather be compared to our serious opera than to the
+tragedies of Shakespeare; nevertheless, the difference is far greater than
+the likeness. In the opera all is subordinated to the music, the dresses,
+and the scenery;--the poetry is a mere vehicle for articulation, and as
+little pleasure is lost by ignorance of the Italian language, so is little
+gained by the knowledge of it. But in the Greek drama all was but as
+instruments and accessaries to the poetry; and hence we should form a
+better notion of the choral music from the solemn hymns and psalms of
+austere church music than from any species of theatrical singing. A single
+flute or pipe was the ordinary accompaniment; and it is not to be
+supposed, that any display of musical power was allowed to obscure the
+distinct hearing of the words. On the contrary, the evident purpose was to
+render the words more audible, and to secure by the elevations and pauses
+greater facility of understanding the poetry. For the choral songs are,
+and ever must have been, the most difficult part of the tragedy; there
+occur in them the most involved verbal compounds, the newest expressions,
+the boldest images, the most recondite allusions. Is it credible that the
+poets would, one and all, have been thus prodigal of the stores of art and
+genius, if they had known that in the representation the whole must have
+been lost to the audience,--at a time too, when the means of after
+publication were so difficult and expensive, and the copies of their works
+so slowly and narrowly circulated?
+
+The masks also must be considered--their vast variety and admirable
+workmanship. Of this we retain proof by the marble masks which represented
+them; but to this in the real mask we must add the thinness of the
+substance and the exquisite fitting on to the head of the actor; so that
+not only were the very eyes painted with a single opening left for the
+pupil of the actor's eye, but in some instances, even the iris itself was
+painted, when the colour was a known characteristic of the divine or
+heroic personage represented.
+
+Finally, I will note down those fundamental characteristics which
+contradistinguish the ancient literature from the modern generally, but
+which more especially appear in prominence in the tragic drama. The
+ancient was allied to statuary, the modern refers to painting. In the
+first there is a predominance of rhythm and melody, in the second of
+harmony and counterpoint. The Greeks idolized the finite, and therefore
+were the masters of all grace, elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity,
+majesty--of whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely conveyed by
+defined forms or thoughts: the moderns revere the infinite, and affect the
+indefinite as a vehicle of the infinite;--hence their passions, their
+obscure hopes and fears, their wandering through the unknown, their
+grander moral feelings, their more august conception of man as man, their
+future rather than their past--in a word, their sublimity.
+
+
+
+
+Progress Of The Drama.
+
+
+Let two persons join in the same scheme to ridicule a third, and either
+take advantage of, or invent, some story for that purpose, and mimicry
+will have already produced a sort of rude comedy. It becomes an inviting
+treat to the populace, and gains an additional zest and burlesque by
+following the already established plan of tragedy; and the first man of
+genius who seizes the idea, and reduces it into form,--into a work of
+art,--by metre and music, is the Aristophanes of the country.
+
+How just this account is will appear from the fact that in the first or
+old comedy of the Athenians, most of the _dramatis personæ_ were living
+characters introduced under their own names; and no doubt, their ordinary
+dress, manner, person and voice were closely mimicked. In less favourable
+states of society, as that of England in the middle ages, the beginnings
+of comedy would be constantly taking place from the mimics and satirical
+minstrels; but from want of fixed abode, popular government, and the
+successive attendance of the same auditors, it would still remain in
+embryo. I shall, perhaps, have occasion to observe that this remark is not
+without importance in explaining the essential differences of the modern
+and ancient theatres.
+
+Phenomena, similar to those which accompanied the origin of tragedy and
+comedy among the Greeks, would take place among the Romans much more
+slowly, and the drama would, in any case, have much longer remained in its
+first irregular form from the character of the people, their continual
+engagements in wars of conquest, the nature of their government, and their
+rapidly increasing empire. But, however this might have been, the conquest
+of Greece precluded both the process and the necessity of it; and the
+Roman stage at once presented imitations or translations of the Greek
+drama. This continued till the perfect establishment of Christianity. Some
+attempts, indeed, were made to adapt the persons of Scriptural or
+ecclesiastical history to the drama; and sacred plays, it is probable,
+were not unknown in Constantinople under the emperors of the East. The
+first of the kind is, I believe, the only one preserved,--namely, the
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or, "Christ in his sufferings," by Gregory
+Nazianzen,--possibly written in consequence of the prohibition of profane
+literature to the Christians by the apostate Julian. In the West, however,
+the enslaved and debauched Roman world became too barbarous for any
+theatrical exhibitions more refined than those of pageants and
+chariot-races; while the spirit of Christianity, which in its most corrupt
+form still breathed general humanity, whenever controversies of faith were
+not concerned, had done away the cruel combats of the gladiators, and the
+loss of the distant provinces prevented the possibility of exhibiting the
+engagements of wild beasts.
+
+I pass, therefore, at once to the feudal ages which soon succeeded,
+confining my observation to this country; though, indeed, the same remark
+with very few alterations will apply to all the other states, into which
+the great empire was broken. Ages of darkness succeeded;--not, indeed, the
+darkness of Russia or of the barbarous lands unconquered by Rome; for from
+the time of Honorius to the destruction of Constantinople and the
+consequent introduction of ancient literature into Europe, there was a
+continued succession of individual intellects;--the golden chain was never
+wholly broken, though the connecting links were often of baser metal. A
+dark cloud, like another sky, covered the entire cope of heaven,--but in
+this place it thinned away, and white stains of light showed a half
+eclipsed star behind it,--in that place it was rent asunder, and a star
+passed across the opening in all its brightness, and then vanished. Such
+stars exhibited themselves only; surrounding objects did not partake of
+their light. There were deep wells of knowledge, but no fertilizing rills
+and rivulets. For the drama, society was altogether a state of chaos, out
+of which it was, for a while at least, to proceed anew, as if there had
+been none before it. And yet it is not undelightful to contemplate the
+education of good from evil. The ignorance of the great mass of our
+countrymen was the efficient cause of the reproduction of the drama; and
+the preceding darkness and the returning light were alike necessary in
+order to the creation of a Shakespeare.
+
+The drama re-commenced in England, as it first began in Greece, in
+religion. The people were not able to read,--the priesthood were unwilling
+that they should read; and yet their own interest compelled them not to
+leave the people wholly ignorant of the great events of sacred history.
+They did that, therefore, by scenic representations, which in after ages
+it has been attempted to do in Roman Catholic countries by pictures. They
+presented Mysteries, and often at great expense; and reliques of this
+system still remain in the south of Europe, and indeed throughout Italy,
+where at Christmas the convents and the great nobles rival each other in
+the scenic representation of the birth of Christ and its circumstances. I
+heard two instances mentioned to me at different times, one in Sicily and
+the other in Rome, of noble devotees, the ruin of whose fortunes was said
+to have commenced in the extravagant expense which had been incurred in
+presenting the _præsepe_ or manger. But these Mysteries, in order to
+answer their design, must not only be instructive, but entertaining; and
+as, when they became so, the people began to take pleasure in acting them
+themselves--in interloping--(against which the priests seem to have fought
+hard and yet in vain) the most ludicrous images were mixed with the most
+awful personations; and whatever the subject might be, however sublime,
+however pathetic, yet the Vice and the Devil, who are the genuine
+antecessors of Harlequin and the Clown, were necessary component parts. I
+have myself a piece of this kind, which I transcribed a few years ago at
+Helmstadt, in Germany, on the education of Eve's children, in which after
+the fall and repentance of Adam, the offended Maker, as in proof of his
+reconciliation, condescends to visit them, and to catechise the
+children,--who with a noble contempt of chronology are all brought together
+from Abel to Noah. The good children say the ten Commandments, the Belief,
+and the Lord's Prayer; but Cain and his rout, after he had received a box
+on the ear for not taking off his hat, and afterwards offering his left
+hand, is prompted by the devil so to blunder in the Lord's Prayer as to
+reverse the petitions and say it backward!
+
+Unaffectedly I declare I feel pain at repetitions like these, however
+innocent. As historical documents they are valuable; but I am sensible
+that what I can read with my eye with perfect innocence, I cannot without
+inward fear and misgivings pronounce with my tongue.
+
+Let me, however, be acquitted of presumption if I say that I cannot agree
+with Mr. Malone, that our ancestors did not perceive the ludicrous in
+these things, or that they paid no separate attention to the serious and
+comic parts. Indeed his own statement contradicts it. For what purpose
+should the Vice leap upon the Devil's back and belabour him, but to
+produce this separate attention? The people laughed heartily, no doubt.
+Nor can I conceive any meaning attached to the words "separate attention,"
+that is not fully answered by one part of an exhibition exciting
+seriousness or pity, and the other raising mirth and loud laughter. That
+they felt no impiety in the affair is most true. For it is the very
+essence of that system of Christian polytheism, which in all its
+essentials is now fully as gross in Spain, in Sicily, and the South of
+Italy, as it ever was in England in the days of Henry VI. (nay, more so,
+for a Wicliffe had not then appeared only, but scattered the good seed
+widely),--it is an essential part, I say, of that system to draw the mind
+wholly from its own inward whispers and quiet discriminations, and to
+habituate the conscience to pronounce sentence in every case according to
+the established verdicts of the church and the casuists. I have looked
+through volume after volume of the most approved casuists,--and still I
+find disquisitions whether this or that act is right, and under what
+circumstances, to a minuteness that makes reasoning ridiculous, and of a
+callous and unnatural immodesty, to which none but a monk could harden
+himself, who has been stripped of all the tender charities of life, yet is
+goaded on to make war against them by the unsubdued hauntings of our
+meaner nature, even as dogs are said to get the _hydrophobia_ from
+excessive thirst. I fully believe that our ancestors laughed as heartily,
+as their posterity do at Grimaldi;--and not having been told that they
+would be punished for laughing, they thought it very innocent;--and if
+their priests had left out murder in the catalogue of their prohibitions
+(as indeed they did under certain circumstances of heresy), the greater
+part of them,--the moral instincts common to all men having been smothered
+and kept from development,--would have thought as little of murder.
+
+However this may be, the necessity of at once instructing and gratifying
+the people produced the great distinction between the Greek and the
+English theatres;--for to this we must attribute the origin of
+tragi-comedy, or a representation of human events more lively, nearer the
+truth, and permitting a larger field of moral instruction, a more ample
+exhibition of the recesses of the human heart, under all the trials and
+circumstances that most concern us, than was known or guessed at by
+Æschylus, Sophocles, or Euripides;--and at the same time we learn to
+account for, and--relatively to the author--perceive the necessity of, the
+Fool or Clown or both, as the substitutes of the Vice and the Devil, which
+our ancestors had been so accustomed to see in every exhibition of the
+stage, that they could not feel any performance perfect without them. Even
+to this day in Italy, every opera--(even Metastasio obeyed the claim
+throughout)--must have six characters, generally two pairs of cross lovers,
+a tyrant and a confidant, or a father and two confidants, themselves
+lovers;--and when a new opera appears, it is the universal fashion to
+ask--which is the tyrant, which the lover? &c.
+
+It is the especial honour of Christianity, that in its worst and most
+corrupted form it cannot wholly separate itself from morality;--whereas the
+other religions in their best form (I do not include Mohammedanism, which
+is only an anomalous corruption of Christianity, like Swedenborgianism)
+have no connection with it. The very impersonation of moral evil under the
+name of Vice, facilitated all other impersonations; and hence we see that
+the Mysteries were succeeded by Moralities, or dialogues and plots of
+allegorical personages. Again, some character in real history had become
+so famous, so proverbial, as Nero for instance, that they were introduced
+instead of the moral quality, for which they were so noted;--and in this
+manner the stage was moving on to the absolute production of heroic and
+comic real characters, when the restoration of literature, followed by the
+ever-blessed Reformation, let in upon the kingdom not only new knowledge,
+but new motive. A useful rivalry commenced between the metropolis on the
+one hand,--the residence, independently of the court and nobles, of the
+most active and stirring spirits who had not been regularly educated, or
+who, from mischance or otherwise, had forsaken the beaten track of
+preferment,--and the universities on the other. The latter prided
+themselves on their closer approximation to the ancient rules and ancient
+regularity--taking the theatre of Greece, or rather its dim reflection, the
+rhetorical tragedies of the poet Seneca, as a perfect ideal, without any
+critical collation of the times, origin, or circumstances;--whilst, in the
+mean time, the popular writers, who could not and would not abandon what
+they had found to delight their countrymen sincerely, and not merely from
+inquiries first put to the recollection of rules, and answered in the
+affirmative, as if it had been an arithmetical sum, did yet borrow from
+the scholars whatever they advantageously could, consistently with their
+own peculiar means of pleasing.
+
+And here let me pause for a moment's contemplation of this interesting
+subject.
+
+We call, for we see and feel, the swan and the dove both transcendantly
+beautiful. As absurd as it would be to institute a comparison between
+their separate claims to beauty from any abstract rule common to both,
+without reference to the life and being of the animals themselves,--or as
+if, having first seen the dove, we abstracted its outlines, gave them a
+false generalization, called them the principles or ideal of bird-beauty,
+and then proceeded to criticise the swan or the eagle;--not less absurd is
+it to pass judgment on the works of a poet on the mere ground that they
+have been called by the same class-name with the works of other poets in
+other times and circumstances, or on any ground, indeed, save that of
+their inappropriateness to their own end and being, their want of
+significance, as symbols or physiognomy.
+
+O! few have there been among critics, who have followed with the eye of
+the imagination the imperishable yet ever wandering spirit of poetry
+through its various metempsychoses, and consequent metamorphoses;--or who
+have rejoiced in the light of clear perception at beholding with each new
+birth, with each rare _avatar_, the human race frame to itself a new body,
+by assimilating materials of nourishment out of its new circumstances, and
+work for itself new organs of power appropriate to the new sphere of its
+motion and activity!
+
+I have before spoken of the Romance, or the language formed out of the
+decayed Roman and the Northern tongues; and comparing it with the Latin,
+we find it less perfect in simplicity and relation--the privileges of a
+language formed by the mere attraction of homogeneous parts;--but yet more
+rich, more expressive and various, as one formed by more obscure
+affinities out of a chaos of apparently heterogeneous atoms. As more than
+a metaphor,--as an analogy of this, I have named the true genuine modern
+poetry the romantic; and the works of Shakespeare are romantic poetry,
+revealing itself in the drama. If the tragedies of Sophocles are in the
+strict sense of the word tragedies, and the comedies of Aristophanes
+comedies, we must emancipate ourselves from a false association arising
+from misapplied names, and find a new word for the plays of Shakespeare.
+For they are, in the ancient sense, neither tragedies nor comedies, nor
+both in one,--but a different _genus_, diverse in kind, and not merely
+different in degree. They may be called romantic dramas, or dramatic
+romances.
+
+A deviation from the simple forms and unities of the ancient stage is an
+essential principle, and, of course, an appropriate excellence, of the
+romantic drama. For these unities were to a great extent the natural form
+of that which in its elements was homogeneous, and the representation of
+which was addressed pre-eminently to the outward senses;--and though the
+fable, the language, and the characters appealed to the reason rather than
+to the mere understanding, inasmuch as they supposed an ideal state rather
+than referred to an existing reality,--yet it was a reason which was
+obliged to accommodate itself to the senses, and so far became a sort of
+more elevated understanding. On the other hand, the romantic poetry--the
+Shakespearian drama--appealed to the imagination rather than to the senses,
+and to the reason as contemplating our inward nature, and the workings of
+the passions in their most retired recesses. But the reason, as reason, is
+independent of time and space; it has nothing to do with them: and hence
+the certainties of reason have been called eternal truths. As for
+example--the endless properties of the circle:--what connection have they
+with this or that age, with this or that country?--The reason is aloof from
+time and space; the imagination is an arbitrary controller over both;--and
+if only the poet have such power of exciting our internal emotions as to
+make us present to the scene in imagination chiefly, he acquires the right
+and privilege of using time and space as they exist in imagination, and
+obedient only to the laws by which the imagination itself acts. These laws
+it will be my object and aim to point out as the examples occur, which
+illustrate them. But here let me remark what can never be too often
+reflected on by all who would intelligently study the works either of the
+Athenian dramatists, or of Shakespeare, that the very essence of the
+former consists in the sternest separation of the diverse in kind and the
+disparate in the degree, whilst the latter delights in interlacing, by a
+rainbow-like transfusion of hues, the one with the other.
+
+And here it will be necessary to say a few words on the stage and on
+stage-illusion.
+
+A theatre, in the widest sense of the word, is the general term for all
+places of amusement through the ear or eye, in which men assemble in order
+to be amused by some entertainment presented to all at the same time and
+in common. Thus an old Puritan divine says:--"Those who attend public
+worship and sermons only to amuse themselves, make a theatre of the
+church, and turn God's house into the devil's. _Theatra ædes
+diabololatricæ._" The most important and dignified species of this _genus_
+is, doubtless, the stage (_res theatralis histrionica_), which, in
+addition to the generic definition above given, may be characterized in
+its idea, or according to what it does, or ought to, aim at, as a
+combination of several or of all the fine arts in an harmonious whole,
+having a distinct end of its own, to which the peculiar end of each of the
+component arts, taken separately, is made subordinate and
+subservient,--that, namely, of imitating reality--whether external things,
+actions, or passions---under a semblance of reality. Thus, Claude imitates
+a landscape at sunset, but only as a picture; while a forest-scene is not
+presented to the spectators as a picture, but as a forest; and though, in
+the full sense of the word, we are no more deceived by the one than by the
+other, yet are our feelings very differently affected; and the pleasure
+derived from the one is not composed of the same elements as that afforded
+by the other, even on the supposition that the _quantum_ of both were
+equal. In the former, a picture, it is a condition of all genuine delight
+that we should not be deceived; in the latter, stage-scenery (inasmuch as
+its principle end is not in or for itself, as is the case in a picture,
+but to be an assistance and means to an end out of itself), its very
+purpose is to produce as much illusion as its nature permits. These, and
+all other stage presentations, are to produce a sort of temporary
+half-faith, which the spectator encourages in himself and supports by a
+voluntary contribution on his own part, because he knows that it is at all
+times in his power to see the thing as it really is. I have often observed
+that little children are actually deceived by stage-scenery, never by
+pictures; though even these produce an effect on their impressible minds,
+which they do not on the minds of adults. The child, if strongly
+impressed, does not indeed positively think the picture to be the reality;
+but yet he does not think the contrary. As Sir George Beaumont was shewing
+me a very fine engraving from Rubens, representing a storm at sea without
+any vessel or boat introduced, my little boy, then about five years old,
+came dancing and singing into the room, and all at once (if I may so say)
+_tumbled in_ upon the print. He instantly started, stood silent and
+motionless, with the strongest expression, first of wonder and then of
+grief in his eyes and countenance, and at length said "And where is the
+ship? But that is sunk, and the men are all drowned!" still keeping his
+eyes fixed on the print. Now what pictures are to little children, stage
+illusion is to men, provided they retain any part of the child's
+sensibility; except, that in the latter instance, the suspension of the
+act of comparison, which permits this sort of negative belief, is somewhat
+more assisted by the will, than in that of a child respecting a picture.
+
+The true stage-illusion in this and in all other things consists--not in
+the mind's judging it to be a forest, but, in its remission of the
+judgment that it is not a forest. And this subject of stage-illusion is so
+important, and so many practical errors and false criticisms may arise,
+and indeed have arisen, either from reasoning on it as actual delusion
+(the strange notion, on which the French critics built up their theory,
+and on which the French poets justify the construction of their
+tragedies), or from denying it altogether (which seems the end of Dr.
+Johnson's reasoning, and which, as extremes meet, would lead to the very
+same consequences, by excluding whatever would not be judged probable by
+us in our coolest state of feeling, with all our faculties in even
+balance), that these few remarks will, I hope, be pardoned, if they should
+serve either to explain or to illustrate the point. For not only are we
+never absolutely deluded--or any thing like it, but the attempt to cause
+the highest delusion possible to beings in their senses sitting in a
+theatre, is a gross fault, incident only to low minds, which, feeling that
+they cannot affect the heart or head permanently, endeavour to call forth
+the momentary affections. There ought never to be more pain than is
+compatible with coexisting pleasure, and to be amply repaid by thought.
+
+Shakespeare found the infant stage demanding an intermixture of ludicrous
+character as imperiously as that of Greece did the chorus, and high
+language accordant. And there are many advantages in this;--a greater
+assimilation to nature, a greater scope of power, more truths, and more
+feelings;--the effects of contrast, as in Lear and the Fool; and especially
+this, that the true language of passion becomes sufficiently elevated by
+your having previously heard, in the same piece, the lighter conversation
+of men under no strong emotion. The very nakedness of the stage, too, was
+advantageous,--for the drama thence became something between recitation and
+a representation; and the absence or paucity of scenes allowed a freedom
+from the laws of unity of place and unity of time, the observance of which
+must either confine the drama to as few subjects as may be counted on the
+fingers, or involve gross improbabilities, far more striking than the
+violation would have caused. Thence, also, was precluded the danger of a
+false ideal,--of aiming at more than what is possible on the whole. What
+play of the ancients, with reference to their ideal, does not hold out
+more glaring absurdities than any in Shakespeare? On the Greek plan a man
+could more easily be a poet than a dramatist; upon our plan more easily a
+dramatist than a poet.
+
+
+
+
+The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+
+
+Unaccustomed to address such an audience, and having lost by a long
+interval of confinement the advantages of my former short schooling, I had
+miscalculated in my last Lecture the proportion of my matter to my time,
+and by bad economy and unskilful management, the several heads of my
+discourse failed in making the entire performance correspond with the
+promise publicly circulated in the weekly annunciation of the subjects to
+be treated. It would indeed have been wiser in me, and perhaps better on
+the whole, if I had caused my Lectures to be announced only as
+continuations of the main subject. But if I be, as perforce I must be,
+gratified by the recollection of whatever has appeared to give you
+pleasure, I am conscious of something better, though less flattering, a
+sense of unfeigned gratitude for your forbearance with my defects. Like
+affectionate guardians, you see without disgust the awkwardness, and
+witness with sympathy the growing pains, of a youthful endeavour, and look
+forward with a hope, which is its own reward, to the contingent results of
+practice--to its intellectual maturity.
+
+In my last address I defined poetry to be the art, or whatever better term
+our language may afford, of representing external nature and human
+thoughts, both relatively to human affections, so as to cause the
+production of as great immediate pleasure in each part, as is compatible
+with the largest possible sum of pleasure on the whole. Now this
+definition applies equally to painting and music as to poetry; and in
+truth the term poetry is alike applicable to all three. The vehicle alone
+constitutes the difference; and the term "poetry" is rightly applied by
+eminence to measured words, only because the sphere of their action is far
+wider, the power of giving permanence to them much more certain, and
+incomparably greater the facility, by which men, not defective by nature
+or disease, may be enabled to derive habitual pleasure and instruction
+from them. On my mentioning these considerations to a painter of great
+genius, who had been, from a most honourable enthusiasm, extolling his own
+art, he was so struck with their truth, that he exclaimed, "I want no
+other arguments;--poetry, that is, verbal poetry, must be the greatest; all
+that proves final causes in the world, proves this; it would be shocking
+to think otherwise!"--And in truth, deeply, O! far more than words can
+express, as I venerate the Last Judgment and the Prophets of Michel Angelo
+Buonarotti,--yet the very pain which I repeatedly felt as I lost myself in
+gazing upon them, the painful consideration that their having been painted
+in _fresco_ was the sole cause that they had not been abandoned to all the
+accidents of a dangerous transportation to a distant capital, and that the
+same caprice, which made the Neapolitan soldiery destroy all the exquisite
+masterpieces on the walls of the church of _Trinitado Monte_, after the
+retreat of their antagonist barbarians, might as easily have made vanish
+the rooms and open gallery of Raffael, and the yet more unapproachable
+wonders of the sublime Florentine in the Sixtine Chapel, forced upon my
+mind the reflection: How grateful the human race ought to be that the
+works of Euclid, Newton, Plato, Milton, Shakespeare, are not subjected to
+similar contingencies,--that they and their fellows, and the great, though
+inferior, peerage of undying intellect, are secured;--secured even from a
+second irruption of Goths and Vandals, in addition to many other
+safeguards, by the vast empire of English language, laws, and religion
+founded in America, through the overflow of the power and the virtue of my
+country;--and that now the great and certain works of genuine fame can only
+cease to act for mankind, when men themselves cease to be men, or when the
+planet on which they exist, shall have altered its relations, or have
+ceased to be. Lord Bacon, in the language of the gods, if I may use an
+Homeric phrase, has expressed a similar thought:--
+
+
+    "Lastly, leaving the vulgar arguments, that by learning man
+    excelleth man in that wherein man excelleth beasts; that by
+    learning man ascendeth to the heavens and their motions, where in
+    body he cannot come, and the like; let us conclude with the
+    dignity and excellency of knowledge and learning in that whereunto
+    man's nature doth most aspire, which is immortality or
+    continuance: for to this tendeth generation, and raising of houses
+    and families; to this tend buildings, foundations, and monuments;
+    to this tendeth the desire of memory, fame, and celebration, and
+    in effect the strength of all other human desires. We see then how
+    far the monuments of wit and learning are more durable than the
+    monuments of power, or of the hands. For have not the verses of
+    Homer continued twenty-five hundred years, or more, without the
+    loss of a syllable or letter; during which time, infinite palaces,
+    temples, castles, cities, have been decayed and demolished? It is
+    not possible to have the true pictures or statues of Cyrus,
+    Alexander, Cæsar; no, nor of the kings or great personages of much
+    later years; for the originals cannot last, and the copies cannot
+    but lose of the life and truth. But the images of men's wits and
+    knowledges remain in books, exempted from the wrong of time, and
+    capable of perpetual renovation. Neither are they fitly to be
+    called images, because they generate still, and cast their seeds
+    in the minds of others, provoking and causing infinite actions and
+    opinions in succeeding ages: so that, if the invention of the ship
+    was thought so noble, which carrieth riches and commodities from
+    place to place, and consociateth the most remote regions in
+    participation of their fruits; how much more are letters to be
+    magnified, which, as ships, pass through the vast seas of time,
+    and make ages so distant to participate of the wisdom,
+    illuminations, and inventions, the one of the other?"
+
+
+But let us now consider what the drama should be. And first, it is not a
+copy, but an imitation, of nature. This is the universal principle of the
+fine arts. In all well laid out grounds what delight do we feel from that
+balance and antithesis of feelings and thoughts! How natural! we say;--but
+the very wonder that caused the exclamation, implies that we perceived art
+at the same moment. We catch the hint from nature itself. Whenever in
+mountains or cataracts we discover a likeness to any thing artificial
+which yet we know is not artificial--what pleasure! And so it is in
+appearances known to be artificial, which appear to be natural. This
+applies in due degrees, regulated by steady good sense, from a clump of
+trees to the _Paradise Lost_ or _Othello_. It would be easy to apply it to
+painting and even, though with greater abstraction of thought, and by more
+subtle yet equally just analogies--to music. But this belongs to others;
+suffice it that one great principle is common to all the fine arts, a
+principle which probably is the condition of all consciousness, without
+which we should feel and imagine only by discontinuous moments, and be
+plants or brute animals instead of men;--I mean that ever-varying balance,
+or balancing, of images, notions, or feelings, conceived as in opposition
+to each other;--in short, the perception of identity and contrariety; the
+least degree of which constitutes likeness, the greatest absolute
+difference; but the infinite gradations between these two form all the
+play and all the interest of our intellectual and moral being, till it
+leads us to a feeling and an object more awful than it seems to me
+compatible with even the present subject to utter aloud, though I am most
+desirous to suggest it. For there alone are all things at once different
+and the same; there alone, as the principle of all things, does
+distinction exist unaided by division; there are will and reason,
+succession of time and unmoving eternity, infinite change and ineffable
+rest!--
+
+"Return Alpheus! the dread voice is past
+Which shrunk thy streams!"
+
+    ----"Thou honour'd flood,
+Smooth-_flowing_ Avon, crown'd with vocal reeds,
+That strain I heard, was of a higher mood!--
+But now my _voice_ proceeds."
+
+We may divide a dramatic poet's characteristics before we enter into the
+component merits of any one work, and with reference only to those things
+which are to be the materials of all, into language, passion, and
+character; always bearing in mind that these must act and react on each
+other,--the language inspired by the passion, and the language and the
+passion modified and differenced by the character. To the production of
+the highest excellencies in these three, there are requisite in the mind
+of the author;--good sense, talent, sensibility, imagination;--and to the
+perfection of a work we should add two faculties of lesser importance, yet
+necessary for the ornaments and foliage of the column and the roof--fancy
+and a quick sense of beauty.
+
+As to language;--it cannot be supposed that the poet should make his
+characters say all that they would, or that, his whole drama considered,
+each scene, or paragraph should be such as, on cool examination, we can
+conceive it likely that men in such situations would say, in that order,
+or with that perfection. And yet, according to my feelings, it is a very
+inferior kind of poetry, in which, as in the French tragedies, men are
+made to talk in a style which few indeed even of the wittiest can be
+supposed to converse in, and which both is, and on a moment's reflection
+appears to be, the natural produce of the hot-bed of vanity, namely, the
+closet of an author, who is actuated originally by a desire to excite
+surprise and wonderment at his own superiority to other men,--instead of
+having felt so deeply on certain subjects, or in consequence of certain
+imaginations, as to make it almost a necessity of his nature to seek for
+sympathy,--no doubt, with that honourable desire of permanent action, which
+distinguishes genius.--Where then is the difference?--In this that each part
+should be proportionate, though the whole may be perhaps, impossible. At
+all events, it should be compatible with sound sense and logic in the mind
+of the poet himself.
+
+It is to be lamented that we judge of books by books, instead of referring
+what we read to our own experience. One great use of books is to make
+their contents a motive for observation. The German tragedies have in some
+respects been justly ridiculed. In them the dramatist often becomes a
+novelist in his directions to the actors, and thus degrades tragedy into
+pantomime. Yet still the consciousness of the poet's mind must be diffused
+over that of the reader or spectator; but he himself, according to his
+genius, elevates us, and by being always in keeping, prevents us from
+perceiving any strangeness, though we feel great exultation. Many
+different kinds of style may be admirable, both in different men, and in
+different parts of the same poem.
+
+See the different language which strong feelings may justify in Shylock,
+and learn from Shakespeare's conduct of that character the terrible force
+of every plain and calm diction, when known to proceed from a resolved and
+impassioned man.
+
+It is especially with reference to the drama, and its characteristics in
+any given nation, or at any particular period, that the dependence of
+genius on the public taste becomes a matter of the deepest importance. I
+do not mean that taste which springs merely from caprice or fashionable
+imitation, and which, in fact, genius can, and by degrees will, create for
+itself; but that which arises out of wide-grasping and heart-enrooted
+causes, which is epidemic, and in the very air that all breathe. This it
+is which kills, or withers, or corrupts. Socrates, indeed, might walk arm
+in arm with Hygeia, whilst pestilence, with a thousand furies running to
+and fro, and clashing against each other in a complexity and agglomeration
+of horrors, was shooting her darts of fire and venom all around him. Even
+such was Milton; yea, and such, in spite of all that has been babbled by
+his critics in pretended excuse for his damning, because for them too
+profound excellencies,--such was Shakespeare. But alas! the exceptions
+prove the rule. For who will dare to force his way out of the crowd,--not
+of the mere vulgar,--but of the vain and banded aristocracy of intellect,
+and presume to join the almost supernatural beings that stand by
+themselves aloof?
+
+Of this diseased epidemic influence there are two forms especially
+preclusive of tragic worth. The first is the necessary growth of a sense
+and love of the ludicrous, and a morbid sensibility of the assimilative
+power,--an inflammation produced by cold and weakness,--which in the boldest
+bursts of passion will lie in wait for a jeer at any phrase, that may have
+an accidental coincidence in the mere words with something base or
+trivial. For instance,--to express woods, not on a plain, but clothing a
+hill, which overlooks a valley, or dell, or river, or the sea,--the trees
+rising one above another, as the spectators in an ancient theatre,--I know
+no other word in our language (bookish and pedantic terms out of the
+question), but _hanging_ woods, the _sylvæ superimpendentes_ of Catullus;
+yet let some wit call out in a slang tone,--"the gallows!" and a peal of
+laughter would damn the play. Hence it is that so many dull pieces have
+had a decent run, only because nothing unusual above, or absurd below,
+mediocrity furnished an occasion,--a spark for the explosive materials
+collected behind the orchestra. But it would take a volume of no ordinary
+size, however laconically the sense were expressed, if it were meant to
+instance the effects, and unfold all the causes, of this disposition upon
+the moral, intellectual, and even physical character of a people, with its
+influences on domestic life and individual deportment. A good document
+upon this subject would be the history of Paris society and of French,
+that is, Parisian, literature from the commencement of the latter half of
+the reign of Louis XIV. to that of Buonaparte, compared with the preceding
+philosophy and poetry even of Frenchmen themselves.
+
+The second form, or more properly, perhaps, another distinct cause, of
+this diseased disposition is matter of exultation to the philanthropist
+and philosopher, and of regret to the poet, the painter, and the statuary
+alone, and to them only as poets, painters, and statuaries;--namely, the
+security, the comparative equability, and ever increasing sameness of
+human life. Men are now so seldom thrown into wild circumstances, and
+violences of excitement, that the language of such states, the laws of
+association of feeling with thought, the starts and strange far-flights of
+the assimilative power on the slightest and least obvious likeness
+presented by thoughts, words, or objects,--these are all judged of by
+authority, not by actual experience,--by what men have been accustomed to
+regard as symbols of these states, and not the natural symbols, or
+self-manifestations of them.
+
+Even so it is in the language of man, and in that of nature. The sound
+_sun_, or the figures _s_, _u_, _n_, are purely arbitrary modes of
+recalling the object, and for visual mere objects they are not only
+sufficient, but have infinite advantages from their very nothingness _per
+se_. But the language of nature is a subordinate _Logos_, that was in the
+beginning, and was with the thing it represented, and was the thing it
+represented.
+
+Now the language of Shakespeare, in his _Lear_ for instance, is a
+something intermediate between these two; or rather it is the former
+blended with the latter,--the arbitrary, not merely recalling the cold
+notion of the thing, but expressing the reality of it, and, as arbitrary
+language is an heir-loom of the human race, being itself a part of that
+which it manifests. What shall I deduce from the preceding positions? Even
+this,--the appropriate, the never to be too much valued advantage of the
+theatre, if only the actors were what we know they have been,--a
+delightful, yet most effectual remedy for this dead palsy of the public
+mind. What would appear mad or ludicrous in a book, when presented to the
+senses under the form of reality, and with the truth of nature, supplies a
+species of actual experience. This is indeed the special privilege of a
+great actor over a great poet. No part was ever played in perfection, but
+nature justified herself in the hearts of all her children, in what state
+soever they were, short of absolute moral exhaustion, or downright
+stupidity. There is no time given to ask questions, or to pass judgments;
+we are taken by storm, and, though in the histrionic art many a clumsy
+counterfeit, by caricature of one or two features, may gain applause as a
+fine likeness, yet never was the very thing rejected as a counterfeit. O!
+when I think of the inexhaustible mine of virgin treasure in our
+Shakespeare, that I have been almost daily reading him since I was ten
+years old,--that the thirty intervening years have been unintermittingly
+and not fruitlessly employed in the study of the Greek, Latin, English,
+Italian, Spanish, and German _belle lettrists_, and the last fifteen years
+in addition, far more intensely in the analysis of the laws of life and
+reason as they exist in man,--and that upon every step I have made forward
+in taste, in acquisition of facts from history or my own observation, and
+in knowledge of the different laws of being and their apparent exceptions,
+from accidental collision of disturbing forces,--that at every new
+accession of information, after every successful exercise of meditation,
+and every fresh presentation of experience, I have unfailingly discovered
+a proportionate increase of wisdom and intuition in Shakespeare;--when I
+know this, and know too, that by a conceivable and possible, though hardly
+to be expected, arrangement of the British theatres, not all, indeed, but
+a large, a very large, proportion of this indefinite all--(round which no
+comprehension has yet drawn the line of circumscription, so as to say to
+itself, "I have seen the whole")--might be sent into the heads and
+hearts--into the very souls of the mass of mankind, to whom, except by this
+living comment and interpretation, it must remain for ever a sealed
+volume, a deep well without a wheel or a windlass;--it seems to me a
+pardonable enthusiasm to steal away from sober likelihood, and share in so
+rich a feast in the faery world of possibility! Yet even in the grave
+cheerfulness of a circumspect hope, much, very much, might be done;
+enough, assuredly, to furnish a kind and strenuous nature with ample
+motives for the attempt to effect what may be effected.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+
+
+Clothed in radiant armour, and authorized by titles sure and manifold, as
+a poet, Shakespeare came forward to demand the throne of fame, as the
+dramatic poet of England. His excellences compelled even his
+contemporaries to seat him on that throne, although there were giants in
+those days contending for the same honour. Hereafter I would fain
+endeavour to make out the title of the English drama as created by, and
+existing in, Shakespeare, and its right to the supremacy of dramatic
+excellence in general. But he had shown himself a poet, previously to his
+appearance as a dramatic poet; and had no _Lear_, no _Othello_, no _Henry
+IV._, no _Twelfth Night_ ever appeared, we must have admitted that
+Shakespeare possessed the chief, if not every, requisite of a poet,--deep
+feeling and exquisite sense of beauty, both as exhibited to the eye in the
+combinations of form, and to the ear in sweet and appropriate melody; that
+these feelings were under the command of his own will; that in his very
+first productions he projected his mind out of his own particular being,
+and felt, and made others feel, on subjects no way connected with himself,
+except by force of contemplation and that sublime faculty by which a great
+mind becomes that on which it meditates. To this must be added that
+affectionate love of nature and natural objects, without which no man
+could have observed so steadily, or painted so truly and passionately, the
+very minutest beauties of the external world:--
+
+"And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare,
+Mark the poor wretch; to overshoot his troubles,
+How he outruns the wind, and with what care,
+He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles;
+The many musits through the which he goes
+Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes.
+
+"Sometimes he runs among the flock of sheep,
+To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell;
+And sometime where earth-delving conies keep,
+To stop the loud pursuers in their yell;
+And sometime sorteth with the herd of deer:
+Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear.
+
+"For there his smell with others' being mingled,
+The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt,
+Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled
+With much ado, the cold fault cleanly out,
+Then do they spend their mouths; echo replies,
+As if another chase were in the skies.
+
+"By this poor Wat far off, upon a hill,
+Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear,
+To harken if his foes pursue him still:
+Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,
+And now his grief may be compared well
+To one sore-sick, that hears the passing bell.
+
+"Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch
+Turn, and return, indenting with the way:
+Each envious briar his weary legs doth scratch,
+Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.
+For misery is trodden on by many,
+And being low, never relieved by any."
+
+_Venus and Adonis._
+
+And the preceding description:--
+
+"But lo! from forth a copse that neighbours by,
+A breeding jennet, lusty, young and proud," &c.
+
+is much more admirable, but in parts less fitted for quotation.
+
+Moreover Shakespeare had shown that he possessed fancy, considered as the
+faculty of bringing together images dissimilar in the main by some one
+point or more of likeness, as in such a passage as this:--
+
+"Full gently now she takes him by the hand,
+A lily prisoned in a jail of snow,
+Or ivory in an alabaster band:
+So white a friend ingirts so white a foe!"--_Ib._
+
+And still mounting the intellectual ladder, he had as unequivocally proved
+the indwelling in his mind of imagination, or the power by which one image
+or feeling is made to modify many others, and by a sort of fusion to force
+many into one;--that which afterwards showed itself in such might and
+energy in Lear, where the deep anguish of a father spreads the feeling of
+ingratitude and cruelty over the very elements of heaven;--and which,
+combining many circumstances into one moment of consciousness, tends to
+produce that ultimate end of all human thought and human feeling, unity,
+and thereby the reduction of the spirit to its principle and fountain, who
+is alone truly one. Various are the workings of this the greatest faculty
+of the human mind, both passionate and tranquil. In its tranquil and
+purely pleasurable operation, it acts chiefly by creating out of many
+things, as they would have appeared in the description of an ordinary
+mind, detailed in unimpassioned succession, a oneness, even as nature, the
+greatest of poets, acts upon us, when we open our eyes upon an extended
+prospect. Thus the flight of Adonis in the dusk of the evening:--
+
+"Look! how a bright star shooteth from the sky;
+So glides he in the night from Venus' eye!"
+
+How many images and feelings are here brought together without effort and
+without discord, in the beauty of Adonis, the rapidity of his flight, the
+yearning, yet hopelessness, of the enamoured gazer, while a shadowy ideal
+character is thrown over the whole! Or this power acts by impressing the
+stamp of humanity, and of human feelings, on inanimate or mere natural
+objects:--
+
+"Lo! here the gentle lark, weary of rest,
+From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,
+And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast
+The sun ariseth in his majesty,
+Who doth the world so gloriously behold,
+The cedar-tops and hills seem burnish'd gold."
+
+Or again, it acts by so carrying on the eye of the reader as to make him
+almost lose the consciousness of words,--to make him see every thing
+flashed, as Wordsworth has grandly and appropriately said:--
+
+"_Flashed_ upon the inward eye
+Which is the bliss of solitude;"--
+
+and this without exciting any painful or laborious attention, without any
+anatomy of description (a fault not uncommon in descriptive poetry),--but
+with the sweetness and easy movement of nature. This energy is an absolute
+essential of poetry, and of itself would constitute a poet, though not one
+of the highest class;--it is, however, a most hopeful symptom, and the
+_Venus and Adonis_ is one continued specimen of it.
+
+In this beautiful poem there is an endless activity of thought in all the
+possible associations of thought with thought, thought with feeling, or
+with words, of feelings with feelings, and of words with words.
+
+"Even as the sun, with purple-colour'd face,
+Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn,
+Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase:
+Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn.
+Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him,
+And like a bold-faced suitor 'gins to woo him."
+
+Remark the humanizing imagery and circumstances of the first two lines,
+and the activity of thought in the play of words in the fourth line. The
+whole stanza presents at once the time, the appearance of the morning, and
+the two persons distinctly characterised, and in six simple lines puts the
+reader in possession of the whole argument of the poem.
+
+"Over one arm the lusty courser's rein,
+Under the other was the tender boy,
+Who blush'd and pouted in a dull disdain,
+With leaden appetite, unapt to toy,
+She red and hot, as coals of glowing fire,
+He red for shame, but frosty to desire:"--
+
+This stanza and the two following afford good instances of that poetic
+power, which I mentioned above, of making every thing present to the
+imagination--both the forms, and the passions which modify those forms,
+either actually, as in the representations of love or anger, or other
+human affections; or imaginatively, by the different manner in which
+inanimate objects, or objects unimpassioned themselves, are caused to be
+seen by the mind in moments of strong excitement, and according to the
+kind of the excitement,--whether of jealousy, or rage, or love, in the only
+appropriate sense of the word, or of the lower impulses of our nature, or
+finally of the poetic feeling itself. It is, perhaps, chiefly in the power
+of producing and reproducing the latter that the poet stands distinct.
+
+The subject of the _Venus and Adonis_ is unpleasing; but the poem itself
+is for that very reason the more illustrative of Shakespeare. There are
+men who can write passages of deepest pathos and even sublimity on
+circumstances personal to themselves and stimulative of their own
+passions; but they are not, therefore, on this account poets. Read that
+magnificent burst of woman's patriotism and exultation, _Deborah's Song of
+Victory_; it is glorious, but nature is the poet there. It is quite
+another matter to become all things and yet remain the same,--to make the
+changeful god be felt in the river, the lion, and the flame;--this it is,
+that is the true imagination. Shakespeare writes in this poem, as if he
+were of another planet, charming you to gaze on the movements of Venus and
+Adonis, as you would on the twinkling dances of two vernal butterflies.
+
+Finally, in this poem and the _Rape of Lucrece_, Shakespeare gave ample
+proof of his possession of a most profound, energetic, and philosophical
+mind, without which he might have pleased, but could not have been a great
+dramatic poet. Chance and the necessity of his genius combined to lead him
+to the drama his proper province: in his conquest of which we should
+consider both the difficulties which opposed him, and the advantages by
+which he was assisted.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.
+
+
+Thus then Shakespeare appears, from his _Venus and Adonis_ and _Rape of
+Lucrece_ alone, apart from all his great works, to have possessed all the
+conditions of the true poet. Let me now proceed to destroy, as far as may
+be in my power, the popular notion that he was a great dramatist by mere
+instinct, that he grew immortal in his own despite, and sank below men of
+second or third rate power, when he attempted aught beside the drama--even
+as bees construct their cells and manufacture their honey to admirable
+perfection; but would in vain attempt to build a nest. Now this mode of
+reconciling a compelled sense of inferiority with a feeling of pride,
+began in a few pedants, who having read that Sophocles was the great model
+of tragedy, and Aristotle the infallible dictator of its rules, and
+finding that the _Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_ and other master-pieces were
+neither in imitation of Sophocles, nor in obedience to Aristotle,--and not
+having (with one or two exceptions) the courage to affirm, that the
+delight which their country received from generation to generation, in
+defiance of the alterations of circumstances and habits, was wholly
+groundless,--took upon them, as a happy medium and refuge, to talk of
+Shakespeare as a sort of beautiful _lusus naturæ_, a delightful
+monster,--wild, indeed, and without taste or judgment, but like the
+inspired idiots so much venerated in the East, uttering, amid the
+strangest follies, the sublimest truths. In nine places out of ten in
+which I find his awful name mentioned, it is with some epithet of "wild,"
+"irregular," "pure child of nature," &c. If all this be true, we must
+submit to it; though to a thinking mind it cannot but be painful to find
+any excellence, merely human, thrown out of all human analogy, and thereby
+leaving us neither rules for imitation, nor motives to imitate;--but if
+false, it is a dangerous falsehood;--for it affords a refuge to secret
+self-conceit,--enables a vain man at once to escape his reader's
+indignation by general swoln panegyrics, and merely by his _ipse dixit_ to
+treat, as contemptible, what he has not intellect enough to comprehend, or
+soul to feel, without assigning any reason, or referring his opinion to
+any demonstrative principle;--thus leaving Shakespeare as a sort of grand
+Lama, adored indeed, and his very excrements prized as relics, but with no
+authority or real influence. I grieve that every late voluminous edition
+of his works would enable me to substantiate the present charge with a
+variety of facts, one-tenth of which would of themselves exhaust the time
+allotted to me. Every critic, who has or has not made a collection of
+black letter books--in itself a useful and respectable amusement,--puts on
+the seven-league boots of self-opinion, and strides at once from an
+illustrator into a supreme judge, and blind and deaf, fills his
+three-ounce phial at the waters of Niagara; and determines positively the
+greatness of the cataract to be neither more nor less than his three-ounce
+phial has been able to receive.
+
+I think this a very serious subject. It is my earnest desire--my passionate
+endeavour--to enforce at various times and by various arguments and
+instances the close and reciprocal connection of just taste with pure
+morality. Without that acquaintance with the heart of man, or that
+docility and childlike gladness to be made acquainted with it, which those
+only can have, who dare look at their own hearts--and that with a
+steadiness which religion only has the power of reconciling with sincere
+humility;--without this, and the modesty produced by it, I am deeply
+convinced that no man, however wide his erudition, however patient his
+antiquarian researches, can possibly understand, or be worthy of
+understanding, the writings of Shakespeare.
+
+Assuredly that criticism of Shakespeare will alone be genial which is
+reverential. The Englishman who, without reverence--a proud and
+affectionate reverence--can utter the name of William Shakespeare, stands
+disqualified for the office of critic. He wants one at least of the very
+senses, the language of which he is to employ, and will discourse at best
+but as a blind man, while the whole harmonious creation of light and shade
+with all its subtle interchange of deepening and dissolving colours rises
+in silence to the silent _fiat_ of the uprising Apollo. However inferior
+in ability I may be to some who have followed me, I own I am proud that I
+was the first in time who publicly demonstrated to the full extent of the
+position, that the supposed irregularity and extravagances of Shakespeare
+were the mere dreams of a pedantry that arraigned the eagle because it had
+not the dimensions of the swan. In all the successive courses of lectures
+delivered by me, since my first attempt at the Royal Institution, it has
+been, and it still remains, my object, to prove that in all points from
+the most important to the most minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is
+commensurate with his genius,--nay, that his genius reveals itself in his
+judgment, as in its most exalted form. And the more gladly do I recur to
+this subject from the clear conviction, that to judge aright, and with
+distinct consciousness of the grounds of our judgment, concerning the
+works of Shakespeare, implies the power and the means of judging rightly
+of all other works of intellect, those of abstract science alone excepted.
+
+It is a painful truth, that not only individuals, but even whole nations,
+are ofttimes so enslaved to the habits of their education and immediate
+circumstances, as not to judge disinterestedly even on those subjects, the
+very pleasure arising from which consists in its disinterestedness,
+namely, on subjects of taste and polite literature. Instead of deciding
+concerning their own modes and customs by any rule of reason, nothing
+appears rational, becoming, or beautiful to them, but what coincides with
+the peculiarities of their education. In this narrow circle, individuals
+may attain to exquisite discrimination, as the French critics have done in
+their own literature; but a true critic can no more be such without
+placing himself on some central point, from which he may command the
+whole,--that is, some general rule, which, founded in reason, or the
+faculties common to all men, must therefore apply to each,--than an
+astronomer can explain the movements of the solar system without taking
+his stand in the sun. And let me remark, that this will not tend to
+produce despotism, but, on the contrary, true tolerance, in the critic. He
+will, indeed, require, as the spirit and substance of a work, something
+true in human nature itself, and independent of all circumstances; but in
+the mode of applying it, he will estimate genius and judgment according to
+the felicity with which the imperishable soul of intellect shall have
+adapted itself to the age, the place, and the existing manners. The error
+he will expose, lies in reversing this, and holding up the mere
+circumstances as perpetual to the utter neglect of the power which can
+alone animate them. For art cannot exist without, or apart from nature;
+and what has man of his own to give to his fellow man, but his own
+thoughts and feelings, and his observations, so far as they are modified
+by his own thoughts or feelings?
+
+Let me, then, once more submit this question to minds emancipated alike
+from national, or party, or sectarian prejudice:--Are the plays of
+Shakespeare works of rude uncultivated genius, in which the splendour of
+the parts compensates, if aught can compensate, for the barbarous
+shapelessness and irregularity of the whole?--Or is the form equally
+admirable with the matter, and the judgment of the great poet not less
+deserving our wonder than his genius?--Or, again, to repeat the question in
+other words:--is Shakespeare a great dramatic poet on account only of those
+beauties and excellences which he possesses in common with the ancients,
+but with diminished claims to our love and honour to the full extent of
+his differences from them?--Or are these very differences additional proofs
+of poetic wisdom, at once results and symbols of living power as
+contrasted with lifeless mechanism--of free and rival originality as
+contradistinguished from servile imitation, or, more accurately, a blind
+copying of effects, instead of a true imitation of the essential
+principles?--Imagine not that I am about to oppose genius to rules. No! the
+comparative value of these rules is the very cause to be tried. The spirit
+of poetry, like all other living powers, must of necessity circumscribe
+itself by rules, were it only to unite power with beauty. It must embody
+in order to reveal itself; but a living body is of necessity an organized
+one; and what is organization but the connection of parts in and for a
+whole, so that each part is at once end and means?--This is no discovery of
+criticism;--it is a necessity of the human mind; and all nations have felt
+and obeyed it, in the invention of metre, and measured sounds, as the
+vehicle and _involucrum_ of poetry--itself a fellow-growth from the same
+life,--even as the bark is to the tree!
+
+No work of true genius dares want its appropriate form, neither indeed is
+there any danger of this. As it must not, so genius cannot, be lawless;
+for it is even this that constitutes it genius--the power of acting
+creatively under laws of its own origination. How then comes it that not
+only single _Zoili_, but whole nations have combined in unhesitating
+condemnation of our great dramatist, as a sort of African nature, rich in
+beautiful monsters--as a wild heath where islands of fertility look the
+greener from the surrounding waste, where the loveliest plants now shine
+out among unsightly weeds, and now are choked by their parasitic growth,
+so intertwined that we cannot disentangle the weed without snapping the
+flower?--In this statement I have had no reference to the vulgar abuse of
+Voltaire, save as far as his charges are coincident with the decisions of
+Shakespeare's own commentators and (so they would tell you) almost
+idolatrous admirers. The true ground of the mistake lies in the
+confounding mechanical regularity with organic form. The form is mechanic,
+when on any given material we impress a pre-determined form, not
+necessarily arising out of the properties of the material;--as when to a
+mass of wet clay we give whatever shape we wish it to retain when
+hardened. The organic form, on the other hand is innate; it shapes, as it
+developes, itself from within, and the fulness of its development is one
+and the same with the perfection of its outward form. Such as the life is,
+such is the form. Nature, the prime genial artist, inexhaustible in
+diverse powers, is equally inexhaustible in forms;--each exterior is the
+physiognomy of the being within,--its true image reflected and thrown out
+from the concave mirror;--and even such is the appropriate excellence of
+her chosen poet, of our own Shakespeare,--himself a nature humanized, a
+genial understanding directing self-consciously a power and an implicit
+wisdom deeper even than our consciousness.
+
+I greatly dislike beauties and selections in general; but as proof
+positive of his unrivalled excellence, I should like to try Shakespeare by
+this criterion. Make out your amplest catalogue of all the human
+faculties, as reason or the moral law, the will, the feeling of the
+coincidence of the two (a feeling _sui generis et demonstratio
+demonstrationum_) called the conscience, the understanding or prudence,
+wit, fancy, imagination, judgment,--and then of the objects on which these
+are to be employed, as the beauties, the terrors, and the seeming caprices
+of nature, the realities and the capabilities, that is, the actual and the
+ideal, of the human mind, conceived as an individual or as a social being,
+as in innocence or in guilt, in a play-paradise, or in a war-field of
+temptation;--and then compare with Shakespeare under each of these heads
+all or any of the writers in prose and verse that have ever lived! Who,
+that is competent to judge, doubts the result?--And ask your own hearts--ask
+your own common-sense--to conceive the possibility of this man being--I say
+not, the drunken savage of that wretched sciolist, whom Frenchmen, to
+their shame, have honoured before their elder and better worthies,--but the
+anomalous, the wild, the irregular, genius of our daily criticism! What!
+are we to have miracles in sport?--Or, I speak reverently, does God choose
+idiots by whom to convey divine truths to man?
+
+
+
+
+Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's
+Dramas.
+
+
+In lectures, of which amusement forms a large part of the object, there
+are some peculiar difficulties. The architect places his foundation out of
+sight, and the musician tunes his instrument before he makes his
+appearance; but the lecturer has to try his chords in the presence of the
+assembly; an operation not likely, indeed, to produce much pleasure, but
+yet indispensably necessary to a right understanding of the subject to be
+developed.
+
+Poetry in essence is as familiar to barbarous as to civilized nations. The
+Laplander and the savage Indian are cheered by it as well as the
+inhabitants of London and Paris;--its spirit takes up and incorporates
+surrounding materials, as a plant clothes itself with soil and climate,
+whilst it exhibits the working of a vital principle within independent of
+all accidental circumstances. And to judge with fairness of an author's
+works, we ought to distinguish what is inward and essential from what is
+outward and circumstantial. It is essential to poetry that it be simple,
+and appeal to the elements and primary laws of our nature; that it be
+sensuous, and by its imagery elicit truth at a flash; that it be
+impassioned, and be able to move our feelings and awaken our affections.
+In comparing different poets with each other, we should inquire which have
+brought into the fullest play our imagination and our reason, or have
+created the greatest excitement and produced the completest harmony. If we
+consider great exquisiteness of language and sweetness of metre alone, it
+is impossible to deny to Pope the character of a delightful writer; but
+whether he be a poet, must depend upon our definition of the word; and,
+doubtless, if everything that pleases be poetry, Pope's satires and
+epistles must be poetry. This, I must say, that poetry, as distinguished
+from other modes of composition, does not rest in metre, and that it is
+not poetry, if it make no appeal to our passions or our imagination. One
+character belongs to all true poets, that they write from a principle
+within, not originating in any thing without; and that the true poet's
+work in its form, its shapings, and its modifications, is distinguished
+from all other works that assume to belong to the class of poetry, as a
+natural from an artificial flower, or as the mimic garden of a child from
+an enamelled meadow. In the former the flowers are broken from their stems
+and stuck into the ground; they are beautiful to the eye and fragrant to
+the sense, but their colours soon fade, and their odour is transient as
+the smile of the planter;--while the meadow may be visited again and again
+with renewed delight; its beauty is innate in the soil, and its bloom is
+of the freshness of nature.
+
+The next ground of critical judgment, and point of comparison, will be as
+to how far a given poet has been influenced by accidental circumstances.
+As a living poet must surely write, not for the ages past, but for that in
+which he lives, and those which are to follow, it is on the one hand
+natural that he should not violate, and on the other necessary that he
+should not depend on, the mere manners and modes of his day. See how
+little does Shakespeare leave us to regret that he was born in his
+particular age! The great æra in modern times was what is called the
+Restoration of Letters;--the ages preceding it are called the dark ages;
+but it would be more wise, perhaps, to call them the ages in which we were
+in the dark. It is usually overlooked that the supposed dark period was
+not universal, but partial and successive, or alternate; that the dark age
+of England was not the dark age of Italy, but that one country was in its
+light and vigour, whilst another was in its gloom and bondage. But no
+sooner had the Reformation sounded through Europe like the blast of an
+archangel's trumpet, than from king to peasant there arose an enthusiasm
+for knowledge; the discovery of a manuscript became the subject of an
+embassy; Erasmus read by moonlight, because he could not afford a torch,
+and begged a penny, not for the love of charity, but for the love of
+learning. The three great points of attention were religion, morals, and
+taste; men of genius, as well as men of learning, who in this age need to
+be so widely distinguished, then alike became copyists of the ancients;
+and this, indeed, was the only way by which the taste of mankind could be
+improved, or their understandings informed. Whilst Dante imagined himself
+a humble follower of Virgil, and Ariosto of Homer, they were both
+unconscious of that greater power working within them, which in many
+points carried them beyond their supposed originals. All great discoveries
+bear the stamp of the age in which they are made;--hence we perceive the
+effects of the purer religion of the moderns visible for the most part in
+their lives; and in reading their works we should not content ourselves
+with the mere narratives of events long since passed, but should learn to
+apply their maxims and conduct to ourselves.
+
+Having intimated that times and manners lend their form and pressure to
+genius, let me once more draw a slight parallel between the ancient and
+modern stage,--the stages of Greece and of England. The Greeks were
+polytheists; their religion was local; almost the only object of all their
+knowledge, art, and taste, was their gods; and, accordingly, their
+productions were, if the expression may be allowed, statuesque, whilst
+those of the moderns are picturesque. The Greeks reared a structure,
+which, in its parts, and as a whole, filled the mind with the calm and
+elevated impression of perfect beauty, and symmetrical proportion. The
+moderns also produced a whole--a more striking whole; but it was by
+blending materials, and fusing the parts together. And as the Pantheon is
+to York Minster or Westminster Abbey, so is Sophocles compared with
+Shakespeare; in the one a completeness, a satisfaction, an excellence, on
+which the mind rests with complacency; in the other a multitude of
+interlaced materials, great and little, magnificent and mean, accompanied,
+indeed, with the sense of a falling short of perfection, and yet, at the
+same time, so promising of our social and individual progression, that we
+would not, if we could, exchange it for that repose of the mind which
+dwells on the forms of symmetry in the acquiescent admiration of grace.
+This general characteristic of the ancient and modern drama might be
+illustrated by a parallel of the ancient and modern music;--the one
+consisting of melody arising from a succession only of pleasing
+sounds,--the modern embracing harmony also, the result of combination, and
+the effect of a whole.
+
+I have said, and I say it again, that great as was the genius of
+Shakespeare, his judgment was at least equal to it. Of this any one will
+be convinced, who attentively considers those points in which the dramas
+of Greece and England differ, from the dissimilitude of circumstances by
+which each was modified and influenced. The Greek stage had its origin in
+the ceremonies of a sacrifice, such as of the goat to Bacchus, whom we
+most erroneously regard as merely the jolly god of wine;--for among the
+ancients he was venerable, as the symbol of that power which acts without
+our consciousness in the vital energies of nature--the _vinum mundi_--as
+Apollo was that of the conscious agency of our intellectual being. The
+heroes of old, under the influences of this Bacchic enthusiasm, performed
+more than human actions; hence tales of the favourite champions soon
+passed into dialogue. On the Greek stage the chorus was always before the
+audience; the curtain was never dropped, as we should say; and change of
+place being therefore, in general, impossible, the absurd notion of
+condemning it merely as improbable in itself was never entertained by any
+one. If we can believe ourselves at Thebes in one act, we may believe
+ourselves at Athens in the next.
+
+If a story lasts twenty-four hours or twenty-four years, it is equally
+improbable. There seems to be no just boundary but what the feelings
+prescribe. But on the Greek stage, where the same persons were perpetually
+before the audience, great judgment was necessary in venturing on any such
+change. The poets never, therefore, attempted to impose on the senses by
+bringing places to men, but they did bring men to places, as in the
+well-known instance in the _Eumenides_, where, during an evident
+retirement of the chorus from the orchestra, the scene is changed to
+Athens, and Orestes is first introduced in the temple of Minerva, and the
+chorus of Furies come in afterwards in pursuit of him.
+
+In the Greek drama there were no formal divisions into scenes and acts;
+there were no means, therefore, of allowing for the necessary lapse of
+time between one part of the dialogue and another, and unity of time in a
+strict sense was, of course, impossible. To overcome that difficulty of
+accounting for time, which is effected on the modern stage by dropping a
+curtain, the judgment and great genius of the ancients supplied music and
+measured motion, and with the lyric ode filled up the vacuity. In the
+story of the _Agamemnon_ of Æschylus, the capture of Troy is supposed to
+be announced by a fire lighted on the Asiatic shore, and the transmission
+of the signal by successive beacons to Mycenæ. The signal is first seen at
+the 21st line, and the herald from Troy itself enters at the 486th, and
+Agamemnon himself at the 783rd line. But the practical absurdity of this
+was not felt by the audience, who, in imagination stretched minutes into
+hours, while they listened to the lofty narrative odes of the chorus which
+almost entirely filled up the interspace. Another fact deserves attention
+here, namely, that regularly on the Greek stage a drama, or acted story,
+consisted in reality of three dramas, called together a trilogy, and
+performed consecutively in the course of one day. Now you may conceive a
+tragedy of Shakespeare's as a trilogy connected in one single
+representation. Divide _Lear_ into three parts, and each would be a play
+with the ancients; or take the three Æschylean dramas of _Agamemnon_, and
+divide them into, or call them, as many acts, and they together would be
+one play. The first act would comprise the usurpation of Ægisthus, and the
+murder of Agamemnon; the second, the revenge of Orestes, and the murder of
+his mother; and the third, the penance and absolution of
+Orestes;--occupying a period of twenty-two years.
+
+The stage in Shakespeare's time was a naked room with a blanket for a
+curtain; but he made it a field for monarchs. That law of unity, which has
+its foundations, not in the factitious necessity of custom, but in nature
+itself, the unity of feeling, is everywhere and at all times observed by
+Shakespeare in his plays. Read _Romeo and Juliet_;--all is youth and
+spring;--youth with its follies, its virtues, its precipitancies;--spring
+with its odours, its flowers, and its transiency; it is one and the same
+feeling that commences, goes through, and ends the play. The old men, the
+Capulets and Montagues, are not common old men; they have an eagerness, a
+heartiness, a vehemence, the effect of spring; with Romeo, his change of
+passion, his sudden marriage, and his rash death, are all the effects of
+youth;--whilst in Juliet love has all that is tender and melancholy in the
+nightingale, all that is voluptuous in the rose, with whatever is sweet in
+the freshness of spring; but it ends with a long deep sigh like the last
+breeze of the Italian evening. This unity of feeling and character
+pervades every drama of Shakespeare.
+
+It seems to me that his plays are distinguished from those of all other
+dramatic poets by the following characteristics:--
+
+1. Expectation in preference to surprise. It is like the true reading of
+the passage--"God said, Let there be light, and there was _light_;"--not,
+there _was_ light. As the feeling with which we startle at a shooting star
+compared with that of watching the sunrise at the pre-established moment,
+such and so low is surprise compared with expectation.
+
+2. Signal adherence to the great law of nature, that all opposites tend to
+attract and temper each other. Passion in Shakespeare generally displays
+libertinism, but involves morality; and if there are exceptions to this,
+they are, independently of their intrinsic value, all of them indicative
+of individual character, and, like the farewell admonitions of a parent,
+have an end beyond the parental relation. Thus the Countess's beautiful
+precepts to Bertram, by elevating her character, raise that of Helena her
+favourite, and soften down the point in her which Shakespeare does not
+mean us not to see, but to see and to forgive, and at length to justify.
+And so it is in Polonius, who is the personified memory of wisdom no
+longer actually possessed. This admirable character is always
+misrepresented on the stage. Shakespeare never intended to exhibit him as
+a buffoon; for although it was natural that Hamlet--a young man of fire and
+genius, detesting formality, and disliking Polonius on political grounds,
+as imagining that he had assisted his uncle in his usurpation--should
+express himself satirically, yet this must not be taken as exactly the
+poet's conception of him. In Polonius a certain induration of character
+had arisen from long habits of business; but take his advice to Laertes,
+and Ophelia's reverence for his memory, and we shall see that he was meant
+to be represented as a statesman somewhat past his faculties,--his
+recollections of life all full of wisdom, and showing a knowledge of human
+nature, whilst what immediately takes place before him, and escapes from
+him, is indicative of weakness.
+
+But as in Homer all the deities are in armour, even Venus; so in
+Shakespeare all the characters are strong. Hence real folly and dulness
+are made by him the vehicles of wisdom. There is no difficulty for one
+being a fool to imitate a fool; but to be, remain, and speak like a wise
+man and a great wit, and yet so as to give a vivid representation of a
+veritable fool,--_hic labor, hoc opus est_. A drunken constable is not
+uncommon, nor hard to draw; but see and examine what goes to make up a
+Dogberry.
+
+3. Keeping at all times in the high road of life. Shakespeare has no
+innocent adulteries, no interesting incests, no virtuous vice;--he never
+renders that amiable which religion and reason alike teach us to detest,
+or clothes impurity in the garb of virtue, like Beaumont and Fletcher, the
+Kotzebues of the day. Shakespeare's fathers are roused by ingratitude, his
+husbands stung by unfaithfulness; in him, in short, the affections are
+wounded in those points in which all may, nay, must, feel. Let the
+morality of Shakespeare be contrasted with that of the writers of his own,
+or the succeeding age, or of those of the present day, who boast their
+superiority in this respect. No one can dispute that the result of such a
+comparison is altogether in favour of Shakespeare;--even the letters of
+women of high rank in his age were often coarser than his writings. If he
+occasionally disgusts a keen sense of delicacy, he never injures the mind;
+he neither excites, nor flatters, passion, in order to degrade the subject
+of it; he does not use the faulty thing for a faulty purpose, nor carries
+on warfare against virtue, by causing wickedness to appear as no
+wickedness, through the medium of a morbid sympathy with the unfortunate.
+In Shakespeare vice never walks as in twilight; nothing is purposely out
+of its place;--he inverts not the order of nature and propriety,--does not
+make every magistrate a drunkard or glutton, nor every poor man meek,
+humane, and temperate; he has no benevolent butchers, nor any sentimental
+rat-catchers.
+
+4. Independence of the dramatic interest on the plot. The interest in the
+plot is always in fact on account of the characters, not _vice versa_, as
+in almost all other writers; the plot is a mere canvass and no more. Hence
+arises the true justification of the same stratagem being used in regard
+to Benedict and Beatrice,--the vanity in each being alike. Take away from
+the _Much Ado about Nothing_ all that which is not indispensable to the
+plot, either as having little to do with it, or, at best, like Dogberry
+and his comrades, forced into the service, when any other less ingeniously
+absurd watchmen and night-constables would have answered the mere
+necessities of the action;--take away Benedict, Beatrice, Dogberry, and the
+reaction of the former on the character of Hero,--and what will remain? In
+other writers the main agent of the plot is always the prominent
+character; in Shakespeare it is so, or is not so, as the character is in
+itself calculated, or not calculated, to form the plot. Don John is the
+main-spring of the plot of this play; but he is merely shown and then
+withdrawn.
+
+5. Independence of the interest on the story as the ground-work of the
+plot. Hence Shakespeare never took the trouble of inventing stories. It
+was enough for him to select from those that had been already invented or
+recorded such as had one or other, or both, of two recommendations,
+namely, suitableness to his particular purpose, and their being parts of
+popular tradition,--names of which we had often heard, and of their
+fortunes, and as to which all we wanted was, to see the man himself. So it
+is just the man himself--the Lear, the Shylock, the Richard--that
+Shakespeare makes us for the first time acquainted with. Omit the first
+scene in _Lear_, and yet everything will remain; so the first and second
+scenes in the _Merchant of Venice_. Indeed it is universally true.
+
+6. Interfusion of the lyrical--that which in its very essence is
+poetical--not only with the dramatic, as in the plays of Metastasio, where
+at the end of the scene comes the _aria_ as the _exit_ speech of the
+character,--but also in and through the dramatic. Songs in Shakespeare are
+introduced as songs only, just as songs are in real life, beautifully as
+some of them are characteristic of the person who has sung or called for
+them, as Desdemona's "Willow," and Ophelia's wild snatches, and the sweet
+carollings in _As You Like It_. But the whole of the _Midsummer Night's
+Dream_ is one continued specimen of the dramatised lyrical. And observe
+how exquisitely the dramatic of Hotspur;--
+
+"Marry, and I'm glad on't with all my heart;
+I'd rather be a kitten and cry--mew." &c.
+
+melts away into the lyric of Mortimer;--
+
+"I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh
+Which thou pourest down from these swelling heavens,
+I am too perfect in," &c.
+
+_Henry IV._ part i. act iii, sc. 1.
+
+7. The characters of the _dramatis personæ_, like those in real life, are
+to be inferred by the reader;--they are not told to him. And it is well
+worth remarking that Shakespeare's characters, like those in real life,
+are very commonly misunderstood, and almost always understood by different
+persons in different ways. The causes are the same in either case. If you
+take only what the friends of the character say, you may be deceived, and
+still more so, if that which his enemies say; nay, even the character
+himself sees himself through the medium of his character, and not exactly
+as he is. Take all together, not omitting a shrewd hint from the clown or
+the fool, and perhaps your impression will be right; and you may know
+whether you have in fact discovered the poet's own idea, by all the
+speeches receiving light from it, and attesting its reality by reflecting
+it.
+
+Lastly, in Shakespeare the heterogeneous is united, as it is in nature.
+You must not suppose a pressure or passion always acting on or in the
+character!--passion in Shakespeare is that by which the individual is
+distinguished from others, not that which makes a different kind of him.
+Shakespeare followed the main march of the human affections. He entered
+into no analysis of the passions or faiths of men, but assured himself
+that such and such passions and faiths were grounded in our common nature,
+and not in the mere accidents of ignorance or disease. This is an
+important consideration, and constitutes our Shakespeare the morning star,
+the guide and the pioneer, of true philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+
+
+Of that species of writing termed tragi-comedy, much has been produced and
+doomed to the shelf. Shakespeare's comic are continually reacting upon his
+tragic characters. Lear, wandering amidst the tempest, has all his
+feelings of distress increased by the overflowings of the wild wit of the
+Fool, as vinegar poured upon wounds exacerbates their pain. Thus, even his
+comic humour tends to the development of tragic passion.
+
+The next characteristic of Shakespeare is his keeping at all times in the
+high road of life, &c. Another evidence of his exquisite judgment is, that
+he seizes hold of popular tales; _Lear_ and the _Merchant of Venice_ were
+popular tales, but are so excellently managed, that both are the
+representations of men in all countries and of all times.
+
+His dramas do not arise absolutely out of some one extraordinary
+circumstance, the scenes may stand independently of any such one
+connecting incident, as faithful representations of men and manners. In
+his mode of drawing characters there are no pompous descriptions of a man
+by himself; his character is to be drawn, as in real life, from the whole
+course of the play, or out of the mouths of his enemies or friends. This
+may be exemplified in Polonius, whose character has been often
+misrepresented. Shakespeare never intended him for a buffoon, &c.
+
+Another excellence of Shakespeare, in which no writer equals him, is in
+the language of nature. So correct is it, that we can see ourselves in
+every page. The style and manner have also that felicity, that not a
+sentence can be read, without its being discovered if it is Shakespearian.
+In observation of living characters--of landlords and postilions--Fielding
+has great excellence; but in drawing from his own heart, and depicting
+that species of character, which no observation could teach, he failed in
+comparison with Richardson, who perpetually places himself, as it were, in
+a day-dream. Shakespeare excels in both. Witness the accuracy of character
+in Juliet's name; while for the great characters of Iago, Othello, Hamlet,
+Richard III., to which he could never have seen anything similar, he seems
+invariably to have asked himself--How should I act or speak in such
+circumstances? His comic characters are also peculiar. A drunken constable
+was not uncommon; but he makes folly a vehicle for wit, as in Dogberry:
+everything is a _sub-stratum_ on which his genius can erect the mightiest
+superstructure.
+
+To distinguish that which is legitimate in Shakespeare from what does not
+belong to him, we must observe his varied images symbolical of novel
+truth, thrusting by, and seeming to trip up each other, from an
+impetuosity of thought, producing a flowing metre, and seldom closing with
+the line. In _Pericles_, a play written fifty years before, but altered by
+Shakespeare, his additions may be recognised to half a line, from the
+metre, which has the same perfection in the flowing continuity of
+interchangeable metrical pauses in his earliest plays, as in _Love's
+Labour's Lost_.
+
+Lastly, contrast his _morality_ with the writers of his own or of the
+succeeding age, &c. If a man speak injuriously of our friend, our
+vindication of him is naturally warm. Shakespeare has been accused of
+profaneness. I for my part have acquired from perusal of him, a habit of
+looking into my own heart, and am confident that Shakespeare is an author
+of all others the most calculated to make his readers better as well as
+wiser.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Shakespeare, possessed of wit, humour, fancy, and imagination, built up an
+outward world from the stores within his mind, as the bee finds a hive
+from a thousand sweets gathered from a thousand flowers. He was not only a
+great poet but a great philosopher. Richard III., Iago, and Falstaff are
+men who reverse the order of things, who place intellect at the head,
+whereas it ought to follow, like Geometry, to prove and to confirm. No
+man, either hero or saint, ever acted from an unmixed motive; for let him
+do what he will rightly, still Conscience whispers "it is your duty."
+Richard, laughing at conscience and sneering at religion, felt a
+confidence in his intellect, which urged him to commit the most horrid
+crimes, because he felt himself, although inferior in form and shape,
+superior to those around him; he felt he possessed a power which they had
+not. Iago, on the same principle, conscious of superior intellect, gave
+scope to his envy, and hesitated not to ruin a gallant, open, and generous
+friend in the moment of felicity, because he was not promoted as he
+expected. Othello was superior in place, but Iago felt him to be inferior
+in intellect, and, unrestrained by conscience, trampled upon him.
+Falstaff, not a degraded man of genius, like Burns, but a man of degraded
+genius, with the same consciousness of superiority to his companions,
+fastened himself on a young Prince, to prove how much his influence on an
+heir-apparent would exceed that of a statesman. With this view he
+hesitated not to adopt the most contemptible of all characters, that of an
+open and professed liar: even his sensuality was subservient to his
+intellect: for he appeared to drink sack, that he might have occasion to
+show off his wit. One thing, however, worthy of observation, is the
+perpetual contrast of labour in Falstaff to produce wit, with the ease
+with which Prince Henry parries his shafts; and the final contempt which
+such a character deserves and receives from the young king, when Falstaff
+exhibits the struggle of inward determination with an outward show of
+humility.
+
+
+
+
+Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.
+
+
+Various attempts have been made to arrange the plays of Shakespeare, each
+according to its priority in time, by proofs derived from external
+documents. How unsuccessful these attempts have been might easily be
+shewn, not only from the widely different results arrived at by men, all
+deeply versed in the black-letter books, old plays, pamphlets, manuscript
+records, and catalogues of that age, but also from the fallacious and
+unsatisfactory nature of the facts and assumptions on which the evidence
+rests. In that age, when the press was chiefly occupied with controversial
+or practical divinity,--when the law, the Church, and the State engrossed
+all honour and respectability,--when a degree of disgrace, _levior quædam
+infamiæ macula_, was attached to the publication of poetry, and even to
+have sported with the Muse, as a private relaxation, was supposed to be--a
+venial fault, indeed, yet--something beneath the gravity of a wise
+man,--when the professed poets were so poor, that the very expenses of the
+press demanded the liberality of some wealthy individual, so that
+two-thirds of Spenser's poetic works, and those most highly praised by his
+learned admirers and friends, remained for many years in manuscript, and
+in manuscript perished,--when the amateurs of the stage were comparatively
+few, and therefore for the greater part more or less known to each
+other,--when we know that the plays of Shakespeare, both during and after
+his life, were the property of the stage, and published by the players,
+doubtless according to their notions of acceptability with the visitants
+of the theatre,--in such an age, and under such circumstances, can an
+allusion or reference to any drama or poem in the publication of a
+contemporary be received as conclusive evidence, that such drama or poem
+had at that time been published? Or, further, can the priority of
+publication itself prove anything in favour of actually prior composition?
+
+We are tolerably certain, indeed, that the _Venus and Adonis_, and the
+_Rape of Lucrece_, were his two earliest poems, and though not printed
+until 1593, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, yet there can be little
+doubt that they had remained by him in manuscript many years. For Mr.
+Malone has made it highly probable that he had commenced as a writer for
+the stage in 1591, when he was twenty-seven years old, and Shakespeare
+himself assures us that the _Venus and Adonis_ was the first heir of his
+invention.
+
+Baffled, then, in the attempt to derive any satisfaction from outward
+documents, we may easily stand excused if we turn our researches towards
+the internal evidences furnished by the writings themselves, with no other
+positive _data_ than the known facts that the _Venus and Adonis_ was
+printed in 1593, the _Rape of Lucrece_ in 1594, and that the _Romeo and
+Juliet_ had appeared in 1595,--and with no other presumptions than that the
+poems, his very first productions, were written many years earlier--(for
+who can believe that Shakespeare could have remained to his twenty-ninth
+or thirtieth year without attempting poetic composition of any kind?),--and
+that between these and _Romeo and Juliet_ there had intervened one or two
+other dramas, or the chief materials, at least of them, although they may
+very possibly have appeared after the success of the _Romeo and Juliet_,
+and some other circumstances, had given the poet an authority with the
+proprietors, and created a prepossession in his favour with the theatrical
+audiences.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1802.
+
+FIRST EPOCH.
+
+      The London Prodigal.
+      Cromwell.
+      Henry VI., three parts, first edition.
+      The old King John.
+      Edward III.
+      The old Taming of the Shrew.
+      Pericles.
+
+All these are transition works, _Uebergangswerke_; not his, yet of him.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      All's Well that Ends Well;--but afterwards worked up afresh
+      (_umgearbeitet_), especially Parolles.
+      The Two Gentlemen of Verona; a sketch.
+      Romeo and Juliet; first draft of it.
+
+THIRD EPOCH
+
+rises into the full, although youthful, Shakespeare; it was the negative
+period of his perfection.
+
+      Love's Labour's Lost.
+      Twelfth Night.
+      As You Like It.
+      Midsummer Night's Dream.
+      Richard II.
+      Henry IV. and V.
+      Henry VIII.; _Gelegenheitsgedicht_.
+      Romeo and Juliet, as at present.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH.
+
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor; first edition.
+      Henry VI.; _rifacimento_.
+
+FIFTH EPOCH.
+
+The period of beauty was now past; and that of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and grandeur
+succeeds.
+
+      Lear.
+      Macbeth.
+      Hamlet.
+      Timon of Athens; an after vibration of Hamlet.
+      Troilus and Cressida; _Uebergang in die Ironie_.
+      The Roman Plays.
+      King John, as at present.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor
+      Taming of the Shrew _umgearbeitet._
+      Measure for Measure.
+      Othello.
+      Tempest.
+      Winter's Tale.
+      Cymbeline.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1810.
+
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas I take to be--
+
+      Love's Labour's Lost.
+      All's Well that Ends Well.
+      Comedy of Errors.
+      Romeo and Juliet.
+
+In the second class I reckon--
+
+      Midsummer Night's Dream.
+      As You Like It.
+      Tempest.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+In the third, as indicating a greater energy--not merely of poetry, but of
+all the world of thought, yet still with some of the growing pains, and
+the awkwardness of growth--I place--
+
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+      Cymbeline.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Taming of the Shrew.
+
+In the fourth, I place the plays containing the greatest characters--
+
+      Macbeth.
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Othello.
+
+And lastly, the historic dramas, in order to be able to show my reasons
+for rejecting some whole plays, and very many scenes in others.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1819.
+
+I think Shakespeare's earliest dramatic attempt--perhaps even prior in
+conception to the _Venus and Adonis_, and planned before he left
+Stratford--was _Love's Labour's Lost_. Shortly afterwards I suppose
+_Pericles_ and certain scenes in _Jeronymo_ to have been produced; and in
+the same epoch, I place the _Winter's Tale_ and _Cymbeline_, differing
+from the _Pericles_ by the entire _rifacimento_ of it, when Shakespeare's
+celebrity as poet, and his interest, no less than his influence, as
+manager, enabled him to bring forward the laid-by labours of his youth.
+The example of _Titus Andronicus_, which, as well as _Jeronymo_, was most
+popular in Shakespeare's first epoch, had led the young dramatist to the
+lawless mixture of dates and manners. In this same epoch I should place
+the _Comedy of Errors_, remarkable as being the only specimen of poetical
+farce in our language, that is, intentionally such; so that all the
+distinct kinds of drama, which might be educed _a priori_, have their
+representatives in Shakespeare's works. I say intentionally such; for many
+of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, and the greater part of Ben Jonson's
+comedies, are farce plots. I add _All's Well that Ends Well_, originally
+intended as the counterpart of _Love's Labour's Lost_, _Taming of the
+Shrew_, _Midsummer Night's Dream_, _Much Ado about Nothing_, and _Romeo
+and Juliet_.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      Richard II.
+      King John.
+      Henry VI.,--_rifacimento_ only.
+      Richard III.
+
+THIRD EPOCH.
+
+      Henry IV.
+      Henry V.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor.
+      Henry VIII.,--a sort of historical masque, or show play.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH
+
+gives all the graces and facilities of a genius in full possession and
+habitual exercise of power, and peculiarly of the feminine, the _lady's_
+character.
+
+      Tempest.
+      As You Like It
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+And, finally, at its very point of culmination--
+
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Macbeth.
+      Othello.
+
+LAST EPOCH.
+
+when the energies of intellect in the cycle of genius were, though in a
+rich and more potentiated form, becoming predominant over passion and
+creative self-manifestation--
+
+      Measure for Measure,
+      Timon of Athens.
+      Coriolanus.
+      Julius Cæsar.
+      Antony and Cleopatra.
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+
+Merciful, wonder-making Heaven! what a man was this Shakespeare!
+Myriad-minded, indeed, he was.
+
+
+
+
+Notes On The "Tempest."
+
+
+There is a sort of improbability with which we are shocked in dramatic
+representation, not less than in a narrative of real life. Consequently,
+there must be rules respecting it; and as rules are nothing but means to
+an end previously ascertained--(inattention to which simple truth has been
+the occasion of all the pedantry of the French school),--we must first
+determine what the immediate end or object of the drama is. And here, as I
+have previously remarked, I find two extremes of critical decision;--the
+French, which evidently presupposes that a perfect delusion is to be aimed
+at,--an opinion which needs no fresh confutation; and the exact opposite to
+it, brought forward by Dr. Johnson, who supposes the auditors throughout
+in the full reflective knowledge of the contrary. In evincing the
+impossibility of delusion, he makes no sufficient allowance for an
+intermediate state, which I have before distinguished by the term
+illusion, and have attempted to illustrate its quality and character by
+reference to our mental state when dreaming. In both cases we simply do
+not judge the imagery to be unreal; there is a negative reality, and no
+more. Whatever, therefore, tends to prevent the mind from placing itself,
+or being placed, gradually in that state in which the images have such
+negative reality for the auditor, destroys this illusion, and is
+dramatically improbable.
+
+Now, the production of this effect--a sense of improbability--will depend on
+the degree of excitement in which the mind is supposed to be. Many things
+would be intolerable in the first scene of a play, that would not at all
+interrupt our enjoyment in the height of the interest, when the narrow
+cockpit may be made to hold
+
+"The vasty field of France, or we may cram
+Within its wooden O, the very casques,
+That did affright the air at Agincourt."
+
+Again, on the other hand, many obvious improbabilities will be endured, as
+belonging to the groundwork of the story rather than to the drama itself,
+in the first scenes, which would disturb or disentrance us from all
+illusion in the acme of our excitement; as for instance, Lear's division
+of his kingdom, and the banishment of Cordelia.
+
+But, although the other excellences of the drama besides this dramatic
+probability, as unity of interest, with distinctness and subordination of
+the characters, and appropriateness of style, are all, so far as they tend
+to increase the inward excitement, means towards accomplishing the chief
+end, that of producing and supporting this willing illusion,--yet they do
+not on that account cease to be ends themselves; and we must remember
+that, as such, they carry their own justification with them, as long as
+they do not contravene or interrupt the total illusion. It is not even
+always, or of necessity, an objection to them, that they prevent the
+illusion from rising to as great a height as it might otherwise have
+attained;--it is enough that they are simply compatible with as high a
+degree of it as is requisite for the purpose. Nay, upon particular
+occasions, a palpable improbability may be hazarded by a great genius for
+the express purpose of keeping down the interest of a merely instrumental
+scene, which would otherwise make too great an impression for the harmony
+of the entire illusion. Had the panorama been invented in the time of Pope
+Leo X., Raffael would still, I doubt not, have smiled in contempt at the
+regret, that the broom twigs and scrubby bushes at the back of some of his
+grand pictures were not as probable trees as those in the exhibition.
+
+The _Tempest_ is a specimen of the purely romantic drama, in which the
+interest is not historical, or dependent upon fidelity of portraiture, or
+the natural connection of events, but is a birth of the imagination, and
+rests only upon the coaptation and union of the elements granted to, or
+assumed by, the poet. It is a species of drama which owes no allegiance to
+time or space, and in which, therefore, errors of chronology and
+geography--no mortal sins in any species--are venial faults, and count for
+nothing. It addresses itself entirely to the imaginative faculty; and
+although the illusion may be assisted by the effect on the senses of the
+complicated scenery and decorations of modern times, yet this sort of
+assistance is dangerous. For the principal and only genuine excitement
+ought to come from within--from the moved and sympathetic imagination;
+whereas, where so much is addressed to the mere external senses of seeing
+and bearing, the spiritual vision is apt to languish, and the attraction
+from without will withdraw the mind from the proper and only legitimate
+interest which is intended to spring from within.
+
+The romance opens with a busy scene admirably appropriate to the kind of
+drama, and giving, as it were, the key-note to the whole harmony. It
+prepares and initiates the excitement required for the entire piece, and
+yet does not demand anything from the spectators, which their previous
+habits had not fitted them to understand. It is the bustle of a tempest,
+from which the real horrors are abstracted;--therefore it is poetical,
+though not in strictness natural--(the distinction to which I have so often
+alluded)--and is purposely restrained from concentering the interest on
+itself, but used merely as an induction or tuning for what is to follow.
+
+In the second scene, Prospero's speeches, till the entrance of Ariel,
+contain the finest example I remember of retrospective narration for the
+purpose of exciting immediate interest, and putting the audience in
+possession of all the information necessary for the understanding of the
+plot. Observe, too, the perfect probability of the moment chosen by
+Prospero (the very Shakespeare himself, as it were, of the tempest) to
+open out the truth to his daughter, his own romantic bearing, and how
+completely anything that might have been disagreeable to us in the
+magician, is reconciled and shaded in the humanity and natural feelings of
+the father. In the very first speech of Miranda, the simplicity and
+tenderness of her character are at once laid open;--it would have been lost
+in direct contact with the agitation of the first scene. The opinion once
+prevailed, but happily is now abandoned, that Fletcher alone wrote for
+women;--the truth is, that with very few, and those partial exceptions, the
+female characters in the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are, when of the
+light kind, not decent; when heroic, complete viragos. But in Shakespeare
+all the elements of womanhood are holy, and there is the sweet yet
+dignified feeling of all that _continuates_ society, as sense of ancestry
+and of sex, with a purity unassailable by sophistry, because it rests not
+in the analytic processes, but in that sane equipoise of the faculties,
+during which the feelings are representative of all past experience,--not
+of the individual only, but of all those by whom she has been educated,
+and their predecessors, even up to the first mother that lived.
+Shakespeare saw that the want of prominence, which Pope notices for
+sarcasm, was the blessed beauty of the woman's character, and knew that it
+arose not from any deficiency, but from the more exquisite harmony of all
+the parts of the moral being constituing one living total of head and
+heart. He has drawn it, indeed, in all its distinctive energies of faith,
+patience, constancy, fortitude,--shown in all of them as following the
+heart, which gives its results by a nice tact and happy intuition, without
+the intervention of the discursive faculty, sees all things in and by the
+light of the affections, and errs, if it ever err, in the exaggerations of
+love alone. In all the Shakespearian women there is essentially the same
+foundation and principle; the distinct individuality and variety are
+merely the result of modification of circumstances, whether in Miranda the
+maiden, in Imogen the wife, or in Katherine the queen.
+
+But to return. The appearance and characters of the super or ultra natural
+servants are finely contrasted. Ariel has in everything the airy tint
+which gives the name; and it is worthy of remark that Miranda is never
+directly brought into comparison with Ariel, lest the natural and human of
+the one and the supernatural of the other should tend to neutralise each
+other; Caliban, on the other hand, is all earth, all condensed and gross
+in feelings and images; he has the dawnings of understanding without
+reason or the moral sense, and in him, as in some brute animals, this
+advance to the intellectual faculties, without the moral sense, is marked
+by the appearance of vice. For it is in the primacy of the moral being
+only that man is truly human; in his intellectual powers he is certainly
+approached by the brutes, and, man's whole system duly considered, those
+powers cannot be considered other than means to an end--that is, to
+morality.
+
+In this scene, as it proceeds, is displayed the impression made by
+Ferdinand and Miranda on each other; it is love at first sight;--
+
+       ... "At the first sight
+They have chang'd eyes;"--
+
+and it appears to me, that in all cases of real love, it is at one moment
+that it takes place. That moment may have been prepared by previous
+esteem, admiration, or even affection,--yet love seems to require a
+momentary act of volition, by which a tacit bond of devotion is imposed,--a
+bond not to be thereafter broken without violating what should be sacred
+in our nature. How finely is the true Shakespearian scene contrasted with
+Dryden's vulgar alteration of it, in which a mere ludicrous psychological
+experiment, as it were, is tried--displaying nothing but indelicacy without
+passion.
+
+Prospero's interruption of the courtship has often seemed to me to have
+had no sufficient motive; still, his alleged reason--
+
+      ... "Lest too light winning
+Make the prize light"--
+
+is enough for the ethereal connections of the romantic imagination,
+although it would not be so for the historical. The whole courting scene,
+indeed, in the beginning of the third act, between the lovers, is a
+masterpiece; and the first dawn of disobedience in the mind of Miranda to
+the command of her father is very finely drawn, so as to seem the working
+of the Scriptural command--"Thou shalt leave father and mother," &c. Oh!
+with what exquisite purity this scene is conceived and executed!
+Shakespeare may sometimes be gross, but I boldly say that he is always
+moral and modest. Alas! in this our day, decency of manners is preserved
+at the expense of morality of heart, and delicacies for vice are allowed,
+whilst grossness against it is hypocritically, or at least morbidly,
+condemned.
+
+In this play are admirably sketched the vices generally accompanying a low
+degree of civilisation; and in the first scene of the second act
+Shakespeare has, as in many other places, shown the tendency in bad men to
+indulge in scorn and contemptuous expressions as a mode of getting rid of
+their own uneasy feelings of inferiority to the good, and also, by making
+the good ridiculous, of rendering the transition of others to wickedness
+easy. Shakespeare never puts habitual scorn into the mouths of other than
+bad men, as here in the instances of Antonio and Sebastian. The scene of
+the intended assassination of Alonzo and Gonzalo is an exact counterpart
+of the scene between Macbeth and his lady, only pitched in a lower key
+throughout, as designed to be frustrated and concealed, and exhibiting the
+same profound management in the manner of familiarising a mind, not
+immediately recipient, to the suggestion of guilt, by associating the
+proposed crime with something ludicrous or out of place,--something not
+habitually matter of reverence. By this kind of sophistry the imagination
+and fancy are first bribed to contemplate the suggested act, and at length
+to become acquainted with it. Observe how the effect of this scene is
+heightened by contrast with another counterpart of it in low life,--that
+between the conspirators Stephano, Caliban, and Trinculo in the second
+scene of the third act, in which there are the same essential
+characteristics.
+
+In this play, and in this scene of it, are also shown the springs of the
+vulgar in politics,--of that kind of politics which is inwoven with human
+nature. In his treatment of this subject, wherever it occurs, Shakespeare
+is quite peculiar. In other writers we find the particular opinions of the
+individual; in Massinger it is rank republicanism; in Beaumont and
+Fletcher even _jure divino_ principles are carried to excess;--but
+Shakespeare never promulgates any party tenets. He is always the
+philosopher and the moralist, but at the same time with a profound
+veneration for all the established institutions of society, and for those
+classes which form the permanent elements of the State,--especially never
+introducing a professional character, as such, otherwise than as
+respectable. If he must have any name, he should be styled a philosophical
+aristocrat, delighting in those hereditary institutions which have a
+tendency to bind one age to another, and in that distinction of ranks, of
+which, although few may be in possession, all enjoy the advantages. Hence,
+again, you will observe the good nature with which he seems always to make
+sport with the passions and follies of a mob, as with an irrational
+animal. He is never angry with it, but hugely content with holding up its
+absurdities to its face; and sometimes you may trace a tone of almost
+affectionate superiority, something like that in which a father speaks of
+the rogueries of a child. See the good-humoured way in which he describes
+Stephano passing from the most licentious freedom to absolute despotism
+over Trinculo and Caliban. The truth is, Shakespeare's characters are all
+_genera_ intensely individualised; the results of meditation, of which
+observation supplied the drapery and the colours necessary to combine them
+with each other. He had virtually surveyed all the great component powers
+and impulses of human nature,--had seen that their different combinations
+and subordinations were in fact the individualisers of men, and showed how
+their harmony was produced by reciprocal disproportions of excess or
+deficiency. The language in which these truths are expressed was not drawn
+from any set fashion, but from the profoundest depths of his moral being,
+and is therefore for all ages.
+
+
+
+
+"Love's Labour's Lost."
+
+
+The characters in this play are either impersonated out of Shakespeare's
+own multiformity by imaginative self-position, or out of such as a country
+town and schoolboy's observation might supply,--the curate, the
+schoolmaster, the Armado (who even in my time was not extinct in the
+cheaper inns of North Wales), and so on. The satire is chiefly on follies
+of words. Biron and Rosaline are evidently the pre-existent state of
+Benedict and Beatrice, and so, perhaps, is Boyet of Lafeu, and Costard of
+the tapster in _Measure for Measure_; and the frequency of the rhymes, the
+sweetness as well as the smoothness of the metre, and the number of acute
+and fancifully illustrated aphorisms, are all as they ought to be in a
+poet's youth. True genius begins by generalising and condensing; it ends
+in realising and expanding. It first collects the seeds.
+
+Yet, if this juvenile drama had been the only one extant of our
+Shakespeare, and we possessed the tradition only of his riper works, or
+accounts of them in writers who had not even mentioned this play,--how many
+of Shakespeare's characteristic features might we not still have
+discovered in _Love's Labour's Lost_, though as in a portrait taken of him
+in his boyhood.
+
+I can never sufficiently admire the wonderful activity of thought
+throughout the whole of the first scene of the play, rendered natural, as
+it is, by the choice of the characters, and the whimsical determination on
+which the drama is founded. A whimsical determination certainly;--yet not
+altogether so very improbable to those who are conversant in the history
+of the middle ages, with their Courts of Love, and all that lighter
+drapery of chivalry, which engaged even mighty kings with a sort of
+serio-comic interest, and may well be supposed to have occupied more
+completely the smaller princes, at a time when the noble's or prince's
+court contained the only theatre of the domain or principality. This sort
+of story, too, was admirably suited to Shakespeare's times, when the
+English court was still the foster-mother of the state and the muses; and
+when, in consequence, the courtiers, and men of rank and fashion, affected
+a display of wit, point, and sententious observation, that would be deemed
+intolerable at present,--but in which a hundred years of controversy,
+involving every great political, and every dear domestic, interest, had
+trained all but the lowest classes to participate. Add to this the very
+style of the sermons of the time, and the eagerness of the Protestants to
+distinguish themselves by long and frequent preaching, and it will be
+found that, from the reign of Henry VIII. to the abdication of James II.
+no country ever received such a national education as England.
+
+Hence the comic matter chosen in the first instance is a ridiculous
+imitation or apery of this constant striving after logical precision and
+subtle opposition of thoughts, together with a making the most of every
+conception or image, by expressing it under the least expected property
+belonging to it, and this, again, rendered specially absurd by being
+applied to the most current subjects and occurrences. The phrases and
+modes of combination in argument were caught by the most ignorant from the
+custom of the age, and their ridiculous misapplication of them is most
+amusingly exhibited in Costard; whilst examples suited only to the gravest
+propositions and impersonations, or apostrophes to abstract thoughts
+impersonated, which are in fact the natural language only of the most
+vehement agitations of the mind, are adopted by the coxcombry of Armado as
+mere artifices of ornament.
+
+The same kind of intellectual action is exhibited in a more serious and
+elevated strain in many other parts of this play. Biron's speech at the
+end of the Fourth Act is an excellent specimen of it. It is logic clothed
+in rhetoric;--but observe how Shakespeare, in his two-fold being of poet
+and philosopher, avails himself of it to convey profound truths in the
+most lively images,--the whole remaining faithful to the character supposed
+to utter the lines, and the expressions themselves constituting a further
+development of that character:--
+
+"Other slow arts entirely keep the brain:
+And therefore finding barren practisers,
+Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil:
+But love, first learned in a lady's eyes,
+Lives not alone immured in the brain;
+But, with the motion of all elements,
+Courses as swift as thought in every power;
+And gives to every power a double power,
+Above their functions and their offices.
+It adds a precious seeing to the eye,
+A lover's eyes will gaze an eagle blind;
+A lover's ear will hear the lowest sound,
+When the suspicious head of theft is stopp'd:
+Love's feeling is more soft and sensible,
+Than are the tender horns of cockled snails;
+Love's tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste;
+For valour, is not love a Hercules,
+Still climbing trees in the Hesperides?
+Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical,
+As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair;
+And when love speaks, the voice of all the gods
+Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.
+Never durst poet touch a pen to write,
+Until his ink were tempered with love's sighs;
+Oh, then his lines would ravish savage ears,
+And plant in tyrants mild humility.
+From women's eyes this doctrine I derive:
+They sparkle still the right Promethean fire;
+They are the books, the arts, the academes,
+That show, contain, and nourish all the world;
+Else, none at all in aught proves excellent;
+Then fools you were these women to forswear;
+Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools.
+For wisdom's sake, a word that all men love;
+Or for love's sake, a word that loves all men;
+Or for men's sake, the authors of these women;
+Or women's sake, by whom we men are men;
+Let us once lose our oaths, to find ourselves,
+Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths:
+It is religion to be thus forsworn:
+For charity itself fulfils the law:
+And who can sever love from charity?"--
+
+This is quite a study;--sometimes you see this youthful god of poetry
+connecting disparate thoughts purely by means of resemblances in the words
+expressing them,--a thing in character in lighter comedy, especially of
+that kind in which Shakespeare delights, namely, the purposed display of
+wit, though sometimes too, disfiguring his graver scenes;--but more often
+you may see him doubling the natural connection or order of logical
+consequence in the thoughts by the introduction of an artificial and
+sought for resemblance in the words, as, for instance, in the third line
+of the play,--
+
+"And then grace us in the disgrace of death;"--
+
+this being a figure often having its force and propriety, as justified by
+the law of passion, which, inducing in the mind an unusual activity, seeks
+for means to waste its superfluity,--when in the highest degree--in lyric
+repetitions and sublime tautology--"At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay
+down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down
+dead,"--and, in lower degrees, in making the words themselves the subjects
+and materials of that surplus action, and for the same cause that agitates
+our limbs, and forces our very gestures into a tempest in states of high
+excitement.
+
+The mere style of narration in _Love's Labour's Lost_, like that of Ægeon
+in the first scene of the _Comedy of Errors_, and of the Captain in the
+second scene of _Macbeth_, seems imitated with its defects and its
+beauties from Sir Philip Sidney; whose _Arcadia_, though not then
+published, was already well known in manuscript copies, and could hardly
+have escaped the notice and admiration of Shakespeare as the friend and
+client of the Earl of Southampton. The chief defect consists in the
+parentheses and parenthetic thoughts and descriptions, suited neither to
+the passion of the speaker, nor the purpose of the person to whom the
+information is to be given, but manifestly betraying the author
+himself,--not by way of continuous undersong, but--palpably, and so as to
+show themselves addressed to the general reader. However, it is not
+unimportant to notice how strong a presumption the diction and allusions
+of this play afford, that, though Shakespeare's acquirements in the dead
+languages might not be such as we suppose in a learned education, his
+habits had, nevertheless, been scholastic, and those of a student. For a
+young author's first work almost always bespeaks his recent pursuits, and
+his first observations of life are either drawn from the immediate
+employments of his youth, and from the characters and images most deeply
+impressed on his mind in the situations in which those employments had
+placed him;--or else they are fixed on such objects and occurrences in the
+world, as are easily connected with, and seem to bear upon, his studies
+and the hitherto exclusive subjects of his meditation. Just as Ben Jonson,
+who applied himself to the drama after having served in Flanders, fills
+his earliest plays with true or pretended soldiers, the wrongs and
+neglects of the former, and the absurd boasts and knavery of their
+counterfeits. So Lessing's first comedies are placed in the universities,
+and consist of events and characters conceivable in an academic life.
+
+I will only further remark the sweet and tempered gravity, with which
+Shakespeare in the end draws the only fitting moral which such a drama
+afforded. Here Rosaline rises up to the full height of Beatrice:--
+
+"_Ros._ Oft have I heard of you, my lord Biron,
+Before I saw you: and the world's large tongue
+Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks;
+Full of comparisons, and wounding flouts,
+Which you on all estates will execute
+That lie within the mercy of your wit:
+To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain,
+And therewithal, to win me, if you please
+(Without the which I am not to be won),
+You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day
+Visit the speechless sick, and still converse
+With groaning wretches; and your talk shall be,
+With all the fierce endeavour of your wit,
+To enforce the pained impotent to smile.
+
+_Biron._ To move wild laughter in the throat of death?
+It cannot be; it is impossible;
+Mirth cannot move a soul in agony.
+
+_Ros._ Why, that's the way to choke a gibing spirit,
+Whose influence is begot of that loose grace,
+Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools;
+A jest's prosperity lies in the ear
+Of him that hears it, never in the tongue
+Of him that makes it: then, if sickly ears,
+Deaf'd with the clamours of their own dear groans,
+Will hear your idle scorns, continue then,
+And I will have you, and that fault withal:
+But, if they will not, throw away that spirit,
+And I shall find you empty of that fault,
+Right joyful of your reformation."
+
+Act v. sc. 2. In Biron's speech to the Princess:
+
+          "And, therefore, like the eye,
+Full of _straying_ shapes, of habits, and of forms"--
+
+either read _stray_, which I prefer; or throw _full_ back to the preceding
+lines,--
+
+        "Like the eye, full
+Of straying shapes," &c,
+
+In the same scene:--
+
+"_Biron._ And what to me, my love? and what to me?
+
+_Ros._ You must be purged too, your sins are rank;
+You are attaint with fault and perjury:
+Therefore, if you my favour mean to get,
+A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest,
+But seek the weary beds of people sick."
+
+There can be no doubt, indeed, about the propriety of expunging this
+speech of Rosaline's; it soils the very page that retains it. But I do not
+agree with Warburton and others in striking out the preceding line also.
+It is quite in Biron's character; and Rosaline, not answering it
+immediately, Dumain takes up the question for him, and, after he and
+Longaville are answered, Biron, with evident propriety, says:--
+
+"_Studies_ my mistress?" &c.
+
+
+
+
+"Midsummer Night's Dream."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Her._ O cross! too high to be enthrall'd to low--
+
+_Lys._ Or else misgrafted in respect of years;
+
+_Her._ O spite! too old to be engaged to young--
+
+_Lys._ Or else it stood upon the choice of friends;
+
+_Her._ O hell! to chuse love by another's eye!"
+
+There is no authority for any alteration;--but I never can help feeling how
+great an improvement it would be, if the two former of Hermia's
+exclamations were omitted;--the third and only appropriate one would then
+become a beauty, and most natural.
+
+_Ib._ Helena's speech:--
+
+"I will go tell him of fair Hermia's flight," &c.
+
+I am convinced that Shakespeare availed himself of the title of this play
+in his own mind, and worked upon it as a dream throughout, but especially,
+and perhaps unpleasingly, in this broad determination of ungrateful
+treachery in Helena, so undisguisedly avowed to herself, and this, too,
+after the witty cool philosophising that precedes. The act itself is
+natural, and the resolve so to act is, I fear, likewise too true a picture
+of the lax hold which principles have on a woman's heart, when opposed to,
+or even separated from, passion and inclination. For women are less
+hypocrites to their own minds than men are, because in general they feel
+less proportionate abhorrence of moral evil in and for itself, and more of
+its outward consequences, as detection and loss of character, than
+men,--their natures being almost wholly extroitive. Still, however just in
+itself, the representation of this is not poetical; we shrink from it, and
+cannot harmonise it with the ideal.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Theobald's edition--
+
+"_Through_ bush, _through_ briar--
+
+_Through_ flood, _through fire_--"
+
+What a noble pair of ears this worthy Theobald must have had! The eight
+amphimacers or cretics,--
+
+"Over hill, over dale,
+Thoro' bush, thoro' briar,
+Over park, over pale,
+Throro' flood, thoro' fire"--
+
+have a delightful effect on the ear in their sweet transition to the
+trochaic,--
+
+"I do wander ev'ry where
+Swifter than the moones sphere," &c.
+
+The last words, as sustaining the rhyme, must be considered, as in fact
+they are, trochees in time.
+
+It may be worth while to give some correct examples in English of the
+principle metrical feet:--
+
+Pyrrhic or Dibrach, u u = _body_, _spirit_.
+Tribrach, u u u = _nobody_, hastily pronounced.
+Iambus, u - = _delight_.
+Trochee, - u  = _lightly_.
+Spondee, - - = _God spake_.
+
+The paucity of spondees in single words in English, and indeed in the
+modern languages in general, makes perhaps the greatest distinction,
+metrically considered, between them and the Greek and Latin.
+
+Dactyl, - u u = _merrily_.
+Anapæst, u u - = _a propos_, or the first three syllables of _ceremony_.
+Amphibrachys, u - u = _delightful_.
+Amphimacer, - u - = _over hill_.
+Antibacchius, u -  = _the Lord God_.
+Bacchius, - - u = _Helvellyn_.
+Molossus, - - - = _John James Jones_.
+
+These simple feet may suffice for understanding the metres of Shakespeare,
+for the greater part at least;--but Milton cannot be made harmoniously
+intelligible without the composite feet, the Ionics, Pæons, and Epitrites.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Titania's speech (Theobald, adopting Warburton's reading):--
+
+"Which she, with pretty and with swimming gate
+_Follying_ (her womb then rich with my young squire)
+Would imitate," &c.
+
+Oh! oh! Heaven have mercy on poor Shakespeare, and also on Mr. Warburton's
+mind's eye!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Theseus' speech (Theobald):--
+
+"And what poor [_willing_] duty cannot do,
+Noble respect takes it in might, not merit."
+
+To my ears it would read far more Shakespearian thus:--
+
+"And what poor duty cannot do, _yet would_,
+Noble respect," &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Puck._ Now the hungry lion roars,
+  And the wolf behowls the moon;
+Whilst the heavy ploughman snores
+  All with weary task foredone," &c.
+
+Very Anacreon in perfectness, proportion, grace, and spontaneity! So far
+it is Greek;--but then add, O! what wealth, what wild ranging, and yet what
+compression and condensation of, English fancy! In truth, there is nothing
+in Anacreon more perfect than these thirty lines, or half so rich and
+imaginative. They form a speckless diamond.
+
+
+
+
+"Comedy Of Errors."
+
+
+The myriad-minded man, our, and all men's Shakespeare, has in this piece
+presented us with a legitimate farce in exactest consonance with the
+philosophical principles and character of farce, as distinguished from
+comedy and from entertainments. A proper farce is mainly distinguished
+from comedy by the licence allowed, and even required, in the fable, in
+order to produce strange and laughable situations. The story need not be
+probable, it is enough that it is possible. A comedy would scarcely allow
+even the two Antipholuses; because, although there have been instances of
+almost indistinguishable likeness in two persons, yet these are mere
+individual accidents, _casus ludentis naturæ_, and the _verum_ will not
+excuse the _inverisimile_. But farce dares add the two Dromios, and is
+justified in so doing by the laws of its end and constitution. In a word,
+farces commence in a postulate, which must be granted.
+
+
+
+
+"As You Like It."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.
+
+"_Oli._ What, boy!
+
+_Orla._ Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this.
+
+_Oli._ Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain?"
+
+There is a beauty here. The word "boy" naturally provokes and awakens in
+Orlando the sense of his manly powers; and with the retort of "elder
+brother," he grasps him with firm hands, and makes him feel he is no boy.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Oli._ Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester: I hope, I
+shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why, hates nothing
+more than him. Yet he's gentle; never school'd, and yet learn'd; full of
+noble device; of all sorts enchantingly beloved! and, indeed, so much in
+the heart of the world, and especially of my own people, who best know
+him, that I am altogether misprised: but it shall not be so long; this
+wrestler shall clear all."
+
+This has always appeared to me one of the most un-Shakespearian speeches
+in all the genuine works of our poet; yet I should be nothing surprised,
+and greatly pleased, to find it hereafter a fresh beauty, as has so often
+happened to me with other supposed defects of great men.--1810.
+
+It is too venturous to charge a passage in Shakespeare with want of truth
+to nature; and yet at first sight this speech of Oliver's expresses
+truths, which it seems almost impossible that any mind should so
+distinctly, so livelily, and so voluntarily, have presented to itself, in
+connection with feelings and intentions so malignant, and so contrary to
+those which the qualities expressed would naturally have called forth. But
+I dare not say that this seeming unnaturalness is not in the nature of an
+abused wilfulness, when united with a strong intellect. In such characters
+there is sometimes a gloomy self-gratification in making the absoluteness
+of the will (_sit pro ratione voluntas!_) evident to themselves by setting
+the reason and the conscience in full array against it.--1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Celia._ If your saw yourself with _your_ eyes, or knew yourself with
+_your_ judgment, the fear of your adventure would counsel you to a more
+equal enterprise."
+
+Surely it should be "_our_ eyes" and "_our_ judgment."
+
+_Ib._ sc 3.--
+
+"_Cel._ But is all this for your father?
+
+_Ros._ No; some of it is for _my child's father_."
+
+Theobald restores this as the reading of the older editions. It may be so:
+but who can doubt that it is a mistake for "my father's child," meaning
+herself? According to Theobald's note, a most indelicate anticipation is
+put into the mouth of Rosalind without reason;--and besides, what a strange
+thought, and how out of place and unintelligible!
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+"Take thou no scorn
+To wear the horn, the lusty horn;
+It was a crest ere thou wast born."
+
+I question whether there exists a parallel instance of a phrase, that like
+this of "horns" is universal in all languages, and yet for which no one
+has discovered even a plausible origin.
+
+
+
+
+"Twelfth Night."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Duke's speech:--
+
+      ... "So full of shapes is fancy,
+That it alone is high fantastical."
+
+Warburton's alteration of _is_ into _in_ is needless. "Fancy" may very
+well be interpreted "exclusive affection," or "passionate preference."
+Thus, bird-fanciers; gentlemen of the fancy, that is, amateurs of boxing,
+&c. The play of assimilation,--the meaning one sense chiefly, and yet
+keeping both senses in view, is perfectly Shakespearian.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3. Sir Andrew's speech:--
+
+An explanatory note on _Pigrogromitus_ would have been more acceptable
+than Theobald's grand discovery that "lemon" ought to be "leman."
+
+_Ib._ Sir Toby's speech (Warburton's note on the Peripatetic philosophy):--
+
+"Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch, that will draw three
+"souls out of one weaver?"
+
+O genuine, and inimitable (at least I hope so) Warburton! This note of
+thine, if but one in five millions, would be half a one too much.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Duke._ My life upon't, young though thou art, thine eye
+Hath stay'd upon some favour that it loves;
+Hath it not, boy?
+
+_Vio._ A little, by your favour.
+
+_Duke._ What kind of woman is't?"
+
+And yet Viola was to have been presented to Orsino as a eunuch!--Act i. sc.
+2. Viola's speech. Either she forgot this, or else she had altered her
+plan.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Vio._ A blank, my lord: she never told her love!--
+But let concealment," &c.
+
+After the first line (of which the last five words should be spoken with,
+and drop down in, a deep sigh), the actress ought to make a pause; and
+then start afresh, from the activity of thought, born of suppressed
+feelings, and which thought had accumulated during the brief interval, as
+vital heat under the skin during a dip in cold water.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Fabian._ Though our silence be drawn from us by _cars_, yet
+peace."
+
+Perhaps, "cables."
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Clown._ A sentence is but a _cheveril_ glove to a good wit."
+(Theobald's note.)
+
+Theobald's etymology of "cheveril" is, of course, quite right;--but he is
+mistaken in supposing that there were no such things as gloves of
+chicken-skin. They were at one time a main article in chirocosmetics.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Clown's speech:--
+
+"So that, _conclusions to be as kisses_, if your four negatives make
+your two affirmatives, why, then, the worse for my friends, and the
+better for my foes."
+
+(Warburton reads "conclusion to be asked, is.")
+
+Surely Warburton could never have wooed by kisses and won, or he would not
+have flounder-flatted so just and humorous, nor less pleasing than
+humorous, an image into so profound a nihility. In the name of love and
+wonder, do not four kisses make a double affirmative? The humour lies in
+the whispered "No!" and the inviting "Don't!" with which the maiden's
+kisses are accompanied, and thence compared to negatives, which by
+repetition constitute an affirmative.
+
+
+
+
+"All's Well That Ends Well."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Count._ If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes
+it soon mortal.
+
+_Bert._ _Madam, I desire your holy wishes._
+
+_Laf._ _How understand we that?_"
+
+Bertram and Lafeu, I imagine, both speak together,--Lafeu referring to the
+Countess's rather obscure remark.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. (Warburton's note.)
+
+"_King._   ... let _higher_ Italy
+(Those _'bated_, that inherit but the fall
+Of the last monarchy) see, that you come
+Not to woo honour, but to wed it."
+
+It would be, I own, an audacious and unjustifiable change of the text; but
+yet, as a mere conjecture, I venture to suggest "bastards," for "'bated."
+As it stands, in spite of Warburton's note, I can make little or nothing
+of it. Why should the king except the then most illustrious states, which,
+as being republics, were the more truly inheritors of the Roman
+grandeur?--With my conjecture, the sense would be;--"let higher, or the more
+northern part of Italy--(unless 'higher' be a corruption for 'hir'd,'--the
+metre seeming to demand a monosyllable) (those bastards that inherit the
+infamy only of their fathers) see," &c. The following "woo" and "wed" are
+so far confirmative as they indicate Shakespeare's manner of connection by
+unmarked influences of association from some preceding metaphor. This it
+is which makes his style so peculiarly vital and organic. Likewise "those
+girls of Italy" strengthen the guess. The absurdity of Warburton's gloss,
+which represents the king calling Italy superior, and then excepting the
+only part the lords were going to visit, must strike every one.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3.--
+
+"_Laf._ They say, miracles are past; and we have our philosophical
+persons to make modern and familiar, things supernatural
+and _causeless_."
+
+Shakespeare, inspired, as it might seem, with all knowledge, here uses the
+word "causeless" in its strict philosophical sense;--cause being truly
+predicable only of _phenomena_, that is, things natural, and not of
+_noumena_, or things supernatural.
+
+Act iii. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Dia._ The Count Rousillon:--know you such a one?
+
+_Hel._ But by the ear that hears most nobly of him;
+His face I know not."
+
+Shall we say here, that Shakespeare has unnecessarily made his loveliest
+character utter a lie?--Or shall we dare think that, where to deceive was
+necessary, he thought a pretended verbal verity a double crime, equally
+with the other a lie to the hearer, and at the same time an attempt to lie
+to one's own conscience?
+
+
+
+
+"Merry Wives Of Windsor."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish, the salt fish is an old coat."
+
+I cannot understand this. Perhaps there is a corruption both of words and
+speakers. Shallow no sooner corrects one mistake of Sir Hugh's, namely,
+"louse" for "luce," a pike, but the honest Welchman falls into another,
+namely, "cod" (_baccalà_). _Cambrice_--"cot" for coat.
+
+"_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish--
+
+_Evans._ The salt fish is an old cot."
+
+"Luce is a fresh fish, and not a louse;" says Shallow. "Aye, aye," quoth
+Sir Hugh; "the _fresh_ fish is the luce; it is an old cod that is the salt
+fish." At all events, as the text stands, there is no sense at all in the
+words.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3--
+
+"_Fal._ Now, the report goes, she has all the rule of her husband's
+purse; He hath a legion of angels.
+
+_Pist._ As many devils entertain; and _To her, boy_, say I."
+
+Perhaps it is--
+
+"As many devils enter (or enter'd) swine; and _to her, boy_,
+say I:"--
+
+a somewhat profane, but not un-Shakespearian, allusion to the "legion" in
+St. Luke's "gospel."
+
+
+
+
+"Measure For Measure."
+
+
+This play, which is Shakespeare's throughout, is to me the most
+painful--say rather, the only painful--part of his genuine works. The comic
+and tragic parts equally border on the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~},--the one being disgusting,
+the other horrible; and the pardon and marriage of Angelo not merely
+baffles the strong indignant claim of justice--(for cruelty, with lust and
+damnable baseness, cannot be forgiven, because we cannot conceive them as
+being morally repented of); but it is likewise degrading to the character
+of woman. Beaumont and Fletcher, who can follow Shakespeare in his errors
+only, have presented a still worse, because more loathsome and
+contradictory, instance of the same kind in the _Night-Walker_, in the
+marriage of Alathe to Algripe. Of the counter-balancing beauties of
+_Measure for Measure_, I need say nothing; for I have already remarked
+that the play is Shakespeare's throughout.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"Ay, but to die, and go we know not where," &c.
+
+
+    "This natural fear of Claudio, from the antipathy we have to
+    death, seems very little varied from that infamous wish of
+    Mæcenas, recorded in the 101st epistle of Seneca:--
+
+    "_Debilem facito manu,_
+    _Debilem pede, coxa_" &c.--Warburton's note.
+
+
+I cannot but think this rather a heroic resolve, than an infamous wish. It
+appears to me to be the grandest symptom of an immortal spirit, when even
+that bedimmed and overwhelmed spirit recked not of its own immortality,
+still to seek to be,--to be a mind, a will.
+
+As fame is to reputation, so heaven is to an estate, or immediate
+advantage. The difference is, that the self-love of the former cannot
+exist but by a complete suppression and habitual supplantation of
+immediate selfishness. In one point of view, the miser is more estimable
+than the spendthrift;--only that the miser's present feelings are as much
+of the present as the spendthrift's. But _cæteris paribus_, that is, upon
+the supposition that whatever is good or lovely in the one coexists
+equally in the other, then, doubtless, the master of the present is less a
+selfish being, an animal, than he who lives for the moment with no
+inheritance in the future. Whatever can degrade man, is supposed in the
+latter case; whatever can elevate him, in the former. And as to
+self;--strange and generous self! that can only be such a self by a
+complete divestment of all that men call self,--of all that can make it
+either practically to others, or consciously to the individual himself,
+different from the human race in its ideal. Such self is but a perpetual
+religion, an inalienable acknowledgment of God, the sole basis and ground
+of being. In this sense, how can I love God, and not love myself, as far
+as it is of God?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"Pattern in himself to know,
+Grace to stand, and virtue go."
+
+Worse metre, indeed, but better English would be,--
+
+"Grace to stand, virtue to go."
+
+
+
+
+"Cymbeline."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"You do not meet a man, but frowns: our bloods
+No more obey the heavens, than our courtiers'
+Still seem, as does the king's."
+
+There can be little doubt of Mr. Tyrwhitt's emendations of "courtiers" and
+"king," as to the sense;--only it is not impossible that Shakespeare's
+dramatic language may allow of the word "brows" or "faces" being
+understood after the word "courtiers'," which might then remain in the
+genitive case plural. But the nominative plural makes excellent sense, and
+is sufficiently elegant, and sounds to my ear Shakespearian. What,
+however, is meant by "our bloods no more obey the heavens?"--Dr. Johnson's
+assertion that "bloods" signify "countenances," is, I think, mistaken both
+in the thought conveyed--(for it was never a popular belief that the stars
+governed men's countenances)--and in the usage, which requires an
+antithesis of the blood,--or the temperament of the four humours, choler,
+melancholy, phlegm, and the red globules, or the sanguine portion, which
+was supposed not to be in our own power, but to be dependent on the
+influences of the heavenly bodies,--and the countenances which are in our
+power really, though from flattery we bring them into a no less apparent
+dependence on the sovereign, than the former are in actual dependence on
+the constellations.
+
+I have sometimes thought that the word "courtiers" was a misprint for
+"countenances," arising from an anticipation, by foreglance of the
+compositor's eye, of the word "courtier" a few lines below. The written
+_r_ is easily and often confounded with, the written _n_. The compositor
+read the first syllable _court_, and--his eye at the same time catching the
+word "courtier" lower down--he completed the word without reconsulting the
+copy. It is not unlikely that Shakespeare intended first to express,
+generally, the same thought, which a little afterwards he repeats with a
+particular application to the persons meant;--a common usage of the
+pronominal "our," where the speaker does not really mean to include
+himself; and the word "you" is an additional confirmation of the "our,"
+being used in this place for "men" generally and indefinitely,--just as
+"you do not meet" is the same as "one does not meet."
+
+Act i. sc. 1 Imogen's speech:--
+
+          ... "My dearest husband,
+I something fear my father's wrath; but nothing
+(Always reserved my holy duty) what
+His rage can do on me;"
+
+Place the emphasis on "me"; for "rage" is a mere repetition of "wrath."
+
+"_Cym._ O disloyal thing;
+That should'st repair my youth; thou heapest
+A year's age on me!"
+
+How is it that the commentators take no notice of the un-Shakespearian
+defect in the metre of the second line, and what in Shakespeare is the
+same, in the harmony with the sense and feeling? Some word or words must
+have slipped out after "youth,"--possibly "and see":--
+
+"That should'st repair my youth!--and see, thou heap'st," &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Pisanio's speech:--
+
+          ... "For so long
+As he could make me with _this_ eye or ear
+Distinguish him from others," &c.
+
+But "_this_ eye," in spite of the supposition of its being used {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+is very awkward. I should think that either "or" or "the" was
+Shakespeare's word;--
+
+"As he could make me or with eye or ear."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Iachimo's speech:--
+
+        ... "Hath nature given them eyes
+To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop
+Of sea and land, which can distinguish 'twixt
+The fiery orbs above, and the twinn'd stones
+Upon the number'd beach."
+
+I would suggest "cope" for "crop." As to "twinn'd stones"--may it not be a
+bold _catachresis_ for muscles, cockles, and other empty shells with
+hinges, which are truly twinned? I would take Dr. Farmer's "umber'd,"
+which I had proposed before I ever heard of its having been already
+offered by him: but I do not adopt his interpretation of the word, which I
+think is not derived from _umbra_, a shade, but from _umber_, a dingy
+yellow-brown soil, which most commonly forms the mass of the sludge on the
+sea-shore, and on the banks of tide-rivers at low water. One other
+possible interpretation of this sentence has occurred to me, just barely
+worth mentioning;--that the "twinn'd stones" are the _augrim_ stones upon
+the number'd beech,--that is, the astronomical tables of beech-wood.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Sooth._ When, as a lion's whelp," &c.
+
+It is not easy to conjecture why Shakespeare should have introduced this
+ludicrous scroll, which answers no one purpose, either propulsive, or
+explicatory, unless as a joke on etymology.
+
+
+
+
+"Titus Andronicus."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Theobald's note:--
+
+
+    "I never heard it so much as intimated, that he (Shakespeare) had
+    turned his genius to stage-writing, before he associated with the
+    players, and became one of their body."
+
+
+That Shakespeare never "turned his genius to stage-writing," as Theobald
+most _Theobaldice_ phrases it, before he became an actor, is an assertion
+of about as much authority as the precious story that he left Stratford
+for deer-stealing, and that he lived by holding gentlemen's horses at the
+doors of the theatre, and other trash of that arch-gossip, old Aubrey. The
+metre is an argument against _Titus Andronicus_ being Shakespeare's, worth
+a score such chronological surmises. Yet I incline to think that both in
+this play and in _Jeronymo_, Shakespeare wrote some passages, and that
+they are the earliest of his compositions.
+
+Act v. sc. 2. I think it not improbable that the lines from--
+
+"I am not mad; I know thee well enough;
+
+to
+
+So thou destroy Rapine, and Murder there"--
+
+were written by Shakespeare in his earliest period. But instead of the
+text--
+
+    "Revenge, _which makes the foul offenders quake._
+_Tit. Art thou_ Revenge? and art thou sent to me?"--
+
+the words in italics ought to be omitted.
+
+
+
+
+"Troilus And Cressida."
+
+
+    "Mr. Pope (after Dryden) informs us that the story of _Troilus and
+    Cressida_ was originally the work of one Lollius, a Lombard: but
+    Dryden goes yet further; he declares it to have been written in
+    Latin verse, and that Chaucer translated it. _Lollius was a
+    historiographer of Urbino in Italy._"--Note in Stockdale's edition,
+    1807.
+
+
+"Lollius was a historiographer of Urbino in Italy." So affirms the notary
+to whom the Sieur Stockdale committed the _disfaciménto_ of Ayscough's
+excellent edition of Shakespeare. Pity that the researchful notary has not
+either told us in what century, and of what history, he was a writer, or
+been simply content to depose, that Lollius, if a writer of that name
+existed at all, was a somewhat somewhere. The notary speaks of the _Troy
+Boke_ of Lydgate, printed in 1513. I have never seen it; but I deeply
+regret that Chalmers did not substitute the whole of Lydgate's works from
+the MSS. extant, for the almost worthless Gower.
+
+The _Troilus and Cressida_ of Shakespeare can scarcely be classed with his
+dramas of Greek and Roman history; but it forms an intermediate link
+between the fictitious Greek and Roman histories, which we may call
+legendary dramas, and the proper ancient histories,--that is, between the
+_Pericles_ or _Titus Andronicus_, and the _Coriolanus_ or _Julius Cæsar_.
+_Cymbeline_ is a _congener_ with _Pericles_, and distinguished from _Lear_
+by not having any declared prominent object. But where shall we class the
+_Timon of Athens_? Perhaps immediately below _Lear_. It is a _Lear_ of the
+satirical drama; a _Lear_ of domestic or ordinary life;--a local eddy of
+passion on the high road of society, while all around is the week-day
+goings on of wind and weather; a _Lear_, therefore, without its
+soul-searching flashes, its ear-cleaving thunder-claps, its meteoric
+splendours,--without the contagion and the fearful sympathies of nature,
+the fates, the furies, the frenzied elements, dancing in and out, now
+breaking through and scattering,--now hand in hand with,--the fierce or
+fantastic group of human passions, crimes, and anguishes, reeling on the
+unsteady ground, in a wild harmony to the shock and the swell of an
+earthquake. But my present subject was _Troilus and Cressida_; and I
+suppose that, scarcely knowing what to say of it, I by a cunning of
+instinct ran off to subjects on which I should find it difficult not to
+say too much, though certain after all that I should still leave the
+better part unsaid, and the gleaning for others richer than my own
+harvest.
+
+Indeed, there is no one of Shakespeare's plays harder to characterise. The
+name and the remembrances connected with it, prepare us for the
+representation of attachment no less faithful than fervent on the side of
+the youth, and of sudden and shameless inconstancy on the part of the
+lady. And this is, indeed, as the gold thread on which the scenes are
+strung, though often kept out of sight and out of mind by gems of greater
+value than itself. But as Shakespeare calls forth nothing from the
+mausoleum of history, or the catacombs of tradition, without giving, or
+eliciting, some permanent and general interest, and brings forward no
+subject which he does not moralise or intellectualise,--so here he has
+drawn in Cressida the portrait of a vehement passion, that, having its
+true origin and proper cause in warmth of temperament, fastens on, rather
+than fixes to, some one object by liking and temporary preference.
+
+"There's language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,
+Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirit looks out
+At every joint and motive of her body."
+
+This Shakespeare has contrasted with the profound affection represented in
+Troilus, and alone worthy the name of love;--affection, passionate
+indeed,--swoln with the confluence of youthful instincts and youthful
+fancy, and growing in the radiance of hope newly risen, in short, enlarged
+by the collective sympathies of nature;--but still having a depth of calmer
+element in a will stronger than desire, more entire than choice, and which
+gives permanence to its own act by converting it into faith and duty.
+Hence, with excellent judgment, and with an excellence higher than mere
+judgment can give, at the close of the play, when Cressida has sunk into
+infamy below retrieval and beneath hope, the same will, which had been the
+substance and the basis of his love, while the restless pleasures and
+passionate longings, like sea-waves, had tossed but on its surface,--this
+same moral energy is represented as snatching him aloof from all
+neighbourhood with her dishonour, from all lingering fondness and
+languishing regrets, whilst it rushes with him into other and nobler
+duties, and deepens the channel, which his heroic brother's death had left
+empty for its collected flood. Yet another secondary and subordinate
+purpose Shakespeare has inwoven with his delineation of these two
+characters,--that of opposing the inferior civilisation, but purer morals,
+of the Trojans to the refinements, deep policy, but duplicity and sensual
+corruptions of the Greeks.
+
+To all this, however, so little comparative projection is given,--nay, the
+masterly group of Agamemnon, Nestor, and Ulysses, and, still more in
+advance, that of Achilles, Ajax, and Thersites, so manifestly occupying
+the fore-ground, that the subservience and vassalage of strength and
+animal courage to intellect and policy seems to be the lesson most often
+in our poet's view, and which he has taken little pains to connect with
+the former more interesting moral impersonated in the titular hero and
+heroine of the drama. But I am half inclined to believe, that
+Shakespeare's main object, or shall I rather say his ruling impulse, was
+to translate the poetic heroes of paganism into the not less rude, but
+more intellectually vigorous, and more _featurely_, warriors of Christian
+chivalry,--and to substantiate the distinct and graceful profiles or
+outlines of the Homeric epic into the flesh and blood of the romantic
+drama;--in short, to give a grand history-piece in the robust style of
+Albert Durer.
+
+The character of Thersites, in particular, well deserves a more careful
+examination, as the Caliban of demagogic life;--the admirable portrait of
+intellectual power deserted by all grace, all moral principle, all not
+momentary impulse;--just wise enough to detect the weak head, and fool
+enough to provoke the armed fist of his betters;--one whom malcontent
+Achilles can inveigle from malcontent Ajax, under the one condition, that
+he shall be called on to do nothing but abuse and slander, and that he
+shall be allowed to abuse as much and as purulently as he likes, that is,
+as he can;--in short, a mule,--quarrelsome by the original discord of his
+nature;--a slave by tenure of his own baseness,--made to bray and be brayed
+at, to despise and be despicable. "Aye, Sir, but say what you will, he is
+a very clever fellow, though the best friends will fall out. There was a
+time when Ajax thought he deserved to have a statue of gold erected to him
+and handsome Achilles, at the head of the Myrmidons, gave no little credit
+to his _friend Thersites_!"
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Speech of Ulysses:--
+
+"O, these encounterers, so glib of tongue,
+That give a _coasting_ welcome ere it comes"--
+
+Should it be "accosting?" "Accost her, knight, accost!" in the _Twelfth
+Night_. Yet there sounds a something so Shakespearian in the phrase--"give
+a coasting welcome" ("coasting" being taken as the epithet and adjective
+of "welcome"), that had the following words been, "ere _they land_,"
+instead of "ere it comes," I should have preferred the interpretation. The
+sense now is, "that give welcome to a salute ere it comes."
+
+
+
+
+"Coriolanus."
+
+
+This play illustrates the wonderfully philosophic impartiality of
+Shakespeare's politics. His own country's history furnished him with no
+matter but what was too recent to be devoted to patriotism. Besides, he
+knew that the instruction of ancient history would seem more
+dispassionate. In _Coriolanus_ and _Julius Cæsar_, you see Shakespeare's
+good-natured laugh at mobs. Compare this with Sir Thomas Brown's
+aristocracy of spirit.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Marcius' speech:--
+
+          ... "He that depends
+Upon your favours, swims with fins of lead,
+And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye?"
+
+I suspect that Shakespeare wrote it transposed!
+
+"Trust ye? Hang ye!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 10. Speech of Aufidius:--
+
+          ... "Mine emulation
+Hath not that honour in't, it had; for where
+I thought to crush him in an equal force,
+True sword to sword; I'll potch at him some way
+Or wrath, or craft may get him.--
+          ... My valour (poison'd
+With only suffering stain by him) for him
+Shall fly out of itself: nor sleep, nor sanctuary,
+Being naked, sick, nor fane, nor capitol,
+The prayers of priests, nor times of sacrifices,
+Embankments all of fury, shall lift up
+Their rotten privilege and custom 'gainst
+My hate to Marcius."
+
+I have such deep faith in Shakespeare's heart-lore, that I take for
+granted that this is in nature, and not as a mere anomaly; although I
+cannot in myself discover any germ of possible feeling, which could wax
+and unfold itself into such sentiment as this. However, I perceive that in
+this speech is meant to be contained a prevention of shock at the
+after-change in Aufidius's character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Menenius:--
+
+"The most sovereign prescription in _Galen_," &c.
+
+Was it without, or in contempt of, historical information that Shakespeare
+made the contemporaries of Coriolanus quote Cato and Galen? I cannot
+decide to my own satisfaction.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Coriolanus:--
+
+"Why in this wolvish toge should I stand hero"
+
+That the gown of the candidate was of whitened wool, we know. Does
+"wolvish" or "woolvish" mean "made of wool?" If it means "wolfish," what
+is the sense?
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Speech of Aufidius:--
+
+"All places yield to him ere he sits down," &c.
+
+I have always thought this, in itself so beautiful speech, the least
+explicable from the mood and full intention of the speaker of any in the
+whole works of Shakespeare. I cherish the hope that I am mistaken, and
+that, becoming wiser, I shall discover some profound excellence in that,
+in which I now appear to detect an imperfection.
+
+
+
+
+"Julius Cæsar."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Mar._ What meanest _thou_ by that? Mend me, thou saucy
+fellow!"
+
+The speeches of Flavius and Marullus are in blank verse. Wherever regular
+metre can be rendered truly imitative of character, passion, or personal
+rank, Shakespeare seldom, if ever, neglects it. Hence this line should be
+read:--
+
+"What mean'st by that? mend me, thou saucy fellow!"
+
+I say regular metre: for even the prose has in the highest and lowest
+dramatic personage, a Cobbler or a Hamlet, a rhythm so felicitous and so
+severally appropriate, as to be a virtual metre.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Bru._ A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March."
+
+If my ear does not deceive me, the metre of this line was meant to express
+that sort of mild philosophic contempt, characterising Brutus even in his
+first casual speech. The line is a trimeter,--each _dipodia_ containing two
+accented and two unaccented syllables, but variously arranged, as thus:--
+
+u -   - u  |  -    u   u -   |  u  -  u  -
+A soothsayer   | bids you beware     | the Ides of March.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"Set honour in one eye, and death i' the other,
+And I will look on _both_ indifferently."
+
+Warburton would read "death" for "both;" but I prefer the old text. There
+are here three things, the public good, the individual Brutus' honour, and
+his death. The latter two so balanced each other, that he could decide for
+the first by equipoise; nay--the thought growing--that honour had more
+weight than death. That Cassius understood it as Warburton, is the beauty
+of Cassius as contrasted with Brutus.
+
+_Ib._ Cæsar's speech:--
+
+          ... "He loves no plays
+As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music," &c.
+
+
+    "This is not a trivial observation, nor does our poet mean barely
+    by it, that Cassius was not a merry, sprightly man; but that he
+    had not a due temperament of harmony in his
+    disposition."--Theobald's note.
+
+
+O Theobald! what a commentator wast thou, when thou would'st affect to
+understand Shakespeare, instead of contenting thyself with collating the
+text! The meaning here is too deep for a line ten-fold the length of thine
+to fathom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Cæsar's speech:--
+
+"Be _factious_ for redress of all these griefs;
+And I will set this foot of mine as far,
+As who goes farthest."
+
+I understand it thus: "You have spoken as a conspirator; be so in _fact_,
+and I will join you. Act on your principles, and realize them in a fact."
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"It must be by his death; and, for my part,
+I know no personal cause to spurn at him,
+But for the general. He would be crown'd:
+How that might change his nature, there's the question.
+          ... And, to speak truth of Cæsar,
+I have not known when his affections sway'd
+More than his reason.
+          ... So Cæsar may;
+Then, lest he may, prevent."
+
+This speech is singular;--at least, I do not at present see into
+Shakespeare's motive, his _rationale_, or in what point of view he meant
+Brutus' character to appear. For surely--(this, I mean, is what I say to
+myself, with my present _quantum_ of insight, only modified by my
+experience in how many instances I have ripened into a perception of
+beauties, where I had before descried faults;) surely, nothing can seem
+more discordant with our historical preconceptions of Brutus, or more
+lowering to the intellect of the Stoico-Platonic tyrannicide, than the
+tenets here attributed to him--to him, the stern Roman republican;
+namely,--that he would have no objection to a king, or to Cæsar, a monarch
+in Rome, would Cæsar but be as good a monarch as he now seems disposed to
+be! How, too, could Brutus say that he found no personal cause--none in
+Cæsar's past conduct as a man? Had he not passed the Rubicon? Had he not
+entered Rome as a conqueror? Had he not placed his Gauls in the
+Senate?--Shakespeare, it may be said, has not brought these things
+forward--True;--and this is just the ground of my perplexity. What character
+did Shakespeare mean his Brutus to be?
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"For if thou _path_, thy native semblance on."
+
+Surely, there need be no scruple in treating this "path" as a mere
+misprint or mis-script for "put." In what place does Shakespeare--where
+does any other writer of the same age--use "path" as a verb for "walk?"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cæsar's speech:--
+
+"She dreamt to-night, she saw my _statue_."
+
+No doubt, it should be _statua_, as in the same age, they more often
+pronounced "heroes" as a trisyllable than dissyllable. A modern tragic
+poet would have written,--
+
+"Last night she dreamt that she my statue saw."
+
+But Shakespeare never avails himself of the supposed license of
+transposition, merely for the metre. There is always some logic either of
+thought or passion to justify it.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Antony's speech:--
+
+"Pardon me, Julius--here wast thou bay'd, brave hart:
+Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand
+Sign'd in thy spoil, and crimson'd in thy lethe.
+_O world! thou wast the forest to this hart,_
+_And this, indeed, O world! the heart of thee._"
+
+I doubt the genuineness of the last two lines;--not because they are vile;
+but first, on account of the rhythm, which is not Shakespearian, but just
+the very tune of some old play, from which the actor might have
+interpolated them;--and secondly, because they interrupt, not only the
+sense and connection, but likewise the flow both of the passion, and (what
+is with me still more decisive) of the Shakespearian link of association.
+As with many another parenthesis or gloss slipt into the text, we have
+only to read the passage without it, to see that it never was in it. I
+venture to say there is no instance in Shakespeare fairly like this.
+Conceits he has; but they not only rise out of some word in the lines
+before, but also lead to the thought in the lines following. Here the
+conceit is a mere alien: Antony forgets an image, when he is even touching
+it, and then recollects it, when the thought last in his mind must have
+led him away from it.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Brutus:--
+
+          ... "What, shall one of us,
+That struck the foremost man of all this world,
+But for _supporting robbers_."
+
+This seemingly strange assertion of Brutus is unhappily verified in the
+present day. What is an immense army, in which the lust of plunder has
+quenched all the duties of the citizen, other than a horde of robbers, or
+differenced only as fiends are from ordinarily reprobate men? Cæsar
+supported, and was supported by, such as these;--and even so Buonaparte in
+our days.
+
+I know no part of Shakespeare that more impresses on me the belief of his
+genius being superhuman, than this scene between Brutus and Cassius. In
+the Gnostic heresy it might have been credited with less absurdity than
+most of their dogmas, that the Supreme had employed him to create,
+previously to his function of representing, characters.
+
+
+
+
+"Antony And Cleopatra."
+
+
+Shakespeare can be complimented only by comparison with himself: all other
+eulogies are either heterogeneous, as when they are in reference to
+Spenser or Milton; or they are flat truisms, as when he is gravely
+preferred to Corneille, Racine, or even his own immediate successors,
+Beaumont and Fletcher, Massinger and the rest. The highest praise, or
+rather form of praise, of this play, which I can offer in my own mind, is
+the doubt which the perusal always occasions in me, whether the _Antony
+and Cleopatra_ is not, in all exhibitions of a giant power in its strength
+and vigour of maturity, a formidable rival of _Macbeth_, _Lear_, _Hamlet_,
+and _Othello_. _Feliciter audax_ is the motto for its style comparatively
+with that of Shakespeare's other works, even as it is the general motto of
+all his works compared with those of other poets. Be it remembered, too,
+that this happy valiancy of style is but the representative and result of
+all the material excellencies so expressed.
+
+This play should be perused in mental contrast with _Romeo and Juliet_;--as
+the love of passion and appetite opposed to the love of affection and
+instinct. But the art displayed in the character of Cleopatra is profound;
+in this, especially, that the sense of criminality in her passion is
+lessened by our insight into its depth and energy, at the very moment that
+we cannot but perceive that the passion itself springs out of the habitual
+craving of a licentious nature, and that it is supported and reinforced by
+voluntary stimulus and sought-for associations, instead of blossoming out
+of spontaneous emotion.
+
+Of all Shakespeare's historical plays, _Antony and Cleopatra_ is by far
+the most wonderful. There is not one in which he has followed history so
+minutely, and yet there are few in which he impresses the notion of
+angelic strength so much;--perhaps none in which he impresses it more
+strongly. This is greatly owing to the manner in which the fiery force is
+sustained throughout, and to the numerous momentary flashes of nature
+counteracting the historic abstraction. As a wonderful specimen of the way
+in which Shakespeare lives up to the very end of this play, read the last
+part of the concluding scene. And if you would feel the judgment as well
+as the genius of Shakespeare in your heart's core, compare this
+astonishing drama with Dryden's _All For Love_.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Philo's speech:--
+
+          ... "His captain's heart
+Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+The buckles on his breast, _reneges_ all temper."
+
+It should be "reneagues," or "reniegues," as "fatigues," &c.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"Take but good note, and you shall see in him
+The triple pillar of the world transform'd
+Into a strumpet's _fool_."
+
+Warburton's conjecture of "stool" is ingenious, and would be a probable
+reading, if the scene opening had discovered Antony with Cleopatra on his
+lap. But, represented as he is walking and jesting with her, "fool" must
+be the word. Warburton's objection is shallow, and implies that he
+confounded the dramatic with the epic style. The "pillar" of a state is so
+common a metaphor as to have lost the image in the thing meant to be
+imaged.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+          ... "Much is breeding;
+Which, like the courser's hair, hath yet but life,
+And not a serpent's poison."
+
+This is so far true to appearance, that a horse-hair, "laid," as
+Hollinshed says, "in a pail of water," will become the supporter of
+seemingly one worm, though probably of an immense number of small slimy
+water-lice. The hair will twirl round a finger, and sensibly compress it.
+It is a common experiment with school boys in Cumberland and Westmoreland.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Speech of Enobarbus:--
+
+"Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides,
+So many _mermaids_, tended her i' th' eyes,
+And made their bends adornings. At the helm
+A seeming mermaid steers."
+
+I have the greatest difficulty in believing that Shakespeare wrote the
+first "mermaids." He never, I think, would have so weakened by useless
+anticipation the fine image immediately following. The epithet "seeming"
+becomes so extremely improper after the whole number had been positively
+called "so many mermaids."
+
+
+
+
+"Timon Of Athens."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Tim._ The man is honest.
+
+_Old Ath._ _Therefore he will be_, Timon.
+His honesty rewards him in itself."
+
+Warburton's comment--"If the man be honest, for that reason he will be so
+in this, and not endeavour at the injustice of gaining my daughter without
+my consent"--is, like almost all his comments, ingenious in blunder; he can
+never see any other writer's thoughts for the mist-working swarm of his
+own. The meaning of the first line the poet himself explains, or rather
+unfolds, in the second. "The man is honest!"--"True;--and for that very
+cause, and with no additional or extrinsic motive, he will be so. No man
+can be justly called honest, who is not so for honesty's sake, itself
+including its own reward." Note, that "honesty" in Shakespeare's age
+retained much of its old dignity, and that contradistinction of the
+_honestum_ from the _utile_, in which its very essence and definition
+consist. If it be _honestum_, it cannot depend on the _utile_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Apemantus, printed as prose in Theobald's edition:--
+
+"So, so! aches contract, and starve your supple joints!"
+
+I may remark here the fineness of Shakespeare's sense of musical period,
+which would almost by itself have suggested (if the hundred positive
+proofs had not been extant) that the word "aches" was then _ad libitum_, a
+dissyllable--_aitches_. For read it "aches," in this sentence, and I would
+challenge you to find any period in Shakespeare's writings with the same
+musical or, rather dissonant, notation. Try the one, and then the other,
+by your ear, reading the sentence aloud, first with the word as a
+dissyllable and then as a monosyllable, and you will feel what I mean.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cupid's speech: Warburton's correction of--
+
+"There taste, touch, all pleas'd from thy table rise"--
+
+into
+
+"Th' ear, taste, touch, smell," &c.
+
+This is indeed an excellent emendation.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Senator's speech:--
+
+          ... "Nor then silenc'd with
+"Commend me to your master"--_and the cap_
+_Plays in the right hand, thus_."
+
+Either, methinks, "plays" should be "play'd," or "and" should be changed
+to "while." I can certainly understand it as a parenthesis, an
+interadditive of scorn; but it does not sound to my ear as in
+Shakespeare's manner.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Timon's speech (Theobald):--
+
+"And that unaptness made _you_ minister,
+Thus to excuse yourself."
+
+Read _your_;--at least I cannot otherwise understand the line. You made my
+chance indisposition and occasional inaptness your minister--that is, the
+ground on which you now excuse yourself. Or, perhaps, no correction is
+necessary, if we construe "made you" as "did you make;" "and that
+unaptness did you make help you thus to excuse yourself." But the former
+seems more in Shakespeare's manner, and is less liable to be
+misunderstood.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Servant's speech:--
+
+
+    "How fairly this lord strives to appear foul!--takes virtuous
+    copies to be wicked; _like those that under hot, ardent zeal would
+    set whole realms on fire. Of such a nature is his politic love_."
+
+
+This latter clause I grievously suspect to have been an addition of the
+players, which had hit, and, being constantly applauded, procured a
+settled occupation in the prompter's copy. Not that Shakespeare does not
+elsewhere sneer at the Puritans; but here it is introduced so _nolenter
+volenter_ (excuse the phrase) by the head and shoulders!--and is besides so
+much more likely to have been conceived in the age of Charles I.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Timon's speech:--
+
+"Raise me this beggar, and _deny't_ that lord."
+
+Warburton reads "denude."
+
+I cannot see the necessity of this alteration. The editors and
+commentators are, all of them, ready enough to cry out against
+Shakespeare's laxities and licenses of style, forgetting that he is not
+merely a poet, but a dramatic poet; that, when the head and the heart are
+swelling with fulness, a man does not ask himself whether he has
+grammatically arranged, but only whether (the context taken in) he has
+conveyed his meaning. "Deny" is here clearly equal to "withhold;" and the
+"it," quite in the genius of vehement conversation, which a syntaxist
+explains by ellipses and _subauditurs_ in a Greek or Latin classic, yet
+triumphs over as ignorances in a contemporary, refers to accidental and
+artificial rank or elevation, implied in the verb "raise." Besides, does
+the word "denude" occur in any writer before, or of, Shakespeare's age?
+
+
+
+
+"Romeo And Juliet."
+
+
+I have previously had occasion to speak at large on the subject of the
+three unities of time, place, and action, as applied to the drama in the
+abstract, and to the particular stage for which Shakespeare wrote, as far
+as he can be said to have written for any stage but that of the universal
+mind. I hope I have in some measure succeeded in demonstrating that the
+former two, instead of being rules, were mere inconveniences attached to
+the local peculiarities of the Athenian drama; that the last alone
+deserved the name of a principle, and that in the preservation of this
+unity Shakespeare stood pre-eminent. Yet, instead of unity of action, I
+should greatly prefer the more appropriate, though scholastic and uncouth,
+words homogeneity, proportionateness, and totality of
+interest,--expressions, which involve the distinction, or rather the
+essential difference, betwixt the shaping skill of mechanical talent, and
+the creative, productive, life-power of inspired genius. In the former
+each part is separately conceived, and then by a succeeding act put
+together;--not as watches are made for wholesale--(for there each part
+supposes a pre-conception of the whole in some mind),--but more like
+pictures on a motley screen. Whence arises the harmony that strikes us in
+the wildest natural landscapes,--in the relative shapes of rocks, the
+harmony of colours in the heaths, ferns, and lichens, the leaves of the
+beech and the oak, the stems and rich brown branches of the birch and
+other mountain trees, varying from verging autumn to returning
+spring,--compared with the visual effect from the greater number of
+artificial plantations?--From this, that the natural landscape is effected,
+as it were, by a single energy modified _ab intra_ in each component part.
+And as this is the particular excellence of the Shakespearian drama
+generally, so is it especially characteristic of the _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+The groundwork of the tale is altogether in family life, and the events of
+the play have their first origin in family feuds. Filmy as are the eyes of
+party-spirit, at once dim and truculent, still there is commonly some real
+or supposed object in view, or principle to be maintained; and though but
+the twisted wires on the plate of rosin in the preparation for electrical
+pictures, it is still a guide in some degree, an assimilation to an
+outline. But in family quarrels, which have proved scarcely less injurious
+to states, wilfulness, and precipitancy, and passion from mere habit and
+custom can alone be expected. With his accustomed judgment, Shakespeare
+has begun by placing before us a lively picture of all the impulses of the
+play; and, as nature ever presents two sides, one for Heraclitus, and one
+for Democritus, he has, by way of prelude, shown the laughable absurdity
+of the evil by the contagion of it reaching the servants who have so
+little to do with it, but who are under the necessity of letting the
+superfluity of sensoreal power fly off through the escape-valve of
+wit-combats, and of quarrelling with weapons of sharper edge, all in
+humble imitation of their masters. Yet there is a sort of unhired
+fidelity, an _ourishness_ about all this that makes it rest pleasant on
+one's feelings. All the first scene, down to the conclusion of the
+Prince's speech, is a motley dance of all ranks and ages to one tune, as
+if the horn of Huon had been playing behind the scenes.
+
+Benvolio's speech:--
+
+"Madam, an hour before the worshipp'd sun
+Peer'd forth the golden window of the east"--
+
+and, far more strikingly, the following speech of old Montague:--
+
+"Many a morning hath he there been seen
+With tears augmenting the fresh morning dew"--
+
+prove that Shakespeare meant the _Romeo and Juliet_ to approach to a poem,
+which, and indeed its early date, may be also inferred from the multitude
+of rhyming couplets throughout. And if we are right, from the internal
+evidence, in pronouncing this one of Shakespeare's early dramas, it
+affords a strong instance of the fineness of his insight into the nature
+of the passions, that Romeo is introduced already love-bewildered. The
+necessity of loving creates an object for itself in man and woman; and yet
+there is a difference in this respect between the sexes, though only to be
+known by a perception of it. It would have displeased us if Juliet had
+been represented as already in love, or as fancying herself so;--but no
+one, I believe, ever experiences any shock at Romeo's forgetting his
+Rosaline, who had been a mere name for the yearning of his youthful
+imagination, and rushing into his passion for Juliet. Rosaline was a mere
+creation of his fancy; and we should remark the boastful positiveness of
+Romeo in a love of his own making, which is never shown where love is
+really near the heart.
+
+"When the devout religion of mine eye
+Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fires!
+
+One fairer than my love! the all-seeing sun
+Ne'er saw her match, since first the world begun."
+
+The character of the Nurse is the nearest of any thing in Shakespeare to a
+direct borrowing from mere observation; and the reason is, that as in
+infancy and childhood the individual in nature is a representative of a
+class,--just as in describing one larch tree, you generalise a grove of
+them,--so it is nearly as much so in old age. The generalisation is done to
+the poet's hand. Here you have the garrulity of age strengthened by the
+feelings of a long-trusted servant, whose sympathy with the mother's
+affections gives her privileges and rank in the household; and observe the
+mode of connection by accidents of time and place, and the childlike
+fondness of repetition in a second childhood, and also that happy humble,
+ducking under, yet constant resurgence against, the check of her
+superiors!--
+
+"Yes, madam!--Yet I cannot choose but laugh," &c.
+
+In the fourth scene we have Mercutio introduced to us. O! how shall I
+describe that exquisite ebullience and overflow of youthful life, wafted
+on over the laughing waves of pleasure and prosperity, as a wanton beauty
+that distorts the face on which she knows her lover is gazing enraptured,
+and wrinkles her forehead in the triumph of its smoothness! Wit ever
+wakeful, fancy busy and procreative as an insect, courage, an easy mind
+that, without cares of its own, is at once disposed to laugh away those of
+others, and yet to be interested in them,--these and all congenial
+qualities, melting into the common _copula_ of them all, the man of rank
+and the gentleman, with all its excellencies and all its weaknesses,
+constitute the character of Mercutio!
+
+Act i. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Tyb._ It fits when such a villain is a guest;
+I'll not endure him.
+
+_Cap._ He shall be endur'd.
+What, goodman boy!--I say, he shall:--Go to;--
+Am I the master here, or you?--Go to.
+You'll not endure him!--God shall mend my soul--
+You'll make a mutiny among my guests!
+You will set cock-a-hoop! you'll be the man!
+
+_Tyb._ Why, uncle, 'tis a shame.
+
+_Cap._ Go to, go to,
+You are a saucy boy!" &c.
+
+How admirable is the old man's impetuosity at once contrasting, yet
+harmonised, with young Tybalt's quarrelsome violence! But it would be
+endless to repeat observations of this sort. Every leaf is different on an
+oak tree; but still we can only say--our tongues defrauding our eyes-- "This
+is another oak-leaf!"
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. The garden scene.
+
+Take notice in this enchanting scene of the contrast of Romeo's love with
+his former fancy; and weigh the skill shown in justifying him from his
+inconstancy by making us feel the difference of his passion. Yet this,
+too, is a love in, although not merely of, the imagination.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Jul._ Well, do not swear; although I joy in thee,
+I have no joy in this contract to-night:
+It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden," &c.
+
+With love, pure love, there is always an anxiety for the safety of the
+object, a disinterestedness, by which it is distinguished from the
+counterfeits of its name. Compare this scene with Act iii. sc. 1 of the
+_Tempest_. I do not know a more wonderful instance of Shakespeare's
+mastery in playing a distinctly rememberable variety on the same
+remembered air, than in the transporting love confessions of Romeo and
+Juliet and Ferdinand and Miranda. There seems more passion in the one, and
+more dignity in the other; yet you feel that the sweet girlish lingering
+and busy movement of Juliet, and the calmer and more maidenly fondness of
+Miranda, might easily pass into each other.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Friar's speech.
+
+The reverend character of the Friar, like all Shakespeare's
+representations of the great professions, is very delightful and
+tranquillising, yet it is no digression, but immediately necessary to the
+carrying on of the plot.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+
+    "_Rom._ Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give you?"
+    &c.
+
+
+Compare again Romeo's half-exerted, and half real, ease of mind with his
+first manner when in love with Rosaline! His will had come to the
+clenching point.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.--
+
+"_Rom._ Do thou but close our hands with holy words,
+Then love-devouring death do what he dare,
+It is enough I may but call her mine."
+
+The precipitancy, which is the character of the play, is well marked in
+this short scene of waiting for Juliet's arrival.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+
+    "_Mer._ No, 'tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
+    door; but 'tis enough: 'twill serve: ask for me to-morrow, and you
+    shall find me a grave man," &c.
+
+
+How fine an effect the wit and raillery habitual to Mercutio, even
+struggling with his pain, give to Romeo's following speech, and at the
+same time so completely justifying his passionate revenge on Tybalt!
+
+_Ib._ Benvolio's speech:--
+
+          ... "But that he tilts
+With piercing steel at bold Mercutio's breast."
+
+This small portion of untruth in Benvolio's narrative is finely conceived.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Juliet's speech:--
+
+"For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night
+Whiter than new snow on a raven's back."
+
+Indeed the whole of this speech is imagination strained to the highest;
+and observe the blessed effect on the purity of the mind. What would
+Dryden have made of it?
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Nurse._ Shame come to Romeo.
+
+_Jul._ Blister'd be thy tongue
+For such a wish!"
+
+Note the Nurse's mistake of the mind's audible struggles with itself for
+its decision _in toto_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo's speech:--
+
+"'Tis torture, and not mercy: heaven's here,
+Where Juliet lives," &c.
+
+All deep passions are a sort of atheists, that believe no future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Cap._ Soft! take me with you, take me with you, wife--How!
+will she none?" &c.
+
+A noble scene! Don't I see it with my own eyes?--Yes! but not with
+Juliet's. And observe in Capulet's last speech in this scene his mistake,
+as if love's causes were capable of being generalised.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Juliet's speech.:--
+
+"O, look! methinks I see my cousin's ghost
+Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body
+Upon a rapier's point:--Stay, Tybalt, stay!--
+Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee."
+
+Shakespeare provides for the finest decencies. It would have been too bold
+a thing for a girl of fifteen;--but she swallows the draught in a fit of
+fright.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+As the audience know that Juliet is not dead, this scene is, perhaps,
+excusable. But it is a strong warning to minor dramatists not to introduce
+at one time many separate characters agitated by one and the same
+circumstance. It is difficult to understand what effect, whether that of
+pity or of laughter, Shakespeare meant to produce;--the occasion and the
+characteristic speeches are so little in harmony! For example, what the
+Nurse says is excellently suited to the Nurse's character, but grotesquely
+unsuited to the occasion.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Romeo's speech:--
+
+          ... "O mischief! thou art swift
+To enter in the thoughts of desperate men!
+I do remember an apothecary," &c.
+
+This famous passage is so beautiful as to be self-justified; yet, in
+addition, what a fine preparation it is for the tomb scene!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo's speech:--
+
+"Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man,
+Fly hence and leave me."
+
+The gentleness of Romeo was shown before, as softened by love; and now it
+is doubled by love and sorrow and awe of the place where he is.
+
+_Ib._ Romeo's speech:----
+
+"How oft when men are at the point of death
+Have they been merry! which their keepers call
+A lightning before death. O, how may I
+Call this a lightning?----O, my love, my wife!" &c.
+
+Here, here, is the master example how beauty can at once increase and
+modify passion!
+
+_Ib._ Last scene.
+
+How beautiful is the close! The spring and the winter meet;--winter assumes
+the character of spring, and spring the sadness of winter.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.
+
+
+The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence of which may be stated
+as the successive in events and characters. This must be distinguished
+from narration, in which there must always be a narrator, from whom the
+objects represented receive a colouring and a manner;--whereas in the epic,
+as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole is completely objective, and
+the representation is a pure reflection. The next form into which poetry
+passed was the dramatic;--both forms having a common basis with a certain
+difference, and that difference not consisting in the dialogue alone. Both
+are founded on the relation of providence to the human will; and this
+relation is the universal element, expressed under different points of
+view according to the difference of religion, and the moral and
+intellectual cultivation of different nations. In the epic poem fate is
+represented as overruling the will, and making it instrumental to the
+accomplishment of its designs:--
+
+... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}
+
+In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling with fate, a great and
+beautiful instance and illustration of which is the _Prometheus_ of
+Æschylus; and the deepest effect is produced when the fate is represented
+as a higher and intelligent will, and the opposition of the individual as
+springing from a defect.
+
+In order that a drama may be properly historical, it is necessary that it
+should be the history of the people to whom it is addressed. In the
+composition, care must be taken that there appear no dramatic
+improbability, as the reality is taken for granted. It must, likewise, be
+poetical;--that only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent in our
+nature, which is common, and therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The
+events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than as the clothing and
+manifestation of the spirit that is working within. In this mode, the
+unity resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied by a unity
+of a higher order, which connects the events by reference to the workers,
+gives a reason for them in the motives, and presents men in their
+causative character. It takes, therefore, that part of real history which
+is the least known, and infuses a principle of life and organisation into
+the naked facts, and makes them all the framework of an animated whole.
+
+In my happier days, while I had yet hope and onward-looking thoughts, I
+planned an historical drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare.
+Indeed, it would be desirable that some man of dramatic genius should
+dramatise all those omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry VII.
+Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting drama. A few scenes of
+Marlow's _Edward II._ might be preserved. After Henry VIII., the events
+are too well and distinctly known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,
+crowded together in one night's exhibition. Whereas, the history of our
+ancient kings--the events of the reigns, I mean--are like stars in the
+sky;--whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem
+close to each other. The stars--the events--strike us and remain in our eye,
+little modified by the difference of dates. An historic drama is,
+therefore, a collection of events borrowed from history, but connected
+together in respect of cause and time, poetically and by dramatic fiction.
+It would be a fine national custom to act such a series of dramatic
+histories in orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays, and
+could not but tend to counteract that mock cosmopolitism, which under a
+positive term really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference
+to, the particular love of our country. By its nationality must every
+nation retain its independence;--I mean a nationality _quoad_ the nation.
+Better thus;--nationality in each individual, _quoad_ his country, is equal
+to the sense of individuality _quoad_ himself; but himself as sub-sensuous
+and central. Patriotism is equal to the sense of individuality reflected
+from every other individual. There may come a higher virtue in both--just
+cosmopolitism. But this latter is not possible but by antecedence of the
+former.
+
+Shakespeare has included the most important part of nine reigns in his
+historical dramas;--namely--King John, Richard II.--Henry IV. (two)--Henry
+V.--Henry VI. (three) including Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten
+plays. There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception of a single
+scene or two that should be adopted from Marlow--eleven reigns--of which the
+first two appear the only unpromising subjects;--and those two dramas must
+be formed wholly or mainly of invented private stories, which, however,
+could not have happened except in consequence of the events and measures
+of these reigns, and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting
+the manners and oppressions of the times, and of narrating dramatically
+the great events;--if possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at least
+of the latter, should be made to have some influence on the finale of the
+story. All the rest are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being the
+struggle between the men of arms and of letters, in the persons of Henry
+and Becket), Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.
+
+
+
+
+"King John."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Bast._ James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?
+
+_Gur._ Good leave, good Philip.
+
+_Bast._ Philip? _sparrow!_ James," &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of "_spare me_."
+
+O true Warburton! and the _sancta simplicitas_ of honest dull Theobald's
+faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than "Philip?
+Sparrow!" Had Warburton read old Skelton's _Philip Sparrow_, an exquisite
+and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even
+Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into the _bathetic_ as
+to have deathified "_sparrow_" into "_spare me_!"
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:--
+
+"Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;
+Some _airy_ devil hovers in the sky," &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of "fiery."
+
+I prefer the old text: the word "devil" implies "fiery." You need only
+read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on "devil," to perceive
+the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's alteration.
+
+
+
+
+"Richard II."
+
+
+I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the
+drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate
+gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments,
+whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to
+each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained
+in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a
+final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more
+intelligent will.
+
+From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one
+exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results,
+not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this
+tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and
+for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most
+admirable of all Shakespeare's purely historical plays. For the two parts
+of _Henry IV._ form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed
+drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical
+events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much
+history in _Macbeth_ as in _Richard_, but in the relation of the history
+to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot;
+in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, as _Macbeth_, _Hamlet_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Lear_, it subserves it. But, however unsuited to the stage
+this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the
+hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say--_præteriit
+gloria mundi!_ For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the
+all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely
+historical of Shakespeare's dramas. There are not in it, as in the others,
+characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater
+individuality and realness, as in the comic parts of _Henry IV._, by
+presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every
+opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,--that,
+namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country,
+and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a
+respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind
+men together:--
+
+"This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
+This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
+This other Eden, demi-paradise;
+This fortress, built by nature for herself,
+Against infection, and the hand of war;
+This happy breed of men, this little world;
+This precious stone set in the silver sea,
+Which serves it in the office of a wall,
+Or as a moat defensive to a home,
+Against the envy of less happier lands;
+This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,
+This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,
+Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth," &c.
+
+Add the famous passage in _King John_:--
+
+"This England never did nor ever shall,
+Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,
+But when it first did help to wound itself.
+Now these her princes are come home again,
+Come the three corners of the world in arms,
+And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,
+If England to itself do rest but true."
+
+And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic dramas produced a very
+deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they
+were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the
+relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to
+confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived
+from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our
+old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly,
+to Shakespeare.
+
+Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first
+scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for
+the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after
+events in Richard's insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and
+favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In
+the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard's
+character, which is never forgotten throughout the play--his attention to
+decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show
+with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect
+the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and
+reminiscence.
+
+It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of
+the play--
+
+"Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,
+Hast thou, according to thy oath and band," &c.
+
+each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse
+in _Henry VI._ and _Titus Andronicus_, in order that the difference,
+indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be felt _etiam in simillimis
+prima superficie_. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the
+relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the
+mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke's first
+line--
+
+"Many years of happy days befal"--
+
+with Prospero's--
+
+"Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since."
+
+The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first
+syllable of each of these verses.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"First (heaven be the record to my speech!),
+In the devotion of a subject's love," &c.
+
+I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines
+well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's scheme so beautifully
+contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.
+
+_Ib._ Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,
+Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,
+To _me_, for justice and rough chastisement."
+
+Note the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} of this "to me," which is evidently felt by Richard:--
+
+"How high a pitch his resolution soars!"
+
+and the affected depreciation afterwards;--
+
+"As he is but my father's brother's son."
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+"In haste whereof, most heartily I pray
+Your highness to assign our trial day."
+
+The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up
+of a speech therewith--what purpose was this designed to answer? In the
+earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to
+collect himself and be cool at the close?--I can see that in the following
+speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes
+the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not
+exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the
+excellence of Shakespeare's plays. One thing, however, is to be
+observed,--that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal
+characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in
+mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and
+Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation
+the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is
+observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to
+a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving
+sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In
+the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it
+is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Gaunt._ God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,
+His deputy anointed in his right,
+Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,
+Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift
+An angry arm against his minister."
+
+Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher's ultra-royalism,
+how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal
+distinction between the mere individual, and the symbolic or
+representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends.
+The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone
+and character of the play at large.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious dramas, or in those
+founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is
+this violent rupture of the succession of time found:--a proof, I think,
+that the pure historic drama, like _Richard II._ and _King John_, had its
+own laws.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+"A dearer _merit_
+Have I deserved at your highness' hand."
+
+O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!
+
+_Ib._ Richard's speech:--
+
+"Nor never by advised purpose meet,
+To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,
+'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land."
+
+Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character opens. Nothing will
+such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to their
+_quasi_-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+... "All the world's my way."
+
+"The world was all before him."--_Milt._
+
+_Ib._--
+
+  "_Boling._ How long a time lies in one little word!
+Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,
+End in a word: such is the breath of kings."
+
+Admirable anticipation!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,--letting the
+reader into the secret;--having before impressed us with the dignified and
+kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on
+to the full gratification of pleasure in our own penetration. In this
+scene a new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until now he has
+appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to
+himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It
+is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of
+personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an
+intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the
+breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known
+to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all
+Richard's vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole
+operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties.
+Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry
+which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one
+and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare
+has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made
+him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn
+those faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate
+sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and
+this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring
+entirely from defect of character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_K. Rich._ Can sick men play so nicely with their names?"
+
+Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear
+but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its
+own excess by plays on words as naturally, and, therefore, as
+appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This
+belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits
+from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this
+consists Shakespeare's vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's--
+
+"The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!" &c.
+
+This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth the _nobile volgare
+eloquenza_. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an
+almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong
+feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it;
+especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in
+any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of
+Richard's unkind language:--
+
+"Misery makes sport to mock itself."
+
+No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning must be attributed to his
+age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of
+the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the
+whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being
+thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds.
+But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if
+it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in
+the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives
+of passion.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_K. Rich._ Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;
+As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is."
+
+The depth of this compared with the first scene:--
+
+"How high a pitch," &c.
+
+There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably
+drawn than York's character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep
+grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence to his word and
+faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You
+see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of
+circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,--the junction of
+both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act;
+and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at
+the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and
+adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard's continually
+increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of
+acting;--and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into
+all the characters of the play.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Queen._ To please the king I did; to please myself
+I cannot do it; yet I know no cause
+Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,
+Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,
+Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,
+Is coming toward me; and my inward soul
+With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,
+More than with parting from my lord the king."
+
+It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar
+debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a
+feminine _friendism_, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately
+about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love
+of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in touching the
+tender superstitions, the _terræ incognitæ_ of presentiments, in the human
+mind; and how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these
+obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the
+vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as
+the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius,
+always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never
+profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and
+general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.
+
+The amiable part of Richard's character is brought full upon us by his
+queen's few words--
+
+      ... "So sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard:"--
+
+and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country,
+well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him
+in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something
+feminine and personal:--
+
+"Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,--
+As a long parted mother with her child
+Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;
+So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,
+And do thee favour with my royal hands."
+
+With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total
+incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which
+should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere
+resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid
+alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,--every feeling being
+abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident.
+And yet when Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his
+despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of
+kingliness, the effect of flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon
+producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more
+clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third
+act combine and illustrate all this:--
+
+"_Aumerle._ He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;
+Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,
+Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.
+
+_K. Rich._ Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,
+That when the searching eye of heaven is hid
+Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,
+Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,
+In murders and in outrage, bloody here;
+But when, from under this terrestrial ball,
+He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,
+And darts his light through every guilty hole,
+Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,
+The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,
+Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?
+So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ Where is the Duke my father with his power?
+
+_K. Rich._ No matter where; of comfort no man speak:
+Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,
+Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes
+Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ My father hath a power, enquire of him;
+And learn to make a body of a limb.
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come
+To change blows with thee for our day of doom.
+This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;
+An easy task it is to win our own.
+
+_Scroop._ Your uncle York hath join'd with Bolingbroke.--
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou hast said enough,
+Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth
+Of that sweet way I was in to despair!
+What say you now? what comfort have we now?
+By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,
+That bids me be of comfort any more."
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"Noble lord,
+Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle," &c.
+
+Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in
+Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality
+and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic
+plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an
+islet of repose--a melancholy repose, indeed--is this scene with the
+Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the
+incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the
+last act!--
+
+"_Groom._ I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,
+When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,
+With much ado, at length have gotten leave
+To look upon my sometimes master's face.
+O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,
+In London streets, that coronation day,
+When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!
+That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;
+That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!
+
+_K. Rich._ Rode he on Barbary?"
+
+Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes
+one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for
+Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part of _Henry VI._ is for Richard III.
+
+I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty
+developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;--the vast importance of
+the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at
+the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to,
+and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and
+exponent of the life and power of the state.
+
+The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in
+the progressiveness of, the animal man;--but the problem is so complicated
+with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for
+the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of
+government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a
+check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would,
+nevertheless, defeat its own aim;--for man is destined to be guided by
+higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in
+this state of existence,--by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be
+accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato's Republic is like
+Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,--a description of an individual, all of whose
+faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this
+it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual.
+But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human
+faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could
+never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly
+understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on
+through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the
+others.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry IV.--Part I."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:--
+
+"No more the thirsty entrance of this soil
+Shall daub her lips with her own children's blood."
+
+A most obscure passage: but I think Theobald's interpretation right,
+namely, that "thirsty entrance" means the dry penetrability, or bibulous
+drought, of the soil. The obscurity of this passage is of the
+Shakespearian sort.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. In this, the first introduction of Falstaff, observe the
+consciousness and the intentionality of his wit, so that when it does not
+flow of its own accord, its absence is felt, and an effort visibly made to
+recall it. Note also throughout how Falstaff's pride is gratified in the
+power of influencing a prince of the blood, the heir apparent, by means of
+it. Hence his dislike to Prince John of Lancaster, and his mortification
+when he finds his wit fail on him:--
+
+"_P. John._ Fare you well, Falstaff: I, in my condition,
+Shall better speak of you than you deserve.
+
+_Fal._ I would you had but the wit; 'twere better than your
+dukedom.--Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth
+not love me;--nor a man cannot make him laugh."
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Second Carrier's speech:--
+
+... "breeds fleas like a _loach_."
+
+Perhaps it is a misprint, or a provincial pronunciation, for "leach," that
+is, blood-suckers. Had it been gnats, instead of fleas, there might have
+been some sense, though small probability, in Warburton's suggestion of
+the Scottish "loch." Possibly "loach," or "lutch," may be some lost word
+for dovecote, or poultry-lodge, notorious for breeding fleas. In Stevens's
+or my reading, it should properly be "loaches," or "leeches," in the
+plural; except that I think I have heard anglers speak of trouts like _a_
+salmon.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Glend._ _Nay_, if you melt, then will she run mad."
+
+This "nay" so to be dwelt on in speaking, as to be equivalent to a
+dissyllable - u, is characteristic of the solemn Glendower; but the
+imperfect line
+
+"_She bids you_
+Upon the wanton rushes lay you down," &c.,
+
+is one of those fine hair-strokes of exquisite judgment peculiar to
+Shakespeare;--thus detaching the Lady's speech, and giving it the
+individuality and entireness of a little poem, while he draws attention to
+it.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry IV.--Part II."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 2--
+
+"_P. Hen._ Sup any women with him?
+
+_Page._ None, my lord, but old mistress Quickly, and mistress
+Doll Tear-sheet.
+
+_P. Hen._ This Doll Tear-sheet should be some road."
+
+I am sometimes disposed to think that this respectable young lady's name
+is a very old corruption for Tear-street--street-walker, _terere stratam_
+(_viam_). Does not the Prince's question rather show this?--
+
+"This Doll Tear-street should be some road?"
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:--
+
+        ... "Then, _happy low, lie down_;
+Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown."
+
+I know no argument by which to persuade any one to be of my opinion, or
+rather of my feeling; but yet I cannot help feeling that "Happy
+low-lie-down!" is either a proverbial expression, or the burthen of some
+old song, and means, "Happy the man, who lays himself down on his straw
+bed or chaff pallet on the ground or floor!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Shallow's speech:--
+
+"_Rah, tah, tah_, would 'a say; _bounce_, would 'a say," &c.
+
+That Beaumont and Fletcher have more than once been guilty of sneering at
+their great master, cannot, I fear, be denied; but the passage quoted by
+Theobald from the _Knight of the Burning Pestle_ is an imitation. If it be
+chargeable with any fault, it is with plagiarism, not with sarcasm.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry V."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Westmoreland's speech:--
+
+"They know your _grace_ hath cause, and means, and might;
+So hath your _highness_; never King of England
+Had nobles richer," &c.
+
+Does "grace" mean the king's own peculiar domains and legal revenue, and
+"highness" his feudal rights in the military service of his nobles?--I have
+sometimes thought it possible that the words "grace" and "cause" may have
+been transposed in the copying or printing;--
+
+"They know your cause hath grace," &c.
+
+What Theobald meant, I cannot guess. To me his pointing makes the passage
+still more obscure. Perhaps the lines ought to be recited dramatically
+thus:--
+
+"They know your Grace hath cause, and means, and might:--
+So _hath_ your Highness--never King of England
+_Had_ nobles richer," &c.
+
+He breaks off from the grammar and natural order from earnestness, and in
+order to give the meaning more passionately.
+
+_Ib._ Exeter's speech:--
+
+"Yet that is but a _crush'd_ necessity."
+
+Perhaps it may be "crash" for "crass" from _crassus_, clumsy; or it may be
+"curt," defective, imperfect: anything would be better than Warburton's
+"'scus'd," which honest Theobald, of course, adopts. By the by, it seems
+clear to me that this speech of Exeter's properly belongs to Canterbury,
+and was altered by the actors for convenience.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. King Henry's speech:--
+
+"We would not _die_ in that man's company
+That fears his fellowship to die with us."
+
+Should it not be "live" in the first line?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Const._ _O diable!_
+
+_Orl._ _O seigneur! le jour est perdu, tout est perdu!_
+
+_Dan._ _Mort de ma vie!_ all is confounded, all!
+Reproach and everlasting shame
+Sit mocking in our plumes!--_O meschante fortune!_
+Do not run away!"
+
+Ludicrous as these introductory scraps of French appear, so instantly
+followed by good, nervous mother-English, yet they are judicious, and
+produce the impression which Shakespeare intended,--a sudden feeling struck
+at once on the ears, as well as the eyes, of the audience, that "here come
+the French, the baffled French braggards!"--And this will appear still more
+judicious, when we reflect on the scanty apparatus of distinguishing
+dresses in Shakespeare's tyring-room.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry VI.--Part I."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bedford's speech:--
+
+"Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night!
+Comets, importing change of times and states,
+Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;
+And with them scourge the bad revolting stars
+That have consented unto Henry's death!
+Henry the fifth, too famous to live long!
+England ne'er lost a king of so much worth."
+
+Read aloud any two or three passages in blank verse even from
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas, as _Love's Labour's Lost_, or _Romeo and
+Juliet_; and then read in the same way this speech, with especial
+attention to the metre; and if you do not feel the impossibility of the
+latter having been written by Shakespeare, all I dare suggest is, that you
+may have ears,--for so has another animal,--but an ear you cannot have, _me
+judice_.
+
+
+
+
+"Richard III."
+
+
+This play should be contrasted with _Richard II._ Pride of intellect is
+the characteristic of Richard, carried to the extent of even boasting to
+his own mind of his villany, whilst others are present to feed his pride
+of superiority; as in his first speech, act ii. sc. 1. Shakespeare here,
+as in all his great parts, developes in a tone of sublime morality the
+dreadful consequences of placing the moral, in subordination to the mere
+intellectual, being. In Richard there is a predominance of irony,
+accompanied with apparently blunt manners to those immediately about him,
+but formalised into a more set hypocrisy towards the people as represented
+by their magistrates.
+
+
+
+
+"Lear."
+
+
+Of all Shakespeare's plays _Macbeth_ is the most rapid, _Hamlet_ the
+slowest, in movement. _Lear_ combines length with rapidity,--like the
+hurricane and the whirlpool, absorbing while it advances. It begins as a
+stormy day in summer, with brightness; but that brightness is lurid, and
+anticipates the tempest.
+
+It was not without forethought, nor is it without its due significance,
+that the division of Lear's kingdom is in the first six lines of the play
+stated as a thing already determined in all its particulars, previously to
+the trial of professions, as the relative rewards of which the daughters
+were to be made to consider their several portions. The strange, yet by no
+means unnatural, mixture of selfishness, sensibility, and habit of feeling
+derived from, and fostered by, the particular rank and usages of the
+individual;--the intense desire of being intensely beloved,--selfish, and
+yet characteristic of the selfishness of a loving and kindly nature
+alone;--the self-supportless leaning for all pleasure on another's
+breast;--the craving after sympathy with a prodigal disinterestedness,
+frustrated by its own ostentation, and the mode and nature of its
+claims;--the anxiety, the distrust, the jealousy, which more or less
+accompany all selfish affections, and are amongst the surest
+contradistinctions of mere fondness from true love, and which originate
+Lear's eager wish to enjoy his daughter's violent professions, whilst the
+inveterate habits of sovereignty convert the wish into claim and positive
+right, and an incompliance with it into crime and treason;--these facts,
+these passions, these moral verities, on which the whole tragedy is
+founded, are all prepared for, and will to the retrospect be found
+implied, in these first four or five lines of the play. They let us know
+that the trial is but a trick; and that the grossness of the old king's
+rage is in part the natural result of a silly trick suddenly and most
+unexpectedly baffled and disappointed.
+
+It may here be worthy of notice, that _Lear_ is the only serious
+performance of Shakespeare, the interest and situations of which are
+derived from the assumption of a gross improbability; whereas Beaumont and
+Fletcher's tragedies are, almost all of them, founded on some out of the
+way accident or exception to the general experience of mankind. But
+observe the matchless judgment of our Shakespeare. First, improbable as
+the conduct of Lear is in the first scene, yet it was an old story rooted
+in the popular faith,--a thing taken for granted already, and consequently
+without any of the effects of improbability. Secondly, it is merely the
+canvass for the characters and passions,--a mere occasion for,--and not, in
+the manner of Beaumont and Fletcher, perpetually recurring as the cause,
+and _sine qua non_ of,--the incidents and emotions. Let the first scene of
+this play have been lost, and let it only be understood that a fond father
+had been duped by hypocritical professions of love and duty on the part of
+two daughters to disinherit the third, previously, and deservedly, more
+dear to him;--and all the rest of the tragedy would retain its interest
+undiminished, and be perfectly intelligible.
+
+The accidental is nowhere the groundwork of the passions, but that which
+is catholic, which in all ages has been, and ever will be, close and
+native to the heart of man,--parental anguish from filial ingratitude, the
+genuineness of worth, though coffined in bluntness, and the execrable
+vileness of a smooth iniquity. Perhaps I ought to have added the _Merchant
+of Venice_; but here too the same remarks apply. It was an old tale; and
+substitute any other danger than that of the pound of flesh (the
+circumstance in which the improbability lies), yet all the situations and
+the emotions appertaining to them remain equally excellent and
+appropriate. Whereas take away from the _Mad Lover_ of Beaumont and
+Fletcher the fantastic hypothesis of his engagement to cut out his own
+heart, and have it presented to his mistress, and all the main scenes must
+go with it.
+
+Kotzebue is the German Beaumont and Fletcher, without their poetic powers,
+and without their _vis comica_. But, like them, he always deduces his
+situations and passions from marvellous accidents, and the trick of
+bringing one part of our moral nature to counteract another; as our pity
+for misfortune and admiration of generosity and courage to combat our
+condemnation of guilt as in adultery, robbery, and other heinous
+crimes;--and, like them too, he excels in his mode of telling a story
+clearly and interestingly, in a series of dramatic dialogues. Only the
+trick of making tragedy-heroes and heroines out of shopkeepers and
+barmaids was too low for the age, and too unpoetic for the genius, of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, inferior in every respect as they are to their
+great predecessor and contemporary. How inferior would they have appeared,
+had not Shakespeare existed for them to imitate;--which in every play, more
+or less, they do, and in their tragedies most glaringly:--and yet--(O shame!
+shame!)--they miss no opportunity of sneering at the divine man, and
+sub-detracting from his merits!
+
+To return to _Lear_. Having thus in the fewest words, and in a natural
+reply to as natural a question,--which yet answers the secondary purpose of
+attracting our attention to the difference or diversity between the
+characters of Cornwall and Albany,--provided the _prémisses_ and _data_, as
+it were, for our after insight into the mind and mood of the person, whose
+character, passions, and sufferings are the main subject-matter of the
+play;--from Lear, the _persona patiens_ of his drama, Shakespeare passes
+without delay to the second in importance, the chief agent and prime
+mover, and introduces Edmund to our acquaintance, preparing us with the
+same felicity of judgment, and in the same easy and natural way, for his
+character in the seemingly casual communication of its origin and
+occasion. From the first drawing up of the curtain Edmund has stood before
+us in the united strength and beauty of earliest manhood. Our eyes have
+been questioning him. Gifted as he is with high advantages of person, and
+further endowed by nature with a powerful intellect and a strong energetic
+will, even without any concurrence of circumstances and accident, pride
+will necessarily be the sin that most easily besets him. But Edmund is
+also the known and acknowledged son of the princely Gloster: he,
+therefore, has both the germ of pride, and the conditions best fitted to
+evolve and ripen it into a predominant feeling. Yet hitherto no reason
+appears why it should be other than the not unusual pride of person,
+talent, and birth,--a pride auxiliary, if not akin, to many virtues, and
+the natural ally of honourable impulses. But alas! in his own presence his
+own father takes shame to himself for the frank avowal that he is his
+father,--he has "blushed so often to acknowledge him that he is now brazed
+to it!" Edmund hears the circumstances of his birth spoken of with a most
+degrading and licentious levity,--his mother described as a wanton by her
+own paramour, and the remembrance of the animal sting, the low criminal
+gratifications connected with her wantonness and prostituted beauty,
+assigned as the reason why "the whoreson must be acknowledged!" This, and
+the consciousness of its notoriety; the gnawing conviction that every show
+of respect is an effort of courtesy, which recalls, while it represses, a
+contrary feeling;--this is the ever trickling flow of wormwood and gall
+into the wounds of pride,--the corrosive _virus_ which inoculates pride
+with a venom not its own, with envy, hatred, and a lust for that power
+which in its blaze of radiance would hide the dark spots on his disc,--with
+pangs of shame personally undeserved, and therefore felt as wrongs, and
+with a blind ferment of vindictive working towards the occasions and
+causes, especially towards a brother, whose stainless birth and lawful
+honours were the constant remembrancers of his own debasement, and were
+ever in the way to prevent all chance of its being unknown, or overlooked
+and forgotten. Add to this, that with excellent judgment, and provident
+for the claims of the moral sense,--for that which, relatively to the
+drama, is called poetic justice, and as the fittest means for reconciling
+the feelings of the spectators to the horrors of Gloster's after
+sufferings,--at least, of rendering them somewhat less unendurable--(for I
+will not disguise my conviction, that in this one point the tragic in this
+play has been urged beyond the outermost mark and _ne plus ultra_ of the
+dramatic);--Shakespeare has precluded all excuse and palliation of the
+guilt incurred by both the parents of the base-born Edmund, by Gloster's
+confession that he was at the time a married man, and already blest with a
+lawful heir of his fortunes. The mournful alienation of brotherly love,
+occasioned by the law of primogeniture in noble families, or rather by the
+unnecessary distinctions engrafted thereon, and this in children of the
+same stock, is still almost proverbial on the continent,--especially, as I
+know from my own observation, in the south of Europe,--and appears to have
+been scarcely less common in our own island before the Revolution of 1688,
+if we may judge from the characters and sentiments so frequent in our
+elder comedies. There is the younger brother, for instance, in Beaumont
+and Fletcher's play of the _Scornful Lady_, on the one side, and Oliver in
+Shakespeare's _As You Like It_, on the other. Need it be said how heavy an
+aggravation, in such a case, the stain of bastardy must have been, were it
+only that the younger brother was liable to hear his own dishonour and his
+mother's infamy related by his father with an excusing shrug of the
+shoulders, and in a tone betwixt waggery and shame!
+
+By the circumstances here enumerated as so many predisposing causes,
+Edmund's character might well be deemed already sufficiently explained;
+and our minds prepared for it. But in this tragedy the story or fable
+constrained Shakespeare to introduce wickedness in an outrageous form in
+the persons of Regan and Goneril. He had read nature too heedfully not to
+know that courage, intellect, and strength of character are the most
+impressive forms of power, and that to power in itself, without reference
+to any moral end, an inevitable admiration and complacency appertains,
+whether it be displayed in the conquests of a Buonaparte or Tamerlane, or
+in the foam and the thunder of a cataract. But in the exhibition of such a
+character it was of the highest importance to prevent the guilt from
+passing into utter monstrosity,--which again depends on the presence or
+absence of causes and temptations sufficient to account for the
+wickedness, without the necessity of recurring to a thorough fiendishness
+of nature for its origination. For such are the appointed relations of
+intellectual power to truth, and of truth to goodness, that it becomes
+both morally and poetically unsafe to present what is admirable--what our
+nature compels us to admire--in the mind, and what is most detestable in
+the heart, as co-existing in the same individual without any apparent
+connection, or any modification of the one by the other. That Shakespeare
+has in one instance, that of Iago, approached to this, and that he has
+done it successfully, is perhaps the most astonishing proof of his genius,
+and the opulence of its resources. But in the present tragedy, in which he
+was compelled to present a Goneril and a Regan, it was most carefully to
+be avoided;--and therefore the only one conceivable addition to the
+inauspicious influences on the preformation of Edmund's character is
+given, in the information that all the kindly counteractions to the
+mischievous feelings of shame, which might have been derived from
+co-domestication with Edgar and their common father, had been cut off by
+his absence from home, and foreign education from boyhood to the present
+time, and a prospect of its continuance, as if to preclude all risk of his
+interference with the father's views for the elder and legitimate son:--
+
+"He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again."
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Cor._ Nothing my lord.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing?
+
+_Cor._ Nothing.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing can come of nothing: speak again.
+
+_Cor._ Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave
+My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty
+According to my bond; nor more, nor less."
+
+There is something of disgust at the ruthless hypocrisy of her sisters,
+and some little faulty admixture of pride and sullenness in Cordelia's
+"Nothing;" and her tone is well contrived, indeed, to lessen the glaring
+absurdity of Lear's conduct, but answers the yet more important purpose of
+forcing away the attention from the nursery-tale, the moment it has served
+its end, that of supplying the canvas for the picture. This is also
+materially furthered by Kent's opposition, which displays Lear's moral
+incapability of resigning the sovereign power in the very act of disposing
+of it. Kent is, perhaps, the nearest to perfect goodness in all
+Shakespeare's characters, and yet the most individualised. There is an
+extraordinary charm, in his bluntness, which is that only of a nobleman,
+arising from a contempt of overstrained courtesy, and combined with easy
+placability where goodness of heart is apparent. His passionate affection
+for, and fidelity to, Lear act on our feelings in Lear's own favour:
+virtue itself seems to be in company with him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Edmund's speech:--
+
+"Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take
+More composition and fierce quality
+Than doth," &c.
+
+Warburton's note upon a quotation from Vanini.
+
+Poor Vanini!--Any one but Warburton would have thought this precious
+passage more characteristic of Mr. Shandy than of atheism. If the fact
+really were so (which it is not, but almost the contrary) I do not see why
+the most confirmed theist might not very naturally utter the same wish.
+But it is proverbial that the youngest son in a large family is commonly
+the man of the greatest talents in it; and as good an authority as Vanini
+has said--"incalescere in venerem ardentius, spei sobolis injuriosum esse."
+
+In this speech of Edmund you see, as soon as a man cannot reconcile
+himself to reason, how his conscience flies off by way of appeal to
+nature, who is sure upon such occasions never to find fault, and also how
+shame sharpens a predisposition in the heart to evil. For it is a profound
+moral, that shame will naturally generate guilt; the oppressed will be
+vindictive, like Shylock, and in the anguish of undeserved ignominy the
+delusion secretly springs up of getting over the moral quality of an
+action by fixing the mind on the mere physical act alone.
+
+_Ib._ Edmund's speech:--
+
+
+    "This is the excellent foppery of the world! that, when we are
+    sick in fortune (often the surfeit of our own behaviour), we make
+    guilty of our disasters, the sun, the moon, and the stars," &c.
+
+
+Thus scorn and misanthropy are often the anticipations and mouth-pieces of
+wisdom in the detection of superstitions. Both individuals and nations may
+be free from such prejudices by being below them, as well as by rising
+above them.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Steward should be placed in exact antithesis to Kent, as
+the only character of utter irredeemable baseness in Shakespeare. Even in
+this the judgment and invention of the poet are very observable;--for what
+else could the willing tool of a Goneril be? Not a vice but this of
+baseness was left open to him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. In Lear old age is itself a character,--its natural
+imperfections being increased by life-long habits of receiving a prompt
+obedience. Any addition of individuality would have been unnecessary and
+painful; for the relations of others to him, of wondrous fidelity and of
+frightful ingratitude, alone sufficiently distinguish him. Thus Lear
+becomes the open and ample play-room of nature's passions.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Knight._ Since my young lady's going into France, Sir; the
+fool hath much pined away."
+
+The Fool is no comic buffoon to make the groundlings laugh,--no forced
+condescension of Shakespeare's genius to the taste of his audience.
+Accordingly the poet prepares for his introduction, which he never does
+with any of his common clowns and fools, by bringing him into living
+connection with the pathos of the play. He is as wonderful a creation as
+Caliban;--his wild babblings, and inspired idiocy, articulate and gauge the
+horrors of the scene.
+
+The monster Goneril prepares what is necessary, while the character of
+Albany renders a still more maddening grievance possible--namely, Regan and
+Cornwall in perfect sympathy of monstrosity. Not a sentiment, not an
+image, which can give pleasure on its own account is admitted; whenever
+these creatures are introduced, and they are brought forward as little as
+possible, pure horror reigns throughout. In this scene and in all the
+early speeches of Lear, the one general sentiment of filial ingratitude
+prevails as the main-spring of the feelings;--in this early stage the
+outward object causing the pressure on the mind, which is not yet
+sufficiently familiarised with the anguish for the imagination to work
+upon it.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Gon._ Do you mark that, my lord?
+
+_Alb._ I cannot be so partial, Goneril,
+To the great love I bear you.
+
+_Gon._ Pray you content," &c.
+
+Observe the baffled endeavour of Goneril to act on the fears of Albany,
+and yet his passiveness, his _inertia_; he is not convinced, and yet he is
+afraid of looking into the thing. Such characters always yield to those
+who will take the trouble of governing them, or for them. Perhaps the
+influence of a princess, whose choice of him had royalised his state, may
+be some little excuse for Albany's weakness.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Lear._ O let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven!
+Keep me in temper! I would not be mad!"
+
+The mind's own anticipation of madness! The deepest tragic notes are often
+struck by a half sense of an impending blow. The Fool's conclusion of this
+act by a grotesque prattling seems to indicate the dislocation of feeling
+that has begun and is to be continued.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Edmund's speech:--
+
+          ... "He replied,
+Thou unpossessing bastard!" &c.
+
+Thus the secret poison in Edmund's own heart steals forth; and then
+observe poor Gloster's--
+
+"Loyal and _natural_ boy!"--
+
+as if praising the crime of Edmund's birth!
+
+_Ib._ Compare Regan's--
+
+"What, did _my father's_ godson seek your life?
+He whom _my father_ named?"--
+
+with the unfeminine violence of her--
+
+"All vengeance comes too short," &c.--
+
+and yet no reference to the guilt, but only to the accident, which she
+uses as an occasion for sneering at her father. Regan is not, in fact, a
+greater monster than Goneril, but she has the power of casting more venom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cornwall's speech:---
+
+          ... "This is some fellow,
+Who, having been praised for bluntness, doth affect
+A saucy roughness," &c.
+
+In thus placing these profound general truths in the mouths of such men as
+Cornwall, Edmund, Iago, &c., Shakespeare at once gives them utterance, and
+yet shows how indefinite their application is.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Edgar's assumed madness serves the great purpose of taking
+off part of the shock which would otherwise be caused by the true madness
+of Lear, and further displays the profound difference between the two. In
+every attempt at representing madness throughout the whole range of
+dramatic literature, with the single exception of Lear, it is mere
+lightheadedness, as especially in Otway. In Edgar's ravings Shakespeare
+all the while lets you see a fixed purpose, a practical end in view;--in
+Lear's, there is only the brooding of the one anguish, an eddy without
+progression.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Lear's speech:--
+
+"The king would speak with Cornwall; the dear father
+Would with his daughter speak, &c.
+
+No, but not yet: may be he is not well," &c.
+
+The strong interest now felt by Lear to try to find excuses for his
+daughter is most pathetic.
+
+_Ib._ Lear's speech:--
+
+          ... "Beloved Regan,
+Thy sister's naught;--O Regan, she hath tied
+Sharp-tooth'd unkindness, like a vulture, here.
+I can scarce speak to thee;--thou'lt not believe
+Of how deprav'd a quality--O Regan!
+
+_Reg._ I pray you, Sir, take patience; I have hope,
+You less know how to value her desert,
+Than she to scant her duty.
+
+_Lear._ Say, how is that?"
+
+Nothing is so heart-cutting as a cold unexpected defence or palliation of
+a cruelty passionately complained of, or so expressive of thorough
+hard-heartedness. And feel the excessive horror of Regan's "O, Sir, you
+are old!"--and then her drawing from that universal object of reverence and
+indulgence the very reason for her frightful conclusion--
+
+"Say, you have wrong'd her!"
+
+All Lear's faults increase our pity for him. We refuse to know them
+otherwise than as means of his sufferings, and aggravations of his
+daughters' ingratitude.
+
+_Ib._ Lear's speech:--
+
+"O, reason not the need: our basest beggars
+Are in the poorest thing superfluous," &c.
+
+Observe that the tranquillity which follows the first stunning of the blow
+permits Lear to reason.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4. O, what a world's convention of agonies is here! All
+external nature in a storm, all moral nature convulsed,--the real madness
+of Lear, the feigned madness of Edgar, the babbling of the Fool, the
+desperate fidelity of Kent--surely such a scene was never conceived before
+or since! Take it but as a picture for the eye only, it is more terrific
+than any which a Michael Angelo, inspired by a Dante, could have
+conceived, and which none but a Michael Angelo could have executed. Or let
+it have been uttered to the blind, the howlings of nature would seem
+converted into the voice of conscious humanity. This scene ends with the
+first symptoms of positive derangement; and the intervention of the fifth
+scene is particularly judicious,--the interruption allowing an interval for
+Lear to appear in full madness in the sixth scene.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Gloster's blinding.
+
+What can I say of this scene?--There is my reluctance to think Shakespeare
+wrong, and yet--
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Lear's speech:--
+
+
+    "Ha! Goneril!--with a white beard!--They flattered me like a dog;
+    and told me, I had white hairs in my beard, ere the black ones
+    were there. To say _Ay_ and _No_ to every thing I said!--Ay and No
+    too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me once," &c.
+
+
+The thunder recurs, but still at a greater distance from our feelings.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Lear's speech:--
+
+"Where have I been? Where am I?--Fair daylight?--
+I am mightily abused.--I should even die with pity
+To see another thus," &c.
+
+How beautifully the affecting return of Lear to reason, and the mild
+pathos of these speeches prepare the mind for the last sad, yet sweet,
+consolation of the aged sufferer's death!
+
+
+
+
+"Hamlet."
+
+
+Hamlet was the play, or rather Hamlet himself was the character, in the
+intuition and exposition of which I first made my turn for philosophical
+criticism, and especially for insight into the genius of Shakespeare,
+noticed. This happened first amongst my acquaintances, as Sir George
+Beaumont will bear witness; and subsequently, long before Schlegel had
+delivered at Vienna the lectures on Shakespeare, which he afterwards
+published, I had given on the same subject eighteen lectures substantially
+the same, proceeding from the very same point of view, and deducing the
+same conclusions, so far as I either then agreed, or now agree, with him.
+I gave these lectures at the Royal Institution, before six or seven
+hundred auditors of rank and eminence, in the spring of the same year, in
+which Sir Humphrey Davy, a fellow-lecturer, made his great revolutionary
+discoveries in chemistry. Even in detail the coincidence of Schlegel with
+my lectures was so extraordinary, that all who at a later period heard the
+same words, taken by me from my notes of the lectures at the Royal
+Institution, concluded a borrowing on my part from Schlegel. Mr. Hazlitt,
+whose hatred of me is in such an inverse ratio to my zealous kindness
+towards him, as to be defended by his warmest admirer, Charles Lamb--(who,
+God bless him! besides his characteristic obstinacy of adherence to old
+friends, as long at least as they are at all down in the world, is linked
+as by a charm to Hazlitt's conversation)--only as "frantic;"--Mr. Hazlitt, I
+say, himself replied to an assertion of my plagiarism from Schlegel in
+these words;--"That is a lie; for I myself heard the very same character of
+Hamlet from Coleridge before he went to Germany, and when he had neither
+read nor could read a page of German!" Now Hazlitt was on a visit to me at
+my cottage at Nether Stowey, Somerset, in the summer of the year 1798, in
+the September of which year I first was out of sight of the shores of
+Great Britain.--Recorded by me, S. T. Coleridge, 7th January, 1819.
+
+The seeming inconsistencies in the conduct and character of Hamlet have
+long exercised the conjectural ingenuity of critics; and, as we are always
+loth to suppose that the cause of defective apprehension is in ourselves,
+the mystery has been too commonly explained by the very easy process of
+setting it down as in fact inexplicable, and by resolving the phenomenon
+into a misgrowth or _lusus_ of the capricious and irregular genius of
+Shakespeare. The shallow and stupid arrogance of these vulgar and indolent
+decisions I would fain do my best to expose. I believe the character of
+Hamlet may be traced to Shakespeare's deep and accurate science in mental
+philosophy. Indeed, that this character must have some connection with the
+common fundamental laws of our nature may be assumed from the fact, that
+Hamlet has been the darling of every country in which the literature of
+England has been fostered. In order to understand him, it is essential
+that we should reflect on the constitution of our own minds. Man is
+distinguished from the brute animals in proportion as thought prevails
+over sense: but in the healthy processes of the mind, a balance is
+constantly maintained between the impressions from outward objects and the
+inward operations of the intellect;--for if there be an overbalance in the
+contemplative faculty, man thereby becomes the creature of mere
+meditation, and loses his natural power of action. Now one of
+Shakespeare's modes of creating characters is, to conceive any one
+intellectual or moral faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself,
+Shakespeare, thus mutilated or diseased, under given circumstances. In
+Hamlet he seems to have wished to exemplify the moral necessity of a due
+balance between our attention to the objects of our senses, and our
+meditation on the workings of our minds,--an _equilibrium_ between the real
+and the imaginary worlds. In Hamlet this balance is disturbed: his
+thoughts, and the images of his fancy, are far more vivid than his actual
+perceptions, and his very perceptions, instantly passing through the
+_medium_ of his contemplations, acquire, as they pass, a form and a colour
+not naturally their own. Hence we see a great, an almost enormous,
+intellectual activity, and a proportionate aversion to real action,
+consequent upon it, with all its symptoms and accompanying qualities. This
+character Shakespeare places in circumstances, under which it is obliged
+to act on the spur of the moment:--Hamlet is brave and careless of death;
+but he vacillates from sensibility, and procrastinates from thought, and
+loses the power of action in the energy of resolve. Thus it is that this
+tragedy presents a direct contrast to that of _Macbeth_; the one proceeds
+with the utmost slowness, the other with a crowded and breathless
+rapidity.
+
+The effect of this overbalance of the imaginative power is beautifully
+illustrated in the everlasting broodings and superfluous activities of
+Hamlet's mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is constantly
+occupied with the world within, and abstracted from the world
+without,--giving substance to shadows, and throwing a mist over all
+commonplace actualities. It is the nature of thought to be
+indefinite;--definiteness belongs to external imagery alone. Hence it is
+that the sense of sublimity arises, not from the sight of an outward
+object, but from the beholder's reflection upon it;--not from the sensuous
+impression, but from the imaginative reflex. Few have seen a celebrated
+waterfall without feeling something akin to disappointment: it is only
+subsequently that the image comes back full into the mind, and brings with
+it a train of grand or beautiful associations. Hamlet feels this; his
+senses are in a state of trance, and he looks upon external things as
+hieroglyphics. His soliloquy--
+
+"O! that this too too solid flesh would melt," &c.--
+
+springs from that craving after the indefinite--for that which is not--which
+most easily besets men of genius; and the self-delusion common to this
+temper of mind is finely exemplified in the character which Hamlet gives
+of himself;--
+
+          ... "It cannot be
+But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall
+To make oppression bitter."
+
+He mistakes the seeing his chains for the breaking them, delays action
+till action is of no use, and dies the victim of mere circumstance and
+accident.
+
+There is a great significancy in the names of Shakespeare's plays. In the
+_Twelfth Night_, _Midsummer __ Night's Dream_, _As You Like It_, and
+_Winter's Tale_, the total effect is produced by a co-ordination of the
+characters as in a wreath of flowers. But in _Coriolanus_, _Lear_, _Romeo
+and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, &c., the effect arises from the
+subordination of all to one, either as the prominent person, or the
+principal object. _Cymbeline_ is the only exception; and even that has its
+advantages in preparing the audience for the chaos of time, place, and
+costume, by throwing the date back into a fabulous king's reign.
+
+But as of more importance, so more striking, is the judgment displayed by
+our truly dramatic poet, as well as poet of the drama, in the management
+of his first scenes. With the single exception of _Cymbeline_, they either
+place before us at one glance both the past and the future in some effect,
+which implies the continuance and full agency of its cause, as in the
+feuds and party-spirit of the servants of the two houses in the first
+scene of _Romeo and Juliet_; or in the degrading passion for shows and
+public spectacles, and the overwhelming attachment for the newest
+successful war-chief in the Roman people, already become a populace,
+contrasted with the jealousy of the nobles in _Julius Cæsar_;--or they at
+once commence the action so as to excite a curiosity for the explanation
+in the following scenes, as in the storm of wind and waves, and the
+boatswain in the _Tempest_, instead of anticipating our curiosity, as in
+most other first scenes, and in too many other first acts;--or they act, by
+contrast of diction suited to the characters, at once to heighten the
+effect, and yet to give a naturalness to the language and rhythm of the
+principal personages, either as that of Prospero and Miranda by the
+appropriate lowness of the style, or as in _King John_, by the equally
+appropriate stateliness of official harangues or narratives, so that the
+after blank verse seems to belong to the rank and quality of the speakers,
+and not to the poet;--or they strike at once the key-note, and give the
+predominant spirit of the play, as in the _Twelfth Night_ and in
+_Macbeth_;--or finally, the first scene comprises all these advantages at
+once, as in _Hamlet_.
+
+Compare the easy language of common life, in which this drama commences,
+with the direful music and wild wayward rhythm and abrupt lyrics of the
+opening of _Macbeth_. The tone is quite familiar;--there is no poetic
+description of night, no elaborate information conveyed by one speaker to
+another of what both had immediately before their senses--(such as the
+first distich in Addison's _Cato_, which is a translation into poetry of
+"Past four o'clock and a dark morning!");--and yet nothing bordering on the
+comic on the one hand, nor any striving of the intellect on the other. It
+is precisely the language of sensation among men who feared no charge of
+effeminacy for feeling what they had no want of resolution to bear. Yet
+the armour, the dead silence, the watchfulness that first interrupts it,
+the welcome relief of the guard, the cold, the broken expressions of
+compelled attention to bodily feelings still under control--all excellently
+accord with, and prepare for, the after gradual rise into tragedy;--but,
+above all, into a tragedy, the interest of which is as eminently _ad et
+apud intra_, as that of _Macbeth_ is directly _ad extra_.
+
+In all the best attested stories of ghosts and visions, as in that of
+Brutus, of Archbishop Cranmer, that of Benvenuto Cellini recorded by
+himself, and the vision of Galileo communicated by him to his favourite
+pupil Torricelli, the ghost-seers were in a state of cold or chilling damp
+from without, and of anxiety inwardly. It has been with all of them as
+with Francisco on his guard,--alone, in the depth and silence of the night;
+"'twas bitter cold, and they were sick at heart, and _not a mouse
+stirring_." The attention to minute sounds,--naturally associated with the
+recollection of minute objects, and the more familiar and trifling, the
+more impressive from the unusualness of their producing any impression at
+all--gives a philosophic pertinency to this last image; but it has likewise
+its dramatic use and purpose. For its commonness in ordinary conversation
+tends to produce the sense of reality, and at once hides the poet, and yet
+approximates the reader or spectator to that state in which the highest
+poetry will appear, and in its component parts, though not in the whole
+composition, really is, the language of nature. If I should not speak it,
+I feel that I should be thinking it;--the voice only is the poet's,--the
+words are my own. That Shakespeare meant to put an effect in the actor's
+power in the very first words--"Who's there?"--is evident from the
+impatience expressed by the startled Francisco in the words that
+follow--"Nay, answer me: stand and unfold yourself." A brave man is never
+so peremptory, as when he fears that he is afraid. Observe the gradual
+transition from the silence and the still recent habit of listening in
+Francisco's--"I think I hear them"--to the more cheerful call out, which a
+good actor would observe, in the--"Stand ho! Who is there?" Bernardo's
+inquiry after Horatio, and the repetition of his name and in his own
+presence indicate a respect or an eagerness that implies him as one of the
+persons who are in the foreground; and the scepticism attributed to him,--
+
+"Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy;
+And will not let belief take hold of him,"--
+
+prepares us for Hamlet's after eulogy on him as one whose blood and
+judgment were happily commingled. The actor should also be careful to
+distinguish the expectation and gladness of Bernardo's "Welcome, Horatio!"
+from the mere courtesy of his "Welcome, good Marcellus!"
+
+Now observe the admirable indefiniteness of the first opening out of the
+occasion of all this anxiety. The preparation informative of the audience
+is just as much as was precisely necessary, and no more;--it begins with
+the uncertainty appertaining to a question:--
+
+"_Mar._ What, has _this thing_ appear'd again to-night?"--
+
+Even the word "again" has its _credibilising_ effect. Then Horatio, the
+representative of the ignorance of the audience, not himself, but by
+Marcellus to Bernardo, anticipates the common solution--"'tis but our
+fantasy!" upon which Marcellus rises into--
+
+"This dreaded sight, twice seen of us"--
+
+which immediately afterwards becomes "this apparition," and that, too, an
+intelligent spirit--that is, to be spoken to! Then comes the confirmation
+of Horatio's disbelief;--
+
+"Tush! tush! 'twill not appear!"--
+
+and the silence, with which the scene opened, is again restored in the
+shivering feeling of Horatio sitting down, at such a time, and with the
+two eye-witnesses, to hear a story of a ghost, and that, too, of a ghost
+which had appeared twice before at the very same hour. In the deep feeling
+which Bernardo has of the solemn nature of what he is about to relate, he
+makes an effort to master his own imaginative terrors by an elevation of
+style,--itself a continuation of the effort,--and by turning off from the
+apparition, as from something which would force him too deeply into
+himself, to the outward objects, the realities of nature, which had
+accompanied it:--
+
+"_Ber._ Last night of all,
+When yon same star, that's westward from the pole
+Had made his course to illume that part of heaven
+Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself,
+The bell then beating one."
+
+This passage seems to contradict the critical law that what is told, makes
+a faint impression compared with what is beholden; for it does indeed
+convey to the mind more than the eye can see; whilst the interruption of
+the narrative at the very moment when we are most intensely listening for
+the sequel, and have our thoughts diverted from the dreaded sight in
+expectation of the desired, yet almost dreaded, tale--this gives all the
+suddenness and surprise of the original appearance:--
+
+"_Mar._ Peace, break thee off; look, where it comes again!"
+
+Note the judgment displayed in having the two persons present, who, as
+having seen the Ghost before, are naturally eager in confirming their
+former opinions,--whilst the sceptic is silent, and after having been twice
+addressed by his friends, answers with two hasty syllables--"Most
+like,"--and a confession of horror:--
+
+"It harrows me with fear and wonder."
+
+O heaven! words are wasted on those who feel, and to those who do not feel
+the exquisite judgment of Shakespeare in this scene, what can be said?
+Hume himself could not but have had faith in this Ghost dramatically, let
+his anti-ghostism have been as strong as Sampson against other ghosts less
+powerfully raised.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Mar._ Good now, sit down, and tell me, he that knows,
+Why this same strict and most observant watch," &c.
+
+How delightfully natural is the transition, to the retrospective
+narrative! And observe, upon the Ghost's reappearance, how much Horatio's
+courage is increased by having translated the late individual spectator
+into general thought and past experience,--and the sympathy of Marcellus
+and Bernardo with his patriotic surmises in daring to strike at the Ghost;
+whilst in a moment, upon its vanishing, the former solemn awe-stricken
+feeling returns upon them:--
+
+"We do it wrong, being so majestical,
+To offer it the show of violence."
+
+_Ib._ Horatio's speech:--
+
+          ... "I have heard,
+The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
+Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
+Awake the god of day," &c.
+
+No Addison could be more careful to be poetical in diction than
+Shakespeare in providing the grounds and sources of its propriety. But how
+to elevate a thing almost mean by its familiarity, young poets may learn
+in this treatment of the cock-crow.
+
+_Ib._ Horatio's speech:--
+
+          ... "And, by my advice,
+Let us impart what we have seen to-night
+Unto young Hamlet; for, upon my life,
+The spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him."
+
+Note the inobtrusive and yet fully adequate mode of introducing the main
+character, "young Hamlet," upon whom it transferred all the interest
+excited for the acts and concerns of the king his father.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. The audience are now relieved by a change of scene to the
+royal court, in order that Hamlet may not have to take up the leavings of
+exhaustion. In the king's speech, observe the set and pedantically
+antithetic form of the sentences when touching that which galled the heels
+of conscience,--the strain of undignified rhetoric,--and yet in what follows
+concerning the public weal, a certain appropriate majesty. Indeed was he
+not a royal brother?--
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"And now, Laertes, what's the news with you?" &c.
+
+Thus with great art Shakespeare introduces a most important, but still
+subordinate character first, Laertes, who is yet thus graciously treated
+in consequence of the assistance given to the election of the late king's
+brother instead of his son by Polonius.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ A little more than kin, and less than kind.
+
+_King._ How is it that the clouds still hang on you?
+
+_Ham._ Not so, my lord, I am too much i' the sun."
+
+Hamlet opens his mouth with a playing on words, the complete absence of
+which throughout characterises Macbeth. This playing on words may be
+attributed to many causes or motives, as either to an exuberant activity
+of mind, as in the higher comedy of Shakespeare generally;--or to an
+imitation of it as a mere fashion, as if it were said--"Is not this better
+than groaning?"--or to a contemptuous exultation in minds vulgarised and
+overset by their success, as in the poetic instance of Milton's Devils in
+the battle;--or it is the language of resentment, as is familiar to every
+one who has witnessed the quarrels of the lower orders, where there is
+invariably a profusion of punning invective, whence, perhaps, nicknames
+have in a considerable degree sprung up;--or it is the language of
+suppressed passion, and especially of a hardly smothered personal dislike.
+The first and last of these combine in Hamlet's case; and I have little
+doubt that Farmer is right in supposing the equivocation carried on in the
+expression "too much i' the sun," or son.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Ay, madam, it is common."
+
+Here observe Hamlet's delicacy to his mother, and how the suppression
+prepares him for the overflow in the next speech, in which his character
+is more developed by bringing forward his aversion to externals, and which
+betrays his habit of brooding over the world within him, coupled with a
+prodigality of beautiful words, which are the half embodyings of thought,
+and are more than thought, and have an outness, a reality _sui generis_,
+and yet retain their correspondence and shadowy affinity to the images and
+movements within. Note also Hamlet's silence to the long speech of the
+king which follows, and his respectful, but general, answer to his mother.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's first soliloquy:--
+
+"O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,
+Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!" &c.
+
+This _tædium vitæ_ is a common oppression on minds cast in the Hamlet
+mould, and is caused by disproportionate mental exertion, which
+necessitates exhaustion of bodily feeling. Where there is a just
+coincidence of external and internal action, pleasure is always the
+result; but where the former is deficient, and the mind's appetency of the
+ideal is unchecked, realities will seem cold and unmoving. In such cases,
+passion combines itself with the indefinite alone. In this mood of his
+mind the relation of the appearance of his father's spirit in arms is made
+all at once to Hamlet:--it is--Horatio's speech in particular--a perfect
+model of the true style of dramatic narrative;--the purest poetry, and yet
+in the most natural language, equally remote from the ink-horn and the
+plough.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This scene must be regarded as one of Shakespeare's lyric
+movements in the play, and the skill with which it is interwoven with the
+dramatic parts is peculiarly an excellence of our poet. You experience the
+sensation of a pause without the sense of a stop. You will observe in
+Ophelia's short and general answer to the long speech of Laertes the
+natural carelessness of innocence, which cannot think such a code of
+cautions and prudences necessary to its own preservation.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius (in Stockdale's edition):--
+
+"Or (not to crack the wind of the poor phrase),
+Wronging it thus, you'll tender me a fool."
+
+I suspect this "wronging" is here used much in the same sense as
+"wringing" or "wrenching," and that the parenthesis should be extended to
+"thus."
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius:--
+
+          ... "How prodigal the soul
+Lends the tongue vows:--these blazes, daughter," &c.
+
+A spondee has, I doubt not, dropped out of the text. Either insert "Go to"
+after "vows";--
+
+"Lends the tongue vows: Go to, these blazes, daughter"--
+
+or read--
+
+"Lends the tongue vows:--These blazes, daughter, mark you"--
+
+Shakespeare never introduces a catalectic line without intending an
+equivalent to the foot omitted in the pauses, or the dwelling emphasis, or
+the diffused retardation. I do not, however, deny that a good actor might,
+by employing the last mentioned means--namely, the retardation, or solemn
+knowing drawl--supply the missing spondee with good effect. But I do not
+believe that in this or any other of the foregoing speeches of Polonius,
+Shakespeare meant to bring out the senility or weakness of that
+personage's mind. In the great ever-recurring dangers and duties of life,
+where to distinguish the fit objects for the application of the maxims
+collected by the experience of a long life, requires no fineness of tact,
+as in the admonitions to his son and daughter, Polonius is uniformly made
+respectable. But if an actor were even capable of catching these shades in
+the character, the pit and the gallery would be malcontent at their
+exhibition. It is to Hamlet that Polonius is, and is meant to be,
+contemptible, because in inwardness and uncontrollable activity of
+movement, Hamlet's mind is the logical contrary to that of Polonius; and
+besides, as I have observed before, Hamlet dislikes the man as false to
+his true allegiance in the matter of the succession to the crown.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. The unimportant conversation with which this scene opens is a
+proof of Shakespeare's minute knowledge of human nature. It is a well
+established fact, that on the brink of any serious enterprise, or event of
+moment, men almost invariably endeavour to elude the pressure of their own
+thoughts by turning aside to trivial objects and familiar circumstances:
+thus this dialogue on the platform begins with remarks on the coldness of
+the air, and inquiries, obliquely connected, indeed, with the expected
+hour of the visitation, but thrown out in a seeming vacuity of topics, as
+to the striking of the clock and so forth. The same desire to escape from
+the impending thought is carried on in Hamlet's account of, and moralizing
+on, the Danish custom of wassailing: he runs off from the particular to
+the universal, and, in his repugnance to personal and individual concerns,
+escapes, as it were, from himself in generalisations, and smothers the
+impatience and uneasy feelings of the moment in abstract reasoning.
+Besides this, another purpose is answered;--for by thus entangling the
+attention of the audience in the nice distinctions and parenthetical
+sentences of this speech of Hamlet's, Shakespeare takes them completely by
+surprise on the appearance of the Ghost, which comes upon them in all the
+suddenness of its visionary character. Indeed, no modern writer would have
+dared, like Shakespeare, to have preceded this last visitation by two
+distinct appearances,--or could have contrived that the third should rise
+upon the former two in impressiveness and solemnity of interest.
+
+But in addition to all the other excellences of Hamlet's speech concerning
+the wassail-music--so finely revealing the predominant idealism, the
+ratiocinative meditativeness, of his character--it has the advantage of
+giving nature and probability to the impassioned continuity of the speech
+instantly directed to the Ghost. The _momentum_ had been given to his
+mental activity; the full current of the thoughts and words had set in,
+and the very forgetfulness, in the fervour of his argumentation, of the
+purpose for which he was there, aided in preventing the appearance from
+benumbing the mind. Consequently, it acted as a new impulse,--a sudden
+stroke which increased the velocity of the body already in motion, whilst
+it altered the direction. The co-presence of Horatio, Marcellus, and
+Bernardo is most judiciously contrived; for it renders the courage of
+Hamlet, and his impetuous eloquence, perfectly intelligible. The
+knowledge,--the unthought of consciousness,--the sensation of human
+auditors--of flesh and blood sympathists--acts as a support and a
+stimulation _a tergo_, while the front of the mind, the whole
+consciousness of the speaker, is filled, yea, absorbed, by the apparition.
+Add too, that the apparition itself has, by its previous appearances, been
+brought nearer to a thing of this world. This accrescence of objectivity
+in a Ghost that yet retains all its ghostly attributes and fearful
+subjectivity, is truly wonderful.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Hamlet's speech:--
+
+"O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?
+And shall I couple hell?"
+
+I remember nothing equal to this burst, unless it be the first speech of
+Prometheus in the Greek drama, after the exit of Vulcan and the two
+Afrites. But Shakespeare alone could have produced the vow of Hamlet to
+make his memory a blank of all maxims and generalised truths, that
+"observation had copied there,"--followed immediately by the speaker noting
+down the generalised fact,--
+
+"That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!"
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mar._ Hillo, ho, ho, my lord!
+
+_Ham._ Hillo, ho, ho, boy! come bird, come," &c.
+
+This part of the scene, after Hamlet's interview with the Ghost, has been
+charged with an improbable eccentricity. But the truth is, that after the
+mind has been stretched beyond its usual pitch and tone, it must either
+sink into exhaustion and inanity, or seek relief by change. It is thus
+well known, that persons conversant in deeds of cruelty contrive to escape
+from conscience by connecting something of the ludicrous with them, and by
+inventing grotesque terms, and a certain technical phraseology, to
+disguise the horror of their practices. Indeed, paradoxical as it may
+appear, the terrible by a law of the human mind always touches on the
+verge of the ludicrous. Both arise from the perception of something out of
+the common order of things--something, in fact, out of its place; and if
+from this we can abstract danger, the uncommonness will alone remain, and
+the sense of the ridiculous be excited. The close alliance of these
+opposites--they are not contraries--appears from the circumstance, that
+laughter is equally the expression of extreme anguish and horror as of
+joy: as there are tears of sorrow and tears of joy, so is there a laugh of
+terror and a laugh of merriment. These complex causes will naturally have
+produced in Hamlet the disposition to escape from his own feelings of the
+overwhelming and supernatural by a wild transition to the ludicrous,--a
+sort of cunning bravado, bordering on the flights of delirium. For you
+may, perhaps, observe that Hamlet's wildness is but half false; he plays
+that subtle trick of pretending to act only when he is very near really
+being what he acts.
+
+The subterraneous speeches of the Ghost are hardly defensible;--but I would
+call your attention to the characteristic difference between this Ghost,
+as a superstition connected with the most mysterious truths of revealed
+religion,--and Shakespeare's consequent reverence in his treatment of
+it,--and the foul earthly witcheries and wild language in _Macbeth_.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Polonius and Reynaldo.
+
+In all things dependent on, or rather made up of, fine address, the manner
+is no more or otherwise rememberable than the light notions, steps, and
+gestures of youth and health. But this is almost everything:--no wonder,
+therefore, if that which can be put down by rule in the memory should
+appear to us as mere poring, maudlin, cunning,--slyness blinking through
+the watery eye of superannuation. So in this admirable scene, Polonius,
+who is throughout the skeleton of his own former skill and statecraft,
+hunts the trail of policy at a dead scent, supplied by the weak
+fever-smell in his own nostrils.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Speech of Polonius:--
+
+"My liege, and madam, to expostulate," &c.
+
+Warburton's note.
+
+
+    "Then as to the jingles, and play on words, let us but look into
+    the sermons of Dr. Donne (the wittiest man of that age), and we
+    shall find them full of this vein."
+
+
+I have, and that most carefully, read Dr. Donne's sermons, and find none
+of these jingles. The great art of an orator--to make whatever he talks of
+appear of importance--this, indeed, Donne has effected with consummate
+skill.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Excellent well;
+You are a fishmonger."
+
+That is, you are sent to fish out this secret. This is Hamlet's own
+meaning.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog,
+Being a god, kissing carrion."
+
+These purposely obscure lines, I rather think, refer to some thought in
+Hamlet's mind, contrasting the lovely daughter with such a tedious old
+fool, her father, as he, Hamlet, represents Polonius to himself:--"Why,
+fool as he is, he is some degrees in rank above a dead dog's carcase; and
+if the sun, being a god that kisses carrion, can raise life out of a dead
+dog,--why may not good fortune, that favours fools, have raised a lovely
+girl out of this dead-alive old fool?" Warburton is often led astray, in
+his interpretations, by his attention to general positions without the due
+Shakespearian reference to what is probably passing in the mind of his
+speaker, characteristic, and expository of his particular character and
+present mood. The subsequent passage,--
+
+"O Jephthah, judge of Israel! what a treasure hadst thou!"
+
+is confirmatory of my view of these lines.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ You cannot, Sir, take from me any thing that I will
+more willingly part withal; except my life, except my life, except
+my life."
+
+This repetition strikes me as most admirable.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Then are our beggars, bodies; and our monarchs, and
+out-stretched heroes, the beggars' shadows?"
+
+I do not understand this; and Shakespeare seems to have intended the
+meaning not to be more than snatched at:--"By my fay, I cannot reason!"
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The rugged Pyrrhus--he whose sable arms," &c.
+
+This admirable substitution of the epic for the dramatic, giving such a
+reality to the impassioned dramatic diction of Shakespeare's own dialogue,
+and authorised too, by the actual style of the tragedies before his time
+(_Porrex and Ferrex_, _Titus Andronicus_, &c.)--is well worthy of notice.
+The fancy, that a burlesque was intended, sinks below criticism: the
+lines, as epic narrative, are superb.
+
+In the thoughts, and even in the separate parts of the diction, this
+description is highly poetical: in truth, taken by itself, that is its
+fault that it is too poetical!--the language of lyric vehemence and epic
+pomp, and not of the drama. But if Shakespeare had made the diction truly
+dramatic, where would have been the contrast between Hamlet and the play
+in _Hamlet_?
+
+_Ib._--
+
+... "Had seen the _mobled_ queen," &c.
+
+A mob-cap is still a word in common use for a morning cap, which conceals
+the whole head of hair, and passes under the chin. It is nearly the same
+as the night-cap, that is, it is an imitation of it, so as to answer the
+purpose ("I am not drest for company"), and yet reconciling it with
+neatness and perfect purity.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+"O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!" &c.
+
+This is Shakespeare's own attestation to the truth of the idea of Hamlet
+which I have before put forth.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The spirit that I have seen,
+May be a devil: and the devil hath power
+To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps
+Out of my weakness, and my melancholy
+(As he is very potent with such spirits),
+Abuses me to damn me."
+
+See Sir Thomas Brown:--
+
+
+    "I believe ... that those apparitions and ghosts of departed
+    persons are not the wandering souls of men, but the unquiet walks
+    of devils, prompting and suggesting us unto mischief, blood, and
+    villany, instilling and stealing into our hearts, that the blessed
+    spirits are not at rest in their graves, but wander solicitous of
+    the affairs of the world."--_Relig. Med._ part. i. sect. 37.
+
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+"To be, or not to be, that is the question," &c.
+
+This speech is of absolutely universal interest,--and yet to which of all
+Shakespeare's characters could it have been appropriately given but to
+Hamlet? For Jaques it would have been too deep, and for Iago too habitual
+a communion with the heart; which in every man belongs, or ought to
+belong, to all mankind.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn
+No traveller returns."
+
+Theobald's note in defence of the supposed contradiction of this in the
+apparition of the Ghost.
+
+O miserable defender! If it be necessary to remove the apparent
+contradiction,--if it be not rather a great beauty,--surely, it were easy to
+say, that no traveller returns to this world, as to his home, or
+abiding-place.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Ha, ha! are you honest?
+
+_Oph._ My lord?
+
+_Ham._ Are you fair?"
+
+Here it is evident that the penetrating Hamlet perceives, from the strange
+and forced manner of Ophelia, that the sweet girl was not acting a part of
+her own, but was a decoy; and his after speeches are not so much directed
+to her as to the listeners and spies. Such a discovery in a mood so
+anxious and irritable accounts for a certain harshness in him;--and yet a
+wild up-working of love, sporting with opposites in a wilful
+self-tormenting strain of irony, is perceptible throughout. "I did love
+you once:"--"I lov'd you not:"--and particularly in his enumeration of the
+faults of the sex from which Ophelia is so free, that the mere freedom
+therefrom constitutes her character. Note Shakespeare's charm of composing
+the female character by the absence of characters, that is, marks and
+out-juttings.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's speech:--
+
+
+    "I say, we will have no more marriages: those that are married
+    already, all but one, shall live: the rest shall keep as they
+    are."
+
+
+Observe this dallying with the inward purpose, characteristic of one who
+had not brought his mind to the steady acting point. He would fain sting
+the uncle's mind;--but to stab his body!--The soliloquy of Ophelia, which
+follows, is the perfection of love--so exquisitely unselfish!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This dialogue of Hamlet with the players is one of the
+happiest instances of Shakespeare's power of diversifying the scene while
+he is carrying on the plot.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ My lord, you played once i' the university, you say?"
+(_To Polonius._)
+
+To have kept Hamlet's love for Ophelia before the audience in any direct
+form, would have made a breach in the unity of the interest;--but yet to
+the thoughtful reader it is suggested by his spite to poor Polonius, whom
+he cannot let rest.
+
+_Ib._ The style of the interlude here is distinguished from the real
+dialogue by rhyme, as in the first interview with the players by epic
+verse.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ros._ My lord, you once did love me.
+
+_Ham._ _So_ I do still, by these pickers and stealers."
+
+I never heard an actor give this word "so" its proper emphasis.
+Shakespeare's meaning is--"lov'd you? Hum!--_so_ I do still," &c. There has
+been no change in my opinion:--I think as ill of you as I did. Else Hamlet
+tells an ignoble falsehood, and a useless one, as the last speech to
+Guildenstern--"Why look you now," &c.--proves.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+    "Now could I drink hot blood,
+And do such business as the bitter day
+Would quake to look on."
+
+The utmost at which Hamlet arrives, is a disposition, a mood, to do
+something:--but what to do, is still left undecided, while every word he
+utters tends to betray his disguise. Yet observe how perfectly equal to
+any call of the moment is Hamlet, let it only not be for the future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Polonius. Polonius's volunteer obtrusion of himself
+into this business, while it is appropriate to his character, still
+itching after former importance, removes all likelihood that Hamlet should
+suspect his presence, and prevents us from making his death injure Hamlet
+in our opinion.
+
+_Ib._ The king's speech:--
+
+"O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven," &c.
+
+This speech well marks the difference between crime and guilt of habit.
+The conscience here is still admitted to audience. Nay, even as an audible
+soliloquy, it is far less improbable than is supposed by such as have
+watched men only in the beaten road of their feelings. But the final--"all
+may be well!" is remarkable;--the degree of merit attributed by the
+self-flattering soul to its own struggle, though baffled, and to the
+indefinite half-promise, half-command, to persevere in religious duties.
+The solution is in the divine _medium_ of the Christian doctrine of
+expiation:--not what you have done, but what you are, must determine.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's speech:--
+
+"Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying:
+And now I'll do't:--And so he goes to heaven:
+And so am I revenged? That would be scann'd," &c.
+
+Dr. Johnson's mistaking of the marks of reluctance and procrastination for
+impetuous, horror-striking, fiendishness!--Of such importance is it to
+understand the germ of a character. But the interval taken by Hamlet's
+speech is truly awful! And then--
+
+"My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:
+Words, without thoughts, never to heaven go."
+
+O what a lesson concerning the essential difference between wishing and
+willing, and the folly of all motive-mongering, while the individual self
+remains!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Ham._ A bloody deed;--almost as bad, good mother,
+As kill a king, and marry with his brother.
+
+_Queen._ As kill a king?"
+
+I confess that Shakespeare has left the character of the Queen in an
+unpleasant perplexity. Was she, or was she not, conscious of the
+fratricide?
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+"_Ros._ Take you me for a spunge, my lord?
+
+_Ham._ Ay, Sir; that soaks up the King's countenance, his
+rewards, his authorities," &c.
+
+Hamlet's madness is made to consist in the free utterance of all the
+thoughts that had passed through his mind before;--in fact, in telling
+home-truths.
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Ophelia's singing. O, note the conjunction here of these
+two thoughts that had never subsisted in disjunction, the love for Hamlet,
+and her filial love, with the guileless floating on the surface of her
+pure imagination of the cautions so lately expressed, and the fears not
+too delicately avowed, by her father and brother, concerning the dangers
+to which her honour lay exposed. Thought, affliction, passion, murder
+itself--she turns to favour and prettiness. This play of association is
+instanced in the close:--
+
+
+    "My brother shall know of it, and I thank you for your good
+    counsel."
+
+
+_Ib._ Gentleman's speech:--
+
+"And as the world were now but to begin
+Antiquity forgot, custom not known,
+The ratifiers and props of every word--
+They cry," &c.
+
+Fearful and self-suspicious as I always feel, when I seem to see an error
+of judgment in Shakespeare, yet I cannot reconcile the cool, and, as
+Warburton calls it, "rational and consequential," reflection in these
+lines with the anonymousness, or the alarm, of this Gentleman or
+Messenger, as he is called in other editions.
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"There's such divinity doth hedge a king,
+That treason can but peep to what it would,
+Acts little of his will."
+
+Proof, as indeed all else is, that Shakespeare never intended us to see
+the King with Hamlet's eyes; though, I suspect, the managers have long
+done so.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Laertes:--
+
+"To hell, allegiance! vows, to the blackest devil!"
+
+
+    "Laertes is a _good_ character, but," &c.--WARBURTON.
+
+
+Mercy on Warburton's notion of goodness! Please to refer to the seventh
+scene of this act;--
+
+"I will do't;
+And for that purpose I'll anoint my sword," &c.--
+
+uttered by Laertes after the King's description of Hamlet;--
+
+          ... "He being remiss,
+Most generous, and free from all contriving,
+Will not peruse the foils."
+
+Yet I acknowledge that Shakespeare evidently wishes, as much as possible,
+to spare the character of Laertes,--to break the extreme turpitude of his
+consent to become an agent and accomplice of the King's treachery;--and to
+this end he re-introduces Ophelia at the close of this scene to afford a
+probable stimulus of passion in her brother.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Hamlet's capture by the pirates. This is almost the only play
+of Shakespeare, in which mere accidents, independent of all will, form an
+essential part of the plot;--but here how judiciously in keeping with the
+character of the over-meditative Hamlet, ever at last determined by
+accident or by a fit of passion!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Note how the King first awakens Laertes's vanity by praising
+the reporter, and then gratifies it by the report itself, and finally
+points it by--
+
+          ... "Sir, this report of his
+Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy!"
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"For goodness, growing to a _pleurisy_,
+Dies in his own too much."
+
+Theobald's note from Warburton, who conjectures "plethory."
+
+I rather think that Shakespeare meant "pleurisy," but involved in it the
+thought of _plethora_, as supposing pleurisy to arise from too much blood;
+otherwise I cannot explain the following line--
+
+"And then this _should_ is like a spendthrift sigh,
+That hurts by easing."
+
+In a stitch in the side every one must have heaved a sigh that "hurt by
+easing."
+
+Since writing the above I feel confirmed that "pleurisy" is the right
+word; for I find that in the old medical dictionaries the pleurisy is
+often called the "plethory."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Queen._ Your sister's drown'd, Laertes.
+
+_Laer._ Drown'd! O, where?"
+
+That Laertes might be excused in some degree for not cooling, the Act
+concludes with the affecting death of Ophelia,--who in the beginning lay
+like a little projection of land into a lake or stream, covered with
+spray-flowers, quietly reflected in the quiet waters, but at length is
+undermined or loosened, and becomes a faery isle, and after a brief
+vagrancy sinks almost without an eddy!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. O, the rich contrast between the Clowns and Hamlet, as two
+extremes! You see in the former the mockery of logic, and a traditional
+wit valued, like truth, for its antiquity, and treasured up, like a tune,
+for use.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 1 and 2. Shakespeare seems to mean all Hamlet's character to be
+brought together before his final disappearance from the scene;--his
+meditative excess in the grave-digging, his yielding to passion with
+Laertes, his love for Ophelia blazing out, his tendency to generalise on
+all occasions in the dialogue with Horatio, his fine gentlemanly manners
+with Osrick, and his and Shakespeare's own fondness for presentment:--
+
+
+    "But thou wouldst not think, how ill all's here about my heart:
+    but it is no matter."
+
+
+
+
+"Macbeth."
+
+
+"Macbeth" stands in contrast throughout with _Hamlet_; in the manner of
+opening more especially. In the latter, there is a gradual ascent from the
+simplest forms of conversation to the language of impassioned
+intellect,--yet the intellect still remaining the seat of passion: in the
+former, the invocation is at once made to the imagination and the emotions
+connected therewith. Hence the movement throughout is the most rapid of
+all Shakespeare's plays; and hence also, with the exception of the
+disgusting passage of the Porter (Act ii. sc. 3), which I dare pledge
+myself to demonstrate to be an interpolation of the actors, there is not,
+to the best of my remembrance, a single pun or play on words in the whole
+drama. I have previously given an answer to the thousand times repeated
+charge against Shakespeare upon the subject of his punning, and I here
+merely mention the fact of the absence of any puns in _Macbeth_, as
+justifying a candid doubt, at least, whether even in these figures of
+speech and fanciful modifications of language, Shakespeare may not have
+followed rules and principles that merit and would stand the test of
+philosophic examination. And hence, also, there is an entire absence of
+comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic contemplation in _Macbeth_,--the
+play being wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause, there are no
+reasonings of equivocal morality, which would have required a more
+leisurely state and a consequently greater activity of mind;--no sophistry
+of self-delusion,--except only that previously to the dreadful act, Macbeth
+mistranslates the recoilings and ominous whispers of conscience into
+prudential and selfish reasonings; and, after the deed done, the terrors
+of remorse into fear from external dangers,--like delirious men who run
+away from the phantoms of their own brains, or, raised by terror to rage,
+stab the real object that is within their reach:--whilst Lady Macbeth
+merely endeavours to reconcile his and her own sinkings of heart by
+anticipations of the worst, and an affected bravado in confronting them.
+In all the rest, Macbeth's language is the grave utterance of the very
+heart, conscience-sick, even to the last faintings of moral death. It is
+the same in all the other characters. The variety arises from rage, caused
+ever and anon by disruption of anxious thought, and the quick transition
+of fear into it.
+
+In _Hamlet_ and _Macbeth_ the scene opens with superstition; but, in each
+it is not merely different, but opposite. In the first it is connected
+with the best and holiest feelings; in the second with the shadowy,
+turbulent, and unsanctified cravings of the individual will. Nor is the
+purpose the same; in the one the object is to excite, whilst in the other
+it is to mark a mind already excited. Superstition, of one sort or
+another, is natural to victorious generals; the instances are too
+notorious to need mentioning. There is so much of chance in warfare, and
+such vast events are connected with the acts of a single individual,--the
+representative, in truth, of the efforts of myriads, and yet to the
+public, and doubtless to his own feelings, the aggregate of all,--that the
+proper temperament for generating or receiving superstitious impressions
+is naturally produced. Hope, the master element of a commanding genius,
+meeting with an active and combining intellect, and an imagination of just
+that degree of vividness which disquiets and impels the soul to try to
+realise its images, greatly increases the creative power of the mind; and
+hence the images become a satisfying world of themselves, as is the case
+in every poet and original philosopher:--but hope fully gratified, and yet
+the elementary basis of the passion remaining, becomes fear; and, indeed,
+the general, who must often feel, even though he may hide it from his own
+consciousness, how large a share chance had in his successes, may very
+naturally be irresolute in a new scene, where he knows that all will
+depend on his own act and election.
+
+The Weird Sisters are as true a creation of Shakespeare's, as his Ariel
+and Caliban,--fates, furies, and materialising witches being the elements.
+They are wholly different from any representation of witches in the
+contemporary writers, and yet presented a sufficient external resemblance
+to the creatures of vulgar prejudice to act immediately on the audience.
+Their character consists in the imaginative disconnected from the good;
+they are the shadowy obscure and fearfully anomalous of physical nature,
+the lawless of human nature,--elemental avengers without sex or kin:--
+
+"Fair is foul, and foul is fair;
+Hover through the fog and filthy air."
+
+How much it were to be wished in playing _Macbeth_, that an attempt should
+be made to introduce the flexile character-mask of the ancient
+pantomime;--that Flaxman would contribute his genius to the embodying and
+making sensuously perceptible that of Shakespeare!
+
+The style and rhythm of the Captain's speeches in the second scene should
+be illustrated by reference to the interlude in _Hamlet_, in which the
+epic is substituted for the tragic, in order to make the latter be felt as
+the real-life diction. In _Macbeth_ the poet's object was to raise the
+mind at once to the high tragic tone, that the audience might be ready for
+the precipitate consummation of guilt in the early part of the play. The
+true reason for the first appearance of the Witches is to strike the
+key-note of the character of the whole drama, as is proved by their
+re-appearance in the third scene, after such an order of the king's as
+establishes their supernatural power of information. I say
+information,--for so it only is as to Glamis and Cawdor; the "king
+hereafter" was still contingent,--still in Macbeth's moral will; although,
+if he should yield to the temptation, and thus forfeit his free agency,
+the link of cause and effect _more physico_ would then commence. I need
+not say, that the general idea is all that can be required from the
+poet,--not a scholastic logical consistency in all the parts so as to meet
+metaphysical objectors. But O! how truly Shakespearian is the opening of
+Macbeth's character given in the _unpossessedness_ of Banquo's mind,
+wholly present to the present object,--an unsullied, unscarified mirror!
+And how strictly true to nature it is that Banquo, and not Macbeth
+himself, directs our notice to the effect produced on Macbeth's mind,
+rendered temptible by previous dalliance of the fancy with ambitious
+thoughts:--
+
+"Good Sir, why do you start; and seem to fear
+Things that do sound so fair?"
+
+And then, again, still unintroitive, addresses the Witches:--
+
+      ... "I' the name of truth,
+Are ye fantastical, or that indeed
+Which outwardly ye show?"
+
+Banquo's questions are those of natural curiosity,--such as a girl would
+put after hearing a gipsy tell her schoolfellow's fortune;--all perfectly
+general, or rather, planless. But Macbeth, lost in thought, raises himself
+to speech only by the Witches being about to depart:--
+
+"Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more:"--
+
+and all that follows is reasoning on a problem already discussed in his
+mind,--on a hope which he welcomes, and the doubts concerning the
+attainment of which he wishes to have cleared up. Compare his
+eagerness,--the keen eye with which he has pursued the Witches' evanishing--
+
+"Speak, I charge you!"
+
+with the easily satisfied mind of the self-uninterested Banquo:--
+
+"The air hath bubbles, as the water has,
+And these are of them:--Whither are they vanish'd?"
+
+and then Macbeth's earnest reply,--
+
+"Into the air; and what seem'd corporal, melted
+As breath into the wind.--_Would they had stay'd!_"
+
+Is it too minute to notice the appropriateness of the simile "as breath,"
+&c., in a cold climate?
+
+Still again Banquo goes on wondering like any common spectator,--
+
+"Were such things here as we do speak about?"
+
+whilst Macbeth persists in recurring to the self-concerning:--
+
+"Your children shall be kings.
+
+_Ban._ You shall be king.
+
+_Macb._ And thane of Cawdor too: went it not so?"
+
+So surely is the guilt in its germ anterior to the supposed cause, and
+immediate temptation! Before he can cool, the confirmation of the tempting
+half of the prophecy arrives, and the concatenating tendency of the
+imagination is fostered by the sudden coincidence:--
+
+"Glamis, and thane of Cawdor:
+The greatest is behind."
+
+Oppose this to Banquo's simple surprise:--
+
+"What, can the devil speak true?"
+
+_Ib._ Banquo's speech:--
+
+"That, trusted home,
+Might yet enkindle you unto the crown,
+Besides the thane of Cawdor."
+
+I doubt whether "enkindle" has not another sense than that of
+"stimulating;" I mean of "kind" and "kin," as when rabbits are said to
+"kindle." However, Macbeth no longer hears anything _ab extra_:--
+
+"Two truths are told,
+As happy prologues to the swelling act
+Of the imperial theme."
+
+Then in the necessity of recollecting himself,--
+
+"I thank you, gentlemen."
+
+Then he relapses into himself again, and every word of his soliloquy shows
+the early birth-date of his guilt. He is all-powerful without strength; he
+wishes the end, but is irresolute as to the means; conscience distinctly
+warns him, and he lulls it imperfectly:--
+
+"If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me
+Without my stir."
+
+Lost in the prospective of his guilt, he turns round alarmed lest others
+may suspect what is passing in his own mind, and instantly vents the lie
+of ambition:--
+
+"My dull brain was wrought
+With things _forgotten_;"--
+
+and immediately after pours forth the promising courtesies of a usurper in
+intention:--
+
+        ... "Kind gentlemen, your pains
+Are register'd where every day I turn
+The leaf to read them."
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth's speech:--
+
+          ... "Present _fears_
+Are less than horrible imaginings."
+
+Warburton's note, and substitution of "feats" for "fears."
+
+Mercy on this most wilful ingenuity of blundering, which, nevertheless,
+was the very Warburton of Warburton--his inmost being! "Fears," here, are
+present fear-striking objects, _terribilia adstantia_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. O! the affecting beauty of the death of Cawdor, and the
+presentimental speech of the king:--
+
+"There's no art
+To find the mind's construction in the face:
+He was a gentleman on whom I built
+An absolute trust."
+
+Interrupted by--
+
+"O worthiest cousin!"
+
+on the entrance of the deeper traitor for whom Cawdor had made way! And
+here in contrast with Duncan's "plenteous joys," Macbeth has nothing but
+the common-places of loyalty, in which he hides himself with "our duties."
+Note the exceeding effort of Macbeth's addresses to the king, his
+reasoning on his allegiance, and then especially when a new difficulty,
+the designation of a successor, suggests a new crime. This, however, seems
+the first distinct notion, as to the plan of realising his wishes; and
+here, therefore, with great propriety, Macbeth's cowardice of his own
+conscience discloses itself. I always think there is something especially
+Shakespearian in Duncan's speeches throughout this scene, such pourings
+forth, such abandonments, compared with the language of vulgar dramatists,
+whose characters seem to have made their speeches as the actors learn
+them.
+
+_Ib:_ Duncan's speech:--
+
+          ... "Sons, kinsmen, thanes,
+And you whose places are the nearest, know,
+We will establish our estate upon
+Our eldest Malcolm, whom we name hereafter
+The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must
+Not unaccompanied, invest him only;
+But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine
+On all deservers."
+
+It is a fancy;--but I can never read this and the following speeches of
+Macbeth, without involuntarily thinking of the Miltonic Messiah and Satan.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Macbeth is described by Lady Macbeth so as at the same time
+to reveal her own character. Could he have every thing he wanted, he would
+rather have it innocently;--ignorant, as alas! how many of us are, that he
+who wishes a temporal end for itself, does in truth will the means; and
+hence the danger of indulging fancies.
+
+Lady Macbeth, like all in Shakespeare, is a class individualised:--of high
+rank, left much alone, and feeding herself with day-dreams of ambition,
+she mistakes the courage of fantasy for the power of bearing the
+consequences of the realities of guilt. His is the mock fortitude of a
+mind deluded by ambition; she shames her husband with a superhuman
+audacity of fancy which she cannot support, but sinks in the season of
+remorse, and dies in suicidal agony. Her speech:--
+
+          ... "Come, you spirits
+That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here," &c.--
+
+is that of one who had habitually familiarised her imagination to dreadful
+conceptions, and was trying to do so still more. Her invocations and
+requisitions are all the false efforts of a mind accustomed only hitherto
+to the shadows of the imagination, vivid enough to throw the every-day
+substances of life into shadow, but never as yet brought into direct
+contact with their own correspondent realities. She evinces no womanly
+life, no wifely joy, at the return of her husband, no pleased terror at
+the thought of his past dangers, whilst Macbeth bursts forth naturally--
+
+"My dearest love"--
+
+and shrinks from the boldness with which she presents his own thoughts to
+him. With consummate art she at first uses as incentives the very
+circumstances, Duncan's coming to their house, &c., which Macbeth's
+conscience would most probably have adduced to her as motives of
+abhorrence or repulsion. Yet Macbeth is not prepared:--
+
+"We will speak further."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. The lyrical movement with which this scene opens, and the
+free and unengaged mind of Banquo, loving nature, and rewarded in the love
+itself, form a highly dramatic contrast with the laboured rhythm and
+hypocritical over-much of Lady Macbeth's welcome, in which you cannot
+detect a ray of personal feeling, but all is thrown upon the "dignities,"
+the general duty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"We will proceed no further in this business:
+He hath honour'd me of late; and I have bought
+Golden opinions from all sorts of people,
+Which would be worn now in their newest gloss,
+Not cast aside so soon."
+
+Note the inward pangs and warnings of conscience interpreted into
+prudential reasonings.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Banquo's speech:--
+
+"A heavy summons lies like lead upon me,
+And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers!
+Restrain in me the cursed thoughts, that nature
+Gives way to in repose."
+
+The disturbance of an innocent soul by painful suspicions of another's
+guilty intentions and wishes, and fear of the cursed thoughts of sensual
+nature.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Now that the deed is done or doing--now that the first reality
+commences, Lady Macbeth shrinks. The most simple sound strikes terror, the
+most natural consequences are horrible, whilst previously every thing,
+however awful, appeared a mere trifle; conscience, which before had been
+hidden to Macbeth in selfish and prudential fears, now rushes in upon him
+in her own veritable person:--
+
+"Methought I heard a voice cry--Sleep no more!
+          I could not say Amen,
+When they did say, God bless us!"
+
+And see the novelty given to the most familiar images by a new state of
+feeling.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This low soliloquy of the Porter and his few speeches
+afterwards, I believe to have been written for the mob by some other hand,
+perhaps with Shakespeare's consent; and that finding it take, he with the
+remaining ink of a pen otherwise employed, just interpolated the words--
+
+
+    "I'll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in
+    some of all professions, that go the primrose way to the
+    everlasting bonfire."
+
+
+Of the rest not one syllable has the ever-present being of Shakespeare.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Compare Macbeth's mode of working on the murderers in this
+place with Schiller's mistaken scene between Butler, Devereux, and
+Macdonald in _Wallenstein_.--(Part II. act iv. sc. 2.) The comic was wholly
+out of season. Shakespeare never introduces it, but when it may react on
+the tragedy by harmonious contrast.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,
+Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep
+In the affliction of these terrible dreams
+That shake us nightly."
+
+Ever and ever mistaking the anguish of conscience for fears of
+selfishness, and thus as a punishment of that selfishness, plunging still
+deeper in guilt and ruin.
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck,
+Till thou applaud the deed."
+
+This is Macbeth's sympathy with his own feelings, and his mistaking his
+wife's opposite state.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Macb._ It will have blood; they say, blood will have blood:
+Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak;
+Augurs, and understood relations, have
+By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth
+The secret'st man of blood."
+
+The deed is done; but Macbeth receives no comfort, no additional security.
+He has by guilt torn himself live-asunder from nature, and is, therefore,
+himself in a preternatural state: no wonder, then, that he is inclined to
+superstition, and faith in the unknown of signs and tokens, and
+super-human agencies.
+
+Act iv. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Len._ 'Tis two or three, my lord, that bring you word
+Macduff is fled to England.
+
+_Macb._ Fled to England!"
+
+The acme of the avenging conscience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a relief, because a
+variety, because domestic, and therefore soothing, as associated with the
+only real pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady Macduff and her
+child heightens the pathos, and is preparatory for the deep tragedy of
+their assassination. Shakespeare's fondness for children is everywhere
+shown;--in Prince Arthur, in _King John_; in the sweet scene in the
+_Winter's Tale_ between Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest Evans's
+examination of Mrs. Page's schoolboy. To the objection that Shakespeare
+wounds the moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised description of the
+most hateful atrocity--that he tears the feelings without mercy, and even
+outrages the eye itself with scenes of insupportable horror--I, omitting
+_Titus Andronicus_, as not genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster's
+blinding in _Lear_, answer boldly in the name of Shakespeare, not guilty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Malcolm's speech:--
+
+         ... "Better Macbeth,
+Than such an one to reign."
+
+The moral is--the dreadful effects even on the best minds of the
+soul-sickening sense of insecurity.
+
+_Ib._ How admirably Macduff's grief is in harmony with the whole play! It
+rends, not dissolves, the heart. "The tune of it goes manly." Thus is
+Shakespeare always master of himself and of his subject,--a genuine
+Proteus:--we see all things in him, as images in a calm lake, most
+distinct, most accurate,--only more splendid, more glorified. This is
+correctness in the only philosophical sense. But he requires your sympathy
+and your submission; you must have that recipiency of moral impression
+without which the purposes and ends of the drama would be frustrated, and
+the absence of which demonstrates an utter want of all imagination, a
+deadness to that necessary pleasure of being innocently--shall I say,
+deluded?--or rather, drawn away from ourselves to the music of noblest
+thought in harmonious sounds. Happy he, who not only in the public
+theatre, but in the labours of a profession, and round the light of his
+own hearth, still carries a heart so pleasure-fraught!
+
+Alas for Macbeth! now all is inward with him; he has no more prudential
+prospective reasonings. His wife, the only being who could have had any
+seat in his affections, dies; he puts on despondency, the final
+heart-armour of the wretched, and would fain think every thing shadowy and
+unsubstantial, as indeed all things are to those who cannot regard them as
+symbols of goodness:--
+
+          "Out, out, brief candle!
+Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,
+That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
+And then is heard no more; it is a tale
+Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
+Signifying nothing."
+
+
+
+
+"Winter's Tale."
+
+
+Although, on the whole, this play is exquisitely respondent to its title,
+and even in the fault I am about to mention, still a winter's tale; yet it
+seems a mere indolence of the great bard not to have provided in the
+oracular response (Act ii. sc. 2.) some ground for Hermione's seeming
+death and fifteen years' voluntary concealment. This might have been
+easily effected by some obscure sentence of the oracle, as for example:--
+
+
+    " 'Nor shall he ever recover an heir, if he have a wife before
+    that recovery.' "
+
+
+The idea of this delightful drama is a genuine jealousy of disposition,
+and it should be immediately followed by the perusal of _Othello_, which
+is the direct contrast of it in every particular. For jealousy is a vice
+of the mind, a culpable tendency of the temper, having certain well-known
+and well-defined effects and concomitants, all of which are visible in
+Leontes, and, I boldly say, not one of which marks its presence in
+Othello;--such as, first, an excitability by the most inadequate causes,
+and an eagerness to snatch at proofs; secondly, a grossness of conception,
+and a disposition to degrade the object of the passion by sensual fancies
+and images; thirdly, a sense of shame of his own feelings exhibited in a
+solitary moodiness of humour, and yet from the violence of the passion
+forced to utter itself, and therefore catching occasions to ease the mind
+by ambiguities, equivoques, by talking to those who cannot, and who are
+known not to be able to, understand what is said to them,--in short, by
+soliloquy in the form of dialogue, and hence a confused, broken, and
+fragmentary, manner; fourthly, a dread of vulgar ridicule, as distinct
+from a high sense of honour, or a mistaken sense of duty; and lastly, and
+immediately, consequent on this, a spirit of selfish vindictiveness.
+
+Act i. sc. 1, 2.--
+
+Observe the easy style of chitchat between Camillo and Archidamus as
+contrasted with the elevated diction on the introduction of the kings and
+Hermione in the second scene: and how admirably Polixenes' obstinate
+refusal to Leontes to stay,--
+
+"There is no tongue that moves; none, none i' the world
+So soon as yours, could win me;"--
+
+prepares for the effect produced by his afterwards yielding to
+Hermione;--which is, nevertheless, perfectly natural from mere courtesy of
+sex, and the exhaustion of the will by former efforts of denial, and well
+calculated to set in nascent action the jealousy of Leontes. This, when
+once excited, is unconsciously increased by Hermione,--
+
+          ... "Yet, good deed, Leontes,
+I love thee not a jar o' the clock behind
+What lady she her lord;"--
+
+accompanied, as a good actress ought to represent it, by an expression and
+recoil of apprehension that she had gone too far.
+
+"At my request, he would not:"--
+
+The first working of the jealous fit;--
+
+"Too hot, too hot:"--
+
+The morbid tendency of Leontes to lay hold of the merest trifles, and his
+grossness immediately afterwards,--
+
+"Paddling palms and pinching fingers;"--
+
+followed by his strange loss of self-control in his dialogue with the
+little boy.
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Paulina's speech:--
+
+"That thou betray'dst Polixenes, 'twas nothing;
+That did but show thee, of a _fool_, inconstant,
+And damnable ingrateful."
+
+Theobald reads "soul."
+
+I think the original word is Shakespeare's. 1. My ear feels it to be
+Shakespearian; 2. The involved grammar is Shakespearian--"show thee, being
+a fool naturally, to have improved thy folly by inconstancy;" 3. The
+alteration is most flat, and un-Shakespearian. As to the grossness of the
+abuse--she calls him "gross and foolish" a few lines below.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Autolycus:--
+
+"For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it."
+
+Fine as this is, and delicately characteristic of one who had lived and
+been reared in the best society, and had been precipitated from it by dice
+and drabbing; yet still it strikes against my feelings as a note out of
+tune, and as not coalescing with that pastoral tint which gives such a
+charm to this act. It is too Macbeth-like in the "snapper up of
+unconsidered trifles."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Perdita's speech:--
+
+"From Dis's waggon! daffodils."
+
+An epithet is wanted here, not merely or chiefly for the metre, but for
+the balance, for the æsthetic logic. Perhaps "golden" was the word which
+would set off the "violets dim."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+          ... "Pale primroses
+That die unmarried."
+
+Milton's--
+
+"And the rathe primrose that forsaken dies."
+
+_Ib._ Perdita's speech:--
+
+"Even here undone:
+I was not much afraid; for once or twice
+I was about to speak, and tell him plainly,
+The self-same sun, that shines upon his court,
+Hides not his visage from our cottage, but
+Looks on alike. Will't please you, Sir, be gone!
+          (_To Florizel._)
+I told you, what would come of this. Beseech you,
+Of your own state take care: this dream of mine,
+Being now awake, I'll queen it no inch farther,
+But milk my ewes, and weep."
+
+O how more than exquisite is this whole speech! And that profound nature
+of noble pride and grief venting themselves in a momentary peevishness of
+resentment toward Florizel:--
+
+... "Will't please you, Sir, be gone!"
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Autolycus:--
+
+
+    "Let me have no lying; it becomes none but tradesmen, and they
+    often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them for it with
+    stamped coin, not stabbing steel;--therefore they do not _give_ us
+    the lie."
+
+
+As we _pay_ them, they, therefore, do not _give_ it us.
+
+
+
+
+"Othello."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+Admirable is the preparation, so truly and peculiarly Shakespearian, in
+the introduction of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first
+exercise his art, and in so doing display his own character. Roderigo,
+without any fixed principle, but not without the moral notions and
+sympathies with honour, which his rank and connections had hung upon him,
+is already well fitted and predisposed for the purpose; for very want of
+character and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an empty house,
+constitute his character. The first three lines happily state the nature
+and foundation of the friendship between him and Iago,--the purse,--as also
+the contrast of Roderigo's intemperance of mind with Iago's coolness,--the
+coolness of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere language of
+protestation,--
+
+"If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor me,"--
+
+which, falling in with the associative link, determines Roderigo's
+continuation of complaint,--
+
+"Thou told'st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate,"--
+
+elicits at length a true feeling of Iago's mind, the dread of contempt
+habitual to those who encourage in themselves, and have their keenest
+pleasure in, the expression of contempt for others. Observe Iago's high
+self-opinion, and the moral, that a wicked man will employ real feelings,
+as well as assume those most alien from his own, as instruments of his
+purposes:--
+
+          "And, by the faith of man,
+I know my price, I am worth no worse a place."
+
+I think Tyrwhitt's reading of "life" for "wife"--
+
+"A fellow almost damn'd in a fair _wife_"--
+
+the true one, as fitting to Iago's contempt for whatever did not display
+power, and that intellectual power. In what follows, let the reader feel
+how by and through the glass of two passions, disappointed vanity and
+envy, the very vices of which he is complaining, are made to act upon him
+as if they were so many excellences, and the more appropriately, because
+cunning is always admired and wished for by minds conscious of inward
+weakness;--but they act only by half, like music on an inattentive auditor,
+swelling the thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Rod._ What a full fortune does the _thick-lips_ owe,
+If he can carry 't thus."
+
+Roderigo turns off to Othello; and here comes one, if not the only,
+seeming justification of our blackamoor or negro Othello. Even if we
+supposed this an uninterrupted tradition of the theatre, and that
+Shakespeare himself, from want of scenes, and the experience that nothing
+could be made too marked for the senses of his audience, had practically
+sanctioned it,--would this prove aught concerning his own intention as a
+poet for all ages? Can we imagine him so utterly ignorant as to make a
+barbarous negro plead royal birth,--at a time, too, when negroes were not
+known except as slaves? As for Iago's language to Brabantio, it implies
+merely that Othello was a Moor,--that is, black. Though I think the rivalry
+of Roderigo sufficient to account for his wilful confusion of Moor and
+Negro,--yet, even if compelled to give this up, I should think it only
+adapted for the acting of the day, and should complain of an enormity
+built on a single word, in direct contradiction to Iago's "Barbary horse."
+Besides, if we could in good earnest believe Shakespeare ignorant of the
+distinction, still why should we adopt one disagreeable possibility
+instead of a ten times greater and more pleasing probability? It is a
+common error to mistake the epithets applied by the _dramatis personæ_ to
+each other, as truly descriptive of what the audience ought to see or
+know. No doubt Desdemona saw Othello's visage in his mind; yet, as we are
+constituted, and most surely as an English audience was disposed in the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, it would be something monstrous to
+conceive this beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable
+negro. It would argue a disproportionateness, a want of balance, in
+Desdemona, which Shakespeare does not appear to have in the least
+contemplated.
+
+_Ib._ Brabantio's speech:--
+
+"This accident is not unlike my dream."
+
+The old careful senator, being caught careless, transfers his caution to
+his dreaming power at least.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's speech:--
+
+          ... "For their souls,
+Another of his fathom they have not,
+To lead their business."
+
+The forced praise of Othello, followed by the bitter hatred of him in this
+speech! And observe how Brabantio's dream prepares for his recurrence to
+the notion of philtres, and how both prepare for carrying on the plot of
+the arraignment of Othello on this ground.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Oth._ 'Tis better as it is."
+
+How well these few words impress at the outset the truth of Othello's own
+character of himself at the end--"that he was not easily wrought!" His
+self-government contradistinguishes him throughout from Leontes.
+
+_Ib._ Othello's speech:--
+
+          ... "And my demerits
+May speak, _unbonneted_."
+
+The argument in Theobald's note, where "and bonneted" is suggested, goes
+on the assumption that Shakespeare could not use the same word differently
+in different places; whereas I should conclude, that as in the passage in
+_Lear_ the word is employed in its direct meaning, so here it is used
+metaphorically; and this is confirmed by what has escaped the editors,
+that it is not "I," but "my demerits" that may speak unbonneted,--without
+the symbol of a petitioning inferior.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello's speech:--
+
+"So please your grace, my ancient;
+A man he is of honesty and trust:
+To his conveyance I assign my wife."
+
+Compare this with the behaviour of Leontes to his true friend Camillo.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Bra._ Look to her, Moor; if thou hast eyes to see;
+She has deceived her father, and may thee.
+
+_Oth._ My life upon her faith."
+
+In real life, how do we look back to little speeches as presentimental of,
+or contrasted with, an affecting event! Even so, Shakespeare, as secure of
+being read over and over, of becoming a family friend, provides this
+passage for his readers, and leaves it to them.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's speech:--
+
+"Virtue? a fig! 'tis in ourselves, that we are thus, or thus," &c.
+
+This speech comprises the passionless character of Iago. It is all will in
+intellect; and therefore he is here a bold partizan of a truth, but yet of
+a truth converted into a falsehood by the absence of all the necessary
+modifications caused by the frail nature of man. And then comes the last
+sentiment:--
+
+
+    "Our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts,
+    whereof I take this, that you call--love, to be a sect or scion!"
+
+
+Here is the true Iagoism of, alas! how many! Note Iago's pride of mastery
+in the repetition of "Go, make money!" to his anticipated dupe, even
+stronger than his love of lucre: and when Roderigo is completely won,--
+
+"I am chang'd. I'll go sell all my land,"--
+
+when the effect has been fully produced, the repetition of triumph:--
+
+"Go to; farewell; put money enough in your purse!"
+
+The remainder--Iago's soliloquy--the motive-hunting of a motiveless
+malignity--how awful it is! Yea, whilst he is still allowed to bear the
+divine image, it is too fiendish for his own steady view,--for the lonely
+gaze of a being next to devil, and only not quite devil,--and yet a
+character which Shakespeare has attempted and executed, without disgust
+and without scandal!
+
+Dr. Johnson has remarked that little or nothing is wanting to render the
+_Othello_ a regular tragedy, but to have opened the play with the arrival
+of Othello in Cyprus, and to have thrown the preceding act into the form
+of narration. Here then is the place to determine whether such a change
+would or would not be an improvement;--nay (to throw down the glove with a
+full challenge), whether the tragedy would or not by such an arrangement
+become more regular,--that is, more consonant with the rules dictated by
+universal reason, on the true common-sense of mankind, in its application
+to the particular case. For in all acts of judgment, it can never be too
+often recollected, and scarcely too often repeated, that rules are means
+to ends, and, consequently, that the end must be determined and understood
+before it can be known what the rules are or ought to be. Now, from a
+certain species of drama, proposing to itself the accomplishment of
+certain ends,--these partly arising from the idea of the species itself,
+but in part, likewise, forced upon the dramatist by accidental
+circumstances beyond his power to remove or control,--three rules have been
+abstracted;--in other words, the means most conducive to the attainment of
+the proposed ends have been generalised, and prescribed under the names of
+the three unities,--the unity of time, the unity of place, and the unity of
+action--which last would, perhaps, have been as appropriately, as well as
+more intelligibly, entitled the unity of interest. With this last the
+present question has no immediate concern: in fact, its conjunction with
+the former two is a mere delusion of words. It is not properly a rule, but
+in itself the great end not only of the drama, but of the epic poem, the
+lyric ode, of all poetry, down to the candle-flame cone of an
+epigram,--nay, of poesy in general, as the proper generic term inclusive of
+all the fine arts as its species. But of the unities of time and place,
+which alone are entitled to the name of rules, the history of their origin
+will be their best criterion. You might take the Greek chorus to a place,
+but you could not bring a place to them without as palpable an equivoque
+as bringing Birnam wood to Macbeth at Dunsinane. It was the same, though
+in a less degree, with regard to the unity of time:--the positive fact, not
+for a moment removed from the senses, the presence, I mean, of the same
+identical chorus, was a continued measure of time;--and although the
+imagination may supersede perception, yet it must be granted to be an
+imperfection--however easily tolerated--to place the two in broad
+contradiction to each other. In truth, it is a mere accident of terms; for
+the Trilogy of the Greek theatre was a drama in three acts, and
+notwithstanding this, what strange contrivances as to place there are in
+the Aristophanic Frogs. Besides, if the law of mere actual perception is
+once violated--as it repeatedly is, even in the Greek tragedies--why is it
+more difficult to imagine three hours to be three years than to be a whole
+day and night?
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+Observe in how many ways Othello is made, first, our acquaintance, then
+our friend, then the object of our anxiety, before the deeper interest is
+to be approached!
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mont._ But, good lieutenant, is your general wived?
+
+_Cas._ Most fortunately: he hath achieved a maid
+That paragons description, and wild fame;
+One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens,
+And, in the essential vesture of creation,
+Does tire the ingener."
+
+Here is Cassio's warm-hearted, yet perfectly disengaged, praise of
+Desdemona, and sympathy with the "most fortunately" wived Othello;--and yet
+Cassio is an enthusiastic admirer, almost a worshipper, of Desdemona. Oh,
+that detestable code that excellence cannot be loved in any form that is
+female, but it must needs be selfish! Observe Othello's "honest" and
+Cassio's "bold" Iago, and Cassio's full guileless-hearted wishes for the
+safety and love-raptures of Othello and "the divine Desdemona." And also
+note the exquisite circumstance of Cassio's kissing Iago's wife, as if it
+ought to be impossible that the dullest auditor should not feel Cassio's
+religious love of Desdemona's purity. Iago's answers are the sneers which
+a proud bad intellect feels towards women, and expresses to a wife. Surely
+it ought to be considered a very exalted compliment to women, that all the
+sarcasms on them in Shakespeare are put in the mouths of villains.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Des._ I am not merry; but I do beguile," &c.
+
+The struggle of courtesy in Desdemona to abstract her attention.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+
+    "(_Iago aside_). He takes her by the palm: Ay, well said, whisper;
+    with as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as
+    Cassio. Ay, smile upon her, do," &c.
+
+
+The importance given to trifles, and made fertile by the villany of the
+observer.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's dialogue with Roderigo.
+
+This is the rehearsal on the dupe of the traitor's intentions on Othello.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's soliloquy:--
+
+"But partly led to diet my revenge,
+For that I do suspect the lusty Moor
+Hath leap'd into my seat."
+
+This thought, originally by Iago's own confession a mere suspicion, is now
+ripening, and gnaws his base nature as his own "poisonous mineral" is
+about to gnaw the noble heart of his general.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello's speech:--
+
+"I know, Iago,
+Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter,
+Making it light to Cassio."
+
+Honesty and love! Ay, and who but the reader of the play could think
+otherwise?
+
+_Ib._ Iago's soliloquy:--
+
+"And what's he then that says--I play the villain?
+When this advice is free I give, and honest,
+Provable to thinking, and, indeed, the course
+To win the Moor again."
+
+He is not, you see, an absolute fiend; or, at least, he wishes to think
+himself not so.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3.--
+
+"_Des._ Before Æmilia here,
+I give thee warrant of thy place."
+
+The over-zeal of innocence in Desdemona.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Enter Desdemona and Æmilia._
+
+_Oth._ If she be false, O, then, heaven mocks itself!
+I'll not believe't."
+
+Divine! The effect of innocence and the better genius!
+
+Act iv. sc. 3.--
+
+"_Æmil._ Why, the wrong is but a wrong i' the world; and
+having the world for your labour, 'tis a wrong in your own world,
+and you might quickly make it right."
+
+Warburton's note.
+
+What any other man, who had learning enough, might have quoted as a
+playful and witty illustration of his remarks against the Calvinistic
+_thesis_, Warburton gravely attributes to Shakespeare as intentional; and
+this, too, in the mouth of a lady's woman!
+
+Act v. last scene. Othello's speech:--
+
+... "Of one, whose hand,
+Like the base _Indian_, threw a pearl away
+Richer than all his tribe," &c.
+
+Theobald's note from Warburton.
+
+Thus it is for no-poets to comment on the greatest of poets! To make
+Othello say that he, who had killed his wife, was like Herod who killed
+Mariamne!--O, how many beauties, in this one line, were impenetrable to the
+ever thought-swarming, but idealess, Warburton! Othello wishes to excuse
+himself on the score of ignorance, and yet not to excuse himself,--to
+excuse himself by accusing. This struggle of feeling is finely conveyed in
+the word "base," which is applied to the rude Indian, not in his own
+character, but as the momentary representative of Othello's. "Indian"--for
+I retain the old reading--means American, a savage _in genere_.
+
+Finally, let me repeat that Othello does not kill Desdemona in jealousy,
+but in a conviction forced upon him by the almost superhuman art of Iago,
+such a conviction as any man would and must have entertained who had
+believed Iago's honesty as Othello did. We, the audience, know that Iago
+is a villain, from the beginning; but in considering the essence of the
+Shakespearian Othello, we must perseveringly place ourselves in his
+situation, and under his circumstances. Then we shall immediately feel the
+fundamental difference between the solemn agony of the noble Moor, and the
+wretched fishing jealousies of Leontes, and the morbid suspiciousness of
+Leonatus, who is, in other respects, a fine character. Othello had no life
+but in Desdemona:--the belief that she, his angel, had fallen from the
+heaven of her native innocence, wrought a civil war in his heart. She is
+his counterpart; and, like him, is almost sanctified in our eyes by her
+absolute unsuspiciousness, and holy entireness of love. As the curtain
+drops, which do we pity the most?
+
+_Extremum hunc_----. There are three powers:--Wit, which discovers partial
+likeness hidden in general diversity; subtlety, which discovers the
+diversity concealed in general apparent sameness;--and profundity, which
+discovers an essential unity under all the semblances of difference.
+
+Give to a subtle man fancy, and he is a wit; to a deep man imagination,
+and he is a philosopher. Add, again, pleasurable sensibility in the
+threefold form of sympathy with the interesting in morals, the impressive
+in form, and the harmonious in sound,--and you have the poet.
+
+But combine all,--wit, subtlety, and fancy, with profundity, imagination,
+and moral and physical susceptibility of the pleasurable,--and let the
+object of action be man universal; and we shall have--O, rash prophecy!
+say, rather, we have--a SHAKESPEARE!
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEN JONSON.
+
+
+It would be amusing to collect out of our dramatists from Elizabeth to
+Charles I. proofs of the manners of the times. One striking symptom of
+general coarseness of manners, which may co-exist with great refinement of
+morals, as, alas! _vice versa_, is to be seen in the very frequent
+allusions to the olfactories with their most disgusting stimulants, and
+these, too, in the conversation of virtuous ladies. This would not appear
+so strange to one who had been on terms of familiarity with Sicilian and
+Italian women of rank: and bad as they may, too many of them, actually be,
+yet I doubt not that the extreme grossness of their language has impressed
+many an Englishman of the present era with far darker notions than the
+same language would have produced in the mind of one of Elizabeth's or
+James's courtiers. Those who have read Shakespeare only, complain of
+occasional grossness in his plays; but compare him with his
+contemporaries, and the inevitable conviction, is that of the exquisite
+purity of his imagination.
+
+The observation I have prefixed to the _Volpone_ is the key to the faint
+interest which these noble efforts of intellectual power excite, with the
+exception of the fragment of the _Sad Shepherd_; because in that piece
+only is there any character with whom you can morally sympathise. On the
+other hand, _Measure for Measure_ is the only play of Shakespeare's in
+which there are not some one or more characters, generally many, whom you
+follow with affectionate feeling. For I confess that Isabella, of all
+Shakespeare's female characters, pleases me the least; and _Measure for
+Measure_ is, indeed, the only one of his genuine works, which is painful
+to me.
+
+Let me not conclude this remark, however, without a thankful
+acknowledgment to the _manes_ of Ben Jonson, that the more I study his
+writings, I the more admire them; and the more my study of him resembles
+that of an ancient classic, in the _minutiæ_ of his rhythm, metre, choice
+of words, forms of connection, and so forth, the more numerous have the
+points of my admiration become. I may add, too, that both the study and
+the admiration cannot but be disinterested, for to expect therefrom any
+advantage to the present drama would be ignorance. The latter is utterly
+heterogeneous from the drama of the Shakespearian age, with a diverse
+object and contrary principle. The one was to present a model by imitation
+of real life, taking from real life all that in it which it ought to be,
+and supplying the rest;--the other is to copy what is, and as it is,--at
+best a tolerable but most frequently a blundering, copy. In the former the
+difference was an essential element; in the latter an involuntary defect.
+We should think it strange, if a tale in dance were announced, and the
+actors did not dance at all;--and yet such is modern comedy.
+
+
+
+
+Whalley's Preface.
+
+
+    "But Jonson was soon sensible, how inconsistent this medley of
+    names and manners was in reason and nature; and with how little
+    propriety it could ever have a place in a legitimate and just
+    picture of real life."
+
+
+But did Jonson reflect that the very essence of a play, the very language
+in which it is written, is a fiction to which all the parts must conform?
+Surely, Greek manners in English should be a still grosser improbability
+than a Greek name transferred to English manners. Ben's _personæ_ are too
+often not characters, but derangements;--the hopeless patients of a
+mad-doctor rather,--exhibitions of folly betraying itself in spite of
+exciting reason and prudence. He not poetically, but painfully exaggerates
+every trait; that is, not by the drollery of the circumstance, but by the
+excess of the originating feeling.
+
+
+    "But to this we might reply, that far from being thought to build
+    his characters upon abstract ideas, he was really accused of
+    representing particular persons then existing; and that even those
+    characters which appear to be the most exaggerated, are said to
+    have had their respective archetypes in nature and life."
+
+
+This degrades Jonson into a libeller, instead of justifying him as a
+dramatic poet. _Non quod verum est, sed quod verisimile_, is the
+dramatist's rule. At all events, the poet who chooses transitory manners,
+ought to content himself with transitory praise. If his object be
+reputation, he ought not to expect fame. The utmost he can look forwards
+to, is to be quoted by, and to enliven the writings of, an antiquarian.
+Pistol, Nym, and _id genus omne_, do not please us as characters, but are
+endured as fantastic creations, foils to the native wit of Falstaff.--I say
+wit emphatically; for this character so often extolled as the masterpiece
+of humour, neither contains, nor was meant to contain, any humour at all.
+
+
+
+
+"Whalley's 'Life Of Jonson.' "
+
+
+    "It is to the honour of Jonson's judgment, that _the greatest poet
+    of our nation_ had the same opinion of Donne's genius and wit; and
+    hath preserved part of him from perishing, by putting his thoughts
+    and satire into modern verse."
+
+
+_Videlicet_ Pope!--
+
+
+    "He said further to Drummond, Shakespeare wanted art, and
+    sometimes sense; for in one of his plays he brought in a number of
+    men, saying they had suffered shipwreck in Bohemia, where is no
+    sea near by a hundred miles."
+
+
+I have often thought Shakespeare justified in this seeming anachronism. In
+Pagan times a single name of a German kingdom might well be supposed to
+comprise a hundred miles more than at present. The truth is, these notes
+of Drummond's are more disgraceful to himself than to Jonson. It would be
+easy to conjecture how grossly Jonson must have been misunderstood, and
+what he had said in jest, as of Hippocrates, interpreted in earnest. But
+this is characteristic of a Scotchman; he has no notion of a jest, unless
+you tell him--"This is a joke!"--and still less of that finer shade of
+feeling, the half-and-half, in which Englishmen naturally delight.
+
+
+
+
+"Every Man Out Of His Humour."
+
+
+Epilogue.--
+
+"The throat of war be stopt within her land,
+And _turtle-footed_ peace dance fairie rings
+About her court."
+
+"Turtle-footed" is a pretty word, a very pretty word: pray, what does it
+mean? Doves, I presume, are not dancers; and the other sort of turtle,
+land or sea, green-fat or hawksbill, would, I should suppose, succeed
+better in slow minuets than in the brisk rondillo. In one sense, to be
+sure, pigeons and ring-doves could not dance but with _éclat_--_a claw_!
+
+
+
+
+"Poetaster."
+
+
+Introduction.--
+
+"Light! I salute thee, but with wounded nerves,
+Wishing thy golden splendour pitchy darkness."
+
+There is no reason to suppose Satan's address to the sun in the _Paradise
+Lost_, more than a mere coincidence with these lines; but were it
+otherwise, it would be a fine instance what usurious interest a great
+genius pays in borrowing. It would not be difficult to give a detailed
+psychological proof from these constant outbursts of anxious
+self-assertion, that Jonson was not a genius, a creative power. Subtract
+that one thing, and you may safely accumulate on his name all other
+excellences of a capacious, vigorous, agile, and richly-stored intellect.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Ovid._ While slaves be false, fathers hard, and bawds be
+whorish."
+
+The roughness noticed by Theobald and Whalley, may be cured by a simple
+transposition:--
+
+"While fathers hard, slaves false, and bawds be whorish."
+
+Act. iv. sc. 3--
+
+"_Crisp._ O--oblatrant--furibund--fatuate--strenuous.
+O--conscious."
+
+It would form an interesting essay, or rather series of essays, in a
+periodical work, were all the attempts to ridicule new phrases brought
+together, the proportion observed of words ridiculed which have been
+adopted, and are now common, such as _strenuous_, _conscious_, &c., and a
+trial made how far any grounds can be detected, so that one might
+determine beforehand whether a word was invented under the conditions of
+assimilability to our language or not. Thus much is certain, that the
+ridiculers were as often wrong as right; and Shakespeare himself could not
+prevent the naturalisation of _accommodation_, _remuneration_, &c.; or
+Swift the gross abuse even of the word _idea_.
+
+
+
+
+"Fall Of Sejanus."
+
+
+Act i.--
+
+"_Arruntius._ The name Tiberius,
+I hope, will keep, howe'er he hath foregone
+The dignity and power.
+
+_Silius._ Sure, while he lives.
+
+_Arr._ And dead, it comes to Drusus. Should he fail,
+To the brave issue of Germanicus;
+And they are three: too many (ha?) for him
+To have a plot upon?
+
+_Sil._ I do not know
+The heart of his designs; but, sure, their face
+Looks farther than the present.
+
+_Arr._ By the gods,
+If I could guess he had but such a thought,
+My sword should cleave him down," &c.
+
+The anachronic mixture in this Arruntius of the Roman republican, to whom
+Tiberius must have appeared as much a tyrant as Sejanus, with his
+James-and-Charles-the-First zeal for legitimacy of descent in this
+passage, is amusing. Of our great names Milton was, I think, the first who
+could properly be called a republican. My recollections of Buchanan's
+works are too faint to enable me to judge whether the historian is not a
+fair exception.
+
+Act ii. Speech of Sejanus:--
+
+"Adultery! it is the lightest ill
+I will commit. A race of wicked acts
+Shall flow out of my anger, and o'erspread
+The world's wide face, which no posterity
+Shall e'er approve, nor yet keep silent," &c.
+
+The more we reflect and examine, examine and reflect, the more astonished
+shall we be at the immense superiority of Shakespeare over his
+contemporaries;--and yet what contemporaries!--giant minds indeed! Think of
+Jonson's erudition, and the force of learned authority in that age; and
+yet, in no genuine part of Shakespeare's works is there to be found such
+an absurd rant and ventriloquism as this, and too, too many other passages
+ferruminated by Jonson from Seneca's tragedies, and the writings of the
+later Romans. I call it ventriloquism, because Sejanus is a puppet, out of
+which the poet makes his own voice appear to come.
+
+Act v. Scene of the sacrifice to Fortune.
+
+This scene is unspeakably irrational. To believe, and yet to scoff at, a
+present miracle is little less than impossible. Sejanus should have been
+made to suspect priestcraft and a secret conspiracy against him.
+
+
+
+
+"Volpone."
+
+
+This admirable, indeed, but yet more wonderful than admirable, play is,
+from the fertility and vigour of invention, character, language, and
+sentiment, the strongest proof how impossible it is to keep up any
+pleasurable interest in a tale, in which there is no goodness of heart in
+any of the prominent characters. After the third act, this play becomes
+not a dead, but a painful, weight on the feelings. _Zeluco_ is an instance
+of the same truth. Bonario and Celia should have been made in some way or
+other principals in the plot; which they might have been, and the objects
+of interest, without having been made characters. In novels, the person in
+whose fate you are most interested, is often the least marked character of
+the whole. If it were possible to lessen the paramountcy of Volpone
+himself, a most delightful comedy might be produced, by making Celia the
+ward or niece of Corvino, instead of his wife, and Bonario her lover.
+
+
+
+
+"Apicæne."
+
+
+This is to my feelings the most entertaining of old Ben's comedies, and,
+more than any other, would admit of being brought out anew, if under the
+management of a judicious and stage-understanding playwright; and an
+actor, who had studied Morose, might make his fortune.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Clerimont's speech:--
+
+"He would have hang'd a pewterer's 'prentice once upon a Shrove
+Tuesday's riot, for being of that trade, when the rest were _quiet_."
+
+
+    "The old copies read _quit_,--_i.e._, discharged from working, and
+    gone to divert themselves."--Whalley's note.
+
+
+It should be "quit" no doubt, but not meaning "discharged from working,"
+&c.--but quit, that is, acquitted. The pewterer was at his holiday
+diversion as well as the other apprentices, and they as forward in the
+riot as he. But he alone was punished under pretext of the riot, but in
+fact for his trade.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+
+    "_Morose._ Cannot I, yet, find out a more compendious method than
+    by this _trunk_, to save my servants the labour of speech, and
+    mine ears the discord of sounds?"
+
+
+What does "trunk" mean here, and in the first scene of the first act? Is
+it a large ear-trumpet?--or rather a tube, such as passes from parlour to
+kitchen, instead of a bell?
+
+Whalley's note at the end:--
+
+
+    "Some critics of the last age imagined the character of Morose to
+    be wholly out of nature. But to vindicate our poet, Mr. Dryden
+    tells us from tradition, and we may venture to take his word, that
+    Jonson was really acquainted with a person of this whimsical turn
+    of mind: and as humour is a personal quality, the poet is
+    acquitted from the charge of exhibiting a monster, or an
+    extravagant unnatural _caricatura_."
+
+
+If Dryden had not made all additional proof superfluous by his own plays,
+this very vindication would evince that he had formed a false and vulgar
+conception of the nature and conditions of drama and dramatic personation.
+Ben Jonson would himself have rejected such a plea:--
+
+"For he knew, poet never credit gain'd
+By writing _truths_, but things, like truths, well feign'd."
+
+By "truths" he means "facts." Caricatures are not less so because they are
+found existing in real life. Comedy demands characters, and leaves
+caricatures to farce. The safest and the truest defence of old Ben would
+be to call the _Epicoene_ the best of farces. The defect in Morose, as in
+other of Jonson's _dramatis personæ_, lies in this;--that the accident is
+not a prominence growing out of, and nourished by, the character which
+still circulates in it; but that the character, such as it is, rises out
+of, or, rather, consists in, the accident. Shakespeare's comic personages
+have exquisitely characteristic features; however awry, disproportionate,
+and laughable they may be, still, like Bardolph's nose, they are features.
+But Jonson's are either a man with a huge wen, having a circulation of its
+own, and which we might conceive amputated, and the patient thereby losing
+all his character; or they are mere wens themselves instead of men,--wens
+personified, or with eyes, nose, and mouth cut out, mandrake-fashion.
+
+_Nota bene._--All the above, and much more, will have justly been said, if,
+and whenever, the drama of Jonson is brought into comparisons of rivalry
+with the Shakespearian. But this should not be. Let its inferiority to the
+Shakespearian be at once fairly owned,--but at the same time as the
+inferiority of an altogether different _genius_ of the drama. On this
+ground, old Ben would still maintain his proud height. He, no less than
+Shakespeare stands on the summit of his hill, and looks round him like a
+master,--though his be Lattrig and Shakespeare's Skiddaw.
+
+
+
+
+"The Alchemist."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Face's speech:--
+
+"Will take his oath o' the Greek _Xenophon_,
+If need be, in his pocket."
+
+Another reading is "Testament."
+
+Probably, the meaning is--that intending to give false evidence, he carried
+a Greek _Xenophon_ to pass it off for a Greek Testament, and so avoid
+perjury--as the Irish do, by contriving to kiss their thumb-nails instead
+of the book.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Mammon's speech:--
+
+"I will have all my beds blown up; not stuft:
+Down is too hard."
+
+Thus the air-cushions, though perhaps only lately brought into use, were
+invented in idea in the seventeenth century!
+
+
+
+
+"Catiline's Conspiracy."
+
+
+A fondness for judging one work by comparison with others, perhaps
+altogether of a different class, argues a vulgar taste. Yet it is chiefly
+on this principle that the _Catiline_ has been rated so low. Take it and
+_Sejanus_, as compositions of a particular kind, namely, as a mode of
+relating great historical events in the liveliest and most interesting
+manner, and I cannot help wishing that we had whole volumes of such plays.
+We might as rationally expect the excitement of the _Vicar of Wakefield_
+from Goldsmith's _History of England_, as that of _Lear_, _Othello_, &c.,
+from the _Sejanus_ or _Catiline_.
+
+Act i. sc. 4.--
+
+"_Cat._ Sirrah, what ail you?
+
+          (_He spies one of his boys not answer._)
+
+_Pag._ Nothing.
+
+_Best._ Somewhat modest.
+
+_Cat._ Slave, I will strike your soul out with my foot," &c.
+
+This is either an unintelligible, or, in every sense, a most unnatural,
+passage,--improbable, if not impossible, at the moment of signing and
+swearing such a conspiracy, to the most libidinous satyr. The very
+presence of the boys is an outrage to probability. I suspect that these
+lines down to the words "throat opens," should be removed back so as to
+follow the words "on this part of the house," in the speech of Catiline
+soon after the entry of the conspirators. A total erasure, however, would
+be the best, or, rather, the only possible, amendment.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Sempronia's speech:--
+
+          ..."He is but a new fellow,
+An _inmate_ here in Rome, as Catiline calls him."
+
+A "lodger" would have been a happier imitation of the _inquilinus_ of
+Sallust.
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Speech of Cethegus:--
+
+"Can these or such be any aids to us," &c.
+
+What a strange notion Ben must have formed of a determined, remorseless,
+all-daring, foolhardiness, to have represented it in such a mouthing
+Tamburlane, and bombastic tonguebully as this Cethegus of his!
+
+
+
+
+"Bartholomew Fair."
+
+
+Induction. Scrivener's speech:--
+
+"If there be never a _servant-monster_ in the Fair, who can help it
+he says, nor a nest of antiques?"
+
+The best excuse that can be made for Jonson, and in a somewhat less degree
+for Beaumont and Fletcher, in respect of these base and silly sneers at
+Shakespeare is, that his plays were present to men's minds chiefly as
+acted. They had not a neat edition of them, as we have, so as, by
+comparing the one with the other, to form a just notion of the mighty mind
+that produced the whole. At all events, and in every point of view, Jonson
+stands far higher in a moral light than Beaumont and Fletcher. He was a
+fair contemporary, and in his way, and as far as Shakespeare is concerned,
+an original. But Beaumont and Fletcher were always imitators of, and often
+borrowers from him, and yet sneer at him with a spite far more malignant
+than Jonson, who, besides, has made noble compensation by his praises.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3.--
+
+"_Just._ I mean a child of the horn-thumb, a babe _of booty_, boy, a
+cut purse."
+
+Does not this confirm, what the passage itself cannot but suggest, the
+propriety of substituting "booty" for "beauty" in Falstaff's speech,
+_Henry IV._ part i. act i. sc. 2. "Let not us, &c.?"
+
+It is not often that old Ben condescends to imitate a modern author; but
+Master Dan. Knockhum Jordan, and his vapours are manifest reflexes of Nym
+and Pistol.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Quarl._ She'll make excellent geer for the coachmakers here in
+Smithfield, to anoint wheels and axletrees with."
+
+Good! but yet it falls short of the speech of a Mr. Johnes, M.P., in the
+Common Council, on the invasion intended by Buonaparte:--"Houses
+plundered--then burnt;--sons conscribed--wives and daughters ravished," &c.,
+&c.--"But as for you, you luxurious Aldermen! with your fat will he grease
+the wheels of his triumphant chariot!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.--
+
+"_Cok._ Avoid in your satin doublet, Numps."
+
+This reminds me of Shakespeare's "Aroint thee, witch!" I find in several
+books of that age the words _aloigne_ and _eloigne_--that is,--"keep your
+distance!" or "off with you!" Perhaps "aroint" was a corruption of
+"aloigne" by the vulgar. The common etymology from _ronger_ to gnaw seems
+unsatisfactory.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4.--
+
+"_Quarl._ How now, Numps! almost tired in your protectorship?
+overparted, overparted?"
+
+An odd sort of propheticality in this Numps and old Noll!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Knockhum's speech:--
+
+"He eats with his eyes, as well as his teeth."
+
+A good motto for the Parson in Hogarth's _Election Dinner_,--who shows how
+easily he might be reconciled to the Church of Rome, for he worships what
+he eats.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Pup._ _Di._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ It is not profane, he says.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ Well said, confute him with Not, still."
+
+An imitation of the quarrel between Bacchus and the Frogs in
+Aristophanes:--
+
+"{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}',
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}."
+
+
+
+
+"The Devil Is An Ass."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Pug._ Why any: Fraud,
+Or Covetousness, or lady Vanity,
+Or old Iniquity, _I'll call him hither_."
+
+
+    "The words in italics should probably be given to the
+    master-devil, Satan."--Whalley's note.
+
+
+That is, against all probability, and with a (for Jonson) impossible
+violation of character. The words plainly belong to Pug, and mark at once
+his simpleness and his impatience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Fitz-dottrel's soliloquy.
+
+Compare this exquisite piece of sense, satire, and sound philosophy in
+1616 with Sir M. Hale's speech from the bench in a trial of a witch many
+years afterwards.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Meercraft's speech:--
+
+"Sir, money's a whore, a bawd, a drudge."
+
+I doubt not that "money" was the first word of the line, and has dropped
+out:--
+
+"Money! Sir, money's a," &c.
+
+
+
+
+"The Staple Of News."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Pecunia's speech:--
+
+"No, he would ha' done,
+That lay not in his power: he had the use
+Of your bodies, Band and Wax, and sometimes Statute's."
+
+Read (1815)--
+
+         ... "he had the use of
+Your bodies," &c.
+
+Now, however, I doubt the legitimacy of my transposition of the "of" from
+the beginning of this latter line to the end of the one preceding;--for
+though it facilitates the metre and reading of the latter line, and is
+frequent in Massinger, this disjunction of the preposition from its case
+seems to have been disallowed by Jonson. Perhaps the better reading is--
+
+"O' your bodies," &c.--
+
+the two syllables being slurred into one, or rather snatched, or sucked,
+up into the emphasised "your." In all points of view, therefore, Ben's
+judgment is just; for in this way, the line cannot be read, as metre,
+without that strong and quick emphasis on "your" which the sense
+requires;--and had not the sense required an emphasis on "your," the
+_tmesis_ of the sign of its cases "of," "to," &c., would destroy almost
+all boundary between the dramatic verse and prose in comedy:--a lesson not
+to be rash in conjectural amendments.--1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_P. jun._ I love all men of virtue, _frommy_ Princess."
+
+"Frommy," _fromme_--pious, dutiful, &c.
+
+Act v. sc. 4. Penny-boy, sen., and Porter.
+
+I dare not, will not, think that honest Ben had _Lear_ in his mind in this
+mock mad scene.
+
+
+
+
+"The New Inn."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Host's speech:--
+
+"A heavy purse, and then two turtles, _makes_."
+
+"Makes," frequent in old books, and even now used in some counties for
+mates, or pairs.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Host's speech:--
+
+          ..."And for a leap
+Of the vaulting horse, to _play_ the vaulting _house_."
+
+Instead of reading with Whalley "ply" for "play," I would suggest "horse"
+for "house." The meaning would then be obvious and pertinent. The punlet,
+or pun-maggot, or pun intentional, "horse and house," is below Jonson. The
+_jeu-de-mots_ just below--
+
+          ..."Read a lecture
+Upon _Aquinas_ at St. Thomas à _Water_ings"--
+
+had a learned smack in it to season its insipidity.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Lovel's speech:--
+
+"Then shower'd his bounties on me, like the Hours,
+That open-handed sit upon the clouds,
+And press the liberality of heaven
+Down to the laps of thankful men!"
+
+Like many other similar passages in Jonson, this is {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}--a
+sight which it is difficult to make one's self see,--a picture my fancy
+cannot copy detached from the words.
+
+Act ii. sc. 5. Though it was hard upon old Ben, yet Felton, it must be
+confessed, was in the right in considering the Fly, Tipto, Bat Burst, &c.,
+of this play mere dotages. Such a scene as this was enough to damn a new
+play; and Nick Stuff is worse still,--most abominable stuff indeed!
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Lovel's speech:--
+
+"So knowledge first begets benevolence,
+Benevolence breeds friendship, friendship love."
+
+Jonson has elsewhere proceeded thus far; but the part most difficult and
+delicate, yet, perhaps, not the least capable of being both morally and
+poetically treated, is the union itself, and what, even in this life, it
+can be.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.
+
+
+SEWARD'S Preface. 1750.--
+
+
+    "The _King and No King_, too, is extremely spirited in all its
+    characters; Arbaces holds up a mirror to all men of virtuous
+    principles but violent passions. Hence he is, as it were, at once
+    magnanimity and pride, patience and fury, gentleness and rigour,
+    chastity and incest, and is one of the finest mixtures of virtues
+    and vices that any poet has drawn," &c.
+
+
+These are among the endless instances of the abject state to which
+psychology had sunk from the reign of Charles I. to the middle of the
+present reign of George III.; and even now it is but just awaking.
+
+_Ib._ Seward's comparison of Julia's speech in the _Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_, act iv. last scene--
+
+"Madam, 'twas Ariadne passioning," &c.
+
+with Aspatia's speech in the _Maid's Tragedy_--
+
+"I stand upon the sea-beach now," &c.--Act ii.--
+
+and preference of the latter.
+
+It is strange to take an incidental passage of one writer, intended only
+for a subordinate part, and compare it with the same thought in another
+writer, who had chosen it for a prominent and principal figure.
+
+_Ib._ Seward's preference of Alphonso's poisoning in _A Wife for a Month_,
+act i. sc. 1, to the passage in _King John_, act v. sc. 7:--
+
+"Poison'd, ill fare! dead, forsook, cast off!"
+
+Mr. Seward! Mr. Seward! you may be, and I trust you are, an angel; but you
+were an ass.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+
+    "Every reader of _taste_ will see how superior this is to the
+    quotation from Shakespeare."
+
+
+Of what taste?
+
+_Ib._ Seward's classification of the plays.
+
+Surely _Monsieur Thomas_, the _Chances_, _Beggar's Bush_, and the
+_Pilgrim_, should have been placed in the very first class! But the whole
+attempt ends in a woful failure.
+
+
+
+
+Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+
+
+"I'd have a state of wit convok'd, which hath
+A _power_ to take up on common faith:"--
+
+This is an instance of that modifying of quantity by emphasis, without
+which our elder poets cannot be scanned. "Power," here, instead of being
+one long syllable--pow'r--must be sounded, not indeed as a spondee, nor yet
+as a trochee; but as - u u;--the first syllable is 1-1/4.
+
+We can, indeed, never expect an authentic edition of our elder dramatic
+poets (for in those times a drama was a poem), until some man undertakes
+the work, who has studied the philosophy of metre. This has been found the
+main torch of sound restoration in the Greek dramatists by Bentley,
+Porson, and their followers;--how much more, then, in writers in our own
+language! It is true that quantity, an almost iron law with the Greek, is
+in English rather a subject for a peculiarly fine ear, than any law or
+even rule; but, then, instead of it, we have, first, accent; secondly,
+emphasis; and lastly, retardation, and acceleration of the times of
+syllables according to the meaning of the words, the passion that
+accompanies them, and even the character of the person that uses them.
+With due attention to these,--above all, to that, which requires the most
+attention and the finest taste, the character, Massinger, for example,
+might be reduced to a rich and yet regular metre. But then the _regulæ_
+must be first known; though I will venture to say, that he who does not
+find a line (not corrupted) of Massinger's flow to the time total of a
+trimeter catalectic iambic verse, has not read it aright. But by virtue of
+the last principle--the retardation of acceleration of time--we have the
+proceleusmatic foot u u u u, and the _dispondæus_ - - - -, not to mention
+the _choriambus_, the ionics, pæons, and epitrites. Since Dryden, the
+metre of our poets leads to the sense; in our elder and more genuine
+bards, the sense, including the passion, leads to the metre. Read even
+Donne's satires as he meant them to be read, and as the sense and passion
+demand, and you will find in the lines a manly harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.
+
+
+    "In general their plots are more regular than Shakespeare's."
+
+
+This is true, if true at all, only before a court of criticism, which
+judges one scheme by the laws of another and a diverse one. Shakespeare's
+plots have their own laws of _regulæ_, and according to these they are
+regular.
+
+
+
+
+"Maid's Tragedy."
+
+
+Act i. The metrical arrangement is most slovenly throughout.
+
+"_Strat._ As well as masque can be," &c.--
+
+and all that follows to "who is return'd"--is plainly blank verse, and
+falls easily into it.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:--
+
+"These soft and silken wars are not for me:
+The music must be shrill, and all confus'd,
+That stirs my blood; and then I dance with arms."
+
+What strange self-trumpeters and tongue-bullies all the brave soldiers of
+Beaumont and Fletcher are! Yet I am inclined to think it was the fashion
+of the age from the Soldier's speech in the Counter Scuffle; and deeper
+than the fashion B. and F. did not fashion.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Lysippus:--
+
+"Yes, but this lady
+Walks discontented, with her wat'ry eyes
+Bent on the earth," &c.
+
+Opulent as Shakespeare was, and of his opulence prodigal, he yet would not
+have put this exquisite piece of poetry in the mouth of a no-character, or
+as addressed to a Melantius. I wish that B. and F. had written poems
+instead of tragedies.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mel._ I might run fiercely, not more hastily,
+Upon my foe."
+
+Read
+
+"I might run _more_ fiercely, not more hastily."
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Calianax:--
+
+
+    "Office! I would I could put it off! I am sure I sweat quite
+    through my office!"
+
+
+The syllable _off_ reminds the testy statesman of his robe, and he carries
+on the image.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:--
+
+          ... "Would that blood,
+That sea of blood, that I have lost in fight," &c.
+
+All B. and F.'s generals are pugilists or cudgel-fighters, that boast of
+their bottom and of the _claret_ they have shed.
+
+_Ib._ The Masque;--Cinthia's speech:--
+
+"But I will give a greater state and glory,
+And raise to time a _noble_ memory
+Of what these lovers are."
+
+I suspect that "nobler," pronounced as "nobiler" - u -, was the poet's
+word, and that the accent is to be placed on the penultimate of "memory."
+As to the passage--
+
+"Yet, while our reign lasts, let us stretch our power," &c.--
+
+removed from the text of Cinthia's speech, by these foolish editors as
+unworthy of B. and F.--the first eight lines are not worse, and the last
+couplet incomparably better, than the stanza retained.
+
+Act ii. Amintor's speech:--
+
+"Oh, thou hast nam'd a word, that wipes away
+All thoughts revengeful! In that sacred name,
+'The king,' there lies a terror."
+
+It is worth noticing that of the three greatest tragedians, Massinger was
+a democrat, Beaumont and Fletcher the most servile _jure divino_
+royalists, and Shakespeare a philosopher;--if aught personal, an
+aristocrat.
+
+
+
+
+"A King And No King."
+
+
+Act iv. Speech of Tigranes:--
+
+"She, that forgat the greatness of her grief
+And miseries, that must follow such mad passions,
+Endless and wild as women!" &c.
+
+Seward's note and suggestion of "in."
+
+It would be amusing to learn from some existing friend of Mr. Seward what
+he meant, or rather dreamed, in this note. It is certainly a difficult
+passage, of which there are two solutions;--one, that the writer was
+somewhat more injudicious than usual;--the other, that he was very, very
+much more profound and Shakespearian than usual. Seward's emendation, at
+all events, is right and obvious. Were it a passage of Shakespeare, I
+should not hesitate to interpret it as characteristic of Tigranes' state
+of mind, disliking the very virtues, and therefore half-consciously
+representing them as mere products of the violence of the sex in general
+in all their whims, and yet forced to admire, and to feel and to express
+gratitude for, the exertion in his own instance. The inconsistency of the
+passage would be the consistency of the author. But this is above Beaumont
+and Fletcher.
+
+
+
+
+"The Scornful Lady."
+
+
+Act ii. Sir Roger's speech:--
+
+
+    "Did I for this consume my _quarters_ in meditations, vows, and
+    woo'd her in heroical epistles? Did I expound the _Owl_, and
+    undertake, with labour and expense, the recollection of those
+    thousand pieces, consum'd in cellars and tobacco-shops, of that
+    our honour'd Englishman, Nic. Broughton?" &c.
+
+
+Strange, that neither Mr. Theobald nor Mr. Seward should have seen that
+this mock heroic speech is in full-mouthed blank verse! Had they seen
+this, they would have seen that "quarters" is a substitution of the
+players for "quires" or "squares," (that is) of paper:--
+
+"Consume my quires in meditations, vows,
+And woo'd her in heroical epistles."
+
+They ought, likewise, to have seen that the abbreviated "Ni. Br." of the
+text was properly "Mi. Dr."--and that Michael Drayton, not Nicholas
+Broughton, is here ridiculed for his poem _The Owl_ and his _Heroical
+Epistles_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Younger Loveless:--
+
+"Fill him some wine. Thou dost not see me mov'd," &c.
+
+These Editors ought to have learnt, that scarce an instance occurs in B.
+and F. of a long speech not in metre. This is plain staring blank verse.
+
+
+
+
+"The Custom Of The Country."
+
+
+I cannot but think that in a country conquered by a nobler race than the
+natives, and in which the latter became villeins and bondsmen, this
+custom, _lex merchetæ_, may have been introduced for wise purposes,--as of
+improving the breed, lessening the antipathy of different races, and
+producing a new bond of relationship between the lord and the tenant, who,
+as the eldest born, would at least have a chance of being, and a
+probability of being thought, the lord's child. In the West Indies it
+cannot have these effects, because the mulatto is marked by nature
+different from the father, and because there is no bond, no law, no
+custom, but of mere debauchery.--1815.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Rutilio's speech:--
+
+"Yet if you play not fair play," &c.
+
+Evidently to be transposed, and read thus:--
+
+"Yet if you play not fair, above-board too,
+I'll tell you what--
+I've a foolish engine here:--I say no more--
+But if your Honour's guts are not enchanted."
+
+Licentious as the comic metre of B. and F. is,--a far more lawless, and yet
+far less happy, imitation of the rhythm of animated talk in real life than
+Massinger's--still it is made worse than it really is by ignorance of the
+halves, thirds, and two-thirds of a line which B. and F. adopted from the
+Italian and Spanish dramatists. Thus, in Rutilio's speech:--
+
+"Though I confess
+Any man would desire to have her, and by any means," &c.
+
+Correct the whole passage,--
+
+"Though I confess
+Any man would
+Desire to have her, and by any means,
+At any rate too, yet this common hangman
+That hath whipt off a thousand maids heads already--
+That he should glean the harvest, sticks in my stomach!"
+
+In all comic metres the gulping of short syllables, and the abbreviation
+of syllables ordinarily long by the rapid pronunciation of eagerness and
+vehemence, are not so much a license as a law,--a faithful copy of nature,
+and let them be read characteristically, the times will be found nearly
+equal. Thus, the three words marked above make a _choriambus_ -- u u, or
+perhaps a _pæon primus_ - u u u; a dactyl, by virtue of comic rapidity,
+being only equal to an iambus when distinctly pronounced. I have no doubt
+that all B. and F.'s works might be safely corrected by attention to this
+rule, and that the editor is entitled to transpositions of all kinds, and
+to not a few omissions. For the rule of the metre once lost--what was to
+restrain the actors from interpolation?
+
+
+
+
+"The Elder Brother."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Charles's speech:--
+
+          ... "For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil
+In his Georgicks? and to cure your herds,
+His Bucolicks is a master-piece."
+
+Fletcher was too good a scholar to fall into so gross a blunder, as
+Messrs. Sympson and Colman suppose. I read the passage thus:--
+
+          ... "For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil,
+In his Georgicks, _or_ to cure your herds
+(His Bucolicks are a master-piece); but when," &c.
+
+Jealous of Virgil's honour, he is afraid lest, by referring to the
+_Georgics_ alone, he might be understood as undervaluing the preceding
+work. "Not that I do not admire the _Bucolics_ too, in their way.--But
+when," &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Charles's speech:--
+
+        ... "She has a face looks like a _story_;
+The _story_ of the heavens looks very like her."
+
+Seward reads "glory;" and Theobald quotes from Philaster:--
+
+"That reads the story of a woman's face."
+
+I can make sense of this passage as little as Mr. Seward;--the passage from
+Philaster is nothing to the purpose. Instead of "a story," I have
+sometimes thought of proposing "Astræa."
+
+_Ib._ Angellina's speech:--
+
+          ... "You're old and dim, Sir,
+And the shadow of the earth eclips'd your judgment."
+
+Inappropriate to Angellina, but one of the finest lines in our language.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Charles's speech:--
+
+"And lets the serious part of life run by
+As thin neglected sand, whiteness of name.
+You must be mine," &c.
+
+Seward's note, and reading:--
+
+     ... "Whiteness of name,
+You must be mine!"
+
+Nonsense! "Whiteness of name" is in apposition to "the serious part of
+life," and means a deservedly pure reputation. The following line--"You
+_must_ be mine!" means--"Though I do not enjoy you to-day, I shall
+hereafter, and without reproach."
+
+
+
+
+"The Spanish Curate."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Amaranta's speech:--
+
+"And still I push'd him on, as he had been _coming_."
+
+Perhaps the true word is "conning,"--that is, learning, or reading, and
+therefore inattentive.
+
+
+
+
+"Wit Without Money."
+
+
+Act i. Valentine's speech:--
+
+"One without substance," &c.
+
+The present text, and that proposed by Seward, are equally vile. I have
+endeavoured to make the lines sense, though the whole is, I suspect,
+incurable except by bold conjectural reformation. I would read thus:--
+
+"One without substance of herself, that's woman;
+Without the pleasure of her life, that's wanton;
+Tho' she be young, forgetting it; tho' fair,
+Making her glass the eyes of honest men,
+Not her own admiration."
+
+"That's wanton," or, "that is to say, wantonness."
+
+Act ii. Valentine's speech:--
+
+"Of half-a crown a week for pins and puppets."
+
+
+    "As there is a syllable wanting in the measure here."--Seward.
+
+
+A syllable wanting! Had this Seward neither ears nor fingers? The line is
+a more than usually regular iambic hendecasyllable.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"With one man satisfied, with one rein guided;
+With one faith, one content, one bed;
+_Aged_, she makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;
+A widow is," &c.
+
+Is "apaid"--contented--too obsolete for B. and F.? If not, we might read it
+thus:--
+
+"Content with one faith, with one bed apaid,
+She makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;"--
+
+Or, it may be,--
+
+... "with one breed apaid"--
+
+that is, satisfied with one set of children, in opposition to,--
+
+"A widow is a Christmas-box," &c.
+
+Colman's note on Seward's attempt to put this play into metre.
+
+The editors, and their contemporaries in general, were ignorant of any but
+the regular iambic verse. A study of the Aristophanic and Plautine metres
+would have enabled them to reduce B. and F. throughout into metre, except
+where prose is really intended.
+
+
+
+
+"The Humorous Lieutenant."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Second Ambassador's speech:--
+
+... "When your angers,
+_Like_ so many brother billows, rose together,
+And, curling up _your_ foaming crests, defied," &c.
+
+This worse than superfluous "like" is very like an interpolation of some
+matter of fact critic--all _pus, prose atque venenum_. The "your" in the
+next line, instead of "their," is likewise yours, Mr. Critic!
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Timon's speech:--
+
+"Another of a new _way_ will be look'd at."
+
+
+    "We must suspect the poets wrote, 'of a new _day_.' So immediately
+    after,
+
+              ... Time may
+    For all his wisdom, yet give us a day."
+
+    Seward's Note.
+
+
+For this very reason I more than suspect the contrary.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Leucippe:--
+
+"I'll put her into action for a _wastcoat_."
+
+What we call a riding-habit,--some mannish dress.
+
+
+
+
+"The Mad Lover."
+
+
+Act iv. Masque of beasts:--
+
+          ... "This goodly tree,
+An usher that still grew before his lady,
+Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,
+A grumbling lawyer:" &c.
+
+Here must have been omitted a line rhyming to "tree;" and the words of the
+next line have been transposed:--
+
+          ... "This goodly tree,
+_Which leafless, and obscur'd with moss you see_,
+An usher this, that 'fore his lady grew,
+Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo," &c.
+
+
+
+
+"The Loyal Subject."
+
+
+It is well worthy of notice, and yet has not been, I believe, noticed
+hitherto, what a marked difference there exists in the dramatic writers of
+the Elizabetho-Jacobæan age--(Mercy on me! what a phrase for "the writers
+during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.!")--in respect of their
+political opinions. Shakespeare, in this, as in all other things, himself
+and alone, gives the permanent politics of human nature, and the only
+predilection which appears, shows itself in his contempt of mobs and the
+populacy. Massinger is a decided Whig;--Beaumont and Fletcher high-flying,
+passive-obedience, Tories. The Spanish dramatists furnished them with
+this, as with many other ingredients. By the by, an accurate and familiar
+acquaintance with all the productions of the Spanish stage previously to
+1620, is an indispensable qualification for an editor of B. and F.;--and
+with this qualification a most interesting and instructive edition might
+be given. This edition of Colman's (Stockdale, 1811) is below criticism.
+
+In metre, B. and F. are inferior to Shakespeare, on the one hand, as
+expressing the poetic part of the drama, and to Massinger, on the other,
+in the art of reconciling metre with the natural rhythm of
+conversation,--in which, indeed, Massinger is unrivalled. Read him aright,
+and measure by time, not syllables, and no lines can be more
+legitimate,--none in which the substitution of equipollent feet, and the
+modifications by emphasis, are managed with such exquisite judgment. B.
+and F. are fond of the twelve syllable (not Alexandrine) line, as:--
+
+"Too many fears 'tis thought too: and to nourish those."
+
+This has often a good effect, and is one of the varieties most common in
+Shakespeare.
+
+
+
+
+"Rule A Wife And Have A Wife."
+
+
+Act iii. Old Woman's speech:--
+
+          ... "I fear he will knock my
+Brains out for lying."
+
+Mr. Seward discards the words "for lying," because "most of the things
+spoke of Estifania are true, with only a little exaggeration, and because
+they destroy all appearance of measure."--Colman's note.
+
+Mr. Seward had his brains out. The humour lies in Estifania's having
+ordered the Old Woman to tell these tales of her; for though an intriguer,
+she is not represented as other than chaste; and as to the metre, it is
+perfectly correct.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Marg._ As you love me, give way.
+
+_Leon._ It shall be better, I will give none, madam," &c.
+
+The meaning is:--"It shall be a better way, first;--as it is, I will not
+give it, or any that you in your present mood would wish."
+
+
+
+
+"The Laws Of Candy."
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Melitus:--
+
+"Whose insolence and never yet match'd pride
+Can by no character be well express'd,
+But in her only name, the proud Erota."
+
+Colman's note.
+
+The poet intended no allusion to the word "Erota" itself; but says that
+her very name, "the proud Erota," became a character and adage;--as we say,
+a Quixote or a Brutus: so to say an "Erota," expressed female pride and
+insolence of beauty.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Antinous:--
+
+"Of my peculiar honours, not deriv'd
+From _successary_, but purchas'd with my blood."
+
+The poet doubtless wrote "successry," which, though not adopted in our
+language, would be, on many occasions, as here, a much more significant
+phrase than ancestry.
+
+
+
+
+"The Little French Lawyer."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Dinant's speech:--
+
+"Are you become a patron too? 'Tis a new one,
+No more on't," &c.
+
+Seward reads:--
+
+"Are you become a patron too? _How long_
+_Have you been conning this speech?_ 'Tis a new one," &c.
+
+If conjectural emendation like this be allowed, we might venture to read:--
+
+"Are you become a patron _to a new tune_?"
+
+or,--
+
+"Are you become a patron? 'Tis a new _tune_."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Din._ Thou wouldst not willingly
+Live a protested coward, or be call'd one?
+
+_Cler._ Words are but words.
+
+_Din._ Nor wouldst thou take a blow?"
+
+Seward's note.
+
+O miserable! Dinant sees through Cleremont's gravity, and the actor is to
+explain it. "Words are but words," is the last struggle of affected
+morality.
+
+
+
+
+"Valentinian."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 3.--
+
+It is a real trial of charity to read this scene with tolerable temper
+towards Fletcher. So very slavish--so reptile--are the feelings and
+sentiments represented as duties. And yet, remember, he was a bishop's
+son, and the duty to God was the supposed basis.
+
+Personals, including body, house, home, and religion;--property,
+subordination, and inter-community;--these are the fundamentals of society.
+I mean here, religion negatively taken,--so that the person be not
+compelled to do or utter, in relation of the soul to God, what would be,
+in that person, a lie;--such as to force a man to go to church, or to swear
+that he believes what he does not believe. Religion, positively taken, may
+be a great and useful privilege, but cannot be a right,--were it for this
+only, that it cannot be pre-defined. The ground of this distinction
+between negative and positive religion, as a social right, is plain. No
+one of my fellow-citizens is encroached on by my not declaring to him what
+I believe respecting the super-sensual; but should every man be entitled
+to preach against the preacher, who could hear any preacher? Now, it is
+different in respect of loyalty. There we have positive rights, but not
+negative rights;--for every pretended negative would be in effect a
+positive;--as if a soldier had a right to keep to himself whether he would,
+or would not, fight. Now, no one of these fundamentals can be rightfully
+attacked, except when the guardian of it has abused it to subvert one or
+more of the rest. The reason is, that the guardian, as a fluent, is less
+than the permanent which he is to guard. He is the temporary and mutable
+mean, and derives his whole value from the end. In short, as robbery is
+not high treason, so neither is every unjust act of a king the converse.
+All must be attacked and endangered. Why? Because the king, as _a_ to A,
+is a mean to A, or subordination, in a far higher sense than a proprietor,
+as _b_ to A, is a mean to B, or property.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Claudia's speech:--
+
+"Chimney-pieces!" &c.
+
+The whole of this speech seems corrupt; and if accurately printed,--that
+is, if the same in all the prior editions,--irremediable but by bold
+conjecture. "_Till_ my tackle," should be, I think, "_While_," &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. B. and F. always write as if virtue or goodness were a
+sort of talisman, or strange something, that might be lost without the
+least fault on the part of the owner. In short, their chaste ladies value
+their chastity as a material thing,--not as an act or state of being; and
+this mere thing being imaginary, no wonder that all their women are
+represented with the minds of strumpets, except a few irrational
+humourists, far less capable of exciting our sympathy than a Hindoo who
+has had a basin of cow-broth thrown over him;--for this, though a debasing
+superstition, is still real, and we might pity the poor wretch, though we
+cannot help despising him. But B. and F.'s Lucinas are clumsy fictions. It
+is too plain that the authors had no one idea of chastity as a virtue, but
+only such a conception as a blind man might have of the power of seeing by
+handling an ox's eye. In _The Queen of Corinth_, indeed, they talk
+differently; but it is all talk, and nothing is real in it but the dread
+of losing a reputation. Hence the frightful contrast between their women
+(even those who are meant for virtuous) and Shakespeare's. So, for
+instance, _The Maid in the Mill_:--a woman must not merely have grown old
+in brothels, but have chuckled over every abomination committed in them
+with a rampant sympathy of imagination, to have had her fancy so drunk
+with the _minutiæ_ of lechery as this icy chaste virgin evinces hers to
+have been.
+
+It would be worth while to note how many of these plays are founded on
+rapes,--how many on incestuous passions, and how many on mere lunacies.
+Then their virtuous women are either crazy superstitions of a mere bodily
+negation of having been acted on, or strumpets in their imaginations and
+wishes, or, as in this _Maid in the Mill_, both at the same time. In the
+men, the love is merely lust in one direction,--exclusive preference of one
+object. The tyrant's speeches are mostly taken from the mouths of
+indignant denouncers of the tyrant's character, with the substitution of
+"I" for "he,"" and the omission of the prefatory "he acts as if he
+thought" so and so. The only feelings they can possibly excite are disgust
+at the Æciuses, if regarded as sane loyalists, or compassion if considered
+as Bedlamites. So much for their tragedies. But even their comedies are,
+most of them, disturbed by the fantasticalness, or gross caricature, of
+the persons or incidents. There are few characters that you can really
+like (even though you should have erased from your mind all the filth
+which bespatters the most likeable of them, as Piniero in _The Island
+Princess_ for instance),--scarcely one whom you can love. How different
+this from Shakespeare, who makes one have a sort of sneaking affection
+even for his Barnardines;--whose very Iagos and Richards are awful, and, by
+the counteracting power of profound intellects, rendered fearful rather
+than hateful;--and even the exceptions, as Goneril and Regan, are proofs of
+superlative judgment and the finest moral tact, in being left utter
+monsters, _nulla virtute redemptæ_, and in being kept out of sight as much
+as possible,--they being, indeed, only means for the excitement and
+deepening of noblest emotions towards the Lear, Cordelia, &c. and employed
+with the severest economy! But even Shakespeare's grossness--that which is
+really so, independently of the increase in modern times of vicious
+associations with things indifferent (for there is a state of manners
+conceivable so pure, that the language of Hamlet at Ophelia's feet might
+be a harmless rallying, or playful teazing, of a shame that would exist in
+Paradise)--at the worst, how diverse in kind is it from Beaumont and
+Fletcher's! In Shakespeare it is the mere generalities of sex, mere words
+for the most part, seldom or never distinct images, all head-work, and
+fancy drolleries; there is no sensation supposed in the speaker. I need
+not proceed to contrast this with B. and F.
+
+
+
+
+"Rollo."
+
+
+This, perhaps, the most energetic of Fletcher's tragedies. He evidently
+aimed at a new Richard III. in Rollo;--but, as in all his other imitations
+of Shakespeare, he was not philosopher enough to bottom his original.
+Thus, in Rollo, he has produced a mere personification of outrageous
+wickedness, with no fundamental characteristic impulses to make either the
+tyrant's words or actions philosophically intelligible. Hence the most
+pathetic situations border on the horrible, and what he meant for the
+terrible, is either hateful, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or ludicrous. The scene of
+Baldwin's sentence in the third act is probably the grandest working of
+passion in all B. and F.'s dramas;--but the very magnificence of filial
+affection given to Edith, in this noble scene, renders the after scene (in
+imitation of one of the least Shakespearian of all Shakespeare's works, if
+it be his, the scene between Richard and Lady Anne) in which Edith is
+yielding to a few words and tears, not only unnatural, but disgusting. In
+Shakespeare, Lady Anne is described as a weak, vain, very woman
+throughout.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Gis._ He is indeed the perfect character
+Of a good man, and so his actions speak him."
+
+This character of Aubrey, and the whole spirit of this and several other
+plays of the same authors, are interesting as traits of the morals which
+it was fashionable to teach in the reigns of James I. and his successor,
+who died a martyr to them. Stage, pulpit, law, fashion,--all conspired to
+enslave the realm. Massinger's plays breathe the opposite spirit;
+Shakespeare's the spirit of wisdom which is for all ages. By the by, the
+Spanish dramatists--Calderon, in particular,--had some influence in this
+respect, of romantic loyalty to the greatest monsters, as well as in the
+busy intrigues of B. and F.'s plays.
+
+
+
+
+"The Wildgoose Chase."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Belleur's speech:--
+
+... "That wench, methinks,
+If I were but well set on, for she is a _fable_,
+If I were but hounded right, and one to teach me."
+
+Sympson reads "affable," which Colman rejects, and says, "the next line
+seems to enforce" the reading in the text.
+
+Pity, that the editor did not explain wherein the sense, "seemingly
+enforced by the next line," consists. May the true word be "a sable"--that
+is, a black fox, hunted for its precious fur? Or "at-able,"--as we now
+say,--"she is come-at-able?"
+
+
+
+
+"A Wife For A Month."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 1. Alphonso's speech:--
+
+"Betwixt the cold bear and the raging lion
+Lies my safe way."
+
+Seward's note and alteration to--
+
+"'Twixt the cold bears, far from the raging lion"--
+
+This Mr. Seward is a blockhead of the provoking species. In his itch for
+correction, he forgot the words--"lies my safe way!" The bear is the
+extreme pole, and thither he would travel over the space contained between
+it and "the raging lion."
+
+
+
+
+"The Pilgrim."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+Alinda's interview with her father is lively, and happily hit off; but
+this scene with Roderigo is truly excellent. Altogether, indeed, this play
+holds the first place in B. and F.'s romantic entertainments,
+_Lustspiele_, which collectively are their happiest performances, and are
+only inferior to the romance of Shakespeare in the _As You Like It_,
+_Twelfth Night_, &c.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Alin._ To-day you shall wed Sorrow,
+And Repentance will come to-morrow."
+
+Read "Penitence," or else--
+
+"Repentance, she will come to-morrow."
+
+
+
+
+"The Queen Of Corinth."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+Merione's speech. Had the scene of this tragi-comedy been laid in
+Hindostan instead of Corinth, and the gods here addressed been the Vishnu
+and Co. of the Indian Pantheon, this rant would not have been much amiss.
+
+In respect of style and versification, this play and the following of
+_Bonduca_ may be taken as the best, and yet as characteristic, specimens
+of Beaumont and Fletcher's dramas. I particularly instance the first scene
+of the _Bonduca_. Take Shakespeare's _Richard II._, and having selected
+some one scene of about the same number of lines, and consisting mostly of
+long speeches, compare it with the first scene in _Bonduca_,--not for the
+idle purpose of finding out which is the better, but in order to see and
+understand the difference. The latter, that of B. and F., you will find a
+well-arranged bed of flowers, each having its separate root, and its
+position determined aforehand by the will of the gardener,--each fresh
+plant a fresh volition. In the former you see an Indian fig-tree, as
+described by Milton;--all is growth, evolution;--each line, each word
+almost, begets the following, and the will of the writer is an
+interfusion, a continuous agency, and not a series of separate acts.
+Shakespeare is the height, breadth, and depth of Genius: Beaumont and
+Fletcher the excellent mechanism, in juxta-position and succession, of
+talent.
+
+
+
+
+"The Noble Gentleman."
+
+
+Why have the dramatists of the times of Elizabeth, James I., and the first
+Charles become almost obsolete, with the exception of Shakespeare? Why do
+they no longer belong to the English, being once so popular? And why is
+Shakespeare an exception?--One thing, among fifty, necessary to the full
+solution is, that they all employed poetry and poetic diction on unpoetic
+subjects, both characters and situations, especially in their comedy. Now
+Shakespeare is all, all ideal,--of no time, and therefore for all times.
+Read, for instance, Marine's panegyric in the first scene of this play:--
+
+          ... "Know
+The eminent court, to them that can be wise,
+And fasten on her blessings, is a sun," &c.
+
+What can be more unnatural and inappropriate (not only is, but must be
+felt as such) than such poetry in the mouth of a silly dupe? In short, the
+scenes are mock dialogues, in which the poet _solus_ plays the
+ventriloquist, but cannot keep down his own way of expressing himself.
+Heavy complaints have been made respecting the transposing of the old
+plays by Cibber; but it never occurred to these critics to ask, how it
+came that no one ever attempted to transpose a comedy of Shakespeare's.
+
+
+
+
+"The Coronation."
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Seleucus:--
+
+"Altho' he be my enemy, should any
+Of the gay flies that buz about the court,
+_Sit_ to catch trouts i' the summer, tell me so,
+I durst," &c.
+
+Colman's note.
+
+Pshaw! "Sit" is either a misprint for "set," or the old and still
+provincial word for "set," as the participle passive of "seat" or "set." I
+have heard an old Somersetshire gardener say:--"Look, Sir! I set these
+plants here; those yonder I _sit_ yesterday."
+
+Act ii. Speech of Arcadius:--
+
+"Nay, some will swear they love their mistress,
+Would hazard lives and fortunes," &c.
+
+Read thus:--
+
+"Nay, some will swear they love their mistress so,
+They would hazard lives and fortunes to preserve
+One of her hairs brighter than Berenice's,
+Or young Apollo's; and yet, after this," &c.
+
+"They would hazard"--furnishes an anapæst for an _iambus_. "And yet," which
+must be read, _anyet_, is an instance of the enclitic force in an accented
+monosyllable. "And yet," is a complete _iambus_; but _anyet_ is, like
+_spirit_, a dibrach u u, trocheized, however, by the _arsis_ or first
+accent damping, though not extinguishing, the second.
+
+
+
+
+"Wit At Several Weapons."
+
+
+Act i. Oldcraft's speech:--
+
+"I'm arm'd at all points," &c.
+
+It would be very easy to restore all this passage to metre, by supplying a
+sentence of four syllables, which the reasoning almost demands, and by
+correcting the grammar. Read thus:--
+
+"Arm'd at all points 'gainst treachery, I hold
+My humour firm. If, living, I can see thee
+Thrive by thy wits, I shall have the more courage,
+Dying, to trust thee with my lands. If not,
+The best wit, I can hear of, carries them.
+For since so many in my time and knowledge,
+Rich children of the city, have concluded
+_For lack of wit_ in beggary, I'd rather
+Make a wise stranger my executor,
+Than a fool son my heir, and have my lands call'd
+After my wit than name: and that's my nature!"
+
+_Ib._ Oldcraft's speech:--
+
+"To prevent which I have sought out a match for her."
+
+Read--
+
+"Which to prevent I've sought a match out for her."
+
+_Ib._ Sir Gregory's speech:--
+
+          ... "_Do you think_
+I'll have any of the wits hang upon me after I am married once?"
+
+Read it thus:--
+
+          ... "Do you think
+That I'll have any of the wits to hang
+Upon me after I am married once?"
+
+and afterwards--
+
+         ... "Is it a fashion in London
+To marry a woman, and to never see her?"
+
+The superfluous "to" gives it the Sir Andrew Ague-cheek character.
+
+
+
+
+"The Fair Maid Of The Inn."
+
+
+Act ii. Speech of Albertus:--
+
+          ... "But, Sir,
+By my life, I vow to take assurance from you,
+That right hand never more shall strike my son,
+
+Chop his hand off!"
+
+In this (as, indeed, in all other respects, but most in this) it is that
+Shakespeare is so incomparably superior to Fletcher and his friend,--in
+judgment! What can be conceived more unnatural and motiveless than this
+brutal resolve? How is it possible to feel the least interest in Albertus
+afterwards? or in Cesario after his conduct?
+
+
+
+
+"The Two Noble Kinsmen."
+
+
+On comparing the prison scene of _Palamon and Arcite_, act ii. sc. 2, with
+the dialogue between the same speakers, act i. sc. 2, I can scarcely
+retain a doubt as to the first act's having been written by Shakespeare.
+Assuredly it was not written by B. and F. I hold Jonson more probable than
+either of these two.
+
+The main presumption, however, for Shakespeare's share in this play rests
+on a point, to which the sturdy critics of this edition (and indeed all
+before them) were blind,--that is, the construction of the blank verse,
+which proves beyond all doubt an intentional imitation, if not the proper
+hand, of Shakespeare. Now, whatever improbability there is in the former
+(which supposes Fletcher conscious of the inferiority, the too poematic
+_minus_-dramatic nature of his versification, and of which, there is
+neither proof nor likelihood) adds so much to the probability of the
+latter. On the other hand, the harshness of many of these very passages, a
+harshness unrelieved by any lyrical inter-breathings, and still more the
+want of profundity in the thoughts, keep me from an absolute decision.
+
+Act i. sc. 3. Emilia's speech:--
+
+          ... "Since his depart, his _sports_,
+Tho' craving seriousness and skill," &c.
+
+I conjecture "imports,"--that is, duties or offices of importance. The flow
+of the versification in this speech seems to demand the trochaic ending -
+u; while the text blends jingle and _hisses_ to the annoyance of less
+sensitive ears than Fletcher's--not to say, Shakespeare's.
+
+
+
+
+"The Woman Hater."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2.--
+
+This scene from the beginning is prose printed as blank verse, down to the
+line--
+
+"E'en all the valiant stomachs in the court"--
+
+where the verse recommences. This transition from the prose to the verse
+enhances, and indeed forms the comic effect. Lazarillo concludes his
+soliloquy with a hymn to the goddess of plenty.
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Advertisement.
+
+
+_NEW EDITION, REVISED._
+
+AIDS TO REFLECTION
+
+IN THE FORMATION OF A MANLY CHARACTER, ON THE SEVERAL GROUNDS OF PRUDENCE,
+MORALITY, AND RELIGION.
+
+BY S. T. COLERIDGE.
+
+WITH A COPIOUS INDEX TO THE WORK, AND TRANSLATIONS OF THE GREEK AND LATIN
+QUOTATIONS.
+
+BY THOMAS FENBY.
+
+400 pp. _Fscp. 8vo, cloth extra_, 3/6.
+
+EDWARD HOWELL, PUBLISHER, LIVERPOOL
+
+MDCCCLXXIV.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
+CREDITS
+
+
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+  
+
+
+<div lang="en" class="tei tei-text" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 2.00em" xml:lang="en">
+  <div class="tei tei-front" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <div id="pgheader" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em">The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher by S. T. Coleridge</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost
+          and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it,
+          give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project
+          Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this
+          eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher
+
+Author: S. T. Coleridge
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2008 [Ebook #25585]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+</pre></div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      
+    </div>
+
+    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-weight: 700">Shakespeare</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Ben Jonson</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Beaumont And Fletcher</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Notes and Lectures</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">by S. T. Coleridge</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">New Edition</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Liverpool</p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Edward Howell</p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">MDCCCLXXIV</p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>
+      <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Shakespeare</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc3">Definition Of Poetry.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc5">Greek Drama.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc7">Progress Of The Drama.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc9">The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc11">Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc13">Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc15">Recapitulation, And Summary
+Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's Dramas.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc17">Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc19">Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">Notes On The “Tempest.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">“Love's Labour's Lost.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc25">“Midsummer Night's Dream.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc27">“Comedy Of Errors.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">“As You Like It.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">“Twelfth Night.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc33">“All's Well That Ends Well.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc35">“Merry Wives Of Windsor.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc37">“Measure For Measure.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">“Cymbeline.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc41">“Titus Andronicus.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc43">“Troilus And Cressida.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc45">“Coriolanus.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc47">“Julius Cæsar.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc49">“Antony And Cleopatra.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc51">“Timon Of Athens.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc53">“Romeo And Juliet.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc55">Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc57">“King John.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc59">“Richard II.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc61">“Henry IV.—Part I.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc63">“Henry IV.—Part II.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc65">“Henry V.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc67">“Henry VI.—Part I.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc69">“Richard III.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc71">“Lear.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc73">“Hamlet.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc75">“Macbeth.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc77">“Winter's Tale.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc79">“Othello.�</a></li><li><a href="#toc81">Notes on Ben Jonson.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc83">Whalley's Preface.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc85">“Whalley's ‘Life Of Jonson.’ �</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc87">“Every Man Out Of His Humour.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc89">“Poetaster.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc91">“Fall Of Sejanus.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc93">“Volpone.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc95">“Apicæne.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc97">“The Alchemist.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc99">“Catiline's Conspiracy.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc101">“Bartholomew Fair.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc103">“The Devil Is An Ass.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc105">“The Staple Of News.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc107">“The New Inn.�</a></li><li><a href="#toc109">Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc111">Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc113">Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc115">“Maid's Tragedy.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc117">“A King And No King.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc119">“The Scornful Lady.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc121">“The Custom Of The Country.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc123">“The Elder Brother.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc125">“The Spanish Curate.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc127">“Wit Without Money.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc129">“The Humorous Lieutenant.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc131">“The Mad Lover.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc133">“The Loyal Subject.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc135">“Rule A Wife And Have A Wife.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc137">“The Laws Of Candy.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc139">“The Little French Lawyer.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc141">“Valentinian.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc143">“Rollo.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc145">“The Wildgoose Chase.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc147">“A Wife For A Month.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc149">“The Pilgrim.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc151">“The Queen Of Corinth.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc153">“The Noble Gentleman.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc155">“The Coronation.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc157">“Wit At Several Weapons.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc159">“The Fair Maid Of The Inn.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc161">“The Two Noble Kinsmen.�</a></li><li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc163">“The Woman Hater.�</a></li></ul>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name="Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a>
+<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Shakespeare, With introductory matter on Poetry, the
+Drama, and the Stage.
+</span></h1>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a>
+<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Definition Of Poetry.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Poetry is not the proper antithesis to prose,
+but to science. Poetry is opposed to science,
+and prose to metre. The proper and immediate
+object of science is the acquirement, or communication,
+of truth; the proper and immediate object
+of poetry is the communication of immediate pleasure.
+This definition is useful; but as it would
+include novels and other works of fiction, which
+yet we do not call poems, there must be some
+additional character by which poetry is not only
+divided from opposites, but likewise distinguished
+from disparate, though similar, modes of composition.
+Now how is this to be effected? In animated
+prose, the beauties of nature, and the passions and
+accidents of human nature, are often expressed in
+that natural language which the contemplation of
+them would suggest to a pure and benevolent
+mind; yet still neither we nor the writers call such
+a work a poem, though no work could deserve that
+name which did not include all this, together with
+something else. What is this? It is that pleasurable
+emotion, that peculiar state and degree of
+excitement, which arises in the poet himself in the
+act of composition;—and in order to understand
+this, we must combine a more than ordinary sympathy
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+with the objects, emotions, or incidents contemplated
+by the poet, consequent on a more than
+common sensibility, with a more than ordinary
+activity of the mind in respect of the fancy and
+the imagination. Hence is produced a more vivid
+reflection of the truths of nature and of the human
+heart, united with a constant activity modifying
+and correcting these truths by that sort of pleasurable
+emotion, which the exertion of all our faculties
+gives in a certain degree; but which can only
+be felt in perfection under the full play of those
+powers of mind, which are spontaneous rather than
+voluntary, and in which the effort required bears
+no proportion to the activity enjoyed. This is the
+state which permits the production of a highly
+pleasurable whole, of which each part shall also
+communicate for itself a distinct and conscious
+pleasure; and hence arises the definition, which I
+trust is now intelligible, that poetry, or rather a
+poem, is a species of composition, opposed to
+science, as having intellectual pleasure for its
+object, and as attaining its end by the use of
+language natural to us in a state of excitement,—but
+distinguished from other species of composition,
+not excluded by the former criterion, by
+permitting a pleasure from the whole consistent
+with a consciousness of pleasure from the component
+parts;—and the perfection of which is, to
+communicate from each part the greatest immediate
+pleasure compatible with the largest sum
+of pleasure on the whole. This, of course, will
+vary with the different modes of poetry;—and
+that splendour of particular lines, which would
+be worthy of admiration in an impassioned elegy,
+or a short indignant satire, would be a blemish
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and proof of vile taste in a tragedy or an epic
+poem.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is remarkable, by the way, that Milton in
+three incidental words has implied all which for
+the purposes of more distinct apprehension, which
+at first must be slow-paced in order to be distinct,
+I have endeavoured to develope in a precise and
+strictly adequate definition. Speaking of poetry,
+he says, as in a parenthesis, <span class="tei tei-q">“which is simple,
+sensuous, passionate.�</span> How awful is the power of
+words!—fearful often in their consequences when
+merely felt, not understood; but most awful when
+both felt and understood!—Had these three words
+only been properly understood by, and present in
+the minds of, general readers, not only almost
+a library of false poetry would have been either
+precluded or still-born, but, what is of more consequence,
+works truly excellent and capable of
+enlarging the understanding, warming and purifying
+the heart, and placing in the centre of the
+whole being the germs of noble and manlike
+actions, would have been the common diet of the
+intellect instead. For the first condition, simplicity,—while,
+on the one hand, it distinguishes
+poetry from the arduous processes of science,
+labouring towards an end not yet arrived at, and
+supposes a smooth and finished road, on which the
+reader is to walk onward easily, with streams murmuring
+by his side, and trees and flowers and
+human dwellings to make his journey as delightful
+as the object of it is desirable, instead of
+having to toil with the pioneers and painfully
+make the road on which others are to travel,—precludes,
+on the other hand, every affectation and
+morbid peculiarity;—the second condition, sensuousness,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+insures that framework of objectivity,
+that definiteness and articulation of imagery, and
+that modification of the images themselves, without
+which poetry becomes flattened into mere
+didactics of practice, or evaporated into a hazy,
+unthoughtful, day-dreaming; and the third condition,
+passion, provides that neither thought nor
+imagery shall be simply objective, but that the
+<span lang="it" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style="font-style: italic">passio vera</span></span>
+of humanity shall warm and animate both.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To return, however, to the previous definition,
+this most general and distinctive character of a
+poem originates in the poetic genius itself; and
+though it comprises whatever can with any propriety
+be called a poem (unless that word be a
+mere lazy synonym for a composition in metre),
+it yet becomes a just, and not merely discriminative,
+but full and adequate, definition of poetry in
+its highest and most peculiar sense, only so far
+as the distinction still results from the poetic
+genius, which sustains and modifies the emotions,
+thoughts, and vivid representations of the poem
+by the energy without effort of the poet's own
+mind,—by the spontaneous activity of his imagination
+and fancy, and by whatever else with
+these reveals itself in the balancing and reconciling
+of opposite or discordant qualities, sameness
+with difference, a sense of novelty and freshness
+with old or customary objects, a more than usual
+state of emotion with more than usual order, self-possession
+and judgment with enthusiasm and
+vehement feeling,—and which, while it blends
+and harmonizes the natural and the artificial, still
+subordinates art to nature, the manner to the
+matter, and our admiration of the poet to our
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+sympathy with the images, passions, characters,
+and incidents of the poem:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Doubtless, this could not be, but that she turns</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bodies to <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">spirit</span></em> by sublimation strange,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As fire converts to fire the things it burns—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As we our food into our nature change!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“From their gross matter she abstracts <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">their</span></em> forms,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And draws a kind of quintessence from things,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which to her proper nature she transforms</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To bear them light on her celestial wings!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Thus</span></em> doth she, when from <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">individual states</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">She doth abstract the universal kinds,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Which then reclothed in divers names and fates</span></em></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Steal access thro' our senses to our minds</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a>
+<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Greek Drama.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is truly singular that Plato,—whose philosophy
+and religion were but exotic at home,
+and a mere opposition to the finite in all things,
+genuine prophet and anticipator as he was of the
+Protestant Christian æra,—should have given in
+his Dialogue of the Banquet, a justification of
+our Shakespeare. For he relates that, when all
+the other guests had either dispersed or fallen
+asleep, Socrates only, together with Aristophanes
+and Agathon, remained awake, and that, while he
+continued to drink with them out of a large goblet,
+he compelled them, though most reluctantly, to
+admit that it was the business of one and the same
+genius to excel in tragic and comic poetry, or that
+the tragic poet ought, at the same time, to contain
+within himself the powers of comedy. Now, as
+this was directly repugnant to the entire theory of
+the ancient critics, and contrary to all their experience,
+it is evident that Plato must have fixed the
+eye of his contemplation on the innermost essentials
+of the drama, abstracted from the forms of
+age or country. In another passage he even adds
+the reason, namely, that opposites illustrate each
+other's nature, and in their struggle draw forth
+the strength of the combatants, and display the
+conqueror as sovereign even on the territories of
+the rival power.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Nothing can more forcibly exemplify the separative
+spirit of the Greek arts than their comedy as
+opposed to their tragedy. But as the immediate
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+struggle of contraries supposes an arena common
+to both, so both were alike ideal; that is, the
+comedy of Aristophanes rose to as great a distance
+above the ludicrous of real life, as the tragedy of
+Sophocles above its tragic events and passions,—and
+it is in this one point, of absolute ideality,
+that the comedy of Shakespeare and the old comedy
+of Athens coincide. In this also alone did the
+Greek tragedy and comedy unite; in every thing
+else they were exactly opposed to each other.
+Tragedy is poetry in its deepest earnest; comedy
+is poetry in unlimited jest. Earnestness consists
+in the direction and convergence of all the powers
+of the soul to one aim, and in the voluntary restraint
+of its activity in consequence; the opposite,
+therefore, lies in the apparent abandonment of all
+definite aim or end, and in the removal of all
+bounds in the exercise of the mind,—attaining its
+real end, as an entire contrast, most perfectly, the
+greater the display is of intellectual wealth squandered
+in the wantonness of sport without an object,
+and the more abundant the life and vivacity in the
+creations of the arbitrary will.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The later comedy, even where it was really
+comic, was doubtless likewise more comic, the more
+free it appeared from any fixed aim. Misunderstandings
+of intention, fruitless struggles of absurd
+passion, contradictions of temper, and laughable
+situations there were; but still the form of the representation
+itself was serious; it proceeded as
+much according to settled laws, and used as much
+the same means of art, though to a different purpose,
+as the regular tragedy itself. But in the old
+comedy the very form itself is whimsical; the
+whole work is one great jest, comprehending a
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+world of jests within it, among which each maintains
+its own place without seeming to concern
+itself as to the relation in which it may stand to its
+fellows. In short, in Sophocles, the constitution of
+tragedy is monarchical, but such as it existed in
+elder Greece, limited by laws, and therefore the
+more venerable,—all the parts adapting and submitting
+themselves to the majesty of the heroic
+sceptre:—in Aristophanes, comedy, on the contrary,
+is poetry in its most democratic form, and it
+is a fundamental principle with it, rather to risk all
+the confusion of anarchy, than to destroy the
+independence and privileges of its individual constituents,—place,
+verse, characters, even single
+thoughts, conceits, and allusions, each turning on
+the pivot of its own free will.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The tragic poet idealizes his characters by giving
+to the spiritual part of our nature a more decided
+preponderance over the animal cravings and impulses,
+than is met with in real life: the comic
+poet idealizes his characters by making the animal
+the governing power, and the intellectual the mere
+instrument. But as tragedy is not a collection of
+virtues and perfections, but takes care only that
+the vices and imperfections shall spring from the
+passions, errors, and prejudices which arise out of
+the soul;—so neither is comedy a mere crowd of
+vices and follies, but whatever qualities it represents,
+even though they are in a certain sense
+amiable, it still displays them as having their origin
+in some dependence on our lower nature, accompanied
+with a defect in true freedom of spirit and
+self-subsistence, and subject to that unconnection
+by contradictions of the inward being, to which
+all folly is owing.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The ideal of earnest poetry consists in the union
+and harmonious melting down, and fusion of the
+sensual into the spiritual,—of man as an animal
+into man as a power of reason and self-government.
+And this we have represented to us most
+clearly in the plastic art, or statuary; where the
+perfection of outward form is a symbol of the perfection
+of an inward idea; where the body is
+wholly penetrated by the soul, and spiritualized
+even to a state of glory, and like a transparent
+substance, the matter, in its own nature darkness,
+becomes altogether a vehicle and fixture of light, a
+means of developing its beauties, and unfolding its
+wealth of various colours without disturbing its
+unity, or causing a division of the parts. The
+sportive ideal, on the contrary, consists in the perfect
+harmony and concord of the higher nature
+with the animal, as with its ruling principle and its
+acknowledged regent. The understanding and
+practical reason are represented as the willing
+slaves of the senses and appetites, and of the passions
+arising out of them. Hence we may admit
+the appropriateness to the old comedy, as a work
+of defined art, of allusions and descriptions, which
+morality can never justify, and, only with reference
+to the author himself, and only as being the effect
+or rather the cause of the circumstances in which
+he wrote, can consent even to palliate.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The old comedy rose to its perfection in Aristophanes,
+and in him also it died with the freedom of
+Greece. Then arose a species of drama, more fitly
+called dramatic entertainment than comedy, but of
+which, nevertheless, our modern comedy (Shakespeare's
+altogether excepted) is the genuine descendant.
+Euripides had already brought tragedy lower
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+down and by many steps nearer to the real world
+than his predecessors had ever done, and the passionate
+admiration which Menander and Philemon
+expressed for him, and their open avowals that he
+was their great master, entitle us to consider their
+dramas as of a middle species, between tragedy and
+comedy,—not the tragi-comedy, or thing of heterogeneous
+parts, but a complete whole, founded on
+principles of its own. Throughout we find the
+drama of Menander distinguishing itself from tragedy,
+but not as the genuine old comedy, contrasting
+with, and opposing it. Tragedy, indeed, carried
+the thoughts into the mythologic world, in order
+to raise the emotions, the fears, and the hopes,
+which convince the inmost heart that their final
+cause is not to be discovered in the limits of mere
+mortal life, and force us into a presentiment, however
+dim, of a state in which those struggles of inward
+free will with outward necessity, which form
+the true subject of the tragedian, shall be reconciled
+and solved;—the entertainment or new comedy,
+on the other hand, remained within the circle of
+experience. Instead of the tragic destiny, it introduced
+the power of chance; even in the few fragments
+of Menander and Philemon now remaining
+to us, we find many exclamations and reflections
+concerning chance and fortune, as in the tragic
+poets concerning destiny. In tragedy, the moral
+law, either as obeyed or violated, above all consequences—its
+own maintenance or violation
+constituting the most important of all consequences—forms
+the ground; the new comedy,
+and our modern comedy in general (Shakespeare
+excepted as before) lies in prudence or imprudence,
+enlightened or misled self-love. The whole moral
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+system of the entertainment exactly like that of
+fable, consists in rules of prudence, with an exquisite
+conciseness, and at the same time an
+exhaustive fulness of sense. An old critic said
+that tragedy was the flight or elevation of life,
+comedy (that of Menander) its arrangement or
+ordonnance.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Add to these features a portrait-like truth of
+character,—not so far indeed as that a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bona fide</span></span>
+individual should be described or imagined, but yet
+so that the features which give interest and permanence
+to the class should be individualized. The old
+tragedy moved in an ideal world,—the old comedy
+in a fantastic world. As the entertainment, or new
+comedy, restrained the creative activity both of
+the fancy and the imagination, it indemnified the
+understanding in appealing to the judgment for the
+probability of the scenes represented. The ancients
+themselves acknowledged the new comedy as an
+exact copy of real life. The grammarian, Aristophanes,
+somewhat affectedly exclaimed:—<span class="tei tei-q">“O Life
+and Menander! which of you two imitated the
+other?�</span> In short the form of this species of drama
+was poetry, the stuff or matter was prose. It was
+prose rendered delightful by the blandishments
+and measured motions of the muse. Yet even this
+was not universal. The mimes of Sophron, so
+passionately admired by Plato, were written in
+prose, and were scenes out of real life conducted
+in dialogue. The exquisite feast of Adonis
+(Συ�ακούσιαι ῆ Ἀδωνιάζουσαι) in Theocritus, we are
+told, with some others of his eclogues, were close
+imitations of certain mimes of Sophron—free translations
+of the prose into hexameters.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It will not be improper, in this place, to make a
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+few remarks on the remarkable character and functions
+of the chorus in the Greek tragic drama.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The chorus entered from below, close by the
+orchestra, and there, pacing to and fro during the
+choral odes, performed their solemn measured
+dance. In the centre of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">orchestra</span></span>, directly
+over against the middle of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">scene</span></span>, there stood an
+elevation with steps in the shape of a large altar,
+as high as the boards of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">logeion</span></span> or moveable
+stage. This elevation was named the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">thymele</span></span>
+(θυμέλη), and served to recall the origin and original
+purpose of the chorus, as an altar-song in honour
+of the presiding deity. Here, and on these steps
+the persons of the chorus sate collectively, when
+they were not singing; attending to the dialogue
+as spectators, and acting as (what in truth they
+were) the ideal representatives of the real audience,
+and of the poet himself in his own character,
+assuming the supposed impressions made by the
+drama, in order to direct and rule them. But when
+the chorus itself formed part of the dialogue, then
+the leader of the band, the foreman, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">coryphæus</span></span>,
+ascended, as some think, the level summit of the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">thymele</span></span> in order to command the stage, or, perhaps,
+the whole chorus advanced to the front of the orchestra,
+and thus put themselves in ideal connection,
+as it were, with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dramatis personæ</span></span> there acting.
+This <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">thymele</span></span> was in the centre of the whole edifice,
+all the measurements were calculated, and the semi-circle
+of the amphitheatre was drawn from this
+point. It had a double use, a twofold purpose; it
+constantly reminded the spectators of the origin of
+tragedy as a religious service, and declared itself
+as the ideal representative of the audience by
+having its place exactly in the point, to which all
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the radii from the different seats or benches converged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this double character, as constituent parts,
+and yet at the same time as spectators, of the drama,
+the chorus could not but tend to enforce the unity
+of place;—not on the score of any supposed improbability,
+which the understanding or common sense
+might detect in a change of place;—but because the
+senses themselves put it out of the power of any
+imagination to conceive a place coming to, and
+going away from the persons, instead of the persons
+changing their place. Yet there are instances,
+in which, during the silence of the chorus, the poets
+have hazarded this by a change in that part of the
+scenery which represented the more distant objects
+to the eye of the spectator—a demonstrative proof,
+that this alternately extolled and ridiculed unity
+(as ignorantly ridiculed as extolled) was grounded
+on no essential principle of reason, but arose out of
+circumstances which the poet could not remove,
+and therefore took up into the form of the drama,
+and co-organised it with all the other parts into a
+living whole.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The Greek tragedy may rather be compared to
+our serious opera than to the tragedies of Shakespeare;
+nevertheless, the difference is far greater
+than the likeness. In the opera all is subordinated
+to the music, the dresses, and the scenery;—the
+poetry is a mere vehicle for articulation, and as
+little pleasure is lost by ignorance of the Italian
+language, so is little gained by the knowledge of it.
+But in the Greek drama all was but as instruments
+and accessaries to the poetry; and hence we should
+form a better notion of the choral music from the
+solemn hymns and psalms of austere church music
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+than from any species of theatrical singing. A
+single flute or pipe was the ordinary accompaniment;
+and it is not to be supposed, that any display
+of musical power was allowed to obscure the distinct
+hearing of the words. On the contrary, the
+evident purpose was to render the words more
+audible, and to secure by the elevations and pauses
+greater facility of understanding the poetry. For
+the choral songs are, and ever must have been, the
+most difficult part of the tragedy; there occur in
+them the most involved verbal compounds, the
+newest expressions, the boldest images, the most
+recondite allusions. Is it credible that the poets
+would, one and all, have been thus prodigal of the
+stores of art and genius, if they had known that in
+the representation the whole must have been lost
+to the audience,—at a time too, when the means of
+after publication were so difficult and expensive,
+and the copies of their works so slowly and narrowly
+circulated?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The masks also must be considered—their vast
+variety and admirable workmanship. Of this we
+retain proof by the marble masks which represented
+them; but to this in the real mask we must add the
+thinness of the substance and the exquisite fitting
+on to the head of the actor; so that not only were
+the very eyes painted with a single opening left for
+the pupil of the actor's eye, but in some instances,
+even the iris itself was painted, when the colour
+was a known characteristic of the divine or heroic
+personage represented.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Finally, I will note down those fundamental
+characteristics which contradistinguish the ancient
+literature from the modern generally, but which
+more especially appear in prominence in the tragic
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+drama. The ancient was allied to statuary, the
+modern refers to painting. In the first there is a
+predominance of rhythm and melody, in the second
+of harmony and counterpoint. The Greeks idolized
+the finite, and therefore were the masters of all grace,
+elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity, majesty—of
+whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely
+conveyed by defined forms or thoughts: the moderns
+revere the infinite, and affect the indefinite as a
+vehicle of the infinite;—hence their passions, their
+obscure hopes and fears, their wandering through
+the unknown, their grander moral feelings, their
+more august conception of man as man, their
+future rather than their past—in a word, their
+sublimity.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a>
+<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Progress Of The Drama.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Let two persons join in the same scheme to
+ridicule a third, and either take advantage of,
+or invent, some story for that purpose, and mimicry
+will have already produced a sort of rude comedy.
+It becomes an inviting treat to the populace, and
+gains an additional zest and burlesque by following
+the already established plan of tragedy; and the
+first man of genius who seizes the idea, and reduces
+it into form,—into a work of art,—by metre and
+music, is the Aristophanes of the country.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How just this account is will appear from the
+fact that in the first or old comedy of the Athenians,
+most of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dramatis personæ</span></span> were living characters
+introduced under their own names; and no doubt,
+their ordinary dress, manner, person and voice
+were closely mimicked. In less favourable states
+of society, as that of England in the middle ages,
+the beginnings of comedy would be constantly
+taking place from the mimics and satirical minstrels;
+but from want of fixed abode, popular government,
+and the successive attendance of the same auditors,
+it would still remain in embryo. I shall, perhaps,
+have occasion to observe that this remark is not
+without importance in explaining the essential
+differences of the modern and ancient theatres.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Phenomena, similar to those which accompanied
+the origin of tragedy and comedy among the
+Greeks, would take place among the Romans much
+more slowly, and the drama would, in any case,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+have much longer remained in its first irregular
+form from the character of the people, their continual
+engagements in wars of conquest, the nature
+of their government, and their rapidly increasing
+empire. But, however this might have been, the
+conquest of Greece precluded both the process and
+the necessity of it; and the Roman stage at once
+presented imitations or translations of the Greek
+drama. This continued till the perfect establishment
+of Christianity. Some attempts, indeed, were
+made to adapt the persons of Scriptural or ecclesiastical
+history to the drama; and sacred plays, it
+is probable, were not unknown in Constantinople
+under the emperors of the East. The first of the
+kind is, I believe, the only one preserved,—namely,
+the Χ�ιστὸς Πάσχων, or, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ in his sufferings,�</span>
+by Gregory Nazianzen,—possibly written in
+consequence of the prohibition of profane literature
+to the Christians by the apostate Julian. In the
+West, however, the enslaved and debauched Roman
+world became too barbarous for any theatrical
+exhibitions more refined than those of pageants
+and chariot-races; while the spirit of Christianity,
+which in its most corrupt form still breathed general
+humanity, whenever controversies of faith were
+not concerned, had done away the cruel combats
+of the gladiators, and the loss of the distant provinces
+prevented the possibility of exhibiting the
+engagements of wild beasts.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I pass, therefore, at once to the feudal ages
+which soon succeeded, confining my observation to
+this country; though, indeed, the same remark
+with very few alterations will apply to all the
+other states, into which the great empire was
+broken. Ages of darkness succeeded;—not, indeed,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the darkness of Russia or of the barbarous
+lands unconquered by Rome; for from the time
+of Honorius to the destruction of Constantinople
+and the consequent introduction of ancient literature
+into Europe, there was a continued succession
+of individual intellects;—the golden chain was
+never wholly broken, though the connecting links
+were often of baser metal. A dark cloud, like
+another sky, covered the entire cope of heaven,—but
+in this place it thinned away, and white stains
+of light showed a half eclipsed star behind it,—in
+that place it was rent asunder, and a star
+passed across the opening in all its brightness,
+and then vanished. Such stars exhibited themselves
+only; surrounding objects did not partake
+of their light. There were deep wells of knowledge,
+but no fertilizing rills and rivulets. For
+the drama, society was altogether a state of chaos,
+out of which it was, for a while at least, to proceed
+anew, as if there had been none before it. And
+yet it is not undelightful to contemplate the
+education of good from evil. The ignorance of
+the great mass of our countrymen was the efficient
+cause of the reproduction of the drama;
+and the preceding darkness and the returning
+light were alike necessary in order to the creation
+of a Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The drama re-commenced in England, as it first
+began in Greece, in religion. The people were not
+able to read,—the priesthood were unwilling that
+they should read; and yet their own interest
+compelled them not to leave the people wholly
+ignorant of the great events of sacred history.
+They did that, therefore, by scenic representations,
+which in after ages it has been attempted to do in
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Roman Catholic countries by pictures. They presented
+Mysteries, and often at great expense; and
+reliques of this system still remain in the south of
+Europe, and indeed throughout Italy, where at
+Christmas the convents and the great nobles rival
+each other in the scenic representation of the
+birth of Christ and its circumstances. I heard
+two instances mentioned to me at different times,
+one in Sicily and the other in Rome, of noble
+devotees, the ruin of whose fortunes was said to
+have commenced in the extravagant expense
+which had been incurred in presenting the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">præsepe</span></span> or manger. But these Mysteries, in
+order to answer their design, must not only be
+instructive, but entertaining; and as, when they
+became so, the people began to take pleasure in
+acting them themselves—in interloping—(against
+which the priests seem to have fought hard and
+yet in vain) the most ludicrous images were
+mixed with the most awful personations; and
+whatever the subject might be, however sublime,
+however pathetic, yet the Vice and the Devil,
+who are the genuine antecessors of Harlequin
+and the Clown, were necessary component parts.
+I have myself a piece of this kind, which I transcribed
+a few years ago at Helmstadt, in Germany,
+on the education of Eve's children, in
+which after the fall and repentance of Adam, the
+offended Maker, as in proof of his reconciliation,
+condescends to visit them, and to catechise the
+children,—who with a noble contempt of chronology
+are all brought together from Abel to Noah.
+The good children say the ten Commandments,
+the Belief, and the Lord's Prayer; but Cain and
+his rout, after he had received a box on the ear
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+for not taking off his hat, and afterwards offering
+his left hand, is prompted by the devil so to
+blunder in the Lord's Prayer as to reverse the
+petitions and say it backward!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Unaffectedly I declare I feel pain at repetitions
+like these, however innocent. As historical documents
+they are valuable; but I am sensible that
+what I can read with my eye with perfect innocence,
+I cannot without inward fear and
+misgivings pronounce with my tongue.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Let me, however, be acquitted of presumption
+if I say that I cannot agree with Mr. Malone,
+that our ancestors did not perceive the ludicrous
+in these things, or that they paid no separate
+attention to the serious and comic parts. Indeed
+his own statement contradicts it. For what purpose
+should the Vice leap upon the Devil's back
+and belabour him, but to produce this separate
+attention? The people laughed heartily, no
+doubt. Nor can I conceive any meaning attached
+to the words <span class="tei tei-q">“separate attention,�</span> that
+is not fully answered by one part of an exhibition
+exciting seriousness or pity, and the other
+raising mirth and loud laughter. That they felt
+no impiety in the affair is most true. For it is
+the very essence of that system of Christian polytheism,
+which in all its essentials is now fully as
+gross in Spain, in Sicily, and the South of Italy, as
+it ever was in England in the days of Henry VI.
+(nay, more so, for a Wicliffe had not then appeared
+only, but scattered the good seed widely),—it
+is an essential part, I say, of that system to draw
+the mind wholly from its own inward whispers and
+quiet discriminations, and to habituate the conscience
+to pronounce sentence in every case according
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to the established verdicts of the church and
+the casuists. I have looked through volume after
+volume of the most approved casuists,—and still I
+find disquisitions whether this or that act is right,
+and under what circumstances, to a minuteness
+that makes reasoning ridiculous, and of a callous
+and unnatural immodesty, to which none but a
+monk could harden himself, who has been stripped
+of all the tender charities of life, yet is goaded on
+to make war against them by the unsubdued
+hauntings of our meaner nature, even as dogs are
+said to get the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hydrophobia</span></span> from excessive thirst.
+I fully believe that our ancestors laughed as
+heartily, as their posterity do at Grimaldi;—and
+not having been told that they would be punished
+for laughing, they thought it very innocent;—and
+if their priests had left out murder in the catalogue
+of their prohibitions (as indeed they did under
+certain circumstances of heresy), the greater part
+of them,—the moral instincts common to all men
+having been smothered and kept from development,—would
+have thought as little of murder.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+However this may be, the necessity of at once
+instructing and gratifying the people produced the
+great distinction between the Greek and the English
+theatres;—for to this we must attribute the
+origin of tragi-comedy, or a representation of
+human events more lively, nearer the truth, and
+permitting a larger field of moral instruction, a
+more ample exhibition of the recesses of the human
+heart, under all the trials and circumstances that
+most concern us, than was known or guessed at by
+Æschylus, Sophocles, or Euripides;—and at the
+same time we learn to account for, and—relatively
+to the author—perceive the necessity of, the Fool
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+or Clown or both, as the substitutes of the Vice
+and the Devil, which our ancestors had been so
+accustomed to see in every exhibition of the stage,
+that they could not feel any performance perfect
+without them. Even to this day in Italy, every
+opera—(even Metastasio obeyed the claim throughout)—must
+have six characters, generally two pairs
+of cross lovers, a tyrant and a confidant, or a
+father and two confidants, themselves lovers;—and
+when a new opera appears, it is the universal
+fashion to ask—which is the tyrant, which the
+lover? &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is the especial honour of Christianity, that in
+its worst and most corrupted form it cannot wholly
+separate itself from morality;—whereas the other
+religions in their best form (I do not include
+Mohammedanism, which is only an anomalous corruption
+of Christianity, like Swedenborgianism)
+have no connection with it. The very impersonation
+of moral evil under the name of Vice,
+facilitated all other impersonations; and hence we
+see that the Mysteries were succeeded by Moralities,
+or dialogues and plots of allegorical personages.
+Again, some character in real history had become
+so famous, so proverbial, as Nero for instance, that
+they were introduced instead of the moral quality,
+for which they were so noted;—and in this manner
+the stage was moving on to the absolute production
+of heroic and comic real characters, when the restoration
+of literature, followed by the ever-blessed
+Reformation, let in upon the kingdom not only new
+knowledge, but new motive. A useful rivalry commenced
+between the metropolis on the one hand,—the
+residence, independently of the court and
+nobles, of the most active and stirring spirits who
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+had not been regularly educated, or who, from mischance
+or otherwise, had forsaken the beaten track
+of preferment,—and the universities on the other.
+The latter prided themselves on their closer approximation
+to the ancient rules and ancient regularity—taking
+the theatre of Greece, or rather its
+dim reflection, the rhetorical tragedies of the poet
+Seneca, as a perfect ideal, without any critical
+collation of the times, origin, or circumstances;—whilst,
+in the mean time, the popular writers, who
+could not and would not abandon what they had
+found to delight their countrymen sincerely, and
+not merely from inquiries first put to the recollection
+of rules, and answered in the affirmative, as if
+it had been an arithmetical sum, did yet borrow
+from the scholars whatever they advantageously
+could, consistently with their own peculiar means
+of pleasing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And here let me pause for a moment's contemplation
+of this interesting subject.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+We call, for we see and feel, the swan and the
+dove both transcendantly beautiful. As absurd as
+it would be to institute a comparison between their
+separate claims to beauty from any abstract rule
+common to both, without reference to the life and
+being of the animals themselves,—or as if, having
+first seen the dove, we abstracted its outlines, gave
+them a false generalization, called them the principles
+or ideal of bird-beauty, and then proceeded
+to criticise the swan or the eagle;—not less absurd
+is it to pass judgment on the works of a poet on
+the mere ground that they have been called by the
+same class-name with the works of other poets in
+other times and circumstances, or on any ground,
+indeed, save that of their inappropriateness to their
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+own end and being, their want of significance, as
+symbols or physiognomy.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O! few have there been among critics, who have
+followed with the eye of the imagination the imperishable
+yet ever wandering spirit of poetry
+through its various metempsychoses, and consequent
+metamorphoses;—or who have rejoiced in
+the light of clear perception at beholding with
+each new birth, with each rare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">avatar</span></span>, the human
+race frame to itself a new body, by assimilating
+materials of nourishment out of its new circumstances,
+and work for itself new organs of power
+appropriate to the new sphere of its motion and
+activity!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have before spoken of the Romance, or the
+language formed out of the decayed Roman and
+the Northern tongues; and comparing it with the
+Latin, we find it less perfect in simplicity and relation—the
+privileges of a language formed by the
+mere attraction of homogeneous parts;—but yet
+more rich, more expressive and various, as one
+formed by more obscure affinities out of a chaos of
+apparently heterogeneous atoms. As more than a
+metaphor,—as an analogy of this, I have named
+the true genuine modern poetry the romantic; and
+the works of Shakespeare are romantic poetry, revealing
+itself in the drama. If the tragedies of
+Sophocles are in the strict sense of the word
+tragedies, and the comedies of Aristophanes comedies,
+we must emancipate ourselves from a false
+association arising from misapplied names, and find
+a new word for the plays of Shakespeare. For they
+are, in the ancient sense, neither tragedies nor
+comedies, nor both in one,—but a different <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">genus</span></span>,
+diverse in kind, and not merely different in degree.
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+They may be called romantic dramas, or dramatic
+romances.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A deviation from the simple forms and unities
+of the ancient stage is an essential principle, and,
+of course, an appropriate excellence, of the romantic
+drama. For these unities were to a great
+extent the natural form of that which in its
+elements was homogeneous, and the representation
+of which was addressed pre-eminently to the
+outward senses;—and though the fable, the
+language, and the characters appealed to the
+reason rather than to the mere understanding,
+inasmuch as they supposed an ideal state rather
+than referred to an existing reality,—yet it was a
+reason which was obliged to accommodate itself
+to the senses, and so far became a sort of more
+elevated understanding. On the other hand, the
+romantic poetry—the Shakespearian drama—appealed
+to the imagination rather than to the
+senses, and to the reason as contemplating our
+inward nature, and the workings of the passions
+in their most retired recesses. But the reason,
+as reason, is independent of time and space; it
+has nothing to do with them: and hence the
+certainties of reason have been called eternal
+truths. As for example—the endless properties
+of the circle:—what connection have they with
+this or that age, with this or that country?—The
+reason is aloof from time and space; the imagination
+is an arbitrary controller over both;—and
+if only the poet have such power of exciting our
+internal emotions as to make us present to the
+scene in imagination chiefly, he acquires the right
+and privilege of using time and space as they
+exist in imagination, and obedient only to the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+laws by which the imagination itself acts. These
+laws it will be my object and aim to point out as
+the examples occur, which illustrate them. But
+here let me remark what can never be too often
+reflected on by all who would intelligently study
+the works either of the Athenian dramatists, or of
+Shakespeare, that the very essence of the former
+consists in the sternest separation of the diverse in
+kind and the disparate in the degree, whilst the
+latter delights in interlacing, by a rainbow-like
+transfusion of hues, the one with the other.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And here it will be necessary to say a few words
+on the stage and on stage-illusion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A theatre, in the widest sense of the word, is
+the general term for all places of amusement
+through the ear or eye, in which men assemble in
+order to be amused by some entertainment presented
+to all at the same time and in common.
+Thus an old Puritan divine says:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Those who
+attend public worship and sermons only to amuse
+themselves, make a theatre of the church, and turn
+God's house into the devil's.
+<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Theatra ædes diabololatricæ.</span></span>�</span>
+The most important and dignified
+species of this <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">genus</span></span> is, doubtless, the stage
+(<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">res
+theatralis histrionica</span></span>), which, in addition to the generic
+definition above given, may be characterized in
+its idea, or according to what it does, or ought to,
+aim at, as a combination of several or of all the
+fine arts in an harmonious whole, having a distinct
+end of its own, to which the peculiar end of each
+of the component arts, taken separately, is made
+subordinate and subservient,—that, namely, of
+imitating reality—whether external things, actions,
+or passions—-under a semblance of reality.
+Thus, Claude imitates a landscape at sunset, but
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+only as a picture; while a forest-scene is not presented
+to the spectators as a picture, but as a
+forest; and though, in the full sense of the word,
+we are no more deceived by the one than by the
+other, yet are our feelings very differently affected;
+and the pleasure derived from the one is not composed
+of the same elements as that afforded by the
+other, even on the supposition that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quantum</span></span> of
+both were equal. In the former, a picture, it is a
+condition of all genuine delight that we should
+not be deceived; in the latter, stage-scenery (inasmuch
+as its principle end is not in or for itself, as
+is the case in a picture, but to be an assistance and
+means to an end out of itself), its very purpose is
+to produce as much illusion as its nature permits.
+These, and all other stage presentations, are to
+produce a sort of temporary half-faith, which the
+spectator encourages in himself and supports by a
+voluntary contribution on his own part, because
+he knows that it is at all times in his power to see
+the thing as it really is. I have often observed
+that little children are actually deceived by stage-scenery,
+never by pictures; though even these
+produce an effect on their impressible minds,
+which they do not on the minds of adults. The
+child, if strongly impressed, does not indeed positively
+think the picture to be the reality; but yet
+he does not think the contrary. As Sir George
+Beaumont was shewing me a very fine engraving
+from Rubens, representing a storm at sea without
+any vessel or boat introduced, my little boy, then
+about five years old, came dancing and singing
+into the room, and all at once (if I may so say)
+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tumbled in</span></em> upon the print. He instantly started,
+stood silent and motionless, with the strongest expression,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+first of wonder and then of grief in his
+eyes and countenance, and at length said <span class="tei tei-q">“And
+where is the ship? But that is sunk, and the men
+are all drowned!�</span> still keeping his eyes fixed on
+the print. Now what pictures are to little children,
+stage illusion is to men, provided they retain
+any part of the child's sensibility; except, that in
+the latter instance, the suspension of the act of
+comparison, which permits this sort of negative
+belief, is somewhat more assisted by the will, than
+in that of a child respecting a picture.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The true stage-illusion in this and in all other
+things consists—not in the mind's judging it to be
+a forest, but, in its remission of the judgment that
+it is not a forest. And this subject of stage-illusion
+is so important, and so many practical errors and
+false criticisms may arise, and indeed have arisen,
+either from reasoning on it as actual delusion (the
+strange notion, on which the French critics built
+up their theory, and on which the French poets
+justify the construction of their tragedies), or
+from denying it altogether (which seems the end
+of Dr. Johnson's reasoning, and which, as extremes
+meet, would lead to the very same consequences,
+by excluding whatever would not be judged probable
+by us in our coolest state of feeling, with all
+our faculties in even balance), that these few remarks
+will, I hope, be pardoned, if they should
+serve either to explain or to illustrate the point.
+For not only are we never absolutely deluded—or
+any thing like it, but the attempt to cause the
+highest delusion possible to beings in their senses
+sitting in a theatre, is a gross fault, incident only
+to low minds, which, feeling that they cannot
+affect the heart or head permanently, endeavour to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+call forth the momentary affections. There ought
+never to be more pain than is compatible with coexisting
+pleasure, and to be amply repaid by
+thought.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare found the infant stage demanding
+an intermixture of ludicrous character as imperiously
+as that of Greece did the chorus, and high
+language accordant. And there are many advantages
+in this;—a greater assimilation to nature, a
+greater scope of power, more truths, and more
+feelings;—the effects of contrast, as in Lear and
+the Fool; and especially this, that the true
+language of passion becomes sufficiently elevated
+by your having previously heard, in the same
+piece, the lighter conversation of men under no
+strong emotion. The very nakedness of the stage,
+too, was advantageous,—for the drama thence
+became something between recitation and a representation;
+and the absence or paucity of scenes
+allowed a freedom from the laws of unity of place
+and unity of time, the observance of which must
+either confine the drama to as few subjects as may
+be counted on the fingers, or involve gross improbabilities,
+far more striking than the violation
+would have caused. Thence, also, was precluded
+the danger of a false ideal,—of aiming at more
+than what is possible on the whole. What play
+of the ancients, with reference to their ideal, does
+not hold out more glaring absurdities than any in
+Shakespeare? On the Greek plan a man could
+more easily be a poet than a dramatist; upon our
+plan more easily a dramatist than a poet.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a>
+<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Unaccustomed to address such an audience,
+and having lost by a long interval of confinement
+the advantages of my former short schooling,
+I had miscalculated in my last Lecture the proportion
+of my matter to my time, and by bad
+economy and unskilful management, the several
+heads of my discourse failed in making the entire
+performance correspond with the promise publicly
+circulated in the weekly annunciation of the subjects
+to be treated. It would indeed have been
+wiser in me, and perhaps better on the whole, if I
+had caused my Lectures to be announced only as
+continuations of the main subject. But if I be,
+as perforce I must be, gratified by the recollection
+of whatever has appeared to give you pleasure, I
+am conscious of something better, though less
+flattering, a sense of unfeigned gratitude for your
+forbearance with my defects. Like affectionate
+guardians, you see without disgust the awkwardness,
+and witness with sympathy the growing
+pains, of a youthful endeavour, and look forward
+with a hope, which is its own reward, to the
+contingent results of practice—to its intellectual
+maturity.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In my last address I defined poetry to be the
+art, or whatever better term our language may
+afford, of representing external nature and human
+thoughts, both relatively to human affections, so as
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to cause the production of as great immediate
+pleasure in each part, as is compatible with the
+largest possible sum of pleasure on the whole.
+Now this definition applies equally to painting
+and music as to poetry; and in truth the term
+poetry is alike applicable to all three. The vehicle
+alone constitutes the difference; and the term
+<span class="tei tei-q">“poetry�</span> is rightly applied by eminence to
+measured words, only because the sphere of their
+action is far wider, the power of giving permanence
+to them much more certain, and incomparably
+greater the facility, by which men, not
+defective by nature or disease, may be enabled to
+derive habitual pleasure and instruction from
+them. On my mentioning these considerations
+to a painter of great genius, who had been, from
+a most honourable enthusiasm, extolling his own
+art, he was so struck with their truth, that he
+exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“I want no other arguments;—poetry,
+that is, verbal poetry, must be the greatest; all
+that proves final causes in the world, proves this;
+it would be shocking to think otherwise!�</span>—And
+in truth, deeply, O! far more than words can
+express, as I venerate the Last Judgment and the
+Prophets of Michel Angelo Buonarotti,—yet the
+very pain which I repeatedly felt as I lost myself
+in gazing upon them, the painful consideration
+that their having been painted in
+<span lang="it" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style="font-style: italic">fresco</span></span> was the
+sole cause that they had not been abandoned to all
+the accidents of a dangerous transportation to a
+distant capital, and that the same caprice, which
+made the Neapolitan soldiery destroy all the exquisite
+masterpieces on the walls of the church of
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Trinitado Monte</span></span>, after the retreat of their antagonist
+barbarians, might as easily have made vanish
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the rooms and open gallery of Raffael, and the yet
+more unapproachable wonders of the sublime
+Florentine in the Sixtine Chapel, forced upon my
+mind the reflection: How grateful the human
+race ought to be that the works of Euclid, Newton,
+Plato, Milton, Shakespeare, are not subjected
+to similar contingencies,—that they and their
+fellows, and the great, though inferior, peerage of
+undying intellect, are secured;—secured even
+from a second irruption of Goths and Vandals, in
+addition to many other safeguards, by the vast
+empire of English language, laws, and religion
+founded in America, through the overflow of the
+power and the virtue of my country;—and that
+now the great and certain works of genuine fame
+can only cease to act for mankind, when men
+themselves cease to be men, or when the planet on
+which they exist, shall have altered its relations,
+or have ceased to be. Lord Bacon, in the language
+of the gods, if I may use an Homeric phrase, has
+expressed a similar thought:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Lastly, leaving the vulgar arguments, that by learning man excelleth
+man in that wherein man excelleth beasts; that by learning
+man ascendeth to the heavens and their motions, where in body he
+cannot come, and the like; let us conclude with the dignity and
+excellency of knowledge and learning in that whereunto man's
+nature doth most aspire, which is immortality or continuance: for
+to this tendeth generation, and raising of houses and families; to
+this tend buildings, foundations, and monuments; to this tendeth
+the desire of memory, fame, and celebration, and in effect the
+strength of all other human desires. We see then how far the
+monuments of wit and learning are more durable than the monuments
+of power, or of the hands. For have not the verses of Homer
+continued twenty-five hundred years, or more, without the loss of a
+syllable or letter; during which time, infinite palaces, temples,
+castles, cities, have been decayed and demolished? It is not possible
+to have the true pictures or statues of Cyrus, Alexander,
+Cæsar; no, nor of the kings or great personages of much later
+years; for the originals cannot last, and the copies cannot but lose
+of the life and truth. But the images of men's wits and knowledges
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+remain in books, exempted from the wrong of time, and capable of
+perpetual renovation. Neither are they fitly to be called images,
+because they generate still, and cast their seeds in the minds of
+others, provoking and causing infinite actions and opinions in succeeding
+ages: so that, if the invention of the ship was thought so
+noble, which carrieth riches and commodities from place to place,
+and consociateth the most remote regions in participation of their
+fruits; how much more are letters to be magnified, which, as ships,
+pass through the vast seas of time, and make ages so distant to participate
+of the wisdom, illuminations, and inventions, the one of the
+other?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But let us now consider what the drama should
+be. And first, it is not a copy, but an imitation, of
+nature. This is the universal principle of the fine
+arts. In all well laid out grounds what delight do
+we feel from that balance and antithesis of feelings
+and thoughts! How natural! we say;—but the
+very wonder that caused the exclamation, implies
+that we perceived art at the same moment. We
+catch the hint from nature itself. Whenever in
+mountains or cataracts we discover a likeness to
+any thing artificial which yet we know is not artificial—what
+pleasure! And so it is in appearances
+known to be artificial, which appear to be natural.
+This applies in due degrees, regulated by steady
+good sense, from a clump of trees to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradise
+Lost</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>. It would be easy to apply it to
+painting and even, though with greater abstraction
+of thought, and by more subtle yet equally just
+analogies—to music. But this belongs to others;
+suffice it that one great principle is common to all
+the fine arts, a principle which probably is the
+condition of all consciousness, without which we
+should feel and imagine only by discontinuous
+moments, and be plants or brute animals instead
+of men;—I mean that ever-varying balance, or
+balancing, of images, notions, or feelings, conceived
+as in opposition to each other;—in short, the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+perception of identity and contrariety; the least
+degree of which constitutes likeness, the greatest
+absolute difference; but the infinite gradations between
+these two form all the play and all the
+interest of our intellectual and moral being, till it
+leads us to a feeling and an object more awful than
+it seems to me compatible with even the present subject
+to utter aloud, though I am most desirous to
+suggest it. For there alone are all things at once
+different and the same; there alone, as the principle
+of all things, does distinction exist unaided
+by division; there are will and reason, succession
+of time and unmoving eternity, infinite change and
+ineffable rest!—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Return Alpheus! the dread voice is past</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Which shrunk thy streams!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em">——<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Thou honour'd flood,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Smooth-<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">flowing</span></em> Avon, crown'd with vocal reeds,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That strain I heard, was of a higher mood!—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But now my <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">voice</span></em> proceeds.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+We may divide a dramatic poet's characteristics
+before we enter into the component merits of any
+one work, and with reference only to those things
+which are to be the materials of all, into language,
+passion, and character; always bearing in mind
+that these must act and react on each other,—the
+language inspired by the passion, and the language
+and the passion modified and differenced by the
+character. To the production of the highest excellencies
+in these three, there are requisite in the
+mind of the author;—good sense, talent, sensibility,
+imagination;—and to the perfection of a
+work we should add two faculties of lesser importance,
+yet necessary for the ornaments and foliage
+of the column and the roof—fancy and a quick
+sense of beauty.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+As to language;—it cannot be supposed that
+the poet should make his characters say all that
+they would, or that, his whole drama considered,
+each scene, or paragraph should be such as, on cool
+examination, we can conceive it likely that men in
+such situations would say, in that order, or with
+that perfection. And yet, according to my feelings,
+it is a very inferior kind of poetry, in which,
+as in the French tragedies, men are made to talk
+in a style which few indeed even of the wittiest
+can be supposed to converse in, and which both is,
+and on a moment's reflection appears to be, the
+natural produce of the hot-bed of vanity, namely,
+the closet of an author, who is actuated originally
+by a desire to excite surprise and wonderment at
+his own superiority to other men,—instead of
+having felt so deeply on certain subjects, or in
+consequence of certain imaginations, as to make it
+almost a necessity of his nature to seek for sympathy,—no
+doubt, with that honourable desire of
+permanent action, which distinguishes genius.—Where
+then is the difference?—In this that each
+part should be proportionate, though the whole
+may be perhaps, impossible. At all events, it
+should be compatible with sound sense and logic in
+the mind of the poet himself.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is to be lamented that we judge of books by
+books, instead of referring what we read to our
+own experience. One great use of books is to
+make their contents a motive for observation. The
+German tragedies have in some respects been justly
+ridiculed. In them the dramatist often becomes a
+novelist in his directions to the actors, and thus
+degrades tragedy into pantomime. Yet still the
+consciousness of the poet's mind must be diffused
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+over that of the reader or spectator; but he himself,
+according to his genius, elevates us, and by
+being always in keeping, prevents us from perceiving
+any strangeness, though we feel great
+exultation. Many different kinds of style may be
+admirable, both in different men, and in different
+parts of the same poem.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+See the different language which strong feelings
+may justify in Shylock, and learn from Shakespeare's
+conduct of that character the terrible force
+of every plain and calm diction, when known to
+proceed from a resolved and impassioned man.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is especially with reference to the drama, and
+its characteristics in any given nation, or at any
+particular period, that the dependence of genius on
+the public taste becomes a matter of the deepest
+importance. I do not mean that taste which
+springs merely from caprice or fashionable imitation,
+and which, in fact, genius can, and by degrees
+will, create for itself; but that which arises out of
+wide-grasping and heart-enrooted causes, which
+is epidemic, and in the very air that all breathe.
+This it is which kills, or withers, or corrupts.
+Socrates, indeed, might walk arm in arm with
+Hygeia, whilst pestilence, with a thousand furies
+running to and fro, and clashing against each
+other in a complexity and agglomeration of horrors,
+was shooting her darts of fire and venom all around
+him. Even such was Milton; yea, and such, in
+spite of all that has been babbled by his critics in
+pretended excuse for his damning, because for them
+too profound excellencies,—such was Shakespeare.
+But alas! the exceptions prove the rule. For who
+will dare to force his way out of the crowd,—not
+of the mere vulgar,—but of the vain and banded
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+aristocracy of intellect, and presume to join the
+almost supernatural beings that stand by themselves
+aloof?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of this diseased epidemic influence there are two
+forms especially preclusive of tragic worth. The
+first is the necessary growth of a sense and love of
+the ludicrous, and a morbid sensibility of the assimilative
+power,—an inflammation produced by
+cold and weakness,—which in the boldest bursts of
+passion will lie in wait for a jeer at any phrase,
+that may have an accidental coincidence in the
+mere words with something base or trivial. For
+instance,—to express woods, not on a plain, but
+clothing a hill, which overlooks a valley, or dell,
+or river, or the sea,—the trees rising one above
+another, as the spectators in an ancient theatre,—I
+know no other word in our language (bookish
+and pedantic terms out of the question), but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hanging</span></em>
+woods, the
+<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">sylvæ superimpendentes</span></span>
+of Catullus;
+yet let some wit call out in a slang tone,—<span class="tei tei-q">“the
+gallows!�</span> and a peal of laughter would damn the
+play. Hence it is that so many dull pieces have
+had a decent run, only because nothing unusual
+above, or absurd below, mediocrity furnished an
+occasion,—a spark for the explosive materials collected
+behind the orchestra. But it would take a
+volume of no ordinary size, however laconically the
+sense were expressed, if it were meant to instance
+the effects, and unfold all the causes, of this disposition
+upon the moral, intellectual, and even
+physical character of a people, with its influences
+on domestic life and individual deportment. A
+good document upon this subject would be the
+history of Paris society and of French, that is,
+Parisian, literature from the commencement of the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+latter half of the reign of Louis XIV. to that of
+Buonaparte, compared with the preceding philosophy
+and poetry even of Frenchmen themselves.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The second form, or more properly, perhaps,
+another distinct cause, of this diseased disposition
+is matter of exultation to the philanthropist and
+philosopher, and of regret to the poet, the painter,
+and the statuary alone, and to them only as poets,
+painters, and statuaries;—namely, the security, the
+comparative equability, and ever increasing sameness
+of human life. Men are now so seldom thrown
+into wild circumstances, and violences of excitement,
+that the language of such states, the laws of
+association of feeling with thought, the starts and
+strange far-flights of the assimilative power on the
+slightest and least obvious likeness presented by
+thoughts, words, or objects,—these are all judged
+of by authority, not by actual experience,—by what
+men have been accustomed to regard as symbols of
+these states, and not the natural symbols, or self-manifestations
+of them.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Even so it is in the language of man, and in
+that of nature. The sound <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sun</span></span>, or the figures
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">u</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">n</span></span>, are purely arbitrary modes of recalling the
+object, and for visual mere objects they are not
+only sufficient, but have infinite advantages from
+their very nothingness <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per se</span></span>. But the language
+of nature is a subordinate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logos</span></span>, that was in the
+beginning, and was with the thing it represented,
+and was the thing it represented.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Now the language of Shakespeare, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>
+for instance, is a something intermediate between
+these two; or rather it is the former blended with
+the latter,—the arbitrary, not merely recalling the
+cold notion of the thing, but expressing the reality
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of it, and, as arbitrary language is an heir-loom of
+the human race, being itself a part of that which
+it manifests. What shall I deduce from the preceding
+positions? Even this,—the appropriate,
+the never to be too much valued advantage of the
+theatre, if only the actors were what we know they
+have been,—a delightful, yet most effectual remedy
+for this dead palsy of the public mind. What
+would appear mad or ludicrous in a book, when presented
+to the senses under the form of reality, and
+with the truth of nature, supplies a species of actual
+experience. This is indeed the special privilege of
+a great actor over a great poet. No part was ever
+played in perfection, but nature justified herself in
+the hearts of all her children, in what state soever
+they were, short of absolute moral exhaustion, or
+downright stupidity. There is no time given to
+ask questions, or to pass judgments; we are taken
+by storm, and, though in the histrionic art many a
+clumsy counterfeit, by caricature of one or two
+features, may gain applause as a fine likeness, yet
+never was the very thing rejected as a counterfeit.
+O! when I think of the inexhaustible mine of virgin
+treasure in our Shakespeare, that I have been
+almost daily reading him since I was ten years old,—that
+the thirty intervening years have been unintermittingly
+and not fruitlessly employed in
+the study of the Greek, Latin, English, Italian,
+Spanish, and German <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">belle lettrists</span></span>, and the last
+fifteen years in addition, far more intensely in the
+analysis of the laws of life and reason as they exist
+in man,—and that upon every step I have made
+forward in taste, in acquisition of facts from history
+or my own observation, and in knowledge of the
+different laws of being and their apparent exceptions,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+from accidental collision of disturbing forces,—that
+at every new accession of information, after
+every successful exercise of meditation, and every
+fresh presentation of experience, I have unfailingly
+discovered a proportionate increase of wisdom and
+intuition in Shakespeare;—when I know this, and
+know too, that by a conceivable and possible, though
+hardly to be expected, arrangement of the British
+theatres, not all, indeed, but a large, a very large,
+proportion of this indefinite all—(round which no
+comprehension has yet drawn the line of circumscription,
+so as to say to itself, <span class="tei tei-q">“I have seen the
+whole�</span>)—might be sent into the heads and hearts—into
+the very souls of the mass of mankind, to
+whom, except by this living comment and interpretation,
+it must remain for ever a sealed volume,
+a deep well without a wheel or a windlass;—it
+seems to me a pardonable enthusiasm to steal away
+from sober likelihood, and share in so rich a feast
+in the faery world of possibility! Yet even in the
+grave cheerfulness of a circumspect hope, much,
+very much, might be done; enough, assuredly,
+to furnish a kind and strenuous nature with ample
+motives for the attempt to effect what may be
+effected.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a>
+<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Clothed in radiant armour, and authorized by
+titles sure and manifold, as a poet, Shakespeare
+came forward to demand the throne of fame, as the
+dramatic poet of England. His excellences compelled
+even his contemporaries to seat him on that
+throne, although there were giants in those days
+contending for the same honour. Hereafter I
+would fain endeavour to make out the title of the
+English drama as created by, and existing in,
+Shakespeare, and its right to the supremacy of
+dramatic excellence in general. But he had shown
+himself a poet, previously to his appearance as a
+dramatic poet; and had no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>,
+no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>, no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry IV.</span></span>,
+no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twelfth Night</span></span> ever appeared, we
+must have admitted that Shakespeare possessed the
+chief, if not every, requisite of a poet,—deep feeling
+and exquisite sense of beauty, both as exhibited
+to the eye in the combinations of form, and to the
+ear in sweet and appropriate melody; that these
+feelings were under the command of his own will;
+that in his very first productions he projected his
+mind out of his own particular being, and felt, and
+made others feel, on subjects no way connected
+with himself, except by force of contemplation and
+that sublime faculty by which a great mind becomes
+that on which it meditates. To this must be
+added that affectionate love of nature and natural
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+objects, without which no man could have observed
+so steadily, or painted so truly and passionately,
+the very minutest beauties of the external world:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mark the poor wretch; to overshoot his troubles,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">How he outruns the wind, and with what care,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The many musits through the which he goes</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sometimes he runs among the flock of sheep,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And sometime where earth-delving conies keep,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To stop the loud pursuers in their yell;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And sometime sorteth with the herd of deer:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For there his smell with others' being mingled,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With much ado, the cold fault cleanly out,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Then do they spend their mouths; echo replies,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As if another chase were in the skies.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“By this poor Wat far off, upon a hill,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To harken if his foes pursue him still:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And now his grief may be compared well</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To one sore-sick, that hears the passing bell.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turn, and return, indenting with the way:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Each envious briar his weary legs doth scratch,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For misery is trodden on by many,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And being low, never relieved by any.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus and Adonis.</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And the preceding description:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But lo! from forth a copse that neighbours by,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A breeding jennet, lusty, young and proud,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+is much more admirable, but in parts less fitted for
+quotation.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Moreover Shakespeare had shown that he possessed
+fancy, considered as the faculty of bringing
+together images dissimilar in the main by some one
+point or more of likeness, as in such a passage as
+this:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Full gently now she takes him by the hand,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A lily prisoned in a jail of snow,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or ivory in an alabaster band:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">So white a friend ingirts so white a foe!�</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And still mounting the intellectual ladder, he
+had as unequivocally proved the indwelling in his
+mind of imagination, or the power by which one
+image or feeling is made to modify many others,
+and by a sort of fusion to force many into one;—that
+which afterwards showed itself in such might
+and energy in Lear, where the deep anguish of a
+father spreads the feeling of ingratitude and cruelty
+over the very elements of heaven;—and which,
+combining many circumstances into one moment of
+consciousness, tends to produce that ultimate end
+of all human thought and human feeling, unity,
+and thereby the reduction of the spirit to its principle
+and fountain, who is alone truly one. Various
+are the workings of this the greatest faculty of the
+human mind, both passionate and tranquil. In
+its tranquil and purely pleasurable operation, it
+acts chiefly by creating out of many things, as they
+would have appeared in the description of an ordinary
+mind, detailed in unimpassioned succession, a
+oneness, even as nature, the greatest of poets, acts
+upon us, when we open our eyes upon an extended
+prospect. Thus the flight of Adonis in the dusk of
+the evening:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Look! how a bright star shooteth from the sky;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">So glides he in the night from Venus' eye!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How many images and feelings are here brought
+together without effort and without discord, in the
+beauty of Adonis, the rapidity of his flight, the
+yearning, yet hopelessness, of the enamoured gazer,
+while a shadowy ideal character is thrown over the
+whole! Or this power acts by impressing the stamp
+of humanity, and of human feelings, on inanimate
+or mere natural objects:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lo! here the gentle lark, weary of rest,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The sun ariseth in his majesty,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Who doth the world so gloriously behold,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The cedar-tops and hills seem burnish'd gold.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Or again, it acts by so carrying on the eye of
+the reader as to make him almost lose the consciousness
+of words,—to make him see every thing
+flashed, as Wordsworth has grandly and appropriately
+said:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Flashed</span></span> upon the inward eye</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Which is the bliss of solitude;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and this without exciting any painful or laborious
+attention, without any anatomy of description (a
+fault not uncommon in descriptive poetry),—but
+with the sweetness and easy movement of nature.
+This energy is an absolute essential of poetry, and
+of itself would constitute a poet, though not one of
+the highest class;—it is, however, a most hopeful
+symptom, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus and Adonis</span></span> is one continued
+specimen of it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this beautiful poem there is an endless activity
+of thought in all the possible associations of thought
+with thought, thought with feeling, or with words,
+of feelings with feelings, and of words with words.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Even as the sun, with purple-colour'd face,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn,</div>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And like a bold-faced suitor 'gins to woo him.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Remark the humanizing imagery and circumstances
+of the first two lines, and the activity of
+thought in the play of words in the fourth line.
+The whole stanza presents at once the time, the
+appearance of the morning, and the two persons
+distinctly characterised, and in six simple lines
+puts the reader in possession of the whole argument
+of the poem.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Over one arm the lusty courser's rein,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Under the other was the tender boy,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Who blush'd and pouted in a dull disdain,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With leaden appetite, unapt to toy,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">She red and hot, as coals of glowing fire,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">He red for shame, but frosty to desire:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This stanza and the two following afford good instances
+of that poetic power, which I mentioned
+above, of making every thing present to the imagination—both
+the forms, and the passions which
+modify those forms, either actually, as in the representations
+of love or anger, or other human affections;
+or imaginatively, by the different manner in
+which inanimate objects, or objects unimpassioned
+themselves, are caused to be seen by the mind in
+moments of strong excitement, and according to
+the kind of the excitement,—whether of jealousy,
+or rage, or love, in the only appropriate sense of
+the word, or of the lower impulses of our nature, or
+finally of the poetic feeling itself. It is, perhaps,
+chiefly in the power of producing and reproducing
+the latter that the poet stands distinct.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The subject of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus and Adonis</span></span> is unpleasing;
+but the poem itself is for that very reason
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the more illustrative of Shakespeare. There are
+men who can write passages of deepest pathos and
+even sublimity on circumstances personal to themselves
+and stimulative of their own passions; but
+they are not, therefore, on this account poets.
+Read that magnificent burst of woman's patriotism
+and exultation, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deborah's Song of Victory</span></span>; it is
+glorious, but nature is the poet there. It is quite
+another matter to become all things and yet remain
+the same,—to make the changeful god be felt in the
+river, the lion, and the flame;—this it is, that is
+the true imagination. Shakespeare writes in this
+poem, as if he were of another planet, charming
+you to gaze on the movements of Venus and Adonis,
+as you would on the twinkling dances of two vernal
+butterflies.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Finally, in this poem and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rape of Lucrece</span></span>,
+Shakespeare gave ample proof of his possession of
+a most profound, energetic, and philosophical mind,
+without which he might have pleased, but could
+not have been a great dramatic poet. Chance and
+the necessity of his genius combined to lead him to
+the drama his proper province: in his conquest of
+which we should consider both the difficulties which
+opposed him, and the advantages by which he was
+assisted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a>
+<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus then Shakespeare appears, from his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus
+and Adonis</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rape of Lucrece</span></span> alone, apart from
+all his great works, to have possessed all the conditions
+of the true poet. Let me now proceed to
+destroy, as far as may be in my power, the popular
+notion that he was a great dramatist by mere instinct,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that he grew immortal in his own despite,
+and sank below men of second or third rate power,
+when he attempted aught beside the drama—even
+as bees construct their cells and manufacture their
+honey to admirable perfection; but would in vain
+attempt to build a nest. Now this mode of reconciling
+a compelled sense of inferiority with a feeling
+of pride, began in a few pedants, who having read
+that Sophocles was the great model of tragedy, and
+Aristotle the infallible dictator of its rules, and
+finding that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span> and other
+master-pieces were neither in imitation of Sophocles,
+nor in obedience to Aristotle,—and not having
+(with one or two exceptions) the courage to affirm,
+that the delight which their country received from
+generation to generation, in defiance of the alterations
+of circumstances and habits, was wholly
+groundless,—took upon them, as a happy medium
+and refuge, to talk of Shakespeare as a sort of
+beautiful <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lusus naturæ</span></span>, a delightful monster,—wild,
+indeed, and without taste or judgment, but like the
+inspired idiots so much venerated in the East,
+uttering, amid the strangest follies, the sublimest
+truths. In nine places out of ten in which I find
+his awful name mentioned, it is with some epithet
+of <span class="tei tei-q">“wild,�</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“irregular,�</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“pure child of nature,�</span>
+&amp;c. If all this be true, we must submit to it;
+though to a thinking mind it cannot but be painful
+to find any excellence, merely human, thrown
+out of all human analogy, and thereby leaving us
+neither rules for imitation, nor motives to imitate;—but
+if false, it is a dangerous falsehood;—for it
+affords a refuge to secret self-conceit,—enables a
+vain man at once to escape his reader's indignation
+by general swoln panegyrics, and merely by his
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ipse dixit</span></span> to treat, as contemptible, what he has not
+intellect enough to comprehend, or soul to feel,
+without assigning any reason, or referring his
+opinion to any demonstrative principle;—thus leaving
+Shakespeare as a sort of grand Lama, adored
+indeed, and his very excrements prized as relics,
+but with no authority or real influence. I grieve
+that every late voluminous edition of his works
+would enable me to substantiate the present charge
+with a variety of facts, one-tenth of which would
+of themselves exhaust the time allotted to me.
+Every critic, who has or has not made a collection
+of black letter books—in itself a useful
+and respectable amusement,—puts on the seven-league
+boots of self-opinion, and strides at once
+from an illustrator into a supreme judge, and
+blind and deaf, fills his three-ounce phial at the
+waters of Niagara; and determines positively the
+greatness of the cataract to be neither more nor
+less than his three-ounce phial has been able to
+receive.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I think this a very serious subject. It is my
+earnest desire—my passionate endeavour—to enforce
+at various times and by various arguments
+and instances the close and reciprocal connection
+of just taste with pure morality. Without that
+acquaintance with the heart of man, or that docility
+and childlike gladness to be made acquainted
+with it, which those only can have, who dare look
+at their own hearts—and that with a steadiness
+which religion only has the power of reconciling
+with sincere humility;—without this, and the
+modesty produced by it, I am deeply convinced
+that no man, however wide his erudition, however
+patient his antiquarian researches, can possibly
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+understand, or be worthy of understanding, the
+writings of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Assuredly that criticism of Shakespeare will alone
+be genial which is reverential. The Englishman
+who, without reverence—a proud and affectionate
+reverence—can utter the name of William Shakespeare,
+stands disqualified for the office of critic.
+He wants one at least of the very senses, the
+language of which he is to employ, and will discourse
+at best but as a blind man, while the whole
+harmonious creation of light and shade with all
+its subtle interchange of deepening and dissolving
+colours rises in silence to the silent <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fiat</span></span> of the uprising
+Apollo. However inferior in ability I may
+be to some who have followed me, I own I am
+proud that I was the first in time who publicly
+demonstrated to the full extent of the position,
+that the supposed irregularity and extravagances
+of Shakespeare were the mere dreams of a pedantry
+that arraigned the eagle because it had not the
+dimensions of the swan. In all the successive
+courses of lectures delivered by me, since my first
+attempt at the Royal Institution, it has been, and
+it still remains, my object, to prove that in all
+points from the most important to the most
+minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is commensurate
+with his genius,—nay, that his genius
+reveals itself in his judgment, as in its most
+exalted form. And the more gladly do I recur
+to this subject from the clear conviction, that to
+judge aright, and with distinct consciousness of
+the grounds of our judgment, concerning the
+works of Shakespeare, implies the power and the
+means of judging rightly of all other works of
+intellect, those of abstract science alone excepted.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is a painful truth, that not only individuals,
+but even whole nations, are ofttimes so enslaved
+to the habits of their education and immediate
+circumstances, as not to judge disinterestedly even
+on those subjects, the very pleasure arising from
+which consists in its disinterestedness, namely, on
+subjects of taste and polite literature. Instead of
+deciding concerning their own modes and customs
+by any rule of reason, nothing appears rational,
+becoming, or beautiful to them, but what coincides
+with the peculiarities of their education. In this
+narrow circle, individuals may attain to exquisite
+discrimination, as the French critics have done in
+their own literature; but a true critic can no more
+be such without placing himself on some central
+point, from which he may command the whole,—that
+is, some general rule, which, founded in
+reason, or the faculties common to all men, must
+therefore apply to each,—than an astronomer can
+explain the movements of the solar system without
+taking his stand in the sun. And let me remark,
+that this will not tend to produce despotism, but,
+on the contrary, true tolerance, in the critic. He
+will, indeed, require, as the spirit and substance of
+a work, something true in human nature itself,
+and independent of all circumstances; but in the
+mode of applying it, he will estimate genius and
+judgment according to the felicity with which the
+imperishable soul of intellect shall have adapted
+itself to the age, the place, and the existing manners.
+The error he will expose, lies in reversing
+this, and holding up the mere circumstances as
+perpetual to the utter neglect of the power which
+can alone animate them. For art cannot exist
+without, or apart from nature; and what has man
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of his own to give to his fellow man, but his own
+thoughts and feelings, and his observations, so far
+as they are modified by his own thoughts or
+feelings?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Let me, then, once more submit this question to
+minds emancipated alike from national, or party,
+or sectarian prejudice:—Are the plays of Shakespeare
+works of rude uncultivated genius, in
+which the splendour of the parts compensates, if
+aught can compensate, for the barbarous shapelessness
+and irregularity of the whole?—Or is the
+form equally admirable with the matter, and the
+judgment of the great poet not less deserving our
+wonder than his genius?—Or, again, to repeat the
+question in other words:—is Shakespeare a great
+dramatic poet on account only of those beauties
+and excellences which he possesses in common
+with the ancients, but with diminished claims to
+our love and honour to the full extent of his differences
+from them?—Or are these very differences
+additional proofs of poetic wisdom, at once results
+and symbols of living power as contrasted with
+lifeless mechanism—of free and rival originality
+as contradistinguished from servile imitation, or,
+more accurately, a blind copying of effects, instead
+of a true imitation of the essential principles?—Imagine
+not that I am about to oppose genius to
+rules. No! the comparative value of these rules
+is the very cause to be tried. The spirit of poetry,
+like all other living powers, must of necessity
+circumscribe itself by rules, were it only to unite
+power with beauty. It must embody in order to
+reveal itself; but a living body is of necessity an
+organized one; and what is organization but the
+connection of parts in and for a whole, so that
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+each part is at once end and means?—This is no
+discovery of criticism;—it is a necessity of the
+human mind; and all nations have felt and obeyed
+it, in the invention of metre, and measured
+sounds, as the vehicle and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">involucrum</span></span> of poetry—itself
+a fellow-growth from the same life,—even
+as the bark is to the tree!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No work of true genius dares want its appropriate
+form, neither indeed is there any danger of
+this. As it must not, so genius cannot, be lawless;
+for it is even this that constitutes it genius—the
+power of acting creatively under laws of its own
+origination. How then comes it that not only
+single <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zoili</span></span>, but whole nations have combined in
+unhesitating condemnation of our great dramatist,
+as a sort of African nature, rich in beautiful
+monsters—as a wild heath where islands of fertility
+look the greener from the surrounding
+waste, where the loveliest plants now shine out
+among unsightly weeds, and now are choked by
+their parasitic growth, so intertwined that we cannot
+disentangle the weed without snapping the
+flower?—In this statement I have had no reference
+to the vulgar abuse of Voltaire, save as far
+as his charges are coincident with the decisions of
+Shakespeare's own commentators and (so they
+would tell you) almost idolatrous admirers. The
+true ground of the mistake lies in the confounding
+mechanical regularity with organic form. The
+form is mechanic, when on any given material we
+impress a pre-determined form, not necessarily
+arising out of the properties of the material;—as
+when to a mass of wet clay we give whatever
+shape we wish it to retain when hardened. The
+organic form, on the other hand is innate; it
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+shapes, as it developes, itself from within, and the
+fulness of its development is one and the same
+with the perfection of its outward form. Such as
+the life is, such is the form. Nature, the prime
+genial artist, inexhaustible in diverse powers, is
+equally inexhaustible in forms;—each exterior is
+the physiognomy of the being within,—its true
+image reflected and thrown out from the concave
+mirror;—and even such is the appropriate excellence
+of her chosen poet, of our own Shakespeare,—himself
+a nature humanized, a genial
+understanding directing self-consciously a power
+and an implicit wisdom deeper even than our consciousness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I greatly dislike beauties and selections in
+general; but as proof positive of his unrivalled
+excellence, I should like to try Shakespeare by
+this criterion. Make out your amplest catalogue
+of all the human faculties, as reason or the moral
+law, the will, the feeling of the coincidence of the
+two (a feeling <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sui generis et demonstratio demonstrationum</span></span>)
+called the conscience, the understanding
+or prudence, wit, fancy, imagination, judgment,—and
+then of the objects on which these are to be
+employed, as the beauties, the terrors, and the
+seeming caprices of nature, the realities and the
+capabilities, that is, the actual and the ideal, of
+the human mind, conceived as an individual or as
+a social being, as in innocence or in guilt, in a
+play-paradise, or in a war-field of temptation;—and
+then compare with Shakespeare under each
+of these heads all or any of the writers in prose
+and verse that have ever lived! Who, that is
+competent to judge, doubts the result?—And ask
+your own hearts—ask your own common-sense—to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+conceive the possibility of this man being—I
+say not, the drunken savage of that wretched
+sciolist, whom Frenchmen, to their shame, have
+honoured before their elder and better worthies,—but
+the anomalous, the wild, the irregular, genius
+of our daily criticism! What! are we to have
+miracles in sport?—Or, I speak reverently, does
+God choose idiots by whom to convey divine
+truths to man?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a>
+<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Recapitulation, And Summary
+Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's Dramas.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In lectures, of which amusement forms a large
+part of the object, there are some peculiar difficulties.
+The architect places his foundation out
+of sight, and the musician tunes his instrument
+before he makes his appearance; but the lecturer
+has to try his chords in the presence of the assembly;
+an operation not likely, indeed, to produce
+much pleasure, but yet indispensably necessary to
+a right understanding of the subject to be developed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Poetry in essence is as familiar to barbarous as
+to civilized nations. The Laplander and the savage
+Indian are cheered by it as well as the inhabitants
+of London and Paris;—its spirit takes up and
+incorporates surrounding materials, as a plant
+clothes itself with soil and climate, whilst it exhibits
+the working of a vital principle within
+independent of all accidental circumstances. And
+to judge with fairness of an author's works, we
+ought to distinguish what is inward and essential
+from what is outward and circumstantial. It is
+essential to poetry that it be simple, and appeal to
+the elements and primary laws of our nature;
+that it be sensuous, and by its imagery elicit truth
+at a flash; that it be impassioned, and be able to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+move our feelings and awaken our affections. In
+comparing different poets with each other, we
+should inquire which have brought into the fullest
+play our imagination and our reason, or have
+created the greatest excitement and produced the
+completest harmony. If we consider great exquisiteness
+of language and sweetness of metre alone,
+it is impossible to deny to Pope the character of a
+delightful writer; but whether he be a poet, must
+depend upon our definition of the word; and, doubtless,
+if everything that pleases be poetry, Pope's
+satires and epistles must be poetry. This, I must
+say, that poetry, as distinguished from other modes
+of composition, does not rest in metre, and that it is
+not poetry, if it make no appeal to our passions or
+our imagination. One character belongs to all
+true poets, that they write from a principle within,
+not originating in any thing without; and that
+the true poet's work in its form, its shapings, and
+its modifications, is distinguished from all other
+works that assume to belong to the class of poetry,
+as a natural from an artificial flower, or as the
+mimic garden of a child from an enamelled
+meadow. In the former the flowers are broken
+from their stems and stuck into the ground; they
+are beautiful to the eye and fragrant to the sense,
+but their colours soon fade, and their odour is
+transient as the smile of the planter;—while the
+meadow may be visited again and again with renewed
+delight; its beauty is innate in the soil,
+and its bloom is of the freshness of nature.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The next ground of critical judgment, and point
+of comparison, will be as to how far a given poet
+has been influenced by accidental circumstances.
+As a living poet must surely write, not for the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+ages past, but for that in which he lives, and those
+which are to follow, it is on the one hand natural
+that he should not violate, and on the other necessary
+that he should not depend on, the mere
+manners and modes of his day. See how little
+does Shakespeare leave us to regret that he was
+born in his particular age! The great æra in
+modern times was what is called the Restoration
+of Letters;—the ages preceding it are called the
+dark ages; but it would be more wise, perhaps, to
+call them the ages in which we were in the dark.
+It is usually overlooked that the supposed dark
+period was not universal, but partial and successive,
+or alternate; that the dark age of England
+was not the dark age of Italy, but that one country
+was in its light and vigour, whilst another was
+in its gloom and bondage. But no sooner had the
+Reformation sounded through Europe like the
+blast of an archangel's trumpet, than from king
+to peasant there arose an enthusiasm for knowledge;
+the discovery of a manuscript became the
+subject of an embassy; Erasmus read by moonlight,
+because he could not afford a torch, and
+begged a penny, not for the love of charity, but
+for the love of learning. The three great points
+of attention were religion, morals, and taste; men
+of genius, as well as men of learning, who in this
+age need to be so widely distinguished, then alike
+became copyists of the ancients; and this, indeed,
+was the only way by which the taste of mankind
+could be improved, or their understandings informed.
+Whilst Dante imagined himself a humble
+follower of Virgil, and Ariosto of Homer, they
+were both unconscious of that greater power working
+within them, which in many points carried
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+them beyond their supposed originals. All great
+discoveries bear the stamp of the age in which
+they are made;—hence we perceive the effects of
+the purer religion of the moderns visible for the
+most part in their lives; and in reading their
+works we should not content ourselves with the
+mere narratives of events long since passed, but
+should learn to apply their maxims and conduct
+to ourselves.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Having intimated that times and manners lend
+their form and pressure to genius, let me once
+more draw a slight parallel between the ancient
+and modern stage,—the stages of Greece and of
+England. The Greeks were polytheists; their
+religion was local; almost the only object of all
+their knowledge, art, and taste, was their gods;
+and, accordingly, their productions were, if the
+expression may be allowed, statuesque, whilst
+those of the moderns are picturesque. The Greeks
+reared a structure, which, in its parts, and as a
+whole, filled the mind with the calm and elevated
+impression of perfect beauty, and symmetrical proportion.
+The moderns also produced a whole—a
+more striking whole; but it was by blending
+materials, and fusing the parts together. And as
+the Pantheon is to York Minster or Westminster
+Abbey, so is Sophocles compared with Shakespeare;
+in the one a completeness, a satisfaction, an excellence,
+on which the mind rests with complacency;
+in the other a multitude of interlaced
+materials, great and little, magnificent and mean,
+accompanied, indeed, with the sense of a falling
+short of perfection, and yet, at the same time, so
+promising of our social and individual progression,
+that we would not, if we could, exchange it for
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that repose of the mind which dwells on the forms
+of symmetry in the acquiescent admiration of
+grace. This general characteristic of the ancient
+and modern drama might be illustrated by a
+parallel of the ancient and modern music;—the
+one consisting of melody arising from a succession
+only of pleasing sounds,—the modern embracing
+harmony also, the result of combination, and the
+effect of a whole.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have said, and I say it again, that great as
+was the genius of Shakespeare, his judgment was
+at least equal to it. Of this any one will be convinced,
+who attentively considers those points in
+which the dramas of Greece and England differ,
+from the dissimilitude of circumstances by which
+each was modified and influenced. The Greek
+stage had its origin in the ceremonies of a sacrifice,
+such as of the goat to Bacchus, whom we
+most erroneously regard as merely the jolly god of
+wine;—for among the ancients he was venerable,
+as the symbol of that power which acts without
+our consciousness in the vital energies of nature—the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vinum mundi</span></span>—as Apollo was that of the conscious
+agency of our intellectual being. The
+heroes of old, under the influences of this Bacchic
+enthusiasm, performed more than human actions;
+hence tales of the favourite champions soon passed
+into dialogue. On the Greek stage the chorus
+was always before the audience; the curtain was
+never dropped, as we should say; and change of
+place being therefore, in general, impossible, the
+absurd notion of condemning it merely as improbable
+in itself was never entertained by any one.
+If we can believe ourselves at Thebes in one act,
+we may believe ourselves at Athens in the next.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+If a story lasts twenty-four hours or twenty-four
+years, it is equally improbable. There seems to
+be no just boundary but what the feelings prescribe.
+But on the Greek stage, where the same
+persons were perpetually before the audience,
+great judgment was necessary in venturing on
+any such change. The poets never, therefore,
+attempted to impose on the senses by bringing
+places to men, but they did bring men to places,
+as in the well-known instance in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eumenides</span></span>,
+where, during an evident retirement of the chorus
+from the orchestra, the scene is changed to
+Athens, and Orestes is first introduced in the
+temple of Minerva, and the chorus of Furies come
+in afterwards in pursuit of him.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the Greek drama there were no formal divisions
+into scenes and acts; there were no means,
+therefore, of allowing for the necessary lapse of
+time between one part of the dialogue and another,
+and unity of time in a strict sense was, of course,
+impossible. To overcome that difficulty of accounting
+for time, which is effected on the modern
+stage by dropping a curtain, the judgment and
+great genius of the ancients supplied music and
+measured motion, and with the lyric ode filled up
+the vacuity. In the story of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agamemnon</span></span> of
+Æschylus, the capture of Troy is supposed to be
+announced by a fire lighted on the Asiatic shore,
+and the transmission of the signal by successive
+beacons to Mycenæ. The signal is first seen at
+the 21st line, and the herald from Troy itself
+enters at the 486th, and Agamemnon himself at
+the 783rd line. But the practical absurdity of
+this was not felt by the audience, who, in imagination
+stretched minutes into hours, while they
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+listened to the lofty narrative odes of the chorus
+which almost entirely filled up the interspace.
+Another fact deserves attention here, namely, that
+regularly on the Greek stage a drama, or acted
+story, consisted in reality of three dramas, called
+together a trilogy, and performed consecutively in
+the course of one day. Now you may conceive a
+tragedy of Shakespeare's as a trilogy connected in
+one single representation. Divide <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> into three
+parts, and each would be a play with the ancients;
+or take the three Æschylean dramas of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agamemnon</span></span>,
+and divide them into, or call them, as many
+acts, and they together would be one play. The
+first act would comprise the usurpation of Ægisthus,
+and the murder of Agamemnon; the second,
+the revenge of Orestes, and the murder of his
+mother; and the third, the penance and absolution
+of Orestes;—occupying a period of twenty-two
+years.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The stage in Shakespeare's time was a naked
+room with a blanket for a curtain; but he made
+it a field for monarchs. That law of unity, which
+has its foundations, not in the factitious necessity
+of custom, but in nature itself, the unity of feeling,
+is everywhere and at all times observed by Shakespeare
+in his plays. Read <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>;—all
+is youth and spring;—youth with its follies, its
+virtues, its precipitancies;—spring with its odours,
+its flowers, and its transiency; it is one and the
+same feeling that commences, goes through, and
+ends the play. The old men, the Capulets and
+Montagues, are not common old men; they have
+an eagerness, a heartiness, a vehemence, the effect
+of spring; with Romeo, his change of passion, his
+sudden marriage, and his rash death, are all the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+effects of youth;—whilst in Juliet love has all that
+is tender and melancholy in the nightingale, all
+that is voluptuous in the rose, with whatever is
+sweet in the freshness of spring; but it ends with
+a long deep sigh like the last breeze of the Italian
+evening. This unity of feeling and character pervades
+every drama of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It seems to me that his plays are distinguished
+from those of all other dramatic poets by the
+following characteristics:—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+1. Expectation in preference to surprise. It is
+like the true reading of the passage—<span class="tei tei-q">“God said,
+Let there be light, and there was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">light</span></em>;�</span>—not,
+there <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">was</span></em> light. As the feeling with which we
+startle at a shooting star compared with that of
+watching the sunrise at the pre-established moment,
+such and so low is surprise compared with
+expectation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+2. Signal adherence to the great law of nature,
+that all opposites tend to attract and temper each
+other. Passion in Shakespeare generally displays
+libertinism, but involves morality; and if there
+are exceptions to this, they are, independently of
+their intrinsic value, all of them indicative of individual
+character, and, like the farewell admonitions
+of a parent, have an end beyond the parental
+relation. Thus the Countess's beautiful precepts
+to Bertram, by elevating her character, raise that
+of Helena her favourite, and soften down the point
+in her which Shakespeare does not mean us not to
+see, but to see and to forgive, and at length to
+justify. And so it is in Polonius, who is the personified
+memory of wisdom no longer actually
+possessed. This admirable character is always
+misrepresented on the stage. Shakespeare never
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+intended to exhibit him as a buffoon; for although
+it was natural that Hamlet—a young man of fire
+and genius, detesting formality, and disliking
+Polonius on political grounds, as imagining that
+he had assisted his uncle in his usurpation—should
+express himself satirically, yet this must not be
+taken as exactly the poet's conception of him. In
+Polonius a certain induration of character had
+arisen from long habits of business; but take his
+advice to Laertes, and Ophelia's reverence for his
+memory, and we shall see that he was meant to be
+represented as a statesman somewhat past his
+faculties,—his recollections of life all full of wisdom,
+and showing a knowledge of human nature,
+whilst what immediately takes place before him,
+and escapes from him, is indicative of weakness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But as in Homer all the deities are in armour,
+even Venus; so in Shakespeare all the characters
+are strong. Hence real folly and dulness are
+made by him the vehicles of wisdom. There is no
+difficulty for one being a fool to imitate a fool;
+but to be, remain, and speak like a wise man and
+a great wit, and yet so as to give a vivid representation
+of a veritable fool,—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hic labor, hoc opus est</span></span>.
+A drunken constable is not uncommon, nor hard
+to draw; but see and examine what goes to make
+up a Dogberry.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+3. Keeping at all times in the high road of life.
+Shakespeare has no innocent adulteries, no interesting
+incests, no virtuous vice;—he never renders
+that amiable which religion and reason alike
+teach us to detest, or clothes impurity in the garb
+of virtue, like Beaumont and Fletcher, the Kotzebues
+of the day. Shakespeare's fathers are
+roused by ingratitude, his husbands stung by unfaithfulness;
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in him, in short, the affections are
+wounded in those points in which all may, nay,
+must, feel. Let the morality of Shakespeare be
+contrasted with that of the writers of his own, or
+the succeeding age, or of those of the present day,
+who boast their superiority in this respect. No
+one can dispute that the result of such a comparison
+is altogether in favour of Shakespeare;—even
+the letters of women of high rank in his age were
+often coarser than his writings. If he occasionally
+disgusts a keen sense of delicacy, he never
+injures the mind; he neither excites, nor flatters,
+passion, in order to degrade the subject of it; he
+does not use the faulty thing for a faulty purpose,
+nor carries on warfare against virtue, by causing
+wickedness to appear as no wickedness, through
+the medium of a morbid sympathy with the unfortunate.
+In Shakespeare vice never walks as in
+twilight; nothing is purposely out of its place;—he
+inverts not the order of nature and propriety,—does
+not make every magistrate a drunkard or
+glutton, nor every poor man meek, humane, and
+temperate; he has no benevolent butchers, nor any
+sentimental rat-catchers.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+4. Independence of the dramatic interest on the
+plot. The interest in the plot is always in fact on
+account of the characters, not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>, as in
+almost all other writers; the plot is a mere canvass
+and no more. Hence arises the true justification
+of the same stratagem being used in regard to
+Benedict and Beatrice,—the vanity in each being
+alike. Take away from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Much Ado about
+Nothing</span></span> all that which is not indispensable to the
+plot, either as having little to do with it, or, at
+best, like Dogberry and his comrades, forced into
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the service, when any other less ingeniously
+absurd watchmen and night-constables would have
+answered the mere necessities of the action;—take
+away Benedict, Beatrice, Dogberry, and the
+reaction of the former on the character of Hero,—and
+what will remain? In other writers the main
+agent of the plot is always the prominent character;
+in Shakespeare it is so, or is not so, as the
+character is in itself calculated, or not calculated,
+to form the plot. Don John is the main-spring of
+the plot of this play; but he is merely shown and
+then withdrawn.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+5. Independence of the interest on the story as
+the ground-work of the plot. Hence Shakespeare
+never took the trouble of inventing stories. It
+was enough for him to select from those that had
+been already invented or recorded such as had one
+or other, or both, of two recommendations, namely,
+suitableness to his particular purpose, and their
+being parts of popular tradition,—names of which
+we had often heard, and of their fortunes, and as
+to which all we wanted was, to see the man himself.
+So it is just the man himself—the Lear,
+the Shylock, the Richard—that Shakespeare
+makes us for the first time acquainted with.
+Omit the first scene in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, and yet everything
+will remain; so the first and second scenes in
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Merchant of Venice</span></span>. Indeed it is universally
+true.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+6. Interfusion of the lyrical—that which in its
+very essence is poetical—not only with the dramatic,
+as in the plays of Metastasio, where at the end
+of the scene comes the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aria</span></span>
+as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">exit</span></em> speech of
+the character,—but also in and through the dramatic.
+Songs in Shakespeare are introduced as songs
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+only, just as songs are in real life, beautifully as
+some of them are characteristic of the person who
+has sung or called for them, as Desdemona's
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Willow,�</span> and Ophelia's wild snatches, and the
+sweet carollings in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">As You Like It</span></span>. But the
+whole of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midsummer Night's Dream</span></span> is one
+continued specimen of the dramatised lyrical.
+And observe how exquisitely the dramatic of Hotspur;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Marry, and I'm glad on't with all my heart;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I'd rather be a kitten and cry—mew.�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+melts away into the lyric of Mortimer;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which thou pourest down from these swelling heavens,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I am too perfect in,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry IV.</span></span> part i. act iii, sc. 1.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+7. The characters of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dramatis personæ</span></span>, like
+those in real life, are to be inferred by the reader;—they
+are not told to him. And it is well worth
+remarking that Shakespeare's characters, like those
+in real life, are very commonly misunderstood, and
+almost always understood by different persons in
+different ways. The causes are the same in either
+case. If you take only what the friends of the
+character say, you may be deceived, and still more
+so, if that which his enemies say; nay, even the
+character himself sees himself through the medium
+of his character, and not exactly as he is. Take
+all together, not omitting a shrewd hint from the
+clown or the fool, and perhaps your impression will
+be right; and you may know whether you have in
+fact discovered the poet's own idea, by all the
+speeches receiving light from it, and attesting its
+reality by reflecting it.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Lastly, in Shakespeare the heterogeneous is
+united, as it is in nature. You must not suppose
+a pressure or passion always acting on or in the
+character!—passion in Shakespeare is that by
+which the individual is distinguished from others,
+not that which makes a different kind of him.
+Shakespeare followed the main march of the
+human affections. He entered into no analysis of
+the passions or faiths of men, but assured himself
+that such and such passions and faiths were
+grounded in our common nature, and not in the
+mere accidents of ignorance or disease. This is an
+important consideration, and constitutes our Shakespeare
+the morning star, the guide and the pioneer,
+of true philosophy.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a>
+<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of that species of writing termed tragi-comedy,
+much has been produced and doomed to the
+shelf. Shakespeare's comic are continually reacting
+upon his tragic characters. Lear, wandering
+amidst the tempest, has all his feelings of distress
+increased by the overflowings of the wild wit
+of the Fool, as vinegar poured upon wounds exacerbates
+their pain. Thus, even his comic humour
+tends to the development of tragic passion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The next characteristic of Shakespeare is his
+keeping at all times in the high road of life, &amp;c.
+Another evidence of his exquisite judgment is,
+that he seizes hold of popular tales; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> and the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Merchant of Venice</span></span> were popular tales, but are so
+excellently managed, that both are the representations
+of men in all countries and of all times.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+His dramas do not arise absolutely out of some
+one extraordinary circumstance, the scenes may
+stand independently of any such one connecting
+incident, as faithful representations of men and
+manners. In his mode of drawing characters
+there are no pompous descriptions of a man by
+himself; his character is to be drawn, as in real
+life, from the whole course of the play, or out of
+the mouths of his enemies or friends. This may
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+be exemplified in Polonius, whose character has
+been often misrepresented. Shakespeare never
+intended him for a buffoon, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Another excellence of Shakespeare, in which no
+writer equals him, is in the language of nature.
+So correct is it, that we can see ourselves in every
+page. The style and manner have also that
+felicity, that not a sentence can be read, without
+its being discovered if it is Shakespearian. In
+observation of living characters—of landlords and
+postilions—Fielding has great excellence; but in
+drawing from his own heart, and depicting that
+species of character, which no observation could
+teach, he failed in comparison with Richardson,
+who perpetually places himself, as it were, in a
+day-dream. Shakespeare excels in both. Witness
+the accuracy of character in Juliet's name; while
+for the great characters of Iago, Othello, Hamlet,
+Richard III., to which he could never have seen
+anything similar, he seems invariably to have
+asked himself—How should I act or speak in such
+circumstances? His comic characters are also
+peculiar. A drunken constable was not uncommon;
+but he makes folly a vehicle for wit, as
+in Dogberry: everything is a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sub-stratum</span></span> on which
+his genius can erect the mightiest superstructure.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To distinguish that which is legitimate in
+Shakespeare from what does not belong to him,
+we must observe his varied images symbolical of
+novel truth, thrusting by, and seeming to trip up
+each other, from an impetuosity of thought, producing
+a flowing metre, and seldom closing with
+the line. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span>, a play written fifty years
+before, but altered by Shakespeare, his additions
+may be recognised to half a line, from the metre,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+which has the same perfection in the flowing continuity
+of interchangeable metrical pauses in his
+earliest plays, as in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's Lost</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Lastly, contrast his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">morality</span></em> with the writers of
+his own or of the succeeding age, &amp;c. If a man
+speak injuriously of our friend, our vindication of
+him is naturally warm. Shakespeare has been
+accused of profaneness. I for my part have
+acquired from perusal of him, a habit of looking
+into my own heart, and am confident that Shakespeare
+is an author of all others the most calculated
+to make his readers better as well as wiser.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-tb">* * * * * </div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare, possessed of wit, humour, fancy,
+and imagination, built up an outward world from
+the stores within his mind, as the bee finds a hive
+from a thousand sweets gathered from a thousand
+flowers. He was not only a great poet but a great
+philosopher. Richard III., Iago, and Falstaff are
+men who reverse the order of things, who place
+intellect at the head, whereas it ought to follow,
+like Geometry, to prove and to confirm. No man,
+either hero or saint, ever acted from an unmixed
+motive; for let him do what he will rightly, still
+Conscience whispers <span class="tei tei-q">“it is your duty.�</span> Richard,
+laughing at conscience and sneering at religion,
+felt a confidence in his intellect, which urged him
+to commit the most horrid crimes, because he felt
+himself, although inferior in form and shape,
+superior to those around him; he felt he possessed
+a power which they had not. Iago, on the same
+principle, conscious of superior intellect, gave
+scope to his envy, and hesitated not to ruin a
+gallant, open, and generous friend in the moment
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of felicity, because he was not promoted as he expected.
+Othello was superior in place, but Iago
+felt him to be inferior in intellect, and, unrestrained
+by conscience, trampled upon him. Falstaff,
+not a degraded man of genius, like Burns,
+but a man of degraded genius, with the same
+consciousness of superiority to his companions,
+fastened himself on a young Prince, to prove how
+much his influence on an heir-apparent would
+exceed that of a statesman. With this view he
+hesitated not to adopt the most contemptible of all
+characters, that of an open and professed liar:
+even his sensuality was subservient to his intellect:
+for he appeared to drink sack, that he might have
+occasion to show off his wit. One thing, however,
+worthy of observation, is the perpetual contrast of
+labour in Falstaff to produce wit, with the ease
+with which Prince Henry parries his shafts; and
+the final contempt which such a character deserves
+and receives from the young king, when Falstaff
+exhibits the struggle of inward determination with
+an outward show of humility.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a>
+<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Various attempts have been made to arrange
+the plays of Shakespeare, each according to
+its priority in time, by proofs derived from external
+documents. How unsuccessful these attempts have
+been might easily be shewn, not only from the
+widely different results arrived at by men, all
+deeply versed in the black-letter books, old plays,
+pamphlets, manuscript records, and catalogues of
+that age, but also from the fallacious and unsatisfactory
+nature of the facts and assumptions on
+which the evidence rests. In that age, when the
+press was chiefly occupied with controversial or
+practical divinity,—when the law, the Church, and
+the State engrossed all honour and respectability,—when
+a degree of disgrace, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">levior quædam infamiæ
+macula</span></span>, was attached to the publication of poetry,
+and even to have sported with the Muse, as a
+private relaxation, was supposed to be—a venial
+fault, indeed, yet—something beneath the gravity
+of a wise man,—when the professed poets were so
+poor, that the very expenses of the press demanded
+the liberality of some wealthy individual, so that
+two-thirds of Spenser's poetic works, and those
+most highly praised by his learned admirers and
+friends, remained for many years in manuscript,
+and in manuscript perished,—when the amateurs
+of the stage were comparatively few, and therefore
+for the greater part more or less known to each
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+other,—when we know that the plays of Shakespeare,
+both during and after his life, were the
+property of the stage, and published by the
+players, doubtless according to their notions of
+acceptability with the visitants of the theatre,—in
+such an age, and under such circumstances, can an
+allusion or reference to any drama or poem in the
+publication of a contemporary be received as conclusive
+evidence, that such drama or poem had at
+that time been published? Or, further, can the
+priority of publication itself prove anything in
+favour of actually prior composition?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+We are tolerably certain, indeed, that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus
+and Adonis</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rape of Lucrece</span></span>, were his two
+earliest poems, and though not printed until 1593,
+in the twenty-ninth year of his age, yet there can
+be little doubt that they had remained by him in
+manuscript many years. For Mr. Malone has
+made it highly probable that he had commenced
+as a writer for the stage in 1591, when he was
+twenty-seven years old, and Shakespeare himself
+assures us that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus and Adonis</span></span> was the first
+heir of his invention.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Baffled, then, in the attempt to derive any satisfaction
+from outward documents, we may easily
+stand excused if we turn our researches towards
+the internal evidences furnished by the writings
+themselves, with no other positive <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">data</span></span> than the
+known facts that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus and Adonis</span></span> was printed
+in 1593, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rape of Lucrece</span></span> in 1594, and that the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span> had appeared in 1595,—and
+with no other presumptions than that the poems,
+his very first productions, were written many
+years earlier—(for who can believe that Shakespeare
+could have remained to his twenty-ninth or
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+thirtieth year without attempting poetic composition
+of any kind?),—and that between these and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span> there had intervened one or two
+other dramas, or the chief materials, at least of
+them, although they may very possibly have
+appeared after the success of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>,
+and some other circumstances, had given the poet
+an authority with the proprietors, and created a
+prepossession in his favour with the theatrical
+audiences.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1802.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+FIRST EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">The London Prodigal.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cromwell.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry VI., three parts, first edition.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">The old King John.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Edward III.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">The old Taming of the Shrew.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Pericles.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+All these are transition works, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uebergangswerke</span></span>;
+not his, yet of him.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+SECOND EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">All's Well that Ends Well;—but afterwards
+worked up afresh (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">umgearbeitet</span></span>),
+especially Parolles.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">The Two Gentlemen of Verona; a sketch.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romeo and Juliet; first draft of it.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+THIRD EPOCH
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+rises into the full, although youthful, Shakespeare;
+it was the negative period of his perfection.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Love's Labour's Lost.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Twelfth Night.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">As You Like It.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Midsummer Night's Dream.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Richard II.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry IV. and V.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry VIII.; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gelegenheitsgedicht</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romeo and Juliet, as at present.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merchant of Venice.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+FOURTH EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Much Ado about Nothing.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merry Wives of Windsor; first edition.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry VI.; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rifacimento</span></span>.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+FIFTH EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The period of beauty was now past; and that of
+δεινότης and grandeur succeeds.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lear.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macbeth.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hamlet.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Timon of Athens; an after vibration of
+Hamlet.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Troilus and Cressida; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Uebergang in die
+Ironie</span></span>.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">The Roman Plays.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">King John, as at present.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merry Wives of Windsor</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Taming of the Shrew <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">umgearbeitet.</span></span></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Measure for Measure.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Othello.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tempest.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Winter's Tale.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cymbeline.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1810.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas I take to be—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Love's Labour's Lost.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">All's Well that Ends Well.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Comedy of Errors.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Romeo and Juliet.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the second class I reckon—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Midsummer Night's Dream.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">As You Like It.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tempest.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Twelfth Night.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the third, as indicating a greater energy—not
+merely of poetry, but of all the world of
+thought, yet still with some of the growing pains,
+and the awkwardness of growth—I place—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Troilus and Cressida.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Cymbeline.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merchant of Venice.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Much Ado about Nothing.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Taming of the Shrew.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the fourth, I place the plays containing the
+greatest characters—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macbeth.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lear.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hamlet.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Othello.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And lastly, the historic dramas, in order to be
+able to show my reasons for rejecting some whole
+plays, and very many scenes in others.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1819.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I think Shakespeare's earliest dramatic attempt—perhaps
+even prior in conception to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Venus
+and Adonis</span></span>, and planned before he left Stratford—was
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's Lost</span></span>. Shortly afterwards I
+suppose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span> and certain
+scenes in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeronymo</span></span> to
+have been produced; and in the same epoch, I
+place the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Winter's Tale</span></span>
+and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cymbeline</span></span>, differing
+from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span> by the
+entire <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rifacimento</span></span> of it,
+when Shakespeare's celebrity as poet, and his interest,
+no less than his influence, as manager,
+enabled him to bring forward the laid-by labours
+of his youth. The example of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span>,
+which, as well as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeronymo</span></span>, was most popular in
+Shakespeare's first epoch, had led the young
+dramatist to the lawless mixture of dates and
+manners. In this same epoch I should place the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comedy of Errors</span></span>, remarkable as being the only
+specimen of poetical farce in our language, that is,
+intentionally such; so that all the distinct kinds
+of drama, which might be educed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a priori</span></span>, have
+their representatives in Shakespeare's works. I
+say intentionally such; for many of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's plays, and the greater part of Ben
+Jonson's comedies, are farce plots. I add <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">All's
+Well that Ends Well</span></span>, originally intended as the
+counterpart of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's Lost</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taming of the Shrew</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midsummer Night's Dream</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Much Ado
+about Nothing</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+SECOND EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Richard II.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">King John.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry VI.,—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rifacimento</span></span> only.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Richard III.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+THIRD EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry IV.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry V.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merry Wives of Windsor.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Henry VIII.,—a sort of historical masque,
+or show play.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+FOURTH EPOCH
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+gives all the graces and facilities of a genius in
+full possession and habitual exercise of power, and
+peculiarly of the feminine, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lady's</span></em> character.
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Tempest.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">As You Like It</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Merchant of Venice.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Twelfth Night.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And, finally, at its very point of culmination—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Lear.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Hamlet.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Macbeth.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Othello.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+LAST EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+when the energies of intellect in the cycle of
+genius were, though in a rich and more potentiated
+form, becoming predominant over passion
+and creative self-manifestation—
+</p>
+
+<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Measure for Measure,</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Timon of Athens.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Coriolanus.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Julius Cæsar.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Antony and Cleopatra.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Troilus and Cressida.</td></tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Merciful, wonder-making Heaven! what a man
+was this Shakespeare! Myriad-minded, indeed,
+he was.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a>
+<a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Notes On The </span><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Tempest.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is a sort of improbability with which
+we are shocked in dramatic representation,
+not less than in a narrative of real life. Consequently,
+there must be rules respecting it; and as
+rules are nothing but means to an end previously
+ascertained—(inattention to which simple truth
+has been the occasion of all the pedantry of the
+French school),—we must first determine what the
+immediate end or object of the drama is. And
+here, as I have previously remarked, I find two
+extremes of critical decision;—the French, which
+evidently presupposes that a perfect delusion is to be
+aimed at,—an opinion which needs no fresh confutation;
+and the exact opposite to it, brought forward
+by Dr. Johnson, who supposes the auditors
+throughout in the full reflective knowledge of the
+contrary. In evincing the impossibility of delusion,
+he makes no sufficient allowance for an intermediate
+state, which I have before distinguished
+by the term illusion, and have attempted to illustrate
+its quality and character by reference to our
+mental state when dreaming. In both cases we
+simply do not judge the imagery to be unreal;
+there is a negative reality, and no more. Whatever,
+therefore, tends to prevent the mind from
+placing itself, or being placed, gradually in that
+state in which the images have such negative
+reality for the auditor, destroys this illusion, and
+is dramatically improbable.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Now, the production of this effect—a sense of
+improbability—will depend on the degree of excitement
+in which the mind is supposed to be.
+Many things would be intolerable in the first
+scene of a play, that would not at all interrupt our
+enjoyment in the height of the interest, when the
+narrow cockpit may be made to hold
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The vasty field of France, or we may cram</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Within its wooden O, the very casques,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That did affright the air at Agincourt.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Again, on the other hand, many obvious improbabilities
+will be endured, as belonging to the
+groundwork of the story rather than to the drama
+itself, in the first scenes, which would disturb or
+disentrance us from all illusion in the acme of our
+excitement; as for instance, Lear's division of his
+kingdom, and the banishment of Cordelia.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But, although the other excellences of the drama
+besides this dramatic probability, as unity of interest,
+with distinctness and subordination of the
+characters, and appropriateness of style, are all, so
+far as they tend to increase the inward excitement,
+means towards accomplishing the chief end, that
+of producing and supporting this willing illusion,—yet
+they do not on that account cease to be ends
+themselves; and we must remember that, as such,
+they carry their own justification with them, as
+long as they do not contravene or interrupt the
+total illusion. It is not even always, or of necessity,
+an objection to them, that they prevent the
+illusion from rising to as great a height as it
+might otherwise have attained;—it is enough that
+they are simply compatible with as high a degree
+of it as is requisite for the purpose. Nay, upon
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+particular occasions, a palpable improbability may
+be hazarded by a great genius for the express purpose
+of keeping down the interest of a merely instrumental
+scene, which would otherwise make too
+great an impression for the harmony of the entire
+illusion. Had the panorama been invented in the
+time of Pope Leo X., Raffael would still, I doubt
+not, have smiled in contempt at the regret, that
+the broom twigs and scrubby bushes at the back of
+some of his grand pictures were not as probable
+trees as those in the exhibition.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tempest</span></span> is a specimen of the purely romantic
+drama, in which the interest is not historical,
+or dependent upon fidelity of portraiture,
+or the natural connection of events, but is a birth
+of the imagination, and rests only upon the coaptation
+and union of the elements granted to, or
+assumed by, the poet. It is a species of drama
+which owes no allegiance to time or space, and in
+which, therefore, errors of chronology and geography—no
+mortal sins in any species—are venial
+faults, and count for nothing. It addresses itself
+entirely to the imaginative faculty; and although
+the illusion may be assisted by the effect on the
+senses of the complicated scenery and decorations
+of modern times, yet this sort of assistance is
+dangerous. For the principal and only genuine
+excitement ought to come from within—from the
+moved and sympathetic imagination; whereas,
+where so much is addressed to the mere external
+senses of seeing and bearing, the spiritual vision
+is apt to languish, and the attraction from without
+will withdraw the mind from the proper and only
+legitimate interest which is intended to spring
+from within.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The romance opens with a busy scene admirably
+appropriate to the kind of drama, and giving, as
+it were, the key-note to the whole harmony. It
+prepares and initiates the excitement required for
+the entire piece, and yet does not demand anything
+from the spectators, which their previous
+habits had not fitted them to understand. It is
+the bustle of a tempest, from which the real
+horrors are abstracted;—therefore it is poetical,
+though not in strictness natural—(the distinction
+to which I have so often alluded)—and is purposely
+restrained from concentering the interest
+on itself, but used merely as an induction or tuning
+for what is to follow.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the second scene, Prospero's speeches, till the
+entrance of Ariel, contain the finest example I remember
+of retrospective narration for the purpose
+of exciting immediate interest, and putting the
+audience in possession of all the information necessary
+for the understanding of the plot. Observe,
+too, the perfect probability of the moment chosen
+by Prospero (the very Shakespeare himself, as it
+were, of the tempest) to open out the truth to his
+daughter, his own romantic bearing, and how
+completely anything that might have been disagreeable
+to us in the magician, is reconciled and
+shaded in the humanity and natural feelings of the
+father. In the very first speech of Miranda, the
+simplicity and tenderness of her character are at
+once laid open;—it would have been lost in direct
+contact with the agitation of the first scene. The
+opinion once prevailed, but happily is now abandoned,
+that Fletcher alone wrote for women;—the
+truth is, that with very few, and those partial exceptions,
+the female characters in the plays of
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Beaumont and Fletcher are, when of the light
+kind, not decent; when heroic, complete viragos.
+But in Shakespeare all the elements of womanhood
+are holy, and there is the sweet yet dignified
+feeling of all that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">continuates</span></em> society, as sense of
+ancestry and of sex, with a purity unassailable by
+sophistry, because it rests not in the analytic processes,
+but in that sane equipoise of the faculties,
+during which the feelings are representative of all
+past experience,—not of the individual only, but of
+all those by whom she has been educated, and
+their predecessors, even up to the first mother that
+lived. Shakespeare saw that the want of prominence,
+which Pope notices for sarcasm, was the
+blessed beauty of the woman's character, and knew
+that it arose not from any deficiency, but from the
+more exquisite harmony of all the parts of the
+moral being constituing one living total of head
+and heart. He has drawn it, indeed, in all its distinctive
+energies of faith, patience, constancy, fortitude,—shown
+in all of them as following the
+heart, which gives its results by a nice tact and
+happy intuition, without the intervention of the
+discursive faculty, sees all things in and by the
+light of the affections, and errs, if it ever err, in
+the exaggerations of love alone. In all the Shakespearian
+women there is essentially the same
+foundation and principle; the distinct individuality
+and variety are merely the result of modification
+of circumstances, whether in Miranda the
+maiden, in Imogen the wife, or in Katherine the
+queen.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But to return. The appearance and characters
+of the super or ultra natural servants are finely
+contrasted. Ariel has in everything the airy tint
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+which gives the name; and it is worthy of remark
+that Miranda is never directly brought into comparison
+with Ariel, lest the natural and human of
+the one and the supernatural of the other should
+tend to neutralise each other; Caliban, on the
+other hand, is all earth, all condensed and gross in
+feelings and images; he has the dawnings of
+understanding without reason or the moral sense,
+and in him, as in some brute animals, this advance
+to the intellectual faculties, without the moral sense,
+is marked by the appearance of vice. For it is in
+the primacy of the moral being only that man is
+truly human; in his intellectual powers he is certainly
+approached by the brutes, and, man's whole
+system duly considered, those powers cannot be
+considered other than means to an end—that is,
+to morality.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this scene, as it proceeds, is displayed the
+impression made by Ferdinand and Miranda on
+each other; it is love at first sight;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 7.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“At the first sight</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">They have chang'd eyes;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and it appears to me, that in all cases of real love,
+it is at one moment that it takes place. That moment
+may have been prepared by previous esteem,
+admiration, or even affection,—yet love seems to
+require a momentary act of volition, by which a
+tacit bond of devotion is imposed,—a bond not to
+be thereafter broken without violating what should
+be sacred in our nature. How finely is the true
+Shakespearian scene contrasted with Dryden's
+vulgar alteration of it, in which a mere ludicrous
+psychological experiment, as it were, is tried—displaying
+nothing but indelicacy without passion.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Prospero's interruption of the courtship has often
+seemed to me to have had no sufficient motive;
+still, his alleged reason—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 6.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lest too light winning</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Make the prize light�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+is enough for the ethereal connections of the romantic
+imagination, although it would not be so
+for the historical. The whole courting scene, indeed,
+in the beginning of the third act, between
+the lovers, is a masterpiece; and the first dawn of
+disobedience in the mind of Miranda to the command
+of her father is very finely drawn, so as to
+seem the working of the Scriptural command—<span class="tei tei-q">“Thou
+shalt leave father and mother,�</span> &amp;c. Oh!
+with what exquisite purity this scene is conceived
+and executed! Shakespeare may sometimes be
+gross, but I boldly say that he is always moral and
+modest. Alas! in this our day, decency of
+manners is preserved at the expense of morality
+of heart, and delicacies for vice are allowed, whilst
+grossness against it is hypocritically, or at least
+morbidly, condemned.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this play are admirably sketched the vices
+generally accompanying a low degree of civilisation;
+and in the first scene of the second act
+Shakespeare has, as in many other places, shown
+the tendency in bad men to indulge in scorn and
+contemptuous expressions as a mode of getting rid
+of their own uneasy feelings of inferiority to the
+good, and also, by making the good ridiculous, of
+rendering the transition of others to wickedness
+easy. Shakespeare never puts habitual scorn into
+the mouths of other than bad men, as here in the
+instances of Antonio and Sebastian. The scene of
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the intended assassination of Alonzo and Gonzalo
+is an exact counterpart of the scene between Macbeth
+and his lady, only pitched in a lower key
+throughout, as designed to be frustrated and concealed,
+and exhibiting the same profound management
+in the manner of familiarising a mind, not
+immediately recipient, to the suggestion of guilt,
+by associating the proposed crime with something
+ludicrous or out of place,—something not habitually
+matter of reverence. By this kind of sophistry
+the imagination and fancy are first bribed to
+contemplate the suggested act, and at length to
+become acquainted with it. Observe how the
+effect of this scene is heightened by contrast with
+another counterpart of it in low life,—that between
+the conspirators Stephano, Caliban, and
+Trinculo in the second scene of the third act, in
+which there are the same essential characteristics.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this play, and in this scene of it, are also
+shown the springs of the vulgar in politics,—of
+that kind of politics which is inwoven with human
+nature. In his treatment of this subject, wherever
+it occurs, Shakespeare is quite peculiar. In other
+writers we find the particular opinions of the individual;
+in Massinger it is rank republicanism; in
+Beaumont and Fletcher even <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jure divino</span></span> principles
+are carried to excess;—but Shakespeare never
+promulgates any party tenets. He is always the
+philosopher and the moralist, but at the same time
+with a profound veneration for all the established
+institutions of society, and for those classes which
+form the permanent elements of the State,—especially
+never introducing a professional character,
+as such, otherwise than as respectable. If he must
+have any name, he should be styled a philosophical
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+aristocrat, delighting in those hereditary institutions
+which have a tendency to bind one age to
+another, and in that distinction of ranks, of which,
+although few may be in possession, all enjoy the
+advantages. Hence, again, you will observe the
+good nature with which he seems always to make
+sport with the passions and follies of a mob, as
+with an irrational animal. He is never angry
+with it, but hugely content with holding up its
+absurdities to its face; and sometimes you may
+trace a tone of almost affectionate superiority,
+something like that in which a father speaks of
+the rogueries of a child. See the good-humoured
+way in which he describes Stephano passing from
+the most licentious freedom to absolute despotism
+over Trinculo and Caliban. The truth is, Shakespeare's
+characters are all <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">genera</span></span> intensely individualised;
+the results of meditation, of which
+observation supplied the drapery and the colours
+necessary to combine them with each other. He
+had virtually surveyed all the great component
+powers and impulses of human nature,—had seen
+that their different combinations and subordinations
+were in fact the individualisers of men, and
+showed how their harmony was produced by reciprocal
+disproportions of excess or deficiency.
+The language in which these truths are expressed
+was not drawn from any set fashion, but from the
+profoundest depths of his moral being, and is
+therefore for all ages.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a>
+<a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Love's Labour's Lost.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The characters in this play are either impersonated
+out of Shakespeare's own multiformity
+by imaginative self-position, or out of such
+as a country town and schoolboy's observation
+might supply,—the curate, the schoolmaster, the
+Armado (who even in my time was not extinct in
+the cheaper inns of North Wales), and so on. The
+satire is chiefly on follies of words. Biron and
+Rosaline are evidently the pre-existent state of
+Benedict and Beatrice, and so, perhaps, is Boyet
+of Lafeu, and Costard of the tapster in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure
+for Measure</span></span>; and the frequency of the rhymes,
+the sweetness as well as the smoothness of the
+metre, and the number of acute and fancifully
+illustrated aphorisms, are all as they ought to be
+in a poet's youth. True genius begins by generalising
+and condensing; it ends in realising and expanding.
+It first collects the seeds.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Yet, if this juvenile drama had been the only
+one extant of our Shakespeare, and we possessed
+the tradition only of his riper works, or accounts
+of them in writers who had not even mentioned
+this play,—how many of Shakespeare's characteristic
+features might we not still have discovered in
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's Lost</span></span>, though as in a portrait taken
+of him in his boyhood.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I can never sufficiently admire the wonderful
+activity of thought throughout the whole of the
+first scene of the play, rendered natural, as it is,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+by the choice of the characters, and the whimsical
+determination on which the drama is founded. A
+whimsical determination certainly;—yet not altogether
+so very improbable to those who are conversant
+in the history of the middle ages, with
+their Courts of Love, and all that lighter drapery
+of chivalry, which engaged even mighty kings
+with a sort of serio-comic interest, and may well
+be supposed to have occupied more completely the
+smaller princes, at a time when the noble's or
+prince's court contained the only theatre of the
+domain or principality. This sort of story, too,
+was admirably suited to Shakespeare's times, when
+the English court was still the foster-mother of the
+state and the muses; and when, in consequence,
+the courtiers, and men of rank and fashion, affected
+a display of wit, point, and sententious observation,
+that would be deemed intolerable at present,—but
+in which a hundred years of controversy, involving
+every great political, and every dear domestic,
+interest, had trained all but the lowest classes to
+participate. Add to this the very style of the sermons
+of the time, and the eagerness of the Protestants
+to distinguish themselves by long and
+frequent preaching, and it will be found that, from
+the reign of Henry VIII. to the abdication of
+James II. no country ever received such a national
+education as England.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Hence the comic matter chosen in the first instance
+is a ridiculous imitation or apery of this
+constant striving after logical precision and subtle
+opposition of thoughts, together with a making
+the most of every conception or image, by expressing
+it under the least expected property belonging
+to it, and this, again, rendered specially absurd by
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+being applied to the most current subjects and
+occurrences. The phrases and modes of combination
+in argument were caught by the most ignorant
+from the custom of the age, and their ridiculous
+misapplication of them is most amusingly exhibited
+in Costard; whilst examples suited only to the
+gravest propositions and impersonations, or apostrophes
+to abstract thoughts impersonated, which
+are in fact the natural language only of the most
+vehement agitations of the mind, are adopted by
+the coxcombry of Armado as mere artifices of
+ornament.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The same kind of intellectual action is exhibited
+in a more serious and elevated strain in many
+other parts of this play. Biron's speech at the
+end of the Fourth Act is an excellent specimen of
+it. It is logic clothed in rhetoric;—but observe
+how Shakespeare, in his two-fold being of poet
+and philosopher, avails himself of it to convey
+profound truths in the most lively images,—the
+whole remaining faithful to the character supposed
+to utter the lines, and the expressions themselves
+constituting a further development of that
+character:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Other slow arts entirely keep the brain:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And therefore finding barren practisers,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But love, first learned in a lady's eyes,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lives not alone immured in the brain;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But, with the motion of all elements,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Courses as swift as thought in every power;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And gives to every power a double power,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Above their functions and their offices.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">It adds a precious seeing to the eye,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A lover's eyes will gaze an eagle blind;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A lover's ear will hear the lowest sound,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">When the suspicious head of theft is stopp'd:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Love's feeling is more soft and sensible,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Than are the tender horns of cockled snails;</div>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Love's tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For valour, is not love a Hercules,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Still climbing trees in the Hesperides?</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And when love speaks, the voice of all the gods</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Never durst poet touch a pen to write,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Until his ink were tempered with love's sighs;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oh, then his lines would ravish savage ears,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And plant in tyrants mild humility.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">From women's eyes this doctrine I derive:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">They sparkle still the right Promethean fire;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">They are the books, the arts, the academes,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That show, contain, and nourish all the world;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Else, none at all in aught proves excellent;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Then fools you were these women to forswear;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For wisdom's sake, a word that all men love;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or for love's sake, a word that loves all men;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or for men's sake, the authors of these women;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or women's sake, by whom we men are men;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Let us once lose our oaths, to find ourselves,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">It is religion to be thus forsworn:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For charity itself fulfils the law:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And who can sever love from charity?�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is quite a study;—sometimes you see this
+youthful god of poetry connecting disparate
+thoughts purely by means of resemblances in the
+words expressing them,—a thing in character in
+lighter comedy, especially of that kind in which
+Shakespeare delights, namely, the purposed display
+of wit, though sometimes too, disfiguring his
+graver scenes;—but more often you may see him
+doubling the natural connection or order of logical
+consequence in the thoughts by the introduction
+of an artificial and sought for resemblance in the
+words, as, for instance, in the third line of the
+play,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And then grace us in the disgrace of death;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+this being a figure often having its force and propriety,
+as justified by the law of passion, which,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+inducing in the mind an unusual activity, seeks
+for means to waste its superfluity,—when in the
+highest degree—in lyric repetitions and sublime
+tautology—<span class="tei tei-q">“At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay
+down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he
+bowed, there he fell down dead,�</span>—and, in lower
+degrees, in making the words themselves the subjects
+and materials of that surplus action, and for
+the same cause that agitates our limbs, and forces
+our very gestures into a tempest in states of high
+excitement.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The mere style of narration in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's
+Lost</span></span>, like that of Ægeon in the first scene of the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comedy of Errors</span></span>, and of the Captain in the
+second scene of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>, seems imitated with its
+defects and its beauties from Sir Philip Sidney;
+whose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Arcadia</span></span>, though not then published, was
+already well known in manuscript copies, and
+could hardly have escaped the notice and admiration
+of Shakespeare as the friend and client of the
+Earl of Southampton. The chief defect consists
+in the parentheses and parenthetic thoughts and
+descriptions, suited neither to the passion of the
+speaker, nor the purpose of the person to whom
+the information is to be given, but manifestly betraying
+the author himself,—not by way of continuous
+undersong, but—palpably, and so as to
+show themselves addressed to the general reader.
+However, it is not unimportant to notice how
+strong a presumption the diction and allusions of
+this play afford, that, though Shakespeare's acquirements
+in the dead languages might not be
+such as we suppose in a learned education, his
+habits had, nevertheless, been scholastic, and those
+of a student. For a young author's first work
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+almost always bespeaks his recent pursuits, and
+his first observations of life are either drawn from
+the immediate employments of his youth, and from
+the characters and images most deeply impressed
+on his mind in the situations in which those employments
+had placed him;—or else they are fixed
+on such objects and occurrences in the world, as
+are easily connected with, and seem to bear upon,
+his studies and the hitherto exclusive subjects of
+his meditation. Just as Ben Jonson, who applied
+himself to the drama after having served in
+Flanders, fills his earliest plays with true or pretended
+soldiers, the wrongs and neglects of the
+former, and the absurd boasts and knavery of
+their counterfeits. So Lessing's first comedies are
+placed in the universities, and consist of events
+and characters conceivable in an academic life.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I will only further remark the sweet and tempered
+gravity, with which Shakespeare in the end
+draws the only fitting moral which such a drama
+afforded. Here Rosaline rises up to the full
+height of Beatrice:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> Oft have I heard of you, my lord Biron,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Before I saw you: and the world's large tongue</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Full of comparisons, and wounding flouts,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which you on all estates will execute</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That lie within the mercy of your wit:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And therewithal, to win me, if you please</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Without the which I am not to be won),</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Visit the speechless sick, and still converse</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With groaning wretches; and your talk shall be,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With all the fierce endeavour of your wit,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To enforce the pained impotent to smile.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Biron.</span></span> To move wild laughter in the throat of death?</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">It cannot be; it is impossible;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mirth cannot move a soul in agony.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> Why, that's the way to choke a gibing spirit,</div>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whose influence is begot of that loose grace,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A jest's prosperity lies in the ear</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of him that hears it, never in the tongue</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of him that makes it: then, if sickly ears,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deaf'd with the clamours of their own dear groans,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Will hear your idle scorns, continue then,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And I will have you, and that fault withal:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But, if they will not, throw away that spirit,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And I shall find you empty of that fault,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Right joyful of your reformation.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 2. In Biron's speech to the Princess:
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And, therefore, like the eye,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Full of <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">straying</span></em> shapes, of habits, and of forms�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+either read <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">stray</span></em>, which I prefer; or throw <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">full</span></em>
+back to the preceding lines,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 8.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Like the eye, full</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of straying shapes,�</span> &amp;c,</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the same scene:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Biron.</span></span> And what to me, my love? and what to me?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> You must be purged too, your sins are rank;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You are attaint with fault and perjury:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Therefore, if you my favour mean to get,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But seek the weary beds of people sick.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There can be no doubt, indeed, about the propriety
+of expunging this speech of Rosaline's; it soils
+the very page that retains it. But I do not agree
+with Warburton and others in striking out the
+preceding line also. It is quite in Biron's character;
+and Rosaline, not answering it immediately,
+Dumain takes up the question for him,
+and, after he and Longaville are answered, Biron,
+with evident propriety, says:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies</span></em> my mistress?�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a>
+<a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Midsummer Night's Dream.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Her.</span></span> O cross! too high to be enthrall'd to low—</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lys.</span></span> Or else misgrafted in respect of years;</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Her.</span></span> O spite! too old to be engaged to young—</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lys.</span></span> Or else it stood upon the choice of friends;</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Her.</span></span> O hell! to chuse love by another's eye!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is no authority for any alteration;—but
+I never can help feeling how great an improvement
+it would be, if the two former of
+Hermia's exclamations were omitted;—the third
+and only appropriate one would then become a
+beauty, and most natural.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Helena's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I will go tell him of fair Hermia's flight,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I am convinced that Shakespeare availed himself
+of the title of this play in his own mind, and
+worked upon it as a dream throughout, but especially,
+and perhaps unpleasingly, in this broad
+determination of ungrateful treachery in Helena,
+so undisguisedly avowed to herself, and this, too,
+after the witty cool philosophising that precedes.
+The act itself is natural, and the resolve so to act
+is, I fear, likewise too true a picture of the lax
+hold which principles have on a woman's heart,
+when opposed to, or even separated from, passion
+and inclination. For women are less hypocrites
+to their own minds than men are, because in
+general they feel less proportionate abhorrence of
+moral evil in and for itself, and more of its outward
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+consequences, as detection and loss of character,
+than men,—their natures being almost
+wholly extroitive. Still, however just in itself,
+the representation of this is not poetical; we
+shrink from it, and cannot harmonise it with the
+ideal.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Theobald's edition—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Through</span></em> bush, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">through</span></em> briar—</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Through</span></em> flood, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">through fire</span></em>—�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What a noble pair of ears this worthy Theobald
+must have had! The eight amphimacers or
+cretics,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ovĕr hīll, �vĕr d�le,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Th�r�' būsh, th�r�' brīar,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ovĕr p�rk, �vĕr p�le,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Thr�r�' fl��d, th�r�' fīre�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+have a delightful effect on the ear in their sweet
+transition to the trochaic,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I d� w�ndĕr ēv'ry whērĕ</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Swīftĕr th�n thĕ m��nĕs sphērĕ,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The last words, as sustaining the rhyme, must be
+considered, as in fact they are, trochees in time.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It may be worth while to give some correct
+examples in English of the principle metrical
+feet:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pyrrhic or Dibrach, u u = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">b�dy</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">spÄ­rÄ­t</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tribrach, u u u = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">n�b�dy</span></span>, hastily pronounced.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iambus, u - = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">dĕlīght</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Trochee, - u  = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">līghtlȳ</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Spondee, - - = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">G�d sp�ke</span></span>.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The paucity of spondees in single words in English,
+and indeed in the modern languages in general,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+makes perhaps the greatest distinction, metrically
+considered, between them and the Greek and
+Latin.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dactyl, - u u = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">mērrĭlȳ</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anapæst, u u - = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ă pr�p�s</span></span>, or the first three
+syllables of <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">cĕrĕm�ny</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amphibrachys, u - u = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">dĕlīghtfŭl</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amphimacer, - u - = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">�vĕr hīll</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Antibacchius, u -  = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">thĕ L�rd G�d</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bacchius, - - u = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hēlvēllȳn</span></span>.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Molossus, - - - = <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">J�hn J�mes J�nes</span></span>.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+These simple feet may suffice for understanding
+the metres of Shakespeare, for the greater part at
+least;—but Milton cannot be made harmoniously
+intelligible without the composite feet, the Ionics,
+Pæons, and Epitrites.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Titania's speech (Theobald, adopting
+Warburton's reading):—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Which she, with pretty and with swimming gate</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Follying</span></em> (her womb then rich with my young squire)</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Would imitate,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Oh! oh! Heaven have mercy on poor Shakespeare,
+and also on Mr. Warburton's mind's eye!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 1. Theseus' speech (Theobald):—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And what poor [<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">willing</span></em>] duty cannot do,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Noble respect takes it in might, not merit.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To my ears it would read far more Shakespearian
+thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And what poor duty cannot do, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">yet would</span></em>,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Noble respect,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Puck.</span></span> Now the hungry lion roars,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">And the wolf behowls the moon;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whilst the heavy ploughman snores</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">All with weary task foredone,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Very Anacreon in perfectness, proportion, grace,
+and spontaneity! So far it is Greek;—but then
+add, O! what wealth, what wild ranging, and yet
+what compression and condensation of, English
+fancy! In truth, there is nothing in Anacreon
+more perfect than these thirty lines, or half so
+rich and imaginative. They form a speckless
+diamond.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a>
+<a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Comedy Of Errors.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The myriad-minded man, our, and all men's
+Shakespeare, has in this piece presented us
+with a legitimate farce in exactest consonance with
+the philosophical principles and character of farce,
+as distinguished from comedy and from entertainments.
+A proper farce is mainly distinguished
+from comedy by the licence allowed, and even required,
+in the fable, in order to produce strange
+and laughable situations. The story need not be
+probable, it is enough that it is possible. A
+comedy would scarcely allow even the two Antipholuses;
+because, although there have been instances
+of almost indistinguishable likeness in two
+persons, yet these are mere individual accidents,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">casus ludentis naturæ</span></span>,
+and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">verum</span></span> will not excuse
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">inverisimile</span></span>. But farce dares add the two
+Dromios, and is justified in so doing by the laws
+of its end and constitution. In a word, farces
+commence in a postulate, which must be granted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a>
+<a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">As You Like It.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oli.</span></span> What, boy!</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Orla.</span></span> Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oli.</span></span> Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is a beauty here. The word <span class="tei tei-q">“boy�</span>
+naturally provokes and awakens in Orlando
+the sense of his manly powers; and with the
+retort of <span class="tei tei-q">“elder brother,�</span> he grasps him with
+firm hands, and makes him feel he is no boy.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oli.</span></span> Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester:
+I hope, I shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why,
+hates nothing more than him. Yet he's gentle; never school'd, and
+yet learn'd; full of noble device; of all sorts enchantingly beloved!
+and, indeed, so much in the heart of the world, and especially of my
+own people, who best know him, that I am altogether misprised:
+but it shall not be so long; this wrestler shall clear all.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This has always appeared to me one of the most
+un-Shakespearian speeches in all the genuine
+works of our poet; yet I should be nothing surprised,
+and greatly pleased, to find it hereafter a
+fresh beauty, as has so often happened to me with
+other supposed defects of great men.—1810.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is too venturous to charge a passage in
+Shakespeare with want of truth to nature; and
+yet at first sight this speech of Oliver's expresses
+truths, which it seems almost impossible that any
+mind should so distinctly, so livelily, and so
+voluntarily, have presented to itself, in connection
+with feelings and intentions so malignant, and so
+contrary to those which the qualities expressed
+would naturally have called forth. But I dare
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+not say that this seeming unnaturalness is not in
+the nature of an abused wilfulness, when united
+with a strong intellect. In such characters there
+is sometimes a gloomy self-gratification in making
+the absoluteness of the will (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sit pro ratione
+voluntas!</span></span>) evident to themselves by setting the
+reason and the conscience in full array against it.—1818.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Celia.</span></span> If your saw yourself with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">your</span></em>
+eyes, or knew yourself
+with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">your</span></em> judgment, the fear of your adventure would counsel you
+to a more equal enterprise.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Surely it should be <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our</span></em> eyes�</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our</span></em>
+judgment.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc 3.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cel.</span></span> But is all this for your father?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> No; some of it is for
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">my child's father</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald restores this as the reading of the
+older editions. It may be so: but who can doubt
+that it is a mistake for <span class="tei tei-q">“my father's child,�</span> meaning
+herself? According to Theobald's note, a
+most indelicate anticipation is put into the mouth
+of Rosalind without reason;—and besides, what a
+strange thought, and how out of place and unintelligible!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Take thou no scorn</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To wear the horn, the lusty horn;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">It was a crest ere thou wast born.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I question whether there exists a parallel instance
+of a phrase, that like this of <span class="tei tei-q">“horns�</span> is
+universal in all languages, and yet for which no
+one has discovered even a plausible origin.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a>
+<a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Twelfth Night.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Duke's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 6.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So full of shapes is fancy,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That it alone is high fantastical.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's alteration of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></em> is
+needless. <span class="tei tei-q">“Fancy�</span> may very well be interpreted
+<span class="tei tei-q">“exclusive affection,�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“passionate
+preference.�</span> Thus, bird-fanciers; gentlemen of
+the fancy, that is, amateurs of boxing, &amp;c. The
+play of assimilation,—the meaning one sense
+chiefly, and yet keeping both senses in view, is
+perfectly Shakespearian.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 3. Sir Andrew's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+An explanatory note on <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pigrogromitus</span></span> would
+have been more acceptable than Theobald's grand
+discovery that <span class="tei tei-q">“lemon�</span> ought to be <span class="tei tei-q">“leman.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Sir Toby's speech (Warburton's note on
+the Peripatetic philosophy):—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch, that will draw three</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“souls out of one weaver?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O genuine, and inimitable (at least I hope so)
+Warburton! This note of thine, if but one in
+five millions, would be half a one too much.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Duke.</span></span> My life upon't, young though thou art, thine eye</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hath stay'd upon some favour that it loves;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hath it not, boy?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Vio.</span></span> A little, by your favour.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Duke.</span></span> What kind of woman is't?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And yet Viola was to have been presented to
+Orsino as a eunuch!—Act i. sc. 2. Viola's speech.
+Either she forgot this, or else she had altered her
+plan.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Vio.</span></span> A blank, my lord: she never told her love!—</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But let concealment,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+After the first line (of which the last five words
+should be spoken with, and drop down in, a deep
+sigh), the actress ought to make a pause; and then
+start afresh, from the activity of thought, born of
+suppressed feelings, and which thought had accumulated
+during the brief interval, as vital heat
+under the skin during a dip in cold water.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Fabian.</span></span> Though our silence be drawn from us by <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">cars</span></em>, yet</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">peace.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Perhaps, <span class="tei tei-q">“cables.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Clown.</span></span> A sentence is but a <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">cheveril</span></span> glove to a good wit.�</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Theobald's note.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald's etymology of <span class="tei tei-q">“cheveril�</span> is, of course,
+quite right;—but he is mistaken in supposing that
+there were no such things as gloves of chicken-skin.
+They were at one time a main article in
+chirocosmetics.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 1. Clown's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So that, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">conclusions to be as kisses</span></em>, if your four negatives make</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">your two affirmatives, why, then, the worse for my friends, and the</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">better for my foes.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+(Warburton reads <span class="tei tei-q">“conclusion to be asked, is.�</span>)
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Surely Warburton could never have wooed by
+kisses and won, or he would not have flounder-flatted
+so just and humorous, nor less pleasing than
+humorous, an image into so profound a nihility.
+In the name of love and wonder, do not four kisses
+make a double affirmative? The humour lies in
+the whispered <span class="tei tei-q">“No!�</span> and the inviting <span class="tei tei-q">“Don't!�</span>
+with which the maiden's kisses are accompanied,
+and thence compared to negatives, which by repetition
+constitute an affirmative.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a>
+<a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">All's Well That Ends Well.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Count.</span></span> If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">it soon mortal.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bert.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Madam, I desire your holy wishes.</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Laf.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">How understand we that?</span></span>�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Bertram and Lafeu, I imagine, both speak
+together,—Lafeu referring to the Countess's
+rather obscure remark.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. (Warburton's note.)
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">King.</span></span>   ... let <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">higher</span></em> Italy</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Those <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">'bated</span></em>, that inherit but the fall</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of the last monarchy) see, that you come</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Not to woo honour, but to wed it.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would be, I own, an audacious and unjustifiable
+change of the text; but yet, as a mere conjecture,
+I venture to suggest <span class="tei tei-q">“bastards,�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“'bated.�</span>
+As it stands, in spite of Warburton's note, I can
+make little or nothing of it. Why should the king
+except the then most illustrious states, which, as
+being republics, were the more truly inheritors of
+the Roman grandeur?—With my conjecture, the
+sense would be;—<span class="tei tei-q">“let higher, or the more northern
+part of Italy—(unless <span class="tei tei-q">‘higher’</span> be a corruption for
+<span class="tei tei-q">‘hir'd,’</span>—the metre seeming to demand a monosyllable)
+(those bastards that inherit the infamy only
+of their fathers) see,�</span> &amp;c. The following <span class="tei tei-q">“woo�</span>
+and <span class="tei tei-q">“wed�</span> are so far confirmative as they indicate
+Shakespeare's manner of connection by unmarked
+influences of association from some preceding metaphor.
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+This it is which makes his style so peculiarly
+vital and organic. Likewise <span class="tei tei-q">“those girls of
+Italy�</span> strengthen the guess. The absurdity of
+Warburton's gloss, which represents the king calling
+Italy superior, and then excepting the only
+part the lords were going to visit, must strike
+every one.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Laf.</span></span> They say, miracles are past; and we have our philosophical</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">persons to make modern and familiar, things supernatural</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">and <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">causeless</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare, inspired, as it might seem, with all
+knowledge, here uses the word <span class="tei tei-q">“causeless�</span> in its
+strict philosophical sense;—cause being truly predicable
+only of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">phenomena</span></span>, that is, things natural,
+and not of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">noumena</span></span>, or things supernatural.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dia.</span></span> The Count Rousillon:—know you such a one?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hel.</span></span> But by the ear that hears most nobly of him;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">His face I know not.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shall we say here, that Shakespeare has unnecessarily
+made his loveliest character utter a lie?—Or
+shall we dare think that, where to deceive was
+necessary, he thought a pretended verbal verity a
+double crime, equally with the other a lie to the
+hearer, and at the same time an attempt to lie to
+one's own conscience?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a>
+<a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Merry Wives Of Windsor.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Shal.</span></span> The luce is the fresh fish, the salt fish is
+an old coat.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I cannot understand this. Perhaps there is
+a corruption both of words and speakers.
+Shallow no sooner corrects one mistake of Sir
+Hugh's, namely, <span class="tei tei-q">“louse�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“luce,�</span> a pike, but
+the honest Welchman falls into another, namely,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“cod�</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">baccalà</span></span>).
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambrice</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“cot�</span> for coat.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Shal.</span></span> The luce is the fresh fish—</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Evans.</span></span> The salt fish is an old cot.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Luce is a fresh fish, and not a louse;�</span> says Shallow.
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Aye, aye,�</span> quoth Sir Hugh; <span class="tei tei-q">“the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fresh</span></em>
+fish is the luce; it is an old cod that is the salt
+fish.�</span> At all events, as the text stands, there is
+no sense at all in the words.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Fal.</span></span> Now, the report goes,
+she has all the rule of her husband's</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">purse; He hath a legion of angels.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pist.</span></span> As many devils
+entertain; and <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">To her, boy</span></em>, say I.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Perhaps it is—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“As many devils enter (or enter'd) swine;
+and <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">to her, boy</span></em>,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">say I:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+a somewhat profane, but not un-Shakespearian, allusion
+to the <span class="tei tei-q">“legion�</span> in St. Luke's <span class="tei tei-q">“gospel.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a>
+<a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Measure For Measure.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This play, which is Shakespeare's throughout,
+is to me the most painful—say rather, the only
+painful—part of his genuine works. The comic
+and tragic parts equally border on the μισητὸν,—the
+one being disgusting, the other horrible; and
+the pardon and marriage of Angelo not merely
+baffles the strong indignant claim of justice—(for
+cruelty, with lust and damnable baseness, cannot
+be forgiven, because we cannot conceive them as
+being morally repented of); but it is likewise degrading
+to the character of woman. Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who can follow Shakespeare in his
+errors only, have presented a still worse, because
+more loathsome and contradictory, instance of the
+same kind in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Night-Walker</span></span>, in the marriage
+of Alathe to Algripe. Of the counter-balancing
+beauties of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure for Measure</span></span>, I need say nothing;
+for I have already remarked that the play
+is Shakespeare's throughout.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ay, but to die, and go we know not where,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This natural fear of Claudio, from the antipathy we have to
+death, seems very little varied from that infamous wish of Mæcenas,
+recorded in the 101st epistle of Seneca:—</span></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Debilem facito manu,</span></span></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Debilem pede, coxa</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">
+&amp;c.—Warburton's note.</span></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I cannot but think this rather a heroic resolve,
+than an infamous wish. It appears to me to be
+the grandest symptom of an immortal spirit, when
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+even that bedimmed and overwhelmed spirit recked
+not of its own immortality, still to seek to be,—to
+be a mind, a will.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+As fame is to reputation, so heaven is to an
+estate, or immediate advantage. The difference
+is, that the self-love of the former cannot exist
+but by a complete suppression and habitual supplantation
+of immediate selfishness. In one point
+of view, the miser is more estimable than the
+spendthrift;—only that the miser's present feelings
+are as much of the present as the spendthrift's.
+But <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">cæteris paribus</span></span>, that is, upon the
+supposition that whatever is good or lovely in the
+one coexists equally in the other, then, doubtless,
+the master of the present is less a selfish being,
+an animal, than he who lives for the moment with
+no inheritance in the future. Whatever can degrade
+man, is supposed in the latter case; whatever
+can elevate him, in the former. And as to
+self;—strange and generous self! that can only
+be such a self by a complete divestment of all that
+men call self,—of all that can make it either
+practically to others, or consciously to the individual
+himself, different from the human race in
+its ideal. Such self is but a perpetual religion,
+an inalienable acknowledgment of God, the sole
+basis and ground of being. In this sense, how
+can I love God, and not love myself, as far as it
+is of God?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Pattern in himself to know,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Grace to stand, and virtue go.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Worse metre, indeed, but better English would
+be,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Grace to stand, virtue to go.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a>
+<a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Cymbeline.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“You do not meet a man, but frowns: our bloods</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">No more obey the heavens, than our courtiers'</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Still seem, as does the king's.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There can be little doubt of Mr. Tyrwhitt's
+emendations of <span class="tei tei-q">“courtiers�</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“king,�</span> as
+to the sense;—only it is not impossible that
+Shakespeare's dramatic language may allow of the
+word <span class="tei tei-q">“brows�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“faces�</span> being understood after
+the word <span class="tei tei-q">“courtiers',�</span> which might then remain
+in the genitive case plural. But the nominative
+plural makes excellent sense, and is sufficiently
+elegant, and sounds to my ear Shakespearian.
+What, however, is meant by <span class="tei tei-q">“our bloods no more
+obey the heavens?�</span>—Dr. Johnson's assertion
+that <span class="tei tei-q">“bloods�</span> signify <span class="tei tei-q">“countenances,�</span> is, I think,
+mistaken both in the thought conveyed—(for it
+was never a popular belief that the stars governed
+men's countenances)—and in the usage, which
+requires an antithesis of the blood,—or the temperament
+of the four humours, choler, melancholy,
+phlegm, and the red globules, or the sanguine
+portion, which was supposed not to be in our own
+power, but to be dependent on the influences of
+the heavenly bodies,—and the countenances which
+are in our power really, though from flattery we
+bring them into a no less apparent dependence on
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the sovereign, than the former are in actual
+dependence on the constellations.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have sometimes thought that the word <span class="tei tei-q">“courtiers�</span>
+was a misprint for <span class="tei tei-q">“countenances,�</span> arising
+from an anticipation, by foreglance of the compositor's
+eye, of the word <span class="tei tei-q">“courtier�</span> a few lines
+below. The written <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></span> is easily and often confounded
+with, the written <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">n</span></span>. The compositor read
+the first syllable <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">court</span></span>, and—his eye at the same
+time catching the word <span class="tei tei-q">“courtier�</span> lower down—he
+completed the word without reconsulting the
+copy. It is not unlikely that Shakespeare intended
+first to express, generally, the same
+thought, which a little afterwards he repeats with
+a particular application to the persons meant;—a
+common usage of the pronominal <span class="tei tei-q">“our,�</span> where
+the speaker does not really mean to include himself;
+and the word <span class="tei tei-q">“you�</span> is an additional confirmation
+of the <span class="tei tei-q">“our,�</span> being used in this place for
+<span class="tei tei-q">“men�</span> generally and indefinitely,—just as <span class="tei tei-q">“you
+do not meet�</span> is the same as <span class="tei tei-q">“one does not meet.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1 Imogen's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“My dearest husband,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I something fear my father's wrath; but nothing</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Always reserved my holy duty) what</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">His rage can do on me;�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Place the emphasis on <span class="tei tei-q">“me�</span>; for <span class="tei tei-q">“rage�</span> is a
+mere repetition of <span class="tei tei-q">“wrath.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cym.</span></span> O disloyal thing;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That should'st repair my youth; thou heapest</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A year's age on me!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How is it that the commentators take no notice
+of the un-Shakespearian defect in the metre of the
+second line, and what in Shakespeare is the same,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the harmony with the sense and feeling? Some
+word or words must have slipped out after
+<span class="tei tei-q">“youth,�</span>—possibly <span class="tei tei-q">“and see�</span>:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That should'st repair my youth!—and see, thou heap'st,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Pisanio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For so long</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As he could make me with <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em> eye or ear</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Distinguish him from others,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em> eye,�</span> in spite of the supposition of its
+being used δεικτικῶς, is very awkward. I should
+think that either <span class="tei tei-q">“or�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the�</span> was Shakespeare's
+word;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“As he could make me or with eye or ear.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6. Iachimo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 8.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Hath nature given them eyes</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of sea and land, which can distinguish 'twixt</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The fiery orbs above, and the twinn'd stones</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Upon the number'd beach.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I would suggest <span class="tei tei-q">“cope�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“crop.�</span> As to
+<span class="tei tei-q">“twinn'd stones�</span>—may it not be a bold <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">catachresis</span></span>
+for muscles, cockles, and other empty shells with
+hinges, which are truly twinned? I would take
+Dr. Farmer's <span class="tei tei-q">“umber'd,�</span> which I had proposed
+before I ever heard of its having been already
+offered by him: but I do not adopt his interpretation
+of the word, which I think is not derived
+from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">umbra</span></span>, a shade,
+but from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">umber</span></span>, a dingy
+yellow-brown soil, which most commonly forms
+the mass of the sludge on the sea-shore, and on
+the banks of tide-rivers at low water. One other
+possible interpretation of this sentence has occurred
+to me, just barely worth mentioning;—that
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“twinn'd stones�</span> are the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">augrim</span></span> stones
+upon the number'd beech,—that is, the astronomical
+tables of beech-wood.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sooth.</span></span> When, as a lion's whelp,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is not easy to conjecture why Shakespeare
+should have introduced this ludicrous scroll, which
+answers no one purpose, either propulsive, or explicatory,
+unless as a joke on etymology.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a>
+<a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Titus Andronicus.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Theobald's note:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I never heard it so much as intimated, that he (Shakespeare)
+had turned his genius to stage-writing, before he associated with
+the players, and became one of their body.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That Shakespeare never <span class="tei tei-q">“turned his genius to
+stage-writing,�</span> as Theobald most <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theobaldice</span></span>
+phrases it, before he became an actor, is an assertion
+of about as much authority as the precious
+story that he left Stratford for deer-stealing, and
+that he lived by holding gentlemen's horses at the
+doors of the theatre, and other trash of that arch-gossip,
+old Aubrey. The metre is an argument
+against <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span> being Shakespeare's,
+worth a score such chronological surmises. Yet
+I incline to think that both in this play and in
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeronymo</span></span>, Shakespeare wrote some passages, and
+that they are the earliest of his compositions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 2. I think it not improbable that
+the lines from—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I am not mad; I know thee well enough;</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+to
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">So thou destroy Rapine, and Murder there�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+were written by Shakespeare in his earliest period.
+But instead of the text—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Revenge, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">which makes
+the foul offenders quake.</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tit. Art thou</span></em> Revenge?
+and art thou sent to me?�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+the words in italics ought to be omitted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a>
+<a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Troilus And Cressida.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Mr. Pope (after Dryden) informs us that the story of </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Troilus
+and Cressida</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> was originally the work of one Lollius, a Lombard:
+but Dryden goes yet further; he declares it to have been written in
+Latin verse, and that Chaucer translated it. </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Lollius was a historiographer
+of Urbino in Italy.</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Note in Stockdale's edition, 1807.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Lollius was a historiographer of Urbino in
+Italy.�</span> So affirms the notary to whom the
+Sieur Stockdale committed the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">disfaciménto</span></span> of
+Ayscough's excellent edition of Shakespeare.
+Pity that the researchful notary has not either
+told us in what century, and of what history, he
+was a writer, or been simply content to depose,
+that Lollius, if a writer of that name existed at
+all, was a somewhat somewhere. The notary
+speaks of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Troy Boke</span></span> of Lydgate, printed in
+1513. I have never seen it; but I deeply regret
+that Chalmers did not substitute the whole of
+Lydgate's works from the MSS. extant, for the
+almost worthless Gower.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Troilus and Cressida</span></span> of Shakespeare can
+scarcely be classed with his dramas of Greek and
+Roman history; but it forms an intermediate link
+between the fictitious Greek and Roman histories,
+which we may call legendary dramas, and the
+proper ancient histories,—that is, between the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span>,
+and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coriolanus</span></span>
+or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julius Cæsar</span></span>.
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cymbeline</span></span> is a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">congener</span></span> with
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pericles</span></span>, and distinguished from
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> by not
+having any declared prominent object. But where
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+shall we class the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Timon of Athens</span></span>? Perhaps
+immediately below <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>. It is a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> of the
+satirical drama; a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> of domestic or ordinary
+life;—a local eddy of passion on the high road of
+society, while all around is the week-day goings
+on of wind and weather; a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, therefore, without
+its soul-searching flashes, its ear-cleaving
+thunder-claps, its meteoric splendours,—without
+the contagion and the fearful sympathies of
+nature, the fates, the furies, the frenzied elements,
+dancing in and out, now breaking through and
+scattering,—now hand in hand with,—the fierce
+or fantastic group of human passions, crimes, and
+anguishes, reeling on the unsteady ground, in a
+wild harmony to the shock and the swell of an
+earthquake. But my present subject was <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Troilus
+and Cressida</span></span>; and I suppose that, scarcely knowing
+what to say of it, I by a cunning of instinct
+ran off to subjects on which I should find it difficult not
+to say too much, though certain after all
+that I should still leave the better part unsaid,
+and the gleaning for others richer than my own
+harvest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Indeed, there is no one of Shakespeare's plays
+harder to characterise. The name and the remembrances
+connected with it, prepare us for the representation
+of attachment no less faithful than
+fervent on the side of the youth, and of sudden
+and shameless inconstancy on the part of the lady.
+And this is, indeed, as the gold thread on which
+the scenes are strung, though often kept out of
+sight and out of mind by gems of greater value
+than itself. But as Shakespeare calls forth nothing
+from the mausoleum of history, or the catacombs
+of tradition, without giving, or eliciting, some
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+permanent and general interest, and brings forward
+no subject which he does not moralise or
+intellectualise,—so here he has drawn in Cressida
+the portrait of a vehement passion, that, having
+its true origin and proper cause in warmth of
+temperament, fastens on, rather than fixes to,
+some one object by liking and temporary preference.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“There's language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirit looks out</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">At every joint and motive of her body.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This Shakespeare has contrasted with the profound
+affection represented in Troilus, and alone
+worthy the name of love;—affection, passionate
+indeed,—swoln with the confluence of youthful
+instincts and youthful fancy, and growing in the
+radiance of hope newly risen, in short, enlarged
+by the collective sympathies of nature;—but still
+having a depth of calmer element in a will stronger
+than desire, more entire than choice, and which
+gives permanence to its own act by converting it
+into faith and duty. Hence, with excellent judgment,
+and with an excellence higher than mere
+judgment can give, at the close of the play, when
+Cressida has sunk into infamy below retrieval and
+beneath hope, the same will, which had been the
+substance and the basis of his love, while the restless
+pleasures and passionate longings, like sea-waves,
+had tossed but on its surface,—this same
+moral energy is represented as snatching him aloof
+from all neighbourhood with her dishonour, from
+all lingering fondness and languishing regrets,
+whilst it rushes with him into other and nobler
+duties, and deepens the channel, which his heroic
+brother's death had left empty for its collected
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+flood. Yet another secondary and subordinate
+purpose Shakespeare has inwoven with his delineation
+of these two characters,—that of opposing
+the inferior civilisation, but purer morals, of the
+Trojans to the refinements, deep policy, but duplicity
+and sensual corruptions of the Greeks.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To all this, however, so little comparative projection
+is given,—nay, the masterly group of
+Agamemnon, Nestor, and Ulysses, and, still more
+in advance, that of Achilles, Ajax, and Thersites,
+so manifestly occupying the fore-ground, that the
+subservience and vassalage of strength and animal
+courage to intellect and policy seems to be the
+lesson most often in our poet's view, and which he
+has taken little pains to connect with the former
+more interesting moral impersonated in the titular
+hero and heroine of the drama. But I am half
+inclined to believe, that Shakespeare's main object,
+or shall I rather say his ruling impulse, was to
+translate the poetic heroes of paganism into the
+not less rude, but more intellectually vigorous,
+and more <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">featurely</span></em>, warriors of Christian chivalry,—and
+to substantiate the distinct and graceful
+profiles or outlines of the Homeric epic into the
+flesh and blood of the romantic drama;—in short,
+to give a grand history-piece in the robust style
+of Albert Durer.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The character of Thersites, in particular, well
+deserves a more careful examination, as the Caliban
+of demagogic life;—the admirable portrait of intellectual
+power deserted by all grace, all moral
+principle, all not momentary impulse;—just wise
+enough to detect the weak head, and fool enough
+to provoke the armed fist of his betters;—one whom
+malcontent Achilles can inveigle from malcontent
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Ajax, under the one condition, that he shall be
+called on to do nothing but abuse and slander, and
+that he shall be allowed to abuse as much and as
+purulently as he likes, that is, as he can;—in short,
+a mule,—quarrelsome by the original discord of his
+nature;—a slave by tenure of his own baseness,—made
+to bray and be brayed at, to despise and be
+despicable. <span class="tei tei-q">“Aye, Sir, but say what you will, he
+is a very clever fellow, though the best friends will
+fall out. There was a time when Ajax thought he
+deserved to have a statue of gold erected to him
+and handsome Achilles, at the head of the Myrmidons,
+gave no little credit to his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">friend Thersites</span></span>!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 5. Speech of Ulysses:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, these encounterers, so glib of tongue,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That give a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">coasting</span></em> welcome ere it comes�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Should it be <span class="tei tei-q">“accosting?�</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Accost her, knight,
+accost!�</span> in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twelfth Night</span></span>. Yet there sounds
+a something so Shakespearian in the phrase—<span class="tei tei-q">“give
+a coasting welcome�</span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“coasting�</span> being taken as
+the epithet and adjective of <span class="tei tei-q">“welcome�</span>), that had
+the following words been, <span class="tei tei-q">“ere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">they land</span></em>,�</span> instead
+of <span class="tei tei-q">“ere it comes,�</span> I should have preferred the
+interpretation. The sense now is, <span class="tei tei-q">“that give
+welcome to a salute ere it comes.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a>
+<a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Coriolanus.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This play illustrates the wonderfully philosophic
+impartiality of Shakespeare's politics. His own
+country's history furnished him with no matter
+but what was too recent to be devoted to patriotism.
+Besides, he knew that the instruction of ancient
+history would seem more dispassionate. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coriolanus</span></span>
+and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julius Cæsar</span></span>, you see Shakespeare's
+good-natured laugh at mobs. Compare this with
+Sir Thomas Brown's aristocracy of spirit.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Marcius' speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He that depends</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Upon your favours, swims with fins of lead,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I suspect that Shakespeare wrote it transposed!
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Trust ye? Hang ye!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 10. Speech of Aufidius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Mine emulation</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hath not that honour in't, it had; for where</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I thought to crush him in an equal force,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">True sword to sword; I'll potch at him some way</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or wrath, or craft may get him.—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... My valour (poison'd</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With only suffering stain by him) for him</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shall fly out of itself: nor sleep, nor sanctuary,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Being naked, sick, nor fane, nor capitol,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The prayers of priests, nor times of sacrifices,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Embankments all of fury, shall lift up</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Their rotten privilege and custom 'gainst</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">My hate to Marcius.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have such deep faith in Shakespeare's heart-lore,
+that I take for granted that this is in nature,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and not as a mere anomaly; although I cannot in
+myself discover any germ of possible feeling, which
+could wax and unfold itself into such sentiment as
+this. However, I perceive that in this speech is
+meant to be contained a prevention of shock at the
+after-change in Aufidius's character.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Menenius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The most sovereign prescription in <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Galen</span></span>,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Was it without, or in contempt of, historical information
+that Shakespeare made the contemporaries
+of Coriolanus quote Cato and Galen? I cannot
+decide to my own satisfaction.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Speech of Coriolanus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Why in this wolvish toge should I stand hero�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That the gown of the candidate was of whitened
+wool, we know. Does <span class="tei tei-q">“wolvish�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“woolvish�</span>
+mean <span class="tei tei-q">“made of wool?�</span> If it means <span class="tei tei-q">“wolfish,�</span>
+what is the sense?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 7. Speech of Aufidius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“All places yield to him ere he sits down,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have always thought this, in itself so beautiful
+speech, the least explicable from the mood and full
+intention of the speaker of any in the whole works
+of Shakespeare. I cherish the hope that I am
+mistaken, and that, becoming wiser, I shall discover
+some profound excellence in that, in which I
+now appear to detect an imperfection.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a>
+<a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Julius Cæsar.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mar.</span></span> What meanest <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">thou</span></em>
+by that? Mend me, thou saucy</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">fellow!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The speeches of Flavius and Marullus are in
+blank verse. Wherever regular metre can be
+rendered truly imitative of character, passion, or
+personal rank, Shakespeare seldom, if ever, neglects
+it. Hence this line should be read:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“What mean'st by that? mend me, thou saucy fellow!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I say regular metre: for even the prose has in the
+highest and lowest dramatic personage, a Cobbler
+or a Hamlet, a rhythm so felicitous and so severally
+appropriate, as to be a virtual metre.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bru.</span></span> A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+If my ear does not deceive me, the metre of this
+line was meant to express that sort of mild philosophic
+contempt, characterising Brutus even in his
+first casual speech. The line is a trimeter,—each
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dipodia</span></span> containing two accented and two unaccented
+syllables, but variously arranged, as thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">u -   - u  |  -    u   u -   |  u  -  u  -</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A soothsayer   | bids you beware     | the Ides of March.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Brutus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Set honour in one eye, and death i' the other,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And I will look on <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">both</span></em> indifferently.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton would read <span class="tei tei-q">“death�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“both;�</span> but
+I prefer the old text. There are here three things,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the public good, the individual Brutus' honour, and
+his death. The latter two so balanced each other,
+that he could decide for the first by equipoise; nay—the
+thought growing—that honour had more
+weight than death. That Cassius understood it as
+Warburton, is the beauty of Cassius as contrasted
+with Brutus.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Cæsar's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He loves no plays</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This is not a trivial observation, nor does our poet mean barely
+by it, that Cassius was not a merry, sprightly man; but that he had
+not a due temperament of harmony in his disposition.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Theobald's
+note.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O Theobald! what a commentator wast thou,
+when thou would'st affect to understand Shakespeare,
+instead of contenting thyself with collating
+the text! The meaning here is too deep for a line
+ten-fold the length of thine to fathom.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Cæsar's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Be <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">factious</span></em> for redress of all these griefs;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And I will set this foot of mine as far,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">As who goes farthest.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I understand it thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“You have spoken as a
+conspirator; be so in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fact</span></em>, and I will join you.
+Act on your principles, and realize them in a fact.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Brutus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“It must be by his death; and, for my part,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I know no personal cause to spurn at him,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But for the general. He would be crown'd:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">How that might change his nature, there's the question.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... And, to speak truth of Cæsar,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I have not known when his affections sway'd</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">More than his reason.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... So Cæsar may;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Then, lest he may, prevent.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This speech is singular;—at least, I do not at
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+present see into Shakespeare's motive, his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rationale</span></em>,
+or in what point of view he meant Brutus' character
+to appear. For surely—(this, I mean, is what I say
+to myself, with my present <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quantum</span></span> of insight,
+only modified by my experience in how many instances
+I have ripened into a perception of beauties,
+where I had before descried faults;) surely, nothing
+can seem more discordant with our historical preconceptions
+of Brutus, or more lowering to the
+intellect of the Stoico-Platonic tyrannicide, than
+the tenets here attributed to him—to him, the
+stern Roman republican; namely,—that he would
+have no objection to a king, or to Cæsar, a monarch
+in Rome, would Cæsar but be as good a monarch
+as he now seems disposed to be! How, too, could
+Brutus say that he found no personal cause—none
+in Cæsar's past conduct as a man? Had he not
+passed the Rubicon? Had he not entered Rome as
+a conqueror? Had he not placed his Gauls in the
+Senate?—Shakespeare, it may be said, has not
+brought these things forward—True;—and this is
+just the ground of my perplexity. What character
+did Shakespeare mean his Brutus to be?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Brutus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For if thou <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">path</span></em>, thy native semblance on.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Surely, there need be no scruple in treating this
+<span class="tei tei-q">“path�</span> as a mere misprint or mis-script for <span class="tei tei-q">“put.�</span>
+In what place does Shakespeare—where does any
+other writer of the same age—use <span class="tei tei-q">“path�</span> as a
+verb for <span class="tei tei-q">“walk?�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Cæsar's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“She dreamt to-night, she saw my <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">statue</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No doubt, it should be <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">statua</span></span>, as in the same age,
+they more often pronounced <span class="tei tei-q">“heroes�</span> as a trisyllable
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+than dissyllable. A modern tragic poet would
+have written,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Last night she dreamt that she my statue saw.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But Shakespeare never avails himself of the supposed
+license of transposition, merely for the metre.
+There is always some logic either of thought or
+passion to justify it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1. Antony's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Pardon me, Julius—here wast thou bay'd, brave hart:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sign'd in thy spoil, and crimson'd in thy lethe.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">O world! thou wast the forest to this hart,</span></em></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">And this, indeed, O world! the heart of thee.</span></em>�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I doubt the genuineness of the last two lines;—not
+because they are vile; but first, on account of
+the rhythm, which is not Shakespearian, but just
+the very tune of some old play, from which the
+actor might have interpolated them;—and secondly,
+because they interrupt, not only the sense and
+connection, but likewise the flow both of the passion,
+and (what is with me still more decisive) of
+the Shakespearian link of association. As with
+many another parenthesis or gloss slipt into the
+text, we have only to read the passage without it,
+to see that it never was in it. I venture to say
+there is no instance in Shakespeare fairly like this.
+Conceits he has; but they not only rise out of some
+word in the lines before, but also lead to the thought
+in the lines following. Here the conceit is a mere
+alien: Antony forgets an image, when he is even
+touching it, and then recollects it, when the thought
+last in his mind must have led him away from it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Brutus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“What, shall one of us,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That struck the foremost man of all this world,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">supporting robbers</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This seemingly strange assertion of Brutus is
+unhappily verified in the present day. What is
+an immense army, in which the lust of plunder has
+quenched all the duties of the citizen, other than a
+horde of robbers, or differenced only as fiends are
+from ordinarily reprobate men? Cæsar supported,
+and was supported by, such as these;—and even so
+Buonaparte in our days.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I know no part of Shakespeare that more impresses
+on me the belief of his genius being superhuman,
+than this scene between Brutus and Cassius.
+In the Gnostic heresy it might have been credited
+with less absurdity than most of their dogmas, that
+the Supreme had employed him to create, previously
+to his function of representing, characters.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a>
+<a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Antony And Cleopatra.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare can be complimented only by
+comparison with himself: all other eulogies are
+either heterogeneous, as when they are in reference
+to Spenser or Milton; or they are flat truisms, as
+when he is gravely preferred to Corneille, Racine,
+or even his own immediate successors, Beaumont
+and Fletcher, Massinger and the rest. The highest
+praise, or rather form of praise, of this play, which
+I can offer in my own mind, is the doubt which the
+perusal always occasions in me, whether the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antony
+and Cleopatra</span></span> is not, in all exhibitions of a giant
+power in its strength and vigour of maturity, a
+formidable rival of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>, and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feliciter audax</span></span>
+is the motto for its style
+comparatively with that of Shakespeare's other
+works, even as it is the general motto of all his
+works compared with those of other poets. Be it
+remembered, too, that this happy valiancy of style
+is but the representative and result of all the
+material excellencies so expressed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This play should be perused in mental contrast
+with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>;—as the love of passion
+and appetite opposed to the love of affection and
+instinct. But the art displayed in the character of
+Cleopatra is profound; in this, especially, that the
+sense of criminality in her passion is lessened by
+our insight into its depth and energy, at the very
+moment that we cannot but perceive that the passion
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+itself springs out of the habitual craving of a
+licentious nature, and that it is supported and
+reinforced by voluntary stimulus and sought-for
+associations, instead of blossoming out of spontaneous
+emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of all Shakespeare's historical plays, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antony and
+Cleopatra</span></span> is by far the most wonderful. There is
+not one in which he has followed history so
+minutely, and yet there are few in which he impresses
+the notion of angelic strength so much;—perhaps
+none in which he impresses it more
+strongly. This is greatly owing to the manner in
+which the fiery force is sustained throughout, and
+to the numerous momentary flashes of nature counteracting
+the historic abstraction. As a wonderful
+specimen of the way in which Shakespeare lives up
+to the very end of this play, read the last part of
+the concluding scene. And if you would feel the
+judgment as well as the genius of Shakespeare in
+your heart's core, compare this astonishing drama
+with Dryden's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">All For Love</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Philo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“His captain's heart</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The buckles on his breast, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">reneges</span></em> all temper.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It should be <span class="tei tei-q">“reneagues,�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“reniegues,�</span> as
+<span class="tei tei-q">“fatigues,�</span> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Take but good note, and you shall see in him</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The triple pillar of the world transform'd</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Into a strumpet's <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">fool</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's conjecture of <span class="tei tei-q">“stool�</span> is ingenious,
+and would be a probable reading, if the scene opening
+had discovered Antony with Cleopatra on his
+lap. But, represented as he is walking and jesting
+with her, <span class="tei tei-q">“fool�</span> must be the word. Warburton's
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+objection is shallow, and implies that he confounded
+the dramatic with the epic style. The <span class="tei tei-q">“pillar�</span>
+of a state is so common a metaphor as to have lost
+the image in the thing meant to be imaged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Much is breeding;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which, like the courser's hair, hath yet but life,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And not a serpent's poison.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is so far true to appearance, that a horse-hair,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“laid,�</span> as Hollinshed says, <span class="tei tei-q">“in a pail of
+water,�</span> will become the supporter of seemingly one
+worm, though probably of an immense number of
+small slimy water-lice. The hair will twirl round
+a finger, and sensibly compress it. It is a common
+experiment with school boys in Cumberland and
+Westmoreland.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2. Speech of Enobarbus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">So many <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">mermaids</span></em>, tended her i' th' eyes,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And made their bends adornings. At the helm</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A seeming mermaid steers.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have the greatest difficulty in believing that
+Shakespeare wrote the first <span class="tei tei-q">“mermaids.�</span> He
+never, I think, would have so weakened by useless
+anticipation the fine image immediately following.
+The epithet <span class="tei tei-q">“seeming�</span> becomes so extremely improper
+after the whole number had been positively
+called <span class="tei tei-q">“so many mermaids.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a>
+<a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Timon Of Athens.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tim.</span></span> The man is honest.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Ath.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Therefore he will be</span></em>, Timon.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">His honesty rewards him in itself.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's comment—<span class="tei tei-q">“If the man be
+honest, for that reason he will be so in this,
+and not endeavour at the injustice of gaining my
+daughter without my consent�</span>—is, like almost all
+his comments, ingenious in blunder; he can never
+see any other writer's thoughts for the mist-working
+swarm of his own. The meaning of the first line
+the poet himself explains, or rather unfolds, in the
+second. <span class="tei tei-q">“The man is honest!�</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“True;—and for
+that very cause, and with no additional or extrinsic
+motive, he will be so. No man can be justly called
+honest, who is not so for honesty's sake, itself including
+its own reward.�</span> Note, that <span class="tei tei-q">“honesty�</span> in
+Shakespeare's age retained much of its old dignity,
+and that contradistinction of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">honestum</span></span> from the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">utile</span></span>, in which its very essence and definition consist.
+If it be <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">honestum</span></span>, it cannot depend on the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">utile</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Apemantus, printed as prose in
+Theobald's edition:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So, so! aches contract, and starve your supple joints!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I may remark here the fineness of Shakespeare's
+sense of musical period, which would almost by itself
+have suggested (if the hundred positive proofs
+had not been extant) that the word <span class="tei tei-q">“aches�</span> was
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+then <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad libitum</span></span>, a
+dissyllable—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aitches</span></span>. For read
+it <span class="tei tei-q">“aches,�</span> in this sentence, and I would challenge
+you to find any period in Shakespeare's writings
+with the same musical or, rather dissonant, notation.
+Try the one, and then the other, by your
+ear, reading the sentence aloud, first with the word
+as a dissyllable and then as a monosyllable, and you
+will feel what I mean.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Cupid's speech: Warburton's correction
+of—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“There taste, touch, all pleas'd from thy table rise�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+into
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Th' ear, taste, touch, smell,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is indeed an excellent emendation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Senator's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nor then silenc'd with</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Commend me to your master�</span>—<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">and the cap</span></em></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Plays in the right hand, thus</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Either, methinks, <span class="tei tei-q">“plays�</span> should be <span class="tei tei-q">“play'd,�</span>
+or <span class="tei tei-q">“and�</span> should be changed to <span class="tei tei-q">“while.�</span> I
+can certainly understand it as a parenthesis, an
+interadditive of scorn; but it does not sound to my
+ear as in Shakespeare's manner.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Timon's speech (Theobald):—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And that unaptness made <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">you</span></em> minister,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Thus to excuse yourself.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">your</span></em>;—at least I cannot otherwise understand
+the line. You made my chance indisposition
+and occasional inaptness your minister—that is, the
+ground on which you now excuse yourself. Or,
+perhaps, no correction is necessary, if we construe
+<span class="tei tei-q">“made you�</span> as <span class="tei tei-q">“did you make;�</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“and that unaptness
+did you make help you thus to excuse
+yourself.�</span> But the former seems more in Shakespeare's
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+manner, and is less liable to be misunderstood.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 3. Servant's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">How fairly this lord strives to appear foul!—takes virtuous
+copies to be wicked; </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">like those that under hot, ardent zeal would set
+whole realms on fire. Of such a nature is his politic love</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This latter clause I grievously suspect to have
+been an addition of the players, which had hit, and,
+being constantly applauded, procured a settled
+occupation in the prompter's copy. Not that
+Shakespeare does not elsewhere sneer at the Puritans;
+but here it is introduced so <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nolenter volenter</span></span>
+(excuse the phrase) by the head and shoulders!—and
+is besides so much more likely to have been
+conceived in the age of Charles I.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Timon's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Raise me this beggar, and <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">deny't</span></em> that lord.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton reads <span class="tei tei-q">“denude.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I cannot see the necessity of this alteration. The
+editors and commentators are, all of them, ready
+enough to cry out against Shakespeare's laxities
+and licenses of style, forgetting that he is not
+merely a poet, but a dramatic poet; that, when the
+head and the heart are swelling with fulness, a
+man does not ask himself whether he has grammatically
+arranged, but only whether (the context
+taken in) he has conveyed his meaning. <span class="tei tei-q">“Deny�</span>
+is here clearly equal to <span class="tei tei-q">“withhold;�</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“it,�</span>
+quite in the genius of vehement conversation, which
+a syntaxist explains by ellipses and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">subauditurs</span></span> in
+a Greek or Latin classic, yet triumphs over as
+ignorances in a contemporary, refers to accidental
+and artificial rank or elevation, implied in the verb
+<span class="tei tei-q">“raise.�</span> Besides, does the word <span class="tei tei-q">“denude�</span> occur
+in any writer before, or of, Shakespeare's age?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a>
+<a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Romeo And Juliet.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have previously had occasion to speak at large
+on the subject of the three unities of time, place,
+and action, as applied to the drama in the abstract,
+and to the particular stage for which Shakespeare
+wrote, as far as he can be said to have written for
+any stage but that of the universal mind. I hope
+I have in some measure succeeded in demonstrating
+that the former two, instead of being rules,
+were mere inconveniences attached to the local
+peculiarities of the Athenian drama; that the last
+alone deserved the name of a principle, and that in
+the preservation of this unity Shakespeare stood
+pre-eminent. Yet, instead of unity of action, I
+should greatly prefer the more appropriate, though
+scholastic and uncouth, words homogeneity, proportionateness,
+and totality of interest,—expressions,
+which involve the distinction, or rather the
+essential difference, betwixt the shaping skill of
+mechanical talent, and the creative, productive,
+life-power of inspired genius. In the former each
+part is separately conceived, and then by a succeeding
+act put together;—not as watches are
+made for wholesale—(for there each part supposes
+a pre-conception of the whole in some mind),—but
+more like pictures on a motley screen. Whence
+arises the harmony that strikes us in the wildest
+natural landscapes,—in the relative shapes of rocks,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the harmony of colours in the heaths, ferns, and
+lichens, the leaves of the beech and the oak, the
+stems and rich brown branches of the birch and
+other mountain trees, varying from verging autumn
+to returning spring,—compared with the visual
+effect from the greater number of artificial plantations?—From
+this, that the natural landscape is
+effected, as it were, by a single energy modified <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ab
+intra</span></span> in each component part. And as this is the
+particular excellence of the Shakespearian drama
+generally, so is it especially characteristic of the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The groundwork of the tale is altogether in
+family life, and the events of the play have their
+first origin in family feuds. Filmy as are the eyes
+of party-spirit, at once dim and truculent, still
+there is commonly some real or supposed object in
+view, or principle to be maintained; and though
+but the twisted wires on the plate of rosin in the
+preparation for electrical pictures, it is still a guide
+in some degree, an assimilation to an outline. But
+in family quarrels, which have proved scarcely less
+injurious to states, wilfulness, and precipitancy, and
+passion from mere habit and custom can alone be
+expected. With his accustomed judgment, Shakespeare
+has begun by placing before us a lively
+picture of all the impulses of the play; and, as
+nature ever presents two sides, one for Heraclitus,
+and one for Democritus, he has, by way of prelude,
+shown the laughable absurdity of the evil by the
+contagion of it reaching the servants who have so
+little to do with it, but who are under the necessity
+of letting the superfluity of sensoreal power fly
+off through the escape-valve of wit-combats, and of
+quarrelling with weapons of sharper edge, all in
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+humble imitation of their masters. Yet there is
+a sort of unhired fidelity, an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ourishness</span></span> about all
+this that makes it rest pleasant on one's feelings.
+All the first scene, down to the conclusion of the
+Prince's speech, is a motley dance of all ranks and
+ages to one tune, as if the horn of Huon had been
+playing behind the scenes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Benvolio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Madam, an hour before the worshipp'd sun</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Peer'd forth the golden window of the east�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and, far more strikingly, the following speech of
+old Montague:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Many a morning hath he there been seen</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">With tears augmenting the fresh morning dew�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+prove that Shakespeare meant the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>
+to approach to a poem, which, and indeed its early
+date, may be also inferred from the multitude of
+rhyming couplets throughout. And if we are right,
+from the internal evidence, in pronouncing this one
+of Shakespeare's early dramas, it affords a strong
+instance of the fineness of his insight into the nature
+of the passions, that Romeo is introduced already
+love-bewildered. The necessity of loving creates
+an object for itself in man and woman; and yet
+there is a difference in this respect between the
+sexes, though only to be known by a perception of
+it. It would have displeased us if Juliet had been
+represented as already in love, or as fancying herself
+so;—but no one, I believe, ever experiences
+any shock at Romeo's forgetting his Rosaline, who
+had been a mere name for the yearning of his
+youthful imagination, and rushing into his passion
+for Juliet. Rosaline was a mere creation of his
+fancy; and we should remark the boastful positiveness
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of Romeo in a love of his own making, which
+is never shown where love is really near the heart.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“When the devout religion of mine eye</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fires!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">One fairer than my love! the all-seeing sun</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Ne'er saw her match, since first the world begun.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The character of the Nurse is the nearest of any
+thing in Shakespeare to a direct borrowing from
+mere observation; and the reason is, that as in
+infancy and childhood the individual in nature is
+a representative of a class,—just as in describing
+one larch tree, you generalise a grove of them,—so
+it is nearly as much so in old age. The generalisation
+is done to the poet's hand. Here you have
+the garrulity of age strengthened by the feelings of
+a long-trusted servant, whose sympathy with the
+mother's affections gives her privileges and rank
+in the household; and observe the mode of connection
+by accidents of time and place, and the
+childlike fondness of repetition in a second childhood,
+and also that happy humble, ducking under,
+yet constant resurgence against, the check of her
+superiors!—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yes, madam!—Yet I cannot choose but laugh,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the fourth scene we have Mercutio introduced
+to us. O! how shall I describe that exquisite
+ebullience and overflow of youthful life, wafted on
+over the laughing waves of pleasure and prosperity,
+as a wanton beauty that distorts the face on which
+she knows her lover is gazing enraptured, and
+wrinkles her forehead in the triumph of its smoothness!
+Wit ever wakeful, fancy busy and procreative
+as an insect, courage, an easy mind that,
+without cares of its own, is at once disposed to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+laugh away those of others, and yet to be interested
+in them,—these and all congenial qualities,
+melting into the common <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">copula</span></span> of them all, the
+man of rank and the gentleman, with all its excellencies
+and all its weaknesses, constitute the character
+of Mercutio!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tyb.</span></span> It fits when such a
+villain is a guest;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I'll not endure him.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cap.</span></span> He shall be endur'd.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">What, goodman boy!—I say, he shall:—Go to;—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Am I the master here, or you?—Go to.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You'll not endure him!—God shall mend my soul—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You'll make a mutiny among my guests!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You will set cock-a-hoop! you'll be the man!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Tyb.</span></span> Why, uncle, 'tis a shame.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cap.</span></span> Go to, go to,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">You are a saucy boy!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How admirable is the old man's impetuosity at
+once contrasting, yet harmonised, with young
+Tybalt's quarrelsome violence! But it would be
+endless to repeat observations of this sort. Every
+leaf is different on an oak tree; but still we can
+only say—our tongues defrauding our eyes— <span class="tei tei-q">“This
+is another oak-leaf!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2. The garden scene.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Take notice in this enchanting scene of the contrast
+of Romeo's love with his former fancy; and
+weigh the skill shown in justifying him from his
+inconstancy by making us feel the difference of his
+passion. Yet this, too, is a love in, although not
+merely of, the imagination.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jul.</span></span>
+Well, do not swear; although I joy in thee,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I have no joy in this contract to-night:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+With love, pure love, there is always an anxiety
+for the safety of the object, a disinterestedness, by
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+which it is distinguished from the counterfeits of
+its name. Compare this scene with Act iii. sc. 1
+of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tempest</span></span>. I do not know a more wonderful
+instance of Shakespeare's mastery in playing a
+distinctly rememberable variety on the same remembered
+air, than in the transporting love confessions
+of Romeo and Juliet and Ferdinand and
+Miranda. There seems more passion in the one,
+and more dignity in the other; yet you feel that
+the sweet girlish lingering and busy movement of
+Juliet, and the calmer and more maidenly fondness
+of Miranda, might easily pass into each other.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. The Friar's speech.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The reverend character of the Friar, like all
+Shakespeare's representations of the great professions,
+is very delightful and tranquillising, yet it
+is no digression, but immediately necessary to the
+carrying on of the plot.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rom.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give
+you?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Compare again Romeo's half-exerted, and half
+real, ease of mind with his first manner when in
+love with Rosaline! His will had come to the
+clenching point.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Rom.</span></span> Do thou but
+close our hands with holy words,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Then love-devouring death do what he dare,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">It is enough I may but call her mine.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The precipitancy, which is the character of the
+play, is well marked in this short scene of waiting
+for Juliet's arrival.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Mer.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> No, 'tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
+door; but 'tis enough: 'twill serve: ask for me to-morrow, and you
+shall find me a grave man,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How fine an effect the wit and raillery habitual
+to Mercutio, even struggling with his pain, give
+to Romeo's following speech, and at the same time
+so completely justifying his passionate revenge
+on Tybalt!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Benvolio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But that he tilts</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">With piercing steel at bold Mercutio's breast.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This small portion of untruth in Benvolio's
+narrative is finely conceived.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Juliet's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Whiter than new snow on a raven's back.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Indeed the whole of this speech is imagination
+strained to the highest; and observe the blessed
+effect on the purity of the mind. What would
+Dryden have made of it?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Nurse.</span></span> Shame come to Romeo.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jul.</span></span> Blister'd be thy tongue</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">For such a wish!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Note the Nurse's mistake of the mind's audible
+struggles with itself for its decision <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in toto</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Romeo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“'Tis torture, and not mercy: heaven's here,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Where Juliet lives,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+All deep passions are a sort of atheists, that
+believe no future.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cap.</span></span> Soft!
+take me with you, take me with you, wife—How!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">will she none?�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A noble scene! Don't I see it with my own
+eyes?—Yes! but not with Juliet's. And observe
+in Capulet's last speech in this scene his mistake,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+as if love's causes were capable of being
+generalised.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Juliet's speech.:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, look! methinks I see my cousin's ghost</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Upon a rapier's point:—Stay, Tybalt, stay!—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare provides for the finest decencies.
+It would have been too bold a thing for a girl of
+fifteen;—but she swallows the draught in a fit of
+fright.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+As the audience know that Juliet is not dead,
+this scene is, perhaps, excusable. But it is a
+strong warning to minor dramatists not to introduce
+at one time many separate characters agitated
+by one and the same circumstance. It is difficult
+to understand what effect, whether that of pity or
+of laughter, Shakespeare meant to produce;—the
+occasion and the characteristic speeches are so
+little in harmony! For example, what the Nurse
+says is excellently suited to the Nurse's character,
+but grotesquely unsuited to the occasion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 1. Romeo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O mischief! thou art swift</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To enter in the thoughts of desperate men!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I do remember an apothecary,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This famous passage is so beautiful as to be self-justified;
+yet, in addition, what a fine preparation
+it is for the tomb scene!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Romeo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Fly hence and leave me.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The gentleness of Romeo was shown before, as
+softened by love; and now it is doubled by love
+and sorrow and awe of the place where he is.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Romeo's speech:—--
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“How oft when men are at the point of death</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Have they been merry! which their keepers call</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A lightning before death. O, how may I</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Call this a lightning?—--O, my love, my wife!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here, here, is the master example how beauty
+can at once increase and modify passion!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Last scene.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How beautiful is the close! The spring and
+the winter meet;—winter assumes the character
+of spring, and spring the sadness of winter.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a>
+<a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence
+of which may be stated as the successive in
+events and characters. This must be distinguished
+from narration, in which there must always be a
+narrator, from whom the objects represented receive
+a colouring and a manner;—whereas in the
+epic, as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole
+is completely objective, and the representation is a
+pure reflection. The next form into which poetry
+passed was the dramatic;—both forms having a
+common basis with a certain difference, and that
+difference not consisting in the dialogue alone.
+Both are founded on the relation of providence to
+the human will; and this relation is the universal
+element, expressed under different points of view
+according to the difference of religion, and the
+moral and intellectual cultivation of different
+nations. In the epic poem fate is represented as
+overruling the will, and making it instrumental
+to the accomplishment of its designs:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... Διὸς τελείετο βονλή</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling
+with fate, a great and beautiful instance and illustration
+of which is the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prometheus</span></span> of Æschylus;
+and the deepest effect is produced when the fate
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+is represented as a higher and intelligent will, and
+the opposition of the individual as springing from
+a defect.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In order that a drama may be properly historical,
+it is necessary that it should be the history
+of the people to whom it is addressed. In the
+composition, care must be taken that there appear
+no dramatic improbability, as the reality is taken
+for granted. It must, likewise, be poetical;—that
+only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent
+in our nature, which is common, and
+therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The
+events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than
+as the clothing and manifestation of the spirit
+that is working within. In this mode, the unity
+resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied
+by a unity of a higher order, which connects
+the events by reference to the workers, gives a
+reason for them in the motives, and presents men
+in their causative character. It takes, therefore,
+that part of real history which is the least known,
+and infuses a principle of life and organisation
+into the naked facts, and makes them all the
+framework of an animated whole.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In my happier days, while I had yet hope and
+onward-looking thoughts, I planned an historical
+drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare.
+Indeed, it would be desirable that some
+man of dramatic genius should dramatise all those
+omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry
+VII. Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting
+drama. A few scenes of Marlow's
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edward II.</span></span> might be preserved. After Henry
+VIII., the events are too well and distinctly
+known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+crowded together in one night's exhibition.
+Whereas, the history of our ancient kings—the
+events of the reigns, I mean—are like stars in the
+sky;—whatever the real interspaces may be, and
+however great, they seem close to each other.
+The stars—the events—strike us and remain in
+our eye, little modified by the difference of dates.
+An historic drama is, therefore, a collection of
+events borrowed from history, but connected together
+in respect of cause and time, poetically and
+by dramatic fiction. It would be a fine national
+custom to act such a series of dramatic histories in
+orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays,
+and could not but tend to counteract that
+mock cosmopolitism, which under a positive term
+really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference
+to, the particular love of our country.
+By its nationality must every nation retain its
+independence;—I mean a nationality <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quoad</span></span> the
+nation. Better thus;—nationality in each individual,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quoad</span></span> his country, is equal to the sense of
+individuality <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quoad</span></span> himself; but himself as sub-sensuous
+and central. Patriotism is equal to the
+sense of individuality reflected from every other
+individual. There may come a higher virtue in
+both—just cosmopolitism. But this latter is not
+possible but by antecedence of the former.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare has included the most important
+part of nine reigns in his historical dramas;—namely—King
+John, Richard II.—Henry IV.
+(two)—Henry V.—Henry VI. (three) including
+Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten plays.
+There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception
+of a single scene or two that should be
+adopted from Marlow—eleven reigns—of which
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the first two appear the only unpromising subjects;—and
+those two dramas must be formed wholly or
+mainly of invented private stories, which, however,
+could not have happened except in consequence
+of the events and measures of these reigns,
+and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting
+the manners and oppressions of the times,
+and of narrating dramatically the great events;—if
+possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at
+least of the latter, should be made to have some
+influence on the finale of the story. All the rest
+are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being
+the struggle between the men of arms and of
+letters, in the persons of Henry and Becket),
+Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a>
+<a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">King John.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bast.</span></span> James Gurney,
+wilt thou give us leave awhile?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gur.</span></span> Good leave, good Philip.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bast.</span></span> Philip?
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sparrow!</span></em> James,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture
+of <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spare me</span></em>.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O true Warburton! and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sancta simplicitas</span></span>
+of honest dull Theobald's faith in him! Nothing
+can be more lively or characteristic than <span class="tei tei-q">“Philip?
+Sparrow!�</span> Had Warburton read old Skelton's
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philip Sparrow</span></span>, an exquisite and original poem,
+and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even
+Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a
+plunge into the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">bathetic</span></span> as to have deathified
+<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sparrow</span></em>�</span> into <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spare me</span></em>!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Some <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">airy</span></em> devil hovers in the sky,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of <span class="tei tei-q">“fiery.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I prefer the old text: the word <span class="tei tei-q">“devil�</span> implies
+<span class="tei tei-q">“fiery.�</span> You need only read the line, laying a
+full and strong emphasis on <span class="tei tei-q">“devil,�</span> to perceive
+the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's
+alteration.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a>
+<a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Richard II.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have stated that the transitional link between
+the epic poem and the drama is the
+historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced
+fate gradually adjusts and employs the
+will and the events as its instruments, whilst the
+drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in
+opposition to each other, and is then most perfect,
+when the victory of fate is obtained in consequence
+of imperfections in the opposing will, so as
+to leave a final impression that the fate itself is
+but a higher and a more intelligent will.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance
+that, with one exception, the events are
+all historical, and presented in their results, not
+produced by acts seen by, or taking place before,
+the audience, this tragedy is ill suited to our present
+large theatres. But in itself, and for the
+closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first
+and most admirable of all Shakespeare's purely
+historical plays. For the two parts of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry IV.</span></span>
+form a species of themselves, which may be named
+the mixed drama. The distinction does not depend
+on the mere quantity of historical events in the
+play compared with the fictions; for there is as
+much history in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span> as
+in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richard</span></span>, but in the
+relation of the history to the plot. In the purely
+historical plays, the history forms the plot; in the
+mixed, it directs it; in the rest, as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cymbeline</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, it subserves it. But,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+however unsuited to the stage this drama may be,
+God forbid that even there it should fall dead on
+the hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then,
+indeed, we might say—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">præteriit gloria mundi!</span></span>
+For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the all-permeating
+soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps,
+the most purely historical of Shakespeare's dramas.
+There are not in it, as in the others, characters
+introduced merely for the purpose of giving a
+greater individuality and realness, as in the comic
+parts of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry IV.</span></span>, by presenting as it were our
+very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every
+opportunity to effect the great object of the historic
+drama,—that, namely, of familiarising the
+people to the great names of their country, and
+thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of
+just liberty, and a respect for all those fundamental
+institutions of social life, which bind men
+together:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This other Eden, demi-paradise;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This fortress, built by nature for herself,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Against infection, and the hand of war;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This happy breed of men, this little world;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This precious stone set in the silver sea,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which serves it in the office of a wall,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or as a moat defensive to a home,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Against the envy of less happier lands;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Add the famous passage in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">King John</span></span>:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This England never did nor ever shall,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But when it first did help to wound itself.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Now these her princes are come home again,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Come the three corners of the world in arms,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">If England to itself do rest but true.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic
+dramas produced a very deep effect on the minds
+of the English people, and in earlier times they
+were familiar even to the least informed of all
+ranks, according to the relation of Bishop Corbett.
+Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to confess
+that his principal acquaintance with English
+history was derived from them; and I believe that
+a large part of the information as to our old names
+and achievements even now abroad is due, directly
+or indirectly, to Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare
+always in the first scenes prepares, yet how
+naturally, and with what concealment of art, for
+the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents
+the germ of all the after events in Richard's insincerity,
+partiality, arbitrariness, and favouritism,
+and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of
+his barons. In the very beginning, also, is displayed
+that feature in Richard's character, which
+is never forgotten throughout the play—his attention
+to decorum, and high feeling of the kingly
+dignity. These anticipations show with what
+judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his
+care to connect the past and the future, and
+unify them with the present by forecast and
+reminiscence.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the
+six opening lines of the play—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+each closing at the tenth syllable, with the
+rhythmless metre of the verse in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry VI.</span></span> and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span>, in order that the difference,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be felt
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">etiam in simillimis prima superficie</span></span>. Here the
+weight of the single words supplies all the relief
+afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole
+represents the mood. And compare the apparently
+defective metre of Bolingbroke's first line—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Many years of happy days befal�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+with Prospero's—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The actor should supply the time by emphasis,
+and pause on the first syllable of each of these
+verses.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“First (heaven be the record to my speech!),</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">In the devotion of a subject's love,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more
+striking example of the τὸ π�έπον καὶ σεμνὸν than
+this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines
+well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's
+scheme so beautifully contrasted with the vehemence
+and sincere irritation of Mowbray.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Bolingbroke's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">me</span></em>, for justice and rough chastisement.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Note the δεινὸν of this <span class="tei tei-q">“to me,�</span> which is evidently
+felt by Richard:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“How high a pitch his resolution soars!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and the affected depreciation afterwards;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“As he is but my father's brother's son.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Mowbray's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“In haste whereof, most heartily I pray</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Your highness to assign our trial day.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the
+more frequent winding up of a speech therewith—what
+purpose was this designed to answer? In the
+earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt,
+as in Mowbray, to collect himself and be
+cool at the close?—I can see that in the following
+speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek
+chorus, and distinguishes the general truths from
+the passions of the dialogue; but this does not
+exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in
+proportion to the excellence of Shakespeare's plays.
+One thing, however, is to be observed,—that the
+speakers are historical, known, and so far formal
+characters, and their reality is already a fact. This
+should be borne in mind. The whole of this scene
+of the quarrel between Mowbray and Bolingbroke
+seems introduced for the purpose of showing by
+anticipation the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke.
+In the latter there is observable a decorous
+and courtly checking of his anger in subservience
+to a predetermined plan, especially in his calm
+speech after receiving sentence of banishment compared
+with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In
+the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to
+come; in the other it is desolation and a looking
+backward of the heart,
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gaunt.</span></span> God's is the quarrel;
+for God's substitute,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">His deputy anointed in his right,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">An angry arm against his minister.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's ultra-royalism, how carefully does
+Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal
+distinction between the mere individual, and the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+symbolic or representative, on which all genial law,
+no less than patriotism, depends. The whole of
+this second scene commences, and is anticipative
+of, the tone and character of the play at large.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious
+dramas, or in those founded on a history as unknown
+to his auditors generally as fiction, is this
+violent rupture of the succession of time found:—a
+proof, I think, that the pure historic drama, like
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richard II.</span></span> and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">King John</span></span>, had its own laws.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Mowbray's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“A dearer <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">merit</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Have I deserved at your highness' hand.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in
+the choice of words!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Richard's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nor never by advised purpose meet,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character
+opens. Nothing will such minds so readily
+embrace, as indirect ways softened down to their
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">quasi</span></span>-consciences by policy, expedience, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Mowbray's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“All the world's my way.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The world was all before him.�</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Milt.</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Boling.</span></span>
+How long a time lies in one little word!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">End in a word: such is the breath of kings.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Admirable anticipation!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first
+act,—letting the reader into the secret;—having
+before impressed us with the dignified and kingly
+manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations
+leading us on to the full gratification of
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+pleasure in our own penetration. In this scene a
+new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until
+now he has appeared in all the beauty of royalty;
+but here, as soon as he is left to himself, the inherent
+weakness of his character is immediately
+shown. It is a weakness, however, of a peculiar
+kind, not arising from want of personal courage,
+or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an intellectual
+feminineness, which feels a necessity of
+ever leaning on the breasts of others, and of reclining
+on those who are all the while known to be
+inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences
+all Richard's vices, his tendency to
+concealment, and his cunning, the whole operation
+of which is directed to the getting rid of present
+difficulties. Richard is not meant to be a debauchee;
+but we see in him that sophistry which is common
+to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts,
+and at one and the same time apologize for, and
+yet commit, the error. Shakespeare has represented
+this character in a very peculiar manner.
+He has not made him amiable with counterbalancing
+faults; but has openly and broadly drawn those
+faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate
+sufferings and gradually emergent
+good qualities for our sympathy; and this was
+possible, because his faults are not positive vices,
+but spring entirely from defect of character.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Can sick men play so nicely
+with their names?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which
+may make all things appear but as puns and equivocations.
+And a passion there is that carries off
+its own excess by plays on words as naturally, and,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+therefore, as appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations,
+looks, or tones. This belongs to human
+nature as such, independently of associations and
+habits from any particular rank of life or mode of
+employment; and in this consists Shakespeare's
+vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nobile volgare eloquenza</span></span>. Indeed it is profoundly
+true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible,
+tendency in the mind, when immersed in one
+strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every
+sight and object around it; especially if there be
+opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any
+way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the
+instance of Richard's unkind language:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Misery makes sport to mock itself.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning
+must be attributed to his age, in which direct and
+formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of
+the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more
+favourable, upon the whole, to vigour of intellect
+than the present, in which a dread of being thought
+pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original
+minds. But independently of this, I have no
+hesitation in saying that a pun, if it be congruous
+with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable
+in the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the
+most effectual intensives of passion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Right; you
+say true, as Hereford's love, so his;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The depth of this compared with the first scene:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“How high a pitch,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its
+degree, more admirably drawn than York's character;
+his religious loyalty struggling with a deep
+grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence
+to his word and faith, once given in spite
+of all, even the most natural, feelings. You see in
+him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness
+of circumstances, for a time surmounting
+his sense of duty,—the junction of both exhibited
+in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate
+act; and then again his effort to retrieve himself
+in abstract loyalty, even at the heavy price of
+the loss of his son. This species of accidental and
+adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with
+Richard's continually increasing energy of thought,
+and as constantly diminishing power of acting;—and
+thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and
+a relation into all the characters of the play.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Queen.</span></span> To please the king
+I did; to please myself</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I cannot do it; yet I know no cause</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Is coming toward me; and my inward soul</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">More than with parting from my lord the king.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent
+Richard as a vulgar debauchee, but a man
+with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a
+feminine <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">friendism</span></span>, an intensity of woman-like love
+of those immediately about him, and a mistaking of
+the delight of being loved by him for a love of him.
+And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in
+touching the tender superstitions, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terræ incognitæ</span></span>
+of presentiments, in the human mind; and
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws
+between these obscure forecastings of general experience
+in each individual, and the vulgar errors of
+mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for
+all as the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute
+universality of his genius, always reverences whatever
+arises out of our moral nature; he never profanes
+his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away
+of the genuine and general, however unaccountable,
+feelings of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The amiable part of Richard's character is
+brought full upon us by his queen's few words—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 6.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So sweet a guest</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">As my sweet Richard:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an
+intense love of his country, well-knowing how that
+feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him
+in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this
+love there is something feminine and personal:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,—</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As a long parted mother with her child</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And do thee favour with my royal hands.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions
+from a total incapability of controlling them,
+and thence a waste of that energy, which should
+have been reserved for actions, in the passion and
+effort of mere resolves and menaces. The consequence
+is moral exhaustion, and rapid alternations
+of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,—every
+feeling being abandoned for its direct opposite upon
+the pressure of external accident. And yet when
+Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge
+in his despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose,
+the old habit of kingliness, the effect of
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon producing
+in him a sort of wordy courage which only
+serves to betray more clearly his internal impotence.
+The second and third scenes of the third
+act combine and illustrate all this:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aumerle.</span></span> He means,
+my lord, that we are too remiss;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That when the searching eye of heaven is hid</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">In murders and in outrage, bloody here;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But when, from under this terrestrial ball,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And darts his light through every guilty hole,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aumerle.</span></span> Where is the Duke my father with his power?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> No matter where; of comfort no man speak:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aumerle.</span></span> My father hath a power, enquire of him;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And learn to make a body of a limb.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To change blows with thee for our day of doom.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">An easy task it is to win our own.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Scroop.</span></span> Your uncle York hath join'd
+with Bolingbroke.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Thou hast said enough,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of that sweet way I was in to despair!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">What say you now? what comfort have we now?</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That bids me be of comfort any more.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Noble lord,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of
+power and ambition in Bolingbroke with the necessity
+for dissimulation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of
+our poet in giving reality and individual life, by the
+introduction of accidents in his historic plays, and
+thereby making them dramas, and not histories.
+How beautiful an islet of repose—a melancholy
+repose, indeed—is this scene with the Gardener and
+his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising
+is the incident of the very horse Barbary, in the
+scene with the Groom in the last act!—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Groom.</span></span> I was a poor groom of
+thy stable, King,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With much ado, at length have gotten leave</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To look upon my sometimes master's face.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">In London streets, that coronation day,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">K. Rich.</span></span> Rode he on Barbary?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance
+how Shakespeare makes one play introductory to
+another; for it is evidently a preparation for Henry
+IV., as Gloster in the third part of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry VI.</span></span> is
+for Richard III.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I would once more remark upon the exalted idea
+of the only true loyalty developed in this noble and
+impressive play. We have neither the rants of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;—the
+vast importance of the personal character
+of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at
+the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds
+him is attributed to, and grounded on, the position
+in which he stands as the convergence and exponent
+of the life and power of the state.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The great end of the body politic appears to be
+to humanise, and assist in the progressiveness of,
+the animal man;—but the problem is so complicated
+with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible
+to lay down rules for the formation of a state. And
+should we be able to form a system of government,
+which should so balance its different powers as to
+form a check upon each, and so continually remedy
+and correct itself, it would, nevertheless, defeat its
+own aim;—for man is destined to be guided by
+higher principles, by universal views, which can
+never be fulfilled in this state of existence,—by a
+spirit of progressiveness which can never be accomplished,
+for then it would cease to be. Plato's
+Republic is like Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,—a
+description of an individual, all of whose faculties
+are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence;
+and this it is assumed may be the prototype
+of the state as one great individual. But there is
+this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the
+human faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate
+things; but that you could never get chiefs who
+were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly
+understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence,
+and so on through the rest. Each of
+these partakes of, and interferes with, all the
+others.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a>
+<a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Henry IV.—Part I.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“No more the thirsty entrance of this soil</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Shall daub her lips with her own children's blood.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A most obscure passage: but I think Theobald's
+interpretation right, namely, that
+<span class="tei tei-q">“thirsty entrance�</span> means the dry penetrability, or
+bibulous drought, of the soil. The obscurity of
+this passage is of the Shakespearian sort.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. In this, the first introduction of Falstaff,
+observe the consciousness and the intentionality
+of his wit, so that when it does not flow of its
+own accord, its absence is felt, and an effort visibly
+made to recall it. Note also throughout how Falstaff's
+pride is gratified in the power of influencing
+a prince of the blood, the heir apparent, by means
+of it. Hence his dislike to Prince John of Lancaster,
+and his mortification when he finds his wit
+fail on him:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">P. John.</span></span> Fare you well,
+Falstaff: I, in my condition,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shall better speak of you than you deserve.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Fal.</span></span> I would you had but the wit; 'twere better than your</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">dukedom.—Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">not love me;—nor a man cannot make him laugh.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Second Carrier's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“breeds fleas like a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">loach</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Perhaps it is a misprint, or a provincial pronunciation,
+for <span class="tei tei-q">“leach,�</span> that is, blood-suckers. Had it
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+been gnats, instead of fleas, there might have been
+some sense, though small probability, in Warburton's
+suggestion of the Scottish <span class="tei tei-q">“loch.�</span> Possibly
+<span class="tei tei-q">“loach,�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“lutch,�</span> may be some lost word for
+dovecote, or poultry-lodge, notorious for breeding
+fleas. In Stevens's or my reading, it should properly
+be <span class="tei tei-q">“loaches,�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“leeches,�</span> in the plural; except
+that I think I have heard anglers speak of
+trouts like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> salmon.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Glend.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Nay</span></em>, if you melt,
+then will she run mad.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This <span class="tei tei-q">“nay�</span> so to be dwelt on in speaking, as to
+be equivalent to a dissyllable - u, is characteristic
+of the solemn Glendower; but the imperfect line
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">She bids you</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Upon the wanton rushes lay you down,�</span> &amp;c.,</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+is one of those fine hair-strokes of exquisite judgment
+peculiar to Shakespeare;—thus detaching the
+Lady's speech, and giving it the individuality and
+entireness of a little poem, while he draws attention
+to it.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc63" id="toc63"></a>
+<a name="pdf64" id="pdf64"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Henry IV.—Part II.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">P. Hen.</span></span> Sup any women with him?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Page.</span></span> None, my lord, but old mistress Quickly, and mistress</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Doll Tear-sheet.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">P. Hen.</span></span> This Doll Tear-sheet should
+be some road.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I am sometimes disposed to think that this respectable
+young lady's name is a very old corruption
+for Tear-street—street-walker, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terere stratam</span></span>
+(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">viam</span></span>). Does not the Prince's question rather
+show this?—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This Doll Tear-street should be some road?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 8.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Then, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">happy low,
+lie down</span></em>;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I know no argument by which to persuade any
+one to be of my opinion, or rather of my feeling;
+but yet I cannot help feeling that <span class="tei tei-q">“Happy low-lie-down!�</span>
+is either a proverbial expression, or the
+burthen of some old song, and means, <span class="tei tei-q">“Happy the
+man, who lays himself down on his straw bed or
+chaff pallet on the ground or floor!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Shallow's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Rah, tah, tah</span></em>, would 'a say; <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">bounce</span></em>,
+would 'a say,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That Beaumont and Fletcher have more than
+once been guilty of sneering at their great master,
+cannot, I fear, be denied; but the passage quoted
+by Theobald from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Knight of the Burning Pestle</span></span>
+is an imitation. If it be chargeable with any fault,
+it is with plagiarism, not with sarcasm.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc65" id="toc65"></a>
+<a name="pdf66" id="pdf66"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Henry V.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 2. Westmoreland's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“They know your <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">grace</span></em> hath cause,
+and means, and might;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">So hath your <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">highness</span></em>; never King of England</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Had nobles richer,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Does <span class="tei tei-q">“grace�</span> mean the king's own peculiar
+domains and legal revenue, and <span class="tei tei-q">“highness�</span>
+his feudal rights in the military service of his
+nobles?—I have sometimes thought it possible
+that the words <span class="tei tei-q">“grace�</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“cause�</span> may have been
+transposed in the copying or printing;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“They know your cause hath grace,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What Theobald meant, I cannot guess. To me
+his pointing makes the passage still more obscure.
+Perhaps the lines ought to be recited dramatically
+thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“They know your Grace hath cause, and means, and might:—</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">So <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">hath</span></em> your Highness—never King of England</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Had</span></em> nobles richer,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+He breaks off from the grammar and natural
+order from earnestness, and in order to give the
+meaning more passionately.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Exeter's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yet that is but a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">crush'd</span></em> necessity.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Perhaps it may be <span class="tei tei-q">“crash�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“crass�</span> from
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">crassus</span></span>, clumsy; or it may be <span class="tei tei-q">“curt,�</span> defective,
+imperfect: anything would be better than Warburton's
+<span class="tei tei-q">“'scus'd,�</span> which honest Theobald, of course,
+adopts. By the by, it seems clear to me that this
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+speech of Exeter's properly belongs to Canterbury,
+and was altered by the actors for convenience.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. King Henry's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“We would not <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">die</span></em> in that man's company</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That fears his fellowship to die with us.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Should it not be <span class="tei tei-q">“live�</span> in the first line?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Const.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">O diable!</span></em></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Orl.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">O seigneur! le jour
+est perdu, tout est perdu!</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dan.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mort de ma vie!</span></span>
+all is confounded, all!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reproach and everlasting shame</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sit mocking in our plumes!—<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">O meschante fortune!</span></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Do not run away!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Ludicrous as these introductory scraps of French
+appear, so instantly followed by good, nervous
+mother-English, yet they are judicious, and produce
+the impression which Shakespeare intended,—a
+sudden feeling struck at once on the ears, as well
+as the eyes, of the audience, that <span class="tei tei-q">“here come the
+French, the baffled French braggards!�</span>—And this
+will appear still more judicious, when we reflect on
+the scanty apparatus of distinguishing dresses in
+Shakespeare's tyring-room.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc67" id="toc67"></a>
+<a name="pdf68" id="pdf68"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Henry VI.—Part I.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Bedford's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Comets, importing change of times and states,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And with them scourge the bad revolting stars</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That have consented unto Henry's death!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Henry the fifth, too famous to live long!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">England ne'er lost a king of so much worth.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read aloud any two or three passages in blank
+verse even from Shakespeare's earliest dramas,
+as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Love's Labour's Lost</span></span>, or
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>; and
+then read in the same way this speech, with especial
+attention to the metre; and if you do not feel the
+impossibility of the latter having been written by
+Shakespeare, all I dare suggest is, that you may
+have ears,—for so has another animal,—but an ear
+you cannot have, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">me judice</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc69" id="toc69"></a>
+<a name="pdf70" id="pdf70"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Richard III.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This play should be contrasted with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richard
+II.</span></span> Pride of intellect is the characteristic of
+Richard, carried to the extent of even boasting to
+his own mind of his villany, whilst others are present
+to feed his pride of superiority; as in his first
+speech, act ii. sc. 1. Shakespeare here, as in all
+his great parts, developes in a tone of sublime
+morality the dreadful consequences of placing the
+moral, in subordination to the mere intellectual,
+being. In Richard there is a predominance of
+irony, accompanied with apparently blunt manners
+to those immediately about him, but formalised
+into a more set hypocrisy towards the people as
+represented by their magistrates.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc71" id="toc71"></a>
+<a name="pdf72" id="pdf72"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Lear.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of all Shakespeare's plays <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span> is the most
+rapid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span> the slowest, in
+movement. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>
+combines length with rapidity,—like the hurricane
+and the whirlpool, absorbing while it advances. It
+begins as a stormy day in summer, with brightness;
+but that brightness is lurid, and anticipates
+the tempest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It was not without forethought, nor is it without
+its due significance, that the division of Lear's
+kingdom is in the first six lines of the play stated
+as a thing already determined in all its particulars,
+previously to the trial of professions, as the relative
+rewards of which the daughters were to be made to
+consider their several portions. The strange, yet
+by no means unnatural, mixture of selfishness,
+sensibility, and habit of feeling derived from, and
+fostered by, the particular rank and usages of the
+individual;—the intense desire of being intensely
+beloved,—selfish, and yet characteristic of the selfishness
+of a loving and kindly nature alone;—the
+self-supportless leaning for all pleasure on another's
+breast;—the craving after sympathy with a prodigal
+disinterestedness, frustrated by its own ostentation,
+and the mode and nature of its claims;—the
+anxiety, the distrust, the jealousy, which more
+or less accompany all selfish affections, and are
+amongst the surest contradistinctions of mere fondness
+from true love, and which originate Lear's
+eager wish to enjoy his daughter's violent professions,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+whilst the inveterate habits of sovereignty
+convert the wish into claim and positive right, and
+an incompliance with it into crime and treason;—these
+facts, these passions, these moral verities, on
+which the whole tragedy is founded, are all prepared
+for, and will to the retrospect be found
+implied, in these first four or five lines of the play.
+They let us know that the trial is but a trick; and
+that the grossness of the old king's rage is in part
+the natural result of a silly trick suddenly and
+most unexpectedly baffled and disappointed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It may here be worthy of notice, that <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> is
+the only serious performance of Shakespeare, the
+interest and situations of which are derived from
+the assumption of a gross improbability; whereas
+Beaumont and Fletcher's tragedies are, almost all
+of them, founded on some out of the way accident
+or exception to the general experience of mankind.
+But observe the matchless judgment of our Shakespeare.
+First, improbable as the conduct of Lear
+is in the first scene, yet it was an old story rooted
+in the popular faith,—a thing taken for granted
+already, and consequently without any of the effects
+of improbability. Secondly, it is merely the canvass
+for the characters and passions,—a mere occasion
+for,—and not, in the manner of Beaumont and
+Fletcher, perpetually recurring as the cause, and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sine qua non</span></span> of,—the incidents and emotions. Let
+the first scene of this play have been lost, and let
+it only be understood that a fond father had been
+duped by hypocritical professions of love and duty
+on the part of two daughters to disinherit the third,
+previously, and deservedly, more dear to him;—and
+all the rest of the tragedy would retain its
+interest undiminished, and be perfectly intelligible.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The accidental is nowhere the groundwork of the
+passions, but that which is catholic, which in all
+ages has been, and ever will be, close and native to
+the heart of man,—parental anguish from filial
+ingratitude, the genuineness of worth, though
+coffined in bluntness, and the execrable vileness of
+a smooth iniquity. Perhaps I ought to have added
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Merchant of Venice</span></span>; but here too the same
+remarks apply. It was an old tale; and substitute
+any other danger than that of the pound of flesh
+(the circumstance in which the improbability lies),
+yet all the situations and the emotions appertaining
+to them remain equally excellent and appropriate.
+Whereas take away from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mad Lover</span></span> of Beaumont
+and Fletcher the fantastic hypothesis of his
+engagement to cut out his own heart, and have it
+presented to his mistress, and all the main scenes
+must go with it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Kotzebue is the German Beaumont and Fletcher,
+without their poetic powers, and without their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vis
+comica</span></span>. But, like them, he always deduces his
+situations and passions from marvellous accidents,
+and the trick of bringing one part of our moral
+nature to counteract another; as our pity for misfortune
+and admiration of generosity and courage
+to combat our condemnation of guilt as in adultery,
+robbery, and other heinous crimes;—and, like
+them too, he excels in his mode of telling a story
+clearly and interestingly, in a series of dramatic
+dialogues. Only the trick of making tragedy-heroes
+and heroines out of shopkeepers and barmaids was
+too low for the age, and too unpoetic for the genius,
+of Beaumont and Fletcher, inferior in every respect
+as they are to their great predecessor and contemporary.
+How inferior would they have appeared,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+had not Shakespeare existed for them to imitate;—which
+in every play, more or less, they do, and in
+their tragedies most glaringly:—and yet—(O
+shame! shame!)—they miss no opportunity of
+sneering at the divine man, and sub-detracting
+from his merits!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To return to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>. Having thus in the fewest
+words, and in a natural reply to as natural a question,—which
+yet answers the secondary purpose of
+attracting our attention to the difference or diversity
+between the characters of Cornwall and Albany,—provided
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">prémisses</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">data</span></span>, as it were, for our
+after insight into the mind and mood of the person,
+whose character, passions, and sufferings are the
+main subject-matter of the play;—from Lear, the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">persona patiens</span></span> of his drama, Shakespeare passes
+without delay to the second in importance, the chief
+agent and prime mover, and introduces Edmund to
+our acquaintance, preparing us with the same felicity
+of judgment, and in the same easy and natural
+way, for his character in the seemingly casual communication
+of its origin and occasion. From the
+first drawing up of the curtain Edmund has stood
+before us in the united strength and beauty of
+earliest manhood. Our eyes have been questioning
+him. Gifted as he is with high advantages of person,
+and further endowed by nature with a powerful
+intellect and a strong energetic will, even
+without any concurrence of circumstances and
+accident, pride will necessarily be the sin that most
+easily besets him. But Edmund is also the known
+and acknowledged son of the princely Gloster: he,
+therefore, has both the germ of pride, and the conditions
+best fitted to evolve and ripen it into a
+predominant feeling. Yet hitherto no reason appears
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+why it should be other than the not unusual
+pride of person, talent, and birth,—a pride auxiliary,
+if not akin, to many virtues, and the natural
+ally of honourable impulses. But alas! in his own
+presence his own father takes shame to himself for
+the frank avowal that he is his father,—he has
+<span class="tei tei-q">“blushed so often to acknowledge him that he is
+now brazed to it!�</span> Edmund hears the circumstances
+of his birth spoken of with a most degrading
+and licentious levity,—his mother described as a
+wanton by her own paramour, and the remembrance
+of the animal sting, the low criminal
+gratifications connected with her wantonness and
+prostituted beauty, assigned as the reason why
+<span class="tei tei-q">“the whoreson must be acknowledged!�</span> This,
+and the consciousness of its notoriety; the gnawing
+conviction that every show of respect is an effort of
+courtesy, which recalls, while it represses, a contrary
+feeling;—this is the ever trickling flow of
+wormwood and gall into the wounds of pride,—the
+corrosive <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">virus</span></span> which inoculates pride with a
+venom not its own, with envy, hatred, and a lust
+for that power which in its blaze of radiance would
+hide the dark spots on his disc,—with pangs of
+shame personally undeserved, and therefore felt as
+wrongs, and with a blind ferment of vindictive
+working towards the occasions and causes, especially
+towards a brother, whose stainless birth and
+lawful honours were the constant remembrancers
+of his own debasement, and were ever in the way
+to prevent all chance of its being unknown, or
+overlooked and forgotten. Add to this, that with
+excellent judgment, and provident for the claims of
+the moral sense,—for that which, relatively to the
+drama, is called poetic justice, and as the fittest
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+means for reconciling the feelings of the spectators
+to the horrors of Gloster's after sufferings,—at
+least, of rendering them somewhat less unendurable—(for
+I will not disguise my conviction, that
+in this one point the tragic in this play has been
+urged beyond the outermost mark and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ne plus ultra</span></span>
+of the dramatic);—Shakespeare has precluded all
+excuse and palliation of the guilt incurred by both
+the parents of the base-born Edmund, by Gloster's
+confession that he was at the time a married man,
+and already blest with a lawful heir of his fortunes.
+The mournful alienation of brotherly love, occasioned
+by the law of primogeniture in noble families,
+or rather by the unnecessary distinctions engrafted
+thereon, and this in children of the same stock, is
+still almost proverbial on the continent,—especially,
+as I know from my own observation, in the south
+of Europe,—and appears to have been scarcely less
+common in our own island before the Revolution
+of 1688, if we may judge from the characters and
+sentiments so frequent in our elder comedies.
+There is the younger brother, for instance, in
+Beaumont and Fletcher's play of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scornful
+Lady</span></span>, on the one side, and Oliver in Shakespeare's
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">As You Like It</span></span>, on the other. Need it be said how
+heavy an aggravation, in such a case, the stain
+of bastardy must have been, were it only that the
+younger brother was liable to hear his own dishonour
+and his mother's infamy related by his
+father with an excusing shrug of the shoulders,
+and in a tone betwixt waggery and shame!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+By the circumstances here enumerated as so
+many predisposing causes, Edmund's character
+might well be deemed already sufficiently explained;
+and our minds prepared for it. But in
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+this tragedy the story or fable constrained Shakespeare
+to introduce wickedness in an outrageous
+form in the persons of Regan and Goneril. He
+had read nature too heedfully not to know that
+courage, intellect, and strength of character are
+the most impressive forms of power, and that to
+power in itself, without reference to any moral
+end, an inevitable admiration and complacency
+appertains, whether it be displayed in the conquests
+of a Buonaparte or Tamerlane, or in the
+foam and the thunder of a cataract. But in the
+exhibition of such a character it was of the highest
+importance to prevent the guilt from passing into
+utter monstrosity,—which again depends on the
+presence or absence of causes and temptations
+sufficient to account for the wickedness, without
+the necessity of recurring to a thorough fiendishness
+of nature for its origination. For such are
+the appointed relations of intellectual power to
+truth, and of truth to goodness, that it becomes
+both morally and poetically unsafe to present
+what is admirable—what our nature compels us to
+admire—in the mind, and what is most detestable
+in the heart, as co-existing in the same individual
+without any apparent connection, or any modification
+of the one by the other. That Shakespeare
+has in one instance, that of Iago, approached to
+this, and that he has done it successfully, is
+perhaps the most astonishing proof of his genius,
+and the opulence of its resources. But in the
+present tragedy, in which he was compelled to
+present a Goneril and a Regan, it was most carefully
+to be avoided;—and therefore the only one
+conceivable addition to the inauspicious influences
+on the preformation of Edmund's character is
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+given, in the information that all the kindly
+counteractions to the mischievous feelings of
+shame, which might have been derived from co-domestication
+with Edgar and their common
+father, had been cut off by his absence from home,
+and foreign education from boyhood to the present
+time, and a prospect of its continuance, as if to
+preclude all risk of his interference with the
+father's views for the elder and legitimate son:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cor.</span></span> Nothing my lord.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear.</span></span> Nothing?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cor.</span></span> Nothing.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear.</span></span> Nothing can come of nothing: speak again.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cor.</span></span> Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">According to my bond; nor more, nor less.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is something of disgust at the ruthless
+hypocrisy of her sisters, and some little faulty
+admixture of pride and sullenness in Cordelia's
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Nothing;�</span> and her tone is well contrived, indeed,
+to lessen the glaring absurdity of Lear's
+conduct, but answers the yet more important purpose
+of forcing away the attention from the
+nursery-tale, the moment it has served its end,
+that of supplying the canvas for the picture. This
+is also materially furthered by Kent's opposition,
+which displays Lear's moral incapability of resigning
+the sovereign power in the very act of disposing
+of it. Kent is, perhaps, the nearest to
+perfect goodness in all Shakespeare's characters,
+and yet the most individualised. There is an
+extraordinary charm, in his bluntness, which is
+that only of a nobleman, arising from a contempt
+of overstrained courtesy, and combined with easy
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+placability where goodness of heart is apparent.
+His passionate affection for, and fidelity to, Lear
+act on our feelings in Lear's own favour: virtue
+itself seems to be in company with him.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Edmund's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">More composition and fierce quality</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Than doth,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's note upon a quotation from Vanini.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Poor Vanini!—Any one but Warburton would
+have thought this precious passage more characteristic
+of Mr. Shandy than of atheism. If the
+fact really were so (which it is not, but almost the
+contrary) I do not see why the most confirmed
+theist might not very naturally utter the same
+wish. But it is proverbial that the youngest son
+in a large family is commonly the man of the
+greatest talents in it; and as good an authority as
+Vanini has said—<span class="tei tei-q">“incalescere in venerem ardentius,
+spei sobolis injuriosum esse.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this speech of Edmund you see, as soon as a
+man cannot reconcile himself to reason, how his
+conscience flies off by way of appeal to nature,
+who is sure upon such occasions never to find
+fault, and also how shame sharpens a predisposition
+in the heart to evil. For it is a profound
+moral, that shame will naturally generate guilt;
+the oppressed will be vindictive, like Shylock, and
+in the anguish of undeserved ignominy the delusion
+secretly springs up of getting over the moral
+quality of an action by fixing the mind on the
+mere physical act alone.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Edmund's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">This is the excellent foppery of the world! that, when we are
+sick in fortune (often the surfeit of our own behaviour), we make
+guilty of our disasters, the sun, the moon, and the stars,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus scorn and misanthropy are often the anticipations
+and mouth-pieces of wisdom in the detection
+of superstitions. Both individuals and
+nations may be free from such prejudices by being
+below them, as well as by rising above them.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. The Steward should be placed in
+exact antithesis to Kent, as the only character of
+utter irredeemable baseness in Shakespeare. Even
+in this the judgment and invention of the poet are
+very observable;—for what else could the willing
+tool of a Goneril be? Not a vice but this of baseness
+was left open to him.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. In Lear old age is itself a character,—its
+natural imperfections being increased by
+life-long habits of receiving a prompt obedience.
+Any addition of individuality would have been
+unnecessary and painful; for the relations of
+others to him, of wondrous fidelity and of frightful
+ingratitude, alone sufficiently distinguish him.
+Thus Lear becomes the open and ample play-room
+of nature's passions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Knight.</span></span> Since my
+young lady's going into France, Sir; the</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">fool hath much pined away.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The Fool is no comic buffoon to make the
+groundlings laugh,—no forced condescension of
+Shakespeare's genius to the taste of his audience.
+Accordingly the poet prepares for his introduction,
+which he never does with any of his common
+clowns and fools, by bringing him into living connection
+with the pathos of the play. He is as
+wonderful a creation as Caliban;—his wild babblings,
+and inspired idiocy, articulate and gauge
+the horrors of the scene.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The monster Goneril prepares what is necessary,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+while the character of Albany renders a still more
+maddening grievance possible—namely, Regan
+and Cornwall in perfect sympathy of monstrosity.
+Not a sentiment, not an image, which can give
+pleasure on its own account is admitted; whenever
+these creatures are introduced, and they are
+brought forward as little as possible, pure horror
+reigns throughout. In this scene and in all the
+early speeches of Lear, the one general sentiment
+of filial ingratitude prevails as the main-spring of
+the feelings;—in this early stage the outward
+object causing the pressure on the mind, which is
+not yet sufficiently familiarised with the anguish
+for the imagination to work upon it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gon.</span></span> Do you mark that, my lord?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Alb.</span></span> I cannot be so partial, Goneril,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To the great love I bear you.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gon.</span></span> Pray you content,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe the baffled endeavour of Goneril to act
+on the fears of Albany, and yet his passiveness,
+his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inertia</span></em>; he is not convinced, and yet he is
+afraid of looking into the thing. Such characters
+always yield to those who will take the trouble of
+governing them, or for them. Perhaps the influence
+of a princess, whose choice of him had
+royalised his state, may be some little excuse for
+Albany's weakness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear.</span></span> O let me not be mad,
+not mad, sweet heaven!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Keep me in temper! I would not be mad!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The mind's own anticipation of madness! The
+deepest tragic notes are often struck by a half
+sense of an impending blow. The Fool's conclusion
+of this act by a grotesque prattling seems to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+indicate the dislocation of feeling that has begun
+and is to be continued.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Edmund's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He replied,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Thou unpossessing bastard!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus the secret poison in Edmund's own heart
+steals forth; and then observe poor Gloster's—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Loyal and <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">natural</span></em> boy!�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+as if praising the crime of Edmund's birth!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Compare Regan's—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“What, did <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">my father's</span></em> godson seek your life?</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">He whom <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">my father</span></em> named?�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+with the unfeminine violence of her—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“All vengeance comes too short,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and yet no reference to the guilt, but only to the
+accident, which she uses as an occasion for sneering
+at her father. Regan is not, in fact, a greater
+monster than Goneril, but she has the power of
+casting more venom.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Cornwall's speech:—-
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This is some fellow,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Who, having been praised for bluntness, doth affect</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A saucy roughness,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In thus placing these profound general truths
+in the mouths of such men as Cornwall, Edmund,
+Iago, &amp;c., Shakespeare at once gives them utterance,
+and yet shows how indefinite their application
+is.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Edgar's assumed madness serves the
+great purpose of taking off part of the shock
+which would otherwise be caused by the true
+madness of Lear, and further displays the profound
+difference between the two. In every
+attempt at representing madness throughout the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+whole range of dramatic literature, with the single
+exception of Lear, it is mere lightheadedness, as
+especially in Otway. In Edgar's ravings Shakespeare
+all the while lets you see a fixed purpose, a
+practical end in view;—in Lear's, there is only
+the brooding of the one anguish, an eddy without
+progression.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. Lear's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The king would speak with Cornwall; the dear father</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Would with his daughter speak, &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">No, but not yet: may be he is not well,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The strong interest now felt by Lear to try to
+find excuses for his daughter is most pathetic.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Lear's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Beloved Regan,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thy sister's naught;—O Regan, she hath tied</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sharp-tooth'd unkindness, like a vulture, here.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I can scarce speak to thee;—thou'lt not believe</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of how deprav'd a quality—O Regan!</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Reg.</span></span> I pray you, Sir, take patience; I have hope,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You less know how to value her desert,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Than she to scant her duty.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear.</span></span> Say, how is that?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Nothing is so heart-cutting as a cold unexpected
+defence or palliation of a cruelty passionately
+complained of, or so expressive of thorough hard-heartedness.
+And feel the excessive horror of
+Regan's <span class="tei tei-q">“O, Sir, you are old!�</span>—and then her
+drawing from that universal object of reverence
+and indulgence the very reason for her frightful
+conclusion—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Say, you have wrong'd her!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+All Lear's faults increase our pity for him. We
+refuse to know them otherwise than as means of
+his sufferings, and aggravations of his daughters'
+ingratitude.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Lear's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, reason not the need: our basest beggars</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Are in the poorest thing superfluous,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe that the tranquillity which follows the
+first stunning of the blow permits Lear to reason.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 4. O, what a world's convention of
+agonies is here! All external nature in a storm,
+all moral nature convulsed,—the real madness of
+Lear, the feigned madness of Edgar, the babbling
+of the Fool, the desperate fidelity of Kent—surely
+such a scene was never conceived before or since!
+Take it but as a picture for the eye only, it is
+more terrific than any which a Michael Angelo,
+inspired by a Dante, could have conceived, and
+which none but a Michael Angelo could have
+executed. Or let it have been uttered to the
+blind, the howlings of nature would seem converted
+into the voice of conscious humanity. This
+scene ends with the first symptoms of positive
+derangement; and the intervention of the fifth
+scene is particularly judicious,—the interruption
+allowing an interval for Lear to appear in full
+madness in the sixth scene.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 7. Gloster's blinding.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What can I say of this scene?—There is my
+reluctance to think Shakespeare wrong, and yet—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 6. Lear's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Ha! Goneril!—with a white beard!—They flattered me like a
+dog; and told me, I had white hairs in my beard, ere the black ones
+were there. To say </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ay</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> and </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">No</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> to every thing
+I said!—Ay and
+No too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me
+once,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The thunder recurs, but still at a greater distance
+from our feelings.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 7. Lear's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Where have I been? Where am I?—Fair daylight?—</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I am mightily abused.—I should even die with pity</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To see another thus,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How beautifully the affecting return of Lear to
+reason, and the mild pathos of these speeches prepare
+the mind for the last sad, yet sweet, consolation
+of the aged sufferer's death!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc73" id="toc73"></a>
+<a name="pdf74" id="pdf74"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Hamlet.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Hamlet was the play, or rather Hamlet himself
+was the character, in the intuition and
+exposition of which I first made my turn for philosophical
+criticism, and especially for insight into
+the genius of Shakespeare, noticed. This happened
+first amongst my acquaintances, as Sir George
+Beaumont will bear witness; and subsequently,
+long before Schlegel had delivered at Vienna the
+lectures on Shakespeare, which he afterwards published,
+I had given on the same subject eighteen
+lectures substantially the same, proceeding from
+the very same point of view, and deducing the
+same conclusions, so far as I either then agreed,
+or now agree, with him. I gave these lectures at
+the Royal Institution, before six or seven hundred
+auditors of rank and eminence, in the spring of the
+same year, in which Sir Humphrey Davy, a fellow-lecturer,
+made his great revolutionary discoveries
+in chemistry. Even in detail the coincidence of
+Schlegel with my lectures was so extraordinary,
+that all who at a later period heard the same words,
+taken by me from my notes of the lectures at the
+Royal Institution, concluded a borrowing on my
+part from Schlegel. Mr. Hazlitt, whose hatred of
+me is in such an inverse ratio to my zealous kindness
+towards him, as to be defended by his warmest
+admirer, Charles Lamb—(who, God bless him!
+besides his characteristic obstinacy of adherence to
+old friends, as long at least as they are at all down
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the world, is linked as by a charm to Hazlitt's
+conversation)—only as <span class="tei tei-q">“frantic;�</span>—Mr. Hazlitt, I
+say, himself replied to an assertion of my plagiarism
+from Schlegel in these words;—<span class="tei tei-q">“That is a lie;
+for I myself heard the very same character of
+Hamlet from Coleridge before he went to Germany,
+and when he had neither read nor could
+read a page of German!�</span> Now Hazlitt was on a
+visit to me at my cottage at Nether Stowey, Somerset,
+in the summer of the year 1798, in the September
+of which year I first was out of sight of the
+shores of Great Britain.—Recorded by me, S. T.
+Coleridge, 7th January, 1819.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The seeming inconsistencies in the conduct and
+character of Hamlet have long exercised the conjectural
+ingenuity of critics; and, as we are always
+loth to suppose that the cause of defective apprehension
+is in ourselves, the mystery has been too
+commonly explained by the very easy process of
+setting it down as in fact inexplicable, and by resolving
+the phenomenon into a misgrowth or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lusus</span></span>
+of the capricious and irregular genius of Shakespeare.
+The shallow and stupid arrogance of these
+vulgar and indolent decisions I would fain do my
+best to expose. I believe the character of Hamlet
+may be traced to Shakespeare's deep and accurate
+science in mental philosophy. Indeed, that this
+character must have some connection with the
+common fundamental laws of our nature may be
+assumed from the fact, that Hamlet has been the
+darling of every country in which the literature of
+England has been fostered. In order to understand
+him, it is essential that we should reflect on
+the constitution of our own minds. Man is distinguished
+from the brute animals in proportion as
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+thought prevails over sense: but in the healthy
+processes of the mind, a balance is constantly maintained
+between the impressions from outward objects
+and the inward operations of the intellect;—for
+if there be an overbalance in the contemplative
+faculty, man thereby becomes the creature of mere
+meditation, and loses his natural power of action.
+Now one of Shakespeare's modes of creating characters
+is, to conceive any one intellectual or moral
+faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself,
+Shakespeare, thus mutilated or diseased, under given
+circumstances. In Hamlet he seems to have wished
+to exemplify the moral necessity of a due balance
+between our attention to the objects of our senses,
+and our meditation on the workings of our minds,—an
+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">equilibrium</span></em> between the real and the imaginary
+worlds. In Hamlet this balance is disturbed: his
+thoughts, and the images of his fancy, are far more
+vivid than his actual perceptions, and his very perceptions,
+instantly passing through the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">medium</span></em> of
+his contemplations, acquire, as they pass, a form
+and a colour not naturally their own. Hence we
+see a great, an almost enormous, intellectual activity,
+and a proportionate aversion to real action,
+consequent upon it, with all its symptoms and
+accompanying qualities. This character Shakespeare
+places in circumstances, under which it is
+obliged to act on the spur of the moment:—Hamlet
+is brave and careless of death; but he vacillates
+from sensibility, and procrastinates from thought,
+and loses the power of action in the energy of
+resolve. Thus it is that this tragedy presents a
+direct contrast to that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>; the one proceeds
+with the utmost slowness, the other with a
+crowded and breathless rapidity.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The effect of this overbalance of the imaginative
+power is beautifully illustrated in the everlasting
+broodings and superfluous activities of Hamlet's
+mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is
+constantly occupied with the world within, and abstracted
+from the world without,—giving substance
+to shadows, and throwing a mist over all commonplace
+actualities. It is the nature of thought to be
+indefinite;—definiteness belongs to external imagery
+alone. Hence it is that the sense of sublimity
+arises, not from the sight of an outward object,
+but from the beholder's reflection upon it;—not
+from the sensuous impression, but from the imaginative
+reflex. Few have seen a celebrated waterfall
+without feeling something akin to disappointment:
+it is only subsequently that the image comes back
+full into the mind, and brings with it a train of
+grand or beautiful associations. Hamlet feels this;
+his senses are in a state of trance, and he looks
+upon external things as hieroglyphics. His soliloquy—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O! that this too too solid flesh would melt,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+springs from that craving after the indefinite—for
+that which is not—which most easily besets men
+of genius; and the self-delusion common to this
+temper of mind is finely exemplified in the character
+which Hamlet gives of himself;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“It cannot be</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To make oppression bitter.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+He mistakes the seeing his chains for the breaking
+them, delays action till action is of no use, and dies
+the victim of mere circumstance and accident.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is a great significancy in the names of
+Shakespeare's plays. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twelfth Night</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midsummer
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">
+Night's Dream</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">As You Like It</span></span>, and
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Winter's Tale</span></span>, the total effect is produced by a
+co-ordination of the characters as in a wreath of
+flowers. But in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coriolanus</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and Juliet</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>, &amp;c.,
+the effect arises from the subordination
+of all to one, either as the prominent
+person, or the principal object. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cymbeline</span></span> is the
+only exception; and even that has its advantages
+in preparing the audience for the chaos of time,
+place, and costume, by throwing the date back
+into a fabulous king's reign.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But as of more importance, so more striking, is
+the judgment displayed by our truly dramatic poet,
+as well as poet of the drama, in the management
+of his first scenes. With the single exception of
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cymbeline</span></span>, they either place before us at one glance
+both the past and the future in some effect, which
+implies the continuance and full agency of its cause,
+as in the feuds and party-spirit of the servants of
+the two houses in the first scene of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Romeo and
+Juliet</span></span>; or in the degrading passion for shows and
+public spectacles, and the overwhelming attachment
+for the newest successful war-chief in the
+Roman people, already become a populace, contrasted
+with the jealousy of the nobles in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Julius
+Cæsar</span></span>;—or they at once commence the action so
+as to excite a curiosity for the explanation in the
+following scenes, as in the storm of wind and waves,
+and the boatswain in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tempest</span></span>, instead of anticipating
+our curiosity, as in most other first scenes,
+and in too many other first acts;—or they act, by
+contrast of diction suited to the characters, at once
+to heighten the effect, and yet to give a naturalness
+to the language and rhythm of the principal personages,
+either as that of Prospero and Miranda
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+by the appropriate lowness of the style, or as in
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">King John</span></span>, by the equally appropriate stateliness
+of official harangues or narratives, so that the after
+blank verse seems to belong to the rank and quality
+of the speakers, and not to the poet;—or they
+strike at once the key-note, and give the predominant
+spirit of the play, as in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twelfth Night</span></span> and
+in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>;—or finally, the first scene comprises
+all these advantages at once, as in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Compare the easy language of common life, in
+which this drama commences, with the direful music
+and wild wayward rhythm and abrupt lyrics of
+the opening of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>. The tone is quite familiar;—there
+is no poetic description of night, no elaborate
+information conveyed by one speaker to another
+of what both had immediately before their senses—(such
+as the first distich in Addison's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cato</span></span>, which
+is a translation into poetry of <span class="tei tei-q">“Past four o'clock
+and a dark morning!�</span>);—and yet nothing bordering
+on the comic on the one hand, nor any striving
+of the intellect on the other. It is precisely the
+language of sensation among men who feared no
+charge of effeminacy for feeling what they had no
+want of resolution to bear. Yet the armour, the
+dead silence, the watchfulness that first interrupts
+it, the welcome relief of the guard, the cold, the
+broken expressions of compelled attention to bodily
+feelings still under control—all excellently accord
+with, and prepare for, the after gradual rise into
+tragedy;—but, above all, into a tragedy, the interest
+of which is as eminently <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad et apud intra</span></span>, as
+that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span> is directly <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad extra</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In all the best attested stories of ghosts and
+visions, as in that of Brutus, of Archbishop Cranmer,
+that of Benvenuto Cellini recorded by himself,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and the vision of Galileo communicated by him to
+his favourite pupil Torricelli, the ghost-seers were
+in a state of cold or chilling damp from without,
+and of anxiety inwardly. It has been with all of
+them as with Francisco on his guard,—alone, in
+the depth and silence of the night; <span class="tei tei-q">“'twas bitter
+cold, and they were sick at heart, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not a mouse
+stirring</span></em>.�</span> The attention to minute sounds,—naturally
+associated with the recollection of minute
+objects, and the more familiar and trifling, the more
+impressive from the unusualness of their producing
+any impression at all—gives a philosophic pertinency
+to this last image; but it has likewise its
+dramatic use and purpose. For its commonness in
+ordinary conversation tends to produce the sense of
+reality, and at once hides the poet, and yet approximates
+the reader or spectator to that state in which
+the highest poetry will appear, and in its component
+parts, though not in the whole composition, really
+is, the language of nature. If I should not speak
+it, I feel that I should be thinking it;—the voice
+only is the poet's,—the words are my own. That
+Shakespeare meant to put an effect in the actor's
+power in the very first words—<span class="tei tei-q">“Who's there?�</span>—is
+evident from the impatience expressed by the
+startled Francisco in the words that follow—<span class="tei tei-q">“Nay,
+answer me: stand and unfold yourself.�</span> A brave
+man is never so peremptory, as when he fears that
+he is afraid. Observe the gradual transition from
+the silence and the still recent habit of listening in
+Francisco's—<span class="tei tei-q">“I think I hear them�</span>—to the more
+cheerful call out, which a good actor would observe,
+in the—<span class="tei tei-q">“Stand ho! Who is there?�</span> Bernardo's
+inquiry after Horatio, and the repetition of his
+name and in his own presence indicate a respect or
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+an eagerness that implies him as one of the persons
+who are in the foreground; and the scepticism
+attributed to him,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And will not let belief take hold of him,�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+prepares us for Hamlet's after eulogy on him as
+one whose blood and judgment were happily commingled.
+The actor should also be careful to distinguish
+the expectation and gladness of Bernardo's
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Welcome, Horatio!�</span> from the mere courtesy of
+his <span class="tei tei-q">“Welcome, good Marcellus!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Now observe the admirable indefiniteness of the
+first opening out of the occasion of all this anxiety.
+The preparation informative of the audience is just
+as much as was precisely necessary, and no more;—it
+begins with the uncertainty appertaining to
+a question:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mar.</span></span> What, has <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">this thing</span></em>
+appear'd again to-night?�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Even the word <span class="tei tei-q">“again�</span> has its <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">credibilising</span></em> effect.
+Then Horatio, the representative of the ignorance
+of the audience, not himself, but by Marcellus to
+Bernardo, anticipates the common solution—<span class="tei tei-q">“'tis
+but our fantasy!�</span> upon which Marcellus rises
+into—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This dreaded sight, twice seen of us�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+which immediately afterwards becomes <span class="tei tei-q">“this apparition,�</span>
+and that, too, an intelligent spirit—that
+is, to be spoken to! Then comes the confirmation
+of Horatio's disbelief;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tush! tush! 'twill not appear!�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and the silence, with which the scene opened, is
+again restored in the shivering feeling of Horatio
+sitting down, at such a time, and with the two
+eye-witnesses, to hear a story of a ghost, and that,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+too, of a ghost which had appeared twice before at
+the very same hour. In the deep feeling which
+Bernardo has of the solemn nature of what he is
+about to relate, he makes an effort to master his
+own imaginative terrors by an elevation of style,—itself
+a continuation of the effort,—and by turning
+off from the apparition, as from something
+which would force him too deeply into himself, to
+the outward objects, the realities of nature, which
+had accompanied it:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ber.</span></span> Last night of all,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">When yon same star, that's westward from the pole</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Had made his course to illume that part of heaven</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The bell then beating one.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This passage seems to contradict the critical
+law that what is told, makes a faint impression
+compared with what is beholden; for it does
+indeed convey to the mind more than the eye can
+see; whilst the interruption of the narrative at the
+very moment when we are most intensely listening
+for the sequel, and have our thoughts diverted
+from the dreaded sight in expectation of the
+desired, yet almost dreaded, tale—this gives all
+the suddenness and surprise of the original appearance:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mar.</span></span> Peace, break thee off;
+look, where it comes again!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Note the judgment displayed in having the two
+persons present, who, as having seen the Ghost
+before, are naturally eager in confirming their
+former opinions,—whilst the sceptic is silent, and
+after having been twice addressed by his friends,
+answers with two hasty syllables—<span class="tei tei-q">“Most like,�</span>—and
+a confession of horror:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“It harrows me with fear and wonder.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O heaven! words are wasted on those who feel,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and to those who do not feel the exquisite judgment
+of Shakespeare in this scene, what can be
+said? Hume himself could not but have had
+faith in this Ghost dramatically, let his anti-ghostism
+have been as strong as Sampson against
+other ghosts less powerfully raised.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mar.</span></span> Good now, sit down, and tell
+me, he that knows,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Why this same strict and most observant watch,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How delightfully natural is the transition, to the
+retrospective narrative! And observe, upon the
+Ghost's reappearance, how much Horatio's courage
+is increased by having translated the late individual
+spectator into general thought and past
+experience,—and the sympathy of Marcellus and
+Bernardo with his patriotic surmises in daring to
+strike at the Ghost; whilst in a moment, upon its
+vanishing, the former solemn awe-stricken feeling
+returns upon them:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“We do it wrong, being so majestical,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To offer it the show of violence.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Horatio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I have heard,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Awake the god of day,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No Addison could be more careful to be poetical
+in diction than Shakespeare in providing the
+grounds and sources of its propriety. But how to
+elevate a thing almost mean by its familiarity,
+young poets may learn in this treatment of the
+cock-crow.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Horatio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And, by my advice,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Let us impart what we have seen to-night</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Unto young Hamlet; for, upon my life,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Note the inobtrusive and yet fully adequate mode
+of introducing the main character, <span class="tei tei-q">“young
+Hamlet,�</span> upon whom it transferred all the interest
+excited for the acts and concerns of the king his
+father.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. The audience are now relieved by a
+change of scene to the royal court, in order that
+Hamlet may not have to take up the leavings of
+exhaustion. In the king's speech, observe the set
+and pedantically antithetic form of the sentences
+when touching that which galled the heels of conscience,—the
+strain of undignified rhetoric,—and
+yet in what follows concerning the public weal, a
+certain appropriate majesty. Indeed was he not a
+royal brother?—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> King's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And now, Laertes, what's the news with you?�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus with great art Shakespeare introduces a most
+important, but still subordinate character first,
+Laertes, who is yet thus graciously treated in consequence
+of the assistance given to the election
+of the late king's brother instead of his son by
+Polonius.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> A little more than kin,
+and less than kind.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">King.</span></span> How is it that the clouds still hang on you?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Not so, my lord, I
+am too much i' the sun.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Hamlet opens his mouth with a playing on
+words, the complete absence of which throughout
+characterises Macbeth. This playing on words
+may be attributed to many causes or motives, as
+either to an exuberant activity of mind, as in the
+higher comedy of Shakespeare generally;—or to an
+imitation of it as a mere fashion, as if it were said—<span class="tei tei-q">“Is
+not this better than groaning?�</span>—or to a contemptuous
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+exultation in minds vulgarised and overset
+by their success, as in the poetic instance of
+Milton's Devils in the battle;—or it is the language
+of resentment, as is familiar to every one who has
+witnessed the quarrels of the lower orders, where
+there is invariably a profusion of punning invective,
+whence, perhaps, nicknames have in a considerable
+degree sprung up;—or it is the language
+of suppressed passion, and especially of a hardly
+smothered personal dislike. The first and last of
+these combine in Hamlet's case; and I have little
+doubt that Farmer is right in supposing the equivocation
+carried on in the expression <span class="tei tei-q">“too much i'
+the sun,�</span> or son.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Ay, madam, it is common.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here observe Hamlet's delicacy to his mother, and
+how the suppression prepares him for the overflow
+in the next speech, in which his character is more
+developed by bringing forward his aversion to externals,
+and which betrays his habit of brooding
+over the world within him, coupled with a prodigality
+of beautiful words, which are the half embodyings
+of thought, and are more than thought,
+and have an outness, a reality <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sui generis</span></span>, and yet
+retain their correspondence and shadowy affinity
+to the images and movements within. Note also
+Hamlet's silence to the long speech of the king
+which follows, and his respectful, but general,
+answer to his mother.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Hamlet's first soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tædium vitæ</span></span> is a common oppression on
+minds cast in the Hamlet mould, and is caused by
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+disproportionate mental exertion, which necessitates
+exhaustion of bodily feeling. Where there
+is a just coincidence of external and internal
+action, pleasure is always the result; but where
+the former is deficient, and the mind's appetency
+of the ideal is unchecked, realities will seem cold
+and unmoving. In such cases, passion combines
+itself with the indefinite alone. In this mood of
+his mind the relation of the appearance of his
+father's spirit in arms is made all at once to
+Hamlet:—it is—Horatio's speech in particular—a
+perfect model of the true style of dramatic narrative;—the
+purest poetry, and yet in the most
+natural language, equally remote from the ink-horn
+and the plough.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. This scene must be regarded as one
+of Shakespeare's lyric movements in the play, and
+the skill with which it is interwoven with the
+dramatic parts is peculiarly an excellence of our
+poet. You experience the sensation of a pause
+without the sense of a stop. You will observe in
+Ophelia's short and general answer to the long
+speech of Laertes the natural carelessness of innocence,
+which cannot think such a code of cautions
+and prudences necessary to its own preservation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Polonius (in Stockdale's
+edition):—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Or (not to crack the wind of the poor phrase),</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Wronging it thus, you'll tender me a fool.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I suspect this <span class="tei tei-q">“wronging�</span> is here used much in
+the same sense as <span class="tei tei-q">“wringing�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“wrenching,�</span>
+and that the parenthesis should be extended to
+<span class="tei tei-q">“thus.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Polonius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“How prodigal the soul</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Lends the tongue vows:—these blazes, daughter,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A spondee has, I doubt not, dropped out of the
+text. Either insert <span class="tei tei-q">“Go to�</span> after <span class="tei tei-q">“vows�</span>;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lends the tongue vows: Go to, these blazes, daughter�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+or read—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Lends the tongue vows:—These blazes, daughter, mark you�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Shakespeare never introduces a catalectic line
+without intending an equivalent to the foot omitted
+in the pauses, or the dwelling emphasis, or the
+diffused retardation. I do not, however, deny that
+a good actor might, by employing the last mentioned
+means—namely, the retardation, or solemn
+knowing drawl—supply the missing spondee with
+good effect. But I do not believe that in this or
+any other of the foregoing speeches of Polonius,
+Shakespeare meant to bring out the senility or
+weakness of that personage's mind. In the great
+ever-recurring dangers and duties of life, where
+to distinguish the fit objects for the application of
+the maxims collected by the experience of a long
+life, requires no fineness of tact, as in the admonitions
+to his son and daughter, Polonius is uniformly
+made respectable. But if an actor were
+even capable of catching these shades in the character,
+the pit and the gallery would be malcontent
+at their exhibition. It is to Hamlet that Polonius
+is, and is meant to be, contemptible, because in
+inwardness and uncontrollable activity of movement,
+Hamlet's mind is the logical contrary to
+that of Polonius; and besides, as I have observed
+before, Hamlet dislikes the man as false to his true
+allegiance in the matter of the succession to the
+crown.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. The unimportant conversation with
+which this scene opens is a proof of Shakespeare's
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+minute knowledge of human nature. It is a well
+established fact, that on the brink of any serious
+enterprise, or event of moment, men almost invariably
+endeavour to elude the pressure of their
+own thoughts by turning aside to trivial objects
+and familiar circumstances: thus this dialogue on
+the platform begins with remarks on the coldness
+of the air, and inquiries, obliquely connected,
+indeed, with the expected hour of the visitation,
+but thrown out in a seeming vacuity of topics, as
+to the striking of the clock and so forth. The
+same desire to escape from the impending thought
+is carried on in Hamlet's account of, and moralizing
+on, the Danish custom of wassailing: he runs off
+from the particular to the universal, and, in his
+repugnance to personal and individual concerns,
+escapes, as it were, from himself in generalisations,
+and smothers the impatience and uneasy feelings
+of the moment in abstract reasoning. Besides
+this, another purpose is answered;—for by thus
+entangling the attention of the audience in the
+nice distinctions and parenthetical sentences of
+this speech of Hamlet's, Shakespeare takes them
+completely by surprise on the appearance of the
+Ghost, which comes upon them in all the suddenness
+of its visionary character. Indeed, no modern
+writer would have dared, like Shakespeare, to have
+preceded this last visitation by two distinct appearances,—or
+could have contrived that the third
+should rise upon the former two in impressiveness
+and solemnity of interest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But in addition to all the other excellences of
+Hamlet's speech concerning the wassail-music—so
+finely revealing the predominant idealism, the
+ratiocinative meditativeness, of his character—it
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+has the advantage of giving nature and probability
+to the impassioned continuity of the speech
+instantly directed to the Ghost. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">momentum</span></em>
+had been given to his mental activity; the full
+current of the thoughts and words had set in, and
+the very forgetfulness, in the fervour of his argumentation,
+of the purpose for which he was there,
+aided in preventing the appearance from benumbing
+the mind. Consequently, it acted as a new
+impulse,—a sudden stroke which increased the
+velocity of the body already in motion, whilst it
+altered the direction. The co-presence of Horatio,
+Marcellus, and Bernardo is most judiciously contrived;
+for it renders the courage of Hamlet, and
+his impetuous eloquence, perfectly intelligible.
+The knowledge,—the unthought of consciousness,—the
+sensation of human auditors—of flesh and
+blood sympathists—acts as a support and a stimulation
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a tergo</span></span>, while the front of the mind, the
+whole consciousness of the speaker, is filled, yea,
+absorbed, by the apparition. Add too, that the
+apparition itself has, by its previous appearances,
+been brought nearer to a thing of this world.
+This accrescence of objectivity in a Ghost that yet
+retains all its ghostly attributes and fearful subjectivity,
+is truly wonderful.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5. Hamlet's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And shall I couple hell?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I remember nothing equal to this burst, unless
+it be the first speech of Prometheus in the Greek
+drama, after the exit of Vulcan and the two
+Afrites. But Shakespeare alone could have produced
+the vow of Hamlet to make his memory a
+blank of all maxims and generalised truths, that
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<span class="tei tei-q">“observation had copied there,�</span>—followed immediately
+by the speaker noting down the generalised
+fact,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mar.</span></span> Hillo, ho, ho, my lord!</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Hillo, ho, ho, boy!
+come bird, come,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This part of the scene, after Hamlet's interview
+with the Ghost, has been charged with an improbable
+eccentricity. But the truth is, that after the
+mind has been stretched beyond its usual pitch
+and tone, it must either sink into exhaustion and
+inanity, or seek relief by change. It is thus well
+known, that persons conversant in deeds of cruelty
+contrive to escape from conscience by connecting
+something of the ludicrous with them, and by inventing
+grotesque terms, and a certain technical
+phraseology, to disguise the horror of their practices.
+Indeed, paradoxical as it may appear, the
+terrible by a law of the human mind always
+touches on the verge of the ludicrous. Both arise
+from the perception of something out of the
+common order of things—something, in fact, out
+of its place; and if from this we can abstract
+danger, the uncommonness will alone remain, and
+the sense of the ridiculous be excited. The close
+alliance of these opposites—they are not contraries—appears
+from the circumstance, that laughter is
+equally the expression of extreme anguish and
+horror as of joy: as there are tears of sorrow and
+tears of joy, so is there a laugh of terror and a
+laugh of merriment. These complex causes will
+naturally have produced in Hamlet the disposition
+to escape from his own feelings of the overwhelming
+and supernatural by a wild transition
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to the ludicrous,—a sort of cunning bravado,
+bordering on the flights of delirium. For you
+may, perhaps, observe that Hamlet's wildness is
+but half false; he plays that subtle trick of pretending
+to act only when he is very near really
+being what he acts.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The subterraneous speeches of the Ghost are
+hardly defensible;—but I would call your attention
+to the characteristic difference between this Ghost,
+as a superstition connected with the most mysterious
+truths of revealed religion,—and Shakespeare's
+consequent reverence in his treatment of
+it,—and the foul earthly witcheries and wild
+language in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Polonius and Reynaldo.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In all things dependent on, or rather made up
+of, fine address, the manner is no more or otherwise
+rememberable than the light notions, steps, and
+gestures of youth and health. But this is almost
+everything:—no wonder, therefore, if that which
+can be put down by rule in the memory should
+appear to us as mere poring, maudlin, cunning,—slyness
+blinking through the watery eye of superannuation.
+So in this admirable scene, Polonius,
+who is throughout the skeleton of his own former
+skill and statecraft, hunts the trail of policy at a
+dead scent, supplied by the weak fever-smell in his
+own nostrils.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Speech of Polonius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“My liege, and madam, to expostulate,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's note.
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Then as to the jingles, and play on words, let us but look into
+the sermons of Dr. Donne (the wittiest man of that age), and we
+shall find them full of this vein.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have, and that most carefully, read Dr. Donne's
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+sermons, and find none of these jingles. The great
+art of an orator—to make whatever he talks of
+appear of importance—this, indeed, Donne has
+effected with consummate skill.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Excellent well;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">You are a fishmonger.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That is, you are sent to fish out this secret. This
+is Hamlet's own meaning.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> For if the sun breed maggots in
+a dead dog,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Being a god, kissing carrion.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+These purposely obscure lines, I rather think, refer
+to some thought in Hamlet's mind, contrasting the
+lovely daughter with such a tedious old fool, her
+father, as he, Hamlet, represents Polonius to himself:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Why,
+fool as he is, he is some degrees in
+rank above a dead dog's carcase; and if the sun,
+being a god that kisses carrion, can raise life out of
+a dead dog,—why may not good fortune, that
+favours fools, have raised a lovely girl out of this
+dead-alive old fool?�</span> Warburton is often led
+astray, in his interpretations, by his attention to
+general positions without the due Shakespearian
+reference to what is probably passing in the mind
+of his speaker, characteristic, and expository of his
+particular character and present mood. The subsequent
+passage,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O Jephthah, judge of Israel! what a treasure hadst thou!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+is confirmatory of my view of these lines.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> You cannot, Sir, take from me any thing
+that I will</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">more willingly part withal; except my life, except my life, except</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">my life.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This repetition strikes me as most admirable.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Then are our beggars, bodies;
+and our monarchs, and</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">out-stretched heroes, the beggars' shadows?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I do not understand this; and Shakespeare seems
+to have intended the meaning not to be more than
+snatched at:—<span class="tei tei-q">“By my fay, I cannot reason!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The rugged Pyrrhus—he whose sable arms,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This admirable substitution of the epic for the
+dramatic, giving such a reality to the impassioned
+dramatic diction of Shakespeare's own dialogue,
+and authorised too, by the actual style of the
+tragedies before his time (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Porrex and Ferrex</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span>, &amp;c.)—is well worthy of notice. The
+fancy, that a burlesque was intended, sinks below
+criticism: the lines, as epic narrative, are superb.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the thoughts, and even in the separate parts
+of the diction, this description is highly poetical:
+in truth, taken by itself, that is its fault that it is
+too poetical!—the language of lyric vehemence and
+epic pomp, and not of the drama. But if Shakespeare
+had made the diction truly dramatic, where
+would have been the contrast between Hamlet and
+the play in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Had seen the <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">mobled</span></em> queen,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A mob-cap is still a word in common use for a
+morning cap, which conceals the whole head of
+hair, and passes under the chin. It is nearly the
+same as the night-cap, that is, it is an imitation of
+it, so as to answer the purpose (<span class="tei tei-q">“I am not drest
+for company�</span>), and yet reconciling it with neatness
+and perfect purity.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Hamlet's soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is Shakespeare's own attestation to the truth
+of the idea of Hamlet which I have before put forth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The spirit that I have seen,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">May be a devil: and the devil hath power</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Out of my weakness, and my melancholy</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(As he is very potent with such spirits),</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Abuses me to damn me.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+See Sir Thomas Brown:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I believe ... that those apparitions and ghosts of departed
+persons are not the wandering souls of men, but the unquiet walks
+of devils, prompting and suggesting us unto mischief, blood, and
+villany, instilling and stealing into our hearts, that the blessed
+spirits are not at rest in their graves, but wander solicitous of the
+affairs of the world.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Relig. Med.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> part. i. sect. 37.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1. Hamlet's soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“To be, or not to be, that is the question,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This speech is of absolutely universal interest,—and
+yet to which of all Shakespeare's characters
+could it have been appropriately given but to
+Hamlet? For Jaques it would have been too
+deep, and for Iago too habitual a communion with
+the heart; which in every man belongs, or ought
+to belong, to all mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">No traveller returns.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald's note in defence of the supposed contradiction
+of this in the apparition of the Ghost.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O miserable defender! If it be necessary to
+remove the apparent contradiction,—if it be not
+rather a great beauty,—surely, it were easy to say,
+that no traveller returns to this world, as to his
+home, or abiding-place.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Ha, ha! are you honest?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oph.</span></span> My lord?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Are you fair?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here it is evident that the penetrating Hamlet
+perceives, from the strange and forced manner of
+Ophelia, that the sweet girl was not acting a part
+of her own, but was a decoy; and his after speeches
+are not so much directed to her as to the listeners
+and spies. Such a discovery in a mood so anxious
+and irritable accounts for a certain harshness in
+him;—and yet a wild up-working of love, sporting
+with opposites in a wilful self-tormenting strain of
+irony, is perceptible throughout. <span class="tei tei-q">“I did love you
+once:�</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“I lov'd you not:�</span>—and particularly in
+his enumeration of the faults of the sex from which
+Ophelia is so free, that the mere freedom therefrom
+constitutes her character. Note Shakespeare's
+charm of composing the female character by the
+absence of characters, that is, marks and out-juttings.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Hamlet's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I say, we will have no more marriages: those that are married
+already, all but one, shall live: the rest shall keep as they are.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe this dallying with the inward purpose,
+characteristic of one who had not brought his mind
+to the steady acting point. He would fain sting
+the uncle's mind;—but to stab his body!—The
+soliloquy of Ophelia, which follows, is the perfection
+of love—so exquisitely unselfish!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. This dialogue of Hamlet with the
+players is one of the happiest instances of Shakespeare's
+power of diversifying the scene while he
+is carrying on the plot.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> My lord, you played once i' the university,
+you say?�</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">To Polonius.</span></span>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To have kept Hamlet's love for Ophelia before the
+audience in any direct form, would have made a
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+breach in the unity of the interest;—but yet to
+the thoughtful reader it is suggested by his spite
+to poor Polonius, whom he cannot let rest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> The style of the interlude here is distinguished
+from the real dialogue by rhyme, as in
+the first interview with the players by epic verse.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> My lord, you once did love me.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">So</span></em> I do still, by these
+pickers and stealers.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I never heard an actor give this word <span class="tei tei-q">“so�</span> its
+proper emphasis. Shakespeare's meaning is—<span class="tei tei-q">“lov'd
+you? Hum!—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">so</span></em> I do still,�</span> &amp;c. There
+has been no change in my opinion:—I think as ill
+of you as I did. Else Hamlet tells an ignoble
+falsehood, and a useless one, as the last speech to
+Guildenstern—<span class="tei tei-q">“Why look you now,�</span> &amp;c.—proves.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Hamlet's soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Now could I drink hot blood,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And do such business as the bitter day</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Would quake to look on.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The utmost at which Hamlet arrives, is a disposition,
+a mood, to do something:—but what to do,
+is still left undecided, while every word he utters
+tends to betray his disguise. Yet observe how
+perfectly equal to any call of the moment is Hamlet,
+let it only not be for the future.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Speech of Polonius. Polonius's volunteer
+obtrusion of himself into this business, while
+it is appropriate to his character, still itching after
+former importance, removes all likelihood that
+Hamlet should suspect his presence, and prevents
+us from making his death injure Hamlet in our
+opinion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> The king's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This speech well marks the difference between
+crime and guilt of habit. The conscience here is
+still admitted to audience. Nay, even as an audible
+soliloquy, it is far less improbable than is supposed
+by such as have watched men only in the beaten
+road of their feelings. But the final—<span class="tei tei-q">“all may
+be well!�</span> is remarkable;—the degree of merit
+attributed by the self-flattering soul to its own
+struggle, though baffled, and to the indefinite half-promise,
+half-command, to persevere in religious
+duties. The solution is in the divine <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">medium</span></em> of the
+Christian doctrine of expiation:—not what you
+have done, but what you are, must determine.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Hamlet's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And now I'll do't:—And so he goes to heaven:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And so am I revenged? That would be scann'd,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Johnson's mistaking of the marks of reluctance
+and procrastination for impetuous, horror-striking,
+fiendishness!—Of such importance is it to understand
+the germ of a character. But the interval
+taken by Hamlet's speech is truly awful! And
+then—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Words, without thoughts, never to heaven go.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O what a lesson concerning the essential difference
+between wishing and willing, and the folly of
+all motive-mongering, while the individual self
+remains!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> A bloody deed;—almost as bad,
+good mother,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As kill a king, and marry with his brother.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Queen.</span></span> As kill a king?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I confess that Shakespeare has left the character
+of the Queen in an unpleasant perplexity. Was
+she, or was she not, conscious of the fratricide?
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ros.</span></span> Take you me for a spunge, my lord?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ham.</span></span> Ay, Sir; that soaks up the King's countenance, his</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">rewards, his authorities,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Hamlet's madness is made to consist in the free
+utterance of all the thoughts that had passed
+through his mind before;—in fact, in telling
+home-truths.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 5. Ophelia's singing. O, note the
+conjunction here of these two thoughts that had
+never subsisted in disjunction, the love for Hamlet,
+and her filial love, with the guileless floating on the
+surface of her pure imagination of the cautions so
+lately expressed, and the fears not too delicately
+avowed, by her father and brother, concerning the
+dangers to which her honour lay exposed. Thought,
+affliction, passion, murder itself—she turns to favour
+and prettiness. This play of association is instanced
+in the close:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">My brother shall know of it, and I thank you for your good
+counsel.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Gentleman's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And as the world were now but to begin</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Antiquity forgot, custom not known,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The ratifiers and props of every word—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">They cry,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Fearful and self-suspicious as I always feel, when
+I seem to see an error of judgment in Shakespeare,
+yet I cannot reconcile the cool, and, as Warburton
+calls it, <span class="tei tei-q">“rational and consequential,�</span> reflection in
+these lines with the anonymousness, or the alarm,
+of this Gentleman or Messenger, as he is called in
+other editions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> King's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“There's such divinity doth hedge a king,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That treason can but peep to what it would,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Acts little of his will.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Proof, as indeed all else is, that Shakespeare
+never intended us to see the King with Hamlet's
+eyes; though, I suspect, the managers have long
+done so.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Laertes:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“To hell, allegiance! vows, to the blackest devil!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Laertes is a </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">good</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> character, but,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">
+&amp;c.—</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">Warburton.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mercy on Warburton's notion of goodness!
+Please to refer to the seventh scene of this act;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I will do't;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And for that purpose I'll anoint my sword,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+uttered by Laertes after the King's description of
+Hamlet;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He being remiss,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Most generous, and free from all contriving,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Will not peruse the foils.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Yet I acknowledge that Shakespeare evidently
+wishes, as much as possible, to spare the character
+of Laertes,—to break the extreme turpitude of his
+consent to become an agent and accomplice of the
+King's treachery;—and to this end he re-introduces
+Ophelia at the close of this scene to afford a
+probable stimulus of passion in her brother.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6. Hamlet's capture by the pirates.
+This is almost the only play of Shakespeare, in
+which mere accidents, independent of all will, form
+an essential part of the plot;—but here how
+judiciously in keeping with the character of the
+over-meditative Hamlet, ever at last determined
+by accident or by a fit of passion!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 7. Note how the King first awakens
+Laertes's vanity by praising the reporter, and then
+gratifies it by the report itself, and finally points it
+by—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sir, this report of his</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> King's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For goodness, growing to a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">pleurisy</span></em>,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Dies in his own too much.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald's note from Warburton, who conjectures
+<span class="tei tei-q">“plethory.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I rather think that Shakespeare meant <span class="tei tei-q">“pleurisy,�</span>
+but involved in it the thought of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plethora</span></em>, as
+supposing pleurisy to arise from too much blood;
+otherwise I cannot explain the following line—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And then this <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">should</span></em> is like a spendthrift sigh,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That hurts by easing.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In a stitch in the side every one must have heaved
+a sigh that <span class="tei tei-q">“hurt by easing.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Since writing the above I feel confirmed that
+<span class="tei tei-q">“pleurisy�</span> is the right word; for I find that in
+the old medical dictionaries the pleurisy is often
+called the <span class="tei tei-q">“plethory.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Queen.</span></span> Your sister's drown'd, Laertes.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Laer.</span></span> Drown'd! O, where?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That Laertes might be excused in some degree for
+not cooling, the Act concludes with the affecting
+death of Ophelia,—who in the beginning lay like
+a little projection of land into a lake or stream,
+covered with spray-flowers, quietly reflected in
+the quiet waters, but at length is undermined or
+loosened, and becomes a faery isle, and after a brief
+vagrancy sinks almost without an eddy!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 1. O, the rich contrast between the
+Clowns and Hamlet, as two extremes! You see in
+the former the mockery of logic, and a traditional
+wit valued, like truth, for its antiquity, and
+treasured up, like a tune, for use.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 1 and 2. Shakespeare seems to mean all
+Hamlet's character to be brought together before
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+his final disappearance from the scene;—his meditative
+excess in the grave-digging, his yielding to
+passion with Laertes, his love for Ophelia blazing
+out, his tendency to generalise on all occasions in
+the dialogue with Horatio, his fine gentlemanly
+manners with Osrick, and his and Shakespeare's
+own fondness for presentment:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But thou wouldst not think, how ill all's here about my heart:
+but it is no matter.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc75" id="toc75"></a>
+<a name="pdf76" id="pdf76"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Macbeth.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Macbeth�</span> stands in contrast throughout
+with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>; in the manner of opening
+more especially. In the latter, there is a gradual
+ascent from the simplest forms of conversation to
+the language of impassioned intellect,—yet the
+intellect still remaining the seat of passion: in
+the former, the invocation is at once made to the
+imagination and the emotions connected therewith.
+Hence the movement throughout is the
+most rapid of all Shakespeare's plays; and hence
+also, with the exception of the disgusting passage
+of the Porter (Act ii. sc. 3), which I dare pledge
+myself to demonstrate to be an interpolation of
+the actors, there is not, to the best of my remembrance,
+a single pun or play on words in the whole
+drama. I have previously given an answer to the
+thousand times repeated charge against Shakespeare
+upon the subject of his punning, and I here
+merely mention the fact of the absence of any
+puns in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>, as justifying a candid doubt, at
+least, whether even in these figures of speech and
+fanciful modifications of language, Shakespeare
+may not have followed rules and principles that
+merit and would stand the test of philosophic
+examination. And hence, also, there is an entire
+absence of comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic
+contemplation in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>,—the play being
+wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+there are no reasonings of equivocal morality,
+which would have required a more leisurely state
+and a consequently greater activity of mind;—no
+sophistry of self-delusion,—except only that previously
+to the dreadful act, Macbeth mistranslates
+the recoilings and ominous whispers of conscience
+into prudential and selfish reasonings; and, after
+the deed done, the terrors of remorse into fear
+from external dangers,—like delirious men who
+run away from the phantoms of their own brains,
+or, raised by terror to rage, stab the real object
+that is within their reach:—whilst Lady Macbeth
+merely endeavours to reconcile his and her own
+sinkings of heart by anticipations of the worst,
+and an affected bravado in confronting them. In
+all the rest, Macbeth's language is the grave
+utterance of the very heart, conscience-sick, even
+to the last faintings of moral death. It is the
+same in all the other characters. The variety
+arises from rage, caused ever and anon by disruption
+of anxious thought, and the quick transition
+of fear into it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span> the scene opens with
+superstition; but, in each it is not merely different,
+but opposite. In the first it is connected with the
+best and holiest feelings; in the second with the
+shadowy, turbulent, and unsanctified cravings of
+the individual will. Nor is the purpose the same;
+in the one the object is to excite, whilst in the
+other it is to mark a mind already excited.
+Superstition, of one sort or another, is natural
+to victorious generals; the instances are too
+notorious to need mentioning. There is so much
+of chance in warfare, and such vast events are
+connected with the acts of a single individual,—the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+representative, in truth, of the efforts of
+myriads, and yet to the public, and doubtless to
+his own feelings, the aggregate of all,—that the
+proper temperament for generating or receiving
+superstitious impressions is naturally produced.
+Hope, the master element of a commanding genius,
+meeting with an active and combining intellect,
+and an imagination of just that degree of vividness
+which disquiets and impels the soul to try to
+realise its images, greatly increases the creative
+power of the mind; and hence the images become
+a satisfying world of themselves, as is the case in
+every poet and original philosopher:—but hope
+fully gratified, and yet the elementary basis of the
+passion remaining, becomes fear; and, indeed, the
+general, who must often feel, even though he may
+hide it from his own consciousness, how large a
+share chance had in his successes, may very naturally
+be irresolute in a new scene, where he knows
+that all will depend on his own act and election.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The Weird Sisters are as true a creation of
+Shakespeare's, as his Ariel and Caliban,—fates,
+furies, and materialising witches being the elements.
+They are wholly different from any representation
+of witches in the contemporary
+writers, and yet presented a sufficient external resemblance
+to the creatures of vulgar prejudice to
+act immediately on the audience. Their character
+consists in the imaginative disconnected from the
+good; they are the shadowy obscure and fearfully
+anomalous of physical nature, the lawless of
+human nature,—elemental avengers without sex
+or kin:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Fair is foul, and foul is fair;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Hover through the fog and filthy air.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How much it were to be wished in playing <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>,
+that an attempt should be made to introduce
+the flexile character-mask of the ancient pantomime;—that
+Flaxman would contribute his genius
+to the embodying and making sensuously perceptible
+that of Shakespeare!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The style and rhythm of the Captain's speeches
+in the second scene should be illustrated by reference
+to the interlude in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamlet</span></span>, in which the epic
+is substituted for the tragic, in order to make the
+latter be felt as the real-life diction. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Macbeth</span></span>
+the poet's object was to raise the mind at once to
+the high tragic tone, that the audience might be
+ready for the precipitate consummation of guilt in
+the early part of the play. The true reason for
+the first appearance of the Witches is to strike
+the key-note of the character of the whole drama,
+as is proved by their re-appearance in the third
+scene, after such an order of the king's as establishes
+their supernatural power of information. I
+say information,—for so it only is as to Glamis
+and Cawdor; the <span class="tei tei-q">“king hereafter�</span> was still contingent,—still
+in Macbeth's moral will; although,
+if he should yield to the temptation, and thus
+forfeit his free agency, the link of cause and effect
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">more physico</span></span> would then commence. I need not
+say, that the general idea is all that can be required
+from the poet,—not a scholastic logical
+consistency in all the parts so as to meet metaphysical
+objectors. But O! how truly Shakespearian
+is the opening of Macbeth's character
+given in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">unpossessedness</span></em> of Banquo's mind,
+wholly present to the present object,—an unsullied,
+unscarified mirror! And how strictly
+true to nature it is that Banquo, and not Macbeth
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+himself, directs our notice to the effect produced
+on Macbeth's mind, rendered temptible by previous
+dalliance of the fancy with ambitious
+thoughts:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Good Sir, why do you start; and seem to fear</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Things that do sound so fair?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And then, again, still unintroitive, addresses the
+Witches:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 6.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I' the name of truth,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Are ye fantastical, or that indeed</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Which outwardly ye show?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Banquo's questions are those of natural curiosity,—such
+as a girl would put after hearing a gipsy
+tell her schoolfellow's fortune;—all perfectly
+general, or rather, planless. But Macbeth, lost
+in thought, raises himself to speech only by the
+Witches being about to depart:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and all that follows is reasoning on a problem
+already discussed in his mind,—on a hope which
+he welcomes, and the doubts concerning the
+attainment of which he wishes to have cleared up.
+Compare his eagerness,—the keen eye with which
+he has pursued the Witches' evanishing—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Speak, I charge you!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+with the easily satisfied mind of the self-uninterested
+Banquo:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The air hath bubbles, as the water has,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And these are of them:—Whither are they vanish'd?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and then Macbeth's earnest reply,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Into the air; and what seem'd corporal, melted</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">As breath into the wind.—<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Would they had
+stay'd!</span></em>�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Is it too minute to notice the appropriateness of
+the simile <span class="tei tei-q">“as breath,�</span> &amp;c., in a cold climate?
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Still again Banquo goes on wondering like any
+common spectator,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Were such things here as we do speak about?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+whilst Macbeth persists in recurring to the self-concerning:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Your children shall be kings.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ban.</span></span> You shall be king.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Macb.</span></span> And thane of Cawdor too: went it
+not so?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+So surely is the guilt in its germ anterior to the
+supposed cause, and immediate temptation! Before
+he can cool, the confirmation of the tempting half
+of the prophecy arrives, and the concatenating
+tendency of the imagination is fostered by the
+sudden coincidence:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Glamis, and thane of Cawdor:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The greatest is behind.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Oppose this to Banquo's simple surprise:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“What, can the devil speak true?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Banquo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That, trusted home,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Might yet enkindle you unto the crown,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Besides the thane of Cawdor.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I doubt whether <span class="tei tei-q">“enkindle�</span> has not another
+sense than that of <span class="tei tei-q">“stimulating;�</span> I mean of
+<span class="tei tei-q">“kind�</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“kin,�</span> as when rabbits are said to
+<span class="tei tei-q">“kindle.�</span> However, Macbeth no longer hears
+anything <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ab extra</span></span>:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Two truths are told,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As happy prologues to the swelling act</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of the imperial theme.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Then in the necessity of recollecting himself,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I thank you, gentlemen.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Then he relapses into himself again, and every
+word of his soliloquy shows the early birth-date of
+his guilt. He is all-powerful without strength;
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+he wishes the end, but is irresolute as to the
+means; conscience distinctly warns him, and he
+lulls it imperfectly:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Without my stir.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Lost in the prospective of his guilt, he turns round
+alarmed lest others may suspect what is passing
+in his own mind, and instantly vents the lie of
+ambition:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“My dull brain was wrought</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">With things <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">forgotten</span></em>;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and immediately after pours forth the promising
+courtesies of a usurper in intention:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 8.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Kind gentlemen, your pains</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Are register'd where every day I turn</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The leaf to read them.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Macbeth's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Present <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">fears</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Are less than horrible imaginings.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's note, and substitution of <span class="tei tei-q">“feats�</span> for
+<span class="tei tei-q">“fears.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mercy on this most wilful ingenuity of blundering,
+which, nevertheless, was the very Warburton
+of Warburton—his inmost being! <span class="tei tei-q">“Fears,�</span>
+here, are present fear-striking objects, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">terribilia
+adstantia</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. O! the affecting beauty of the death
+of Cawdor, and the presentimental speech of the
+king:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“There's no art</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To find the mind's construction in the face:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">He was a gentleman on whom I built</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">An absolute trust.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Interrupted by—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O worthiest cousin!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+on the entrance of the deeper traitor for whom
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Cawdor had made way! And here in contrast with
+Duncan's <span class="tei tei-q">“plenteous joys,�</span> Macbeth has nothing
+but the common-places of loyalty, in which he hides
+himself with <span class="tei tei-q">“our duties.�</span> Note the exceeding
+effort of Macbeth's addresses to the king, his
+reasoning on his allegiance, and then especially
+when a new difficulty, the designation of a successor,
+suggests a new crime. This, however, seems
+the first distinct notion, as to the plan of realising
+his wishes; and here, therefore, with great propriety,
+Macbeth's cowardice of his own conscience
+discloses itself. I always think there is something
+especially Shakespearian in Duncan's speeches
+throughout this scene, such pourings forth, such
+abandonments, compared with the language of
+vulgar dramatists, whose characters seem to have
+made their speeches as the actors learn them.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib:</span></span> Duncan's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sons, kinsmen, thanes,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And you whose places are the nearest, know,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">We will establish our estate upon</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Our eldest Malcolm, whom we name hereafter</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Not unaccompanied, invest him only;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">On all deservers.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is a fancy;—but I can never read this and
+the following speeches of Macbeth, without involuntarily
+thinking of the Miltonic Messiah and
+Satan.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5. Macbeth is described by Lady Macbeth
+so as at the same time to reveal her own
+character. Could he have every thing he wanted,
+he would rather have it innocently;—ignorant, as
+alas! how many of us are, that he who wishes a
+temporal end for itself, does in truth will the
+means; and hence the danger of indulging fancies.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Lady Macbeth, like all in Shakespeare, is a class
+individualised:—of high rank, left much alone,
+and feeding herself with day-dreams of ambition,
+she mistakes the courage of fantasy for the power
+of bearing the consequences of the realities of guilt.
+His is the mock fortitude of a mind deluded by
+ambition; she shames her husband with a superhuman
+audacity of fancy which she cannot support,
+but sinks in the season of remorse, and dies in
+suicidal agony. Her speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Come, you spirits</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+is that of one who had habitually familiarised her
+imagination to dreadful conceptions, and was trying
+to do so still more. Her invocations and
+requisitions are all the false efforts of a mind
+accustomed only hitherto to the shadows of the
+imagination, vivid enough to throw the every-day
+substances of life into shadow, but never as yet
+brought into direct contact with their own correspondent
+realities. She evinces no womanly life,
+no wifely joy, at the return of her husband, no
+pleased terror at the thought of his past dangers,
+whilst Macbeth bursts forth naturally—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“My dearest love�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and shrinks from the boldness with which she presents
+his own thoughts to him. With consummate
+art she at first uses as incentives the very circumstances,
+Duncan's coming to their house, &amp;c., which
+Macbeth's conscience would most probably have
+adduced to her as motives of abhorrence or repulsion.
+Yet Macbeth is not prepared:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“We will speak further.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6. The lyrical movement with which this
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+scene opens, and the free and unengaged mind of
+Banquo, loving nature, and rewarded in the love
+itself, form a highly dramatic contrast with the
+laboured rhythm and hypocritical over-much of
+Lady Macbeth's welcome, in which you cannot
+detect a ray of personal feeling, but all is thrown
+upon the <span class="tei tei-q">“dignities,�</span> the general duty.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 7. Macbeth's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“We will proceed no further in this business:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">He hath honour'd me of late; and I have bought</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Golden opinions from all sorts of people,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Which would be worn now in their newest gloss,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Not cast aside so soon.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Note the inward pangs and warnings of conscience
+interpreted into prudential reasonings.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Banquo's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“A heavy summons lies like lead upon me,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Restrain in me the cursed thoughts, that nature</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Gives way to in repose.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The disturbance of an innocent soul by painful
+suspicions of another's guilty intentions and wishes,
+and fear of the cursed thoughts of sensual nature.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Now that the deed is done or doing—now
+that the first reality commences, Lady Macbeth
+shrinks. The most simple sound strikes
+terror, the most natural consequences are horrible,
+whilst previously every thing, however awful,
+appeared a mere trifle; conscience, which before
+had been hidden to Macbeth in selfish and prudential
+fears, now rushes in upon him in her own
+veritable person:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Methought I heard a voice cry—Sleep no more!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">I could not say Amen,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">When they did say, God bless us!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+And see the novelty given to the most familiar
+images by a new state of feeling.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. This low soliloquy of the Porter and
+his few speeches afterwards, I believe to have been
+written for the mob by some other hand, perhaps
+with Shakespeare's consent; and that finding it
+take, he with the remaining ink of a pen otherwise
+employed, just interpolated the words—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I'll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in
+some of all professions, that go the primrose way to the everlasting
+bonfire.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of the rest not one syllable has the ever-present
+being of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1. Compare Macbeth's mode of working
+on the murderers in this place with Schiller's
+mistaken scene between Butler, Devereux, and
+Macdonald in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wallenstein</span></span>.—(Part II. act iv. sc. 2.)
+The comic was wholly out of season. Shakespeare
+never introduces it, but when it may react on the
+tragedy by harmonious contrast.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. Macbeth's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">In the affliction of these terrible dreams</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That shake us nightly.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Ever and ever mistaking the anguish of conscience
+for fears of selfishness, and thus as a punishment
+of that selfishness, plunging still deeper in
+guilt and ruin.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Macbeth's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Till thou applaud the deed.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is Macbeth's sympathy with his own feelings,
+and his mistaking his wife's opposite state.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Macb.</span></span> It will have blood; they say,
+blood will have blood:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Augurs, and understood relations, have</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The secret'st man of blood.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The deed is done; but Macbeth receives no
+comfort, no additional security. He has by guilt
+torn himself live-asunder from nature, and is,
+therefore, himself in a preternatural state: no
+wonder, then, that he is inclined to superstition,
+and faith in the unknown of signs and tokens, and
+super-human agencies.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Len.</span></span> 'Tis two or three, my lord, that
+bring you word</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Macduff is fled to England.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Macb.</span></span> Fled to England!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The acme of the avenging conscience.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2. This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a
+relief, because a variety, because domestic, and
+therefore soothing, as associated with the only real
+pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady
+Macduff and her child heightens the pathos, and is
+preparatory for the deep tragedy of their assassination.
+Shakespeare's fondness for children is everywhere
+shown;—in Prince Arthur, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">King John</span></span>;
+in the sweet scene in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Winter's Tale</span></span> between
+Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest
+Evans's examination of Mrs. Page's schoolboy.
+To the objection that Shakespeare wounds the
+moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised
+description of the most hateful atrocity—that he
+tears the feelings without mercy, and even outrages
+the eye itself with scenes of insupportable
+horror—I, omitting <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titus Andronicus</span></span>, as not
+genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster's
+blinding in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, answer boldly in the name of
+Shakespeare, not guilty.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Malcolm's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 9.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Better Macbeth,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Than such an one to reign.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The moral is—the dreadful effects even on the
+best minds of the soul-sickening sense of insecurity.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> How admirably Macduff's grief is in harmony
+with the whole play! It rends, not dissolves,
+the heart. <span class="tei tei-q">“The tune of it goes manly.�</span> Thus
+is Shakespeare always master of himself and of his
+subject,—a genuine Proteus:—we see all things in
+him, as images in a calm lake, most distinct, most
+accurate,—only more splendid, more glorified.
+This is correctness in the only philosophical sense.
+But he requires your sympathy and your submission;
+you must have that recipiency of moral
+impression without which the purposes and ends
+of the drama would be frustrated, and the absence
+of which demonstrates an utter want of all imagination,
+a deadness to that necessary pleasure of
+being innocently—shall I say, deluded?—or
+rather, drawn away from ourselves to the music of
+noblest thought in harmonious sounds. Happy
+he, who not only in the public theatre, but in the
+labours of a profession, and round the light of his
+own hearth, still carries a heart so pleasure-fraught!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Alas for Macbeth! now all is inward with him;
+he has no more prudential prospective reasonings.
+His wife, the only being who could have had any
+seat in his affections, dies; he puts on despondency,
+the final heart-armour of the wretched, and would
+fain think every thing shadowy and unsubstantial,
+as indeed all things are to those who cannot regard
+them as symbols of goodness:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Out, out, brief candle!</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And then is heard no more; it is a tale</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Signifying nothing.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc77" id="toc77"></a>
+<a name="pdf78" id="pdf78"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Winter's Tale.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Although, on the whole, this play is exquisitely
+respondent to its title, and even in the
+fault I am about to mention, still a winter's tale;
+yet it seems a mere indolence of the great bard not
+to have provided in the oracular response (Act ii.
+sc. 2.) some ground for Hermione's seeming death
+and fifteen years' voluntary concealment. This
+might have been easily effected by some obscure
+sentence of the oracle, as for example:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“ </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Nor shall he ever recover an heir, if he have a wife before
+that recovery.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> �</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The idea of this delightful drama is a genuine
+jealousy of disposition, and it should be immediately
+followed by the perusal of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>, which
+is the direct contrast of it in every particular.
+For jealousy is a vice of the mind, a culpable
+tendency of the temper, having certain well-known
+and well-defined effects and concomitants, all of
+which are visible in Leontes, and, I boldly say, not
+one of which marks its presence in Othello;—such
+as, first, an excitability by the most inadequate
+causes, and an eagerness to snatch at proofs;
+secondly, a grossness of conception, and a disposition
+to degrade the object of the passion by sensual
+fancies and images; thirdly, a sense of shame of
+his own feelings exhibited in a solitary moodiness
+of humour, and yet from the violence of the passion
+forced to utter itself, and therefore catching occasions
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to ease the mind by ambiguities, equivoques,
+by talking to those who cannot, and who are known
+not to be able to, understand what is said to them,—in
+short, by soliloquy in the form of dialogue,
+and hence a confused, broken, and fragmentary,
+manner; fourthly, a dread of vulgar ridicule, as
+distinct from a high sense of honour, or a mistaken
+sense of duty; and lastly, and immediately, consequent
+on this, a spirit of selfish vindictiveness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1, 2.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe the easy style of chitchat between
+Camillo and Archidamus as contrasted with the
+elevated diction on the introduction of the kings
+and Hermione in the second scene: and how
+admirably Polixenes' obstinate refusal to Leontes
+to stay,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“There is no tongue that moves; none, none i' the world</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">So soon as yours, could win me;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+prepares for the effect produced by his afterwards
+yielding to Hermione;—which is, nevertheless,
+perfectly natural from mere courtesy of sex, and
+the exhaustion of the will by former efforts of
+denial, and well calculated to set in nascent action
+the jealousy of Leontes. This, when once excited,
+is unconsciously increased by Hermione,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yet, good deed, Leontes,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I love thee not a jar o' the clock behind</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">What lady she her lord;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+accompanied, as a good actress ought to represent
+it, by an expression and recoil of apprehension that
+she had gone too far.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“At my request, he would not:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The first working of the jealous fit;—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Too hot, too hot:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The morbid tendency of Leontes to lay hold of
+the merest trifles, and his grossness immediately
+afterwards,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Paddling palms and pinching fingers;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+followed by his strange loss of self-control in his
+dialogue with the little boy.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 2. Paulina's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That thou betray'dst Polixenes, 'twas nothing;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That did but show thee, of a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">fool</span></em>, inconstant,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And damnable ingrateful.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald reads <span class="tei tei-q">“soul.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I think the original word is Shakespeare's.
+1. My ear feels it to be Shakespearian; 2. The
+involved grammar is Shakespearian—<span class="tei tei-q">“show thee,
+being a fool naturally, to have improved thy folly
+by inconstancy;�</span> 3. The alteration is most flat,
+and un-Shakespearian. As to the grossness of
+the abuse—she calls him <span class="tei tei-q">“gross and foolish�</span> a
+few lines below.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Autolycus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Fine as this is, and delicately characteristic of
+one who had lived and been reared in the best
+society, and had been precipitated from it by dice
+and drabbing; yet still it strikes against my feelings
+as a note out of tune, and as not coalescing
+with that pastoral tint which gives such a charm
+to this act. It is too Macbeth-like in the <span class="tei tei-q">“snapper
+up of unconsidered trifles.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. Perdita's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“From Dis's waggon! daffodils.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+An epithet is wanted here, not merely or chiefly
+for the metre, but for the balance, for the æsthetic
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+logic. Perhaps <span class="tei tei-q">“golden�</span> was the word which
+would set off the <span class="tei tei-q">“violets dim.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Pale primroses</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That die unmarried.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Milton's—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And the rathe primrose that forsaken dies.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Perdita's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Even here undone:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I was not much afraid; for once or twice</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I was about to speak, and tell him plainly,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The self-same sun, that shines upon his court,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hides not his visage from our cottage, but</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Looks on alike. Will't please you, Sir, be gone!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">(<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">To Florizel.</span></span>)</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I told you, what would come of this. Beseech you,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of your own state take care: this dream of mine,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Being now awake, I'll queen it no inch farther,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But milk my ewes, and weep.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O how more than exquisite is this whole speech!
+And that profound nature of noble pride and grief
+venting themselves in a momentary peevishness of
+resentment toward Florizel:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Will't please you, Sir, be gone!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Autolycus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Let me have no lying; it becomes none but tradesmen, and
+they often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them for it with
+stamped coin, not stabbing steel;—therefore they do not
+</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">give</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> us the lie.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+As we <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pay</span></em> them, they, therefore, do not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">give</span></em>
+it us.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc79" id="toc79"></a>
+<a name="pdf80" id="pdf80"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Othello.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Admirable is the preparation, so truly and
+peculiarly Shakespearian, in the introduction
+of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first
+exercise his art, and in so doing display his own
+character. Roderigo, without any fixed principle,
+but not without the moral notions and sympathies
+with honour, which his rank and connections had
+hung upon him, is already well fitted and predisposed
+for the purpose; for very want of character
+and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an
+empty house, constitute his character. The first
+three lines happily state the nature and foundation
+of the friendship between him and Iago,—the
+purse,—as also the contrast of Roderigo's intemperance
+of mind with Iago's coolness,—the coolness
+of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere
+language of protestation,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor me,�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+which, falling in with the associative link, determines
+Roderigo's continuation of complaint,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Thou told'st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate,�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+elicits at length a true feeling of Iago's mind, the
+dread of contempt habitual to those who encourage
+in themselves, and have their keenest pleasure in,
+the expression of contempt for others. Observe
+Iago's high self-opinion, and the moral, that a
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+wicked man will employ real feelings, as well as
+assume those most alien from his own, as instruments
+of his purposes:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And, by the faith of man,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I know my price, I am worth no worse a place.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I think Tyrwhitt's reading of <span class="tei tei-q">“life�</span> for
+<span class="tei tei-q">“wife�</span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“A fellow almost damn'd in a fair <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">wife</span></em>�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+the true one, as fitting to Iago's contempt for
+whatever did not display power, and that intellectual
+power. In what follows, let the reader
+feel how by and through the glass of two passions,
+disappointed vanity and envy, the very vices of
+which he is complaining, are made to act upon
+him as if they were so many excellences, and the
+more appropriately, because cunning is always
+admired and wished for by minds conscious of
+inward weakness;—but they act only by half,
+like music on an inattentive auditor, swelling the
+thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Rod.</span></span> What a full fortune does the
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">thick-lips</span></em> owe,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">If he can carry 't thus.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Roderigo turns off to Othello; and here comes
+one, if not the only, seeming justification of our
+blackamoor or negro Othello. Even if we supposed
+this an uninterrupted tradition of the
+theatre, and that Shakespeare himself, from want
+of scenes, and the experience that nothing could
+be made too marked for the senses of his audience,
+had practically sanctioned it,—would this prove
+aught concerning his own intention as a poet for
+all ages? Can we imagine him so utterly ignorant
+as to make a barbarous negro plead royal birth,—at
+a time, too, when negroes were not known
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+except as slaves? As for Iago's language to
+Brabantio, it implies merely that Othello was a
+Moor,—that is, black. Though I think the rivalry
+of Roderigo sufficient to account for his wilful
+confusion of Moor and Negro,—yet, even if compelled
+to give this up, I should think it only
+adapted for the acting of the day, and should
+complain of an enormity built on a single word,
+in direct contradiction to Iago's <span class="tei tei-q">“Barbary horse.�</span>
+Besides, if we could in good earnest believe Shakespeare
+ignorant of the distinction, still why should
+we adopt one disagreeable possibility instead of a
+ten times greater and more pleasing probability?
+It is a common error to mistake the epithets
+applied by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dramatis personæ</span></span> to each other, as
+truly descriptive of what the audience ought to
+see or know. No doubt Desdemona saw Othello's
+visage in his mind; yet, as we are constituted,
+and most surely as an English audience was disposed
+in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
+it would be something monstrous to conceive this
+beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable
+negro. It would argue a disproportionateness,
+a want of balance, in Desdemona, which Shakespeare
+does not appear to have in the least contemplated.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Brabantio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This accident is not unlike my dream.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The old careful senator, being caught careless,
+transfers his caution to his dreaming power at
+least.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Iago's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For their souls,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Another of his fathom they have not,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To lead their business.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The forced praise of Othello, followed by the
+bitter hatred of him in this speech! And observe
+how Brabantio's dream prepares for his recurrence
+to the notion of philtres, and how both prepare for
+carrying on the plot of the arraignment of Othello
+on this ground.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oth.</span></span> 'Tis better as it is.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+How well these few words impress at the outset
+the truth of Othello's own character of himself at
+the end—<span class="tei tei-q">“that he was not easily wrought!�</span> His
+self-government contradistinguishes him throughout
+from Leontes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Othello's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And my demerits</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">May speak, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">unbonneted</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The argument in Theobald's note, where <span class="tei tei-q">“and
+bonneted�</span> is suggested, goes on the assumption
+that Shakespeare could not use the same word
+differently in different places; whereas I should
+conclude, that as in the passage in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> the word
+is employed in its direct meaning, so here it is
+used metaphorically; and this is confirmed by
+what has escaped the editors, that it is not <span class="tei tei-q">“I,�</span>
+but <span class="tei tei-q">“my demerits�</span> that may speak unbonneted,—without
+the symbol of a petitioning inferior.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Othello's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So please your grace, my ancient;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">A man he is of honesty and trust:</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To his conveyance I assign my wife.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Compare this with the behaviour of Leontes to
+his true friend Camillo.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Bra.</span></span> Look to her, Moor; if thou hast
+eyes to see;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">She has deceived her father, and may thee.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oth.</span></span> My life upon her faith.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In real life, how do we look back to little
+speeches as presentimental of, or contrasted with,
+an affecting event! Even so, Shakespeare, as
+secure of being read over and over, of becoming a
+family friend, provides this passage for his readers,
+and leaves it to them.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Iago's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Virtue? a fig! 'tis in ourselves, that we are thus, or thus,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This speech comprises the passionless character
+of Iago. It is all will in intellect; and therefore
+he is here a bold partizan of a truth, but yet of a
+truth converted into a falsehood by the absence of
+all the necessary modifications caused by the frail
+nature of man. And then comes the last sentiment:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts,
+whereof I take this, that you call—love, to be a sect or scion!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here is the true Iagoism of, alas! how many!
+Note Iago's pride of mastery in the repetition of
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Go, make money!�</span> to his anticipated dupe,
+even stronger than his love of lucre: and when
+Roderigo is completely won,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I am chang'd. I'll go sell all my land,�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+when the effect has been fully produced, the
+repetition of triumph:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Go to; farewell; put money enough in your purse!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The remainder—Iago's soliloquy—the motive-hunting
+of a motiveless malignity—how awful it
+is! Yea, whilst he is still allowed to bear the
+divine image, it is too fiendish for his own steady
+view,—for the lonely gaze of a being next to
+devil, and only not quite devil,—and yet a character
+which Shakespeare has attempted and executed,
+without disgust and without scandal!
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Johnson has remarked that little or nothing
+is wanting to render the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span> a regular tragedy,
+but to have opened the play with the arrival of
+Othello in Cyprus, and to have thrown the preceding
+act into the form of narration. Here then
+is the place to determine whether such a change
+would or would not be an improvement;—nay
+(to throw down the glove with a full challenge),
+whether the tragedy would or not by such an
+arrangement become more regular,—that is, more
+consonant with the rules dictated by universal
+reason, on the true common-sense of mankind, in
+its application to the particular case. For in all
+acts of judgment, it can never be too often recollected,
+and scarcely too often repeated, that rules
+are means to ends, and, consequently, that the end
+must be determined and understood before it can
+be known what the rules are or ought to be.
+Now, from a certain species of drama, proposing
+to itself the accomplishment of certain ends,—these
+partly arising from the idea of the species
+itself, but in part, likewise, forced upon the
+dramatist by accidental circumstances beyond his
+power to remove or control,—three rules have
+been abstracted;—in other words, the means most
+conducive to the attainment of the proposed ends
+have been generalised, and prescribed under the
+names of the three unities,—the unity of time, the
+unity of place, and the unity of action—which
+last would, perhaps, have been as appropriately,
+as well as more intelligibly, entitled the unity of
+interest. With this last the present question has
+no immediate concern: in fact, its conjunction
+with the former two is a mere delusion of words.
+It is not properly a rule, but in itself the great
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+end not only of the drama, but of the epic poem,
+the lyric ode, of all poetry, down to the candle-flame
+cone of an epigram,—nay, of poesy in
+general, as the proper generic term inclusive of
+all the fine arts as its species. But of the unities
+of time and place, which alone are entitled to the
+name of rules, the history of their origin will be
+their best criterion. You might take the Greek
+chorus to a place, but you could not bring a place
+to them without as palpable an equivoque as
+bringing Birnam wood to Macbeth at Dunsinane.
+It was the same, though in a less degree, with
+regard to the unity of time:—the positive fact,
+not for a moment removed from the senses, the
+presence, I mean, of the same identical chorus,
+was a continued measure of time;—and although
+the imagination may supersede perception, yet it
+must be granted to be an imperfection—however
+easily tolerated—to place the two in broad contradiction
+to each other. In truth, it is a mere
+accident of terms; for the Trilogy of the Greek
+theatre was a drama in three acts, and notwithstanding
+this, what strange contrivances as to
+place there are in the Aristophanic Frogs. Besides,
+if the law of mere actual perception is once
+violated—as it repeatedly is, even in the Greek
+tragedies—why is it more difficult to imagine
+three hours to be three years than to be a whole
+day and night?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Observe in how many ways Othello is made,
+first, our acquaintance, then our friend, then the
+object of our anxiety, before the deeper interest is
+to be approached!
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mont.</span></span> But, good lieutenant, is your
+general wived?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cas.</span></span> Most fortunately: he hath achieved a maid</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That paragons description, and wild fame;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And, in the essential vesture of creation,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Does tire the ingener.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here is Cassio's warm-hearted, yet perfectly disengaged,
+praise of Desdemona, and sympathy with
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“most fortunately�</span> wived Othello;—and yet
+Cassio is an enthusiastic admirer, almost a worshipper,
+of Desdemona. Oh, that detestable code
+that excellence cannot be loved in any form that
+is female, but it must needs be selfish! Observe
+Othello's <span class="tei tei-q">“honest�</span> and Cassio's <span class="tei tei-q">“bold�</span> Iago, and
+Cassio's full guileless-hearted wishes for the safety
+and love-raptures of Othello and <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine
+Desdemona.�</span> And also note the exquisite circumstance
+of Cassio's kissing Iago's wife, as if it
+ought to be impossible that the dullest auditor
+should not feel Cassio's religious love of Desdemona's
+purity. Iago's answers are the sneers
+which a proud bad intellect feels towards women,
+and expresses to a wife. Surely it ought to be
+considered a very exalted compliment to women,
+that all the sarcasms on them in Shakespeare are
+put in the mouths of villains.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Des.</span></span> I am not merry; but I do beguile,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The struggle of courtesy in Desdemona to abstract
+her attention.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Iago aside</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">). He takes her by the palm: Ay, well said, whisper;
+with as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio.
+Ay, smile upon her, do,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The importance given to trifles, and made fertile
+by the villany of the observer.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Iago's dialogue with Roderigo.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is the rehearsal on the dupe of the traitor's
+intentions on Othello.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Iago's soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But partly led to diet my revenge,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For that I do suspect the lusty Moor</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Hath leap'd into my seat.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This thought, originally by Iago's own confession
+a mere suspicion, is now ripening, and gnaws
+his base nature as his own <span class="tei tei-q">“poisonous mineral�</span> is
+about to gnaw the noble heart of his general.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Othello's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I know, Iago,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Making it light to Cassio.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Honesty and love! Ay, and who but the reader of
+the play could think otherwise?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Iago's soliloquy:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And what's he then that says—I play the villain?</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">When this advice is free I give, and honest,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Provable to thinking, and, indeed, the course</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To win the Moor again.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+He is not, you see, an absolute fiend; or, at
+least, he wishes to think himself not so.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 3.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Des.</span></span> Before Æmilia here,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I give thee warrant of thy place.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The over-zeal of innocence in Desdemona.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Enter Desdemona and Æmilia.</span></span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Oth.</span></span> If she be false, O, then, heaven mocks itself!</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I'll not believe't.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Divine! The effect of innocence and the better
+genius!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Æmil.</span></span> Why, the wrong is but a wrong i'
+the world; and</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">having the world for your labour, 'tis a wrong in your own world,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">and you might quickly make it right.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Warburton's note.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What any other man, who had learning enough,
+might have quoted as a playful and witty illustration
+of his remarks against the Calvinistic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">thesis</span></span>,
+Warburton gravely attributes to Shakespeare as
+intentional; and this, too, in the mouth of a lady's
+woman!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. last scene. Othello's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Of one, whose hand,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Like the base <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian</span></span>, threw a pearl away</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Richer than all his tribe,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Theobald's note from Warburton.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus it is for no-poets to comment on the
+greatest of poets! To make Othello say that he,
+who had killed his wife, was like Herod who killed
+Mariamne!—O, how many beauties, in this one
+line, were impenetrable to the ever thought-swarming,
+but idealess, Warburton! Othello
+wishes to excuse himself on the score of ignorance,
+and yet not to excuse himself,—to excuse himself
+by accusing. This struggle of feeling is finely
+conveyed in the word <span class="tei tei-q">“base,�</span> which is applied to
+the rude Indian, not in his own character, but
+as the momentary representative of Othello's.
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Indian�</span>—for I retain the old reading—means
+American, a savage <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in genere</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Finally, let me repeat that Othello does not kill
+Desdemona in jealousy, but in a conviction forced
+upon him by the almost superhuman art of Iago,
+such a conviction as any man would and must
+have entertained who had believed Iago's honesty
+as Othello did. We, the audience, know that
+Iago is a villain, from the beginning; but in considering
+the essence of the Shakespearian Othello,
+we must perseveringly place ourselves in his situation,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and under his circumstances. Then we shall
+immediately feel the fundamental difference between
+the solemn agony of the noble Moor, and
+the wretched fishing jealousies of Leontes, and the
+morbid suspiciousness of Leonatus, who is, in other
+respects, a fine character. Othello had no life but
+in Desdemona:—the belief that she, his angel, had
+fallen from the heaven of her native innocence,
+wrought a civil war in his heart. She is his
+counterpart; and, like him, is almost sanctified in
+our eyes by her absolute unsuspiciousness, and
+holy entireness of love. As the curtain drops,
+which do we pity the most?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Extremum hunc</span></span>——. There are three
+powers:—Wit, which discovers partial likeness
+hidden in general diversity; subtlety, which discovers
+the diversity concealed in general apparent
+sameness;—and profundity, which discovers an
+essential unity under all the semblances of
+difference.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Give to a subtle man fancy, and he is a wit; to
+a deep man imagination, and he is a philosopher.
+Add, again, pleasurable sensibility in the threefold
+form of sympathy with the interesting in morals,
+the impressive in form, and the harmonious in
+sound,—and you have the poet.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But combine all,—wit, subtlety, and fancy, with
+profundity, imagination, and moral and physical
+susceptibility of the pleasurable,—and let the
+object of action be man universal; and we shall
+have—O, rash prophecy! say, rather, we have—a
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Shakespeare</span></span>!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc81" id="toc81"></a>
+<a name="pdf82" id="pdf82"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Notes on Ben Jonson.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would be amusing to collect out of our dramatists
+from Elizabeth to Charles I. proofs of
+the manners of the times. One striking symptom
+of general coarseness of manners, which may co-exist
+with great refinement of morals, as, alas!
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versa</span></span>, is to be seen in the very frequent allusions
+to the olfactories with their most disgusting
+stimulants, and these, too, in the conversation of
+virtuous ladies. This would not appear so strange
+to one who had been on terms of familiarity with
+Sicilian and Italian women of rank: and bad as
+they may, too many of them, actually be, yet I
+doubt not that the extreme grossness of their
+language has impressed many an Englishman of
+the present era with far darker notions than the
+same language would have produced in the mind
+of one of Elizabeth's or James's courtiers. Those
+who have read Shakespeare only, complain of
+occasional grossness in his plays; but compare
+him with his contemporaries, and the inevitable
+conviction, is that of the exquisite purity of his
+imagination.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The observation I have prefixed to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volpone</span></span>
+is the key to the faint interest which these noble
+efforts of intellectual power excite, with the
+exception of the fragment of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sad Shepherd</span></span>;
+because in that piece only is there any character
+with whom you can morally sympathise. On the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+other hand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure for Measure</span></span> is the only play
+of Shakespeare's in which there are not some one
+or more characters, generally many, whom you
+follow with affectionate feeling. For I confess that
+Isabella, of all Shakespeare's female characters,
+pleases me the least; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure for Measure</span></span> is,
+indeed, the only one of his genuine works, which
+is painful to me.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Let me not conclude this remark, however,
+without a thankful acknowledgment to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">manes</span></span>
+of Ben Jonson, that the more I study his writings,
+I the more admire them; and the more my study
+of him resembles that of an ancient classic, in the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></span> of his rhythm, metre, choice of words,
+forms of connection, and so forth, the more
+numerous have the points of my admiration
+become. I may add, too, that both the study and
+the admiration cannot but be disinterested, for to
+expect therefrom any advantage to the present
+drama would be ignorance. The latter is utterly
+heterogeneous from the drama of the Shakespearian
+age, with a diverse object and contrary principle.
+The one was to present a model by imitation of
+real life, taking from real life all that in it which
+it ought to be, and supplying the rest;—the other
+is to copy what is, and as it is,—at best a tolerable
+but most frequently a blundering, copy. In the
+former the difference was an essential element; in
+the latter an involuntary defect. We should think
+it strange, if a tale in dance were announced, and
+the actors did not dance at all;—and yet such is
+modern comedy.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc83" id="toc83"></a>
+<a name="pdf84" id="pdf84"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Whalley's Preface.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But Jonson was soon sensible, how inconsistent this medley of
+names and manners was in reason and nature; and with how little
+propriety it could ever have a place in a legitimate and just picture
+of real life.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+But did Jonson reflect that the very essence of
+a play, the very language in which it is
+written, is a fiction to which all the parts must
+conform? Surely, Greek manners in English
+should be a still grosser improbability than a
+Greek name transferred to English manners. Ben's
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">personæ</span></span> are too often not characters, but derangements;—the
+hopeless patients of a mad-doctor
+rather,—exhibitions of folly betraying itself in
+spite of exciting reason and prudence. He not
+poetically, but painfully exaggerates every trait;
+that is, not by the drollery of the circumstance,
+but by the excess of the originating feeling.
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">But to this we might reply, that far from being thought to
+build his characters upon abstract ideas, he was really accused of
+representing particular persons then existing; and that even those
+characters which appear to be the most exaggerated, are said to
+have had their respective archetypes in nature and life.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This degrades Jonson into a libeller, instead of
+justifying him as a dramatic poet. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Non quod
+verum est, sed quod verisimile</span></span>, is the dramatist's
+rule. At all events, the poet who chooses transitory
+manners, ought to content himself with transitory
+praise. If his object be reputation, he ought
+not to expect fame. The utmost he can look forwards
+to, is to be quoted by, and to enliven the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+writings of, an antiquarian. Pistol, Nym, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id
+genus omne</span></span>, do not please us as characters, but are
+endured as fantastic creations, foils to the native
+wit of Falstaff.—I say wit emphatically; for this
+character so often extolled as the masterpiece of
+humour, neither contains, nor was meant to contain,
+any humour at all.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc85" id="toc85"></a>
+<a name="pdf86" id="pdf86"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Whalley's </span><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Life Of Jonson.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 144%"> �</span></span></h2>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It is to the honour of Jonson's judgment, that </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">the greatest poet of
+our nation</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> had the same opinion of Donne's genius and wit; and
+hath preserved part of him from perishing, by putting his thoughts
+and satire into modern verse.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Videlicet</span></span> Pope!—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">He said further to Drummond, Shakespeare wanted art, and
+sometimes sense; for in one of his plays he brought in a number
+of men, saying they had suffered shipwreck in Bohemia, where is
+no sea near by a hundred miles.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I have often thought Shakespeare justified in
+this seeming anachronism. In Pagan times
+a single name of a German kingdom might well
+be supposed to comprise a hundred miles more
+than at present. The truth is, these notes of
+Drummond's are more disgraceful to himself than
+to Jonson. It would be easy to conjecture how
+grossly Jonson must have been misunderstood,
+and what he had said in jest, as of Hippocrates,
+interpreted in earnest. But this is characteristic
+of a Scotchman; he has no notion of a jest, unless
+you tell him—<span class="tei tei-q">“This is a joke!�</span>—and still less of
+that finer shade of feeling, the half-and-half, in
+which Englishmen naturally delight.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc87" id="toc87"></a>
+<a name="pdf88" id="pdf88"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Every Man Out Of His Humour.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Epilogue.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The throat of war be stopt within her land,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">turtle-footed</span></em> peace dance fairie rings</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">About her court.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Turtle-footed�</span> is a pretty word, a very
+pretty word: pray, what does it mean?
+Doves, I presume, are not dancers; and the other
+sort of turtle, land or sea, green-fat or hawksbill,
+would, I should suppose, succeed better in slow
+minuets than in the brisk rondillo. In one sense,
+to be sure, pigeons and ring-doves could not dance
+but with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">éclat</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a claw</span></span>!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc89" id="toc89"></a>
+<a name="pdf90" id="pdf90"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Poetaster.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Introduction.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Light! I salute thee, but with wounded nerves,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Wishing thy golden splendour pitchy darkness.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is no reason to suppose Satan's address
+to the sun in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradise Lost</span></span>, more than a
+mere coincidence with these lines; but were it
+otherwise, it would be a fine instance what
+usurious interest a great genius pays in borrowing.
+It would not be difficult to give a detailed
+psychological proof from these constant outbursts
+of anxious self-assertion, that Jonson was not a
+genius, a creative power. Subtract that one
+thing, and you may safely accumulate on his
+name all other excellences of a capacious, vigorous,
+agile, and richly-stored intellect.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ovid.</span></span> While slaves be false, fathers hard,
+and bawds be</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">whorish.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The roughness noticed by Theobald and Whalley,
+may be cured by a simple transposition:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“While fathers hard, slaves false, and bawds be whorish.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act. iv. sc. 3—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Crisp.</span></span>
+O—oblatrant—furibund—fatuate—strenuous.</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">O—conscious.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would form an interesting essay, or rather
+series of essays, in a periodical work, were all the
+attempts to ridicule new phrases brought together,
+the proportion observed of words ridiculed which
+have been adopted, and are now common, such as
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">strenuous</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conscious</span></em>, &amp;c., and a trial made how far
+any grounds can be detected, so that one might
+determine beforehand whether a word was invented
+under the conditions of assimilability to
+our language or not. Thus much is certain, that
+the ridiculers were as often wrong as right; and
+Shakespeare himself could not prevent the naturalisation
+of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">accommodation</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">remuneration</span></em>, &amp;c.; or
+Swift the gross abuse even of the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">idea</span></em>.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc91" id="toc91"></a>
+<a name="pdf92" id="pdf92"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Fall Of Sejanus.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Arruntius.</span></span> The name Tiberius,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I hope, will keep, howe'er he hath foregone</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The dignity and power.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Silius.</span></span> Sure, while he lives.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Arr.</span></span> And dead, it comes to Drusus. Should he fail,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To the brave issue of Germanicus;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And they are three: too many (ha?) for him</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">To have a plot upon?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sil.</span></span> I do not know</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The heart of his designs; but, sure, their face</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Looks farther than the present.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Arr.</span></span> By the gods,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">If I could guess he had but such a thought,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">My sword should cleave him down,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The anachronic mixture in this Arruntius of
+the Roman republican, to whom Tiberius
+must have appeared as much a tyrant as Sejanus,
+with his James-and-Charles-the-First zeal for
+legitimacy of descent in this passage, is amusing.
+Of our great names Milton was, I think, the first
+who could properly be called a republican. My
+recollections of Buchanan's works are too faint to
+enable me to judge whether the historian is not a
+fair exception.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Speech of Sejanus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Adultery! it is the lightest ill</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I will commit. A race of wicked acts</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shall flow out of my anger, and o'erspread</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The world's wide face, which no posterity</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Shall e'er approve, nor yet keep silent,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The more we reflect and examine, examine and
+reflect, the more astonished shall we be at the
+immense superiority of Shakespeare over his contemporaries;—and
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+yet what contemporaries!—giant
+minds indeed! Think of Jonson's erudition,
+and the force of learned authority in that age;
+and yet, in no genuine part of Shakespeare's works
+is there to be found such an absurd rant and
+ventriloquism as this, and too, too many other
+passages ferruminated by Jonson from Seneca's
+tragedies, and the writings of the later Romans.
+I call it ventriloquism, because Sejanus is a
+puppet, out of which the poet makes his own
+voice appear to come.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. Scene of the sacrifice to Fortune.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This scene is unspeakably irrational. To believe,
+and yet to scoff at, a present miracle is
+little less than impossible. Sejanus should have
+been made to suspect priestcraft and a secret
+conspiracy against him.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc93" id="toc93"></a>
+<a name="pdf94" id="pdf94"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Volpone.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This admirable, indeed, but yet more wonderful
+than admirable, play is, from the fertility and
+vigour of invention, character, language, and
+sentiment, the strongest proof how impossible it is
+to keep up any pleasurable interest in a tale, in
+which there is no goodness of heart in any of the
+prominent characters. After the third act, this
+play becomes not a dead, but a painful, weight on
+the feelings. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeluco</span></span> is an instance of the same
+truth. Bonario and Celia should have been made
+in some way or other principals in the plot; which
+they might have been, and the objects of interest,
+without having been made characters. In novels,
+the person in whose fate you are most interested,
+is often the least marked character of the whole.
+If it were possible to lessen the paramountcy of
+Volpone himself, a most delightful comedy might
+be produced, by making Celia the ward or niece
+of Corvino, instead of his wife, and Bonario her
+lover.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc95" id="toc95"></a>
+<a name="pdf96" id="pdf96"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Apicæne.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is to my feelings the most entertaining of
+old Ben's comedies, and, more than any
+other, would admit of being brought out anew, if
+under the management of a judicious and stage-understanding
+playwright; and an actor, who
+had studied Morose, might make his fortune.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Clerimont's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He would have hang'd a pewterer's 'prentice once upon a Shrove</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Tuesday's riot, for being of that trade, when the rest were
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">quiet</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The old copies read </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">quit</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">,—</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+discharged from working, and
+gone to divert themselves.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Whalley's note.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It should be <span class="tei tei-q">“quit�</span> no doubt, but not meaning
+<span class="tei tei-q">“discharged from working,�</span> &amp;c.—but quit, that
+is, acquitted. The pewterer was at his holiday
+diversion as well as the other apprentices, and
+they as forward in the riot as he. But he alone
+was punished under pretext of the riot, but in fact
+for his trade.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Morose.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> Cannot I, yet, find out a more compendious method
+than by this </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">trunk</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to save my servants the labour of speech, and
+mine ears the discord of sounds?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What does <span class="tei tei-q">“trunk�</span> mean here, and in the first
+scene of the first act? Is it a large ear-trumpet?—or
+rather a tube, such as passes from parlour to
+kitchen, instead of a bell?
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Whalley's note at the end:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Some critics of the last age imagined the character of Morose
+to be wholly out of nature. But to vindicate our poet, Mr. Dryden
+tells us from tradition, and we may venture to take his word, that
+Jonson was really acquainted with a person of this whimsical turn
+of mind: and as humour is a personal quality, the poet is acquitted
+from the charge of exhibiting a monster, or an extravagant unnatural
+</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">caricatura</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+If Dryden had not made all additional proof
+superfluous by his own plays, this very vindication
+would evince that he had formed a false and
+vulgar conception of the nature and conditions of
+drama and dramatic personation. Ben Jonson
+would himself have rejected such a plea:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For he knew, poet never credit gain'd</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">By writing <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">truths</span></em>, but things, like truths,
+well feign'd.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+By <span class="tei tei-q">“truths�</span> he means <span class="tei tei-q">“facts.�</span> Caricatures are
+not less so because they are found existing in real
+life. Comedy demands characters, and leaves
+caricatures to farce. The safest and the truest
+defence of old Ben would be to call the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epicœne</span></span>
+the best of farces. The defect in Morose, as in
+other of Jonson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dramatis personæ</span></span>, lies in this;—that
+the accident is not a prominence growing out
+of, and nourished by, the character which still
+circulates in it; but that the character, such as it
+is, rises out of, or, rather, consists in, the accident.
+Shakespeare's comic personages have exquisitely
+characteristic features; however awry, disproportionate,
+and laughable they may be, still, like
+Bardolph's nose, they are features. But Jonson's
+are either a man with a huge wen, having a circulation
+of its own, and which we might conceive
+amputated, and the patient thereby losing all his
+character; or they are mere wens themselves
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+instead of men,—wens personified, or with eyes,
+nose, and mouth cut out, mandrake-fashion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nota bene.</span></span>—All the above, and much more,
+will have justly been said, if, and whenever, the
+drama of Jonson is brought into comparisons of
+rivalry with the Shakespearian. But this should
+not be. Let its inferiority to the Shakespearian
+be at once fairly owned,—but at the same time as
+the inferiority of an altogether different <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">genius</span></span> of
+the drama. On this ground, old Ben would still
+maintain his proud height. He, no less than
+Shakespeare stands on the summit of his hill, and
+looks round him like a master,—though his be
+Lattrig and Shakespeare's Skiddaw.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc97" id="toc97"></a>
+<a name="pdf98" id="pdf98"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Alchemist.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 2. Face's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Will take his oath o' the Greek <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Xenophon</span></span>,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">If need be, in his pocket.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Another reading is <span class="tei tei-q">“Testament.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Probably, the meaning is—that intending
+to give false evidence, he carried a Greek <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Xenophon</span></span>
+to pass it off for a Greek Testament, and so
+avoid perjury—as the Irish do, by contriving to
+kiss their thumb-nails instead of the book.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2. Mammon's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I will have all my beds blown up; not stuft:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Down is too hard.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Thus the air-cushions, though perhaps only
+lately brought into use, were invented in idea in
+the seventeenth century!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc99" id="toc99"></a>
+<a name="pdf100" id="pdf100"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Catiline's Conspiracy.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A fondness for judging one work by comparison
+with others, perhaps altogether of a
+different class, argues a vulgar taste. Yet it is
+chiefly on this principle that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catiline</span></span> has been
+rated so low. Take it and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sejanus</span></span>, as compositions
+of a particular kind, namely, as a mode of relating
+great historical events in the liveliest and most
+interesting manner, and I cannot help wishing
+that we had whole volumes of such plays. We
+might as rationally expect the excitement of the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vicar of Wakefield</span></span> from Goldsmith's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
+England</span></span>, as that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Othello</span></span>,
+&amp;c., from the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sejanus</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catiline</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cat.</span></span> Sirrah, what ail you?</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">(<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">He spies one of his boys not
+answer.</span></span>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pag.</span></span> Nothing.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Best.</span></span> Somewhat modest.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cat.</span></span> Slave, I will strike your soul
+out with my foot,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is either an unintelligible, or, in every
+sense, a most unnatural, passage,—improbable, if
+not impossible, at the moment of signing and
+swearing such a conspiracy, to the most libidinous
+satyr. The very presence of the boys is an outrage
+to probability. I suspect that these lines down to
+the words <span class="tei tei-q">“throat opens,�</span> should be removed back
+so as to follow the words <span class="tei tei-q">“on this part of the
+house,�</span> in the speech of Catiline soon after the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+entry of the conspirators. A total erasure, however,
+would be the best, or, rather, the only
+possible, amendment.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2. Sempronia's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">...<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He is but a new fellow,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">An <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">inmate</span></em> here in Rome, as Catiline calls him.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A <span class="tei tei-q">“lodger�</span> would have been a happier imitation
+of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">inquilinus</span></span> of Sallust.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 6. Speech of Cethegus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Can these or such be any aids to us,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What a strange notion Ben must have formed
+of a determined, remorseless, all-daring, foolhardiness,
+to have represented it in such a
+mouthing Tamburlane, and bombastic tonguebully
+as this Cethegus of his!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc101" id="toc101"></a>
+<a name="pdf102" id="pdf102"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Bartholomew Fair.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Induction. Scrivener's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“If there be never a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">servant-monster</span></em> in the Fair,
+who can help it</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">he says, nor a nest of antiques?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The best excuse that can be made for Jonson,
+and in a somewhat less degree for Beaumont
+and Fletcher, in respect of these base and silly
+sneers at Shakespeare is, that his plays were
+present to men's minds chiefly as acted. They
+had not a neat edition of them, as we have, so as,
+by comparing the one with the other, to form a
+just notion of the mighty mind that produced the
+whole. At all events, and in every point of view,
+Jonson stands far higher in a moral light than
+Beaumont and Fletcher. He was a fair contemporary,
+and in his way, and as far as Shakespeare
+is concerned, an original. But Beaumont and
+Fletcher were always imitators of, and often
+borrowers from him, and yet sneer at him with a
+spite far more malignant than Jonson, who,
+besides, has made noble compensation by his
+praises.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 3.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Just.</span></span> I mean a child of the horn-thumb,
+a babe <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">of booty</span></em>, boy, a</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">cut purse.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Does not this confirm, what the passage itself
+cannot but suggest, the propriety of substituting
+<span class="tei tei-q">“booty�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“beauty�</span> in Falstaff's speech, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Henry
+IV.</span></span> part i. act i. sc. 2. <span class="tei tei-q">“Let not us, &amp;c.?�</span>
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is not often that old Ben condescends to
+imitate a modern author; but Master Dan. Knockhum
+Jordan, and his vapours are manifest reflexes
+of Nym and Pistol.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarl.</span></span> She'll make excellent geer for
+the coachmakers here in</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Smithfield, to anoint wheels and axletrees with.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Good! but yet it falls short of the speech of a
+Mr. Johnes, M.P., in the Common Council, on
+the invasion intended by Buonaparte:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Houses
+plundered—then burnt;—sons conscribed—wives
+and daughters ravished,�</span> &amp;c., &amp;c.—<span class="tei tei-q">“But as for
+you, you luxurious Aldermen! with your fat will
+he grease the wheels of his triumphant chariot!�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cok.</span></span> Avoid in your satin doublet, Numps.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This reminds me of Shakespeare's <span class="tei tei-q">“Aroint thee,
+witch!�</span> I find in several books of that age the
+words <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">aloigne</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">eloigne</span></span>—that
+is,—<span class="tei tei-q">“keep your
+distance!�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“off with you!�</span> Perhaps <span class="tei tei-q">“aroint�</span>
+was a corruption of <span class="tei tei-q">“aloigne�</span> by the vulgar.
+The common etymology from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ronger</span></span> to gnaw
+seems unsatisfactory.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarl.</span></span> How now, Numps! almost
+tired in your protectorship?</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">overparted, overparted?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+An odd sort of propheticality in this Numps and
+old Noll!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6. Knockhum's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“He eats with his eyes, as well as his teeth.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A good motto for the Parson in Hogarth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Election
+Dinner</span></span>,—who shows how easily he might be
+reconciled to the Church of Rome, for he worships
+what he eats.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 5.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pup.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Di.</span></span> It is not
+profane.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lan.</span></span> It is not profane, he says.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Boy.</span></span> It is profane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pup.</span></span> It is not profane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Boy.</span></span> It is profane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pup.</span></span> It is not profane.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lan.</span></span> Well said, confute him with Not,
+still.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+An imitation of the quarrel between Bacchus
+and the Frogs in Aristophanes:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Χο�ός.</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">ἀλλὰ μὴν κεκ�αξόμεσθά γ',</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">�πόσον ἡ φά�υνξ ἂν ἡμῶν</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">χανδάνη δι' ἡμέ�ας,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">β�εκεκεκὲξ, κοὰξ, κοὰξ.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Διόνυσος.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">τούτω γὰ� ο� νικήσετε.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Χο�ός.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">ο�δὲ μὴν ἡμᾶς σὺ τάντως.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Διόνυσος.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">ο�δὲ μὴν ὑμεῖς γε δή μ' ο�δέποτε.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc103" id="toc103"></a>
+<a name="pdf104" id="pdf104"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Devil Is An Ass.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pug.</span></span> Why any: Fraud,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Or Covetousness, or lady Vanity,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Or old Iniquity, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">I'll call him hither</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The words in italics should probably be given to the master-devil,
+Satan.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Whalley's note.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That is, against all probability, and with a (for
+Jonson) impossible violation of character.
+The words plainly belong to Pug, and mark at
+once his simpleness and his impatience.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4. Fitz-dottrel's soliloquy.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Compare this exquisite piece of sense, satire, and
+sound philosophy in 1616 with Sir M. Hale's
+speech from the bench in a trial of a witch many
+years afterwards.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Meercraft's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Sir, money's a whore, a bawd, a drudge.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I doubt not that <span class="tei tei-q">“money�</span> was the first word of
+the line, and has dropped out:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Money! Sir, money's a,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc105" id="toc105"></a>
+<a name="pdf106" id="pdf106"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Staple Of News.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Pecunia's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“No, he would ha' done,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That lay not in his power: he had the use</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of your bodies, Band and Wax, and sometimes Statute's.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read (1815)—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 9.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“he had the use of</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Your bodies,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Now, however, I doubt the legitimacy of my
+transposition of the <span class="tei tei-q">“of�</span> from the beginning
+of this latter line to the end of the one preceding;—for
+though it facilitates the metre and reading
+of the latter line, and is frequent in Massinger,
+this disjunction of the preposition from its case
+seems to have been disallowed by Jonson. Perhaps
+the better reading is—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“O' your bodies,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+the two syllables being slurred into one, or rather
+snatched, or sucked, up into the emphasised
+<span class="tei tei-q">“your.�</span> In all points of view, therefore, Ben's
+judgment is just; for in this way, the line cannot
+be read, as metre, without that strong and quick
+emphasis on <span class="tei tei-q">“your�</span> which the sense requires;—and
+had not the sense required an emphasis on
+<span class="tei tei-q">“your,�</span> the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tmesis</span></span> of the sign of its cases <span class="tei tei-q">“of,�</span>
+<span class="tei tei-q">“to,�</span> &amp;c., would destroy almost all boundary
+between the dramatic verse and prose in comedy:—a
+lesson not to be rash in conjectural amendments.—1818.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 4.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">P. jun.</span></span> I love all men of virtue, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">frommy</span></em>
+Princess.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Frommy,�</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">fromme</span></span>—pious, dutiful, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act v. sc. 4. Penny-boy, sen., and Porter.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I dare not, will not, think that honest Ben had
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lear</span></span> in his mind in this mock mad scene.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc107" id="toc107"></a>
+<a name="pdf108" id="pdf108"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The New Inn.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Host's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“A heavy purse, and then two turtles, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">makes</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Makes,�</span> frequent in old books, and even now
+used in some counties for mates, or pairs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Host's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">...<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And for a leap</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of the vaulting horse, to <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">play</span></em> the vaulting
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">house</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Instead of reading with Whalley <span class="tei tei-q">“ply�</span> for
+<span class="tei tei-q">“play,�</span> I would suggest <span class="tei tei-q">“horse�</span> for <span class="tei tei-q">“house.�</span>
+The meaning would then be obvious and pertinent.
+The punlet, or pun-maggot, or pun intentional,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“horse and house,�</span> is below Jonson. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jeu-de-mots</span></span>
+just below—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">...<span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Read a lecture</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Upon <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aquinas</span></span> at St. Thomas à <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Water</span></span>ings�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+had a learned smack in it to season its insipidity.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 6. Lovel's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Then shower'd his bounties on me, like the Hours,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That open-handed sit upon the clouds,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And press the liberality of heaven</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Down to the laps of thankful men!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Like many other similar passages in Jonson,
+this is εῖδος χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν—a sight which it is difficult
+to make one's self see,—a picture my fancy
+cannot copy detached from the words.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 5. Though it was hard upon old Ben,
+yet Felton, it must be confessed, was in the right
+in considering the Fly, Tipto, Bat Burst, &amp;c., of
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+this play mere dotages. Such a scene as this was
+enough to damn a new play; and Nick Stuff is
+worse still,—most abominable stuff indeed!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 2. Lovel's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“So knowledge first begets benevolence,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Benevolence breeds friendship, friendship love.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Jonson has elsewhere proceeded thus far; but
+the part most difficult and delicate, yet, perhaps,
+not the least capable of being both morally and
+poetically treated, is the union itself, and what,
+even in this life, it can be.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc109" id="toc109"></a>
+<a name="pdf110" id="pdf110"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Seward's</span></span> Preface. 1750.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">King and No King</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, too, is extremely spirited in all its
+characters; Arbaces holds up a mirror to all men of virtuous
+principles but violent passions. Hence he is, as it were, at once
+magnanimity and pride, patience and fury, gentleness and rigour,
+chastity and incest, and is one of the finest mixtures of virtues and
+vices that any poet has drawn,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+These are among the endless instances of the
+abject state to which psychology had sunk
+from the reign of Charles I. to the middle of the
+present reign of George III.; and even now it is
+but just awaking.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Seward's comparison of Julia's speech in
+the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Two Gentlemen of Verona</span></span>, act iv. last scene—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Madam, 'twas Ariadne passioning,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+with Aspatia's speech in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maid's Tragedy</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I stand upon the sea-beach now,�</span> &amp;c.—Act ii.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and preference of the latter.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is strange to take an incidental passage of one
+writer, intended only for a subordinate part, and
+compare it with the same thought in another
+writer, who had chosen it for a prominent and
+principal figure.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Seward's preference of Alphonso's poisoning
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Wife for a Month</span></span>, act i. sc. 1, to the passage
+in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">King John</span></span>, act v. sc. 7:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Poison'd, ill fare! dead, forsook, cast off!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mr. Seward! Mr. Seward! you may be, and I
+trust you are, an angel; but you were an ass.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Every reader of </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">taste</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> will see how superior this is to the
+quotation from Shakespeare.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Of what taste?
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Seward's classification of the plays.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Surely <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monsieur Thomas</span></span>, the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chances</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beggar's
+Bush</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilgrim</span></span>, should have been placed in
+the very first class! But the whole attempt ends
+in a woful failure.
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc111" id="toc111"></a>
+<a name="pdf112" id="pdf112"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I'd have a state of wit convok'd, which hath</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">power</span></em> to take up on common faith:�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is an instance of that modifying of
+quantity by emphasis, without which our
+elder poets cannot be scanned. <span class="tei tei-q">“Power,�</span> here,
+instead of being one long syllable—pow'r—must
+be sounded, not indeed as a spondee, nor yet as a
+trochee; but as - u u;—the first syllable is 1-1/4.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+We can, indeed, never expect an authentic
+edition of our elder dramatic poets (for in those
+times a drama was a poem), until some man undertakes
+the work, who has studied the philosophy of
+metre. This has been found the main torch of
+sound restoration in the Greek dramatists by
+Bentley, Porson, and their followers;—how much
+more, then, in writers in our own language! It
+is true that quantity, an almost iron law with the
+Greek, is in English rather a subject for a peculiarly
+fine ear, than any law or even rule; but,
+then, instead of it, we have, first, accent; secondly,
+emphasis; and lastly, retardation, and acceleration
+of the times of syllables according to the meaning
+of the words, the passion that accompanies them,
+and even the character of the person that uses
+them. With due attention to these,—above all,
+to that, which requires the most attention and the
+finest taste, the character, Massinger, for example,
+might be reduced to a rich and yet regular metre.
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+But then the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">regulæ</span></span> must be first known; though
+I will venture to say, that he who does not find a
+line (not corrupted) of Massinger's flow to the time
+total of a trimeter catalectic iambic verse, has not
+read it aright. But by virtue of the last principle—the
+retardation of acceleration of time—we
+have the proceleusmatic foot u u u u, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">dispondæus</span></span>
+- - - -, not to mention the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">choriambus</span></span>, the
+ionics, pæons, and epitrites. Since Dryden, the
+metre of our poets leads to the sense; in our elder
+and more genuine bards, the sense, including the
+passion, leads to the metre. Read even Donne's
+satires as he meant them to be read, and as the
+sense and passion demand, and you will find in the
+lines a manly harmony.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc113" id="toc113"></a>
+<a name="pdf114" id="pdf114"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">In general their plots are more regular than Shakespeare's.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is true, if true at all, only before a court
+of criticism, which judges one scheme by the
+laws of another and a diverse one. Shakespeare's
+plots have their own laws of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">regulæ</span></span>, and according
+to these they are regular.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc115" id="toc115"></a>
+<a name="pdf116" id="pdf116"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Maid's Tragedy.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. The metrical arrangement is most
+slovenly throughout.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Strat.</span></span> As well as masque can be,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and all that follows to <span class="tei tei-q">“who is return'd�</span>—is
+plainly blank verse, and falls easily into it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Melantius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“These soft and silken wars are not for me:</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The music must be shrill, and all confus'd,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That stirs my blood; and then I dance with arms.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What strange self-trumpeters and tongue-bullies
+all the brave soldiers of Beaumont and Fletcher
+are! Yet I am inclined to think it was the fashion
+of the age from the Soldier's speech in the Counter
+Scuffle; and deeper than the fashion B. and F. did
+not fashion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Lysippus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yes, but this lady</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Walks discontented, with her wat'ry eyes</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Bent on the earth,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Opulent as Shakespeare was, and of his opulence
+prodigal, he yet would not have put this exquisite
+piece of poetry in the mouth of a no-character, or
+as addressed to a Melantius. I wish that B. and
+F. had written poems instead of tragedies.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mel.</span></span> I might run fiercely, not more
+hastily,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Upon my foe.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I mĭght rūn <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">m�re</span></em> fiērcelȳ, not more hastily.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Calianax:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Office! I would I could put it off! I am sure I sweat quite
+through my office!</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The syllable <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">off</span></span> reminds the testy statesman of
+his robe, and he carries on the image.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Melantius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Would that blood,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That sea of blood, that I have lost in fight,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+All B. and F.'s generals are pugilists or cudgel-fighters,
+that boast of their bottom and of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">claret</span></span>
+they have shed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> The Masque;—Cinthia's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But I will give a greater state and glory,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And raise to time a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">noble</span></em> memory</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of what these lovers are.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I suspect that <span class="tei tei-q">“nobler,�</span> pronounced as <span class="tei tei-q">“nobiler�</span>
+- u -, was the poet's word, and that the accent is
+to be placed on the penultimate of <span class="tei tei-q">“memory.�</span> As
+to the passage—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yet, while our reign lasts, let us stretch our power,�</span> &amp;c.—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+removed from the text of Cinthia's speech, by these
+foolish editors as unworthy of B. and F.—the first
+eight lines are not worse, and the last couplet
+incomparably better, than the stanza retained.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Amintor's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Oh, thou hast nam'd a word, that wipes away</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">All thoughts revengeful! In that sacred name,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">‘The king,’</span> there lies a terror.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is worth noticing that of the three greatest
+tragedians, Massinger was a democrat, Beaumont
+and Fletcher the most servile <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">jure divino</span></span> royalists,
+and Shakespeare a philosopher;—if aught personal,
+an aristocrat.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc117" id="toc117"></a>
+<a name="pdf118" id="pdf118"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">A King And No King.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. Speech of Tigranes:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“She, that forgat the greatness of her grief</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">And miseries, that must follow such mad passions,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Endless and wild as women!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward's note and suggestion of <span class="tei tei-q">“in.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would be amusing to learn from some
+existing friend of Mr. Seward what he meant, or
+rather dreamed, in this note. It is certainly a
+difficult passage, of which there are two solutions;—one,
+that the writer was somewhat more injudicious
+than usual;—the other, that he was very,
+very much more profound and Shakespearian than
+usual. Seward's emendation, at all events, is right
+and obvious. Were it a passage of Shakespeare, I
+should not hesitate to interpret it as characteristic
+of Tigranes' state of mind, disliking the very
+virtues, and therefore half-consciously representing
+them as mere products of the violence of the sex
+in general in all their whims, and yet forced to
+admire, and to feel and to express gratitude for,
+the exertion in his own instance. The inconsistency
+of the passage would be the consistency of the
+author. But this is above Beaumont and Fletcher.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc119" id="toc119"></a>
+<a name="pdf120" id="pdf120"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Scornful Lady.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Sir Roger's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Did I for this consume my </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">quarters</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> in meditations, vows, and
+woo'd her in heroical epistles? Did I expound the </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Owl</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
+and undertake,
+with labour and expense, the recollection of those thousand
+pieces, consum'd in cellars and tobacco-shops, of that our honour'd
+Englishman, Nic. Broughton?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> &amp;c.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Strange, that neither Mr. Theobald nor Mr.
+Seward should have seen that this mock
+heroic speech is in full-mouthed blank verse!
+Had they seen this, they would have seen that
+<span class="tei tei-q">“quarters�</span> is a substitution of the players for
+<span class="tei tei-q">“quires�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“squares,�</span> (that is) of paper:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Consume my quires in meditations, vows,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And woo'd her in heroical epistles.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+They ought, likewise, to have seen that the
+abbreviated <span class="tei tei-q">“Ni. Br.�</span> of the text was properly
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Mi. Dr.�</span>—and that Michael Drayton, not
+Nicholas Broughton, is here ridiculed for his
+poem <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Owl</span></span> and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heroical Epistles</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Younger Loveless:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Fill him some wine. Thou dost not see me mov'd,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+These Editors ought to have learnt, that scarce
+an instance occurs in B. and F. of a long speech
+not in metre. This is plain staring blank verse.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc121" id="toc121"></a>
+<a name="pdf122" id="pdf122"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Custom Of The Country.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I cannot but think that in a country conquered
+by a nobler race than the natives, and
+in which the latter became villeins and bondsmen,
+this custom, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">lex merchetæ</span></span>, may have been introduced
+for wise purposes,—as of improving the
+breed, lessening the antipathy of different races,
+and producing a new bond of relationship between
+the lord and the tenant, who, as the eldest born,
+would at least have a chance of being, and a probability
+of being thought, the lord's child. In
+the West Indies it cannot have these effects,
+because the mulatto is marked by nature different
+from the father, and because there is no bond, no
+law, no custom, but of mere debauchery.—1815.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Rutilio's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yet if you play not fair play,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Evidently to be transposed, and read thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Yet if you play not fair, above-board too,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I'll tell you what—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I've a foolish engine here:—I say no more—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But if your Honour's guts are not enchanted.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Licentious as the comic metre of B. and F. is,—a
+far more lawless, and yet far less happy, imitation
+of the rhythm of animated talk in real life than
+Massinger's—still it is made worse than it really
+is by ignorance of the halves, thirds, and two-thirds
+of a line which B. and F. adopted from the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Italian and Spanish dramatists. Thus, in Rutilio's
+speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Though I confess</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Any man would desire to have her, and by any means,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Correct the whole passage,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Though I confess</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Any man would</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Desire to have her, and by any means,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">At any rate too, yet this common hangman</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That hath whipt off a thousănd măids heads already—</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">That he should glean the harvest, sticks in my stomach!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In all comic metres the gulping of short syllables,
+and the abbreviation of syllables ordinarily long
+by the rapid pronunciation of eagerness and vehemence,
+are not so much a license as a law,—a
+faithful copy of nature, and let them be read
+characteristically, the times will be found nearly
+equal. Thus, the three words marked above make
+a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">choriambus</span></span> -- u u,
+or perhaps a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pæon primus</span></span> - u u u;
+a dactyl, by virtue of comic rapidity,
+being only equal to an iambus when distinctly
+pronounced. I have no doubt that all B. and F.'s
+works might be safely corrected by attention to
+this rule, and that the editor is entitled to transpositions
+of all kinds, and to not a few omissions.
+For the rule of the metre once lost—what was to
+restrain the actors from interpolation?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc123" id="toc123"></a>
+<a name="pdf124" id="pdf124"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Elder Brother.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 2. Charles's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For what concerns tillage,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Who better can deliver it than Virgil</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">In his Georgicks? and to cure your herds,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">His Bucolicks is a master-piece.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Fletcher was too good a scholar to fall into
+so gross a blunder, as Messrs. Sympson and
+Colman suppose. I read the passage thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“For what concerns tillage,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Who better can deliver it than Virgil,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">In his Georgicks, <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></em> to cure your herds</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">(His Bucolicks are a master-piece); but when,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Jealous of Virgil's honour, he is afraid lest, by
+referring to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Georgics</span></span> alone, he might be understood
+as undervaluing the preceding work. <span class="tei tei-q">“Not
+that I do not admire the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bucolics</span></span> too, in their
+way.—But when,�</span> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 3. Charles's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 8.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“She has a face looks like a
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">story</span></em>;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">The <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">story</span></em> of the heavens looks very like her.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward reads <span class="tei tei-q">“glory;�</span> and Theobald quotes from
+Philaster:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That reads the story of a woman's face.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I can make sense of this passage as little as Mr.
+Seward;—the passage from Philaster is nothing
+to the purpose. Instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“a story,�</span> I have
+sometimes thought of proposing <span class="tei tei-q">“Astræa.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Angellina's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“You're old and dim, Sir,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And the shadow of the earth eclips'd your judgment.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Inappropriate to Angellina, but one of the finest
+lines in our language.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 3. Charles's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And lets the serious part of life run by</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">As thin neglected sand, whiteness of name.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">You must be mine,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward's note, and reading:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 5.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Whiteness of name,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">You must be mine!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Nonsense! <span class="tei tei-q">“Whiteness of name�</span> is in apposition
+to <span class="tei tei-q">“the serious part of life,�</span> and means a
+deservedly pure reputation. The following line—<span class="tei tei-q">“You
+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">must</span></em> be mine!�</span> means—<span class="tei tei-q">“Though I do not
+enjoy you to-day, I shall hereafter, and without
+reproach.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc125" id="toc125"></a>
+<a name="pdf126" id="pdf126"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Spanish Curate.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 7. Amaranta's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“And still I push'd him on, as he had been <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">coming</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Perhaps the true word is <span class="tei tei-q">“conning,�</span>—that
+is, learning, or reading, and therefore
+inattentive.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc127" id="toc127"></a>
+<a name="pdf128" id="pdf128"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Wit Without Money.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. Valentine's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“One without substance,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The present text, and that proposed by Seward,
+are equally vile. I have endeavoured to
+make the lines sense, though the whole is, I
+suspect, incurable except by bold conjectural reformation.
+I would read thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“One without substance of herself, that's woman;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Without the pleasure of her life, that's wanton;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tho' she be young, forgetting it; tho' fair,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Making her glass the eyes of honest men,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Not her own admiration.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“That's wanton,�</span> or, <span class="tei tei-q">“that is to say, wantonness.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Valentine's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Of half-a crown a week for pins and puppets.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">As there is a syllable wanting in the measure here.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—Seward.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A syllable wanting! Had this Seward neither
+ears nor fingers? The line is a more than usually
+regular iambic hendecasyllable.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“With one man satisfied, with one rein guided;</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">With one faith, one content, one bed;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Aged</span></em>, she makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A widow is,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Is <span class="tei tei-q">“apaid�</span>—contented—too obsolete for B. and
+F.? If not, we might read it thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Content with one faith, with one bed apaid,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">She makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Or, it may be,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“with one breed apaid�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+that is, satisfied with one set of children, in
+opposition to,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“A widow is a Christmas-box,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Colman's note on Seward's attempt to put this
+play into metre.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The editors, and their contemporaries in general,
+were ignorant of any but the regular iambic verse.
+A study of the Aristophanic and Plautine metres
+would have enabled them to reduce B. and F.
+throughout into metre, except where prose is
+really intended.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc129" id="toc129"></a>
+<a name="pdf130" id="pdf130"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Humorous Lieutenant.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Second Ambassador's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“When your angers,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Like</span></em> so many brother billows, rose together,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And, curling up <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">your</span></em> foaming crests,
+defied,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This worse than superfluous <span class="tei tei-q">“like�</span> is very
+like an interpolation of some matter of fact
+critic—all <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">pus, prose atque venenum</span></span>. The <span class="tei tei-q">“your�</span>
+in the next line, instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“their,�</span> is likewise
+yours, Mr. Critic!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Timon's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Another of a new <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">way</span></em> will be look'd at.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em">
+<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We must suspect the poets wrote, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">of a new </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">day</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">
+So immediately after,</span></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 9.00em"><span style="font-size: 90%">... Time may</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">For all his wisdom, yet give us a day.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">�</span></span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+Seward's Note.
+</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+For this very reason I more than suspect the
+contrary.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> sc. 3. Speech of Leucippe:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I'll put her into action for a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">wastcoat</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What we call a riding-habit,—some mannish
+dress.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc131" id="toc131"></a>
+<a name="pdf132" id="pdf132"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Mad Lover.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. Masque of beasts:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This goodly tree,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">An usher that still grew before his lady,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">A grumbling lawyer:�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here must have been omitted a line rhyming
+to <span class="tei tei-q">“tree;�</span> and the words of the next line
+have been transposed:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“This goodly tree,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Which leafless, and obscur'd with moss you see</span></em>,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">An usher this, that 'fore his lady grew,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc133" id="toc133"></a>
+<a name="pdf134" id="pdf134"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Loyal Subject.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is well worthy of notice, and yet has not been,
+I believe, noticed hitherto, what a marked
+difference there exists in the dramatic writers of
+the Elizabetho-Jacobæan age—(Mercy on me!
+what a phrase for <span class="tei tei-q">“the writers during the reigns
+of Elizabeth and James I.!�</span>)—in respect of their
+political opinions. Shakespeare, in this, as in all
+other things, himself and alone, gives the permanent
+politics of human nature, and the only
+predilection which appears, shows itself in his
+contempt of mobs and the populacy. Massinger
+is a decided Whig;—Beaumont and Fletcher high-flying,
+passive-obedience, Tories. The Spanish
+dramatists furnished them with this, as with
+many other ingredients. By the by, an accurate
+and familiar acquaintance with all the productions
+of the Spanish stage previously to 1620, is an
+indispensable qualification for an editor of B. and
+F.;—and with this qualification a most interesting
+and instructive edition might be given. This
+edition of Colman's (Stockdale, 1811) is below
+criticism.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In metre, B. and F. are inferior to Shakespeare,
+on the one hand, as expressing the poetic part of
+the drama, and to Massinger, on the other, in the
+art of reconciling metre with the natural rhythm
+of conversation,—in which, indeed, Massinger is
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+unrivalled. Read him aright, and measure by
+time, not syllables, and no lines can be more legitimate,—none
+in which the substitution of equipollent
+feet, and the modifications by emphasis,
+are managed with such exquisite judgment. B.
+and F. are fond of the twelve syllable (not
+Alexandrine) line, as:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Too many fears 'tis thought too: and to nourish those.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This has often a good effect, and is one of the
+varieties most common in Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc135" id="toc135"></a>
+<a name="pdf136" id="pdf136"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Rule A Wife And Have A Wife.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. Old Woman's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I fear he will knock my</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Brains out for lying.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mr. Seward discards the words <span class="tei tei-q">“for lying,�</span>
+because <span class="tei tei-q">“most of the things spoke of Estifania
+are true, with only a little exaggeration,
+and because they destroy all appearance of measure.�</span>—Colman's
+note.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mr. Seward had his brains out. The humour
+lies in Estifania's having ordered the Old Woman
+to tell these tales of her; for though an intriguer,
+she is not represented as other than chaste; and
+as to the metre, it is perfectly correct.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Marg.</span></span> As you love me, give way.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Leon.</span></span> It shall be better, I
+will give none, madam,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The meaning is:—<span class="tei tei-q">“It shall be a better way,
+first;—as it is, I will not give it, or any that you
+in your present mood would wish.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc137" id="toc137"></a>
+<a name="pdf138" id="pdf138"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Laws Of Candy.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. Speech of Melitus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Whose insolence and never yet match'd pride</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Can by no character be well express'd,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">But in her only name, the proud Erota.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Colman's note.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The poet intended no allusion to the word
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Erota�</span> itself; but says that her very name,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“the proud Erota,�</span> became a character and adage;—as
+we say, a Quixote or a Brutus: so to say an
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Erota,�</span> expressed female pride and insolence of
+beauty.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Speech of Antinous:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Of my peculiar honours, not deriv'd</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">From <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">successary</span></em>, but purchas'd with my blood.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The poet doubtless wrote <span class="tei tei-q">“successry,�</span> which,
+though not adopted in our language, would be, on
+many occasions, as here, a much more significant
+phrase than ancestry.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc139" id="toc139"></a>
+<a name="pdf140" id="pdf140"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Little French Lawyer.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1. Dinant's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Are you become a patron too? 'Tis a new one,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">No more on't,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward reads:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Are you become a patron too? <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">How long</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Have you been conning this speech?</span></em> 'Tis a new one,�</span>
+&amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+If conjectural emendation like this be allowed,
+we might venture to read:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Are you become a patron <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">to a new tune</span></em>?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+or,—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Are you become a patron? 'Tis a new <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">tune</span></em>.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Din.</span></span> Thou wouldst not willingly</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Live a protested coward, or be call'd one?</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cler.</span></span> Words are but words.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Din.</span></span> Nor wouldst thou take a blow?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward's note.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+O miserable! Dinant sees through Cleremont's
+gravity, and the actor is to explain it. <span class="tei tei-q">“Words
+are but words,�</span> is the last struggle of affected
+morality.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc141" id="toc141"></a>
+<a name="pdf142" id="pdf142"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Valentinian.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 3.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is a real trial of charity to read this scene
+with tolerable temper towards Fletcher. So
+very slavish—so reptile—are the feelings and
+sentiments represented as duties. And yet, remember,
+he was a bishop's son, and the duty to
+God was the supposed basis.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Personals, including body, house, home, and
+religion;—property, subordination, and inter-community;—these
+are the fundamentals of
+society. I mean here, religion negatively taken,—so
+that the person be not compelled to do or
+utter, in relation of the soul to God, what would
+be, in that person, a lie;—such as to force a man
+to go to church, or to swear that he believes what
+he does not believe. Religion, positively taken,
+may be a great and useful privilege, but cannot
+be a right,—were it for this only, that it cannot
+be pre-defined. The ground of this distinction
+between negative and positive religion, as a social
+right, is plain. No one of my fellow-citizens is
+encroached on by my not declaring to him what I
+believe respecting the super-sensual; but should
+every man be entitled to preach against the
+preacher, who could hear any preacher? Now,
+it is different in respect of loyalty. There we
+have positive rights, but not negative rights;—for
+every pretended negative would be in effect a
+positive;—as if a soldier had a right to keep to
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+himself whether he would, or would not, fight.
+Now, no one of these fundamentals can be rightfully
+attacked, except when the guardian of it has
+abused it to subvert one or more of the rest. The
+reason is, that the guardian, as a fluent, is less
+than the permanent which he is to guard. He is
+the temporary and mutable mean, and derives his
+whole value from the end. In short, as robbery
+is not high treason, so neither is every unjust act
+of a king the converse. All must be attacked and
+endangered. Why? Because the king, as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> to A,
+is a mean to A, or subordination, in a far higher
+sense than a proprietor, as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> to A, is a mean to B,
+or property.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 2. Claudia's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Chimney-pieces!�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The whole of this speech seems corrupt; and if
+accurately printed,—that is, if the same in all the
+prior editions,—irremediable but by bold conjecture.
+<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Till</span></em> my tackle,�</span> should be, I think,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">While</span></em>,�</span> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iii. sc. 1. B. and F. always write as if
+virtue or goodness were a sort of talisman, or
+strange something, that might be lost without the
+least fault on the part of the owner. In short,
+their chaste ladies value their chastity as a material
+thing,—not as an act or state of being; and
+this mere thing being imaginary, no wonder that
+all their women are represented with the minds of
+strumpets, except a few irrational humourists, far
+less capable of exciting our sympathy than a
+Hindoo who has had a basin of cow-broth thrown
+over him;—for this, though a debasing superstition,
+is still real, and we might pity the poor
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+wretch, though we cannot help despising him.
+But B. and F.'s Lucinas are clumsy fictions. It
+is too plain that the authors had no one idea of
+chastity as a virtue, but only such a conception as
+a blind man might have of the power of seeing by
+handling an ox's eye. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Queen of Corinth</span></span>,
+indeed, they talk differently; but it is all talk,
+and nothing is real in it but the dread of losing a
+reputation. Hence the frightful contrast between
+their women (even those who are meant for virtuous)
+and Shakespeare's. So, for instance, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
+Maid in the Mill</span></span>:—a woman must not merely have
+grown old in brothels, but have chuckled over
+every abomination committed in them with a
+rampant sympathy of imagination, to have had
+her fancy so drunk with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></span> of lechery as
+this icy chaste virgin evinces hers to have been.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would be worth while to note how many of
+these plays are founded on rapes,—how many on
+incestuous passions, and how many on mere lunacies.
+Then their virtuous women are either crazy
+superstitions of a mere bodily negation of having
+been acted on, or strumpets in their imaginations
+and wishes, or, as in this <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maid in the Mill</span></span>, both at
+the same time. In the men, the love is merely
+lust in one direction,—exclusive preference of one
+object. The tyrant's speeches are mostly taken
+from the mouths of indignant denouncers of the
+tyrant's character, with the substitution of <span class="tei tei-q">“I�</span>
+for <span class="tei tei-q">“he,�</span>" and the omission of the prefatory <span class="tei tei-q">“he
+acts as if he thought�</span> so and so. The only feelings
+they can possibly excite are disgust at the
+Æciuses, if regarded as sane loyalists, or compassion
+if considered as Bedlamites. So much for
+their tragedies. But even their comedies are,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+most of them, disturbed by the fantasticalness, or
+gross caricature, of the persons or incidents. There
+are few characters that you can really like (even
+though you should have erased from your mind
+all the filth which bespatters the most likeable of
+them, as Piniero in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Island Princess</span></span>
+for instance),—scarcely
+one whom you can love. How
+different this from Shakespeare, who makes one
+have a sort of sneaking affection even for his
+Barnardines;—whose very Iagos and Richards
+are awful, and, by the counteracting power of
+profound intellects, rendered fearful rather than
+hateful;—and even the exceptions, as Goneril and
+Regan, are proofs of superlative judgment and the
+finest moral tact, in being left utter monsters,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">nulla virtute redemptæ</span></span>, and in being kept out of
+sight as much as possible,—they being, indeed,
+only means for the excitement and deepening of
+noblest emotions towards the Lear, Cordelia, &amp;c.
+and employed with the severest economy! But
+even Shakespeare's grossness—that which is really
+so, independently of the increase in modern times
+of vicious associations with things indifferent (for
+there is a state of manners conceivable so pure,
+that the language of Hamlet at Ophelia's feet
+might be a harmless rallying, or playful teazing,
+of a shame that would exist in Paradise)—at the
+worst, how diverse in kind is it from Beaumont
+and Fletcher's! In Shakespeare it is the mere
+generalities of sex, mere words for the most
+part, seldom or never distinct images, all head-work,
+and fancy drolleries; there is no sensation
+supposed in the speaker. I need not proceed to
+contrast this with B. and F.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc143" id="toc143"></a>
+<a name="pdf144" id="pdf144"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Rollo.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This, perhaps, the most energetic of Fletcher's
+tragedies. He evidently aimed at a new
+Richard III. in Rollo;—but, as in all his other
+imitations of Shakespeare, he was not philosopher
+enough to bottom his original. Thus, in Rollo, he
+has produced a mere personification of outrageous
+wickedness, with no fundamental characteristic
+impulses to make either the tyrant's words or
+actions philosophically intelligible. Hence the
+most pathetic situations border on the horrible,
+and what he meant for the terrible, is either
+hateful, τὸ μισητὸν, or ludicrous. The scene of
+Baldwin's sentence in the third act is probably
+the grandest working of passion in all B. and F.'s
+dramas;—but the very magnificence of filial affection
+given to Edith, in this noble scene, renders
+the after scene (in imitation of one of the least
+Shakespearian of all Shakespeare's works, if it be
+his, the scene between Richard and Lady Anne)
+in which Edith is yielding to a few words and
+tears, not only unnatural, but disgusting. In
+Shakespeare, Lady Anne is described as a weak,
+vain, very woman throughout.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gis.</span></span> He is indeed the perfect character</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Of a good man, and so his actions speak him.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This character of Aubrey, and the whole spirit
+of this and several other plays of the same authors,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+are interesting as traits of the morals which it was
+fashionable to teach in the reigns of James I. and
+his successor, who died a martyr to them. Stage,
+pulpit, law, fashion,—all conspired to enslave the
+realm. Massinger's plays breathe the opposite
+spirit; Shakespeare's the spirit of wisdom which is
+for all ages. By the by, the Spanish dramatists—Calderon,
+in particular,—had some influence in
+this respect, of romantic loyalty to the greatest
+monsters, as well as in the busy intrigues of B.
+and F.'s plays.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc145" id="toc145"></a>
+<a name="pdf146" id="pdf146"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Wildgoose Chase.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1. Belleur's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“That wench, methinks,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">If I were but well set on, for she is a <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">fable</span></em>,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">If I were but hounded right, and one to teach me.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Sympson reads <span class="tei tei-q">“affable,�</span> which Colman rejects,
+and says, <span class="tei tei-q">“the next line seems to
+enforce�</span> the reading in the text.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Pity, that the editor did not explain wherein
+the sense, <span class="tei tei-q">“seemingly enforced by the next line,�</span>
+consists. May the true word be <span class="tei tei-q">“a sable�</span>—that
+is, a black fox, hunted for its precious fur?
+Or <span class="tei tei-q">“at-able,�</span>—as we now say,—<span class="tei tei-q">“she is come-at-able?�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc147" id="toc147"></a>
+<a name="pdf148" id="pdf148"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">A Wife For A Month.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 1. Alphonso's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Betwixt the cold bear and the raging lion</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Lies my safe way.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Seward's note and alteration to—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“'Twixt the cold bears, far from the raging lion�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This Mr. Seward is a blockhead of the provoking
+species. In his itch for correction, he
+forgot the words—<span class="tei tei-q">“lies my safe way!�</span> The bear
+is the extreme pole, and thither he would travel
+over the space contained between it and <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+raging lion.�</span>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc149" id="toc149"></a>
+<a name="pdf150" id="pdf150"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Pilgrim.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act iv. sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Alinda's interview with her father is lively,
+and happily hit off; but this scene with
+Roderigo is truly excellent. Altogether, indeed,
+this play holds the first place in B. and F.'s
+romantic entertainments, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lustspiele</span></span>, which collectively
+are their happiest performances, and are
+only inferior to the romance of Shakespeare in the
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">As You Like It</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Twelfth Night</span></span>, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span>—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Alin.</span></span> To-day you shall wed Sorrow,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And Repentance will come to-morrow.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read <span class="tei tei-q">“Penitence,�</span> or else—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Repentance, she will come to-morrow.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc151" id="toc151"></a>
+<a name="pdf152" id="pdf152"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Queen Of Corinth.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. sc. 1.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Merione's speech. Had the scene of this
+tragi-comedy been laid in Hindostan instead
+of Corinth, and the gods here addressed been the
+Vishnu and Co. of the Indian Pantheon, this rant
+would not have been much amiss.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In respect of style and versification, this play and
+the following of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bonduca</span></span> may be taken as the best,
+and yet as characteristic, specimens of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's dramas. I particularly instance
+the first scene of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bonduca</span></span>. Take Shakespeare's
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Richard II.</span></span>, and having selected some one scene of
+about the same number of lines, and consisting
+mostly of long speeches, compare it with the first
+scene in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bonduca</span></span>,—not for the idle purpose of
+finding out which is the better, but in order to see
+and understand the difference. The latter, that of
+B. and F., you will find a well-arranged bed of
+flowers, each having its separate root, and its
+position determined aforehand by the will of the
+gardener,—each fresh plant a fresh volition. In
+the former you see an Indian fig-tree, as described
+by Milton;—all is growth, evolution;—each
+line, each word almost, begets the following,
+and the will of the writer is an interfusion, a
+continuous agency, and not a series of separate
+acts. Shakespeare is the height, breadth, and
+depth of Genius: Beaumont and Fletcher the
+excellent mechanism, in juxta-position and succession,
+of talent.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc153" id="toc153"></a>
+<a name="pdf154" id="pdf154"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Noble Gentleman.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Why have the dramatists of the times of
+Elizabeth, James I., and the first Charles
+become almost obsolete, with the exception of
+Shakespeare? Why do they no longer belong to
+the English, being once so popular? And why is
+Shakespeare an exception?—One thing, among
+fifty, necessary to the full solution is, that they all
+employed poetry and poetic diction on unpoetic
+subjects, both characters and situations, especially
+in their comedy. Now Shakespeare is all, all ideal,—of
+no time, and therefore for all times. Read,
+for instance, Marine's panegyric in the first scene
+of this play:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Know</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The eminent court, to them that can be wise,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">And fasten on her blessings, is a sun,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What can be more unnatural and inappropriate
+(not only is, but must be felt as such) than such
+poetry in the mouth of a silly dupe? In short,
+the scenes are mock dialogues, in which the poet
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">solus</span></span> plays the ventriloquist, but cannot keep down
+his own way of expressing himself. Heavy complaints
+have been made respecting the transposing
+of the old plays by Cibber; but it never occurred
+to these critics to ask, how it came that no one
+ever attempted to transpose a comedy of Shakespeare's.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc155" id="toc155"></a>
+<a name="pdf156" id="pdf156"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Coronation.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. Speech of Seleucus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Altho' he be my enemy, should any</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Of the gay flies that buz about the court,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sit</span></em> to catch trouts i' the summer, tell me so,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I durst,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Colman's note.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Pshaw! <span class="tei tei-q">“Sit�</span> is either a misprint for <span class="tei tei-q">“set,�</span>
+or the old and still provincial word for <span class="tei tei-q">“set,�</span>
+as the participle passive of <span class="tei tei-q">“seat�</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“set.�</span> I
+have heard an old Somersetshire gardener say:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Look,
+Sir! I set these plants here; those yonder
+I <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sit</span></em> yesterday.�</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Speech of Arcadius:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nay, some will swear they love their mistress,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Would hazard lives and fortunes,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nay, some will swear they love their mistress so,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">They would hazard lives and fortunes to preserve</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">One of her hairs brighter than Berenice's,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Or young Apollo's; and yet, after this,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Thĕy woŭld h�zard�</span>—furnishes an anapæst for
+an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iambus</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-q">“And yet,�</span> which must be read,
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">anyĕt</span></span>, is an instance of the enclitic force in an
+accented monosyllable. <span class="tei tei-q">“And yēt,�</span> is a complete
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">iambus</span></span>; but <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">anyet</span></span> is,
+like <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">spirit</span></span>, a dibrach u u,
+trocheized, however, by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">arsis</span></span> or first accent
+damping, though not extinguishing, the second.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc157" id="toc157"></a>
+<a name="pdf158" id="pdf158"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">Wit At Several Weapons.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. Oldcraft's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“I'm arm'd at all points,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It would be very easy to restore all this passage
+to metre, by supplying a sentence of four
+syllables, which the reasoning almost demands,
+and by correcting the grammar. Read thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Arm'd at all points 'gainst treachery, I hold</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">My humour firm. If, living, I can see thee</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thrive by thy wits, I shall have the more courage,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dying, to trust thee with my lands. If not,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The best wit, I can hear of, carries them.</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">For since so many in my time and knowledge,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rich children of the city, have concluded</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">For lack of wit</span></em> in beggary, I'd rather</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Make a wise stranger my executor,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Than a fool son my heir, and have my lands call'd</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">After my wit than name: and that's my nature!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Oldcraft's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“To prevent which I have sought out a match for her.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Which to prevent I've sought a match out for her.�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ib.</span></span> Sir Gregory's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Do you think</span></em></span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">I'll have any of the wits hang upon me after I am married once?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Read it thus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Do you think</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That I'll have any of the wits to hang</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Upon me after I am married once?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+and afterwards—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 9.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Is it a fashion in London</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">To marry a woman, and to never see her?�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The superfluous <span class="tei tei-q">“to�</span> gives it the Sir Andrew
+Ague-cheek character.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc159" id="toc159"></a>
+<a name="pdf160" id="pdf160"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Fair Maid Of The Inn.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act ii. Speech of Albertus:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“But, Sir,</span></div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">By my life, I vow to take assurance from you,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">That right hand never more shall strike my son,</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Chop his hand off!�</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this (as, indeed, in all other respects, but
+most in this) it is that Shakespeare is so incomparably
+superior to Fletcher and his friend,—in
+judgment! What can be conceived more unnatural
+and motiveless than this brutal resolve?
+How is it possible to feel the least interest in
+Albertus afterwards? or in Cesario after his
+conduct?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc161" id="toc161"></a>
+<a name="pdf162" id="pdf162"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Two Noble Kinsmen.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+On comparing the prison scene of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Palamon and
+Arcite</span></span>, act ii. sc. 2, with the dialogue between
+the same speakers, act i. sc. 2, I can
+scarcely retain a doubt as to the first act's having
+been written by Shakespeare. Assuredly it was
+not written by B. and F. I hold Jonson more
+probable than either of these two.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The main presumption, however, for Shakespeare's
+share in this play rests on a point, to
+which the sturdy critics of this edition (and indeed
+all before them) were blind,—that is, the construction
+of the blank verse, which proves beyond all
+doubt an intentional imitation, if not the proper
+hand, of Shakespeare. Now, whatever improbability
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+there is in the former (which supposes
+Fletcher conscious of the inferiority, the too
+poematic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">minus</span></span>-dramatic nature of his versification,
+and of which, there is neither proof nor likelihood)
+adds so much to the probability of the
+latter. On the other hand, the harshness of
+many of these very passages, a harshness unrelieved
+by any lyrical inter-breathings, and still
+more the want of profundity in the thoughts, keep
+me from an absolute decision.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 3. Emilia's speech:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.00em">... <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Since his depart, his
+<em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sports</span></em></span>,</div>
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">Tho' craving seriousness and skill,�</span> &amp;c.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+I conjecture <span class="tei tei-q">“imports,�</span>—that is, duties or offices
+of importance. The flow of the versification in
+this speech seems to demand the trochaic ending - u;
+while the text blends jingle and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hisses</span></em> to
+the annoyance of less sensitive ears than Fletcher's—not
+to say, Shakespeare's.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<a name="toc163" id="toc163"></a>
+<a name="pdf164" id="pdf164"></a>
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 144%">“</span><span style="font-size: 144%">The Woman Hater.</span><span style="font-size: 144%">�</span></span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Act i. sc. 2.—
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This scene from the beginning is prose printed
+as blank verse, down to the line—
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
+<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“E'en all the valiant stomachs in the court�</span>—</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+where the verse recommences. This transition
+from the prose to the verse enhances, and indeed
+forms the comic effect. Lazarillo concludes his
+soliloquy with a hymn to the goddess of plenty.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+THE END.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em">
+<h2 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Advertisement.</span></h2>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">NEW EDITION, REVISED.</span></span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+AIDS TO REFLECTION
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">In the Formation of a Manly Character, on the several
+grounds of Prudence, Morality, and Religion.</span></span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">By</span></span> S. T. COLERIDGE.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">With a copious Index to the Work, and Translations of
+the Greek and Latin Quotations.</span></span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">By</span></span> THOMAS FENBY.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+400 pp. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fscp. 8vo, cloth extra</span></span>, 3/6.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+EDWARD HOWELL, PUBLISHER, LIVERPOOL
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+MDCCCLXXIV.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+  <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+    <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader165" id="rightpageheader165"></a><a name="pgtoc166" id="pgtoc166"></a><a name="pdf167" id="pdf167"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">May 24, 2008  </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt">
+        <span class="tei tei-name">
+            Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, David King, and the Online
+            Distributed Proofreading Team at &lt;http://www.pgdp.net/&gt;.
+            (This file was made using scans of public domain works from the
+            University of Mochigan Digital Libraries.)
+            Page-images available at
+            &lt;http://www.pgdp.net/projects/projectID44006ca6acbb7/&gt;
+        </span>
+      </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader168" id="rightpageheader168"></a><a name="pgtoc169" id="pgtoc169"></a><a name="pdf170" id="pdf170"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named 
+          25585-h.html or 
+          25585-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found
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+      <title>Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher</title>
+      <author><name reg="Coleridge, S. T.">S. T. Coleridge</name></author>
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+      <edition n="1">Edition 1</edition>
+    </editionStmt>
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+      <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher>
+      <date>May 24, 2008</date>
+      <idno type="etext-no">25585</idno>
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+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center; bold">Shakespeare</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Ben Jonson</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Beaumont And Fletcher</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Notes and Lectures</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">by S. T. Coleridge</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">New Edition</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Liverpool</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Edward Howell</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">MDCCCLXXIV</p>
+    </div>
+    <div rend="page-break-before: always">
+      <head>Contents</head>
+      <divGen type="toc" />
+    </div>
+  </front>
+<body>
+
+<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc" level1="Shakespeare"/>
+<index index="pdf" level1="Shakespeare"/>
+<head>Shakespeare, With introductory matter on Poetry, the
+Drama, and the Stage.
+</head>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Definition Of Poetry.</head>
+
+<p>
+Poetry is not the proper antithesis to prose,
+but to science. Poetry is opposed to science,
+and prose to metre. The proper and immediate
+object of science is the acquirement, or communication,
+of truth; the proper and immediate object
+of poetry is the communication of immediate pleasure.
+This definition is useful; but as it would
+include novels and other works of fiction, which
+yet we do not call poems, there must be some
+additional character by which poetry is not only
+divided from opposites, but likewise distinguished
+from disparate, though similar, modes of composition.
+Now how is this to be effected? In animated
+prose, the beauties of nature, and the passions and
+accidents of human nature, are often expressed in
+that natural language which the contemplation of
+them would suggest to a pure and benevolent
+mind; yet still neither we nor the writers call such
+a work a poem, though no work could deserve that
+name which did not include all this, together with
+something else. What is this? It is that pleasurable
+emotion, that peculiar state and degree of
+excitement, which arises in the poet himself in the
+act of composition;&mdash;and in order to understand
+this, we must combine a more than ordinary sympathy
+<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/>
+with the objects, emotions, or incidents contemplated
+by the poet, consequent on a more than
+common sensibility, with a more than ordinary
+activity of the mind in respect of the fancy and
+the imagination. Hence is produced a more vivid
+reflection of the truths of nature and of the human
+heart, united with a constant activity modifying
+and correcting these truths by that sort of pleasurable
+emotion, which the exertion of all our faculties
+gives in a certain degree; but which can only
+be felt in perfection under the full play of those
+powers of mind, which are spontaneous rather than
+voluntary, and in which the effort required bears
+no proportion to the activity enjoyed. This is the
+state which permits the production of a highly
+pleasurable whole, of which each part shall also
+communicate for itself a distinct and conscious
+pleasure; and hence arises the definition, which I
+trust is now intelligible, that poetry, or rather a
+poem, is a species of composition, opposed to
+science, as having intellectual pleasure for its
+object, and as attaining its end by the use of
+language natural to us in a state of excitement,&mdash;but
+distinguished from other species of composition,
+not excluded by the former criterion, by
+permitting a pleasure from the whole consistent
+with a consciousness of pleasure from the component
+parts;&mdash;and the perfection of which is, to
+communicate from each part the greatest immediate
+pleasure compatible with the largest sum
+of pleasure on the whole. This, of course, will
+vary with the different modes of poetry;&mdash;and
+that splendour of particular lines, which would
+be worthy of admiration in an impassioned elegy,
+or a short indignant satire, would be a blemish
+<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/>
+and proof of vile taste in a tragedy or an epic
+poem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is remarkable, by the way, that Milton in
+three incidental words has implied all which for
+the purposes of more distinct apprehension, which
+at first must be slow-paced in order to be distinct,
+I have endeavoured to develope in a precise and
+strictly adequate definition. Speaking of poetry,
+he says, as in a parenthesis, <q>which is simple,
+sensuous, passionate.</q> How awful is the power of
+words!&mdash;fearful often in their consequences when
+merely felt, not understood; but most awful when
+both felt and understood!&mdash;Had these three words
+only been properly understood by, and present in
+the minds of, general readers, not only almost
+a library of false poetry would have been either
+precluded or still-born, but, what is of more consequence,
+works truly excellent and capable of
+enlarging the understanding, warming and purifying
+the heart, and placing in the centre of the
+whole being the germs of noble and manlike
+actions, would have been the common diet of the
+intellect instead. For the first condition, simplicity,&mdash;while,
+on the one hand, it distinguishes
+poetry from the arduous processes of science,
+labouring towards an end not yet arrived at, and
+supposes a smooth and finished road, on which the
+reader is to walk onward easily, with streams murmuring
+by his side, and trees and flowers and
+human dwellings to make his journey as delightful
+as the object of it is desirable, instead of
+having to toil with the pioneers and painfully
+make the road on which others are to travel,&mdash;precludes,
+on the other hand, every affectation and
+morbid peculiarity;&mdash;the second condition, sensuousness,
+<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/>
+insures that framework of objectivity,
+that definiteness and articulation of imagery, and
+that modification of the images themselves, without
+which poetry becomes flattened into mere
+didactics of practice, or evaporated into a hazy,
+unthoughtful, day-dreaming; and the third condition,
+passion, provides that neither thought nor
+imagery shall be simply objective, but that the
+<foreign lang="it" rend="font-style: italic">passio vera</foreign>
+of humanity shall warm and animate both.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return, however, to the previous definition,
+this most general and distinctive character of a
+poem originates in the poetic genius itself; and
+though it comprises whatever can with any propriety
+be called a poem (unless that word be a
+mere lazy synonym for a composition in metre),
+it yet becomes a just, and not merely discriminative,
+but full and adequate, definition of poetry in
+its highest and most peculiar sense, only so far
+as the distinction still results from the poetic
+genius, which sustains and modifies the emotions,
+thoughts, and vivid representations of the poem
+by the energy without effort of the poet's own
+mind,&mdash;by the spontaneous activity of his imagination
+and fancy, and by whatever else with
+these reveals itself in the balancing and reconciling
+of opposite or discordant qualities, sameness
+with difference, a sense of novelty and freshness
+with old or customary objects, a more than usual
+state of emotion with more than usual order, self-possession
+and judgment with enthusiasm and
+vehement feeling,&mdash;and which, while it blends
+and harmonizes the natural and the artificial, still
+subordinates art to nature, the manner to the
+matter, and our admiration of the poet to our
+<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/>
+sympathy with the images, passions, characters,
+and incidents of the poem:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Doubtless, this could not be, but that she turns</q></l>
+<l>Bodies to <emph>spirit</emph> by sublimation strange,</l>
+<l>As fire converts to fire the things it burns&mdash;</l>
+<l>As we our food into our nature change!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">From their gross matter she abstracts <emph>their</emph> forms,</q></l>
+<l>And draws a kind of quintessence from things,</l>
+<l>Which to her proper nature she transforms</l>
+<l>To bear them light on her celestial wings!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><emph>Thus</emph> doth she, when from <emph>individual states</emph></q></l>
+<l>She doth abstract the universal kinds,</l>
+<l><emph>Which then reclothed in divers names and fates</emph></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Steal access thro' our senses to our minds</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Greek Drama.</head>
+
+<p>
+It is truly singular that Plato,&mdash;whose philosophy
+and religion were but exotic at home,
+and a mere opposition to the finite in all things,
+genuine prophet and anticipator as he was of the
+Protestant Christian æra,&mdash;should have given in
+his Dialogue of the Banquet, a justification of
+our Shakespeare. For he relates that, when all
+the other guests had either dispersed or fallen
+asleep, Socrates only, together with Aristophanes
+and Agathon, remained awake, and that, while he
+continued to drink with them out of a large goblet,
+he compelled them, though most reluctantly, to
+admit that it was the business of one and the same
+genius to excel in tragic and comic poetry, or that
+the tragic poet ought, at the same time, to contain
+within himself the powers of comedy. Now, as
+this was directly repugnant to the entire theory of
+the ancient critics, and contrary to all their experience,
+it is evident that Plato must have fixed the
+eye of his contemplation on the innermost essentials
+of the drama, abstracted from the forms of
+age or country. In another passage he even adds
+the reason, namely, that opposites illustrate each
+other's nature, and in their struggle draw forth
+the strength of the combatants, and display the
+conqueror as sovereign even on the territories of
+the rival power.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nothing can more forcibly exemplify the separative
+spirit of the Greek arts than their comedy as
+opposed to their tragedy. But as the immediate
+<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/>
+struggle of contraries supposes an arena common
+to both, so both were alike ideal; that is, the
+comedy of Aristophanes rose to as great a distance
+above the ludicrous of real life, as the tragedy of
+Sophocles above its tragic events and passions,&mdash;and
+it is in this one point, of absolute ideality,
+that the comedy of Shakespeare and the old comedy
+of Athens coincide. In this also alone did the
+Greek tragedy and comedy unite; in every thing
+else they were exactly opposed to each other.
+Tragedy is poetry in its deepest earnest; comedy
+is poetry in unlimited jest. Earnestness consists
+in the direction and convergence of all the powers
+of the soul to one aim, and in the voluntary restraint
+of its activity in consequence; the opposite,
+therefore, lies in the apparent abandonment of all
+definite aim or end, and in the removal of all
+bounds in the exercise of the mind,&mdash;attaining its
+real end, as an entire contrast, most perfectly, the
+greater the display is of intellectual wealth squandered
+in the wantonness of sport without an object,
+and the more abundant the life and vivacity in the
+creations of the arbitrary will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The later comedy, even where it was really
+comic, was doubtless likewise more comic, the more
+free it appeared from any fixed aim. Misunderstandings
+of intention, fruitless struggles of absurd
+passion, contradictions of temper, and laughable
+situations there were; but still the form of the representation
+itself was serious; it proceeded as
+much according to settled laws, and used as much
+the same means of art, though to a different purpose,
+as the regular tragedy itself. But in the old
+comedy the very form itself is whimsical; the
+whole work is one great jest, comprehending a
+<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/>
+world of jests within it, among which each maintains
+its own place without seeming to concern
+itself as to the relation in which it may stand to its
+fellows. In short, in Sophocles, the constitution of
+tragedy is monarchical, but such as it existed in
+elder Greece, limited by laws, and therefore the
+more venerable,&mdash;all the parts adapting and submitting
+themselves to the majesty of the heroic
+sceptre:&mdash;in Aristophanes, comedy, on the contrary,
+is poetry in its most democratic form, and it
+is a fundamental principle with it, rather to risk all
+the confusion of anarchy, than to destroy the
+independence and privileges of its individual constituents,&mdash;place,
+verse, characters, even single
+thoughts, conceits, and allusions, each turning on
+the pivot of its own free will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The tragic poet idealizes his characters by giving
+to the spiritual part of our nature a more decided
+preponderance over the animal cravings and impulses,
+than is met with in real life: the comic
+poet idealizes his characters by making the animal
+the governing power, and the intellectual the mere
+instrument. But as tragedy is not a collection of
+virtues and perfections, but takes care only that
+the vices and imperfections shall spring from the
+passions, errors, and prejudices which arise out of
+the soul;&mdash;so neither is comedy a mere crowd of
+vices and follies, but whatever qualities it represents,
+even though they are in a certain sense
+amiable, it still displays them as having their origin
+in some dependence on our lower nature, accompanied
+with a defect in true freedom of spirit and
+self-subsistence, and subject to that unconnection
+by contradictions of the inward being, to which
+all folly is owing.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/>
+
+<p>
+The ideal of earnest poetry consists in the union
+and harmonious melting down, and fusion of the
+sensual into the spiritual,&mdash;of man as an animal
+into man as a power of reason and self-government.
+And this we have represented to us most
+clearly in the plastic art, or statuary; where the
+perfection of outward form is a symbol of the perfection
+of an inward idea; where the body is
+wholly penetrated by the soul, and spiritualized
+even to a state of glory, and like a transparent
+substance, the matter, in its own nature darkness,
+becomes altogether a vehicle and fixture of light, a
+means of developing its beauties, and unfolding its
+wealth of various colours without disturbing its
+unity, or causing a division of the parts. The
+sportive ideal, on the contrary, consists in the perfect
+harmony and concord of the higher nature
+with the animal, as with its ruling principle and its
+acknowledged regent. The understanding and
+practical reason are represented as the willing
+slaves of the senses and appetites, and of the passions
+arising out of them. Hence we may admit
+the appropriateness to the old comedy, as a work
+of defined art, of allusions and descriptions, which
+morality can never justify, and, only with reference
+to the author himself, and only as being the effect
+or rather the cause of the circumstances in which
+he wrote, can consent even to palliate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The old comedy rose to its perfection in Aristophanes,
+and in him also it died with the freedom of
+Greece. Then arose a species of drama, more fitly
+called dramatic entertainment than comedy, but of
+which, nevertheless, our modern comedy (Shakespeare's
+altogether excepted) is the genuine descendant.
+Euripides had already brought tragedy lower
+<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/>
+down and by many steps nearer to the real world
+than his predecessors had ever done, and the passionate
+admiration which Menander and Philemon
+expressed for him, and their open avowals that he
+was their great master, entitle us to consider their
+dramas as of a middle species, between tragedy and
+comedy,&mdash;not the tragi-comedy, or thing of heterogeneous
+parts, but a complete whole, founded on
+principles of its own. Throughout we find the
+drama of Menander distinguishing itself from tragedy,
+but not as the genuine old comedy, contrasting
+with, and opposing it. Tragedy, indeed, carried
+the thoughts into the mythologic world, in order
+to raise the emotions, the fears, and the hopes,
+which convince the inmost heart that their final
+cause is not to be discovered in the limits of mere
+mortal life, and force us into a presentiment, however
+dim, of a state in which those struggles of inward
+free will with outward necessity, which form
+the true subject of the tragedian, shall be reconciled
+and solved;&mdash;the entertainment or new comedy,
+on the other hand, remained within the circle of
+experience. Instead of the tragic destiny, it introduced
+the power of chance; even in the few fragments
+of Menander and Philemon now remaining
+to us, we find many exclamations and reflections
+concerning chance and fortune, as in the tragic
+poets concerning destiny. In tragedy, the moral
+law, either as obeyed or violated, above all consequences&mdash;its
+own maintenance or violation
+constituting the most important of all consequences&mdash;forms
+the ground; the new comedy,
+and our modern comedy in general (Shakespeare
+excepted as before) lies in prudence or imprudence,
+enlightened or misled self-love. The whole moral
+<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/>
+system of the entertainment exactly like that of
+fable, consists in rules of prudence, with an exquisite
+conciseness, and at the same time an
+exhaustive fulness of sense. An old critic said
+that tragedy was the flight or elevation of life,
+comedy (that of Menander) its arrangement or
+ordonnance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Add to these features a portrait-like truth of
+character,&mdash;not so far indeed as that a <hi rend='italic'>bona fide</hi>
+individual should be described or imagined, but yet
+so that the features which give interest and permanence
+to the class should be individualized. The old
+tragedy moved in an ideal world,&mdash;the old comedy
+in a fantastic world. As the entertainment, or new
+comedy, restrained the creative activity both of
+the fancy and the imagination, it indemnified the
+understanding in appealing to the judgment for the
+probability of the scenes represented. The ancients
+themselves acknowledged the new comedy as an
+exact copy of real life. The grammarian, Aristophanes,
+somewhat affectedly exclaimed:&mdash;<q>O Life
+and Menander! which of you two imitated the
+other?</q> In short the form of this species of drama
+was poetry, the stuff or matter was prose. It was
+prose rendered delightful by the blandishments
+and measured motions of the muse. Yet even this
+was not universal. The mimes of Sophron, so
+passionately admired by Plato, were written in
+prose, and were scenes out of real life conducted
+in dialogue. The exquisite feast of Adonis
+(Συ�ακούσιαι ῆ Ἀδωνιάζουσαι) in Theocritus, we are
+told, with some others of his eclogues, were close
+imitations of certain mimes of Sophron&mdash;free translations
+of the prose into hexameters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will not be improper, in this place, to make a
+<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/>
+few remarks on the remarkable character and functions
+of the chorus in the Greek tragic drama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chorus entered from below, close by the
+orchestra, and there, pacing to and fro during the
+choral odes, performed their solemn measured
+dance. In the centre of the <hi rend='italic'>orchestra</hi>, directly
+over against the middle of the <hi rend='italic'>scene</hi>, there stood an
+elevation with steps in the shape of a large altar,
+as high as the boards of the <hi rend='italic'>logeion</hi> or moveable
+stage. This elevation was named the <hi rend='italic'>thymele</hi>
+(θυμέλη), and served to recall the origin and original
+purpose of the chorus, as an altar-song in honour
+of the presiding deity. Here, and on these steps
+the persons of the chorus sate collectively, when
+they were not singing; attending to the dialogue
+as spectators, and acting as (what in truth they
+were) the ideal representatives of the real audience,
+and of the poet himself in his own character,
+assuming the supposed impressions made by the
+drama, in order to direct and rule them. But when
+the chorus itself formed part of the dialogue, then
+the leader of the band, the foreman, or <hi rend='italic'>coryphæus</hi>,
+ascended, as some think, the level summit of the
+<hi rend='italic'>thymele</hi> in order to command the stage, or, perhaps,
+the whole chorus advanced to the front of the orchestra,
+and thus put themselves in ideal connection,
+as it were, with the <hi rend='italic'>dramatis personæ</hi> there acting.
+This <hi rend='italic'>thymele</hi> was in the centre of the whole edifice,
+all the measurements were calculated, and the semi-circle
+of the amphitheatre was drawn from this
+point. It had a double use, a twofold purpose; it
+constantly reminded the spectators of the origin of
+tragedy as a religious service, and declared itself
+as the ideal representative of the audience by
+having its place exactly in the point, to which all
+<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/>
+the radii from the different seats or benches converged.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this double character, as constituent parts,
+and yet at the same time as spectators, of the drama,
+the chorus could not but tend to enforce the unity
+of place;&mdash;not on the score of any supposed improbability,
+which the understanding or common sense
+might detect in a change of place;&mdash;but because the
+senses themselves put it out of the power of any
+imagination to conceive a place coming to, and
+going away from the persons, instead of the persons
+changing their place. Yet there are instances,
+in which, during the silence of the chorus, the poets
+have hazarded this by a change in that part of the
+scenery which represented the more distant objects
+to the eye of the spectator&mdash;a demonstrative proof,
+that this alternately extolled and ridiculed unity
+(as ignorantly ridiculed as extolled) was grounded
+on no essential principle of reason, but arose out of
+circumstances which the poet could not remove,
+and therefore took up into the form of the drama,
+and co-organised it with all the other parts into a
+living whole.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Greek tragedy may rather be compared to
+our serious opera than to the tragedies of Shakespeare;
+nevertheless, the difference is far greater
+than the likeness. In the opera all is subordinated
+to the music, the dresses, and the scenery;&mdash;the
+poetry is a mere vehicle for articulation, and as
+little pleasure is lost by ignorance of the Italian
+language, so is little gained by the knowledge of it.
+But in the Greek drama all was but as instruments
+and accessaries to the poetry; and hence we should
+form a better notion of the choral music from the
+solemn hymns and psalms of austere church music
+<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/>
+than from any species of theatrical singing. A
+single flute or pipe was the ordinary accompaniment;
+and it is not to be supposed, that any display
+of musical power was allowed to obscure the distinct
+hearing of the words. On the contrary, the
+evident purpose was to render the words more
+audible, and to secure by the elevations and pauses
+greater facility of understanding the poetry. For
+the choral songs are, and ever must have been, the
+most difficult part of the tragedy; there occur in
+them the most involved verbal compounds, the
+newest expressions, the boldest images, the most
+recondite allusions. Is it credible that the poets
+would, one and all, have been thus prodigal of the
+stores of art and genius, if they had known that in
+the representation the whole must have been lost
+to the audience,&mdash;at a time too, when the means of
+after publication were so difficult and expensive,
+and the copies of their works so slowly and narrowly
+circulated?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The masks also must be considered&mdash;their vast
+variety and admirable workmanship. Of this we
+retain proof by the marble masks which represented
+them; but to this in the real mask we must add the
+thinness of the substance and the exquisite fitting
+on to the head of the actor; so that not only were
+the very eyes painted with a single opening left for
+the pupil of the actor's eye, but in some instances,
+even the iris itself was painted, when the colour
+was a known characteristic of the divine or heroic
+personage represented.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, I will note down those fundamental
+characteristics which contradistinguish the ancient
+literature from the modern generally, but which
+more especially appear in prominence in the tragic
+<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/>
+drama. The ancient was allied to statuary, the
+modern refers to painting. In the first there is a
+predominance of rhythm and melody, in the second
+of harmony and counterpoint. The Greeks idolized
+the finite, and therefore were the masters of all grace,
+elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity, majesty&mdash;of
+whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely
+conveyed by defined forms or thoughts: the moderns
+revere the infinite, and affect the indefinite as a
+vehicle of the infinite;&mdash;hence their passions, their
+obscure hopes and fears, their wandering through
+the unknown, their grander moral feelings, their
+more august conception of man as man, their
+future rather than their past&mdash;in a word, their
+sublimity.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Progress Of The Drama.</head>
+
+<p>
+Let two persons join in the same scheme to
+ridicule a third, and either take advantage of,
+or invent, some story for that purpose, and mimicry
+will have already produced a sort of rude comedy.
+It becomes an inviting treat to the populace, and
+gains an additional zest and burlesque by following
+the already established plan of tragedy; and the
+first man of genius who seizes the idea, and reduces
+it into form,&mdash;into a work of art,&mdash;by metre and
+music, is the Aristophanes of the country.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+How just this account is will appear from the
+fact that in the first or old comedy of the Athenians,
+most of the <hi rend='italic'>dramatis personæ</hi> were living characters
+introduced under their own names; and no doubt,
+their ordinary dress, manner, person and voice
+were closely mimicked. In less favourable states
+of society, as that of England in the middle ages,
+the beginnings of comedy would be constantly
+taking place from the mimics and satirical minstrels;
+but from want of fixed abode, popular government,
+and the successive attendance of the same auditors,
+it would still remain in embryo. I shall, perhaps,
+have occasion to observe that this remark is not
+without importance in explaining the essential
+differences of the modern and ancient theatres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Phenomena, similar to those which accompanied
+the origin of tragedy and comedy among the
+Greeks, would take place among the Romans much
+more slowly, and the drama would, in any case,
+<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/>
+have much longer remained in its first irregular
+form from the character of the people, their continual
+engagements in wars of conquest, the nature
+of their government, and their rapidly increasing
+empire. But, however this might have been, the
+conquest of Greece precluded both the process and
+the necessity of it; and the Roman stage at once
+presented imitations or translations of the Greek
+drama. This continued till the perfect establishment
+of Christianity. Some attempts, indeed, were
+made to adapt the persons of Scriptural or ecclesiastical
+history to the drama; and sacred plays, it
+is probable, were not unknown in Constantinople
+under the emperors of the East. The first of the
+kind is, I believe, the only one preserved,&mdash;namely,
+the Χ�ιστὸς Πάσχων, or, <q>Christ in his sufferings,</q>
+by Gregory Nazianzen,&mdash;possibly written in
+consequence of the prohibition of profane literature
+to the Christians by the apostate Julian. In the
+West, however, the enslaved and debauched Roman
+world became too barbarous for any theatrical
+exhibitions more refined than those of pageants
+and chariot-races; while the spirit of Christianity,
+which in its most corrupt form still breathed general
+humanity, whenever controversies of faith were
+not concerned, had done away the cruel combats
+of the gladiators, and the loss of the distant provinces
+prevented the possibility of exhibiting the
+engagements of wild beasts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I pass, therefore, at once to the feudal ages
+which soon succeeded, confining my observation to
+this country; though, indeed, the same remark
+with very few alterations will apply to all the
+other states, into which the great empire was
+broken. Ages of darkness succeeded;&mdash;not, indeed,
+<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/>
+the darkness of Russia or of the barbarous
+lands unconquered by Rome; for from the time
+of Honorius to the destruction of Constantinople
+and the consequent introduction of ancient literature
+into Europe, there was a continued succession
+of individual intellects;&mdash;the golden chain was
+never wholly broken, though the connecting links
+were often of baser metal. A dark cloud, like
+another sky, covered the entire cope of heaven,&mdash;but
+in this place it thinned away, and white stains
+of light showed a half eclipsed star behind it,&mdash;in
+that place it was rent asunder, and a star
+passed across the opening in all its brightness,
+and then vanished. Such stars exhibited themselves
+only; surrounding objects did not partake
+of their light. There were deep wells of knowledge,
+but no fertilizing rills and rivulets. For
+the drama, society was altogether a state of chaos,
+out of which it was, for a while at least, to proceed
+anew, as if there had been none before it. And
+yet it is not undelightful to contemplate the
+education of good from evil. The ignorance of
+the great mass of our countrymen was the efficient
+cause of the reproduction of the drama;
+and the preceding darkness and the returning
+light were alike necessary in order to the creation
+of a Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The drama re-commenced in England, as it first
+began in Greece, in religion. The people were not
+able to read,&mdash;the priesthood were unwilling that
+they should read; and yet their own interest
+compelled them not to leave the people wholly
+ignorant of the great events of sacred history.
+They did that, therefore, by scenic representations,
+which in after ages it has been attempted to do in
+<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/>
+Roman Catholic countries by pictures. They presented
+Mysteries, and often at great expense; and
+reliques of this system still remain in the south of
+Europe, and indeed throughout Italy, where at
+Christmas the convents and the great nobles rival
+each other in the scenic representation of the
+birth of Christ and its circumstances. I heard
+two instances mentioned to me at different times,
+one in Sicily and the other in Rome, of noble
+devotees, the ruin of whose fortunes was said to
+have commenced in the extravagant expense
+which had been incurred in presenting the
+<hi rend='italic'>præsepe</hi> or manger. But these Mysteries, in
+order to answer their design, must not only be
+instructive, but entertaining; and as, when they
+became so, the people began to take pleasure in
+acting them themselves&mdash;in interloping&mdash;(against
+which the priests seem to have fought hard and
+yet in vain) the most ludicrous images were
+mixed with the most awful personations; and
+whatever the subject might be, however sublime,
+however pathetic, yet the Vice and the Devil,
+who are the genuine antecessors of Harlequin
+and the Clown, were necessary component parts.
+I have myself a piece of this kind, which I transcribed
+a few years ago at Helmstadt, in Germany,
+on the education of Eve's children, in
+which after the fall and repentance of Adam, the
+offended Maker, as in proof of his reconciliation,
+condescends to visit them, and to catechise the
+children,&mdash;who with a noble contempt of chronology
+are all brought together from Abel to Noah.
+The good children say the ten Commandments,
+the Belief, and the Lord's Prayer; but Cain and
+his rout, after he had received a box on the ear
+<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/>
+for not taking off his hat, and afterwards offering
+his left hand, is prompted by the devil so to
+blunder in the Lord's Prayer as to reverse the
+petitions and say it backward!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Unaffectedly I declare I feel pain at repetitions
+like these, however innocent. As historical documents
+they are valuable; but I am sensible that
+what I can read with my eye with perfect innocence,
+I cannot without inward fear and
+misgivings pronounce with my tongue.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let me, however, be acquitted of presumption
+if I say that I cannot agree with Mr. Malone,
+that our ancestors did not perceive the ludicrous
+in these things, or that they paid no separate
+attention to the serious and comic parts. Indeed
+his own statement contradicts it. For what purpose
+should the Vice leap upon the Devil's back
+and belabour him, but to produce this separate
+attention? The people laughed heartily, no
+doubt. Nor can I conceive any meaning attached
+to the words <q>separate attention,</q> that
+is not fully answered by one part of an exhibition
+exciting seriousness or pity, and the other
+raising mirth and loud laughter. That they felt
+no impiety in the affair is most true. For it is
+the very essence of that system of Christian polytheism,
+which in all its essentials is now fully as
+gross in Spain, in Sicily, and the South of Italy, as
+it ever was in England in the days of Henry VI.
+(nay, more so, for a Wicliffe had not then appeared
+only, but scattered the good seed widely),&mdash;it
+is an essential part, I say, of that system to draw
+the mind wholly from its own inward whispers and
+quiet discriminations, and to habituate the conscience
+to pronounce sentence in every case according
+<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/>
+to the established verdicts of the church and
+the casuists. I have looked through volume after
+volume of the most approved casuists,&mdash;and still I
+find disquisitions whether this or that act is right,
+and under what circumstances, to a minuteness
+that makes reasoning ridiculous, and of a callous
+and unnatural immodesty, to which none but a
+monk could harden himself, who has been stripped
+of all the tender charities of life, yet is goaded on
+to make war against them by the unsubdued
+hauntings of our meaner nature, even as dogs are
+said to get the <hi rend='italic'>hydrophobia</hi> from excessive thirst.
+I fully believe that our ancestors laughed as
+heartily, as their posterity do at Grimaldi;&mdash;and
+not having been told that they would be punished
+for laughing, they thought it very innocent;&mdash;and
+if their priests had left out murder in the catalogue
+of their prohibitions (as indeed they did under
+certain circumstances of heresy), the greater part
+of them,&mdash;the moral instincts common to all men
+having been smothered and kept from development,&mdash;would
+have thought as little of murder.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However this may be, the necessity of at once
+instructing and gratifying the people produced the
+great distinction between the Greek and the English
+theatres;&mdash;for to this we must attribute the
+origin of tragi-comedy, or a representation of
+human events more lively, nearer the truth, and
+permitting a larger field of moral instruction, a
+more ample exhibition of the recesses of the human
+heart, under all the trials and circumstances that
+most concern us, than was known or guessed at by
+Æschylus, Sophocles, or Euripides;&mdash;and at the
+same time we learn to account for, and&mdash;relatively
+to the author&mdash;perceive the necessity of, the Fool
+<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/>
+or Clown or both, as the substitutes of the Vice
+and the Devil, which our ancestors had been so
+accustomed to see in every exhibition of the stage,
+that they could not feel any performance perfect
+without them. Even to this day in Italy, every
+opera&mdash;(even Metastasio obeyed the claim throughout)&mdash;must
+have six characters, generally two pairs
+of cross lovers, a tyrant and a confidant, or a
+father and two confidants, themselves lovers;&mdash;and
+when a new opera appears, it is the universal
+fashion to ask&mdash;which is the tyrant, which the
+lover? &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is the especial honour of Christianity, that in
+its worst and most corrupted form it cannot wholly
+separate itself from morality;&mdash;whereas the other
+religions in their best form (I do not include
+Mohammedanism, which is only an anomalous corruption
+of Christianity, like Swedenborgianism)
+have no connection with it. The very impersonation
+of moral evil under the name of Vice,
+facilitated all other impersonations; and hence we
+see that the Mysteries were succeeded by Moralities,
+or dialogues and plots of allegorical personages.
+Again, some character in real history had become
+so famous, so proverbial, as Nero for instance, that
+they were introduced instead of the moral quality,
+for which they were so noted;&mdash;and in this manner
+the stage was moving on to the absolute production
+of heroic and comic real characters, when the restoration
+of literature, followed by the ever-blessed
+Reformation, let in upon the kingdom not only new
+knowledge, but new motive. A useful rivalry commenced
+between the metropolis on the one hand,&mdash;the
+residence, independently of the court and
+nobles, of the most active and stirring spirits who
+<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/>
+had not been regularly educated, or who, from mischance
+or otherwise, had forsaken the beaten track
+of preferment,&mdash;and the universities on the other.
+The latter prided themselves on their closer approximation
+to the ancient rules and ancient regularity&mdash;taking
+the theatre of Greece, or rather its
+dim reflection, the rhetorical tragedies of the poet
+Seneca, as a perfect ideal, without any critical
+collation of the times, origin, or circumstances;&mdash;whilst,
+in the mean time, the popular writers, who
+could not and would not abandon what they had
+found to delight their countrymen sincerely, and
+not merely from inquiries first put to the recollection
+of rules, and answered in the affirmative, as if
+it had been an arithmetical sum, did yet borrow
+from the scholars whatever they advantageously
+could, consistently with their own peculiar means
+of pleasing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And here let me pause for a moment's contemplation
+of this interesting subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We call, for we see and feel, the swan and the
+dove both transcendantly beautiful. As absurd as
+it would be to institute a comparison between their
+separate claims to beauty from any abstract rule
+common to both, without reference to the life and
+being of the animals themselves,&mdash;or as if, having
+first seen the dove, we abstracted its outlines, gave
+them a false generalization, called them the principles
+or ideal of bird-beauty, and then proceeded
+to criticise the swan or the eagle;&mdash;not less absurd
+is it to pass judgment on the works of a poet on
+the mere ground that they have been called by the
+same class-name with the works of other poets in
+other times and circumstances, or on any ground,
+indeed, save that of their inappropriateness to their
+<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/>
+own end and being, their want of significance, as
+symbols or physiognomy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+O! few have there been among critics, who have
+followed with the eye of the imagination the imperishable
+yet ever wandering spirit of poetry
+through its various metempsychoses, and consequent
+metamorphoses;&mdash;or who have rejoiced in
+the light of clear perception at beholding with
+each new birth, with each rare <hi rend='italic'>avatar</hi>, the human
+race frame to itself a new body, by assimilating
+materials of nourishment out of its new circumstances,
+and work for itself new organs of power
+appropriate to the new sphere of its motion and
+activity!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have before spoken of the Romance, or the
+language formed out of the decayed Roman and
+the Northern tongues; and comparing it with the
+Latin, we find it less perfect in simplicity and relation&mdash;the
+privileges of a language formed by the
+mere attraction of homogeneous parts;&mdash;but yet
+more rich, more expressive and various, as one
+formed by more obscure affinities out of a chaos of
+apparently heterogeneous atoms. As more than a
+metaphor,&mdash;as an analogy of this, I have named
+the true genuine modern poetry the romantic; and
+the works of Shakespeare are romantic poetry, revealing
+itself in the drama. If the tragedies of
+Sophocles are in the strict sense of the word
+tragedies, and the comedies of Aristophanes comedies,
+we must emancipate ourselves from a false
+association arising from misapplied names, and find
+a new word for the plays of Shakespeare. For they
+are, in the ancient sense, neither tragedies nor
+comedies, nor both in one,&mdash;but a different <hi rend='italic'>genus</hi>,
+diverse in kind, and not merely different in degree.
+<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/>
+They may be called romantic dramas, or dramatic
+romances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A deviation from the simple forms and unities
+of the ancient stage is an essential principle, and,
+of course, an appropriate excellence, of the romantic
+drama. For these unities were to a great
+extent the natural form of that which in its
+elements was homogeneous, and the representation
+of which was addressed pre-eminently to the
+outward senses;&mdash;and though the fable, the
+language, and the characters appealed to the
+reason rather than to the mere understanding,
+inasmuch as they supposed an ideal state rather
+than referred to an existing reality,&mdash;yet it was a
+reason which was obliged to accommodate itself
+to the senses, and so far became a sort of more
+elevated understanding. On the other hand, the
+romantic poetry&mdash;the Shakespearian drama&mdash;appealed
+to the imagination rather than to the
+senses, and to the reason as contemplating our
+inward nature, and the workings of the passions
+in their most retired recesses. But the reason,
+as reason, is independent of time and space; it
+has nothing to do with them: and hence the
+certainties of reason have been called eternal
+truths. As for example&mdash;the endless properties
+of the circle:&mdash;what connection have they with
+this or that age, with this or that country?&mdash;The
+reason is aloof from time and space; the imagination
+is an arbitrary controller over both;&mdash;and
+if only the poet have such power of exciting our
+internal emotions as to make us present to the
+scene in imagination chiefly, he acquires the right
+and privilege of using time and space as they
+exist in imagination, and obedient only to the
+<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/>
+laws by which the imagination itself acts. These
+laws it will be my object and aim to point out as
+the examples occur, which illustrate them. But
+here let me remark what can never be too often
+reflected on by all who would intelligently study
+the works either of the Athenian dramatists, or of
+Shakespeare, that the very essence of the former
+consists in the sternest separation of the diverse in
+kind and the disparate in the degree, whilst the
+latter delights in interlacing, by a rainbow-like
+transfusion of hues, the one with the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And here it will be necessary to say a few words
+on the stage and on stage-illusion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A theatre, in the widest sense of the word, is
+the general term for all places of amusement
+through the ear or eye, in which men assemble in
+order to be amused by some entertainment presented
+to all at the same time and in common.
+Thus an old Puritan divine says:&mdash;<q>Those who
+attend public worship and sermons only to amuse
+themselves, make a theatre of the church, and turn
+God's house into the devil's.
+<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">Theatra ædes diabololatricæ.</foreign></q>
+The most important and dignified
+species of this <hi rend='italic'>genus</hi> is, doubtless, the stage
+(<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">res
+theatralis histrionica</foreign>), which, in addition to the generic
+definition above given, may be characterized in
+its idea, or according to what it does, or ought to,
+aim at, as a combination of several or of all the
+fine arts in an harmonious whole, having a distinct
+end of its own, to which the peculiar end of each
+of the component arts, taken separately, is made
+subordinate and subservient,&mdash;that, namely, of
+imitating reality&mdash;whether external things, actions,
+or passions&mdash;-under a semblance of reality.
+Thus, Claude imitates a landscape at sunset, but
+<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/>
+only as a picture; while a forest-scene is not presented
+to the spectators as a picture, but as a
+forest; and though, in the full sense of the word,
+we are no more deceived by the one than by the
+other, yet are our feelings very differently affected;
+and the pleasure derived from the one is not composed
+of the same elements as that afforded by the
+other, even on the supposition that the <hi rend='italic'>quantum</hi> of
+both were equal. In the former, a picture, it is a
+condition of all genuine delight that we should
+not be deceived; in the latter, stage-scenery (inasmuch
+as its principle end is not in or for itself, as
+is the case in a picture, but to be an assistance and
+means to an end out of itself), its very purpose is
+to produce as much illusion as its nature permits.
+These, and all other stage presentations, are to
+produce a sort of temporary half-faith, which the
+spectator encourages in himself and supports by a
+voluntary contribution on his own part, because
+he knows that it is at all times in his power to see
+the thing as it really is. I have often observed
+that little children are actually deceived by stage-scenery,
+never by pictures; though even these
+produce an effect on their impressible minds,
+which they do not on the minds of adults. The
+child, if strongly impressed, does not indeed positively
+think the picture to be the reality; but yet
+he does not think the contrary. As Sir George
+Beaumont was shewing me a very fine engraving
+from Rubens, representing a storm at sea without
+any vessel or boat introduced, my little boy, then
+about five years old, came dancing and singing
+into the room, and all at once (if I may so say)
+<emph>tumbled in</emph> upon the print. He instantly started,
+stood silent and motionless, with the strongest expression,
+<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/>
+first of wonder and then of grief in his
+eyes and countenance, and at length said <q>And
+where is the ship? But that is sunk, and the men
+are all drowned!</q> still keeping his eyes fixed on
+the print. Now what pictures are to little children,
+stage illusion is to men, provided they retain
+any part of the child's sensibility; except, that in
+the latter instance, the suspension of the act of
+comparison, which permits this sort of negative
+belief, is somewhat more assisted by the will, than
+in that of a child respecting a picture.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The true stage-illusion in this and in all other
+things consists&mdash;not in the mind's judging it to be
+a forest, but, in its remission of the judgment that
+it is not a forest. And this subject of stage-illusion
+is so important, and so many practical errors and
+false criticisms may arise, and indeed have arisen,
+either from reasoning on it as actual delusion (the
+strange notion, on which the French critics built
+up their theory, and on which the French poets
+justify the construction of their tragedies), or
+from denying it altogether (which seems the end
+of Dr. Johnson's reasoning, and which, as extremes
+meet, would lead to the very same consequences,
+by excluding whatever would not be judged probable
+by us in our coolest state of feeling, with all
+our faculties in even balance), that these few remarks
+will, I hope, be pardoned, if they should
+serve either to explain or to illustrate the point.
+For not only are we never absolutely deluded&mdash;or
+any thing like it, but the attempt to cause the
+highest delusion possible to beings in their senses
+sitting in a theatre, is a gross fault, incident only
+to low minds, which, feeling that they cannot
+affect the heart or head permanently, endeavour to
+<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/>
+call forth the momentary affections. There ought
+never to be more pain than is compatible with coexisting
+pleasure, and to be amply repaid by
+thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare found the infant stage demanding
+an intermixture of ludicrous character as imperiously
+as that of Greece did the chorus, and high
+language accordant. And there are many advantages
+in this;&mdash;a greater assimilation to nature, a
+greater scope of power, more truths, and more
+feelings;&mdash;the effects of contrast, as in Lear and
+the Fool; and especially this, that the true
+language of passion becomes sufficiently elevated
+by your having previously heard, in the same
+piece, the lighter conversation of men under no
+strong emotion. The very nakedness of the stage,
+too, was advantageous,&mdash;for the drama thence
+became something between recitation and a representation;
+and the absence or paucity of scenes
+allowed a freedom from the laws of unity of place
+and unity of time, the observance of which must
+either confine the drama to as few subjects as may
+be counted on the fingers, or involve gross improbabilities,
+far more striking than the violation
+would have caused. Thence, also, was precluded
+the danger of a false ideal,&mdash;of aiming at more
+than what is possible on the whole. What play
+of the ancients, with reference to their ideal, does
+not hold out more glaring absurdities than any in
+Shakespeare? On the Greek plan a man could
+more easily be a poet than a dramatist; upon our
+plan more easily a dramatist than a poet.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.</head>
+
+<p>
+Unaccustomed to address such an audience,
+and having lost by a long interval of confinement
+the advantages of my former short schooling,
+I had miscalculated in my last Lecture the proportion
+of my matter to my time, and by bad
+economy and unskilful management, the several
+heads of my discourse failed in making the entire
+performance correspond with the promise publicly
+circulated in the weekly annunciation of the subjects
+to be treated. It would indeed have been
+wiser in me, and perhaps better on the whole, if I
+had caused my Lectures to be announced only as
+continuations of the main subject. But if I be,
+as perforce I must be, gratified by the recollection
+of whatever has appeared to give you pleasure, I
+am conscious of something better, though less
+flattering, a sense of unfeigned gratitude for your
+forbearance with my defects. Like affectionate
+guardians, you see without disgust the awkwardness,
+and witness with sympathy the growing
+pains, of a youthful endeavour, and look forward
+with a hope, which is its own reward, to the
+contingent results of practice&mdash;to its intellectual
+maturity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In my last address I defined poetry to be the
+art, or whatever better term our language may
+afford, of representing external nature and human
+thoughts, both relatively to human affections, so as
+<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/>
+to cause the production of as great immediate
+pleasure in each part, as is compatible with the
+largest possible sum of pleasure on the whole.
+Now this definition applies equally to painting
+and music as to poetry; and in truth the term
+poetry is alike applicable to all three. The vehicle
+alone constitutes the difference; and the term
+<q>poetry</q> is rightly applied by eminence to
+measured words, only because the sphere of their
+action is far wider, the power of giving permanence
+to them much more certain, and incomparably
+greater the facility, by which men, not
+defective by nature or disease, may be enabled to
+derive habitual pleasure and instruction from
+them. On my mentioning these considerations
+to a painter of great genius, who had been, from
+a most honourable enthusiasm, extolling his own
+art, he was so struck with their truth, that he
+exclaimed, <q>I want no other arguments;&mdash;poetry,
+that is, verbal poetry, must be the greatest; all
+that proves final causes in the world, proves this;
+it would be shocking to think otherwise!</q>&mdash;And
+in truth, deeply, O! far more than words can
+express, as I venerate the Last Judgment and the
+Prophets of Michel Angelo Buonarotti,&mdash;yet the
+very pain which I repeatedly felt as I lost myself
+in gazing upon them, the painful consideration
+that their having been painted in
+<foreign lang="it" rend="font-style: italic">fresco</foreign> was the
+sole cause that they had not been abandoned to all
+the accidents of a dangerous transportation to a
+distant capital, and that the same caprice, which
+made the Neapolitan soldiery destroy all the exquisite
+masterpieces on the walls of the church of
+<hi rend='italic'>Trinitado Monte</hi>, after the retreat of their antagonist
+barbarians, might as easily have made vanish
+<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/>
+the rooms and open gallery of Raffael, and the yet
+more unapproachable wonders of the sublime
+Florentine in the Sixtine Chapel, forced upon my
+mind the reflection: How grateful the human
+race ought to be that the works of Euclid, Newton,
+Plato, Milton, Shakespeare, are not subjected
+to similar contingencies,&mdash;that they and their
+fellows, and the great, though inferior, peerage of
+undying intellect, are secured;&mdash;secured even
+from a second irruption of Goths and Vandals, in
+addition to many other safeguards, by the vast
+empire of English language, laws, and religion
+founded in America, through the overflow of the
+power and the virtue of my country;&mdash;and that
+now the great and certain works of genuine fame
+can only cease to act for mankind, when men
+themselves cease to be men, or when the planet on
+which they exist, shall have altered its relations,
+or have ceased to be. Lord Bacon, in the language
+of the gods, if I may use an Homeric phrase, has
+expressed a similar thought:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Lastly, leaving the vulgar arguments, that by learning man excelleth
+man in that wherein man excelleth beasts; that by learning
+man ascendeth to the heavens and their motions, where in body he
+cannot come, and the like; let us conclude with the dignity and
+excellency of knowledge and learning in that whereunto man's
+nature doth most aspire, which is immortality or continuance: for
+to this tendeth generation, and raising of houses and families; to
+this tend buildings, foundations, and monuments; to this tendeth
+the desire of memory, fame, and celebration, and in effect the
+strength of all other human desires. We see then how far the
+monuments of wit and learning are more durable than the monuments
+of power, or of the hands. For have not the verses of Homer
+continued twenty-five hundred years, or more, without the loss of a
+syllable or letter; during which time, infinite palaces, temples,
+castles, cities, have been decayed and demolished? It is not possible
+to have the true pictures or statues of Cyrus, Alexander,
+Cæsar; no, nor of the kings or great personages of much later
+years; for the originals cannot last, and the copies cannot but lose
+of the life and truth. But the images of men's wits and knowledges
+<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/>
+remain in books, exempted from the wrong of time, and capable of
+perpetual renovation. Neither are they fitly to be called images,
+because they generate still, and cast their seeds in the minds of
+others, provoking and causing infinite actions and opinions in succeeding
+ages: so that, if the invention of the ship was thought so
+noble, which carrieth riches and commodities from place to place,
+and consociateth the most remote regions in participation of their
+fruits; how much more are letters to be magnified, which, as ships,
+pass through the vast seas of time, and make ages so distant to participate
+of the wisdom, illuminations, and inventions, the one of the
+other?</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+But let us now consider what the drama should
+be. And first, it is not a copy, but an imitation, of
+nature. This is the universal principle of the fine
+arts. In all well laid out grounds what delight do
+we feel from that balance and antithesis of feelings
+and thoughts! How natural! we say;&mdash;but the
+very wonder that caused the exclamation, implies
+that we perceived art at the same moment. We
+catch the hint from nature itself. Whenever in
+mountains or cataracts we discover a likeness to
+any thing artificial which yet we know is not artificial&mdash;what
+pleasure! And so it is in appearances
+known to be artificial, which appear to be natural.
+This applies in due degrees, regulated by steady
+good sense, from a clump of trees to the <hi rend='italic'>Paradise
+Lost</hi> or <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>. It would be easy to apply it to
+painting and even, though with greater abstraction
+of thought, and by more subtle yet equally just
+analogies&mdash;to music. But this belongs to others;
+suffice it that one great principle is common to all
+the fine arts, a principle which probably is the
+condition of all consciousness, without which we
+should feel and imagine only by discontinuous
+moments, and be plants or brute animals instead
+of men;&mdash;I mean that ever-varying balance, or
+balancing, of images, notions, or feelings, conceived
+as in opposition to each other;&mdash;in short, the
+<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/>
+perception of identity and contrariety; the least
+degree of which constitutes likeness, the greatest
+absolute difference; but the infinite gradations between
+these two form all the play and all the
+interest of our intellectual and moral being, till it
+leads us to a feeling and an object more awful than
+it seems to me compatible with even the present subject
+to utter aloud, though I am most desirous to
+suggest it. For there alone are all things at once
+different and the same; there alone, as the principle
+of all things, does distinction exist unaided
+by division; there are will and reason, succession
+of time and unmoving eternity, infinite change and
+ineffable rest!&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Return Alpheus! the dread voice is past</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Which shrunk thy streams!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4">&mdash;&mdash;<q rend="pre">Thou honour'd flood,</q></l>
+<l>Smooth-<emph>flowing</emph> Avon, crown'd with vocal reeds,</l>
+<l>That strain I heard, was of a higher mood!&mdash;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But now my <emph>voice</emph> proceeds.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+We may divide a dramatic poet's characteristics
+before we enter into the component merits of any
+one work, and with reference only to those things
+which are to be the materials of all, into language,
+passion, and character; always bearing in mind
+that these must act and react on each other,&mdash;the
+language inspired by the passion, and the language
+and the passion modified and differenced by the
+character. To the production of the highest excellencies
+in these three, there are requisite in the
+mind of the author;&mdash;good sense, talent, sensibility,
+imagination;&mdash;and to the perfection of a
+work we should add two faculties of lesser importance,
+yet necessary for the ornaments and foliage
+of the column and the roof&mdash;fancy and a quick
+sense of beauty.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/>
+
+<p>
+As to language;&mdash;it cannot be supposed that
+the poet should make his characters say all that
+they would, or that, his whole drama considered,
+each scene, or paragraph should be such as, on cool
+examination, we can conceive it likely that men in
+such situations would say, in that order, or with
+that perfection. And yet, according to my feelings,
+it is a very inferior kind of poetry, in which,
+as in the French tragedies, men are made to talk
+in a style which few indeed even of the wittiest
+can be supposed to converse in, and which both is,
+and on a moment's reflection appears to be, the
+natural produce of the hot-bed of vanity, namely,
+the closet of an author, who is actuated originally
+by a desire to excite surprise and wonderment at
+his own superiority to other men,&mdash;instead of
+having felt so deeply on certain subjects, or in
+consequence of certain imaginations, as to make it
+almost a necessity of his nature to seek for sympathy,&mdash;no
+doubt, with that honourable desire of
+permanent action, which distinguishes genius.&mdash;Where
+then is the difference?&mdash;In this that each
+part should be proportionate, though the whole
+may be perhaps, impossible. At all events, it
+should be compatible with sound sense and logic in
+the mind of the poet himself.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is to be lamented that we judge of books by
+books, instead of referring what we read to our
+own experience. One great use of books is to
+make their contents a motive for observation. The
+German tragedies have in some respects been justly
+ridiculed. In them the dramatist often becomes a
+novelist in his directions to the actors, and thus
+degrades tragedy into pantomime. Yet still the
+consciousness of the poet's mind must be diffused
+<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/>
+over that of the reader or spectator; but he himself,
+according to his genius, elevates us, and by
+being always in keeping, prevents us from perceiving
+any strangeness, though we feel great
+exultation. Many different kinds of style may be
+admirable, both in different men, and in different
+parts of the same poem.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+See the different language which strong feelings
+may justify in Shylock, and learn from Shakespeare's
+conduct of that character the terrible force
+of every plain and calm diction, when known to
+proceed from a resolved and impassioned man.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is especially with reference to the drama, and
+its characteristics in any given nation, or at any
+particular period, that the dependence of genius on
+the public taste becomes a matter of the deepest
+importance. I do not mean that taste which
+springs merely from caprice or fashionable imitation,
+and which, in fact, genius can, and by degrees
+will, create for itself; but that which arises out of
+wide-grasping and heart-enrooted causes, which
+is epidemic, and in the very air that all breathe.
+This it is which kills, or withers, or corrupts.
+Socrates, indeed, might walk arm in arm with
+Hygeia, whilst pestilence, with a thousand furies
+running to and fro, and clashing against each
+other in a complexity and agglomeration of horrors,
+was shooting her darts of fire and venom all around
+him. Even such was Milton; yea, and such, in
+spite of all that has been babbled by his critics in
+pretended excuse for his damning, because for them
+too profound excellencies,&mdash;such was Shakespeare.
+But alas! the exceptions prove the rule. For who
+will dare to force his way out of the crowd,&mdash;not
+of the mere vulgar,&mdash;but of the vain and banded
+<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/>
+aristocracy of intellect, and presume to join the
+almost supernatural beings that stand by themselves
+aloof?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of this diseased epidemic influence there are two
+forms especially preclusive of tragic worth. The
+first is the necessary growth of a sense and love of
+the ludicrous, and a morbid sensibility of the assimilative
+power,&mdash;an inflammation produced by
+cold and weakness,&mdash;which in the boldest bursts of
+passion will lie in wait for a jeer at any phrase,
+that may have an accidental coincidence in the
+mere words with something base or trivial. For
+instance,&mdash;to express woods, not on a plain, but
+clothing a hill, which overlooks a valley, or dell,
+or river, or the sea,&mdash;the trees rising one above
+another, as the spectators in an ancient theatre,&mdash;I
+know no other word in our language (bookish
+and pedantic terms out of the question), but <emph>hanging</emph>
+woods, the
+<foreign lang="la" rend="font-style: italic">sylvæ superimpendentes</foreign>
+of Catullus;
+yet let some wit call out in a slang tone,&mdash;<q>the
+gallows!</q> and a peal of laughter would damn the
+play. Hence it is that so many dull pieces have
+had a decent run, only because nothing unusual
+above, or absurd below, mediocrity furnished an
+occasion,&mdash;a spark for the explosive materials collected
+behind the orchestra. But it would take a
+volume of no ordinary size, however laconically the
+sense were expressed, if it were meant to instance
+the effects, and unfold all the causes, of this disposition
+upon the moral, intellectual, and even
+physical character of a people, with its influences
+on domestic life and individual deportment. A
+good document upon this subject would be the
+history of Paris society and of French, that is,
+Parisian, literature from the commencement of the
+<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/>
+latter half of the reign of Louis XIV. to that of
+Buonaparte, compared with the preceding philosophy
+and poetry even of Frenchmen themselves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The second form, or more properly, perhaps,
+another distinct cause, of this diseased disposition
+is matter of exultation to the philanthropist and
+philosopher, and of regret to the poet, the painter,
+and the statuary alone, and to them only as poets,
+painters, and statuaries;&mdash;namely, the security, the
+comparative equability, and ever increasing sameness
+of human life. Men are now so seldom thrown
+into wild circumstances, and violences of excitement,
+that the language of such states, the laws of
+association of feeling with thought, the starts and
+strange far-flights of the assimilative power on the
+slightest and least obvious likeness presented by
+thoughts, words, or objects,&mdash;these are all judged
+of by authority, not by actual experience,&mdash;by what
+men have been accustomed to regard as symbols of
+these states, and not the natural symbols, or self-manifestations
+of them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even so it is in the language of man, and in
+that of nature. The sound <hi rend='italic'>sun</hi>, or the figures
+<hi rend='italic'>s</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>u</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>n</hi>, are purely arbitrary modes of recalling the
+object, and for visual mere objects they are not
+only sufficient, but have infinite advantages from
+their very nothingness <hi rend='italic'>per se</hi>. But the language
+of nature is a subordinate <hi rend='italic'>Logos</hi>, that was in the
+beginning, and was with the thing it represented,
+and was the thing it represented.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now the language of Shakespeare, in his <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>
+for instance, is a something intermediate between
+these two; or rather it is the former blended with
+the latter,&mdash;the arbitrary, not merely recalling the
+cold notion of the thing, but expressing the reality
+<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/>
+of it, and, as arbitrary language is an heir-loom of
+the human race, being itself a part of that which
+it manifests. What shall I deduce from the preceding
+positions? Even this,&mdash;the appropriate,
+the never to be too much valued advantage of the
+theatre, if only the actors were what we know they
+have been,&mdash;a delightful, yet most effectual remedy
+for this dead palsy of the public mind. What
+would appear mad or ludicrous in a book, when presented
+to the senses under the form of reality, and
+with the truth of nature, supplies a species of actual
+experience. This is indeed the special privilege of
+a great actor over a great poet. No part was ever
+played in perfection, but nature justified herself in
+the hearts of all her children, in what state soever
+they were, short of absolute moral exhaustion, or
+downright stupidity. There is no time given to
+ask questions, or to pass judgments; we are taken
+by storm, and, though in the histrionic art many a
+clumsy counterfeit, by caricature of one or two
+features, may gain applause as a fine likeness, yet
+never was the very thing rejected as a counterfeit.
+O! when I think of the inexhaustible mine of virgin
+treasure in our Shakespeare, that I have been
+almost daily reading him since I was ten years old,&mdash;that
+the thirty intervening years have been unintermittingly
+and not fruitlessly employed in
+the study of the Greek, Latin, English, Italian,
+Spanish, and German <hi rend='italic'>belle lettrists</hi>, and the last
+fifteen years in addition, far more intensely in the
+analysis of the laws of life and reason as they exist
+in man,&mdash;and that upon every step I have made
+forward in taste, in acquisition of facts from history
+or my own observation, and in knowledge of the
+different laws of being and their apparent exceptions,
+<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/>
+from accidental collision of disturbing forces,&mdash;that
+at every new accession of information, after
+every successful exercise of meditation, and every
+fresh presentation of experience, I have unfailingly
+discovered a proportionate increase of wisdom and
+intuition in Shakespeare;&mdash;when I know this, and
+know too, that by a conceivable and possible, though
+hardly to be expected, arrangement of the British
+theatres, not all, indeed, but a large, a very large,
+proportion of this indefinite all&mdash;(round which no
+comprehension has yet drawn the line of circumscription,
+so as to say to itself, <q>I have seen the
+whole</q>)&mdash;might be sent into the heads and hearts&mdash;into
+the very souls of the mass of mankind, to
+whom, except by this living comment and interpretation,
+it must remain for ever a sealed volume,
+a deep well without a wheel or a windlass;&mdash;it
+seems to me a pardonable enthusiasm to steal away
+from sober likelihood, and share in so rich a feast
+in the faery world of possibility! Yet even in the
+grave cheerfulness of a circumspect hope, much,
+very much, might be done; enough, assuredly,
+to furnish a kind and strenuous nature with ample
+motives for the attempt to effect what may be
+effected.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.</head>
+
+<p>
+Clothed in radiant armour, and authorized by
+titles sure and manifold, as a poet, Shakespeare
+came forward to demand the throne of fame, as the
+dramatic poet of England. His excellences compelled
+even his contemporaries to seat him on that
+throne, although there were giants in those days
+contending for the same honour. Hereafter I
+would fain endeavour to make out the title of the
+English drama as created by, and existing in,
+Shakespeare, and its right to the supremacy of
+dramatic excellence in general. But he had shown
+himself a poet, previously to his appearance as a
+dramatic poet; and had no <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>,
+no <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>, no <hi rend='italic'>Henry IV.</hi>,
+no <hi rend='italic'>Twelfth Night</hi> ever appeared, we
+must have admitted that Shakespeare possessed the
+chief, if not every, requisite of a poet,&mdash;deep feeling
+and exquisite sense of beauty, both as exhibited
+to the eye in the combinations of form, and to the
+ear in sweet and appropriate melody; that these
+feelings were under the command of his own will;
+that in his very first productions he projected his
+mind out of his own particular being, and felt, and
+made others feel, on subjects no way connected
+with himself, except by force of contemplation and
+that sublime faculty by which a great mind becomes
+that on which it meditates. To this must be
+added that affectionate love of nature and natural
+<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/>
+objects, without which no man could have observed
+so steadily, or painted so truly and passionately,
+the very minutest beauties of the external world:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare,</q></l>
+<l>Mark the poor wretch; to overshoot his troubles,</l>
+<l>How he outruns the wind, and with what care,</l>
+<l>He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles;</l>
+<l>The many musits through the which he goes</l>
+<l>Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Sometimes he runs among the flock of sheep,</q></l>
+<l>To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell;</l>
+<l>And sometime where earth-delving conies keep,</l>
+<l>To stop the loud pursuers in their yell;</l>
+<l>And sometime sorteth with the herd of deer:</l>
+<l>Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">For there his smell with others' being mingled,</q></l>
+<l>The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt,</l>
+<l>Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled</l>
+<l>With much ado, the cold fault cleanly out,</l>
+<l>Then do they spend their mouths; echo replies,</l>
+<l>As if another chase were in the skies.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">By this poor Wat far off, upon a hill,</q></l>
+<l>Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear,</l>
+<l>To harken if his foes pursue him still:</l>
+<l>Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,</l>
+<l>And now his grief may be compared well</l>
+<l>To one sore-sick, that hears the passing bell.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch</q></l>
+<l>Turn, and return, indenting with the way:</l>
+<l>Each envious briar his weary legs doth scratch,</l>
+<l>Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.</l>
+<l>For misery is trodden on by many,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And being low, never relieved by any.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Venus and Adonis.</hi></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+And the preceding description:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">But lo! from forth a copse that neighbours by,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">A breeding jennet, lusty, young and proud,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+is much more admirable, but in parts less fitted for
+quotation.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/>
+
+<p>
+Moreover Shakespeare had shown that he possessed
+fancy, considered as the faculty of bringing
+together images dissimilar in the main by some one
+point or more of likeness, as in such a passage as
+this:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Full gently now she takes him by the hand,</q></l>
+<l>A lily prisoned in a jail of snow,</l>
+<l>Or ivory in an alabaster band:</l>
+<l><q rend="post">So white a friend ingirts so white a foe!</q>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+And still mounting the intellectual ladder, he
+had as unequivocally proved the indwelling in his
+mind of imagination, or the power by which one
+image or feeling is made to modify many others,
+and by a sort of fusion to force many into one;&mdash;that
+which afterwards showed itself in such might
+and energy in Lear, where the deep anguish of a
+father spreads the feeling of ingratitude and cruelty
+over the very elements of heaven;&mdash;and which,
+combining many circumstances into one moment of
+consciousness, tends to produce that ultimate end
+of all human thought and human feeling, unity,
+and thereby the reduction of the spirit to its principle
+and fountain, who is alone truly one. Various
+are the workings of this the greatest faculty of the
+human mind, both passionate and tranquil. In
+its tranquil and purely pleasurable operation, it
+acts chiefly by creating out of many things, as they
+would have appeared in the description of an ordinary
+mind, detailed in unimpassioned succession, a
+oneness, even as nature, the greatest of poets, acts
+upon us, when we open our eyes upon an extended
+prospect. Thus the flight of Adonis in the dusk of
+the evening:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Look! how a bright star shooteth from the sky;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">So glides he in the night from Venus' eye!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/>
+
+<p>
+How many images and feelings are here brought
+together without effort and without discord, in the
+beauty of Adonis, the rapidity of his flight, the
+yearning, yet hopelessness, of the enamoured gazer,
+while a shadowy ideal character is thrown over the
+whole! Or this power acts by impressing the stamp
+of humanity, and of human feelings, on inanimate
+or mere natural objects:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Lo! here the gentle lark, weary of rest,</q></l>
+<l>From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,</l>
+<l>And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast</l>
+<l>The sun ariseth in his majesty,</l>
+<l>Who doth the world so gloriously behold,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The cedar-tops and hills seem burnish'd gold.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Or again, it acts by so carrying on the eye of
+the reader as to make him almost lose the consciousness
+of words,&mdash;to make him see every thing
+flashed, as Wordsworth has grandly and appropriately
+said:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Flashed</hi> upon the inward eye</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Which is the bliss of solitude;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and this without exciting any painful or laborious
+attention, without any anatomy of description (a
+fault not uncommon in descriptive poetry),&mdash;but
+with the sweetness and easy movement of nature.
+This energy is an absolute essential of poetry, and
+of itself would constitute a poet, though not one of
+the highest class;&mdash;it is, however, a most hopeful
+symptom, and the <hi rend='italic'>Venus and Adonis</hi> is one continued
+specimen of it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this beautiful poem there is an endless activity
+of thought in all the possible associations of thought
+with thought, thought with feeling, or with words,
+of feelings with feelings, and of words with words.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Even as the sun, with purple-colour'd face,</q></l>
+<l>Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn,</l>
+<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/>
+<l>Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase:</l>
+<l>Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn.</l>
+<l>Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And like a bold-faced suitor 'gins to woo him.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Remark the humanizing imagery and circumstances
+of the first two lines, and the activity of
+thought in the play of words in the fourth line.
+The whole stanza presents at once the time, the
+appearance of the morning, and the two persons
+distinctly characterised, and in six simple lines
+puts the reader in possession of the whole argument
+of the poem.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Over one arm the lusty courser's rein,</q></l>
+<l>Under the other was the tender boy,</l>
+<l>Who blush'd and pouted in a dull disdain,</l>
+<l>With leaden appetite, unapt to toy,</l>
+<l>She red and hot, as coals of glowing fire,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">He red for shame, but frosty to desire:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This stanza and the two following afford good instances
+of that poetic power, which I mentioned
+above, of making every thing present to the imagination&mdash;both
+the forms, and the passions which
+modify those forms, either actually, as in the representations
+of love or anger, or other human affections;
+or imaginatively, by the different manner in
+which inanimate objects, or objects unimpassioned
+themselves, are caused to be seen by the mind in
+moments of strong excitement, and according to
+the kind of the excitement,&mdash;whether of jealousy,
+or rage, or love, in the only appropriate sense of
+the word, or of the lower impulses of our nature, or
+finally of the poetic feeling itself. It is, perhaps,
+chiefly in the power of producing and reproducing
+the latter that the poet stands distinct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The subject of the <hi rend='italic'>Venus and Adonis</hi> is unpleasing;
+but the poem itself is for that very reason
+<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/>
+the more illustrative of Shakespeare. There are
+men who can write passages of deepest pathos and
+even sublimity on circumstances personal to themselves
+and stimulative of their own passions; but
+they are not, therefore, on this account poets.
+Read that magnificent burst of woman's patriotism
+and exultation, <hi rend='italic'>Deborah's Song of Victory</hi>; it is
+glorious, but nature is the poet there. It is quite
+another matter to become all things and yet remain
+the same,&mdash;to make the changeful god be felt in the
+river, the lion, and the flame;&mdash;this it is, that is
+the true imagination. Shakespeare writes in this
+poem, as if he were of another planet, charming
+you to gaze on the movements of Venus and Adonis,
+as you would on the twinkling dances of two vernal
+butterflies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, in this poem and the <hi rend='italic'>Rape of Lucrece</hi>,
+Shakespeare gave ample proof of his possession of
+a most profound, energetic, and philosophical mind,
+without which he might have pleased, but could
+not have been a great dramatic poet. Chance and
+the necessity of his genius combined to lead him to
+the drama his proper province: in his conquest of
+which we should consider both the difficulties which
+opposed him, and the advantages by which he was
+assisted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.</head>
+
+<p>
+Thus then Shakespeare appears, from his <hi rend='italic'>Venus
+and Adonis</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Rape of Lucrece</hi> alone, apart from
+all his great works, to have possessed all the conditions
+of the true poet. Let me now proceed to
+destroy, as far as may be in my power, the popular
+notion that he was a great dramatist by mere instinct,
+<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/>
+that he grew immortal in his own despite,
+and sank below men of second or third rate power,
+when he attempted aught beside the drama&mdash;even
+as bees construct their cells and manufacture their
+honey to admirable perfection; but would in vain
+attempt to build a nest. Now this mode of reconciling
+a compelled sense of inferiority with a feeling
+of pride, began in a few pedants, who having read
+that Sophocles was the great model of tragedy, and
+Aristotle the infallible dictator of its rules, and
+finding that the <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi> and other
+master-pieces were neither in imitation of Sophocles,
+nor in obedience to Aristotle,&mdash;and not having
+(with one or two exceptions) the courage to affirm,
+that the delight which their country received from
+generation to generation, in defiance of the alterations
+of circumstances and habits, was wholly
+groundless,&mdash;took upon them, as a happy medium
+and refuge, to talk of Shakespeare as a sort of
+beautiful <hi rend='italic'>lusus naturæ</hi>, a delightful monster,&mdash;wild,
+indeed, and without taste or judgment, but like the
+inspired idiots so much venerated in the East,
+uttering, amid the strangest follies, the sublimest
+truths. In nine places out of ten in which I find
+his awful name mentioned, it is with some epithet
+of <q>wild,</q> <q>irregular,</q> <q>pure child of nature,</q>
+&amp;c. If all this be true, we must submit to it;
+though to a thinking mind it cannot but be painful
+to find any excellence, merely human, thrown
+out of all human analogy, and thereby leaving us
+neither rules for imitation, nor motives to imitate;&mdash;but
+if false, it is a dangerous falsehood;&mdash;for it
+affords a refuge to secret self-conceit,&mdash;enables a
+vain man at once to escape his reader's indignation
+by general swoln panegyrics, and merely by his
+<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/>
+<hi rend='italic'>ipse dixit</hi> to treat, as contemptible, what he has not
+intellect enough to comprehend, or soul to feel,
+without assigning any reason, or referring his
+opinion to any demonstrative principle;&mdash;thus leaving
+Shakespeare as a sort of grand Lama, adored
+indeed, and his very excrements prized as relics,
+but with no authority or real influence. I grieve
+that every late voluminous edition of his works
+would enable me to substantiate the present charge
+with a variety of facts, one-tenth of which would
+of themselves exhaust the time allotted to me.
+Every critic, who has or has not made a collection
+of black letter books&mdash;in itself a useful
+and respectable amusement,&mdash;puts on the seven-league
+boots of self-opinion, and strides at once
+from an illustrator into a supreme judge, and
+blind and deaf, fills his three-ounce phial at the
+waters of Niagara; and determines positively the
+greatness of the cataract to be neither more nor
+less than his three-ounce phial has been able to
+receive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I think this a very serious subject. It is my
+earnest desire&mdash;my passionate endeavour&mdash;to enforce
+at various times and by various arguments
+and instances the close and reciprocal connection
+of just taste with pure morality. Without that
+acquaintance with the heart of man, or that docility
+and childlike gladness to be made acquainted
+with it, which those only can have, who dare look
+at their own hearts&mdash;and that with a steadiness
+which religion only has the power of reconciling
+with sincere humility;&mdash;without this, and the
+modesty produced by it, I am deeply convinced
+that no man, however wide his erudition, however
+patient his antiquarian researches, can possibly
+<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/>
+understand, or be worthy of understanding, the
+writings of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Assuredly that criticism of Shakespeare will alone
+be genial which is reverential. The Englishman
+who, without reverence&mdash;a proud and affectionate
+reverence&mdash;can utter the name of William Shakespeare,
+stands disqualified for the office of critic.
+He wants one at least of the very senses, the
+language of which he is to employ, and will discourse
+at best but as a blind man, while the whole
+harmonious creation of light and shade with all
+its subtle interchange of deepening and dissolving
+colours rises in silence to the silent <hi rend='italic'>fiat</hi> of the uprising
+Apollo. However inferior in ability I may
+be to some who have followed me, I own I am
+proud that I was the first in time who publicly
+demonstrated to the full extent of the position,
+that the supposed irregularity and extravagances
+of Shakespeare were the mere dreams of a pedantry
+that arraigned the eagle because it had not the
+dimensions of the swan. In all the successive
+courses of lectures delivered by me, since my first
+attempt at the Royal Institution, it has been, and
+it still remains, my object, to prove that in all
+points from the most important to the most
+minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is commensurate
+with his genius,&mdash;nay, that his genius
+reveals itself in his judgment, as in its most
+exalted form. And the more gladly do I recur
+to this subject from the clear conviction, that to
+judge aright, and with distinct consciousness of
+the grounds of our judgment, concerning the
+works of Shakespeare, implies the power and the
+means of judging rightly of all other works of
+intellect, those of abstract science alone excepted.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/>
+
+<p>
+It is a painful truth, that not only individuals,
+but even whole nations, are ofttimes so enslaved
+to the habits of their education and immediate
+circumstances, as not to judge disinterestedly even
+on those subjects, the very pleasure arising from
+which consists in its disinterestedness, namely, on
+subjects of taste and polite literature. Instead of
+deciding concerning their own modes and customs
+by any rule of reason, nothing appears rational,
+becoming, or beautiful to them, but what coincides
+with the peculiarities of their education. In this
+narrow circle, individuals may attain to exquisite
+discrimination, as the French critics have done in
+their own literature; but a true critic can no more
+be such without placing himself on some central
+point, from which he may command the whole,&mdash;that
+is, some general rule, which, founded in
+reason, or the faculties common to all men, must
+therefore apply to each,&mdash;than an astronomer can
+explain the movements of the solar system without
+taking his stand in the sun. And let me remark,
+that this will not tend to produce despotism, but,
+on the contrary, true tolerance, in the critic. He
+will, indeed, require, as the spirit and substance of
+a work, something true in human nature itself,
+and independent of all circumstances; but in the
+mode of applying it, he will estimate genius and
+judgment according to the felicity with which the
+imperishable soul of intellect shall have adapted
+itself to the age, the place, and the existing manners.
+The error he will expose, lies in reversing
+this, and holding up the mere circumstances as
+perpetual to the utter neglect of the power which
+can alone animate them. For art cannot exist
+without, or apart from nature; and what has man
+<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/>
+of his own to give to his fellow man, but his own
+thoughts and feelings, and his observations, so far
+as they are modified by his own thoughts or
+feelings?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let me, then, once more submit this question to
+minds emancipated alike from national, or party,
+or sectarian prejudice:&mdash;Are the plays of Shakespeare
+works of rude uncultivated genius, in
+which the splendour of the parts compensates, if
+aught can compensate, for the barbarous shapelessness
+and irregularity of the whole?&mdash;Or is the
+form equally admirable with the matter, and the
+judgment of the great poet not less deserving our
+wonder than his genius?&mdash;Or, again, to repeat the
+question in other words:&mdash;is Shakespeare a great
+dramatic poet on account only of those beauties
+and excellences which he possesses in common
+with the ancients, but with diminished claims to
+our love and honour to the full extent of his differences
+from them?&mdash;Or are these very differences
+additional proofs of poetic wisdom, at once results
+and symbols of living power as contrasted with
+lifeless mechanism&mdash;of free and rival originality
+as contradistinguished from servile imitation, or,
+more accurately, a blind copying of effects, instead
+of a true imitation of the essential principles?&mdash;Imagine
+not that I am about to oppose genius to
+rules. No! the comparative value of these rules
+is the very cause to be tried. The spirit of poetry,
+like all other living powers, must of necessity
+circumscribe itself by rules, were it only to unite
+power with beauty. It must embody in order to
+reveal itself; but a living body is of necessity an
+organized one; and what is organization but the
+connection of parts in and for a whole, so that
+<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/>
+each part is at once end and means?&mdash;This is no
+discovery of criticism;&mdash;it is a necessity of the
+human mind; and all nations have felt and obeyed
+it, in the invention of metre, and measured
+sounds, as the vehicle and <hi rend='italic'>involucrum</hi> of poetry&mdash;itself
+a fellow-growth from the same life,&mdash;even
+as the bark is to the tree!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No work of true genius dares want its appropriate
+form, neither indeed is there any danger of
+this. As it must not, so genius cannot, be lawless;
+for it is even this that constitutes it genius&mdash;the
+power of acting creatively under laws of its own
+origination. How then comes it that not only
+single <hi rend='italic'>Zoili</hi>, but whole nations have combined in
+unhesitating condemnation of our great dramatist,
+as a sort of African nature, rich in beautiful
+monsters&mdash;as a wild heath where islands of fertility
+look the greener from the surrounding
+waste, where the loveliest plants now shine out
+among unsightly weeds, and now are choked by
+their parasitic growth, so intertwined that we cannot
+disentangle the weed without snapping the
+flower?&mdash;In this statement I have had no reference
+to the vulgar abuse of Voltaire, save as far
+as his charges are coincident with the decisions of
+Shakespeare's own commentators and (so they
+would tell you) almost idolatrous admirers. The
+true ground of the mistake lies in the confounding
+mechanical regularity with organic form. The
+form is mechanic, when on any given material we
+impress a pre-determined form, not necessarily
+arising out of the properties of the material;&mdash;as
+when to a mass of wet clay we give whatever
+shape we wish it to retain when hardened. The
+organic form, on the other hand is innate; it
+<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/>
+shapes, as it developes, itself from within, and the
+fulness of its development is one and the same
+with the perfection of its outward form. Such as
+the life is, such is the form. Nature, the prime
+genial artist, inexhaustible in diverse powers, is
+equally inexhaustible in forms;&mdash;each exterior is
+the physiognomy of the being within,&mdash;its true
+image reflected and thrown out from the concave
+mirror;&mdash;and even such is the appropriate excellence
+of her chosen poet, of our own Shakespeare,&mdash;himself
+a nature humanized, a genial
+understanding directing self-consciously a power
+and an implicit wisdom deeper even than our consciousness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I greatly dislike beauties and selections in
+general; but as proof positive of his unrivalled
+excellence, I should like to try Shakespeare by
+this criterion. Make out your amplest catalogue
+of all the human faculties, as reason or the moral
+law, the will, the feeling of the coincidence of the
+two (a feeling <hi rend='italic'>sui generis et demonstratio demonstrationum</hi>)
+called the conscience, the understanding
+or prudence, wit, fancy, imagination, judgment,&mdash;and
+then of the objects on which these are to be
+employed, as the beauties, the terrors, and the
+seeming caprices of nature, the realities and the
+capabilities, that is, the actual and the ideal, of
+the human mind, conceived as an individual or as
+a social being, as in innocence or in guilt, in a
+play-paradise, or in a war-field of temptation;&mdash;and
+then compare with Shakespeare under each
+of these heads all or any of the writers in prose
+and verse that have ever lived! Who, that is
+competent to judge, doubts the result?&mdash;And ask
+your own hearts&mdash;ask your own common-sense&mdash;to
+<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/>
+conceive the possibility of this man being&mdash;I
+say not, the drunken savage of that wretched
+sciolist, whom Frenchmen, to their shame, have
+honoured before their elder and better worthies,&mdash;but
+the anomalous, the wild, the irregular, genius
+of our daily criticism! What! are we to have
+miracles in sport?&mdash;Or, I speak reverently, does
+God choose idiots by whom to convey divine
+truths to man?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Recapitulation, And Summary
+Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's Dramas.</head>
+
+<p>
+In lectures, of which amusement forms a large
+part of the object, there are some peculiar difficulties.
+The architect places his foundation out
+of sight, and the musician tunes his instrument
+before he makes his appearance; but the lecturer
+has to try his chords in the presence of the assembly;
+an operation not likely, indeed, to produce
+much pleasure, but yet indispensably necessary to
+a right understanding of the subject to be developed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Poetry in essence is as familiar to barbarous as
+to civilized nations. The Laplander and the savage
+Indian are cheered by it as well as the inhabitants
+of London and Paris;&mdash;its spirit takes up and
+incorporates surrounding materials, as a plant
+clothes itself with soil and climate, whilst it exhibits
+the working of a vital principle within
+independent of all accidental circumstances. And
+to judge with fairness of an author's works, we
+ought to distinguish what is inward and essential
+from what is outward and circumstantial. It is
+essential to poetry that it be simple, and appeal to
+the elements and primary laws of our nature;
+that it be sensuous, and by its imagery elicit truth
+at a flash; that it be impassioned, and be able to
+<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/>
+move our feelings and awaken our affections. In
+comparing different poets with each other, we
+should inquire which have brought into the fullest
+play our imagination and our reason, or have
+created the greatest excitement and produced the
+completest harmony. If we consider great exquisiteness
+of language and sweetness of metre alone,
+it is impossible to deny to Pope the character of a
+delightful writer; but whether he be a poet, must
+depend upon our definition of the word; and, doubtless,
+if everything that pleases be poetry, Pope's
+satires and epistles must be poetry. This, I must
+say, that poetry, as distinguished from other modes
+of composition, does not rest in metre, and that it is
+not poetry, if it make no appeal to our passions or
+our imagination. One character belongs to all
+true poets, that they write from a principle within,
+not originating in any thing without; and that
+the true poet's work in its form, its shapings, and
+its modifications, is distinguished from all other
+works that assume to belong to the class of poetry,
+as a natural from an artificial flower, or as the
+mimic garden of a child from an enamelled
+meadow. In the former the flowers are broken
+from their stems and stuck into the ground; they
+are beautiful to the eye and fragrant to the sense,
+but their colours soon fade, and their odour is
+transient as the smile of the planter;&mdash;while the
+meadow may be visited again and again with renewed
+delight; its beauty is innate in the soil,
+and its bloom is of the freshness of nature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next ground of critical judgment, and point
+of comparison, will be as to how far a given poet
+has been influenced by accidental circumstances.
+As a living poet must surely write, not for the
+<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/>
+ages past, but for that in which he lives, and those
+which are to follow, it is on the one hand natural
+that he should not violate, and on the other necessary
+that he should not depend on, the mere
+manners and modes of his day. See how little
+does Shakespeare leave us to regret that he was
+born in his particular age! The great æra in
+modern times was what is called the Restoration
+of Letters;&mdash;the ages preceding it are called the
+dark ages; but it would be more wise, perhaps, to
+call them the ages in which we were in the dark.
+It is usually overlooked that the supposed dark
+period was not universal, but partial and successive,
+or alternate; that the dark age of England
+was not the dark age of Italy, but that one country
+was in its light and vigour, whilst another was
+in its gloom and bondage. But no sooner had the
+Reformation sounded through Europe like the
+blast of an archangel's trumpet, than from king
+to peasant there arose an enthusiasm for knowledge;
+the discovery of a manuscript became the
+subject of an embassy; Erasmus read by moonlight,
+because he could not afford a torch, and
+begged a penny, not for the love of charity, but
+for the love of learning. The three great points
+of attention were religion, morals, and taste; men
+of genius, as well as men of learning, who in this
+age need to be so widely distinguished, then alike
+became copyists of the ancients; and this, indeed,
+was the only way by which the taste of mankind
+could be improved, or their understandings informed.
+Whilst Dante imagined himself a humble
+follower of Virgil, and Ariosto of Homer, they
+were both unconscious of that greater power working
+within them, which in many points carried
+<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/>
+them beyond their supposed originals. All great
+discoveries bear the stamp of the age in which
+they are made;&mdash;hence we perceive the effects of
+the purer religion of the moderns visible for the
+most part in their lives; and in reading their
+works we should not content ourselves with the
+mere narratives of events long since passed, but
+should learn to apply their maxims and conduct
+to ourselves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having intimated that times and manners lend
+their form and pressure to genius, let me once
+more draw a slight parallel between the ancient
+and modern stage,&mdash;the stages of Greece and of
+England. The Greeks were polytheists; their
+religion was local; almost the only object of all
+their knowledge, art, and taste, was their gods;
+and, accordingly, their productions were, if the
+expression may be allowed, statuesque, whilst
+those of the moderns are picturesque. The Greeks
+reared a structure, which, in its parts, and as a
+whole, filled the mind with the calm and elevated
+impression of perfect beauty, and symmetrical proportion.
+The moderns also produced a whole&mdash;a
+more striking whole; but it was by blending
+materials, and fusing the parts together. And as
+the Pantheon is to York Minster or Westminster
+Abbey, so is Sophocles compared with Shakespeare;
+in the one a completeness, a satisfaction, an excellence,
+on which the mind rests with complacency;
+in the other a multitude of interlaced
+materials, great and little, magnificent and mean,
+accompanied, indeed, with the sense of a falling
+short of perfection, and yet, at the same time, so
+promising of our social and individual progression,
+that we would not, if we could, exchange it for
+<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/>
+that repose of the mind which dwells on the forms
+of symmetry in the acquiescent admiration of
+grace. This general characteristic of the ancient
+and modern drama might be illustrated by a
+parallel of the ancient and modern music;&mdash;the
+one consisting of melody arising from a succession
+only of pleasing sounds,&mdash;the modern embracing
+harmony also, the result of combination, and the
+effect of a whole.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have said, and I say it again, that great as
+was the genius of Shakespeare, his judgment was
+at least equal to it. Of this any one will be convinced,
+who attentively considers those points in
+which the dramas of Greece and England differ,
+from the dissimilitude of circumstances by which
+each was modified and influenced. The Greek
+stage had its origin in the ceremonies of a sacrifice,
+such as of the goat to Bacchus, whom we
+most erroneously regard as merely the jolly god of
+wine;&mdash;for among the ancients he was venerable,
+as the symbol of that power which acts without
+our consciousness in the vital energies of nature&mdash;the
+<hi rend='italic'>vinum mundi</hi>&mdash;as Apollo was that of the conscious
+agency of our intellectual being. The
+heroes of old, under the influences of this Bacchic
+enthusiasm, performed more than human actions;
+hence tales of the favourite champions soon passed
+into dialogue. On the Greek stage the chorus
+was always before the audience; the curtain was
+never dropped, as we should say; and change of
+place being therefore, in general, impossible, the
+absurd notion of condemning it merely as improbable
+in itself was never entertained by any one.
+If we can believe ourselves at Thebes in one act,
+we may believe ourselves at Athens in the next.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/>
+
+<p>
+If a story lasts twenty-four hours or twenty-four
+years, it is equally improbable. There seems to
+be no just boundary but what the feelings prescribe.
+But on the Greek stage, where the same
+persons were perpetually before the audience,
+great judgment was necessary in venturing on
+any such change. The poets never, therefore,
+attempted to impose on the senses by bringing
+places to men, but they did bring men to places,
+as in the well-known instance in the <hi rend='italic'>Eumenides</hi>,
+where, during an evident retirement of the chorus
+from the orchestra, the scene is changed to
+Athens, and Orestes is first introduced in the
+temple of Minerva, and the chorus of Furies come
+in afterwards in pursuit of him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the Greek drama there were no formal divisions
+into scenes and acts; there were no means,
+therefore, of allowing for the necessary lapse of
+time between one part of the dialogue and another,
+and unity of time in a strict sense was, of course,
+impossible. To overcome that difficulty of accounting
+for time, which is effected on the modern
+stage by dropping a curtain, the judgment and
+great genius of the ancients supplied music and
+measured motion, and with the lyric ode filled up
+the vacuity. In the story of the <hi rend='italic'>Agamemnon</hi> of
+Æschylus, the capture of Troy is supposed to be
+announced by a fire lighted on the Asiatic shore,
+and the transmission of the signal by successive
+beacons to Mycenæ. The signal is first seen at
+the 21st line, and the herald from Troy itself
+enters at the 486th, and Agamemnon himself at
+the 783rd line. But the practical absurdity of
+this was not felt by the audience, who, in imagination
+stretched minutes into hours, while they
+<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/>
+listened to the lofty narrative odes of the chorus
+which almost entirely filled up the interspace.
+Another fact deserves attention here, namely, that
+regularly on the Greek stage a drama, or acted
+story, consisted in reality of three dramas, called
+together a trilogy, and performed consecutively in
+the course of one day. Now you may conceive a
+tragedy of Shakespeare's as a trilogy connected in
+one single representation. Divide <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> into three
+parts, and each would be a play with the ancients;
+or take the three Æschylean dramas of <hi rend='italic'>Agamemnon</hi>,
+and divide them into, or call them, as many
+acts, and they together would be one play. The
+first act would comprise the usurpation of Ægisthus,
+and the murder of Agamemnon; the second,
+the revenge of Orestes, and the murder of his
+mother; and the third, the penance and absolution
+of Orestes;&mdash;occupying a period of twenty-two
+years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The stage in Shakespeare's time was a naked
+room with a blanket for a curtain; but he made
+it a field for monarchs. That law of unity, which
+has its foundations, not in the factitious necessity
+of custom, but in nature itself, the unity of feeling,
+is everywhere and at all times observed by Shakespeare
+in his plays. Read <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>;&mdash;all
+is youth and spring;&mdash;youth with its follies, its
+virtues, its precipitancies;&mdash;spring with its odours,
+its flowers, and its transiency; it is one and the
+same feeling that commences, goes through, and
+ends the play. The old men, the Capulets and
+Montagues, are not common old men; they have
+an eagerness, a heartiness, a vehemence, the effect
+of spring; with Romeo, his change of passion, his
+sudden marriage, and his rash death, are all the
+<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/>
+effects of youth;&mdash;whilst in Juliet love has all that
+is tender and melancholy in the nightingale, all
+that is voluptuous in the rose, with whatever is
+sweet in the freshness of spring; but it ends with
+a long deep sigh like the last breeze of the Italian
+evening. This unity of feeling and character pervades
+every drama of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It seems to me that his plays are distinguished
+from those of all other dramatic poets by the
+following characteristics:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Expectation in preference to surprise. It is
+like the true reading of the passage&mdash;<q>God said,
+Let there be light, and there was <emph>light</emph>;</q>&mdash;not,
+there <emph>was</emph> light. As the feeling with which we
+startle at a shooting star compared with that of
+watching the sunrise at the pre-established moment,
+such and so low is surprise compared with
+expectation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. Signal adherence to the great law of nature,
+that all opposites tend to attract and temper each
+other. Passion in Shakespeare generally displays
+libertinism, but involves morality; and if there
+are exceptions to this, they are, independently of
+their intrinsic value, all of them indicative of individual
+character, and, like the farewell admonitions
+of a parent, have an end beyond the parental
+relation. Thus the Countess's beautiful precepts
+to Bertram, by elevating her character, raise that
+of Helena her favourite, and soften down the point
+in her which Shakespeare does not mean us not to
+see, but to see and to forgive, and at length to
+justify. And so it is in Polonius, who is the personified
+memory of wisdom no longer actually
+possessed. This admirable character is always
+misrepresented on the stage. Shakespeare never
+<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/>
+intended to exhibit him as a buffoon; for although
+it was natural that Hamlet&mdash;a young man of fire
+and genius, detesting formality, and disliking
+Polonius on political grounds, as imagining that
+he had assisted his uncle in his usurpation&mdash;should
+express himself satirically, yet this must not be
+taken as exactly the poet's conception of him. In
+Polonius a certain induration of character had
+arisen from long habits of business; but take his
+advice to Laertes, and Ophelia's reverence for his
+memory, and we shall see that he was meant to be
+represented as a statesman somewhat past his
+faculties,&mdash;his recollections of life all full of wisdom,
+and showing a knowledge of human nature,
+whilst what immediately takes place before him,
+and escapes from him, is indicative of weakness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But as in Homer all the deities are in armour,
+even Venus; so in Shakespeare all the characters
+are strong. Hence real folly and dulness are
+made by him the vehicles of wisdom. There is no
+difficulty for one being a fool to imitate a fool;
+but to be, remain, and speak like a wise man and
+a great wit, and yet so as to give a vivid representation
+of a veritable fool,&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>hic labor, hoc opus est</hi>.
+A drunken constable is not uncommon, nor hard
+to draw; but see and examine what goes to make
+up a Dogberry.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. Keeping at all times in the high road of life.
+Shakespeare has no innocent adulteries, no interesting
+incests, no virtuous vice;&mdash;he never renders
+that amiable which religion and reason alike
+teach us to detest, or clothes impurity in the garb
+of virtue, like Beaumont and Fletcher, the Kotzebues
+of the day. Shakespeare's fathers are
+roused by ingratitude, his husbands stung by unfaithfulness;
+<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/>
+in him, in short, the affections are
+wounded in those points in which all may, nay,
+must, feel. Let the morality of Shakespeare be
+contrasted with that of the writers of his own, or
+the succeeding age, or of those of the present day,
+who boast their superiority in this respect. No
+one can dispute that the result of such a comparison
+is altogether in favour of Shakespeare;&mdash;even
+the letters of women of high rank in his age were
+often coarser than his writings. If he occasionally
+disgusts a keen sense of delicacy, he never
+injures the mind; he neither excites, nor flatters,
+passion, in order to degrade the subject of it; he
+does not use the faulty thing for a faulty purpose,
+nor carries on warfare against virtue, by causing
+wickedness to appear as no wickedness, through
+the medium of a morbid sympathy with the unfortunate.
+In Shakespeare vice never walks as in
+twilight; nothing is purposely out of its place;&mdash;he
+inverts not the order of nature and propriety,&mdash;does
+not make every magistrate a drunkard or
+glutton, nor every poor man meek, humane, and
+temperate; he has no benevolent butchers, nor any
+sentimental rat-catchers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Independence of the dramatic interest on the
+plot. The interest in the plot is always in fact on
+account of the characters, not <hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>, as in
+almost all other writers; the plot is a mere canvass
+and no more. Hence arises the true justification
+of the same stratagem being used in regard to
+Benedict and Beatrice,&mdash;the vanity in each being
+alike. Take away from the <hi rend='italic'>Much Ado about
+Nothing</hi> all that which is not indispensable to the
+plot, either as having little to do with it, or, at
+best, like Dogberry and his comrades, forced into
+<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/>
+the service, when any other less ingeniously
+absurd watchmen and night-constables would have
+answered the mere necessities of the action;&mdash;take
+away Benedict, Beatrice, Dogberry, and the
+reaction of the former on the character of Hero,&mdash;and
+what will remain? In other writers the main
+agent of the plot is always the prominent character;
+in Shakespeare it is so, or is not so, as the
+character is in itself calculated, or not calculated,
+to form the plot. Don John is the main-spring of
+the plot of this play; but he is merely shown and
+then withdrawn.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. Independence of the interest on the story as
+the ground-work of the plot. Hence Shakespeare
+never took the trouble of inventing stories. It
+was enough for him to select from those that had
+been already invented or recorded such as had one
+or other, or both, of two recommendations, namely,
+suitableness to his particular purpose, and their
+being parts of popular tradition,&mdash;names of which
+we had often heard, and of their fortunes, and as
+to which all we wanted was, to see the man himself.
+So it is just the man himself&mdash;the Lear,
+the Shylock, the Richard&mdash;that Shakespeare
+makes us for the first time acquainted with.
+Omit the first scene in <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, and yet everything
+will remain; so the first and second scenes in
+the <hi rend='italic'>Merchant of Venice</hi>. Indeed it is universally
+true.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. Interfusion of the lyrical&mdash;that which in its
+very essence is poetical&mdash;not only with the dramatic,
+as in the plays of Metastasio, where at the end
+of the scene comes the <hi rend='italic'>aria</hi>
+as the <emph>exit</emph> speech of
+the character,&mdash;but also in and through the dramatic.
+Songs in Shakespeare are introduced as songs
+<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/>
+only, just as songs are in real life, beautifully as
+some of them are characteristic of the person who
+has sung or called for them, as Desdemona's
+<q>Willow,</q> and Ophelia's wild snatches, and the
+sweet carollings in <hi rend='italic'>As You Like It</hi>. But the
+whole of the <hi rend='italic'>Midsummer Night's Dream</hi> is one
+continued specimen of the dramatised lyrical.
+And observe how exquisitely the dramatic of Hotspur;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Marry, and I'm glad on't with all my heart;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">I'd rather be a kitten and cry&mdash;mew.</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+melts away into the lyric of Mortimer;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh</q></l>
+<l>Which thou pourest down from these swelling heavens,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">I am too perfect in,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Henry IV.</hi> part i. act iii, sc. 1.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+7. The characters of the <hi rend='italic'>dramatis personæ</hi>, like
+those in real life, are to be inferred by the reader;&mdash;they
+are not told to him. And it is well worth
+remarking that Shakespeare's characters, like those
+in real life, are very commonly misunderstood, and
+almost always understood by different persons in
+different ways. The causes are the same in either
+case. If you take only what the friends of the
+character say, you may be deceived, and still more
+so, if that which his enemies say; nay, even the
+character himself sees himself through the medium
+of his character, and not exactly as he is. Take
+all together, not omitting a shrewd hint from the
+clown or the fool, and perhaps your impression will
+be right; and you may know whether you have in
+fact discovered the poet's own idea, by all the
+speeches receiving light from it, and attesting its
+reality by reflecting it.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, in Shakespeare the heterogeneous is
+united, as it is in nature. You must not suppose
+a pressure or passion always acting on or in the
+character!&mdash;passion in Shakespeare is that by
+which the individual is distinguished from others,
+not that which makes a different kind of him.
+Shakespeare followed the main march of the
+human affections. He entered into no analysis of
+the passions or faiths of men, but assured himself
+that such and such passions and faiths were
+grounded in our common nature, and not in the
+mere accidents of ignorance or disease. This is an
+important consideration, and constitutes our Shakespeare
+the morning star, the guide and the pioneer,
+of true philosophy.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.</head>
+
+<p>
+Of that species of writing termed tragi-comedy,
+much has been produced and doomed to the
+shelf. Shakespeare's comic are continually reacting
+upon his tragic characters. Lear, wandering
+amidst the tempest, has all his feelings of distress
+increased by the overflowings of the wild wit
+of the Fool, as vinegar poured upon wounds exacerbates
+their pain. Thus, even his comic humour
+tends to the development of tragic passion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The next characteristic of Shakespeare is his
+keeping at all times in the high road of life, &amp;c.
+Another evidence of his exquisite judgment is,
+that he seizes hold of popular tales; <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> and the
+<hi rend='italic'>Merchant of Venice</hi> were popular tales, but are so
+excellently managed, that both are the representations
+of men in all countries and of all times.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His dramas do not arise absolutely out of some
+one extraordinary circumstance, the scenes may
+stand independently of any such one connecting
+incident, as faithful representations of men and
+manners. In his mode of drawing characters
+there are no pompous descriptions of a man by
+himself; his character is to be drawn, as in real
+life, from the whole course of the play, or out of
+the mouths of his enemies or friends. This may
+<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/>
+be exemplified in Polonius, whose character has
+been often misrepresented. Shakespeare never
+intended him for a buffoon, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another excellence of Shakespeare, in which no
+writer equals him, is in the language of nature.
+So correct is it, that we can see ourselves in every
+page. The style and manner have also that
+felicity, that not a sentence can be read, without
+its being discovered if it is Shakespearian. In
+observation of living characters&mdash;of landlords and
+postilions&mdash;Fielding has great excellence; but in
+drawing from his own heart, and depicting that
+species of character, which no observation could
+teach, he failed in comparison with Richardson,
+who perpetually places himself, as it were, in a
+day-dream. Shakespeare excels in both. Witness
+the accuracy of character in Juliet's name; while
+for the great characters of Iago, Othello, Hamlet,
+Richard III., to which he could never have seen
+anything similar, he seems invariably to have
+asked himself&mdash;How should I act or speak in such
+circumstances? His comic characters are also
+peculiar. A drunken constable was not uncommon;
+but he makes folly a vehicle for wit, as
+in Dogberry: everything is a <hi rend='italic'>sub-stratum</hi> on which
+his genius can erect the mightiest superstructure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To distinguish that which is legitimate in
+Shakespeare from what does not belong to him,
+we must observe his varied images symbolical of
+novel truth, thrusting by, and seeming to trip up
+each other, from an impetuosity of thought, producing
+a flowing metre, and seldom closing with
+the line. In <hi rend='italic'>Pericles</hi>, a play written fifty years
+before, but altered by Shakespeare, his additions
+may be recognised to half a line, from the metre,
+<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/>
+which has the same perfection in the flowing continuity
+of interchangeable metrical pauses in his
+earliest plays, as in <hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's Lost</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, contrast his <emph>morality</emph> with the writers of
+his own or of the succeeding age, &amp;c. If a man
+speak injuriously of our friend, our vindication of
+him is naturally warm. Shakespeare has been
+accused of profaneness. I for my part have
+acquired from perusal of him, a habit of looking
+into my own heart, and am confident that Shakespeare
+is an author of all others the most calculated
+to make his readers better as well as wiser.
+</p>
+
+<milestone unit="tb" rend="stars: 5"/>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare, possessed of wit, humour, fancy,
+and imagination, built up an outward world from
+the stores within his mind, as the bee finds a hive
+from a thousand sweets gathered from a thousand
+flowers. He was not only a great poet but a great
+philosopher. Richard III., Iago, and Falstaff are
+men who reverse the order of things, who place
+intellect at the head, whereas it ought to follow,
+like Geometry, to prove and to confirm. No man,
+either hero or saint, ever acted from an unmixed
+motive; for let him do what he will rightly, still
+Conscience whispers <q>it is your duty.</q> Richard,
+laughing at conscience and sneering at religion,
+felt a confidence in his intellect, which urged him
+to commit the most horrid crimes, because he felt
+himself, although inferior in form and shape,
+superior to those around him; he felt he possessed
+a power which they had not. Iago, on the same
+principle, conscious of superior intellect, gave
+scope to his envy, and hesitated not to ruin a
+gallant, open, and generous friend in the moment
+<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/>
+of felicity, because he was not promoted as he expected.
+Othello was superior in place, but Iago
+felt him to be inferior in intellect, and, unrestrained
+by conscience, trampled upon him. Falstaff,
+not a degraded man of genius, like Burns,
+but a man of degraded genius, with the same
+consciousness of superiority to his companions,
+fastened himself on a young Prince, to prove how
+much his influence on an heir-apparent would
+exceed that of a statesman. With this view he
+hesitated not to adopt the most contemptible of all
+characters, that of an open and professed liar:
+even his sensuality was subservient to his intellect:
+for he appeared to drink sack, that he might have
+occasion to show off his wit. One thing, however,
+worthy of observation, is the perpetual contrast of
+labour in Falstaff to produce wit, with the ease
+with which Prince Henry parries his shafts; and
+the final contempt which such a character deserves
+and receives from the young king, when Falstaff
+exhibits the struggle of inward determination with
+an outward show of humility.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.</head>
+
+<p>
+Various attempts have been made to arrange
+the plays of Shakespeare, each according to
+its priority in time, by proofs derived from external
+documents. How unsuccessful these attempts have
+been might easily be shewn, not only from the
+widely different results arrived at by men, all
+deeply versed in the black-letter books, old plays,
+pamphlets, manuscript records, and catalogues of
+that age, but also from the fallacious and unsatisfactory
+nature of the facts and assumptions on
+which the evidence rests. In that age, when the
+press was chiefly occupied with controversial or
+practical divinity,&mdash;when the law, the Church, and
+the State engrossed all honour and respectability,&mdash;when
+a degree of disgrace, <hi rend='italic'>levior quædam infamiæ
+macula</hi>, was attached to the publication of poetry,
+and even to have sported with the Muse, as a
+private relaxation, was supposed to be&mdash;a venial
+fault, indeed, yet&mdash;something beneath the gravity
+of a wise man,&mdash;when the professed poets were so
+poor, that the very expenses of the press demanded
+the liberality of some wealthy individual, so that
+two-thirds of Spenser's poetic works, and those
+most highly praised by his learned admirers and
+friends, remained for many years in manuscript,
+and in manuscript perished,&mdash;when the amateurs
+of the stage were comparatively few, and therefore
+for the greater part more or less known to each
+<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/>
+other,&mdash;when we know that the plays of Shakespeare,
+both during and after his life, were the
+property of the stage, and published by the
+players, doubtless according to their notions of
+acceptability with the visitants of the theatre,&mdash;in
+such an age, and under such circumstances, can an
+allusion or reference to any drama or poem in the
+publication of a contemporary be received as conclusive
+evidence, that such drama or poem had at
+that time been published? Or, further, can the
+priority of publication itself prove anything in
+favour of actually prior composition?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are tolerably certain, indeed, that the <hi rend='italic'>Venus
+and Adonis</hi>, and the <hi rend='italic'>Rape of Lucrece</hi>, were his two
+earliest poems, and though not printed until 1593,
+in the twenty-ninth year of his age, yet there can
+be little doubt that they had remained by him in
+manuscript many years. For Mr. Malone has
+made it highly probable that he had commenced
+as a writer for the stage in 1591, when he was
+twenty-seven years old, and Shakespeare himself
+assures us that the <hi rend='italic'>Venus and Adonis</hi> was the first
+heir of his invention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baffled, then, in the attempt to derive any satisfaction
+from outward documents, we may easily
+stand excused if we turn our researches towards
+the internal evidences furnished by the writings
+themselves, with no other positive <hi rend='italic'>data</hi> than the
+known facts that the <hi rend='italic'>Venus and Adonis</hi> was printed
+in 1593, the <hi rend='italic'>Rape of Lucrece</hi> in 1594, and that the
+<hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi> had appeared in 1595,&mdash;and
+with no other presumptions than that the poems,
+his very first productions, were written many
+years earlier&mdash;(for who can believe that Shakespeare
+could have remained to his twenty-ninth or
+<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/>
+thirtieth year without attempting poetic composition
+of any kind?),&mdash;and that between these and
+<hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi> there had intervened one or two
+other dramas, or the chief materials, at least of
+them, although they may very possibly have
+appeared after the success of the <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>,
+and some other circumstances, had given the poet
+an authority with the proprietors, and created a
+prepossession in his favour with the theatrical
+audiences.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1802.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+FIRST EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>The London Prodigal.</item>
+<item>Cromwell.</item>
+<item>Henry VI., three parts, first edition.</item>
+<item>The old King John.</item>
+<item>Edward III.</item>
+<item>The old Taming of the Shrew.</item>
+<item>Pericles.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+All these are transition works, <hi rend='italic'>Uebergangswerke</hi>;
+not his, yet of him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+SECOND EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>All's Well that Ends Well;&mdash;but afterwards
+worked up afresh (<hi rend='italic'>umgearbeitet</hi>),
+especially Parolles.</item>
+<item>The Two Gentlemen of Verona; a sketch.</item>
+<item>Romeo and Juliet; first draft of it.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+THIRD EPOCH
+</p>
+
+<p>
+rises into the full, although youthful, Shakespeare;
+it was the negative period of his perfection.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Love's Labour's Lost.</item>
+<item>Twelfth Night.</item>
+<item>As You Like It.</item>
+<item>Midsummer Night's Dream.</item>
+<item>Richard II.</item>
+<item>Henry IV. and V.</item>
+<item>Henry VIII.; <hi rend='italic'>Gelegenheitsgedicht</hi>.</item>
+<item>Romeo and Juliet, as at present.</item>
+<item>Merchant of Venice.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+FOURTH EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Much Ado about Nothing.</item>
+<item>Merry Wives of Windsor; first edition.</item>
+<item>Henry VI.; <hi rend='italic'>rifacimento</hi>.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+FIFTH EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The period of beauty was now past; and that of
+δεινότης and grandeur succeeds.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Lear.</item>
+<item>Macbeth.</item>
+<item>Hamlet.</item>
+<item>Timon of Athens; an after vibration of
+Hamlet.</item>
+<item>Troilus and Cressida; <hi rend='italic'>Uebergang in die
+Ironie</hi>.</item>
+<item>The Roman Plays.</item>
+<item>King John, as at present.</item>
+<item>Merry Wives of Windsor</item>
+<item>Taming of the Shrew <hi rend='italic'>umgearbeitet.</hi></item>
+<item>Measure for Measure.</item>
+<item>Othello.</item>
+<item>Tempest.</item>
+<item>Winter's Tale.</item>
+<item>Cymbeline.</item>
+</list>
+
+<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/>
+
+<p>
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1810.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas I take to be&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Love's Labour's Lost.</item>
+<item>All's Well that Ends Well.</item>
+<item>Comedy of Errors.</item>
+<item>Romeo and Juliet.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+In the second class I reckon&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Midsummer Night's Dream.</item>
+<item>As You Like It.</item>
+<item>Tempest.</item>
+<item>Twelfth Night.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+In the third, as indicating a greater energy&mdash;not
+merely of poetry, but of all the world of
+thought, yet still with some of the growing pains,
+and the awkwardness of growth&mdash;I place&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Troilus and Cressida.</item>
+<item>Cymbeline.</item>
+<item>Merchant of Venice.</item>
+<item>Much Ado about Nothing.</item>
+<item>Taming of the Shrew.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+In the fourth, I place the plays containing the
+greatest characters&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Macbeth.</item>
+<item>Lear.</item>
+<item>Hamlet.</item>
+<item>Othello.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+And lastly, the historic dramas, in order to be
+able to show my reasons for rejecting some whole
+plays, and very many scenes in others.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/>
+
+<p>
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1819.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I think Shakespeare's earliest dramatic attempt&mdash;perhaps
+even prior in conception to the <hi rend='italic'>Venus
+and Adonis</hi>, and planned before he left Stratford&mdash;was
+<hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's Lost</hi>. Shortly afterwards I
+suppose <hi rend='italic'>Pericles</hi> and certain
+scenes in <hi rend='italic'>Jeronymo</hi> to
+have been produced; and in the same epoch, I
+place the <hi rend='italic'>Winter's Tale</hi>
+and <hi rend='italic'>Cymbeline</hi>, differing
+from the <hi rend='italic'>Pericles</hi> by the
+entire <hi rend='italic'>rifacimento</hi> of it,
+when Shakespeare's celebrity as poet, and his interest,
+no less than his influence, as manager,
+enabled him to bring forward the laid-by labours
+of his youth. The example of <hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi>,
+which, as well as <hi rend='italic'>Jeronymo</hi>, was most popular in
+Shakespeare's first epoch, had led the young
+dramatist to the lawless mixture of dates and
+manners. In this same epoch I should place the
+<hi rend='italic'>Comedy of Errors</hi>, remarkable as being the only
+specimen of poetical farce in our language, that is,
+intentionally such; so that all the distinct kinds
+of drama, which might be educed <hi rend='italic'>a priori</hi>, have
+their representatives in Shakespeare's works. I
+say intentionally such; for many of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's plays, and the greater part of Ben
+Jonson's comedies, are farce plots. I add <hi rend='italic'>All's
+Well that Ends Well</hi>, originally intended as the
+counterpart of <hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's Lost</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Taming of the Shrew</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Midsummer Night's Dream</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Much Ado
+about Nothing</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+SECOND EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Richard II.</item>
+<item>King John.</item>
+<item>Henry VI.,&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>rifacimento</hi> only.</item>
+<item>Richard III.</item>
+</list>
+
+<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/>
+
+<p>
+THIRD EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Henry IV.</item>
+<item>Henry V.</item>
+<item>Merry Wives of Windsor.</item>
+<item>Henry VIII.,&mdash;a sort of historical masque,
+or show play.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+FOURTH EPOCH
+</p>
+
+<p>
+gives all the graces and facilities of a genius in
+full possession and habitual exercise of power, and
+peculiarly of the feminine, the <emph>lady's</emph> character.
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Tempest.</item>
+<item>As You Like It</item>
+<item>Merchant of Venice.</item>
+<item>Twelfth Night.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+And, finally, at its very point of culmination&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Lear.</item>
+<item>Hamlet.</item>
+<item>Macbeth.</item>
+<item>Othello.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+LAST EPOCH.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+when the energies of intellect in the cycle of
+genius were, though in a rich and more potentiated
+form, becoming predominant over passion
+and creative self-manifestation&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<list type="simple">
+<item>Measure for Measure,</item>
+<item>Timon of Athens.</item>
+<item>Coriolanus.</item>
+<item>Julius Cæsar.</item>
+<item>Antony and Cleopatra.</item>
+<item>Troilus and Cressida.</item>
+</list>
+
+<p>
+Merciful, wonder-making Heaven! what a man
+was this Shakespeare! Myriad-minded, indeed,
+he was.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Notes On The <q>Tempest.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+There is a sort of improbability with which
+we are shocked in dramatic representation,
+not less than in a narrative of real life. Consequently,
+there must be rules respecting it; and as
+rules are nothing but means to an end previously
+ascertained&mdash;(inattention to which simple truth
+has been the occasion of all the pedantry of the
+French school),&mdash;we must first determine what the
+immediate end or object of the drama is. And
+here, as I have previously remarked, I find two
+extremes of critical decision;&mdash;the French, which
+evidently presupposes that a perfect delusion is to be
+aimed at,&mdash;an opinion which needs no fresh confutation;
+and the exact opposite to it, brought forward
+by Dr. Johnson, who supposes the auditors
+throughout in the full reflective knowledge of the
+contrary. In evincing the impossibility of delusion,
+he makes no sufficient allowance for an intermediate
+state, which I have before distinguished
+by the term illusion, and have attempted to illustrate
+its quality and character by reference to our
+mental state when dreaming. In both cases we
+simply do not judge the imagery to be unreal;
+there is a negative reality, and no more. Whatever,
+therefore, tends to prevent the mind from
+placing itself, or being placed, gradually in that
+state in which the images have such negative
+reality for the auditor, destroys this illusion, and
+is dramatically improbable.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/>
+
+<p>
+Now, the production of this effect&mdash;a sense of
+improbability&mdash;will depend on the degree of excitement
+in which the mind is supposed to be.
+Many things would be intolerable in the first
+scene of a play, that would not at all interrupt our
+enjoyment in the height of the interest, when the
+narrow cockpit may be made to hold
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The vasty field of France, or we may cram</q></l>
+<l>Within its wooden O, the very casques,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">That did affright the air at Agincourt.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Again, on the other hand, many obvious improbabilities
+will be endured, as belonging to the
+groundwork of the story rather than to the drama
+itself, in the first scenes, which would disturb or
+disentrance us from all illusion in the acme of our
+excitement; as for instance, Lear's division of his
+kingdom, and the banishment of Cordelia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But, although the other excellences of the drama
+besides this dramatic probability, as unity of interest,
+with distinctness and subordination of the
+characters, and appropriateness of style, are all, so
+far as they tend to increase the inward excitement,
+means towards accomplishing the chief end, that
+of producing and supporting this willing illusion,&mdash;yet
+they do not on that account cease to be ends
+themselves; and we must remember that, as such,
+they carry their own justification with them, as
+long as they do not contravene or interrupt the
+total illusion. It is not even always, or of necessity,
+an objection to them, that they prevent the
+illusion from rising to as great a height as it
+might otherwise have attained;&mdash;it is enough that
+they are simply compatible with as high a degree
+of it as is requisite for the purpose. Nay, upon
+<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/>
+particular occasions, a palpable improbability may
+be hazarded by a great genius for the express purpose
+of keeping down the interest of a merely instrumental
+scene, which would otherwise make too
+great an impression for the harmony of the entire
+illusion. Had the panorama been invented in the
+time of Pope Leo X., Raffael would still, I doubt
+not, have smiled in contempt at the regret, that
+the broom twigs and scrubby bushes at the back of
+some of his grand pictures were not as probable
+trees as those in the exhibition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <hi rend='italic'>Tempest</hi> is a specimen of the purely romantic
+drama, in which the interest is not historical,
+or dependent upon fidelity of portraiture,
+or the natural connection of events, but is a birth
+of the imagination, and rests only upon the coaptation
+and union of the elements granted to, or
+assumed by, the poet. It is a species of drama
+which owes no allegiance to time or space, and in
+which, therefore, errors of chronology and geography&mdash;no
+mortal sins in any species&mdash;are venial
+faults, and count for nothing. It addresses itself
+entirely to the imaginative faculty; and although
+the illusion may be assisted by the effect on the
+senses of the complicated scenery and decorations
+of modern times, yet this sort of assistance is
+dangerous. For the principal and only genuine
+excitement ought to come from within&mdash;from the
+moved and sympathetic imagination; whereas,
+where so much is addressed to the mere external
+senses of seeing and bearing, the spiritual vision
+is apt to languish, and the attraction from without
+will withdraw the mind from the proper and only
+legitimate interest which is intended to spring
+from within.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/>
+
+<p>
+The romance opens with a busy scene admirably
+appropriate to the kind of drama, and giving, as
+it were, the key-note to the whole harmony. It
+prepares and initiates the excitement required for
+the entire piece, and yet does not demand anything
+from the spectators, which their previous
+habits had not fitted them to understand. It is
+the bustle of a tempest, from which the real
+horrors are abstracted;&mdash;therefore it is poetical,
+though not in strictness natural&mdash;(the distinction
+to which I have so often alluded)&mdash;and is purposely
+restrained from concentering the interest
+on itself, but used merely as an induction or tuning
+for what is to follow.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the second scene, Prospero's speeches, till the
+entrance of Ariel, contain the finest example I remember
+of retrospective narration for the purpose
+of exciting immediate interest, and putting the
+audience in possession of all the information necessary
+for the understanding of the plot. Observe,
+too, the perfect probability of the moment chosen
+by Prospero (the very Shakespeare himself, as it
+were, of the tempest) to open out the truth to his
+daughter, his own romantic bearing, and how
+completely anything that might have been disagreeable
+to us in the magician, is reconciled and
+shaded in the humanity and natural feelings of the
+father. In the very first speech of Miranda, the
+simplicity and tenderness of her character are at
+once laid open;&mdash;it would have been lost in direct
+contact with the agitation of the first scene. The
+opinion once prevailed, but happily is now abandoned,
+that Fletcher alone wrote for women;&mdash;the
+truth is, that with very few, and those partial exceptions,
+the female characters in the plays of
+<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/>
+Beaumont and Fletcher are, when of the light
+kind, not decent; when heroic, complete viragos.
+But in Shakespeare all the elements of womanhood
+are holy, and there is the sweet yet dignified
+feeling of all that <emph>continuates</emph> society, as sense of
+ancestry and of sex, with a purity unassailable by
+sophistry, because it rests not in the analytic processes,
+but in that sane equipoise of the faculties,
+during which the feelings are representative of all
+past experience,&mdash;not of the individual only, but of
+all those by whom she has been educated, and
+their predecessors, even up to the first mother that
+lived. Shakespeare saw that the want of prominence,
+which Pope notices for sarcasm, was the
+blessed beauty of the woman's character, and knew
+that it arose not from any deficiency, but from the
+more exquisite harmony of all the parts of the
+moral being constituing one living total of head
+and heart. He has drawn it, indeed, in all its distinctive
+energies of faith, patience, constancy, fortitude,&mdash;shown
+in all of them as following the
+heart, which gives its results by a nice tact and
+happy intuition, without the intervention of the
+discursive faculty, sees all things in and by the
+light of the affections, and errs, if it ever err, in
+the exaggerations of love alone. In all the Shakespearian
+women there is essentially the same
+foundation and principle; the distinct individuality
+and variety are merely the result of modification
+of circumstances, whether in Miranda the
+maiden, in Imogen the wife, or in Katherine the
+queen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But to return. The appearance and characters
+of the super or ultra natural servants are finely
+contrasted. Ariel has in everything the airy tint
+<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/>
+which gives the name; and it is worthy of remark
+that Miranda is never directly brought into comparison
+with Ariel, lest the natural and human of
+the one and the supernatural of the other should
+tend to neutralise each other; Caliban, on the
+other hand, is all earth, all condensed and gross in
+feelings and images; he has the dawnings of
+understanding without reason or the moral sense,
+and in him, as in some brute animals, this advance
+to the intellectual faculties, without the moral sense,
+is marked by the appearance of vice. For it is in
+the primacy of the moral being only that man is
+truly human; in his intellectual powers he is certainly
+approached by the brutes, and, man's whole
+system duly considered, those powers cannot be
+considered other than means to an end&mdash;that is,
+to morality.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this scene, as it proceeds, is displayed the
+impression made by Ferdinand and Miranda on
+each other; it is love at first sight;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 7">... <q rend="pre">At the first sight</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">They have chang'd eyes;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and it appears to me, that in all cases of real love,
+it is at one moment that it takes place. That moment
+may have been prepared by previous esteem,
+admiration, or even affection,&mdash;yet love seems to
+require a momentary act of volition, by which a
+tacit bond of devotion is imposed,&mdash;a bond not to
+be thereafter broken without violating what should
+be sacred in our nature. How finely is the true
+Shakespearian scene contrasted with Dryden's
+vulgar alteration of it, in which a mere ludicrous
+psychological experiment, as it were, is tried&mdash;displaying
+nothing but indelicacy without passion.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/>
+
+<p>
+Prospero's interruption of the courtship has often
+seemed to me to have had no sufficient motive;
+still, his alleged reason&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 6">... <q rend="pre">Lest too light winning</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Make the prize light</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+is enough for the ethereal connections of the romantic
+imagination, although it would not be so
+for the historical. The whole courting scene, indeed,
+in the beginning of the third act, between
+the lovers, is a masterpiece; and the first dawn of
+disobedience in the mind of Miranda to the command
+of her father is very finely drawn, so as to
+seem the working of the Scriptural command&mdash;<q>Thou
+shalt leave father and mother,</q> &amp;c. Oh!
+with what exquisite purity this scene is conceived
+and executed! Shakespeare may sometimes be
+gross, but I boldly say that he is always moral and
+modest. Alas! in this our day, decency of
+manners is preserved at the expense of morality
+of heart, and delicacies for vice are allowed, whilst
+grossness against it is hypocritically, or at least
+morbidly, condemned.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this play are admirably sketched the vices
+generally accompanying a low degree of civilisation;
+and in the first scene of the second act
+Shakespeare has, as in many other places, shown
+the tendency in bad men to indulge in scorn and
+contemptuous expressions as a mode of getting rid
+of their own uneasy feelings of inferiority to the
+good, and also, by making the good ridiculous, of
+rendering the transition of others to wickedness
+easy. Shakespeare never puts habitual scorn into
+the mouths of other than bad men, as here in the
+instances of Antonio and Sebastian. The scene of
+<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/>
+the intended assassination of Alonzo and Gonzalo
+is an exact counterpart of the scene between Macbeth
+and his lady, only pitched in a lower key
+throughout, as designed to be frustrated and concealed,
+and exhibiting the same profound management
+in the manner of familiarising a mind, not
+immediately recipient, to the suggestion of guilt,
+by associating the proposed crime with something
+ludicrous or out of place,&mdash;something not habitually
+matter of reverence. By this kind of sophistry
+the imagination and fancy are first bribed to
+contemplate the suggested act, and at length to
+become acquainted with it. Observe how the
+effect of this scene is heightened by contrast with
+another counterpart of it in low life,&mdash;that between
+the conspirators Stephano, Caliban, and
+Trinculo in the second scene of the third act, in
+which there are the same essential characteristics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this play, and in this scene of it, are also
+shown the springs of the vulgar in politics,&mdash;of
+that kind of politics which is inwoven with human
+nature. In his treatment of this subject, wherever
+it occurs, Shakespeare is quite peculiar. In other
+writers we find the particular opinions of the individual;
+in Massinger it is rank republicanism; in
+Beaumont and Fletcher even <hi rend='italic'>jure divino</hi> principles
+are carried to excess;&mdash;but Shakespeare never
+promulgates any party tenets. He is always the
+philosopher and the moralist, but at the same time
+with a profound veneration for all the established
+institutions of society, and for those classes which
+form the permanent elements of the State,&mdash;especially
+never introducing a professional character,
+as such, otherwise than as respectable. If he must
+have any name, he should be styled a philosophical
+<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/>
+aristocrat, delighting in those hereditary institutions
+which have a tendency to bind one age to
+another, and in that distinction of ranks, of which,
+although few may be in possession, all enjoy the
+advantages. Hence, again, you will observe the
+good nature with which he seems always to make
+sport with the passions and follies of a mob, as
+with an irrational animal. He is never angry
+with it, but hugely content with holding up its
+absurdities to its face; and sometimes you may
+trace a tone of almost affectionate superiority,
+something like that in which a father speaks of
+the rogueries of a child. See the good-humoured
+way in which he describes Stephano passing from
+the most licentious freedom to absolute despotism
+over Trinculo and Caliban. The truth is, Shakespeare's
+characters are all <hi rend='italic'>genera</hi> intensely individualised;
+the results of meditation, of which
+observation supplied the drapery and the colours
+necessary to combine them with each other. He
+had virtually surveyed all the great component
+powers and impulses of human nature,&mdash;had seen
+that their different combinations and subordinations
+were in fact the individualisers of men, and
+showed how their harmony was produced by reciprocal
+disproportions of excess or deficiency.
+The language in which these truths are expressed
+was not drawn from any set fashion, but from the
+profoundest depths of his moral being, and is
+therefore for all ages.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Love's Labour's Lost.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+The characters in this play are either impersonated
+out of Shakespeare's own multiformity
+by imaginative self-position, or out of such
+as a country town and schoolboy's observation
+might supply,&mdash;the curate, the schoolmaster, the
+Armado (who even in my time was not extinct in
+the cheaper inns of North Wales), and so on. The
+satire is chiefly on follies of words. Biron and
+Rosaline are evidently the pre-existent state of
+Benedict and Beatrice, and so, perhaps, is Boyet
+of Lafeu, and Costard of the tapster in <hi rend='italic'>Measure
+for Measure</hi>; and the frequency of the rhymes,
+the sweetness as well as the smoothness of the
+metre, and the number of acute and fancifully
+illustrated aphorisms, are all as they ought to be
+in a poet's youth. True genius begins by generalising
+and condensing; it ends in realising and expanding.
+It first collects the seeds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yet, if this juvenile drama had been the only
+one extant of our Shakespeare, and we possessed
+the tradition only of his riper works, or accounts
+of them in writers who had not even mentioned
+this play,&mdash;how many of Shakespeare's characteristic
+features might we not still have discovered in
+<hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's Lost</hi>, though as in a portrait taken
+of him in his boyhood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I can never sufficiently admire the wonderful
+activity of thought throughout the whole of the
+first scene of the play, rendered natural, as it is,
+<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/>
+by the choice of the characters, and the whimsical
+determination on which the drama is founded. A
+whimsical determination certainly;&mdash;yet not altogether
+so very improbable to those who are conversant
+in the history of the middle ages, with
+their Courts of Love, and all that lighter drapery
+of chivalry, which engaged even mighty kings
+with a sort of serio-comic interest, and may well
+be supposed to have occupied more completely the
+smaller princes, at a time when the noble's or
+prince's court contained the only theatre of the
+domain or principality. This sort of story, too,
+was admirably suited to Shakespeare's times, when
+the English court was still the foster-mother of the
+state and the muses; and when, in consequence,
+the courtiers, and men of rank and fashion, affected
+a display of wit, point, and sententious observation,
+that would be deemed intolerable at present,&mdash;but
+in which a hundred years of controversy, involving
+every great political, and every dear domestic,
+interest, had trained all but the lowest classes to
+participate. Add to this the very style of the sermons
+of the time, and the eagerness of the Protestants
+to distinguish themselves by long and
+frequent preaching, and it will be found that, from
+the reign of Henry VIII. to the abdication of
+James II. no country ever received such a national
+education as England.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hence the comic matter chosen in the first instance
+is a ridiculous imitation or apery of this
+constant striving after logical precision and subtle
+opposition of thoughts, together with a making
+the most of every conception or image, by expressing
+it under the least expected property belonging
+to it, and this, again, rendered specially absurd by
+<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/>
+being applied to the most current subjects and
+occurrences. The phrases and modes of combination
+in argument were caught by the most ignorant
+from the custom of the age, and their ridiculous
+misapplication of them is most amusingly exhibited
+in Costard; whilst examples suited only to the
+gravest propositions and impersonations, or apostrophes
+to abstract thoughts impersonated, which
+are in fact the natural language only of the most
+vehement agitations of the mind, are adopted by
+the coxcombry of Armado as mere artifices of
+ornament.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same kind of intellectual action is exhibited
+in a more serious and elevated strain in many
+other parts of this play. Biron's speech at the
+end of the Fourth Act is an excellent specimen of
+it. It is logic clothed in rhetoric;&mdash;but observe
+how Shakespeare, in his two-fold being of poet
+and philosopher, avails himself of it to convey
+profound truths in the most lively images,&mdash;the
+whole remaining faithful to the character supposed
+to utter the lines, and the expressions themselves
+constituting a further development of that
+character:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Other slow arts entirely keep the brain:</q></l>
+<l>And therefore finding barren practisers,</l>
+<l>Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil:</l>
+<l>But love, first learned in a lady's eyes,</l>
+<l>Lives not alone immured in the brain;</l>
+<l>But, with the motion of all elements,</l>
+<l>Courses as swift as thought in every power;</l>
+<l>And gives to every power a double power,</l>
+<l>Above their functions and their offices.</l>
+<l>It adds a precious seeing to the eye,</l>
+<l>A lover's eyes will gaze an eagle blind;</l>
+<l>A lover's ear will hear the lowest sound,</l>
+<l>When the suspicious head of theft is stopp'd:</l>
+<l>Love's feeling is more soft and sensible,</l>
+<l>Than are the tender horns of cockled snails;</l>
+<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/>
+<l>Love's tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste;</l>
+<l>For valour, is not love a Hercules,</l>
+<l>Still climbing trees in the Hesperides?</l>
+<l>Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical,</l>
+<l>As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair;</l>
+<l>And when love speaks, the voice of all the gods</l>
+<l>Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.</l>
+<l>Never durst poet touch a pen to write,</l>
+<l>Until his ink were tempered with love's sighs;</l>
+<l>Oh, then his lines would ravish savage ears,</l>
+<l>And plant in tyrants mild humility.</l>
+<l>From women's eyes this doctrine I derive:</l>
+<l>They sparkle still the right Promethean fire;</l>
+<l>They are the books, the arts, the academes,</l>
+<l>That show, contain, and nourish all the world;</l>
+<l>Else, none at all in aught proves excellent;</l>
+<l>Then fools you were these women to forswear;</l>
+<l>Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools.</l>
+<l>For wisdom's sake, a word that all men love;</l>
+<l>Or for love's sake, a word that loves all men;</l>
+<l>Or for men's sake, the authors of these women;</l>
+<l>Or women's sake, by whom we men are men;</l>
+<l>Let us once lose our oaths, to find ourselves,</l>
+<l>Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths:</l>
+<l>It is religion to be thus forsworn:</l>
+<l>For charity itself fulfils the law:</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And who can sever love from charity?</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is quite a study;&mdash;sometimes you see this
+youthful god of poetry connecting disparate
+thoughts purely by means of resemblances in the
+words expressing them,&mdash;a thing in character in
+lighter comedy, especially of that kind in which
+Shakespeare delights, namely, the purposed display
+of wit, though sometimes too, disfiguring his
+graver scenes;&mdash;but more often you may see him
+doubling the natural connection or order of logical
+consequence in the thoughts by the introduction
+of an artificial and sought for resemblance in the
+words, as, for instance, in the third line of the
+play,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>And then grace us in the disgrace of death;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+this being a figure often having its force and propriety,
+as justified by the law of passion, which,
+<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/>
+inducing in the mind an unusual activity, seeks
+for means to waste its superfluity,&mdash;when in the
+highest degree&mdash;in lyric repetitions and sublime
+tautology&mdash;<q>At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay
+down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he
+bowed, there he fell down dead,</q>&mdash;and, in lower
+degrees, in making the words themselves the subjects
+and materials of that surplus action, and for
+the same cause that agitates our limbs, and forces
+our very gestures into a tempest in states of high
+excitement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The mere style of narration in <hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's
+Lost</hi>, like that of Ægeon in the first scene of the
+<hi rend='italic'>Comedy of Errors</hi>, and of the Captain in the
+second scene of <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>, seems imitated with its
+defects and its beauties from Sir Philip Sidney;
+whose <hi rend='italic'>Arcadia</hi>, though not then published, was
+already well known in manuscript copies, and
+could hardly have escaped the notice and admiration
+of Shakespeare as the friend and client of the
+Earl of Southampton. The chief defect consists
+in the parentheses and parenthetic thoughts and
+descriptions, suited neither to the passion of the
+speaker, nor the purpose of the person to whom
+the information is to be given, but manifestly betraying
+the author himself,&mdash;not by way of continuous
+undersong, but&mdash;palpably, and so as to
+show themselves addressed to the general reader.
+However, it is not unimportant to notice how
+strong a presumption the diction and allusions of
+this play afford, that, though Shakespeare's acquirements
+in the dead languages might not be
+such as we suppose in a learned education, his
+habits had, nevertheless, been scholastic, and those
+of a student. For a young author's first work
+<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/>
+almost always bespeaks his recent pursuits, and
+his first observations of life are either drawn from
+the immediate employments of his youth, and from
+the characters and images most deeply impressed
+on his mind in the situations in which those employments
+had placed him;&mdash;or else they are fixed
+on such objects and occurrences in the world, as
+are easily connected with, and seem to bear upon,
+his studies and the hitherto exclusive subjects of
+his meditation. Just as Ben Jonson, who applied
+himself to the drama after having served in
+Flanders, fills his earliest plays with true or pretended
+soldiers, the wrongs and neglects of the
+former, and the absurd boasts and knavery of
+their counterfeits. So Lessing's first comedies are
+placed in the universities, and consist of events
+and characters conceivable in an academic life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will only further remark the sweet and tempered
+gravity, with which Shakespeare in the end
+draws the only fitting moral which such a drama
+afforded. Here Rosaline rises up to the full
+height of Beatrice:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> Oft have I heard of you, my lord Biron,</q></l>
+<l>Before I saw you: and the world's large tongue</l>
+<l>Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks;</l>
+<l>Full of comparisons, and wounding flouts,</l>
+<l>Which you on all estates will execute</l>
+<l>That lie within the mercy of your wit:</l>
+<l>To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain,</l>
+<l>And therewithal, to win me, if you please</l>
+<l>(Without the which I am not to be won),</l>
+<l>You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day</l>
+<l>Visit the speechless sick, and still converse</l>
+<l>With groaning wretches; and your talk shall be,</l>
+<l>With all the fierce endeavour of your wit,</l>
+<l>To enforce the pained impotent to smile.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Biron.</hi> To move wild laughter in the throat of death?</l>
+<l>It cannot be; it is impossible;</l>
+<l>Mirth cannot move a soul in agony.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> Why, that's the way to choke a gibing spirit,</l>
+<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/>
+<l>Whose influence is begot of that loose grace,</l>
+<l>Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools;</l>
+<l>A jest's prosperity lies in the ear</l>
+<l>Of him that hears it, never in the tongue</l>
+<l>Of him that makes it: then, if sickly ears,</l>
+<l>Deaf'd with the clamours of their own dear groans,</l>
+<l>Will hear your idle scorns, continue then,</l>
+<l>And I will have you, and that fault withal:</l>
+<l>But, if they will not, throw away that spirit,</l>
+<l>And I shall find you empty of that fault,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Right joyful of your reformation.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 2. In Biron's speech to the Princess:
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10"><q rend="pre">And, therefore, like the eye,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Full of <emph>straying</emph> shapes, of habits, and of forms</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+either read <emph>stray</emph>, which I prefer; or throw <emph>full</emph>
+back to the preceding lines,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 8"><q rend="pre">Like the eye, full</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of straying shapes,</q> &amp;c,</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In the same scene:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Biron.</hi> And what to me, my love? and what to me?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> You must be purged too, your sins are rank;</l>
+<l>You are attaint with fault and perjury:</l>
+<l>Therefore, if you my favour mean to get,</l>
+<l>A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But seek the weary beds of people sick.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There can be no doubt, indeed, about the propriety
+of expunging this speech of Rosaline's; it soils
+the very page that retains it. But I do not agree
+with Warburton and others in striking out the
+preceding line also. It is quite in Biron's character;
+and Rosaline, not answering it immediately,
+Dumain takes up the question for him,
+and, after he and Longaville are answered, Biron,
+with evident propriety, says:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><emph>Studies</emph> my mistress?</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Midsummer Night's Dream.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Her.</hi> O cross! too high to be enthrall'd to low&mdash;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lys.</hi> Or else misgrafted in respect of years;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Her.</hi> O spite! too old to be engaged to young&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lys.</hi> Or else it stood upon the choice of friends;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Her.</hi> O hell! to chuse love by another's eye!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There is no authority for any alteration;&mdash;but
+I never can help feeling how great an improvement
+it would be, if the two former of
+Hermia's exclamations were omitted;&mdash;the third
+and only appropriate one would then become a
+beauty, and most natural.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Helena's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I will go tell him of fair Hermia's flight,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I am convinced that Shakespeare availed himself
+of the title of this play in his own mind, and
+worked upon it as a dream throughout, but especially,
+and perhaps unpleasingly, in this broad
+determination of ungrateful treachery in Helena,
+so undisguisedly avowed to herself, and this, too,
+after the witty cool philosophising that precedes.
+The act itself is natural, and the resolve so to act
+is, I fear, likewise too true a picture of the lax
+hold which principles have on a woman's heart,
+when opposed to, or even separated from, passion
+and inclination. For women are less hypocrites
+to their own minds than men are, because in
+general they feel less proportionate abhorrence of
+moral evil in and for itself, and more of its outward
+<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/>
+consequences, as detection and loss of character,
+than men,&mdash;their natures being almost
+wholly extroitive. Still, however just in itself,
+the representation of this is not poetical; we
+shrink from it, and cannot harmonise it with the
+ideal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Theobald's edition&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><emph>Through</emph> bush, <emph>through</emph> briar&mdash;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Through</emph> flood, <emph>through fire</emph>&mdash;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What a noble pair of ears this worthy Theobald
+must have had! The eight amphimacers or
+cretics,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Ovĕr hīll, �vĕr d�le,</q></l>
+<l>Th�r�' būsh, th�r�' brīar,</l>
+<l>Ovĕr p�rk, �vĕr p�le,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Thr�r�' fl��d, th�r�' fīre</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+have a delightful effect on the ear in their sweet
+transition to the trochaic,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I d� w�ndĕr ēv'ry whērĕ</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Swīftĕr th�n thĕ m��nĕs sphērĕ,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The last words, as sustaining the rhyme, must be
+considered, as in fact they are, trochees in time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may be worth while to give some correct
+examples in English of the principle metrical
+feet:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Pyrrhic or Dibrach, u u = <hi rend='italic'>b�dy</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>spÄ­rÄ­t</hi>.</l>
+<l>Tribrach, u u u = <hi rend='italic'>n�b�dy</hi>, hastily pronounced.</l>
+<l>Iambus, u - = <hi rend='italic'>dĕlīght</hi>.</l>
+<l>Trochee, - u  = <hi rend='italic'>līghtlȳ</hi>.</l>
+<l>Spondee, - - = <hi rend='italic'>G�d sp�ke</hi>.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The paucity of spondees in single words in English,
+and indeed in the modern languages in general,
+<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/>
+makes perhaps the greatest distinction, metrically
+considered, between them and the Greek and
+Latin.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Dactyl, - u u = <hi rend='italic'>mērrĭlȳ</hi>.</l>
+<l>Anapæst, u u - = <hi rend='italic'>ă pr�p�s</hi>, or the first three
+syllables of <hi rend='italic'>cĕrĕm�ny</hi>.</l>
+<l>Amphibrachys, u - u = <hi rend='italic'>dĕlīghtfŭl</hi>.</l>
+<l>Amphimacer, - u - = <hi rend='italic'>�vĕr hīll</hi>.</l>
+<l>Antibacchius, u -  = <hi rend='italic'>thĕ L�rd G�d</hi>.</l>
+<l>Bacchius, - - u = <hi rend='italic'>Hēlvēllȳn</hi>.</l>
+<l>Molossus, - - - = <hi rend='italic'>J�hn J�mes J�nes</hi>.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+These simple feet may suffice for understanding
+the metres of Shakespeare, for the greater part at
+least;&mdash;but Milton cannot be made harmoniously
+intelligible without the composite feet, the Ionics,
+Pæons, and Epitrites.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Titania's speech (Theobald, adopting
+Warburton's reading):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Which she, with pretty and with swimming gate</q></l>
+<l><emph>Follying</emph> (her womb then rich with my young squire)</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Would imitate,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Oh! oh! Heaven have mercy on poor Shakespeare,
+and also on Mr. Warburton's mind's eye!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 1. Theseus' speech (Theobald):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And what poor [<emph>willing</emph>] duty cannot do,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Noble respect takes it in might, not merit.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+To my ears it would read far more Shakespearian
+thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And what poor duty cannot do, <emph>yet would</emph>,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Noble respect,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Puck.</hi> Now the hungry lion roars,</q></l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2">And the wolf behowls the moon;</l>
+<l>Whilst the heavy ploughman snores</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2"><q rend="post">All with weary task foredone,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/>
+
+<p>
+Very Anacreon in perfectness, proportion, grace,
+and spontaneity! So far it is Greek;&mdash;but then
+add, O! what wealth, what wild ranging, and yet
+what compression and condensation of, English
+fancy! In truth, there is nothing in Anacreon
+more perfect than these thirty lines, or half so
+rich and imaginative. They form a speckless
+diamond.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Comedy Of Errors.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+The myriad-minded man, our, and all men's
+Shakespeare, has in this piece presented us
+with a legitimate farce in exactest consonance with
+the philosophical principles and character of farce,
+as distinguished from comedy and from entertainments.
+A proper farce is mainly distinguished
+from comedy by the licence allowed, and even required,
+in the fable, in order to produce strange
+and laughable situations. The story need not be
+probable, it is enough that it is possible. A
+comedy would scarcely allow even the two Antipholuses;
+because, although there have been instances
+of almost indistinguishable likeness in two
+persons, yet these are mere individual accidents,
+<hi rend='italic'>casus ludentis naturæ</hi>,
+and the <hi rend='italic'>verum</hi> will not excuse
+the <hi rend='italic'>inverisimile</hi>. But farce dares add the two
+Dromios, and is justified in so doing by the laws
+of its end and constitution. In a word, farces
+commence in a postulate, which must be granted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>As You Like It.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Oli.</hi> What, boy!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Orla.</hi> Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Oli.</hi> Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There is a beauty here. The word <q>boy</q>
+naturally provokes and awakens in Orlando
+the sense of his manly powers; and with the
+retort of <q>elder brother,</q> he grasps him with
+firm hands, and makes him feel he is no boy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q><hi rend='italic'>Oli.</hi> Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester:
+I hope, I shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why,
+hates nothing more than him. Yet he's gentle; never school'd, and
+yet learn'd; full of noble device; of all sorts enchantingly beloved!
+and, indeed, so much in the heart of the world, and especially of my
+own people, who best know him, that I am altogether misprised:
+but it shall not be so long; this wrestler shall clear all.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This has always appeared to me one of the most
+un-Shakespearian speeches in all the genuine
+works of our poet; yet I should be nothing surprised,
+and greatly pleased, to find it hereafter a
+fresh beauty, as has so often happened to me with
+other supposed defects of great men.&mdash;1810.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is too venturous to charge a passage in
+Shakespeare with want of truth to nature; and
+yet at first sight this speech of Oliver's expresses
+truths, which it seems almost impossible that any
+mind should so distinctly, so livelily, and so
+voluntarily, have presented to itself, in connection
+with feelings and intentions so malignant, and so
+contrary to those which the qualities expressed
+would naturally have called forth. But I dare
+<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/>
+not say that this seeming unnaturalness is not in
+the nature of an abused wilfulness, when united
+with a strong intellect. In such characters there
+is sometimes a gloomy self-gratification in making
+the absoluteness of the will (<hi rend='italic'>sit pro ratione
+voluntas!</hi>) evident to themselves by setting the
+reason and the conscience in full array against it.&mdash;1818.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<q><hi rend='italic'>Celia.</hi> If your saw yourself with <emph>your</emph>
+eyes, or knew yourself
+with <emph>your</emph> judgment, the fear of your adventure would counsel you
+to a more equal enterprise.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Surely it should be <q><emph>our</emph> eyes</q> and <q><emph>our</emph>
+judgment.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Cel.</hi> But is all this for your father?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> No; some of it is for
+<emph>my child's father</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald restores this as the reading of the
+older editions. It may be so: but who can doubt
+that it is a mistake for <q>my father's child,</q> meaning
+herself? According to Theobald's note, a
+most indelicate anticipation is put into the mouth
+of Rosalind without reason;&mdash;and besides, what a
+strange thought, and how out of place and unintelligible!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Take thou no scorn</q></l>
+<l>To wear the horn, the lusty horn;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">It was a crest ere thou wast born.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I question whether there exists a parallel instance
+of a phrase, that like this of <q>horns</q> is
+universal in all languages, and yet for which no
+one has discovered even a plausible origin.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Twelfth Night.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Duke's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 6">... <q rend="pre">So full of shapes is fancy,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That it alone is high fantastical.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's alteration of <emph>is</emph> into <emph>in</emph> is
+needless. <q>Fancy</q> may very well be interpreted
+<q>exclusive affection,</q> or <q>passionate
+preference.</q> Thus, bird-fanciers; gentlemen of
+the fancy, that is, amateurs of boxing, &amp;c. The
+play of assimilation,&mdash;the meaning one sense
+chiefly, and yet keeping both senses in view, is
+perfectly Shakespearian.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 3. Sir Andrew's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An explanatory note on <hi rend='italic'>Pigrogromitus</hi> would
+have been more acceptable than Theobald's grand
+discovery that <q>lemon</q> ought to be <q>leman.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Sir Toby's speech (Warburton's note on
+the Peripatetic philosophy):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch, that will draw three</q></l>
+<l><q>souls out of one weaver?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+O genuine, and inimitable (at least I hope so)
+Warburton! This note of thine, if but one in
+five millions, would be half a one too much.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Duke.</hi> My life upon't, young though thou art, thine eye</q></l>
+<l>Hath stay'd upon some favour that it loves;</l>
+<l>Hath it not, boy?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Vio.</hi> A little, by your favour.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Duke.</hi> What kind of woman is't?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+And yet Viola was to have been presented to
+Orsino as a eunuch!&mdash;Act i. sc. 2. Viola's speech.
+Either she forgot this, or else she had altered her
+plan.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Vio.</hi> A blank, my lord: she never told her love!&mdash;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">But let concealment,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+After the first line (of which the last five words
+should be spoken with, and drop down in, a deep
+sigh), the actress ought to make a pause; and then
+start afresh, from the activity of thought, born of
+suppressed feelings, and which thought had accumulated
+during the brief interval, as vital heat
+under the skin during a dip in cold water.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Fabian.</hi> Though our silence be drawn from us by <emph>cars</emph>, yet</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">peace.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps, <q>cables.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Clown.</hi> A sentence is but a <hi rend='italic'>cheveril</hi> glove to a good wit.</q></l>
+<l>(Theobald's note.)</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald's etymology of <q>cheveril</q> is, of course,
+quite right;&mdash;but he is mistaken in supposing that
+there were no such things as gloves of chicken-skin.
+They were at one time a main article in
+chirocosmetics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 1. Clown's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">So that, <emph>conclusions to be as kisses</emph>, if your four negatives make</q></l>
+<l>your two affirmatives, why, then, the worse for my friends, and the</l>
+<l><q rend="post">better for my foes.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+(Warburton reads <q>conclusion to be asked, is.</q>)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Surely Warburton could never have wooed by
+kisses and won, or he would not have flounder-flatted
+so just and humorous, nor less pleasing than
+humorous, an image into so profound a nihility.
+In the name of love and wonder, do not four kisses
+make a double affirmative? The humour lies in
+the whispered <q>No!</q> and the inviting <q>Don't!</q>
+with which the maiden's kisses are accompanied,
+and thence compared to negatives, which by repetition
+constitute an affirmative.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>All's Well That Ends Well.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Count.</hi> If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes</q></l>
+<l>it soon mortal.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Bert.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Madam, I desire your holy wishes.</hi></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Laf.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>How understand we that?</hi></q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Bertram and Lafeu, I imagine, both speak
+together,&mdash;Lafeu referring to the Countess's
+rather obscure remark.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. (Warburton's note.)
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>King.</hi>   ... let <emph>higher</emph> Italy</q></l>
+<l>(Those <emph>'bated</emph>, that inherit but the fall</l>
+<l>Of the last monarchy) see, that you come</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Not to woo honour, but to wed it.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It would be, I own, an audacious and unjustifiable
+change of the text; but yet, as a mere conjecture,
+I venture to suggest <q>bastards,</q> for <q>'bated.</q>
+As it stands, in spite of Warburton's note, I can
+make little or nothing of it. Why should the king
+except the then most illustrious states, which, as
+being republics, were the more truly inheritors of
+the Roman grandeur?&mdash;With my conjecture, the
+sense would be;&mdash;<q>let higher, or the more northern
+part of Italy&mdash;(unless <q>higher</q> be a corruption for
+<q>hir'd,</q>&mdash;the metre seeming to demand a monosyllable)
+(those bastards that inherit the infamy only
+of their fathers) see,</q> &amp;c. The following <q>woo</q>
+and <q>wed</q> are so far confirmative as they indicate
+Shakespeare's manner of connection by unmarked
+influences of association from some preceding metaphor.
+<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/>
+This it is which makes his style so peculiarly
+vital and organic. Likewise <q>those girls of
+Italy</q> strengthen the guess. The absurdity of
+Warburton's gloss, which represents the king calling
+Italy superior, and then excepting the only
+part the lords were going to visit, must strike
+every one.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Laf.</hi> They say, miracles are past; and we have our philosophical</q></l>
+<l>persons to make modern and familiar, things supernatural</l>
+<l><q rend="post">and <emph>causeless</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare, inspired, as it might seem, with all
+knowledge, here uses the word <q>causeless</q> in its
+strict philosophical sense;&mdash;cause being truly predicable
+only of <hi rend='italic'>phenomena</hi>, that is, things natural,
+and not of <hi rend='italic'>noumena</hi>, or things supernatural.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Dia.</hi> The Count Rousillon:&mdash;know you such a one?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Hel.</hi> But by the ear that hears most nobly of him;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">His face I know not.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Shall we say here, that Shakespeare has unnecessarily
+made his loveliest character utter a lie?&mdash;Or
+shall we dare think that, where to deceive was
+necessary, he thought a pretended verbal verity a
+double crime, equally with the other a lie to the
+hearer, and at the same time an attempt to lie to
+one's own conscience?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Merry Wives Of Windsor.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Shal.</hi> The luce is the fresh fish, the salt fish is
+an old coat.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I cannot understand this. Perhaps there is
+a corruption both of words and speakers.
+Shallow no sooner corrects one mistake of Sir
+Hugh's, namely, <q>louse</q> for <q>luce,</q> a pike, but
+the honest Welchman falls into another, namely,
+<q>cod</q> (<hi rend='italic'>baccalà</hi>).
+<hi rend='italic'>Cambrice</hi>&mdash;<q>cot</q> for coat.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Shal.</hi> The luce is the fresh fish&mdash;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Evans.</hi> The salt fish is an old cot.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>Luce is a fresh fish, and not a louse;</q> says Shallow.
+<q>Aye, aye,</q> quoth Sir Hugh; <q>the <emph>fresh</emph>
+fish is the luce; it is an old cod that is the salt
+fish.</q> At all events, as the text stands, there is
+no sense at all in the words.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Fal.</hi> Now, the report goes,
+she has all the rule of her husband's</q></l>
+<l>purse; He hath a legion of angels.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Pist.</hi> As many devils
+entertain; and <emph>To her, boy</emph>, say I.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps it is&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">As many devils enter (or enter'd) swine;
+and <emph>to her, boy</emph>,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">say I:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+a somewhat profane, but not un-Shakespearian, allusion
+to the <q>legion</q> in St. Luke's <q>gospel.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Measure For Measure.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This play, which is Shakespeare's throughout,
+is to me the most painful&mdash;say rather, the only
+painful&mdash;part of his genuine works. The comic
+and tragic parts equally border on the μισητὸν,&mdash;the
+one being disgusting, the other horrible; and
+the pardon and marriage of Angelo not merely
+baffles the strong indignant claim of justice&mdash;(for
+cruelty, with lust and damnable baseness, cannot
+be forgiven, because we cannot conceive them as
+being morally repented of); but it is likewise degrading
+to the character of woman. Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who can follow Shakespeare in his
+errors only, have presented a still worse, because
+more loathsome and contradictory, instance of the
+same kind in the <hi rend='italic'>Night-Walker</hi>, in the marriage
+of Alathe to Algripe. Of the counter-balancing
+beauties of <hi rend='italic'>Measure for Measure</hi>, I need say nothing;
+for I have already remarked that the play
+is Shakespeare's throughout.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Ay, but to die, and go we know not where,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<p>
+<q rend="pre">This natural fear of Claudio, from the antipathy we have to
+death, seems very little varied from that infamous wish of Mæcenas,
+recorded in the 101st epistle of Seneca:&mdash;</q>
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Debilem facito manu,</hi></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Debilem pede, coxa</hi></q>
+&amp;c.&mdash;Warburton's note.</l>
+</lg>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+I cannot but think this rather a heroic resolve,
+than an infamous wish. It appears to me to be
+the grandest symptom of an immortal spirit, when
+<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/>
+even that bedimmed and overwhelmed spirit recked
+not of its own immortality, still to seek to be,&mdash;to
+be a mind, a will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As fame is to reputation, so heaven is to an
+estate, or immediate advantage. The difference
+is, that the self-love of the former cannot exist
+but by a complete suppression and habitual supplantation
+of immediate selfishness. In one point
+of view, the miser is more estimable than the
+spendthrift;&mdash;only that the miser's present feelings
+are as much of the present as the spendthrift's.
+But <hi rend='italic'>cæteris paribus</hi>, that is, upon the
+supposition that whatever is good or lovely in the
+one coexists equally in the other, then, doubtless,
+the master of the present is less a selfish being,
+an animal, than he who lives for the moment with
+no inheritance in the future. Whatever can degrade
+man, is supposed in the latter case; whatever
+can elevate him, in the former. And as to
+self;&mdash;strange and generous self! that can only
+be such a self by a complete divestment of all that
+men call self,&mdash;of all that can make it either
+practically to others, or consciously to the individual
+himself, different from the human race in
+its ideal. Such self is but a perpetual religion,
+an inalienable acknowledgment of God, the sole
+basis and ground of being. In this sense, how
+can I love God, and not love myself, as far as it
+is of God?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Pattern in himself to know,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Grace to stand, and virtue go.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Worse metre, indeed, but better English would
+be,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Grace to stand, virtue to go.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Cymbeline.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">You do not meet a man, but frowns: our bloods</q></l>
+<l>No more obey the heavens, than our courtiers'</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Still seem, as does the king's.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There can be little doubt of Mr. Tyrwhitt's
+emendations of <q>courtiers</q> and <q>king,</q> as
+to the sense;&mdash;only it is not impossible that
+Shakespeare's dramatic language may allow of the
+word <q>brows</q> or <q>faces</q> being understood after
+the word <q>courtiers',</q> which might then remain
+in the genitive case plural. But the nominative
+plural makes excellent sense, and is sufficiently
+elegant, and sounds to my ear Shakespearian.
+What, however, is meant by <q>our bloods no more
+obey the heavens?</q>&mdash;Dr. Johnson's assertion
+that <q>bloods</q> signify <q>countenances,</q> is, I think,
+mistaken both in the thought conveyed&mdash;(for it
+was never a popular belief that the stars governed
+men's countenances)&mdash;and in the usage, which
+requires an antithesis of the blood,&mdash;or the temperament
+of the four humours, choler, melancholy,
+phlegm, and the red globules, or the sanguine
+portion, which was supposed not to be in our own
+power, but to be dependent on the influences of
+the heavenly bodies,&mdash;and the countenances which
+are in our power really, though from flattery we
+bring them into a no less apparent dependence on
+<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/>
+the sovereign, than the former are in actual
+dependence on the constellations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have sometimes thought that the word <q>courtiers</q>
+was a misprint for <q>countenances,</q> arising
+from an anticipation, by foreglance of the compositor's
+eye, of the word <q>courtier</q> a few lines
+below. The written <hi rend='italic'>r</hi> is easily and often confounded
+with, the written <hi rend='italic'>n</hi>. The compositor read
+the first syllable <hi rend='italic'>court</hi>, and&mdash;his eye at the same
+time catching the word <q>courtier</q> lower down&mdash;he
+completed the word without reconsulting the
+copy. It is not unlikely that Shakespeare intended
+first to express, generally, the same
+thought, which a little afterwards he repeats with
+a particular application to the persons meant;&mdash;a
+common usage of the pronominal <q>our,</q> where
+the speaker does not really mean to include himself;
+and the word <q>you</q> is an additional confirmation
+of the <q>our,</q> being used in this place for
+<q>men</q> generally and indefinitely,&mdash;just as <q>you
+do not meet</q> is the same as <q>one does not meet.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1 Imogen's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">My dearest husband,</q></l>
+<l>I something fear my father's wrath; but nothing</l>
+<l>(Always reserved my holy duty) what</l>
+<l><q rend="post">His rage can do on me;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Place the emphasis on <q>me</q>; for <q>rage</q> is a
+mere repetition of <q>wrath.</q>
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Cym.</hi> O disloyal thing;</q></l>
+<l>That should'st repair my youth; thou heapest</l>
+<l><q rend="post">A year's age on me!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+How is it that the commentators take no notice
+of the un-Shakespearian defect in the metre of the
+second line, and what in Shakespeare is the same,
+<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/>
+in the harmony with the sense and feeling? Some
+word or words must have slipped out after
+<q>youth,</q>&mdash;possibly <q>and see</q>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>That should'st repair my youth!&mdash;and see, thou heap'st,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Pisanio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">For so long</q></l>
+<l>As he could make me with <emph>this</emph> eye or ear</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Distinguish him from others,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+But <q><emph>this</emph> eye,</q> in spite of the supposition of its
+being used δεικτικῶς, is very awkward. I should
+think that either <q>or</q> or <q>the</q> was Shakespeare's
+word;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>As he could make me or with eye or ear.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6. Iachimo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 8">... <q rend="pre">Hath nature given them eyes</q></l>
+<l>To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop</l>
+<l>Of sea and land, which can distinguish 'twixt</l>
+<l>The fiery orbs above, and the twinn'd stones</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Upon the number'd beach.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I would suggest <q>cope</q> for <q>crop.</q> As to
+<q>twinn'd stones</q>&mdash;may it not be a bold <hi rend='italic'>catachresis</hi>
+for muscles, cockles, and other empty shells with
+hinges, which are truly twinned? I would take
+Dr. Farmer's <q>umber'd,</q> which I had proposed
+before I ever heard of its having been already
+offered by him: but I do not adopt his interpretation
+of the word, which I think is not derived
+from <hi rend='italic'>umbra</hi>, a shade,
+but from <hi rend='italic'>umber</hi>, a dingy
+yellow-brown soil, which most commonly forms
+the mass of the sludge on the sea-shore, and on
+the banks of tide-rivers at low water. One other
+possible interpretation of this sentence has occurred
+to me, just barely worth mentioning;&mdash;that
+<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/>
+the <q>twinn'd stones</q> are the <hi rend='italic'>augrim</hi> stones
+upon the number'd beech,&mdash;that is, the astronomical
+tables of beech-wood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Sooth.</hi> When, as a lion's whelp,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It is not easy to conjecture why Shakespeare
+should have introduced this ludicrous scroll, which
+answers no one purpose, either propulsive, or explicatory,
+unless as a joke on etymology.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Titus Andronicus.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Theobald's note:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>I never heard it so much as intimated, that he (Shakespeare)
+had turned his genius to stage-writing, before he associated with
+the players, and became one of their body.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+That Shakespeare never <q>turned his genius to
+stage-writing,</q> as Theobald most <hi rend='italic'>Theobaldice</hi>
+phrases it, before he became an actor, is an assertion
+of about as much authority as the precious
+story that he left Stratford for deer-stealing, and
+that he lived by holding gentlemen's horses at the
+doors of the theatre, and other trash of that arch-gossip,
+old Aubrey. The metre is an argument
+against <hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi> being Shakespeare's,
+worth a score such chronological surmises. Yet
+I incline to think that both in this play and in
+<hi rend='italic'>Jeronymo</hi>, Shakespeare wrote some passages, and
+that they are the earliest of his compositions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 2. I think it not improbable that
+the lines from&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I am not mad; I know thee well enough;</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+to
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post">So thou destroy Rapine, and Murder there</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+were written by Shakespeare in his earliest period.
+But instead of the text&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4"><q rend="pre">Revenge, <emph>which makes
+the foul offenders quake.</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Tit. Art thou</emph> Revenge?
+and art thou sent to me?</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+the words in italics ought to be omitted.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Troilus And Cressida.</q></head>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Mr. Pope (after Dryden) informs us that the story of <hi rend='italic'>Troilus
+and Cressida</hi> was originally the work of one Lollius, a Lombard:
+but Dryden goes yet further; he declares it to have been written in
+Latin verse, and that Chaucer translated it. <emph>Lollius was a historiographer
+of Urbino in Italy.</emph></q>&mdash;Note in Stockdale's edition, 1807.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<q>Lollius was a historiographer of Urbino in
+Italy.</q> So affirms the notary to whom the
+Sieur Stockdale committed the <hi rend='italic'>disfaciménto</hi> of
+Ayscough's excellent edition of Shakespeare.
+Pity that the researchful notary has not either
+told us in what century, and of what history, he
+was a writer, or been simply content to depose,
+that Lollius, if a writer of that name existed at
+all, was a somewhat somewhere. The notary
+speaks of the <hi rend='italic'>Troy Boke</hi> of Lydgate, printed in
+1513. I have never seen it; but I deeply regret
+that Chalmers did not substitute the whole of
+Lydgate's works from the MSS. extant, for the
+almost worthless Gower.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <hi rend='italic'>Troilus and Cressida</hi> of Shakespeare can
+scarcely be classed with his dramas of Greek and
+Roman history; but it forms an intermediate link
+between the fictitious Greek and Roman histories,
+which we may call legendary dramas, and the
+proper ancient histories,&mdash;that is, between the
+<hi rend='italic'>Pericles</hi> or <hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi>,
+and the <hi rend='italic'>Coriolanus</hi>
+or <hi rend='italic'>Julius Cæsar</hi>.
+<hi rend='italic'>Cymbeline</hi> is a <hi rend='italic'>congener</hi> with
+<hi rend='italic'>Pericles</hi>, and distinguished from
+<hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> by not
+having any declared prominent object. But where
+<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/>
+shall we class the <hi rend='italic'>Timon of Athens</hi>? Perhaps
+immediately below <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>. It is a <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> of the
+satirical drama; a <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> of domestic or ordinary
+life;&mdash;a local eddy of passion on the high road of
+society, while all around is the week-day goings
+on of wind and weather; a <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, therefore, without
+its soul-searching flashes, its ear-cleaving
+thunder-claps, its meteoric splendours,&mdash;without
+the contagion and the fearful sympathies of
+nature, the fates, the furies, the frenzied elements,
+dancing in and out, now breaking through and
+scattering,&mdash;now hand in hand with,&mdash;the fierce
+or fantastic group of human passions, crimes, and
+anguishes, reeling on the unsteady ground, in a
+wild harmony to the shock and the swell of an
+earthquake. But my present subject was <hi rend='italic'>Troilus
+and Cressida</hi>; and I suppose that, scarcely knowing
+what to say of it, I by a cunning of instinct
+ran off to subjects on which I should find it difficult not
+to say too much, though certain after all
+that I should still leave the better part unsaid,
+and the gleaning for others richer than my own
+harvest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Indeed, there is no one of Shakespeare's plays
+harder to characterise. The name and the remembrances
+connected with it, prepare us for the representation
+of attachment no less faithful than
+fervent on the side of the youth, and of sudden
+and shameless inconstancy on the part of the lady.
+And this is, indeed, as the gold thread on which
+the scenes are strung, though often kept out of
+sight and out of mind by gems of greater value
+than itself. But as Shakespeare calls forth nothing
+from the mausoleum of history, or the catacombs
+of tradition, without giving, or eliciting, some
+<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/>
+permanent and general interest, and brings forward
+no subject which he does not moralise or
+intellectualise,&mdash;so here he has drawn in Cressida
+the portrait of a vehement passion, that, having
+its true origin and proper cause in warmth of
+temperament, fastens on, rather than fixes to,
+some one object by liking and temporary preference.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">There's language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,</q></l>
+<l>Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirit looks out</l>
+<l><q rend="post">At every joint and motive of her body.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This Shakespeare has contrasted with the profound
+affection represented in Troilus, and alone
+worthy the name of love;&mdash;affection, passionate
+indeed,&mdash;swoln with the confluence of youthful
+instincts and youthful fancy, and growing in the
+radiance of hope newly risen, in short, enlarged
+by the collective sympathies of nature;&mdash;but still
+having a depth of calmer element in a will stronger
+than desire, more entire than choice, and which
+gives permanence to its own act by converting it
+into faith and duty. Hence, with excellent judgment,
+and with an excellence higher than mere
+judgment can give, at the close of the play, when
+Cressida has sunk into infamy below retrieval and
+beneath hope, the same will, which had been the
+substance and the basis of his love, while the restless
+pleasures and passionate longings, like sea-waves,
+had tossed but on its surface,&mdash;this same
+moral energy is represented as snatching him aloof
+from all neighbourhood with her dishonour, from
+all lingering fondness and languishing regrets,
+whilst it rushes with him into other and nobler
+duties, and deepens the channel, which his heroic
+brother's death had left empty for its collected
+<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/>
+flood. Yet another secondary and subordinate
+purpose Shakespeare has inwoven with his delineation
+of these two characters,&mdash;that of opposing
+the inferior civilisation, but purer morals, of the
+Trojans to the refinements, deep policy, but duplicity
+and sensual corruptions of the Greeks.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To all this, however, so little comparative projection
+is given,&mdash;nay, the masterly group of
+Agamemnon, Nestor, and Ulysses, and, still more
+in advance, that of Achilles, Ajax, and Thersites,
+so manifestly occupying the fore-ground, that the
+subservience and vassalage of strength and animal
+courage to intellect and policy seems to be the
+lesson most often in our poet's view, and which he
+has taken little pains to connect with the former
+more interesting moral impersonated in the titular
+hero and heroine of the drama. But I am half
+inclined to believe, that Shakespeare's main object,
+or shall I rather say his ruling impulse, was to
+translate the poetic heroes of paganism into the
+not less rude, but more intellectually vigorous,
+and more <emph>featurely</emph>, warriors of Christian chivalry,&mdash;and
+to substantiate the distinct and graceful
+profiles or outlines of the Homeric epic into the
+flesh and blood of the romantic drama;&mdash;in short,
+to give a grand history-piece in the robust style
+of Albert Durer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The character of Thersites, in particular, well
+deserves a more careful examination, as the Caliban
+of demagogic life;&mdash;the admirable portrait of intellectual
+power deserted by all grace, all moral
+principle, all not momentary impulse;&mdash;just wise
+enough to detect the weak head, and fool enough
+to provoke the armed fist of his betters;&mdash;one whom
+malcontent Achilles can inveigle from malcontent
+<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/>
+Ajax, under the one condition, that he shall be
+called on to do nothing but abuse and slander, and
+that he shall be allowed to abuse as much and as
+purulently as he likes, that is, as he can;&mdash;in short,
+a mule,&mdash;quarrelsome by the original discord of his
+nature;&mdash;a slave by tenure of his own baseness,&mdash;made
+to bray and be brayed at, to despise and be
+despicable. <q>Aye, Sir, but say what you will, he
+is a very clever fellow, though the best friends will
+fall out. There was a time when Ajax thought he
+deserved to have a statue of gold erected to him
+and handsome Achilles, at the head of the Myrmidons,
+gave no little credit to his <hi rend='italic'>friend Thersites</hi>!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 5. Speech of Ulysses:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">O, these encounterers, so glib of tongue,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That give a <emph>coasting</emph> welcome ere it comes</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Should it be <q>accosting?</q> <q>Accost her, knight,
+accost!</q> in the <hi rend='italic'>Twelfth Night</hi>. Yet there sounds
+a something so Shakespearian in the phrase&mdash;<q>give
+a coasting welcome</q> (<q>coasting</q> being taken as
+the epithet and adjective of <q>welcome</q>), that had
+the following words been, <q>ere <emph>they land</emph>,</q> instead
+of <q>ere it comes,</q> I should have preferred the
+interpretation. The sense now is, <q>that give
+welcome to a salute ere it comes.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Coriolanus.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This play illustrates the wonderfully philosophic
+impartiality of Shakespeare's politics. His own
+country's history furnished him with no matter
+but what was too recent to be devoted to patriotism.
+Besides, he knew that the instruction of ancient
+history would seem more dispassionate. In <hi rend='italic'>Coriolanus</hi>
+and <hi rend='italic'>Julius Cæsar</hi>, you see Shakespeare's
+good-natured laugh at mobs. Compare this with
+Sir Thomas Brown's aristocracy of spirit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Marcius' speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">He that depends</q></l>
+<l>Upon your favours, swims with fins of lead,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I suspect that Shakespeare wrote it transposed!
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Trust ye? Hang ye!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 10. Speech of Aufidius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Mine emulation</q></l>
+<l>Hath not that honour in't, it had; for where</l>
+<l>I thought to crush him in an equal force,</l>
+<l>True sword to sword; I'll potch at him some way</l>
+<l>Or wrath, or craft may get him.&mdash;</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... My valour (poison'd</l>
+<l>With only suffering stain by him) for him</l>
+<l>Shall fly out of itself: nor sleep, nor sanctuary,</l>
+<l>Being naked, sick, nor fane, nor capitol,</l>
+<l>The prayers of priests, nor times of sacrifices,</l>
+<l>Embankments all of fury, shall lift up</l>
+<l>Their rotten privilege and custom 'gainst</l>
+<l><q rend="post">My hate to Marcius.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I have such deep faith in Shakespeare's heart-lore,
+that I take for granted that this is in nature,
+<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/>
+and not as a mere anomaly; although I cannot in
+myself discover any germ of possible feeling, which
+could wax and unfold itself into such sentiment as
+this. However, I perceive that in this speech is
+meant to be contained a prevention of shock at the
+after-change in Aufidius's character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Menenius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>The most sovereign prescription in <hi rend='italic'>Galen</hi>,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Was it without, or in contempt of, historical information
+that Shakespeare made the contemporaries
+of Coriolanus quote Cato and Galen? I cannot
+decide to my own satisfaction.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Speech of Coriolanus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Why in this wolvish toge should I stand hero</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+That the gown of the candidate was of whitened
+wool, we know. Does <q>wolvish</q> or <q>woolvish</q>
+mean <q>made of wool?</q> If it means <q>wolfish,</q>
+what is the sense?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 7. Speech of Aufidius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>All places yield to him ere he sits down,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I have always thought this, in itself so beautiful
+speech, the least explicable from the mood and full
+intention of the speaker of any in the whole works
+of Shakespeare. I cherish the hope that I am
+mistaken, and that, becoming wiser, I shall discover
+some profound excellence in that, in which I
+now appear to detect an imperfection.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Julius Cæsar.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Mar.</hi> What meanest <emph>thou</emph>
+by that? Mend me, thou saucy</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">fellow!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The speeches of Flavius and Marullus are in
+blank verse. Wherever regular metre can be
+rendered truly imitative of character, passion, or
+personal rank, Shakespeare seldom, if ever, neglects
+it. Hence this line should be read:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>What mean'st by that? mend me, thou saucy fellow!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I say regular metre: for even the prose has in the
+highest and lowest dramatic personage, a Cobbler
+or a Hamlet, a rhythm so felicitous and so severally
+appropriate, as to be a virtual metre.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Bru.</hi> A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+If my ear does not deceive me, the metre of this
+line was meant to express that sort of mild philosophic
+contempt, characterising Brutus even in his
+first casual speech. The line is a trimeter,&mdash;each
+<hi rend='italic'>dipodia</hi> containing two accented and two unaccented
+syllables, but variously arranged, as thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>u -   - u  |  -    u   u -   |  u  -  u  -</l>
+<l>A soothsayer   | bids you beware     | the Ides of March.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Brutus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Set honour in one eye, and death i' the other,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And I will look on <emph>both</emph> indifferently.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton would read <q>death</q> for <q>both;</q> but
+I prefer the old text. There are here three things,
+<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/>
+the public good, the individual Brutus' honour, and
+his death. The latter two so balanced each other,
+that he could decide for the first by equipoise; nay&mdash;the
+thought growing&mdash;that honour had more
+weight than death. That Cassius understood it as
+Warburton, is the beauty of Cassius as contrasted
+with Brutus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Cæsar's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">He loves no plays</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>This is not a trivial observation, nor does our poet mean barely
+by it, that Cassius was not a merry, sprightly man; but that he had
+not a due temperament of harmony in his disposition.</q>&mdash;Theobald's
+note.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+O Theobald! what a commentator wast thou,
+when thou would'st affect to understand Shakespeare,
+instead of contenting thyself with collating
+the text! The meaning here is too deep for a line
+ten-fold the length of thine to fathom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Cæsar's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Be <emph>factious</emph> for redress of all these griefs;</q></l>
+<l>And I will set this foot of mine as far,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">As who goes farthest.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I understand it thus: <q>You have spoken as a
+conspirator; be so in <emph>fact</emph>, and I will join you.
+Act on your principles, and realize them in a fact.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Brutus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">It must be by his death; and, for my part,</q></l>
+<l>I know no personal cause to spurn at him,</l>
+<l>But for the general. He would be crown'd:</l>
+<l>How that might change his nature, there's the question.</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... And, to speak truth of Cæsar,</l>
+<l>I have not known when his affections sway'd</l>
+<l>More than his reason.</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... So Cæsar may;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Then, lest he may, prevent.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This speech is singular;&mdash;at least, I do not at
+<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/>
+present see into Shakespeare's motive, his <emph>rationale</emph>,
+or in what point of view he meant Brutus' character
+to appear. For surely&mdash;(this, I mean, is what I say
+to myself, with my present <hi rend='italic'>quantum</hi> of insight,
+only modified by my experience in how many instances
+I have ripened into a perception of beauties,
+where I had before descried faults;) surely, nothing
+can seem more discordant with our historical preconceptions
+of Brutus, or more lowering to the
+intellect of the Stoico-Platonic tyrannicide, than
+the tenets here attributed to him&mdash;to him, the
+stern Roman republican; namely,&mdash;that he would
+have no objection to a king, or to Cæsar, a monarch
+in Rome, would Cæsar but be as good a monarch
+as he now seems disposed to be! How, too, could
+Brutus say that he found no personal cause&mdash;none
+in Cæsar's past conduct as a man? Had he not
+passed the Rubicon? Had he not entered Rome as
+a conqueror? Had he not placed his Gauls in the
+Senate?&mdash;Shakespeare, it may be said, has not
+brought these things forward&mdash;True;&mdash;and this is
+just the ground of my perplexity. What character
+did Shakespeare mean his Brutus to be?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Brutus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>For if thou <emph>path</emph>, thy native semblance on.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Surely, there need be no scruple in treating this
+<q>path</q> as a mere misprint or mis-script for <q>put.</q>
+In what place does Shakespeare&mdash;where does any
+other writer of the same age&mdash;use <q>path</q> as a
+verb for <q>walk?</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Cæsar's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>She dreamt to-night, she saw my <emph>statue</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+No doubt, it should be <hi rend='italic'>statua</hi>, as in the same age,
+they more often pronounced <q>heroes</q> as a trisyllable
+<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/>
+than dissyllable. A modern tragic poet would
+have written,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Last night she dreamt that she my statue saw.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+But Shakespeare never avails himself of the supposed
+license of transposition, merely for the metre.
+There is always some logic either of thought or
+passion to justify it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1. Antony's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Pardon me, Julius&mdash;here wast thou bay'd, brave hart:</q></l>
+<l>Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand</l>
+<l>Sign'd in thy spoil, and crimson'd in thy lethe.</l>
+<l><emph>O world! thou wast the forest to this hart,</emph></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>And this, indeed, O world! the heart of thee.</emph></q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I doubt the genuineness of the last two lines;&mdash;not
+because they are vile; but first, on account of
+the rhythm, which is not Shakespearian, but just
+the very tune of some old play, from which the
+actor might have interpolated them;&mdash;and secondly,
+because they interrupt, not only the sense and
+connection, but likewise the flow both of the passion,
+and (what is with me still more decisive) of
+the Shakespearian link of association. As with
+many another parenthesis or gloss slipt into the
+text, we have only to read the passage without it,
+to see that it never was in it. I venture to say
+there is no instance in Shakespeare fairly like this.
+Conceits he has; but they not only rise out of some
+word in the lines before, but also lead to the thought
+in the lines following. Here the conceit is a mere
+alien: Antony forgets an image, when he is even
+touching it, and then recollects it, when the thought
+last in his mind must have led him away from it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Brutus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">What, shall one of us,</q></l>
+<l>That struck the foremost man of all this world,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But for <emph>supporting robbers</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/>
+
+<p>
+This seemingly strange assertion of Brutus is
+unhappily verified in the present day. What is
+an immense army, in which the lust of plunder has
+quenched all the duties of the citizen, other than a
+horde of robbers, or differenced only as fiends are
+from ordinarily reprobate men? Cæsar supported,
+and was supported by, such as these;&mdash;and even so
+Buonaparte in our days.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I know no part of Shakespeare that more impresses
+on me the belief of his genius being superhuman,
+than this scene between Brutus and Cassius.
+In the Gnostic heresy it might have been credited
+with less absurdity than most of their dogmas, that
+the Supreme had employed him to create, previously
+to his function of representing, characters.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Antony And Cleopatra.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare can be complimented only by
+comparison with himself: all other eulogies are
+either heterogeneous, as when they are in reference
+to Spenser or Milton; or they are flat truisms, as
+when he is gravely preferred to Corneille, Racine,
+or even his own immediate successors, Beaumont
+and Fletcher, Massinger and the rest. The highest
+praise, or rather form of praise, of this play, which
+I can offer in my own mind, is the doubt which the
+perusal always occasions in me, whether the <hi rend='italic'>Antony
+and Cleopatra</hi> is not, in all exhibitions of a giant
+power in its strength and vigour of maturity, a
+formidable rival of <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>, and
+<hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>. <hi rend='italic'>Feliciter audax</hi>
+is the motto for its style
+comparatively with that of Shakespeare's other
+works, even as it is the general motto of all his
+works compared with those of other poets. Be it
+remembered, too, that this happy valiancy of style
+is but the representative and result of all the
+material excellencies so expressed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This play should be perused in mental contrast
+with <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>;&mdash;as the love of passion
+and appetite opposed to the love of affection and
+instinct. But the art displayed in the character of
+Cleopatra is profound; in this, especially, that the
+sense of criminality in her passion is lessened by
+our insight into its depth and energy, at the very
+moment that we cannot but perceive that the passion
+<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/>
+itself springs out of the habitual craving of a
+licentious nature, and that it is supported and
+reinforced by voluntary stimulus and sought-for
+associations, instead of blossoming out of spontaneous
+emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all Shakespeare's historical plays, <hi rend='italic'>Antony and
+Cleopatra</hi> is by far the most wonderful. There is
+not one in which he has followed history so
+minutely, and yet there are few in which he impresses
+the notion of angelic strength so much;&mdash;perhaps
+none in which he impresses it more
+strongly. This is greatly owing to the manner in
+which the fiery force is sustained throughout, and
+to the numerous momentary flashes of nature counteracting
+the historic abstraction. As a wonderful
+specimen of the way in which Shakespeare lives up
+to the very end of this play, read the last part of
+the concluding scene. And if you would feel the
+judgment as well as the genius of Shakespeare in
+your heart's core, compare this astonishing drama
+with Dryden's <hi rend='italic'>All For Love</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Philo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">His captain's heart</q></l>
+<l>Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The buckles on his breast, <emph>reneges</emph> all temper.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It should be <q>reneagues,</q> or <q>reniegues,</q> as
+<q>fatigues,</q> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Take but good note, and you shall see in him</q></l>
+<l>The triple pillar of the world transform'd</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Into a strumpet's <emph>fool</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's conjecture of <q>stool</q> is ingenious,
+and would be a probable reading, if the scene opening
+had discovered Antony with Cleopatra on his
+lap. But, represented as he is walking and jesting
+with her, <q>fool</q> must be the word. Warburton's
+<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/>
+objection is shallow, and implies that he confounded
+the dramatic with the epic style. The <q>pillar</q>
+of a state is so common a metaphor as to have lost
+the image in the thing meant to be imaged.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Much is breeding;</q></l>
+<l>Which, like the courser's hair, hath yet but life,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And not a serpent's poison.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is so far true to appearance, that a horse-hair,
+<q>laid,</q> as Hollinshed says, <q>in a pail of
+water,</q> will become the supporter of seemingly one
+worm, though probably of an immense number of
+small slimy water-lice. The hair will twirl round
+a finger, and sensibly compress it. It is a common
+experiment with school boys in Cumberland and
+Westmoreland.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2. Speech of Enobarbus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides,</q></l>
+<l>So many <emph>mermaids</emph>, tended her i' th' eyes,</l>
+<l>And made their bends adornings. At the helm</l>
+<l><q rend="post">A seeming mermaid steers.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I have the greatest difficulty in believing that
+Shakespeare wrote the first <q>mermaids.</q> He
+never, I think, would have so weakened by useless
+anticipation the fine image immediately following.
+The epithet <q>seeming</q> becomes so extremely improper
+after the whole number had been positively
+called <q>so many mermaids.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Timon Of Athens.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Tim.</hi> The man is honest.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Old Ath.</hi> <emph>Therefore he will be</emph>, Timon.</l>
+<l><q rend="post">His honesty rewards him in itself.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's comment&mdash;<q>If the man be
+honest, for that reason he will be so in this,
+and not endeavour at the injustice of gaining my
+daughter without my consent</q>&mdash;is, like almost all
+his comments, ingenious in blunder; he can never
+see any other writer's thoughts for the mist-working
+swarm of his own. The meaning of the first line
+the poet himself explains, or rather unfolds, in the
+second. <q>The man is honest!</q>&mdash;<q>True;&mdash;and for
+that very cause, and with no additional or extrinsic
+motive, he will be so. No man can be justly called
+honest, who is not so for honesty's sake, itself including
+its own reward.</q> Note, that <q>honesty</q> in
+Shakespeare's age retained much of its old dignity,
+and that contradistinction of the <hi rend='italic'>honestum</hi> from the
+<hi rend='italic'>utile</hi>, in which its very essence and definition consist.
+If it be <hi rend='italic'>honestum</hi>, it cannot depend on the
+<hi rend='italic'>utile</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Apemantus, printed as prose in
+Theobald's edition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>So, so! aches contract, and starve your supple joints!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I may remark here the fineness of Shakespeare's
+sense of musical period, which would almost by itself
+have suggested (if the hundred positive proofs
+had not been extant) that the word <q>aches</q> was
+<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/>
+then <hi rend='italic'>ad libitum</hi>, a
+dissyllable&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>aitches</hi>. For read
+it <q>aches,</q> in this sentence, and I would challenge
+you to find any period in Shakespeare's writings
+with the same musical or, rather dissonant, notation.
+Try the one, and then the other, by your
+ear, reading the sentence aloud, first with the word
+as a dissyllable and then as a monosyllable, and you
+will feel what I mean.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Cupid's speech: Warburton's correction
+of&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>There taste, touch, all pleas'd from thy table rise</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+into
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Th' ear, taste, touch, smell,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is indeed an excellent emendation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Senator's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Nor then silenc'd with</q></l>
+<l><q>Commend me to your master</q>&mdash;<emph>and the cap</emph></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Plays in the right hand, thus</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Either, methinks, <q>plays</q> should be <q>play'd,</q>
+or <q>and</q> should be changed to <q>while.</q> I
+can certainly understand it as a parenthesis, an
+interadditive of scorn; but it does not sound to my
+ear as in Shakespeare's manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Timon's speech (Theobald):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And that unaptness made <emph>you</emph> minister,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Thus to excuse yourself.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read <emph>your</emph>;&mdash;at least I cannot otherwise understand
+the line. You made my chance indisposition
+and occasional inaptness your minister&mdash;that is, the
+ground on which you now excuse yourself. Or,
+perhaps, no correction is necessary, if we construe
+<q>made you</q> as <q>did you make;</q> <q>and that unaptness
+did you make help you thus to excuse
+yourself.</q> But the former seems more in Shakespeare's
+<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/>
+manner, and is less liable to be misunderstood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 3. Servant's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>How fairly this lord strives to appear foul!&mdash;takes virtuous
+copies to be wicked; <emph>like those that under hot, ardent zeal would set
+whole realms on fire. Of such a nature is his politic love</emph>.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+This latter clause I grievously suspect to have
+been an addition of the players, which had hit, and,
+being constantly applauded, procured a settled
+occupation in the prompter's copy. Not that
+Shakespeare does not elsewhere sneer at the Puritans;
+but here it is introduced so <hi rend='italic'>nolenter volenter</hi>
+(excuse the phrase) by the head and shoulders!&mdash;and
+is besides so much more likely to have been
+conceived in the age of Charles I.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Timon's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Raise me this beggar, and <emph>deny't</emph> that lord.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton reads <q>denude.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I cannot see the necessity of this alteration. The
+editors and commentators are, all of them, ready
+enough to cry out against Shakespeare's laxities
+and licenses of style, forgetting that he is not
+merely a poet, but a dramatic poet; that, when the
+head and the heart are swelling with fulness, a
+man does not ask himself whether he has grammatically
+arranged, but only whether (the context
+taken in) he has conveyed his meaning. <q>Deny</q>
+is here clearly equal to <q>withhold;</q> and the <q>it,</q>
+quite in the genius of vehement conversation, which
+a syntaxist explains by ellipses and <hi rend='italic'>subauditurs</hi> in
+a Greek or Latin classic, yet triumphs over as
+ignorances in a contemporary, refers to accidental
+and artificial rank or elevation, implied in the verb
+<q>raise.</q> Besides, does the word <q>denude</q> occur
+in any writer before, or of, Shakespeare's age?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Romeo And Juliet.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+I have previously had occasion to speak at large
+on the subject of the three unities of time, place,
+and action, as applied to the drama in the abstract,
+and to the particular stage for which Shakespeare
+wrote, as far as he can be said to have written for
+any stage but that of the universal mind. I hope
+I have in some measure succeeded in demonstrating
+that the former two, instead of being rules,
+were mere inconveniences attached to the local
+peculiarities of the Athenian drama; that the last
+alone deserved the name of a principle, and that in
+the preservation of this unity Shakespeare stood
+pre-eminent. Yet, instead of unity of action, I
+should greatly prefer the more appropriate, though
+scholastic and uncouth, words homogeneity, proportionateness,
+and totality of interest,&mdash;expressions,
+which involve the distinction, or rather the
+essential difference, betwixt the shaping skill of
+mechanical talent, and the creative, productive,
+life-power of inspired genius. In the former each
+part is separately conceived, and then by a succeeding
+act put together;&mdash;not as watches are
+made for wholesale&mdash;(for there each part supposes
+a pre-conception of the whole in some mind),&mdash;but
+more like pictures on a motley screen. Whence
+arises the harmony that strikes us in the wildest
+natural landscapes,&mdash;in the relative shapes of rocks,
+<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/>
+the harmony of colours in the heaths, ferns, and
+lichens, the leaves of the beech and the oak, the
+stems and rich brown branches of the birch and
+other mountain trees, varying from verging autumn
+to returning spring,&mdash;compared with the visual
+effect from the greater number of artificial plantations?&mdash;From
+this, that the natural landscape is
+effected, as it were, by a single energy modified <hi rend='italic'>ab
+intra</hi> in each component part. And as this is the
+particular excellence of the Shakespearian drama
+generally, so is it especially characteristic of the
+<hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The groundwork of the tale is altogether in
+family life, and the events of the play have their
+first origin in family feuds. Filmy as are the eyes
+of party-spirit, at once dim and truculent, still
+there is commonly some real or supposed object in
+view, or principle to be maintained; and though
+but the twisted wires on the plate of rosin in the
+preparation for electrical pictures, it is still a guide
+in some degree, an assimilation to an outline. But
+in family quarrels, which have proved scarcely less
+injurious to states, wilfulness, and precipitancy, and
+passion from mere habit and custom can alone be
+expected. With his accustomed judgment, Shakespeare
+has begun by placing before us a lively
+picture of all the impulses of the play; and, as
+nature ever presents two sides, one for Heraclitus,
+and one for Democritus, he has, by way of prelude,
+shown the laughable absurdity of the evil by the
+contagion of it reaching the servants who have so
+little to do with it, but who are under the necessity
+of letting the superfluity of sensoreal power fly
+off through the escape-valve of wit-combats, and of
+quarrelling with weapons of sharper edge, all in
+<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/>
+humble imitation of their masters. Yet there is
+a sort of unhired fidelity, an <hi rend='italic'>ourishness</hi> about all
+this that makes it rest pleasant on one's feelings.
+All the first scene, down to the conclusion of the
+Prince's speech, is a motley dance of all ranks and
+ages to one tune, as if the horn of Huon had been
+playing behind the scenes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Benvolio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Madam, an hour before the worshipp'd sun</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Peer'd forth the golden window of the east</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and, far more strikingly, the following speech of
+old Montague:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Many a morning hath he there been seen</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">With tears augmenting the fresh morning dew</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+prove that Shakespeare meant the <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>
+to approach to a poem, which, and indeed its early
+date, may be also inferred from the multitude of
+rhyming couplets throughout. And if we are right,
+from the internal evidence, in pronouncing this one
+of Shakespeare's early dramas, it affords a strong
+instance of the fineness of his insight into the nature
+of the passions, that Romeo is introduced already
+love-bewildered. The necessity of loving creates
+an object for itself in man and woman; and yet
+there is a difference in this respect between the
+sexes, though only to be known by a perception of
+it. It would have displeased us if Juliet had been
+represented as already in love, or as fancying herself
+so;&mdash;but no one, I believe, ever experiences
+any shock at Romeo's forgetting his Rosaline, who
+had been a mere name for the yearning of his
+youthful imagination, and rushing into his passion
+for Juliet. Rosaline was a mere creation of his
+fancy; and we should remark the boastful positiveness
+<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/>
+of Romeo in a love of his own making, which
+is never shown where love is really near the heart.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">When the devout religion of mine eye</q></l>
+<l>Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fires!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>One fairer than my love! the all-seeing sun</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Ne'er saw her match, since first the world begun.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The character of the Nurse is the nearest of any
+thing in Shakespeare to a direct borrowing from
+mere observation; and the reason is, that as in
+infancy and childhood the individual in nature is
+a representative of a class,&mdash;just as in describing
+one larch tree, you generalise a grove of them,&mdash;so
+it is nearly as much so in old age. The generalisation
+is done to the poet's hand. Here you have
+the garrulity of age strengthened by the feelings of
+a long-trusted servant, whose sympathy with the
+mother's affections gives her privileges and rank
+in the household; and observe the mode of connection
+by accidents of time and place, and the
+childlike fondness of repetition in a second childhood,
+and also that happy humble, ducking under,
+yet constant resurgence against, the check of her
+superiors!&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Yes, madam!&mdash;Yet I cannot choose but laugh,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In the fourth scene we have Mercutio introduced
+to us. O! how shall I describe that exquisite
+ebullience and overflow of youthful life, wafted on
+over the laughing waves of pleasure and prosperity,
+as a wanton beauty that distorts the face on which
+she knows her lover is gazing enraptured, and
+wrinkles her forehead in the triumph of its smoothness!
+Wit ever wakeful, fancy busy and procreative
+as an insect, courage, an easy mind that,
+without cares of its own, is at once disposed to
+<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/>
+laugh away those of others, and yet to be interested
+in them,&mdash;these and all congenial qualities,
+melting into the common <hi rend='italic'>copula</hi> of them all, the
+man of rank and the gentleman, with all its excellencies
+and all its weaknesses, constitute the character
+of Mercutio!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Tyb.</hi> It fits when such a
+villain is a guest;</q></l>
+<l>I'll not endure him.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cap.</hi> He shall be endur'd.</l>
+<l>What, goodman boy!&mdash;I say, he shall:&mdash;Go to;&mdash;</l>
+<l>Am I the master here, or you?&mdash;Go to.</l>
+<l>You'll not endure him!&mdash;God shall mend my soul&mdash;</l>
+<l>You'll make a mutiny among my guests!</l>
+<l>You will set cock-a-hoop! you'll be the man!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Tyb.</hi> Why, uncle, 'tis a shame.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cap.</hi> Go to, go to,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">You are a saucy boy!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+How admirable is the old man's impetuosity at
+once contrasting, yet harmonised, with young
+Tybalt's quarrelsome violence! But it would be
+endless to repeat observations of this sort. Every
+leaf is different on an oak tree; but still we can
+only say&mdash;our tongues defrauding our eyes&mdash; <q>This
+is another oak-leaf!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2. The garden scene.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Take notice in this enchanting scene of the contrast
+of Romeo's love with his former fancy; and
+weigh the skill shown in justifying him from his
+inconstancy by making us feel the difference of his
+passion. Yet this, too, is a love in, although not
+merely of, the imagination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Jul.</hi>
+Well, do not swear; although I joy in thee,</q></l>
+<l>I have no joy in this contract to-night:</l>
+<l><q rend="post">It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+With love, pure love, there is always an anxiety
+for the safety of the object, a disinterestedness, by
+<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/>
+which it is distinguished from the counterfeits of
+its name. Compare this scene with Act iii. sc. 1
+of the <hi rend='italic'>Tempest</hi>. I do not know a more wonderful
+instance of Shakespeare's mastery in playing a
+distinctly rememberable variety on the same remembered
+air, than in the transporting love confessions
+of Romeo and Juliet and Ferdinand and
+Miranda. There seems more passion in the one,
+and more dignity in the other; yet you feel that
+the sweet girlish lingering and busy movement of
+Juliet, and the calmer and more maidenly fondness
+of Miranda, might easily pass into each other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. The Friar's speech.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reverend character of the Friar, like all
+Shakespeare's representations of the great professions,
+is very delightful and tranquillising, yet it
+is no digression, but immediately necessary to the
+carrying on of the plot.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q><hi rend='italic'>Rom.</hi> Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give
+you?</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Compare again Romeo's half-exerted, and half
+real, ease of mind with his first manner when in
+love with Rosaline! His will had come to the
+clenching point.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Rom.</hi> Do thou but
+close our hands with holy words,</q></l>
+<l>Then love-devouring death do what he dare,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">It is enough I may but call her mine.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The precipitancy, which is the character of the
+play, is well marked in this short scene of waiting
+for Juliet's arrival.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q><hi rend='italic'>Mer.</hi> No, 'tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
+door; but 'tis enough: 'twill serve: ask for me to-morrow, and you
+shall find me a grave man,</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/>
+
+<p>
+How fine an effect the wit and raillery habitual
+to Mercutio, even struggling with his pain, give
+to Romeo's following speech, and at the same time
+so completely justifying his passionate revenge
+on Tybalt!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Benvolio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">But that he tilts</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">With piercing steel at bold Mercutio's breast.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This small portion of untruth in Benvolio's
+narrative is finely conceived.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Juliet's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Whiter than new snow on a raven's back.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Indeed the whole of this speech is imagination
+strained to the highest; and observe the blessed
+effect on the purity of the mind. What would
+Dryden have made of it?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Nurse.</hi> Shame come to Romeo.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Jul.</hi> Blister'd be thy tongue</l>
+<l><q rend="post">For such a wish!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Note the Nurse's mistake of the mind's audible
+struggles with itself for its decision <hi rend='italic'>in toto</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Romeo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">'Tis torture, and not mercy: heaven's here,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Where Juliet lives,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+All deep passions are a sort of atheists, that
+believe no future.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Cap.</hi> Soft!
+take me with you, take me with you, wife&mdash;How!</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">will she none?</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+A noble scene! Don't I see it with my own
+eyes?&mdash;Yes! but not with Juliet's. And observe
+in Capulet's last speech in this scene his mistake,
+<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/>
+as if love's causes were capable of being
+generalised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Juliet's speech.:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">O, look! methinks I see my cousin's ghost</q></l>
+<l>Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body</l>
+<l>Upon a rapier's point:&mdash;Stay, Tybalt, stay!&mdash;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare provides for the finest decencies.
+It would have been too bold a thing for a girl of
+fifteen;&mdash;but she swallows the draught in a fit of
+fright.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the audience know that Juliet is not dead,
+this scene is, perhaps, excusable. But it is a
+strong warning to minor dramatists not to introduce
+at one time many separate characters agitated
+by one and the same circumstance. It is difficult
+to understand what effect, whether that of pity or
+of laughter, Shakespeare meant to produce;&mdash;the
+occasion and the characteristic speeches are so
+little in harmony! For example, what the Nurse
+says is excellently suited to the Nurse's character,
+but grotesquely unsuited to the occasion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 1. Romeo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">O mischief! thou art swift</q></l>
+<l>To enter in the thoughts of desperate men!</l>
+<l><q rend="post">I do remember an apothecary,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This famous passage is so beautiful as to be self-justified;
+yet, in addition, what a fine preparation
+it is for the tomb scene!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Romeo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Fly hence and leave me.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The gentleness of Romeo was shown before, as
+softened by love; and now it is doubled by love
+and sorrow and awe of the place where he is.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Romeo's speech:&mdash;--
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">How oft when men are at the point of death</q></l>
+<l>Have they been merry! which their keepers call</l>
+<l>A lightning before death. O, how may I</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Call this a lightning?&mdash;--O, my love, my wife!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Here, here, is the master example how beauty
+can at once increase and modify passion!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Last scene.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+How beautiful is the close! The spring and
+the winter meet;&mdash;winter assumes the character
+of spring, and spring the sadness of winter.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.</head>
+
+<p>
+The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence
+of which may be stated as the successive in
+events and characters. This must be distinguished
+from narration, in which there must always be a
+narrator, from whom the objects represented receive
+a colouring and a manner;&mdash;whereas in the
+epic, as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole
+is completely objective, and the representation is a
+pure reflection. The next form into which poetry
+passed was the dramatic;&mdash;both forms having a
+common basis with a certain difference, and that
+difference not consisting in the dialogue alone.
+Both are founded on the relation of providence to
+the human will; and this relation is the universal
+element, expressed under different points of view
+according to the difference of religion, and the
+moral and intellectual cultivation of different
+nations. In the epic poem fate is represented as
+overruling the will, and making it instrumental
+to the accomplishment of its designs:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... Διὸς τελείετο βονλή</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling
+with fate, a great and beautiful instance and illustration
+of which is the <hi rend='italic'>Prometheus</hi> of Æschylus;
+and the deepest effect is produced when the fate
+<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/>
+is represented as a higher and intelligent will, and
+the opposition of the individual as springing from
+a defect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In order that a drama may be properly historical,
+it is necessary that it should be the history
+of the people to whom it is addressed. In the
+composition, care must be taken that there appear
+no dramatic improbability, as the reality is taken
+for granted. It must, likewise, be poetical;&mdash;that
+only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent
+in our nature, which is common, and
+therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The
+events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than
+as the clothing and manifestation of the spirit
+that is working within. In this mode, the unity
+resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied
+by a unity of a higher order, which connects
+the events by reference to the workers, gives a
+reason for them in the motives, and presents men
+in their causative character. It takes, therefore,
+that part of real history which is the least known,
+and infuses a principle of life and organisation
+into the naked facts, and makes them all the
+framework of an animated whole.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In my happier days, while I had yet hope and
+onward-looking thoughts, I planned an historical
+drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare.
+Indeed, it would be desirable that some
+man of dramatic genius should dramatise all those
+omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry
+VII. Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting
+drama. A few scenes of Marlow's
+<hi rend='italic'>Edward II.</hi> might be preserved. After Henry
+VIII., the events are too well and distinctly
+known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,
+<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/>
+crowded together in one night's exhibition.
+Whereas, the history of our ancient kings&mdash;the
+events of the reigns, I mean&mdash;are like stars in the
+sky;&mdash;whatever the real interspaces may be, and
+however great, they seem close to each other.
+The stars&mdash;the events&mdash;strike us and remain in
+our eye, little modified by the difference of dates.
+An historic drama is, therefore, a collection of
+events borrowed from history, but connected together
+in respect of cause and time, poetically and
+by dramatic fiction. It would be a fine national
+custom to act such a series of dramatic histories in
+orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays,
+and could not but tend to counteract that
+mock cosmopolitism, which under a positive term
+really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference
+to, the particular love of our country.
+By its nationality must every nation retain its
+independence;&mdash;I mean a nationality <hi rend='italic'>quoad</hi> the
+nation. Better thus;&mdash;nationality in each individual,
+<hi rend='italic'>quoad</hi> his country, is equal to the sense of
+individuality <hi rend='italic'>quoad</hi> himself; but himself as sub-sensuous
+and central. Patriotism is equal to the
+sense of individuality reflected from every other
+individual. There may come a higher virtue in
+both&mdash;just cosmopolitism. But this latter is not
+possible but by antecedence of the former.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare has included the most important
+part of nine reigns in his historical dramas;&mdash;namely&mdash;King
+John, Richard II.&mdash;Henry IV.
+(two)&mdash;Henry V.&mdash;Henry VI. (three) including
+Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten plays.
+There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception
+of a single scene or two that should be
+adopted from Marlow&mdash;eleven reigns&mdash;of which
+<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/>
+the first two appear the only unpromising subjects;&mdash;and
+those two dramas must be formed wholly or
+mainly of invented private stories, which, however,
+could not have happened except in consequence
+of the events and measures of these reigns,
+and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting
+the manners and oppressions of the times,
+and of narrating dramatically the great events;&mdash;if
+possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at
+least of the latter, should be made to have some
+influence on the finale of the story. All the rest
+are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being
+the struggle between the men of arms and of
+letters, in the persons of Henry and Becket),
+Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>King John.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Bast.</hi> James Gurney,
+wilt thou give us leave awhile?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Gur.</hi> Good leave, good Philip.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Bast.</hi> Philip?
+<emph>sparrow!</emph> James,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture
+of <q><emph>spare me</emph>.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+O true Warburton! and the <hi rend='italic'>sancta simplicitas</hi>
+of honest dull Theobald's faith in him! Nothing
+can be more lively or characteristic than <q>Philip?
+Sparrow!</q> Had Warburton read old Skelton's
+<hi rend='italic'>Philip Sparrow</hi>, an exquisite and original poem,
+and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even
+Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a
+plunge into the <hi rend='italic'>bathetic</hi> as to have deathified
+<q><emph>sparrow</emph></q> into <q><emph>spare me</emph>!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Some <emph>airy</emph> devil hovers in the sky,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of <q>fiery.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I prefer the old text: the word <q>devil</q> implies
+<q>fiery.</q> You need only read the line, laying a
+full and strong emphasis on <q>devil,</q> to perceive
+the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's
+alteration.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Richard II.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+I have stated that the transitional link between
+the epic poem and the drama is the
+historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced
+fate gradually adjusts and employs the
+will and the events as its instruments, whilst the
+drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in
+opposition to each other, and is then most perfect,
+when the victory of fate is obtained in consequence
+of imperfections in the opposing will, so as
+to leave a final impression that the fate itself is
+but a higher and a more intelligent will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance
+that, with one exception, the events are
+all historical, and presented in their results, not
+produced by acts seen by, or taking place before,
+the audience, this tragedy is ill suited to our present
+large theatres. But in itself, and for the
+closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first
+and most admirable of all Shakespeare's purely
+historical plays. For the two parts of <hi rend='italic'>Henry IV.</hi>
+form a species of themselves, which may be named
+the mixed drama. The distinction does not depend
+on the mere quantity of historical events in the
+play compared with the fictions; for there is as
+much history in <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi> as
+in <hi rend='italic'>Richard</hi>, but in the
+relation of the history to the plot. In the purely
+historical plays, the history forms the plot; in the
+mixed, it directs it; in the rest, as <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Cymbeline</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, it subserves it. But,
+<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/>
+however unsuited to the stage this drama may be,
+God forbid that even there it should fall dead on
+the hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then,
+indeed, we might say&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>præteriit gloria mundi!</hi>
+For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the all-permeating
+soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps,
+the most purely historical of Shakespeare's dramas.
+There are not in it, as in the others, characters
+introduced merely for the purpose of giving a
+greater individuality and realness, as in the comic
+parts of <hi rend='italic'>Henry IV.</hi>, by presenting as it were our
+very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every
+opportunity to effect the great object of the historic
+drama,&mdash;that, namely, of familiarising the
+people to the great names of their country, and
+thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of
+just liberty, and a respect for all those fundamental
+institutions of social life, which bind men
+together:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,</q></l>
+<l>This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,</l>
+<l>This other Eden, demi-paradise;</l>
+<l>This fortress, built by nature for herself,</l>
+<l>Against infection, and the hand of war;</l>
+<l>This happy breed of men, this little world;</l>
+<l>This precious stone set in the silver sea,</l>
+<l>Which serves it in the office of a wall,</l>
+<l>Or as a moat defensive to a home,</l>
+<l>Against the envy of less happier lands;</l>
+<l>This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,</l>
+<l>This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Add the famous passage in <hi rend='italic'>King John</hi>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">This England never did nor ever shall,</q></l>
+<l>Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,</l>
+<l>But when it first did help to wound itself.</l>
+<l>Now these her princes are come home again,</l>
+<l>Come the three corners of the world in arms,</l>
+<l>And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">If England to itself do rest but true.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/>
+
+<p>
+And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic
+dramas produced a very deep effect on the minds
+of the English people, and in earlier times they
+were familiar even to the least informed of all
+ranks, according to the relation of Bishop Corbett.
+Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to confess
+that his principal acquaintance with English
+history was derived from them; and I believe that
+a large part of the information as to our old names
+and achievements even now abroad is due, directly
+or indirectly, to Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare
+always in the first scenes prepares, yet how
+naturally, and with what concealment of art, for
+the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents
+the germ of all the after events in Richard's insincerity,
+partiality, arbitrariness, and favouritism,
+and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of
+his barons. In the very beginning, also, is displayed
+that feature in Richard's character, which
+is never forgotten throughout the play&mdash;his attention
+to decorum, and high feeling of the kingly
+dignity. These anticipations show with what
+judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his
+care to connect the past and the future, and
+unify them with the present by forecast and
+reminiscence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the
+six opening lines of the play&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Hast thou, according to thy oath and band,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+each closing at the tenth syllable, with the
+rhythmless metre of the verse in <hi rend='italic'>Henry VI.</hi> and
+<hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi>, in order that the difference,
+<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/>
+indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be felt
+<hi rend='italic'>etiam in simillimis prima superficie</hi>. Here the
+weight of the single words supplies all the relief
+afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole
+represents the mood. And compare the apparently
+defective metre of Bolingbroke's first line&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Many years of happy days befal</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+with Prospero's&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The actor should supply the time by emphasis,
+and pause on the first syllable of each of these
+verses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">First (heaven be the record to my speech!),</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">In the devotion of a subject's love,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more
+striking example of the τὸ π�έπον καὶ σεμνὸν than
+this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines
+well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's
+scheme so beautifully contrasted with the vehemence
+and sincere irritation of Mowbray.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Bolingbroke's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,</q></l>
+<l>Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To <emph>me</emph>, for justice and rough chastisement.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Note the δεινὸν of this <q>to me,</q> which is evidently
+felt by Richard:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>How high a pitch his resolution soars!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and the affected depreciation afterwards;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>As he is but my father's brother's son.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Mowbray's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">In haste whereof, most heartily I pray</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Your highness to assign our trial day.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/>
+
+<p>
+The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the
+more frequent winding up of a speech therewith&mdash;what
+purpose was this designed to answer? In the
+earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt,
+as in Mowbray, to collect himself and be
+cool at the close?&mdash;I can see that in the following
+speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek
+chorus, and distinguishes the general truths from
+the passions of the dialogue; but this does not
+exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in
+proportion to the excellence of Shakespeare's plays.
+One thing, however, is to be observed,&mdash;that the
+speakers are historical, known, and so far formal
+characters, and their reality is already a fact. This
+should be borne in mind. The whole of this scene
+of the quarrel between Mowbray and Bolingbroke
+seems introduced for the purpose of showing by
+anticipation the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke.
+In the latter there is observable a decorous
+and courtly checking of his anger in subservience
+to a predetermined plan, especially in his calm
+speech after receiving sentence of banishment compared
+with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In
+the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to
+come; in the other it is desolation and a looking
+backward of the heart,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Gaunt.</hi> God's is the quarrel;
+for God's substitute,</q></l>
+<l>His deputy anointed in his right,</l>
+<l>Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,</l>
+<l>Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift</l>
+<l><q rend="post">An angry arm against his minister.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's ultra-royalism, how carefully does
+Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal
+distinction between the mere individual, and the
+<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/>
+symbolic or representative, on which all genial law,
+no less than patriotism, depends. The whole of
+this second scene commences, and is anticipative
+of, the tone and character of the play at large.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious
+dramas, or in those founded on a history as unknown
+to his auditors generally as fiction, is this
+violent rupture of the succession of time found:&mdash;a
+proof, I think, that the pure historic drama, like
+<hi rend='italic'>Richard II.</hi> and
+<hi rend='italic'>King John</hi>, had its own laws.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Mowbray's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">A dearer <emph>merit</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Have I deserved at your highness' hand.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in
+the choice of words!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Richard's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Nor never by advised purpose meet,</q></l>
+<l>To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character
+opens. Nothing will such minds so readily
+embrace, as indirect ways softened down to their
+<hi rend='italic'>quasi</hi>-consciences by policy, expedience, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Mowbray's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q>All the world's my way.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>The world was all before him.</q>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>Milt.</hi></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 2"><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Boling.</hi>
+How long a time lies in one little word!</q></l>
+<l>Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">End in a word: such is the breath of kings.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Admirable anticipation!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first
+act,&mdash;letting the reader into the secret;&mdash;having
+before impressed us with the dignified and kingly
+manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations
+leading us on to the full gratification of
+<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/>
+pleasure in our own penetration. In this scene a
+new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until
+now he has appeared in all the beauty of royalty;
+but here, as soon as he is left to himself, the inherent
+weakness of his character is immediately
+shown. It is a weakness, however, of a peculiar
+kind, not arising from want of personal courage,
+or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an intellectual
+feminineness, which feels a necessity of
+ever leaning on the breasts of others, and of reclining
+on those who are all the while known to be
+inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences
+all Richard's vices, his tendency to
+concealment, and his cunning, the whole operation
+of which is directed to the getting rid of present
+difficulties. Richard is not meant to be a debauchee;
+but we see in him that sophistry which is common
+to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts,
+and at one and the same time apologize for, and
+yet commit, the error. Shakespeare has represented
+this character in a very peculiar manner.
+He has not made him amiable with counterbalancing
+faults; but has openly and broadly drawn those
+faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate
+sufferings and gradually emergent
+good qualities for our sympathy; and this was
+possible, because his faults are not positive vices,
+but spring entirely from defect of character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Can sick men play so nicely
+with their names?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which
+may make all things appear but as puns and equivocations.
+And a passion there is that carries off
+its own excess by plays on words as naturally, and,
+<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/>
+therefore, as appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations,
+looks, or tones. This belongs to human
+nature as such, independently of associations and
+habits from any particular rank of life or mode of
+employment; and in this consists Shakespeare's
+vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth
+the <hi rend='italic'>nobile volgare eloquenza</hi>. Indeed it is profoundly
+true that there is a natural, an almost irresistible,
+tendency in the mind, when immersed in one
+strong feeling, to connect that feeling with every
+sight and object around it; especially if there be
+opposition, and the words addressed to it are in any
+way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the
+instance of Richard's unkind language:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Misery makes sport to mock itself.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning
+must be attributed to his age, in which direct and
+formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of
+the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more
+favourable, upon the whole, to vigour of intellect
+than the present, in which a dread of being thought
+pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original
+minds. But independently of this, I have no
+hesitation in saying that a pun, if it be congruous
+with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable
+in the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the
+most effectual intensives of passion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Right; you
+say true, as Hereford's love, so his;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The depth of this compared with the first scene:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>How high a pitch,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/>
+
+<p>
+There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its
+degree, more admirably drawn than York's character;
+his religious loyalty struggling with a deep
+grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence
+to his word and faith, once given in spite
+of all, even the most natural, feelings. You see in
+him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness
+of circumstances, for a time surmounting
+his sense of duty,&mdash;the junction of both exhibited
+in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate
+act; and then again his effort to retrieve himself
+in abstract loyalty, even at the heavy price of
+the loss of his son. This species of accidental and
+adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with
+Richard's continually increasing energy of thought,
+and as constantly diminishing power of acting;&mdash;and
+thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and
+a relation into all the characters of the play.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Queen.</hi> To please the king
+I did; to please myself</q></l>
+<l>I cannot do it; yet I know no cause</l>
+<l>Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,</l>
+<l>Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest</l>
+<l>As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,</l>
+<l>Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,</l>
+<l>Is coming toward me; and my inward soul</l>
+<l>With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">More than with parting from my lord the king.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent
+Richard as a vulgar debauchee, but a man
+with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a
+feminine <hi rend='italic'>friendism</hi>, an intensity of woman-like love
+of those immediately about him, and a mistaking of
+the delight of being loved by him for a love of him.
+And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in
+touching the tender superstitions, the <hi rend='italic'>terræ incognitæ</hi>
+of presentiments, in the human mind; and
+<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/>
+how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws
+between these obscure forecastings of general experience
+in each individual, and the vulgar errors of
+mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for
+all as the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute
+universality of his genius, always reverences whatever
+arises out of our moral nature; he never profanes
+his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away
+of the genuine and general, however unaccountable,
+feelings of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The amiable part of Richard's character is
+brought full upon us by his queen's few words&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 6">... <q rend="pre">So sweet a guest</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">As my sweet Richard:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an
+intense love of his country, well-knowing how that
+feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him
+in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this
+love there is something feminine and personal:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,&mdash;</q></l>
+<l>As a long parted mother with her child</l>
+<l>Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;</l>
+<l>So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And do thee favour with my royal hands.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions
+from a total incapability of controlling them,
+and thence a waste of that energy, which should
+have been reserved for actions, in the passion and
+effort of mere resolves and menaces. The consequence
+is moral exhaustion, and rapid alternations
+of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,&mdash;every
+feeling being abandoned for its direct opposite upon
+the pressure of external accident. And yet when
+Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge
+in his despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose,
+the old habit of kingliness, the effect of
+<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/>
+flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon producing
+in him a sort of wordy courage which only
+serves to betray more clearly his internal impotence.
+The second and third scenes of the third
+act combine and illustrate all this:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Aumerle.</hi> He means,
+my lord, that we are too remiss;</q></l>
+<l>Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,</l>
+<l>Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,</l>
+<l>That when the searching eye of heaven is hid</l>
+<l>Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,</l>
+<l>Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,</l>
+<l>In murders and in outrage, bloody here;</l>
+<l>But when, from under this terrestrial ball,</l>
+<l>He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,</l>
+<l>And darts his light through every guilty hole,</l>
+<l>Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,</l>
+<l>The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,</l>
+<l>Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?</l>
+<l>So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Aumerle.</hi> Where is the Duke my father with his power?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> No matter where; of comfort no man speak:</l>
+<l>Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,</l>
+<l>Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes</l>
+<l>Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Aumerle.</hi> My father hath a power, enquire of him;</l>
+<l>And learn to make a body of a limb.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come</l>
+<l>To change blows with thee for our day of doom.</l>
+<l>This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;</l>
+<l>An easy task it is to win our own.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Scroop.</hi> Your uncle York hath join'd
+with Bolingbroke.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Thou hast said enough,</l>
+<l>Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth</l>
+<l>Of that sweet way I was in to despair!</l>
+<l>What say you now? what comfort have we now?</l>
+<l>By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">That bids me be of comfort any more.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Noble lord,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/>
+
+<p>
+Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of
+power and ambition in Bolingbroke with the necessity
+for dissimulation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of
+our poet in giving reality and individual life, by the
+introduction of accidents in his historic plays, and
+thereby making them dramas, and not histories.
+How beautiful an islet of repose&mdash;a melancholy
+repose, indeed&mdash;is this scene with the Gardener and
+his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising
+is the incident of the very horse Barbary, in the
+scene with the Groom in the last act!&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Groom.</hi> I was a poor groom of
+thy stable, King,</q></l>
+<l>When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,</l>
+<l>With much ado, at length have gotten leave</l>
+<l>To look upon my sometimes master's face.</l>
+<l>O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,</l>
+<l>In London streets, that coronation day,</l>
+<l>When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!</l>
+<l>That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;</l>
+<l>That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>K. Rich.</hi> Rode he on Barbary?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance
+how Shakespeare makes one play introductory to
+another; for it is evidently a preparation for Henry
+IV., as Gloster in the third part of <hi rend='italic'>Henry VI.</hi> is
+for Richard III.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I would once more remark upon the exalted idea
+of the only true loyalty developed in this noble and
+impressive play. We have neither the rants of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;&mdash;the
+vast importance of the personal character
+of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at
+the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds
+him is attributed to, and grounded on, the position
+in which he stands as the convergence and exponent
+of the life and power of the state.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/>
+
+<p>
+The great end of the body politic appears to be
+to humanise, and assist in the progressiveness of,
+the animal man;&mdash;but the problem is so complicated
+with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible
+to lay down rules for the formation of a state. And
+should we be able to form a system of government,
+which should so balance its different powers as to
+form a check upon each, and so continually remedy
+and correct itself, it would, nevertheless, defeat its
+own aim;&mdash;for man is destined to be guided by
+higher principles, by universal views, which can
+never be fulfilled in this state of existence,&mdash;by a
+spirit of progressiveness which can never be accomplished,
+for then it would cease to be. Plato's
+Republic is like Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,&mdash;a
+description of an individual, all of whose faculties
+are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence;
+and this it is assumed may be the prototype
+of the state as one great individual. But there is
+this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the
+human faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate
+things; but that you could never get chiefs who
+were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly
+understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence,
+and so on through the rest. Each of
+these partakes of, and interferes with, all the
+others.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Henry IV.&mdash;Part I.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">No more the thirsty entrance of this soil</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Shall daub her lips with her own children's blood.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+A most obscure passage: but I think Theobald's
+interpretation right, namely, that
+<q>thirsty entrance</q> means the dry penetrability, or
+bibulous drought, of the soil. The obscurity of
+this passage is of the Shakespearian sort.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. In this, the first introduction of Falstaff,
+observe the consciousness and the intentionality
+of his wit, so that when it does not flow of its
+own accord, its absence is felt, and an effort visibly
+made to recall it. Note also throughout how Falstaff's
+pride is gratified in the power of influencing
+a prince of the blood, the heir apparent, by means
+of it. Hence his dislike to Prince John of Lancaster,
+and his mortification when he finds his wit
+fail on him:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>P. John.</hi> Fare you well,
+Falstaff: I, in my condition,</q></l>
+<l>Shall better speak of you than you deserve.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Fal.</hi> I would you had but the wit; 'twere better than your</l>
+<l>dukedom.&mdash;Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth</l>
+<l><q rend="post">not love me;&mdash;nor a man cannot make him laugh.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Second Carrier's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q>breeds fleas like a <emph>loach</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps it is a misprint, or a provincial pronunciation,
+for <q>leach,</q> that is, blood-suckers. Had it
+<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/>
+been gnats, instead of fleas, there might have been
+some sense, though small probability, in Warburton's
+suggestion of the Scottish <q>loch.</q> Possibly
+<q>loach,</q> or <q>lutch,</q> may be some lost word for
+dovecote, or poultry-lodge, notorious for breeding
+fleas. In Stevens's or my reading, it should properly
+be <q>loaches,</q> or <q>leeches,</q> in the plural; except
+that I think I have heard anglers speak of
+trouts like <hi rend='italic'>a</hi> salmon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Glend.</hi> <emph>Nay</emph>, if you melt,
+then will she run mad.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This <q>nay</q> so to be dwelt on in speaking, as to
+be equivalent to a dissyllable - u, is characteristic
+of the solemn Glendower; but the imperfect line
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><emph>She bids you</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Upon the wanton rushes lay you down,</q> &amp;c.,</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+is one of those fine hair-strokes of exquisite judgment
+peculiar to Shakespeare;&mdash;thus detaching the
+Lady's speech, and giving it the individuality and
+entireness of a little poem, while he draws attention
+to it.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Henry IV.&mdash;Part II.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>P. Hen.</hi> Sup any women with him?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Page.</hi> None, my lord, but old mistress Quickly, and mistress</l>
+<l>Doll Tear-sheet.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>P. Hen.</hi> This Doll Tear-sheet should
+be some road.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I am sometimes disposed to think that this respectable
+young lady's name is a very old corruption
+for Tear-street&mdash;street-walker, <hi rend='italic'>terere stratam</hi>
+(<hi rend='italic'>viam</hi>). Does not the Prince's question rather
+show this?&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>This Doll Tear-street should be some road?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 8">... <q rend="pre">Then, <emph>happy low,
+lie down</emph>;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I know no argument by which to persuade any
+one to be of my opinion, or rather of my feeling;
+but yet I cannot help feeling that <q>Happy low-lie-down!</q>
+is either a proverbial expression, or the
+burthen of some old song, and means, <q>Happy the
+man, who lays himself down on his straw bed or
+chaff pallet on the ground or floor!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Shallow's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><emph>Rah, tah, tah</emph>, would 'a say; <emph>bounce</emph>,
+would 'a say,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+That Beaumont and Fletcher have more than
+once been guilty of sneering at their great master,
+cannot, I fear, be denied; but the passage quoted
+by Theobald from the <hi rend='italic'>Knight of the Burning Pestle</hi>
+is an imitation. If it be chargeable with any fault,
+it is with plagiarism, not with sarcasm.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Henry V.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 2. Westmoreland's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">They know your <emph>grace</emph> hath cause,
+and means, and might;</q></l>
+<l>So hath your <emph>highness</emph>; never King of England</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Had nobles richer,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Does <q>grace</q> mean the king's own peculiar
+domains and legal revenue, and <q>highness</q>
+his feudal rights in the military service of his
+nobles?&mdash;I have sometimes thought it possible
+that the words <q>grace</q> and <q>cause</q> may have been
+transposed in the copying or printing;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>They know your cause hath grace,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What Theobald meant, I cannot guess. To me
+his pointing makes the passage still more obscure.
+Perhaps the lines ought to be recited dramatically
+thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">They know your Grace hath cause, and means, and might:&mdash;</q></l>
+<l>So <emph>hath</emph> your Highness&mdash;never King of England</l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Had</emph> nobles richer,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+He breaks off from the grammar and natural
+order from earnestness, and in order to give the
+meaning more passionately.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Exeter's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Yet that is but a <emph>crush'd</emph> necessity.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps it may be <q>crash</q> for <q>crass</q> from
+<hi rend='italic'>crassus</hi>, clumsy; or it may be <q>curt,</q> defective,
+imperfect: anything would be better than Warburton's
+<q>'scus'd,</q> which honest Theobald, of course,
+adopts. By the by, it seems clear to me that this
+<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/>
+speech of Exeter's properly belongs to Canterbury,
+and was altered by the actors for convenience.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. King Henry's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">We would not <emph>die</emph> in that man's company</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That fears his fellowship to die with us.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Should it not be <q>live</q> in the first line?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Const.</hi> <emph>O diable!</emph></q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Orl.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>O seigneur! le jour
+est perdu, tout est perdu!</hi></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Dan.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Mort de ma vie!</hi>
+all is confounded, all!</l>
+<l>Reproach and everlasting shame</l>
+<l>Sit mocking in our plumes!&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>O meschante fortune!</hi></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Do not run away!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Ludicrous as these introductory scraps of French
+appear, so instantly followed by good, nervous
+mother-English, yet they are judicious, and produce
+the impression which Shakespeare intended,&mdash;a
+sudden feeling struck at once on the ears, as well
+as the eyes, of the audience, that <q>here come the
+French, the baffled French braggards!</q>&mdash;And this
+will appear still more judicious, when we reflect on
+the scanty apparatus of distinguishing dresses in
+Shakespeare's tyring-room.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Henry VI.&mdash;Part I.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Bedford's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night!</q></l>
+<l>Comets, importing change of times and states,</l>
+<l>Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;</l>
+<l>And with them scourge the bad revolting stars</l>
+<l>That have consented unto Henry's death!</l>
+<l>Henry the fifth, too famous to live long!</l>
+<l><q rend="post">England ne'er lost a king of so much worth.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read aloud any two or three passages in blank
+verse even from Shakespeare's earliest dramas,
+as <hi rend='italic'>Love's Labour's Lost</hi>, or
+<hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>; and
+then read in the same way this speech, with especial
+attention to the metre; and if you do not feel the
+impossibility of the latter having been written by
+Shakespeare, all I dare suggest is, that you may
+have ears,&mdash;for so has another animal,&mdash;but an ear
+you cannot have, <hi rend='italic'>me judice</hi>.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Richard III.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This play should be contrasted with <hi rend='italic'>Richard
+II.</hi> Pride of intellect is the characteristic of
+Richard, carried to the extent of even boasting to
+his own mind of his villany, whilst others are present
+to feed his pride of superiority; as in his first
+speech, act ii. sc. 1. Shakespeare here, as in all
+his great parts, developes in a tone of sublime
+morality the dreadful consequences of placing the
+moral, in subordination to the mere intellectual,
+being. In Richard there is a predominance of
+irony, accompanied with apparently blunt manners
+to those immediately about him, but formalised
+into a more set hypocrisy towards the people as
+represented by their magistrates.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Lear.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Of all Shakespeare's plays <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi> is the most
+rapid, <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi> the slowest, in
+movement. <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>
+combines length with rapidity,&mdash;like the hurricane
+and the whirlpool, absorbing while it advances. It
+begins as a stormy day in summer, with brightness;
+but that brightness is lurid, and anticipates
+the tempest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was not without forethought, nor is it without
+its due significance, that the division of Lear's
+kingdom is in the first six lines of the play stated
+as a thing already determined in all its particulars,
+previously to the trial of professions, as the relative
+rewards of which the daughters were to be made to
+consider their several portions. The strange, yet
+by no means unnatural, mixture of selfishness,
+sensibility, and habit of feeling derived from, and
+fostered by, the particular rank and usages of the
+individual;&mdash;the intense desire of being intensely
+beloved,&mdash;selfish, and yet characteristic of the selfishness
+of a loving and kindly nature alone;&mdash;the
+self-supportless leaning for all pleasure on another's
+breast;&mdash;the craving after sympathy with a prodigal
+disinterestedness, frustrated by its own ostentation,
+and the mode and nature of its claims;&mdash;the
+anxiety, the distrust, the jealousy, which more
+or less accompany all selfish affections, and are
+amongst the surest contradistinctions of mere fondness
+from true love, and which originate Lear's
+eager wish to enjoy his daughter's violent professions,
+<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/>
+whilst the inveterate habits of sovereignty
+convert the wish into claim and positive right, and
+an incompliance with it into crime and treason;&mdash;these
+facts, these passions, these moral verities, on
+which the whole tragedy is founded, are all prepared
+for, and will to the retrospect be found
+implied, in these first four or five lines of the play.
+They let us know that the trial is but a trick; and
+that the grossness of the old king's rage is in part
+the natural result of a silly trick suddenly and
+most unexpectedly baffled and disappointed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may here be worthy of notice, that <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> is
+the only serious performance of Shakespeare, the
+interest and situations of which are derived from
+the assumption of a gross improbability; whereas
+Beaumont and Fletcher's tragedies are, almost all
+of them, founded on some out of the way accident
+or exception to the general experience of mankind.
+But observe the matchless judgment of our Shakespeare.
+First, improbable as the conduct of Lear
+is in the first scene, yet it was an old story rooted
+in the popular faith,&mdash;a thing taken for granted
+already, and consequently without any of the effects
+of improbability. Secondly, it is merely the canvass
+for the characters and passions,&mdash;a mere occasion
+for,&mdash;and not, in the manner of Beaumont and
+Fletcher, perpetually recurring as the cause, and
+<hi rend='italic'>sine qua non</hi> of,&mdash;the incidents and emotions. Let
+the first scene of this play have been lost, and let
+it only be understood that a fond father had been
+duped by hypocritical professions of love and duty
+on the part of two daughters to disinherit the third,
+previously, and deservedly, more dear to him;&mdash;and
+all the rest of the tragedy would retain its
+interest undiminished, and be perfectly intelligible.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/>
+
+<p>
+The accidental is nowhere the groundwork of the
+passions, but that which is catholic, which in all
+ages has been, and ever will be, close and native to
+the heart of man,&mdash;parental anguish from filial
+ingratitude, the genuineness of worth, though
+coffined in bluntness, and the execrable vileness of
+a smooth iniquity. Perhaps I ought to have added
+the <hi rend='italic'>Merchant of Venice</hi>; but here too the same
+remarks apply. It was an old tale; and substitute
+any other danger than that of the pound of flesh
+(the circumstance in which the improbability lies),
+yet all the situations and the emotions appertaining
+to them remain equally excellent and appropriate.
+Whereas take away from the <hi rend='italic'>Mad Lover</hi> of Beaumont
+and Fletcher the fantastic hypothesis of his
+engagement to cut out his own heart, and have it
+presented to his mistress, and all the main scenes
+must go with it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Kotzebue is the German Beaumont and Fletcher,
+without their poetic powers, and without their <hi rend='italic'>vis
+comica</hi>. But, like them, he always deduces his
+situations and passions from marvellous accidents,
+and the trick of bringing one part of our moral
+nature to counteract another; as our pity for misfortune
+and admiration of generosity and courage
+to combat our condemnation of guilt as in adultery,
+robbery, and other heinous crimes;&mdash;and, like
+them too, he excels in his mode of telling a story
+clearly and interestingly, in a series of dramatic
+dialogues. Only the trick of making tragedy-heroes
+and heroines out of shopkeepers and barmaids was
+too low for the age, and too unpoetic for the genius,
+of Beaumont and Fletcher, inferior in every respect
+as they are to their great predecessor and contemporary.
+How inferior would they have appeared,
+<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/>
+had not Shakespeare existed for them to imitate;&mdash;which
+in every play, more or less, they do, and in
+their tragedies most glaringly:&mdash;and yet&mdash;(O
+shame! shame!)&mdash;they miss no opportunity of
+sneering at the divine man, and sub-detracting
+from his merits!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>. Having thus in the fewest
+words, and in a natural reply to as natural a question,&mdash;which
+yet answers the secondary purpose of
+attracting our attention to the difference or diversity
+between the characters of Cornwall and Albany,&mdash;provided
+the <hi rend='italic'>prémisses</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>data</hi>, as it were, for our
+after insight into the mind and mood of the person,
+whose character, passions, and sufferings are the
+main subject-matter of the play;&mdash;from Lear, the
+<hi rend='italic'>persona patiens</hi> of his drama, Shakespeare passes
+without delay to the second in importance, the chief
+agent and prime mover, and introduces Edmund to
+our acquaintance, preparing us with the same felicity
+of judgment, and in the same easy and natural
+way, for his character in the seemingly casual communication
+of its origin and occasion. From the
+first drawing up of the curtain Edmund has stood
+before us in the united strength and beauty of
+earliest manhood. Our eyes have been questioning
+him. Gifted as he is with high advantages of person,
+and further endowed by nature with a powerful
+intellect and a strong energetic will, even
+without any concurrence of circumstances and
+accident, pride will necessarily be the sin that most
+easily besets him. But Edmund is also the known
+and acknowledged son of the princely Gloster: he,
+therefore, has both the germ of pride, and the conditions
+best fitted to evolve and ripen it into a
+predominant feeling. Yet hitherto no reason appears
+<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/>
+why it should be other than the not unusual
+pride of person, talent, and birth,&mdash;a pride auxiliary,
+if not akin, to many virtues, and the natural
+ally of honourable impulses. But alas! in his own
+presence his own father takes shame to himself for
+the frank avowal that he is his father,&mdash;he has
+<q>blushed so often to acknowledge him that he is
+now brazed to it!</q> Edmund hears the circumstances
+of his birth spoken of with a most degrading
+and licentious levity,&mdash;his mother described as a
+wanton by her own paramour, and the remembrance
+of the animal sting, the low criminal
+gratifications connected with her wantonness and
+prostituted beauty, assigned as the reason why
+<q>the whoreson must be acknowledged!</q> This,
+and the consciousness of its notoriety; the gnawing
+conviction that every show of respect is an effort of
+courtesy, which recalls, while it represses, a contrary
+feeling;&mdash;this is the ever trickling flow of
+wormwood and gall into the wounds of pride,&mdash;the
+corrosive <hi rend='italic'>virus</hi> which inoculates pride with a
+venom not its own, with envy, hatred, and a lust
+for that power which in its blaze of radiance would
+hide the dark spots on his disc,&mdash;with pangs of
+shame personally undeserved, and therefore felt as
+wrongs, and with a blind ferment of vindictive
+working towards the occasions and causes, especially
+towards a brother, whose stainless birth and
+lawful honours were the constant remembrancers
+of his own debasement, and were ever in the way
+to prevent all chance of its being unknown, or
+overlooked and forgotten. Add to this, that with
+excellent judgment, and provident for the claims of
+the moral sense,&mdash;for that which, relatively to the
+drama, is called poetic justice, and as the fittest
+<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/>
+means for reconciling the feelings of the spectators
+to the horrors of Gloster's after sufferings,&mdash;at
+least, of rendering them somewhat less unendurable&mdash;(for
+I will not disguise my conviction, that
+in this one point the tragic in this play has been
+urged beyond the outermost mark and <hi rend='italic'>ne plus ultra</hi>
+of the dramatic);&mdash;Shakespeare has precluded all
+excuse and palliation of the guilt incurred by both
+the parents of the base-born Edmund, by Gloster's
+confession that he was at the time a married man,
+and already blest with a lawful heir of his fortunes.
+The mournful alienation of brotherly love, occasioned
+by the law of primogeniture in noble families,
+or rather by the unnecessary distinctions engrafted
+thereon, and this in children of the same stock, is
+still almost proverbial on the continent,&mdash;especially,
+as I know from my own observation, in the south
+of Europe,&mdash;and appears to have been scarcely less
+common in our own island before the Revolution
+of 1688, if we may judge from the characters and
+sentiments so frequent in our elder comedies.
+There is the younger brother, for instance, in
+Beaumont and Fletcher's play of the <hi rend='italic'>Scornful
+Lady</hi>, on the one side, and Oliver in Shakespeare's
+<hi rend='italic'>As You Like It</hi>, on the other. Need it be said how
+heavy an aggravation, in such a case, the stain
+of bastardy must have been, were it only that the
+younger brother was liable to hear his own dishonour
+and his mother's infamy related by his
+father with an excusing shrug of the shoulders,
+and in a tone betwixt waggery and shame!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the circumstances here enumerated as so
+many predisposing causes, Edmund's character
+might well be deemed already sufficiently explained;
+and our minds prepared for it. But in
+<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/>
+this tragedy the story or fable constrained Shakespeare
+to introduce wickedness in an outrageous
+form in the persons of Regan and Goneril. He
+had read nature too heedfully not to know that
+courage, intellect, and strength of character are
+the most impressive forms of power, and that to
+power in itself, without reference to any moral
+end, an inevitable admiration and complacency
+appertains, whether it be displayed in the conquests
+of a Buonaparte or Tamerlane, or in the
+foam and the thunder of a cataract. But in the
+exhibition of such a character it was of the highest
+importance to prevent the guilt from passing into
+utter monstrosity,&mdash;which again depends on the
+presence or absence of causes and temptations
+sufficient to account for the wickedness, without
+the necessity of recurring to a thorough fiendishness
+of nature for its origination. For such are
+the appointed relations of intellectual power to
+truth, and of truth to goodness, that it becomes
+both morally and poetically unsafe to present
+what is admirable&mdash;what our nature compels us to
+admire&mdash;in the mind, and what is most detestable
+in the heart, as co-existing in the same individual
+without any apparent connection, or any modification
+of the one by the other. That Shakespeare
+has in one instance, that of Iago, approached to
+this, and that he has done it successfully, is
+perhaps the most astonishing proof of his genius,
+and the opulence of its resources. But in the
+present tragedy, in which he was compelled to
+present a Goneril and a Regan, it was most carefully
+to be avoided;&mdash;and therefore the only one
+conceivable addition to the inauspicious influences
+on the preformation of Edmund's character is
+<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/>
+given, in the information that all the kindly
+counteractions to the mischievous feelings of
+shame, which might have been derived from co-domestication
+with Edgar and their common
+father, had been cut off by his absence from home,
+and foreign education from boyhood to the present
+time, and a prospect of its continuance, as if to
+preclude all risk of his interference with the
+father's views for the elder and legitimate son:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Cor.</hi> Nothing my lord.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lear.</hi> Nothing?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cor.</hi> Nothing.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lear.</hi> Nothing can come of nothing: speak again.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cor.</hi> Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave</l>
+<l>My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty</l>
+<l><q rend="post">According to my bond; nor more, nor less.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There is something of disgust at the ruthless
+hypocrisy of her sisters, and some little faulty
+admixture of pride and sullenness in Cordelia's
+<q>Nothing;</q> and her tone is well contrived, indeed,
+to lessen the glaring absurdity of Lear's
+conduct, but answers the yet more important purpose
+of forcing away the attention from the
+nursery-tale, the moment it has served its end,
+that of supplying the canvas for the picture. This
+is also materially furthered by Kent's opposition,
+which displays Lear's moral incapability of resigning
+the sovereign power in the very act of disposing
+of it. Kent is, perhaps, the nearest to
+perfect goodness in all Shakespeare's characters,
+and yet the most individualised. There is an
+extraordinary charm, in his bluntness, which is
+that only of a nobleman, arising from a contempt
+of overstrained courtesy, and combined with easy
+<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/>
+placability where goodness of heart is apparent.
+His passionate affection for, and fidelity to, Lear
+act on our feelings in Lear's own favour: virtue
+itself seems to be in company with him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Edmund's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take</q></l>
+<l>More composition and fierce quality</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Than doth,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's note upon a quotation from Vanini.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Poor Vanini!&mdash;Any one but Warburton would
+have thought this precious passage more characteristic
+of Mr. Shandy than of atheism. If the
+fact really were so (which it is not, but almost the
+contrary) I do not see why the most confirmed
+theist might not very naturally utter the same
+wish. But it is proverbial that the youngest son
+in a large family is commonly the man of the
+greatest talents in it; and as good an authority as
+Vanini has said&mdash;<q>incalescere in venerem ardentius,
+spei sobolis injuriosum esse.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this speech of Edmund you see, as soon as a
+man cannot reconcile himself to reason, how his
+conscience flies off by way of appeal to nature,
+who is sure upon such occasions never to find
+fault, and also how shame sharpens a predisposition
+in the heart to evil. For it is a profound
+moral, that shame will naturally generate guilt;
+the oppressed will be vindictive, like Shylock, and
+in the anguish of undeserved ignominy the delusion
+secretly springs up of getting over the moral
+quality of an action by fixing the mind on the
+mere physical act alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Edmund's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>This is the excellent foppery of the world! that, when we are
+sick in fortune (often the surfeit of our own behaviour), we make
+guilty of our disasters, the sun, the moon, and the stars,</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/>
+
+<p>
+Thus scorn and misanthropy are often the anticipations
+and mouth-pieces of wisdom in the detection
+of superstitions. Both individuals and
+nations may be free from such prejudices by being
+below them, as well as by rising above them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. The Steward should be placed in
+exact antithesis to Kent, as the only character of
+utter irredeemable baseness in Shakespeare. Even
+in this the judgment and invention of the poet are
+very observable;&mdash;for what else could the willing
+tool of a Goneril be? Not a vice but this of baseness
+was left open to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. In Lear old age is itself a character,&mdash;its
+natural imperfections being increased by
+life-long habits of receiving a prompt obedience.
+Any addition of individuality would have been
+unnecessary and painful; for the relations of
+others to him, of wondrous fidelity and of frightful
+ingratitude, alone sufficiently distinguish him.
+Thus Lear becomes the open and ample play-room
+of nature's passions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Knight.</hi> Since my
+young lady's going into France, Sir; the</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">fool hath much pined away.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The Fool is no comic buffoon to make the
+groundlings laugh,&mdash;no forced condescension of
+Shakespeare's genius to the taste of his audience.
+Accordingly the poet prepares for his introduction,
+which he never does with any of his common
+clowns and fools, by bringing him into living connection
+with the pathos of the play. He is as
+wonderful a creation as Caliban;&mdash;his wild babblings,
+and inspired idiocy, articulate and gauge
+the horrors of the scene.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The monster Goneril prepares what is necessary,
+<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/>
+while the character of Albany renders a still more
+maddening grievance possible&mdash;namely, Regan
+and Cornwall in perfect sympathy of monstrosity.
+Not a sentiment, not an image, which can give
+pleasure on its own account is admitted; whenever
+these creatures are introduced, and they are
+brought forward as little as possible, pure horror
+reigns throughout. In this scene and in all the
+early speeches of Lear, the one general sentiment
+of filial ingratitude prevails as the main-spring of
+the feelings;&mdash;in this early stage the outward
+object causing the pressure on the mind, which is
+not yet sufficiently familiarised with the anguish
+for the imagination to work upon it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Gon.</hi> Do you mark that, my lord?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Alb.</hi> I cannot be so partial, Goneril,</l>
+<l>To the great love I bear you.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Gon.</hi> Pray you content,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Observe the baffled endeavour of Goneril to act
+on the fears of Albany, and yet his passiveness,
+his <emph>inertia</emph>; he is not convinced, and yet he is
+afraid of looking into the thing. Such characters
+always yield to those who will take the trouble of
+governing them, or for them. Perhaps the influence
+of a princess, whose choice of him had
+royalised his state, may be some little excuse for
+Albany's weakness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Lear.</hi> O let me not be mad,
+not mad, sweet heaven!</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Keep me in temper! I would not be mad!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The mind's own anticipation of madness! The
+deepest tragic notes are often struck by a half
+sense of an impending blow. The Fool's conclusion
+of this act by a grotesque prattling seems to
+<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/>
+indicate the dislocation of feeling that has begun
+and is to be continued.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Edmund's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">He replied,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Thou unpossessing bastard!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Thus the secret poison in Edmund's own heart
+steals forth; and then observe poor Gloster's&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Loyal and <emph>natural</emph> boy!</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+as if praising the crime of Edmund's birth!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Compare Regan's&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">What, did <emph>my father's</emph> godson seek your life?</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">He whom <emph>my father</emph> named?</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+with the unfeminine violence of her&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>All vengeance comes too short,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and yet no reference to the guilt, but only to the
+accident, which she uses as an occasion for sneering
+at her father. Regan is not, in fact, a greater
+monster than Goneril, but she has the power of
+casting more venom.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Cornwall's speech:&mdash;-
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">This is some fellow,</q></l>
+<l>Who, having been praised for bluntness, doth affect</l>
+<l><q rend="post">A saucy roughness,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In thus placing these profound general truths
+in the mouths of such men as Cornwall, Edmund,
+Iago, &amp;c., Shakespeare at once gives them utterance,
+and yet shows how indefinite their application
+is.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Edgar's assumed madness serves the
+great purpose of taking off part of the shock
+which would otherwise be caused by the true
+madness of Lear, and further displays the profound
+difference between the two. In every
+attempt at representing madness throughout the
+<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/>
+whole range of dramatic literature, with the single
+exception of Lear, it is mere lightheadedness, as
+especially in Otway. In Edgar's ravings Shakespeare
+all the while lets you see a fixed purpose, a
+practical end in view;&mdash;in Lear's, there is only
+the brooding of the one anguish, an eddy without
+progression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. Lear's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The king would speak with Cornwall; the dear father</q></l>
+<l>Would with his daughter speak, &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post">No, but not yet: may be he is not well,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The strong interest now felt by Lear to try to
+find excuses for his daughter is most pathetic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Lear's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Beloved Regan,</q></l>
+<l>Thy sister's naught;&mdash;O Regan, she hath tied</l>
+<l>Sharp-tooth'd unkindness, like a vulture, here.</l>
+<l>I can scarce speak to thee;&mdash;thou'lt not believe</l>
+<l>Of how deprav'd a quality&mdash;O Regan!</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Reg.</hi> I pray you, Sir, take patience; I have hope,</l>
+<l>You less know how to value her desert,</l>
+<l>Than she to scant her duty.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Lear.</hi> Say, how is that?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Nothing is so heart-cutting as a cold unexpected
+defence or palliation of a cruelty passionately
+complained of, or so expressive of thorough hard-heartedness.
+And feel the excessive horror of
+Regan's <q>O, Sir, you are old!</q>&mdash;and then her
+drawing from that universal object of reverence
+and indulgence the very reason for her frightful
+conclusion&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Say, you have wrong'd her!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+All Lear's faults increase our pity for him. We
+refuse to know them otherwise than as means of
+his sufferings, and aggravations of his daughters'
+ingratitude.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Lear's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">O, reason not the need: our basest beggars</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Are in the poorest thing superfluous,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Observe that the tranquillity which follows the
+first stunning of the blow permits Lear to reason.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 4. O, what a world's convention of
+agonies is here! All external nature in a storm,
+all moral nature convulsed,&mdash;the real madness of
+Lear, the feigned madness of Edgar, the babbling
+of the Fool, the desperate fidelity of Kent&mdash;surely
+such a scene was never conceived before or since!
+Take it but as a picture for the eye only, it is
+more terrific than any which a Michael Angelo,
+inspired by a Dante, could have conceived, and
+which none but a Michael Angelo could have
+executed. Or let it have been uttered to the
+blind, the howlings of nature would seem converted
+into the voice of conscious humanity. This
+scene ends with the first symptoms of positive
+derangement; and the intervention of the fifth
+scene is particularly judicious,&mdash;the interruption
+allowing an interval for Lear to appear in full
+madness in the sixth scene.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 7. Gloster's blinding.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What can I say of this scene?&mdash;There is my
+reluctance to think Shakespeare wrong, and yet&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 6. Lear's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Ha! Goneril!&mdash;with a white beard!&mdash;They flattered me like a
+dog; and told me, I had white hairs in my beard, ere the black ones
+were there. To say <emph>Ay</emph> and <emph>No</emph> to every thing
+I said!&mdash;Ay and
+No too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me
+once,</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The thunder recurs, but still at a greater distance
+from our feelings.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 7. Lear's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Where have I been? Where am I?&mdash;Fair daylight?&mdash;</q></l>
+<l>I am mightily abused.&mdash;I should even die with pity</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To see another thus,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+How beautifully the affecting return of Lear to
+reason, and the mild pathos of these speeches prepare
+the mind for the last sad, yet sweet, consolation
+of the aged sufferer's death!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Hamlet.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Hamlet was the play, or rather Hamlet himself
+was the character, in the intuition and
+exposition of which I first made my turn for philosophical
+criticism, and especially for insight into
+the genius of Shakespeare, noticed. This happened
+first amongst my acquaintances, as Sir George
+Beaumont will bear witness; and subsequently,
+long before Schlegel had delivered at Vienna the
+lectures on Shakespeare, which he afterwards published,
+I had given on the same subject eighteen
+lectures substantially the same, proceeding from
+the very same point of view, and deducing the
+same conclusions, so far as I either then agreed,
+or now agree, with him. I gave these lectures at
+the Royal Institution, before six or seven hundred
+auditors of rank and eminence, in the spring of the
+same year, in which Sir Humphrey Davy, a fellow-lecturer,
+made his great revolutionary discoveries
+in chemistry. Even in detail the coincidence of
+Schlegel with my lectures was so extraordinary,
+that all who at a later period heard the same words,
+taken by me from my notes of the lectures at the
+Royal Institution, concluded a borrowing on my
+part from Schlegel. Mr. Hazlitt, whose hatred of
+me is in such an inverse ratio to my zealous kindness
+towards him, as to be defended by his warmest
+admirer, Charles Lamb&mdash;(who, God bless him!
+besides his characteristic obstinacy of adherence to
+old friends, as long at least as they are at all down
+<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/>
+in the world, is linked as by a charm to Hazlitt's
+conversation)&mdash;only as <q>frantic;</q>&mdash;Mr. Hazlitt, I
+say, himself replied to an assertion of my plagiarism
+from Schlegel in these words;&mdash;<q>That is a lie;
+for I myself heard the very same character of
+Hamlet from Coleridge before he went to Germany,
+and when he had neither read nor could
+read a page of German!</q> Now Hazlitt was on a
+visit to me at my cottage at Nether Stowey, Somerset,
+in the summer of the year 1798, in the September
+of which year I first was out of sight of the
+shores of Great Britain.&mdash;Recorded by me, S. T.
+Coleridge, 7th January, 1819.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The seeming inconsistencies in the conduct and
+character of Hamlet have long exercised the conjectural
+ingenuity of critics; and, as we are always
+loth to suppose that the cause of defective apprehension
+is in ourselves, the mystery has been too
+commonly explained by the very easy process of
+setting it down as in fact inexplicable, and by resolving
+the phenomenon into a misgrowth or <hi rend='italic'>lusus</hi>
+of the capricious and irregular genius of Shakespeare.
+The shallow and stupid arrogance of these
+vulgar and indolent decisions I would fain do my
+best to expose. I believe the character of Hamlet
+may be traced to Shakespeare's deep and accurate
+science in mental philosophy. Indeed, that this
+character must have some connection with the
+common fundamental laws of our nature may be
+assumed from the fact, that Hamlet has been the
+darling of every country in which the literature of
+England has been fostered. In order to understand
+him, it is essential that we should reflect on
+the constitution of our own minds. Man is distinguished
+from the brute animals in proportion as
+<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/>
+thought prevails over sense: but in the healthy
+processes of the mind, a balance is constantly maintained
+between the impressions from outward objects
+and the inward operations of the intellect;&mdash;for
+if there be an overbalance in the contemplative
+faculty, man thereby becomes the creature of mere
+meditation, and loses his natural power of action.
+Now one of Shakespeare's modes of creating characters
+is, to conceive any one intellectual or moral
+faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself,
+Shakespeare, thus mutilated or diseased, under given
+circumstances. In Hamlet he seems to have wished
+to exemplify the moral necessity of a due balance
+between our attention to the objects of our senses,
+and our meditation on the workings of our minds,&mdash;an
+<emph>equilibrium</emph> between the real and the imaginary
+worlds. In Hamlet this balance is disturbed: his
+thoughts, and the images of his fancy, are far more
+vivid than his actual perceptions, and his very perceptions,
+instantly passing through the <emph>medium</emph> of
+his contemplations, acquire, as they pass, a form
+and a colour not naturally their own. Hence we
+see a great, an almost enormous, intellectual activity,
+and a proportionate aversion to real action,
+consequent upon it, with all its symptoms and
+accompanying qualities. This character Shakespeare
+places in circumstances, under which it is
+obliged to act on the spur of the moment:&mdash;Hamlet
+is brave and careless of death; but he vacillates
+from sensibility, and procrastinates from thought,
+and loses the power of action in the energy of
+resolve. Thus it is that this tragedy presents a
+direct contrast to that of <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>; the one proceeds
+with the utmost slowness, the other with a
+crowded and breathless rapidity.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/>
+
+<p>
+The effect of this overbalance of the imaginative
+power is beautifully illustrated in the everlasting
+broodings and superfluous activities of Hamlet's
+mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is
+constantly occupied with the world within, and abstracted
+from the world without,&mdash;giving substance
+to shadows, and throwing a mist over all commonplace
+actualities. It is the nature of thought to be
+indefinite;&mdash;definiteness belongs to external imagery
+alone. Hence it is that the sense of sublimity
+arises, not from the sight of an outward object,
+but from the beholder's reflection upon it;&mdash;not
+from the sensuous impression, but from the imaginative
+reflex. Few have seen a celebrated waterfall
+without feeling something akin to disappointment:
+it is only subsequently that the image comes back
+full into the mind, and brings with it a train of
+grand or beautiful associations. Hamlet feels this;
+his senses are in a state of trance, and he looks
+upon external things as hieroglyphics. His soliloquy&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O! that this too too solid flesh would melt,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+springs from that craving after the indefinite&mdash;for
+that which is not&mdash;which most easily besets men
+of genius; and the self-delusion common to this
+temper of mind is finely exemplified in the character
+which Hamlet gives of himself;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">It cannot be</q></l>
+<l>But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To make oppression bitter.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+He mistakes the seeing his chains for the breaking
+them, delays action till action is of no use, and dies
+the victim of mere circumstance and accident.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is a great significancy in the names of
+Shakespeare's plays. In the <hi rend='italic'>Twelfth Night</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Midsummer
+<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/>
+Night's Dream</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>As You Like It</hi>, and
+<hi rend='italic'>Winter's Tale</hi>, the total effect is produced by a
+co-ordination of the characters as in a wreath of
+flowers. But in <hi rend='italic'>Coriolanus</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and Juliet</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>, &amp;c.,
+the effect arises from the subordination
+of all to one, either as the prominent
+person, or the principal object. <hi rend='italic'>Cymbeline</hi> is the
+only exception; and even that has its advantages
+in preparing the audience for the chaos of time,
+place, and costume, by throwing the date back
+into a fabulous king's reign.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But as of more importance, so more striking, is
+the judgment displayed by our truly dramatic poet,
+as well as poet of the drama, in the management
+of his first scenes. With the single exception of
+<hi rend='italic'>Cymbeline</hi>, they either place before us at one glance
+both the past and the future in some effect, which
+implies the continuance and full agency of its cause,
+as in the feuds and party-spirit of the servants of
+the two houses in the first scene of <hi rend='italic'>Romeo and
+Juliet</hi>; or in the degrading passion for shows and
+public spectacles, and the overwhelming attachment
+for the newest successful war-chief in the
+Roman people, already become a populace, contrasted
+with the jealousy of the nobles in <hi rend='italic'>Julius
+Cæsar</hi>;&mdash;or they at once commence the action so
+as to excite a curiosity for the explanation in the
+following scenes, as in the storm of wind and waves,
+and the boatswain in the <hi rend='italic'>Tempest</hi>, instead of anticipating
+our curiosity, as in most other first scenes,
+and in too many other first acts;&mdash;or they act, by
+contrast of diction suited to the characters, at once
+to heighten the effect, and yet to give a naturalness
+to the language and rhythm of the principal personages,
+either as that of Prospero and Miranda
+<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/>
+by the appropriate lowness of the style, or as in
+<hi rend='italic'>King John</hi>, by the equally appropriate stateliness
+of official harangues or narratives, so that the after
+blank verse seems to belong to the rank and quality
+of the speakers, and not to the poet;&mdash;or they
+strike at once the key-note, and give the predominant
+spirit of the play, as in the <hi rend='italic'>Twelfth Night</hi> and
+in <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>;&mdash;or finally, the first scene comprises
+all these advantages at once, as in <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Compare the easy language of common life, in
+which this drama commences, with the direful music
+and wild wayward rhythm and abrupt lyrics of
+the opening of <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>. The tone is quite familiar;&mdash;there
+is no poetic description of night, no elaborate
+information conveyed by one speaker to another
+of what both had immediately before their senses&mdash;(such
+as the first distich in Addison's <hi rend='italic'>Cato</hi>, which
+is a translation into poetry of <q>Past four o'clock
+and a dark morning!</q>);&mdash;and yet nothing bordering
+on the comic on the one hand, nor any striving
+of the intellect on the other. It is precisely the
+language of sensation among men who feared no
+charge of effeminacy for feeling what they had no
+want of resolution to bear. Yet the armour, the
+dead silence, the watchfulness that first interrupts
+it, the welcome relief of the guard, the cold, the
+broken expressions of compelled attention to bodily
+feelings still under control&mdash;all excellently accord
+with, and prepare for, the after gradual rise into
+tragedy;&mdash;but, above all, into a tragedy, the interest
+of which is as eminently <hi rend='italic'>ad et apud intra</hi>, as
+that of <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi> is directly <hi rend='italic'>ad extra</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In all the best attested stories of ghosts and
+visions, as in that of Brutus, of Archbishop Cranmer,
+that of Benvenuto Cellini recorded by himself,
+<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/>
+and the vision of Galileo communicated by him to
+his favourite pupil Torricelli, the ghost-seers were
+in a state of cold or chilling damp from without,
+and of anxiety inwardly. It has been with all of
+them as with Francisco on his guard,&mdash;alone, in
+the depth and silence of the night; <q>'twas bitter
+cold, and they were sick at heart, and <emph>not a mouse
+stirring</emph>.</q> The attention to minute sounds,&mdash;naturally
+associated with the recollection of minute
+objects, and the more familiar and trifling, the more
+impressive from the unusualness of their producing
+any impression at all&mdash;gives a philosophic pertinency
+to this last image; but it has likewise its
+dramatic use and purpose. For its commonness in
+ordinary conversation tends to produce the sense of
+reality, and at once hides the poet, and yet approximates
+the reader or spectator to that state in which
+the highest poetry will appear, and in its component
+parts, though not in the whole composition, really
+is, the language of nature. If I should not speak
+it, I feel that I should be thinking it;&mdash;the voice
+only is the poet's,&mdash;the words are my own. That
+Shakespeare meant to put an effect in the actor's
+power in the very first words&mdash;<q>Who's there?</q>&mdash;is
+evident from the impatience expressed by the
+startled Francisco in the words that follow&mdash;<q>Nay,
+answer me: stand and unfold yourself.</q> A brave
+man is never so peremptory, as when he fears that
+he is afraid. Observe the gradual transition from
+the silence and the still recent habit of listening in
+Francisco's&mdash;<q>I think I hear them</q>&mdash;to the more
+cheerful call out, which a good actor would observe,
+in the&mdash;<q>Stand ho! Who is there?</q> Bernardo's
+inquiry after Horatio, and the repetition of his
+name and in his own presence indicate a respect or
+<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/>
+an eagerness that implies him as one of the persons
+who are in the foreground; and the scepticism
+attributed to him,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And will not let belief take hold of him,</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+prepares us for Hamlet's after eulogy on him as
+one whose blood and judgment were happily commingled.
+The actor should also be careful to distinguish
+the expectation and gladness of Bernardo's
+<q>Welcome, Horatio!</q> from the mere courtesy of
+his <q>Welcome, good Marcellus!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now observe the admirable indefiniteness of the
+first opening out of the occasion of all this anxiety.
+The preparation informative of the audience is just
+as much as was precisely necessary, and no more;&mdash;it
+begins with the uncertainty appertaining to
+a question:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Mar.</hi> What, has <emph>this thing</emph>
+appear'd again to-night?</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Even the word <q>again</q> has its <emph>credibilising</emph> effect.
+Then Horatio, the representative of the ignorance
+of the audience, not himself, but by Marcellus to
+Bernardo, anticipates the common solution&mdash;<q>'tis
+but our fantasy!</q> upon which Marcellus rises
+into&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>This dreaded sight, twice seen of us</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+which immediately afterwards becomes <q>this apparition,</q>
+and that, too, an intelligent spirit&mdash;that
+is, to be spoken to! Then comes the confirmation
+of Horatio's disbelief;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Tush! tush! 'twill not appear!</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and the silence, with which the scene opened, is
+again restored in the shivering feeling of Horatio
+sitting down, at such a time, and with the two
+eye-witnesses, to hear a story of a ghost, and that,
+<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/>
+too, of a ghost which had appeared twice before at
+the very same hour. In the deep feeling which
+Bernardo has of the solemn nature of what he is
+about to relate, he makes an effort to master his
+own imaginative terrors by an elevation of style,&mdash;itself
+a continuation of the effort,&mdash;and by turning
+off from the apparition, as from something
+which would force him too deeply into himself, to
+the outward objects, the realities of nature, which
+had accompanied it:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ber.</hi> Last night of all,</q></l>
+<l>When yon same star, that's westward from the pole</l>
+<l>Had made his course to illume that part of heaven</l>
+<l>Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The bell then beating one.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This passage seems to contradict the critical
+law that what is told, makes a faint impression
+compared with what is beholden; for it does
+indeed convey to the mind more than the eye can
+see; whilst the interruption of the narrative at the
+very moment when we are most intensely listening
+for the sequel, and have our thoughts diverted
+from the dreaded sight in expectation of the
+desired, yet almost dreaded, tale&mdash;this gives all
+the suddenness and surprise of the original appearance:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Mar.</hi> Peace, break thee off;
+look, where it comes again!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Note the judgment displayed in having the two
+persons present, who, as having seen the Ghost
+before, are naturally eager in confirming their
+former opinions,&mdash;whilst the sceptic is silent, and
+after having been twice addressed by his friends,
+answers with two hasty syllables&mdash;<q>Most like,</q>&mdash;and
+a confession of horror:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>It harrows me with fear and wonder.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+O heaven! words are wasted on those who feel,
+<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/>
+and to those who do not feel the exquisite judgment
+of Shakespeare in this scene, what can be
+said? Hume himself could not but have had
+faith in this Ghost dramatically, let his anti-ghostism
+have been as strong as Sampson against
+other ghosts less powerfully raised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Mar.</hi> Good now, sit down, and tell
+me, he that knows,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Why this same strict and most observant watch,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+How delightfully natural is the transition, to the
+retrospective narrative! And observe, upon the
+Ghost's reappearance, how much Horatio's courage
+is increased by having translated the late individual
+spectator into general thought and past
+experience,&mdash;and the sympathy of Marcellus and
+Bernardo with his patriotic surmises in daring to
+strike at the Ghost; whilst in a moment, upon its
+vanishing, the former solemn awe-stricken feeling
+returns upon them:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">We do it wrong, being so majestical,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">To offer it the show of violence.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Horatio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">I have heard,</q></l>
+<l>The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,</l>
+<l>Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Awake the god of day,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+No Addison could be more careful to be poetical
+in diction than Shakespeare in providing the
+grounds and sources of its propriety. But how to
+elevate a thing almost mean by its familiarity,
+young poets may learn in this treatment of the
+cock-crow.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Horatio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">And, by my advice,</q></l>
+<l>Let us impart what we have seen to-night</l>
+<l>Unto young Hamlet; for, upon my life,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/>
+
+<p>
+Note the inobtrusive and yet fully adequate mode
+of introducing the main character, <q>young
+Hamlet,</q> upon whom it transferred all the interest
+excited for the acts and concerns of the king his
+father.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. The audience are now relieved by a
+change of scene to the royal court, in order that
+Hamlet may not have to take up the leavings of
+exhaustion. In the king's speech, observe the set
+and pedantically antithetic form of the sentences
+when touching that which galled the heels of conscience,&mdash;the
+strain of undignified rhetoric,&mdash;and
+yet in what follows concerning the public weal, a
+certain appropriate majesty. Indeed was he not a
+royal brother?&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> King's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>And now, Laertes, what's the news with you?</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Thus with great art Shakespeare introduces a most
+important, but still subordinate character first,
+Laertes, who is yet thus graciously treated in consequence
+of the assistance given to the election
+of the late king's brother instead of his son by
+Polonius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> A little more than kin,
+and less than kind.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>King.</hi> How is it that the clouds still hang on you?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Not so, my lord, I
+am too much i' the sun.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Hamlet opens his mouth with a playing on
+words, the complete absence of which throughout
+characterises Macbeth. This playing on words
+may be attributed to many causes or motives, as
+either to an exuberant activity of mind, as in the
+higher comedy of Shakespeare generally;&mdash;or to an
+imitation of it as a mere fashion, as if it were said&mdash;<q>Is
+not this better than groaning?</q>&mdash;or to a contemptuous
+<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/>
+exultation in minds vulgarised and overset
+by their success, as in the poetic instance of
+Milton's Devils in the battle;&mdash;or it is the language
+of resentment, as is familiar to every one who has
+witnessed the quarrels of the lower orders, where
+there is invariably a profusion of punning invective,
+whence, perhaps, nicknames have in a considerable
+degree sprung up;&mdash;or it is the language
+of suppressed passion, and especially of a hardly
+smothered personal dislike. The first and last of
+these combine in Hamlet's case; and I have little
+doubt that Farmer is right in supposing the equivocation
+carried on in the expression <q>too much i'
+the sun,</q> or son.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Ay, madam, it is common.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Here observe Hamlet's delicacy to his mother, and
+how the suppression prepares him for the overflow
+in the next speech, in which his character is more
+developed by bringing forward his aversion to externals,
+and which betrays his habit of brooding
+over the world within him, coupled with a prodigality
+of beautiful words, which are the half embodyings
+of thought, and are more than thought,
+and have an outness, a reality <hi rend='italic'>sui generis</hi>, and yet
+retain their correspondence and shadowy affinity
+to the images and movements within. Note also
+Hamlet's silence to the long speech of the king
+which follows, and his respectful, but general,
+answer to his mother.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Hamlet's first soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This <hi rend='italic'>tædium vitæ</hi> is a common oppression on
+minds cast in the Hamlet mould, and is caused by
+<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/>
+disproportionate mental exertion, which necessitates
+exhaustion of bodily feeling. Where there
+is a just coincidence of external and internal
+action, pleasure is always the result; but where
+the former is deficient, and the mind's appetency
+of the ideal is unchecked, realities will seem cold
+and unmoving. In such cases, passion combines
+itself with the indefinite alone. In this mood of
+his mind the relation of the appearance of his
+father's spirit in arms is made all at once to
+Hamlet:&mdash;it is&mdash;Horatio's speech in particular&mdash;a
+perfect model of the true style of dramatic narrative;&mdash;the
+purest poetry, and yet in the most
+natural language, equally remote from the ink-horn
+and the plough.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. This scene must be regarded as one
+of Shakespeare's lyric movements in the play, and
+the skill with which it is interwoven with the
+dramatic parts is peculiarly an excellence of our
+poet. You experience the sensation of a pause
+without the sense of a stop. You will observe in
+Ophelia's short and general answer to the long
+speech of Laertes the natural carelessness of innocence,
+which cannot think such a code of cautions
+and prudences necessary to its own preservation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Polonius (in Stockdale's
+edition):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Or (not to crack the wind of the poor phrase),</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Wronging it thus, you'll tender me a fool.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I suspect this <q>wronging</q> is here used much in
+the same sense as <q>wringing</q> or <q>wrenching,</q>
+and that the parenthesis should be extended to
+<q>thus.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Polonius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">How prodigal the soul</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Lends the tongue vows:&mdash;these blazes, daughter,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/>
+
+<p>
+A spondee has, I doubt not, dropped out of the
+text. Either insert <q>Go to</q> after <q>vows</q>;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Lends the tongue vows: Go to, these blazes, daughter</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+or read&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Lends the tongue vows:&mdash;These blazes, daughter, mark you</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Shakespeare never introduces a catalectic line
+without intending an equivalent to the foot omitted
+in the pauses, or the dwelling emphasis, or the
+diffused retardation. I do not, however, deny that
+a good actor might, by employing the last mentioned
+means&mdash;namely, the retardation, or solemn
+knowing drawl&mdash;supply the missing spondee with
+good effect. But I do not believe that in this or
+any other of the foregoing speeches of Polonius,
+Shakespeare meant to bring out the senility or
+weakness of that personage's mind. In the great
+ever-recurring dangers and duties of life, where
+to distinguish the fit objects for the application of
+the maxims collected by the experience of a long
+life, requires no fineness of tact, as in the admonitions
+to his son and daughter, Polonius is uniformly
+made respectable. But if an actor were
+even capable of catching these shades in the character,
+the pit and the gallery would be malcontent
+at their exhibition. It is to Hamlet that Polonius
+is, and is meant to be, contemptible, because in
+inwardness and uncontrollable activity of movement,
+Hamlet's mind is the logical contrary to
+that of Polonius; and besides, as I have observed
+before, Hamlet dislikes the man as false to his true
+allegiance in the matter of the succession to the
+crown.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. The unimportant conversation with
+which this scene opens is a proof of Shakespeare's
+<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/>
+minute knowledge of human nature. It is a well
+established fact, that on the brink of any serious
+enterprise, or event of moment, men almost invariably
+endeavour to elude the pressure of their
+own thoughts by turning aside to trivial objects
+and familiar circumstances: thus this dialogue on
+the platform begins with remarks on the coldness
+of the air, and inquiries, obliquely connected,
+indeed, with the expected hour of the visitation,
+but thrown out in a seeming vacuity of topics, as
+to the striking of the clock and so forth. The
+same desire to escape from the impending thought
+is carried on in Hamlet's account of, and moralizing
+on, the Danish custom of wassailing: he runs off
+from the particular to the universal, and, in his
+repugnance to personal and individual concerns,
+escapes, as it were, from himself in generalisations,
+and smothers the impatience and uneasy feelings
+of the moment in abstract reasoning. Besides
+this, another purpose is answered;&mdash;for by thus
+entangling the attention of the audience in the
+nice distinctions and parenthetical sentences of
+this speech of Hamlet's, Shakespeare takes them
+completely by surprise on the appearance of the
+Ghost, which comes upon them in all the suddenness
+of its visionary character. Indeed, no modern
+writer would have dared, like Shakespeare, to have
+preceded this last visitation by two distinct appearances,&mdash;or
+could have contrived that the third
+should rise upon the former two in impressiveness
+and solemnity of interest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But in addition to all the other excellences of
+Hamlet's speech concerning the wassail-music&mdash;so
+finely revealing the predominant idealism, the
+ratiocinative meditativeness, of his character&mdash;it
+<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/>
+has the advantage of giving nature and probability
+to the impassioned continuity of the speech
+instantly directed to the Ghost. The <emph>momentum</emph>
+had been given to his mental activity; the full
+current of the thoughts and words had set in, and
+the very forgetfulness, in the fervour of his argumentation,
+of the purpose for which he was there,
+aided in preventing the appearance from benumbing
+the mind. Consequently, it acted as a new
+impulse,&mdash;a sudden stroke which increased the
+velocity of the body already in motion, whilst it
+altered the direction. The co-presence of Horatio,
+Marcellus, and Bernardo is most judiciously contrived;
+for it renders the courage of Hamlet, and
+his impetuous eloquence, perfectly intelligible.
+The knowledge,&mdash;the unthought of consciousness,&mdash;the
+sensation of human auditors&mdash;of flesh and
+blood sympathists&mdash;acts as a support and a stimulation
+<hi rend='italic'>a tergo</hi>, while the front of the mind, the
+whole consciousness of the speaker, is filled, yea,
+absorbed, by the apparition. Add too, that the
+apparition itself has, by its previous appearances,
+been brought nearer to a thing of this world.
+This accrescence of objectivity in a Ghost that yet
+retains all its ghostly attributes and fearful subjectivity,
+is truly wonderful.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5. Hamlet's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And shall I couple hell?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I remember nothing equal to this burst, unless
+it be the first speech of Prometheus in the Greek
+drama, after the exit of Vulcan and the two
+Afrites. But Shakespeare alone could have produced
+the vow of Hamlet to make his memory a
+blank of all maxims and generalised truths, that
+<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/>
+<q>observation had copied there,</q>&mdash;followed immediately
+by the speaker noting down the generalised
+fact,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Mar.</hi> Hillo, ho, ho, my lord!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Hillo, ho, ho, boy!
+come bird, come,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This part of the scene, after Hamlet's interview
+with the Ghost, has been charged with an improbable
+eccentricity. But the truth is, that after the
+mind has been stretched beyond its usual pitch
+and tone, it must either sink into exhaustion and
+inanity, or seek relief by change. It is thus well
+known, that persons conversant in deeds of cruelty
+contrive to escape from conscience by connecting
+something of the ludicrous with them, and by inventing
+grotesque terms, and a certain technical
+phraseology, to disguise the horror of their practices.
+Indeed, paradoxical as it may appear, the
+terrible by a law of the human mind always
+touches on the verge of the ludicrous. Both arise
+from the perception of something out of the
+common order of things&mdash;something, in fact, out
+of its place; and if from this we can abstract
+danger, the uncommonness will alone remain, and
+the sense of the ridiculous be excited. The close
+alliance of these opposites&mdash;they are not contraries&mdash;appears
+from the circumstance, that laughter is
+equally the expression of extreme anguish and
+horror as of joy: as there are tears of sorrow and
+tears of joy, so is there a laugh of terror and a
+laugh of merriment. These complex causes will
+naturally have produced in Hamlet the disposition
+to escape from his own feelings of the overwhelming
+and supernatural by a wild transition
+<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/>
+to the ludicrous,&mdash;a sort of cunning bravado,
+bordering on the flights of delirium. For you
+may, perhaps, observe that Hamlet's wildness is
+but half false; he plays that subtle trick of pretending
+to act only when he is very near really
+being what he acts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The subterraneous speeches of the Ghost are
+hardly defensible;&mdash;but I would call your attention
+to the characteristic difference between this Ghost,
+as a superstition connected with the most mysterious
+truths of revealed religion,&mdash;and Shakespeare's
+consequent reverence in his treatment of
+it,&mdash;and the foul earthly witcheries and wild
+language in <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Polonius and Reynaldo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In all things dependent on, or rather made up
+of, fine address, the manner is no more or otherwise
+rememberable than the light notions, steps, and
+gestures of youth and health. But this is almost
+everything:&mdash;no wonder, therefore, if that which
+can be put down by rule in the memory should
+appear to us as mere poring, maudlin, cunning,&mdash;slyness
+blinking through the watery eye of superannuation.
+So in this admirable scene, Polonius,
+who is throughout the skeleton of his own former
+skill and statecraft, hunts the trail of policy at a
+dead scent, supplied by the weak fever-smell in his
+own nostrils.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Speech of Polonius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>My liege, and madam, to expostulate,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's note.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Then as to the jingles, and play on words, let us but look into
+the sermons of Dr. Donne (the wittiest man of that age), and we
+shall find them full of this vein.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+I have, and that most carefully, read Dr. Donne's
+<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/>
+sermons, and find none of these jingles. The great
+art of an orator&mdash;to make whatever he talks of
+appear of importance&mdash;this, indeed, Donne has
+effected with consummate skill.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Excellent well;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">You are a fishmonger.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+That is, you are sent to fish out this secret. This
+is Hamlet's own meaning.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> For if the sun breed maggots in
+a dead dog,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Being a god, kissing carrion.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+These purposely obscure lines, I rather think, refer
+to some thought in Hamlet's mind, contrasting the
+lovely daughter with such a tedious old fool, her
+father, as he, Hamlet, represents Polonius to himself:&mdash;<q>Why,
+fool as he is, he is some degrees in
+rank above a dead dog's carcase; and if the sun,
+being a god that kisses carrion, can raise life out of
+a dead dog,&mdash;why may not good fortune, that
+favours fools, have raised a lovely girl out of this
+dead-alive old fool?</q> Warburton is often led
+astray, in his interpretations, by his attention to
+general positions without the due Shakespearian
+reference to what is probably passing in the mind
+of his speaker, characteristic, and expository of his
+particular character and present mood. The subsequent
+passage,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O Jephthah, judge of Israel! what a treasure hadst thou!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+is confirmatory of my view of these lines.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> You cannot, Sir, take from me any thing
+that I will</q></l>
+<l>more willingly part withal; except my life, except my life, except</l>
+<l><q rend="post">my life.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This repetition strikes me as most admirable.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Then are our beggars, bodies;
+and our monarchs, and</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">out-stretched heroes, the beggars' shadows?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I do not understand this; and Shakespeare seems
+to have intended the meaning not to be more than
+snatched at:&mdash;<q>By my fay, I cannot reason!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>The rugged Pyrrhus&mdash;he whose sable arms,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This admirable substitution of the epic for the
+dramatic, giving such a reality to the impassioned
+dramatic diction of Shakespeare's own dialogue,
+and authorised too, by the actual style of the
+tragedies before his time (<hi rend='italic'>Porrex and Ferrex</hi>,
+<hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi>, &amp;c.)&mdash;is well worthy of notice. The
+fancy, that a burlesque was intended, sinks below
+criticism: the lines, as epic narrative, are superb.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the thoughts, and even in the separate parts
+of the diction, this description is highly poetical:
+in truth, taken by itself, that is its fault that it is
+too poetical!&mdash;the language of lyric vehemence and
+epic pomp, and not of the drama. But if Shakespeare
+had made the diction truly dramatic, where
+would have been the contrast between Hamlet and
+the play in <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q>Had seen the <emph>mobled</emph> queen,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+A mob-cap is still a word in common use for a
+morning cap, which conceals the whole head of
+hair, and passes under the chin. It is nearly the
+same as the night-cap, that is, it is an imitation of
+it, so as to answer the purpose (<q>I am not drest
+for company</q>), and yet reconciling it with neatness
+and perfect purity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Hamlet's soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/>
+
+<p>
+This is Shakespeare's own attestation to the truth
+of the idea of Hamlet which I have before put forth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The spirit that I have seen,</q></l>
+<l>May be a devil: and the devil hath power</l>
+<l>To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps</l>
+<l>Out of my weakness, and my melancholy</l>
+<l>(As he is very potent with such spirits),</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Abuses me to damn me.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+See Sir Thomas Brown:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>I believe ... that those apparitions and ghosts of departed
+persons are not the wandering souls of men, but the unquiet walks
+of devils, prompting and suggesting us unto mischief, blood, and
+villany, instilling and stealing into our hearts, that the blessed
+spirits are not at rest in their graves, but wander solicitous of the
+affairs of the world.</q>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>Relig. Med.</hi> part. i. sect. 37.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1. Hamlet's soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>To be, or not to be, that is the question,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This speech is of absolutely universal interest,&mdash;and
+yet to which of all Shakespeare's characters
+could it have been appropriately given but to
+Hamlet? For Jaques it would have been too
+deep, and for Iago too habitual a communion with
+the heart; which in every man belongs, or ought
+to belong, to all mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">No traveller returns.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald's note in defence of the supposed contradiction
+of this in the apparition of the Ghost.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+O miserable defender! If it be necessary to
+remove the apparent contradiction,&mdash;if it be not
+rather a great beauty,&mdash;surely, it were easy to say,
+that no traveller returns to this world, as to his
+home, or abiding-place.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Ha, ha! are you honest?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Oph.</hi> My lord?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Are you fair?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/>
+
+<p>
+Here it is evident that the penetrating Hamlet
+perceives, from the strange and forced manner of
+Ophelia, that the sweet girl was not acting a part
+of her own, but was a decoy; and his after speeches
+are not so much directed to her as to the listeners
+and spies. Such a discovery in a mood so anxious
+and irritable accounts for a certain harshness in
+him;&mdash;and yet a wild up-working of love, sporting
+with opposites in a wilful self-tormenting strain of
+irony, is perceptible throughout. <q>I did love you
+once:</q>&mdash;<q>I lov'd you not:</q>&mdash;and particularly in
+his enumeration of the faults of the sex from which
+Ophelia is so free, that the mere freedom therefrom
+constitutes her character. Note Shakespeare's
+charm of composing the female character by the
+absence of characters, that is, marks and out-juttings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Hamlet's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>I say, we will have no more marriages: those that are married
+already, all but one, shall live: the rest shall keep as they are.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Observe this dallying with the inward purpose,
+characteristic of one who had not brought his mind
+to the steady acting point. He would fain sting
+the uncle's mind;&mdash;but to stab his body!&mdash;The
+soliloquy of Ophelia, which follows, is the perfection
+of love&mdash;so exquisitely unselfish!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. This dialogue of Hamlet with the
+players is one of the happiest instances of Shakespeare's
+power of diversifying the scene while he
+is carrying on the plot.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> My lord, you played once i' the university,
+you say?</q></l>
+<l>(<hi rend='italic'>To Polonius.</hi>)</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+To have kept Hamlet's love for Ophelia before the
+audience in any direct form, would have made a
+<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/>
+breach in the unity of the interest;&mdash;but yet to
+the thoughtful reader it is suggested by his spite
+to poor Polonius, whom he cannot let rest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> The style of the interlude here is distinguished
+from the real dialogue by rhyme, as in
+the first interview with the players by epic verse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> My lord, you once did love me.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> <emph>So</emph> I do still, by these
+pickers and stealers.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I never heard an actor give this word <q>so</q> its
+proper emphasis. Shakespeare's meaning is&mdash;<q>lov'd
+you? Hum!&mdash;<emph>so</emph> I do still,</q> &amp;c. There
+has been no change in my opinion:&mdash;I think as ill
+of you as I did. Else Hamlet tells an ignoble
+falsehood, and a useless one, as the last speech to
+Guildenstern&mdash;<q>Why look you now,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;proves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Hamlet's soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 4"><q rend="pre">Now could I drink hot blood,</q></l>
+<l>And do such business as the bitter day</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Would quake to look on.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The utmost at which Hamlet arrives, is a disposition,
+a mood, to do something:&mdash;but what to do,
+is still left undecided, while every word he utters
+tends to betray his disguise. Yet observe how
+perfectly equal to any call of the moment is Hamlet,
+let it only not be for the future.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Speech of Polonius. Polonius's volunteer
+obtrusion of himself into this business, while
+it is appropriate to his character, still itching after
+former importance, removes all likelihood that
+Hamlet should suspect his presence, and prevents
+us from making his death injure Hamlet in our
+opinion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> The king's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/>
+
+<p>
+This speech well marks the difference between
+crime and guilt of habit. The conscience here is
+still admitted to audience. Nay, even as an audible
+soliloquy, it is far less improbable than is supposed
+by such as have watched men only in the beaten
+road of their feelings. But the final&mdash;<q>all may
+be well!</q> is remarkable;&mdash;the degree of merit
+attributed by the self-flattering soul to its own
+struggle, though baffled, and to the indefinite half-promise,
+half-command, to persevere in religious
+duties. The solution is in the divine <emph>medium</emph> of the
+Christian doctrine of expiation:&mdash;not what you
+have done, but what you are, must determine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Hamlet's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying:</q></l>
+<l>And now I'll do't:&mdash;And so he goes to heaven:</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And so am I revenged? That would be scann'd,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Johnson's mistaking of the marks of reluctance
+and procrastination for impetuous, horror-striking,
+fiendishness!&mdash;Of such importance is it to understand
+the germ of a character. But the interval
+taken by Hamlet's speech is truly awful! And
+then&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Words, without thoughts, never to heaven go.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+O what a lesson concerning the essential difference
+between wishing and willing, and the folly of
+all motive-mongering, while the individual self
+remains!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> A bloody deed;&mdash;almost as bad,
+good mother,</q></l>
+<l>As kill a king, and marry with his brother.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Queen.</hi> As kill a king?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I confess that Shakespeare has left the character
+of the Queen in an unpleasant perplexity. Was
+she, or was she not, conscious of the fratricide?
+</p>
+
+<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ros.</hi> Take you me for a spunge, my lord?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ham.</hi> Ay, Sir; that soaks up the King's countenance, his</l>
+<l><q rend="post">rewards, his authorities,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Hamlet's madness is made to consist in the free
+utterance of all the thoughts that had passed
+through his mind before;&mdash;in fact, in telling
+home-truths.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 5. Ophelia's singing. O, note the
+conjunction here of these two thoughts that had
+never subsisted in disjunction, the love for Hamlet,
+and her filial love, with the guileless floating on the
+surface of her pure imagination of the cautions so
+lately expressed, and the fears not too delicately
+avowed, by her father and brother, concerning the
+dangers to which her honour lay exposed. Thought,
+affliction, passion, murder itself&mdash;she turns to favour
+and prettiness. This play of association is instanced
+in the close:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>My brother shall know of it, and I thank you for your good
+counsel.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Gentleman's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And as the world were now but to begin</q></l>
+<l>Antiquity forgot, custom not known,</l>
+<l>The ratifiers and props of every word&mdash;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">They cry,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Fearful and self-suspicious as I always feel, when
+I seem to see an error of judgment in Shakespeare,
+yet I cannot reconcile the cool, and, as Warburton
+calls it, <q>rational and consequential,</q> reflection in
+these lines with the anonymousness, or the alarm,
+of this Gentleman or Messenger, as he is called in
+other editions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> King's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">There's such divinity doth hedge a king,</q></l>
+<l>That treason can but peep to what it would,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Acts little of his will.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/>
+
+<p>
+Proof, as indeed all else is, that Shakespeare
+never intended us to see the King with Hamlet's
+eyes; though, I suspect, the managers have long
+done so.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Laertes:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>To hell, allegiance! vows, to the blackest devil!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Laertes is a <emph>good</emph> character, but,</q>
+&amp;c.&mdash;<hi rend='smallcaps'>Warburton.</hi>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Mercy on Warburton's notion of goodness!
+Please to refer to the seventh scene of this act;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I will do't;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And for that purpose I'll anoint my sword,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+uttered by Laertes after the King's description of
+Hamlet;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">He being remiss,</q></l>
+<l>Most generous, and free from all contriving,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Will not peruse the foils.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Yet I acknowledge that Shakespeare evidently
+wishes, as much as possible, to spare the character
+of Laertes,&mdash;to break the extreme turpitude of his
+consent to become an agent and accomplice of the
+King's treachery;&mdash;and to this end he re-introduces
+Ophelia at the close of this scene to afford a
+probable stimulus of passion in her brother.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6. Hamlet's capture by the pirates.
+This is almost the only play of Shakespeare, in
+which mere accidents, independent of all will, form
+an essential part of the plot;&mdash;but here how
+judiciously in keeping with the character of the
+over-meditative Hamlet, ever at last determined
+by accident or by a fit of passion!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 7. Note how the King first awakens
+Laertes's vanity by praising the reporter, and then
+gratifies it by the report itself, and finally points it
+by&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Sir, this report of his</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> King's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">For goodness, growing to a <emph>pleurisy</emph>,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Dies in his own too much.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald's note from Warburton, who conjectures
+<q>plethory.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I rather think that Shakespeare meant <q>pleurisy,</q>
+but involved in it the thought of <emph>plethora</emph>, as
+supposing pleurisy to arise from too much blood;
+otherwise I cannot explain the following line&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And then this <emph>should</emph> is like a spendthrift sigh,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That hurts by easing.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In a stitch in the side every one must have heaved
+a sigh that <q>hurt by easing.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Since writing the above I feel confirmed that
+<q>pleurisy</q> is the right word; for I find that in
+the old medical dictionaries the pleurisy is often
+called the <q>plethory.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Queen.</hi> Your sister's drown'd, Laertes.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Laer.</hi> Drown'd! O, where?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+That Laertes might be excused in some degree for
+not cooling, the Act concludes with the affecting
+death of Ophelia,&mdash;who in the beginning lay like
+a little projection of land into a lake or stream,
+covered with spray-flowers, quietly reflected in
+the quiet waters, but at length is undermined or
+loosened, and becomes a faery isle, and after a brief
+vagrancy sinks almost without an eddy!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 1. O, the rich contrast between the
+Clowns and Hamlet, as two extremes! You see in
+the former the mockery of logic, and a traditional
+wit valued, like truth, for its antiquity, and
+treasured up, like a tune, for use.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 1 and 2. Shakespeare seems to mean all
+Hamlet's character to be brought together before
+<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/>
+his final disappearance from the scene;&mdash;his meditative
+excess in the grave-digging, his yielding to
+passion with Laertes, his love for Ophelia blazing
+out, his tendency to generalise on all occasions in
+the dialogue with Horatio, his fine gentlemanly
+manners with Osrick, and his and Shakespeare's
+own fondness for presentment:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>But thou wouldst not think, how ill all's here about my heart:
+but it is no matter.</q>
+</quote>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Macbeth.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+<q>Macbeth</q> stands in contrast throughout
+with <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>; in the manner of opening
+more especially. In the latter, there is a gradual
+ascent from the simplest forms of conversation to
+the language of impassioned intellect,&mdash;yet the
+intellect still remaining the seat of passion: in
+the former, the invocation is at once made to the
+imagination and the emotions connected therewith.
+Hence the movement throughout is the
+most rapid of all Shakespeare's plays; and hence
+also, with the exception of the disgusting passage
+of the Porter (Act ii. sc. 3), which I dare pledge
+myself to demonstrate to be an interpolation of
+the actors, there is not, to the best of my remembrance,
+a single pun or play on words in the whole
+drama. I have previously given an answer to the
+thousand times repeated charge against Shakespeare
+upon the subject of his punning, and I here
+merely mention the fact of the absence of any
+puns in <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>, as justifying a candid doubt, at
+least, whether even in these figures of speech and
+fanciful modifications of language, Shakespeare
+may not have followed rules and principles that
+merit and would stand the test of philosophic
+examination. And hence, also, there is an entire
+absence of comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic
+contemplation in <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>,&mdash;the play being
+wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause,
+<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/>
+there are no reasonings of equivocal morality,
+which would have required a more leisurely state
+and a consequently greater activity of mind;&mdash;no
+sophistry of self-delusion,&mdash;except only that previously
+to the dreadful act, Macbeth mistranslates
+the recoilings and ominous whispers of conscience
+into prudential and selfish reasonings; and, after
+the deed done, the terrors of remorse into fear
+from external dangers,&mdash;like delirious men who
+run away from the phantoms of their own brains,
+or, raised by terror to rage, stab the real object
+that is within their reach:&mdash;whilst Lady Macbeth
+merely endeavours to reconcile his and her own
+sinkings of heart by anticipations of the worst,
+and an affected bravado in confronting them. In
+all the rest, Macbeth's language is the grave
+utterance of the very heart, conscience-sick, even
+to the last faintings of moral death. It is the
+same in all the other characters. The variety
+arises from rage, caused ever and anon by disruption
+of anxious thought, and the quick transition
+of fear into it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi> the scene opens with
+superstition; but, in each it is not merely different,
+but opposite. In the first it is connected with the
+best and holiest feelings; in the second with the
+shadowy, turbulent, and unsanctified cravings of
+the individual will. Nor is the purpose the same;
+in the one the object is to excite, whilst in the
+other it is to mark a mind already excited.
+Superstition, of one sort or another, is natural
+to victorious generals; the instances are too
+notorious to need mentioning. There is so much
+of chance in warfare, and such vast events are
+connected with the acts of a single individual,&mdash;the
+<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/>
+representative, in truth, of the efforts of
+myriads, and yet to the public, and doubtless to
+his own feelings, the aggregate of all,&mdash;that the
+proper temperament for generating or receiving
+superstitious impressions is naturally produced.
+Hope, the master element of a commanding genius,
+meeting with an active and combining intellect,
+and an imagination of just that degree of vividness
+which disquiets and impels the soul to try to
+realise its images, greatly increases the creative
+power of the mind; and hence the images become
+a satisfying world of themselves, as is the case in
+every poet and original philosopher:&mdash;but hope
+fully gratified, and yet the elementary basis of the
+passion remaining, becomes fear; and, indeed, the
+general, who must often feel, even though he may
+hide it from his own consciousness, how large a
+share chance had in his successes, may very naturally
+be irresolute in a new scene, where he knows
+that all will depend on his own act and election.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Weird Sisters are as true a creation of
+Shakespeare's, as his Ariel and Caliban,&mdash;fates,
+furies, and materialising witches being the elements.
+They are wholly different from any representation
+of witches in the contemporary
+writers, and yet presented a sufficient external resemblance
+to the creatures of vulgar prejudice to
+act immediately on the audience. Their character
+consists in the imaginative disconnected from the
+good; they are the shadowy obscure and fearfully
+anomalous of physical nature, the lawless of
+human nature,&mdash;elemental avengers without sex
+or kin:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Fair is foul, and foul is fair;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Hover through the fog and filthy air.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/>
+
+<p>
+How much it were to be wished in playing <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>,
+that an attempt should be made to introduce
+the flexile character-mask of the ancient pantomime;&mdash;that
+Flaxman would contribute his genius
+to the embodying and making sensuously perceptible
+that of Shakespeare!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The style and rhythm of the Captain's speeches
+in the second scene should be illustrated by reference
+to the interlude in <hi rend='italic'>Hamlet</hi>, in which the epic
+is substituted for the tragic, in order to make the
+latter be felt as the real-life diction. In <hi rend='italic'>Macbeth</hi>
+the poet's object was to raise the mind at once to
+the high tragic tone, that the audience might be
+ready for the precipitate consummation of guilt in
+the early part of the play. The true reason for
+the first appearance of the Witches is to strike
+the key-note of the character of the whole drama,
+as is proved by their re-appearance in the third
+scene, after such an order of the king's as establishes
+their supernatural power of information. I
+say information,&mdash;for so it only is as to Glamis
+and Cawdor; the <q>king hereafter</q> was still contingent,&mdash;still
+in Macbeth's moral will; although,
+if he should yield to the temptation, and thus
+forfeit his free agency, the link of cause and effect
+<hi rend='italic'>more physico</hi> would then commence. I need not
+say, that the general idea is all that can be required
+from the poet,&mdash;not a scholastic logical
+consistency in all the parts so as to meet metaphysical
+objectors. But O! how truly Shakespearian
+is the opening of Macbeth's character
+given in the <emph>unpossessedness</emph> of Banquo's mind,
+wholly present to the present object,&mdash;an unsullied,
+unscarified mirror! And how strictly
+true to nature it is that Banquo, and not Macbeth
+<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/>
+himself, directs our notice to the effect produced
+on Macbeth's mind, rendered temptible by previous
+dalliance of the fancy with ambitious
+thoughts:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Good Sir, why do you start; and seem to fear</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Things that do sound so fair?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+And then, again, still unintroitive, addresses the
+Witches:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 6">... <q rend="pre">I' the name of truth,</q></l>
+<l>Are ye fantastical, or that indeed</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Which outwardly ye show?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Banquo's questions are those of natural curiosity,&mdash;such
+as a girl would put after hearing a gipsy
+tell her schoolfellow's fortune;&mdash;all perfectly
+general, or rather, planless. But Macbeth, lost
+in thought, raises himself to speech only by the
+Witches being about to depart:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and all that follows is reasoning on a problem
+already discussed in his mind,&mdash;on a hope which
+he welcomes, and the doubts concerning the
+attainment of which he wishes to have cleared up.
+Compare his eagerness,&mdash;the keen eye with which
+he has pursued the Witches' evanishing&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Speak, I charge you!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+with the easily satisfied mind of the self-uninterested
+Banquo:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The air hath bubbles, as the water has,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And these are of them:&mdash;Whither are they vanish'd?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and then Macbeth's earnest reply,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Into the air; and what seem'd corporal, melted</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">As breath into the wind.&mdash;<emph>Would they had
+stay'd!</emph></q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Is it too minute to notice the appropriateness of
+the simile <q>as breath,</q> &amp;c., in a cold climate?
+</p>
+
+<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/>
+
+<p>
+Still again Banquo goes on wondering like any
+common spectator,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Were such things here as we do speak about?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+whilst Macbeth persists in recurring to the self-concerning:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Your children shall be kings.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Ban.</hi> You shall be king.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Macb.</hi> And thane of Cawdor too: went it
+not so?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+So surely is the guilt in its germ anterior to the
+supposed cause, and immediate temptation! Before
+he can cool, the confirmation of the tempting half
+of the prophecy arrives, and the concatenating
+tendency of the imagination is fostered by the
+sudden coincidence:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Glamis, and thane of Cawdor:</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">The greatest is behind.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Oppose this to Banquo's simple surprise:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>What, can the devil speak true?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Banquo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">That, trusted home,</q></l>
+<l>Might yet enkindle you unto the crown,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Besides the thane of Cawdor.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I doubt whether <q>enkindle</q> has not another
+sense than that of <q>stimulating;</q> I mean of
+<q>kind</q> and <q>kin,</q> as when rabbits are said to
+<q>kindle.</q> However, Macbeth no longer hears
+anything <hi rend='italic'>ab extra</hi>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Two truths are told,</q></l>
+<l>As happy prologues to the swelling act</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of the imperial theme.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Then in the necessity of recollecting himself,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I thank you, gentlemen.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Then he relapses into himself again, and every
+word of his soliloquy shows the early birth-date of
+his guilt. He is all-powerful without strength;
+<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/>
+he wishes the end, but is irresolute as to the
+means; conscience distinctly warns him, and he
+lulls it imperfectly:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Without my stir.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Lost in the prospective of his guilt, he turns round
+alarmed lest others may suspect what is passing
+in his own mind, and instantly vents the lie of
+ambition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">My dull brain was wrought</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">With things <emph>forgotten</emph>;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and immediately after pours forth the promising
+courtesies of a usurper in intention:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 8">... <q rend="pre">Kind gentlemen, your pains</q></l>
+<l>Are register'd where every day I turn</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The leaf to read them.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Macbeth's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Present <emph>fears</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Are less than horrible imaginings.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's note, and substitution of <q>feats</q> for
+<q>fears.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mercy on this most wilful ingenuity of blundering,
+which, nevertheless, was the very Warburton
+of Warburton&mdash;his inmost being! <q>Fears,</q>
+here, are present fear-striking objects, <hi rend='italic'>terribilia
+adstantia</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. O! the affecting beauty of the death
+of Cawdor, and the presentimental speech of the
+king:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">There's no art</q></l>
+<l>To find the mind's construction in the face:</l>
+<l>He was a gentleman on whom I built</l>
+<l><q rend="post">An absolute trust.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Interrupted by&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O worthiest cousin!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+on the entrance of the deeper traitor for whom
+<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/>
+Cawdor had made way! And here in contrast with
+Duncan's <q>plenteous joys,</q> Macbeth has nothing
+but the common-places of loyalty, in which he hides
+himself with <q>our duties.</q> Note the exceeding
+effort of Macbeth's addresses to the king, his
+reasoning on his allegiance, and then especially
+when a new difficulty, the designation of a successor,
+suggests a new crime. This, however, seems
+the first distinct notion, as to the plan of realising
+his wishes; and here, therefore, with great propriety,
+Macbeth's cowardice of his own conscience
+discloses itself. I always think there is something
+especially Shakespearian in Duncan's speeches
+throughout this scene, such pourings forth, such
+abandonments, compared with the language of
+vulgar dramatists, whose characters seem to have
+made their speeches as the actors learn them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib:</hi> Duncan's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Sons, kinsmen, thanes,</q></l>
+<l>And you whose places are the nearest, know,</l>
+<l>We will establish our estate upon</l>
+<l>Our eldest Malcolm, whom we name hereafter</l>
+<l>The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must</l>
+<l>Not unaccompanied, invest him only;</l>
+<l>But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine</l>
+<l><q rend="post">On all deservers.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It is a fancy;&mdash;but I can never read this and
+the following speeches of Macbeth, without involuntarily
+thinking of the Miltonic Messiah and
+Satan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5. Macbeth is described by Lady Macbeth
+so as at the same time to reveal her own
+character. Could he have every thing he wanted,
+he would rather have it innocently;&mdash;ignorant, as
+alas! how many of us are, that he who wishes a
+temporal end for itself, does in truth will the
+means; and hence the danger of indulging fancies.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/>
+
+<p>
+Lady Macbeth, like all in Shakespeare, is a class
+individualised:&mdash;of high rank, left much alone,
+and feeding herself with day-dreams of ambition,
+she mistakes the courage of fantasy for the power
+of bearing the consequences of the realities of guilt.
+His is the mock fortitude of a mind deluded by
+ambition; she shames her husband with a superhuman
+audacity of fancy which she cannot support,
+but sinks in the season of remorse, and dies in
+suicidal agony. Her speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Come, you spirits</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+is that of one who had habitually familiarised her
+imagination to dreadful conceptions, and was trying
+to do so still more. Her invocations and
+requisitions are all the false efforts of a mind
+accustomed only hitherto to the shadows of the
+imagination, vivid enough to throw the every-day
+substances of life into shadow, but never as yet
+brought into direct contact with their own correspondent
+realities. She evinces no womanly life,
+no wifely joy, at the return of her husband, no
+pleased terror at the thought of his past dangers,
+whilst Macbeth bursts forth naturally&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>My dearest love</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and shrinks from the boldness with which she presents
+his own thoughts to him. With consummate
+art she at first uses as incentives the very circumstances,
+Duncan's coming to their house, &amp;c., which
+Macbeth's conscience would most probably have
+adduced to her as motives of abhorrence or repulsion.
+Yet Macbeth is not prepared:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>We will speak further.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6. The lyrical movement with which this
+<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/>
+scene opens, and the free and unengaged mind of
+Banquo, loving nature, and rewarded in the love
+itself, form a highly dramatic contrast with the
+laboured rhythm and hypocritical over-much of
+Lady Macbeth's welcome, in which you cannot
+detect a ray of personal feeling, but all is thrown
+upon the <q>dignities,</q> the general duty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 7. Macbeth's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">We will proceed no further in this business:</q></l>
+<l>He hath honour'd me of late; and I have bought</l>
+<l>Golden opinions from all sorts of people,</l>
+<l>Which would be worn now in their newest gloss,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Not cast aside so soon.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Note the inward pangs and warnings of conscience
+interpreted into prudential reasonings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Banquo's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">A heavy summons lies like lead upon me,</q></l>
+<l>And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers!</l>
+<l>Restrain in me the cursed thoughts, that nature</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Gives way to in repose.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The disturbance of an innocent soul by painful
+suspicions of another's guilty intentions and wishes,
+and fear of the cursed thoughts of sensual nature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Now that the deed is done or doing&mdash;now
+that the first reality commences, Lady Macbeth
+shrinks. The most simple sound strikes
+terror, the most natural consequences are horrible,
+whilst previously every thing, however awful,
+appeared a mere trifle; conscience, which before
+had been hidden to Macbeth in selfish and prudential
+fears, now rushes in upon him in her own
+veritable person:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Methought I heard a voice cry&mdash;Sleep no more!</q></l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">I could not say Amen,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">When they did say, God bless us!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+And see the novelty given to the most familiar
+images by a new state of feeling.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. This low soliloquy of the Porter and
+his few speeches afterwards, I believe to have been
+written for the mob by some other hand, perhaps
+with Shakespeare's consent; and that finding it
+take, he with the remaining ink of a pen otherwise
+employed, just interpolated the words&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>I'll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in
+some of all professions, that go the primrose way to the everlasting
+bonfire.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Of the rest not one syllable has the ever-present
+being of Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1. Compare Macbeth's mode of working
+on the murderers in this place with Schiller's
+mistaken scene between Butler, Devereux, and
+Macdonald in <hi rend='italic'>Wallenstein</hi>.&mdash;(Part II. act iv. sc. 2.)
+The comic was wholly out of season. Shakespeare
+never introduces it, but when it may react on the
+tragedy by harmonious contrast.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. Macbeth's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,</q></l>
+<l>Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep</l>
+<l>In the affliction of these terrible dreams</l>
+<l><q rend="post">That shake us nightly.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Ever and ever mistaking the anguish of conscience
+for fears of selfishness, and thus as a punishment
+of that selfishness, plunging still deeper in
+guilt and ruin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Macbeth's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Till thou applaud the deed.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is Macbeth's sympathy with his own feelings,
+and his mistaking his wife's opposite state.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Macb.</hi> It will have blood; they say,
+blood will have blood:</q></l>
+<l>Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak;</l>
+<l>Augurs, and understood relations, have</l>
+<l>By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth</l>
+<l><q rend="post">The secret'st man of blood.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/>
+
+<p>
+The deed is done; but Macbeth receives no
+comfort, no additional security. He has by guilt
+torn himself live-asunder from nature, and is,
+therefore, himself in a preternatural state: no
+wonder, then, that he is inclined to superstition,
+and faith in the unknown of signs and tokens, and
+super-human agencies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Len.</hi> 'Tis two or three, my lord, that
+bring you word</q></l>
+<l>Macduff is fled to England.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Macb.</hi> Fled to England!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The acme of the avenging conscience.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2. This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a
+relief, because a variety, because domestic, and
+therefore soothing, as associated with the only real
+pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady
+Macduff and her child heightens the pathos, and is
+preparatory for the deep tragedy of their assassination.
+Shakespeare's fondness for children is everywhere
+shown;&mdash;in Prince Arthur, in <hi rend='italic'>King John</hi>;
+in the sweet scene in the <hi rend='italic'>Winter's Tale</hi> between
+Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest
+Evans's examination of Mrs. Page's schoolboy.
+To the objection that Shakespeare wounds the
+moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised
+description of the most hateful atrocity&mdash;that he
+tears the feelings without mercy, and even outrages
+the eye itself with scenes of insupportable
+horror&mdash;I, omitting <hi rend='italic'>Titus Andronicus</hi>, as not
+genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster's
+blinding in <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, answer boldly in the name of
+Shakespeare, not guilty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Malcolm's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 9">... <q rend="pre">Better Macbeth,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Than such an one to reign.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/>
+
+<p>
+The moral is&mdash;the dreadful effects even on the
+best minds of the soul-sickening sense of insecurity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> How admirably Macduff's grief is in harmony
+with the whole play! It rends, not dissolves,
+the heart. <q>The tune of it goes manly.</q> Thus
+is Shakespeare always master of himself and of his
+subject,&mdash;a genuine Proteus:&mdash;we see all things in
+him, as images in a calm lake, most distinct, most
+accurate,&mdash;only more splendid, more glorified.
+This is correctness in the only philosophical sense.
+But he requires your sympathy and your submission;
+you must have that recipiency of moral
+impression without which the purposes and ends
+of the drama would be frustrated, and the absence
+of which demonstrates an utter want of all imagination,
+a deadness to that necessary pleasure of
+being innocently&mdash;shall I say, deluded?&mdash;or
+rather, drawn away from ourselves to the music of
+noblest thought in harmonious sounds. Happy
+he, who not only in the public theatre, but in the
+labours of a profession, and round the light of his
+own hearth, still carries a heart so pleasure-fraught!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Alas for Macbeth! now all is inward with him;
+he has no more prudential prospective reasonings.
+His wife, the only being who could have had any
+seat in his affections, dies; he puts on despondency,
+the final heart-armour of the wretched, and would
+fain think every thing shadowy and unsubstantial,
+as indeed all things are to those who cannot regard
+them as symbols of goodness:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10"><q rend="pre">Out, out, brief candle!</q></l>
+<l>Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,</l>
+<l>That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,</l>
+<l>And then is heard no more; it is a tale</l>
+<l>Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Signifying nothing.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Winter's Tale.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Although, on the whole, this play is exquisitely
+respondent to its title, and even in the
+fault I am about to mention, still a winter's tale;
+yet it seems a mere indolence of the great bard not
+to have provided in the oracular response (Act ii.
+sc. 2.) some ground for Hermione's seeming death
+and fifteen years' voluntary concealment. This
+might have been easily effected by some obscure
+sentence of the oracle, as for example:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q><q>Nor shall he ever recover an heir, if he have a wife before
+that recovery.</q></q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The idea of this delightful drama is a genuine
+jealousy of disposition, and it should be immediately
+followed by the perusal of <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>, which
+is the direct contrast of it in every particular.
+For jealousy is a vice of the mind, a culpable
+tendency of the temper, having certain well-known
+and well-defined effects and concomitants, all of
+which are visible in Leontes, and, I boldly say, not
+one of which marks its presence in Othello;&mdash;such
+as, first, an excitability by the most inadequate
+causes, and an eagerness to snatch at proofs;
+secondly, a grossness of conception, and a disposition
+to degrade the object of the passion by sensual
+fancies and images; thirdly, a sense of shame of
+his own feelings exhibited in a solitary moodiness
+of humour, and yet from the violence of the passion
+forced to utter itself, and therefore catching occasions
+<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/>
+to ease the mind by ambiguities, equivoques,
+by talking to those who cannot, and who are known
+not to be able to, understand what is said to them,&mdash;in
+short, by soliloquy in the form of dialogue,
+and hence a confused, broken, and fragmentary,
+manner; fourthly, a dread of vulgar ridicule, as
+distinct from a high sense of honour, or a mistaken
+sense of duty; and lastly, and immediately, consequent
+on this, a spirit of selfish vindictiveness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1, 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Observe the easy style of chitchat between
+Camillo and Archidamus as contrasted with the
+elevated diction on the introduction of the kings
+and Hermione in the second scene: and how
+admirably Polixenes' obstinate refusal to Leontes
+to stay,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">There is no tongue that moves; none, none i' the world</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">So soon as yours, could win me;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+prepares for the effect produced by his afterwards
+yielding to Hermione;&mdash;which is, nevertheless,
+perfectly natural from mere courtesy of sex, and
+the exhaustion of the will by former efforts of
+denial, and well calculated to set in nascent action
+the jealousy of Leontes. This, when once excited,
+is unconsciously increased by Hermione,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Yet, good deed, Leontes,</q></l>
+<l>I love thee not a jar o' the clock behind</l>
+<l><q rend="post">What lady she her lord;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+accompanied, as a good actress ought to represent
+it, by an expression and recoil of apprehension that
+she had gone too far.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>At my request, he would not:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The first working of the jealous fit;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Too hot, too hot:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/>
+
+<p>
+The morbid tendency of Leontes to lay hold of
+the merest trifles, and his grossness immediately
+afterwards,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Paddling palms and pinching fingers;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+followed by his strange loss of self-control in his
+dialogue with the little boy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 2. Paulina's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">That thou betray'dst Polixenes, 'twas nothing;</q></l>
+<l>That did but show thee, of a <emph>fool</emph>, inconstant,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And damnable ingrateful.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald reads <q>soul.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I think the original word is Shakespeare's.
+1. My ear feels it to be Shakespearian; 2. The
+involved grammar is Shakespearian&mdash;<q>show thee,
+being a fool naturally, to have improved thy folly
+by inconstancy;</q> 3. The alteration is most flat,
+and un-Shakespearian. As to the grossness of
+the abuse&mdash;she calls him <q>gross and foolish</q> a
+few lines below.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Autolycus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Fine as this is, and delicately characteristic of
+one who had lived and been reared in the best
+society, and had been precipitated from it by dice
+and drabbing; yet still it strikes against my feelings
+as a note out of tune, and as not coalescing
+with that pastoral tint which gives such a charm
+to this act. It is too Macbeth-like in the <q>snapper
+up of unconsidered trifles.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. Perdita's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>From Dis's waggon! daffodils.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+An epithet is wanted here, not merely or chiefly
+for the metre, but for the balance, for the æsthetic
+<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/>
+logic. Perhaps <q>golden</q> was the word which
+would set off the <q>violets dim.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Pale primroses</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That die unmarried.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Milton's&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>And the rathe primrose that forsaken dies.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Perdita's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Even here undone:</q></l>
+<l>I was not much afraid; for once or twice</l>
+<l>I was about to speak, and tell him plainly,</l>
+<l>The self-same sun, that shines upon his court,</l>
+<l>Hides not his visage from our cottage, but</l>
+<l>Looks on alike. Will't please you, Sir, be gone!</l>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">(<hi rend='italic'>To Florizel.</hi>)</l>
+<l>I told you, what would come of this. Beseech you,</l>
+<l>Of your own state take care: this dream of mine,</l>
+<l>Being now awake, I'll queen it no inch farther,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But milk my ewes, and weep.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+O how more than exquisite is this whole speech!
+And that profound nature of noble pride and grief
+venting themselves in a momentary peevishness of
+resentment toward Florizel:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q>Will't please you, Sir, be gone!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Autolycus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Let me have no lying; it becomes none but tradesmen, and
+they often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them for it with
+stamped coin, not stabbing steel;&mdash;therefore they do not
+<emph>give</emph> us the lie.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+As we <emph>pay</emph> them, they, therefore, do not <emph>give</emph>
+it us.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Othello.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Admirable is the preparation, so truly and
+peculiarly Shakespearian, in the introduction
+of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first
+exercise his art, and in so doing display his own
+character. Roderigo, without any fixed principle,
+but not without the moral notions and sympathies
+with honour, which his rank and connections had
+hung upon him, is already well fitted and predisposed
+for the purpose; for very want of character
+and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an
+empty house, constitute his character. The first
+three lines happily state the nature and foundation
+of the friendship between him and Iago,&mdash;the
+purse,&mdash;as also the contrast of Roderigo's intemperance
+of mind with Iago's coolness,&mdash;the coolness
+of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere
+language of protestation,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor me,</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+which, falling in with the associative link, determines
+Roderigo's continuation of complaint,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Thou told'st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate,</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+elicits at length a true feeling of Iago's mind, the
+dread of contempt habitual to those who encourage
+in themselves, and have their keenest pleasure in,
+the expression of contempt for others. Observe
+Iago's high self-opinion, and the moral, that a
+<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/>
+wicked man will employ real feelings, as well as
+assume those most alien from his own, as instruments
+of his purposes:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10"><q rend="pre">And, by the faith of man,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">I know my price, I am worth no worse a place.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I think Tyrwhitt's reading of <q>life</q> for
+<q>wife</q>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>A fellow almost damn'd in a fair <emph>wife</emph></q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+the true one, as fitting to Iago's contempt for
+whatever did not display power, and that intellectual
+power. In what follows, let the reader
+feel how by and through the glass of two passions,
+disappointed vanity and envy, the very vices of
+which he is complaining, are made to act upon
+him as if they were so many excellences, and the
+more appropriately, because cunning is always
+admired and wished for by minds conscious of
+inward weakness;&mdash;but they act only by half,
+like music on an inattentive auditor, swelling the
+thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Rod.</hi> What a full fortune does the
+<emph>thick-lips</emph> owe,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">If he can carry 't thus.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Roderigo turns off to Othello; and here comes
+one, if not the only, seeming justification of our
+blackamoor or negro Othello. Even if we supposed
+this an uninterrupted tradition of the
+theatre, and that Shakespeare himself, from want
+of scenes, and the experience that nothing could
+be made too marked for the senses of his audience,
+had practically sanctioned it,&mdash;would this prove
+aught concerning his own intention as a poet for
+all ages? Can we imagine him so utterly ignorant
+as to make a barbarous negro plead royal birth,&mdash;at
+a time, too, when negroes were not known
+<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/>
+except as slaves? As for Iago's language to
+Brabantio, it implies merely that Othello was a
+Moor,&mdash;that is, black. Though I think the rivalry
+of Roderigo sufficient to account for his wilful
+confusion of Moor and Negro,&mdash;yet, even if compelled
+to give this up, I should think it only
+adapted for the acting of the day, and should
+complain of an enormity built on a single word,
+in direct contradiction to Iago's <q>Barbary horse.</q>
+Besides, if we could in good earnest believe Shakespeare
+ignorant of the distinction, still why should
+we adopt one disagreeable possibility instead of a
+ten times greater and more pleasing probability?
+It is a common error to mistake the epithets
+applied by the <hi rend='italic'>dramatis personæ</hi> to each other, as
+truly descriptive of what the audience ought to
+see or know. No doubt Desdemona saw Othello's
+visage in his mind; yet, as we are constituted,
+and most surely as an English audience was disposed
+in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
+it would be something monstrous to conceive this
+beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable
+negro. It would argue a disproportionateness,
+a want of balance, in Desdemona, which Shakespeare
+does not appear to have in the least contemplated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Brabantio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>This accident is not unlike my dream.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The old careful senator, being caught careless,
+transfers his caution to his dreaming power at
+least.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Iago's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">For their souls,</q></l>
+<l>Another of his fathom they have not,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To lead their business.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/>
+
+<p>
+The forced praise of Othello, followed by the
+bitter hatred of him in this speech! And observe
+how Brabantio's dream prepares for his recurrence
+to the notion of philtres, and how both prepare for
+carrying on the plot of the arraignment of Othello
+on this ground.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Oth.</hi> 'Tis better as it is.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+How well these few words impress at the outset
+the truth of Othello's own character of himself at
+the end&mdash;<q>that he was not easily wrought!</q> His
+self-government contradistinguishes him throughout
+from Leontes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Othello's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">And my demerits</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">May speak, <emph>unbonneted</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The argument in Theobald's note, where <q>and
+bonneted</q> is suggested, goes on the assumption
+that Shakespeare could not use the same word
+differently in different places; whereas I should
+conclude, that as in the passage in <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> the word
+is employed in its direct meaning, so here it is
+used metaphorically; and this is confirmed by
+what has escaped the editors, that it is not <q>I,</q>
+but <q>my demerits</q> that may speak unbonneted,&mdash;without
+the symbol of a petitioning inferior.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Othello's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">So please your grace, my ancient;</q></l>
+<l>A man he is of honesty and trust:</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To his conveyance I assign my wife.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Compare this with the behaviour of Leontes to
+his true friend Camillo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Bra.</hi> Look to her, Moor; if thou hast
+eyes to see;</q></l>
+<l>She has deceived her father, and may thee.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Oth.</hi> My life upon her faith.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/>
+
+<p>
+In real life, how do we look back to little
+speeches as presentimental of, or contrasted with,
+an affecting event! Even so, Shakespeare, as
+secure of being read over and over, of becoming a
+family friend, provides this passage for his readers,
+and leaves it to them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Iago's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Virtue? a fig! 'tis in ourselves, that we are thus, or thus,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This speech comprises the passionless character
+of Iago. It is all will in intellect; and therefore
+he is here a bold partizan of a truth, but yet of a
+truth converted into a falsehood by the absence of
+all the necessary modifications caused by the frail
+nature of man. And then comes the last sentiment:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts,
+whereof I take this, that you call&mdash;love, to be a sect or scion!</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Here is the true Iagoism of, alas! how many!
+Note Iago's pride of mastery in the repetition of
+<q>Go, make money!</q> to his anticipated dupe,
+even stronger than his love of lucre: and when
+Roderigo is completely won,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I am chang'd. I'll go sell all my land,</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+when the effect has been fully produced, the
+repetition of triumph:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Go to; farewell; put money enough in your purse!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The remainder&mdash;Iago's soliloquy&mdash;the motive-hunting
+of a motiveless malignity&mdash;how awful it
+is! Yea, whilst he is still allowed to bear the
+divine image, it is too fiendish for his own steady
+view,&mdash;for the lonely gaze of a being next to
+devil, and only not quite devil,&mdash;and yet a character
+which Shakespeare has attempted and executed,
+without disgust and without scandal!
+</p>
+
+<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Johnson has remarked that little or nothing
+is wanting to render the <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi> a regular tragedy,
+but to have opened the play with the arrival of
+Othello in Cyprus, and to have thrown the preceding
+act into the form of narration. Here then
+is the place to determine whether such a change
+would or would not be an improvement;&mdash;nay
+(to throw down the glove with a full challenge),
+whether the tragedy would or not by such an
+arrangement become more regular,&mdash;that is, more
+consonant with the rules dictated by universal
+reason, on the true common-sense of mankind, in
+its application to the particular case. For in all
+acts of judgment, it can never be too often recollected,
+and scarcely too often repeated, that rules
+are means to ends, and, consequently, that the end
+must be determined and understood before it can
+be known what the rules are or ought to be.
+Now, from a certain species of drama, proposing
+to itself the accomplishment of certain ends,&mdash;these
+partly arising from the idea of the species
+itself, but in part, likewise, forced upon the
+dramatist by accidental circumstances beyond his
+power to remove or control,&mdash;three rules have
+been abstracted;&mdash;in other words, the means most
+conducive to the attainment of the proposed ends
+have been generalised, and prescribed under the
+names of the three unities,&mdash;the unity of time, the
+unity of place, and the unity of action&mdash;which
+last would, perhaps, have been as appropriately,
+as well as more intelligibly, entitled the unity of
+interest. With this last the present question has
+no immediate concern: in fact, its conjunction
+with the former two is a mere delusion of words.
+It is not properly a rule, but in itself the great
+<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/>
+end not only of the drama, but of the epic poem,
+the lyric ode, of all poetry, down to the candle-flame
+cone of an epigram,&mdash;nay, of poesy in
+general, as the proper generic term inclusive of
+all the fine arts as its species. But of the unities
+of time and place, which alone are entitled to the
+name of rules, the history of their origin will be
+their best criterion. You might take the Greek
+chorus to a place, but you could not bring a place
+to them without as palpable an equivoque as
+bringing Birnam wood to Macbeth at Dunsinane.
+It was the same, though in a less degree, with
+regard to the unity of time:&mdash;the positive fact,
+not for a moment removed from the senses, the
+presence, I mean, of the same identical chorus,
+was a continued measure of time;&mdash;and although
+the imagination may supersede perception, yet it
+must be granted to be an imperfection&mdash;however
+easily tolerated&mdash;to place the two in broad contradiction
+to each other. In truth, it is a mere
+accident of terms; for the Trilogy of the Greek
+theatre was a drama in three acts, and notwithstanding
+this, what strange contrivances as to
+place there are in the Aristophanic Frogs. Besides,
+if the law of mere actual perception is once
+violated&mdash;as it repeatedly is, even in the Greek
+tragedies&mdash;why is it more difficult to imagine
+three hours to be three years than to be a whole
+day and night?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Observe in how many ways Othello is made,
+first, our acquaintance, then our friend, then the
+object of our anxiety, before the deeper interest is
+to be approached!
+</p>
+
+<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Mont.</hi> But, good lieutenant, is your
+general wived?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cas.</hi> Most fortunately: he hath achieved a maid</l>
+<l>That paragons description, and wild fame;</l>
+<l>One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens,</l>
+<l>And, in the essential vesture of creation,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Does tire the ingener.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Here is Cassio's warm-hearted, yet perfectly disengaged,
+praise of Desdemona, and sympathy with
+the <q>most fortunately</q> wived Othello;&mdash;and yet
+Cassio is an enthusiastic admirer, almost a worshipper,
+of Desdemona. Oh, that detestable code
+that excellence cannot be loved in any form that
+is female, but it must needs be selfish! Observe
+Othello's <q>honest</q> and Cassio's <q>bold</q> Iago, and
+Cassio's full guileless-hearted wishes for the safety
+and love-raptures of Othello and <q>the divine
+Desdemona.</q> And also note the exquisite circumstance
+of Cassio's kissing Iago's wife, as if it
+ought to be impossible that the dullest auditor
+should not feel Cassio's religious love of Desdemona's
+purity. Iago's answers are the sneers
+which a proud bad intellect feels towards women,
+and expresses to a wife. Surely it ought to be
+considered a very exalted compliment to women,
+that all the sarcasms on them in Shakespeare are
+put in the mouths of villains.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Des.</hi> I am not merry; but I do beguile,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The struggle of courtesy in Desdemona to abstract
+her attention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>(<hi rend='italic'>Iago aside</hi>). He takes her by the palm: Ay, well said, whisper;
+with as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio.
+Ay, smile upon her, do,</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The importance given to trifles, and made fertile
+by the villany of the observer.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Iago's dialogue with Roderigo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This is the rehearsal on the dupe of the traitor's
+intentions on Othello.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Iago's soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">But partly led to diet my revenge,</q></l>
+<l>For that I do suspect the lusty Moor</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Hath leap'd into my seat.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This thought, originally by Iago's own confession
+a mere suspicion, is now ripening, and gnaws
+his base nature as his own <q>poisonous mineral</q> is
+about to gnaw the noble heart of his general.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Othello's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I know, Iago,</q></l>
+<l>Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Making it light to Cassio.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Honesty and love! Ay, and who but the reader of
+the play could think otherwise?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Iago's soliloquy:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And what's he then that says&mdash;I play the villain?</q></l>
+<l>When this advice is free I give, and honest,</l>
+<l>Provable to thinking, and, indeed, the course</l>
+<l><q rend="post">To win the Moor again.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+He is not, you see, an absolute fiend; or, at
+least, he wishes to think himself not so.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Des.</hi> Before Æmilia here,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">I give thee warrant of thy place.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The over-zeal of innocence in Desdemona.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Enter Desdemona and Æmilia.</hi></q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Oth.</hi> If she be false, O, then, heaven mocks itself!</l>
+<l><q rend="post">I'll not believe't.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Divine! The effect of innocence and the better
+genius!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Æmil.</hi> Why, the wrong is but a wrong i'
+the world; and</q></l>
+<l>having the world for your labour, 'tis a wrong in your own world,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">and you might quickly make it right.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/>
+
+<p>
+Warburton's note.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What any other man, who had learning enough,
+might have quoted as a playful and witty illustration
+of his remarks against the Calvinistic <hi rend='italic'>thesis</hi>,
+Warburton gravely attributes to Shakespeare as
+intentional; and this, too, in the mouth of a lady's
+woman!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. last scene. Othello's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q rend="pre">Of one, whose hand,</q></l>
+<l>Like the base <hi rend='italic'>Indian</hi>, threw a pearl away</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Richer than all his tribe,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Theobald's note from Warburton.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thus it is for no-poets to comment on the
+greatest of poets! To make Othello say that he,
+who had killed his wife, was like Herod who killed
+Mariamne!&mdash;O, how many beauties, in this one
+line, were impenetrable to the ever thought-swarming,
+but idealess, Warburton! Othello
+wishes to excuse himself on the score of ignorance,
+and yet not to excuse himself,&mdash;to excuse himself
+by accusing. This struggle of feeling is finely
+conveyed in the word <q>base,</q> which is applied to
+the rude Indian, not in his own character, but
+as the momentary representative of Othello's.
+<q>Indian</q>&mdash;for I retain the old reading&mdash;means
+American, a savage <hi rend='italic'>in genere</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, let me repeat that Othello does not kill
+Desdemona in jealousy, but in a conviction forced
+upon him by the almost superhuman art of Iago,
+such a conviction as any man would and must
+have entertained who had believed Iago's honesty
+as Othello did. We, the audience, know that
+Iago is a villain, from the beginning; but in considering
+the essence of the Shakespearian Othello,
+we must perseveringly place ourselves in his situation,
+<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/>
+and under his circumstances. Then we shall
+immediately feel the fundamental difference between
+the solemn agony of the noble Moor, and
+the wretched fishing jealousies of Leontes, and the
+morbid suspiciousness of Leonatus, who is, in other
+respects, a fine character. Othello had no life but
+in Desdemona:&mdash;the belief that she, his angel, had
+fallen from the heaven of her native innocence,
+wrought a civil war in his heart. She is his
+counterpart; and, like him, is almost sanctified in
+our eyes by her absolute unsuspiciousness, and
+holy entireness of love. As the curtain drops,
+which do we pity the most?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Extremum hunc</hi>&mdash;&mdash;. There are three
+powers:&mdash;Wit, which discovers partial likeness
+hidden in general diversity; subtlety, which discovers
+the diversity concealed in general apparent
+sameness;&mdash;and profundity, which discovers an
+essential unity under all the semblances of
+difference.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Give to a subtle man fancy, and he is a wit; to
+a deep man imagination, and he is a philosopher.
+Add, again, pleasurable sensibility in the threefold
+form of sympathy with the interesting in morals,
+the impressive in form, and the harmonious in
+sound,&mdash;and you have the poet.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But combine all,&mdash;wit, subtlety, and fancy, with
+profundity, imagination, and moral and physical
+susceptibility of the pleasurable,&mdash;and let the
+object of action be man universal; and we shall
+have&mdash;O, rash prophecy! say, rather, we have&mdash;a
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>Shakespeare</hi>!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Notes on Ben Jonson.</head>
+
+<p>
+It would be amusing to collect out of our dramatists
+from Elizabeth to Charles I. proofs of
+the manners of the times. One striking symptom
+of general coarseness of manners, which may co-exist
+with great refinement of morals, as, alas!
+<hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>, is to be seen in the very frequent allusions
+to the olfactories with their most disgusting
+stimulants, and these, too, in the conversation of
+virtuous ladies. This would not appear so strange
+to one who had been on terms of familiarity with
+Sicilian and Italian women of rank: and bad as
+they may, too many of them, actually be, yet I
+doubt not that the extreme grossness of their
+language has impressed many an Englishman of
+the present era with far darker notions than the
+same language would have produced in the mind
+of one of Elizabeth's or James's courtiers. Those
+who have read Shakespeare only, complain of
+occasional grossness in his plays; but compare
+him with his contemporaries, and the inevitable
+conviction, is that of the exquisite purity of his
+imagination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The observation I have prefixed to the <hi rend='italic'>Volpone</hi>
+is the key to the faint interest which these noble
+efforts of intellectual power excite, with the
+exception of the fragment of the <hi rend='italic'>Sad Shepherd</hi>;
+because in that piece only is there any character
+with whom you can morally sympathise. On the
+<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/>
+other hand, <hi rend='italic'>Measure for Measure</hi> is the only play
+of Shakespeare's in which there are not some one
+or more characters, generally many, whom you
+follow with affectionate feeling. For I confess that
+Isabella, of all Shakespeare's female characters,
+pleases me the least; and <hi rend='italic'>Measure for Measure</hi> is,
+indeed, the only one of his genuine works, which
+is painful to me.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let me not conclude this remark, however,
+without a thankful acknowledgment to the <hi rend='italic'>manes</hi>
+of Ben Jonson, that the more I study his writings,
+I the more admire them; and the more my study
+of him resembles that of an ancient classic, in the
+<hi rend='italic'>minutiæ</hi> of his rhythm, metre, choice of words,
+forms of connection, and so forth, the more
+numerous have the points of my admiration
+become. I may add, too, that both the study and
+the admiration cannot but be disinterested, for to
+expect therefrom any advantage to the present
+drama would be ignorance. The latter is utterly
+heterogeneous from the drama of the Shakespearian
+age, with a diverse object and contrary principle.
+The one was to present a model by imitation of
+real life, taking from real life all that in it which
+it ought to be, and supplying the rest;&mdash;the other
+is to copy what is, and as it is,&mdash;at best a tolerable
+but most frequently a blundering, copy. In the
+former the difference was an essential element; in
+the latter an involuntary defect. We should think
+it strange, if a tale in dance were announced, and
+the actors did not dance at all;&mdash;and yet such is
+modern comedy.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Whalley's Preface.</head>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>But Jonson was soon sensible, how inconsistent this medley of
+names and manners was in reason and nature; and with how little
+propriety it could ever have a place in a legitimate and just picture
+of real life.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+But did Jonson reflect that the very essence of
+a play, the very language in which it is
+written, is a fiction to which all the parts must
+conform? Surely, Greek manners in English
+should be a still grosser improbability than a
+Greek name transferred to English manners. Ben's
+<hi rend='italic'>personæ</hi> are too often not characters, but derangements;&mdash;the
+hopeless patients of a mad-doctor
+rather,&mdash;exhibitions of folly betraying itself in
+spite of exciting reason and prudence. He not
+poetically, but painfully exaggerates every trait;
+that is, not by the drollery of the circumstance,
+but by the excess of the originating feeling.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>But to this we might reply, that far from being thought to
+build his characters upon abstract ideas, he was really accused of
+representing particular persons then existing; and that even those
+characters which appear to be the most exaggerated, are said to
+have had their respective archetypes in nature and life.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+This degrades Jonson into a libeller, instead of
+justifying him as a dramatic poet. <hi rend='italic'>Non quod
+verum est, sed quod verisimile</hi>, is the dramatist's
+rule. At all events, the poet who chooses transitory
+manners, ought to content himself with transitory
+praise. If his object be reputation, he ought
+not to expect fame. The utmost he can look forwards
+to, is to be quoted by, and to enliven the
+<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/>
+writings of, an antiquarian. Pistol, Nym, and <hi rend='italic'>id
+genus omne</hi>, do not please us as characters, but are
+endured as fantastic creations, foils to the native
+wit of Falstaff.&mdash;I say wit emphatically; for this
+character so often extolled as the masterpiece of
+humour, neither contains, nor was meant to contain,
+any humour at all.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Whalley's <q>Life Of Jonson.</q></q></head>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>It is to the honour of Jonson's judgment, that <emph>the greatest poet of
+our nation</emph> had the same opinion of Donne's genius and wit; and
+hath preserved part of him from perishing, by putting his thoughts
+and satire into modern verse.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Videlicet</hi> Pope!&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>He said further to Drummond, Shakespeare wanted art, and
+sometimes sense; for in one of his plays he brought in a number
+of men, saying they had suffered shipwreck in Bohemia, where is
+no sea near by a hundred miles.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+I have often thought Shakespeare justified in
+this seeming anachronism. In Pagan times
+a single name of a German kingdom might well
+be supposed to comprise a hundred miles more
+than at present. The truth is, these notes of
+Drummond's are more disgraceful to himself than
+to Jonson. It would be easy to conjecture how
+grossly Jonson must have been misunderstood,
+and what he had said in jest, as of Hippocrates,
+interpreted in earnest. But this is characteristic
+of a Scotchman; he has no notion of a jest, unless
+you tell him&mdash;<q>This is a joke!</q>&mdash;and still less of
+that finer shade of feeling, the half-and-half, in
+which Englishmen naturally delight.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Every Man Out Of His Humour.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Epilogue.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">The throat of war be stopt within her land,</q></l>
+<l>And <emph>turtle-footed</emph> peace dance fairie rings</l>
+<l><q rend="post">About her court.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>Turtle-footed</q> is a pretty word, a very
+pretty word: pray, what does it mean?
+Doves, I presume, are not dancers; and the other
+sort of turtle, land or sea, green-fat or hawksbill,
+would, I should suppose, succeed better in slow
+minuets than in the brisk rondillo. In one sense,
+to be sure, pigeons and ring-doves could not dance
+but with <hi rend='italic'>éclat</hi>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>a claw</hi>!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Poetaster.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Introduction.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Light! I salute thee, but with wounded nerves,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Wishing thy golden splendour pitchy darkness.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+There is no reason to suppose Satan's address
+to the sun in the <hi rend='italic'>Paradise Lost</hi>, more than a
+mere coincidence with these lines; but were it
+otherwise, it would be a fine instance what
+usurious interest a great genius pays in borrowing.
+It would not be difficult to give a detailed
+psychological proof from these constant outbursts
+of anxious self-assertion, that Jonson was not a
+genius, a creative power. Subtract that one
+thing, and you may safely accumulate on his
+name all other excellences of a capacious, vigorous,
+agile, and richly-stored intellect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Ovid.</hi> While slaves be false, fathers hard,
+and bawds be</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">whorish.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The roughness noticed by Theobald and Whalley,
+may be cured by a simple transposition:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>While fathers hard, slaves false, and bawds be whorish.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Act. iv. sc. 3&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Crisp.</hi>
+O&mdash;oblatrant&mdash;furibund&mdash;fatuate&mdash;strenuous.</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">O&mdash;conscious.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It would form an interesting essay, or rather
+series of essays, in a periodical work, were all the
+attempts to ridicule new phrases brought together,
+the proportion observed of words ridiculed which
+have been adopted, and are now common, such as
+<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/>
+<emph>strenuous</emph>, <emph>conscious</emph>, &amp;c., and a trial made how far
+any grounds can be detected, so that one might
+determine beforehand whether a word was invented
+under the conditions of assimilability to
+our language or not. Thus much is certain, that
+the ridiculers were as often wrong as right; and
+Shakespeare himself could not prevent the naturalisation
+of <emph>accommodation</emph>, <emph>remuneration</emph>, &amp;c.; or
+Swift the gross abuse even of the word <emph>idea</emph>.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Fall Of Sejanus.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Arruntius.</hi> The name Tiberius,</q></l>
+<l>I hope, will keep, howe'er he hath foregone</l>
+<l>The dignity and power.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Silius.</hi> Sure, while he lives.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Arr.</hi> And dead, it comes to Drusus. Should he fail,</l>
+<l>To the brave issue of Germanicus;</l>
+<l>And they are three: too many (ha?) for him</l>
+<l>To have a plot upon?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Sil.</hi> I do not know</l>
+<l>The heart of his designs; but, sure, their face</l>
+<l>Looks farther than the present.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Arr.</hi> By the gods,</l>
+<l>If I could guess he had but such a thought,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">My sword should cleave him down,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The anachronic mixture in this Arruntius of
+the Roman republican, to whom Tiberius
+must have appeared as much a tyrant as Sejanus,
+with his James-and-Charles-the-First zeal for
+legitimacy of descent in this passage, is amusing.
+Of our great names Milton was, I think, the first
+who could properly be called a republican. My
+recollections of Buchanan's works are too faint to
+enable me to judge whether the historian is not a
+fair exception.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Speech of Sejanus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Adultery! it is the lightest ill</q></l>
+<l>I will commit. A race of wicked acts</l>
+<l>Shall flow out of my anger, and o'erspread</l>
+<l>The world's wide face, which no posterity</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Shall e'er approve, nor yet keep silent,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The more we reflect and examine, examine and
+reflect, the more astonished shall we be at the
+immense superiority of Shakespeare over his contemporaries;&mdash;and
+<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/>
+yet what contemporaries!&mdash;giant
+minds indeed! Think of Jonson's erudition,
+and the force of learned authority in that age;
+and yet, in no genuine part of Shakespeare's works
+is there to be found such an absurd rant and
+ventriloquism as this, and too, too many other
+passages ferruminated by Jonson from Seneca's
+tragedies, and the writings of the later Romans.
+I call it ventriloquism, because Sejanus is a
+puppet, out of which the poet makes his own
+voice appear to come.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. Scene of the sacrifice to Fortune.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This scene is unspeakably irrational. To believe,
+and yet to scoff at, a present miracle is
+little less than impossible. Sejanus should have
+been made to suspect priestcraft and a secret
+conspiracy against him.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Volpone.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This admirable, indeed, but yet more wonderful
+than admirable, play is, from the fertility and
+vigour of invention, character, language, and
+sentiment, the strongest proof how impossible it is
+to keep up any pleasurable interest in a tale, in
+which there is no goodness of heart in any of the
+prominent characters. After the third act, this
+play becomes not a dead, but a painful, weight on
+the feelings. <hi rend='italic'>Zeluco</hi> is an instance of the same
+truth. Bonario and Celia should have been made
+in some way or other principals in the plot; which
+they might have been, and the objects of interest,
+without having been made characters. In novels,
+the person in whose fate you are most interested,
+is often the least marked character of the whole.
+If it were possible to lessen the paramountcy of
+Volpone himself, a most delightful comedy might
+be produced, by making Celia the ward or niece
+of Corvino, instead of his wife, and Bonario her
+lover.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Apicæne.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This is to my feelings the most entertaining of
+old Ben's comedies, and, more than any
+other, would admit of being brought out anew, if
+under the management of a judicious and stage-understanding
+playwright; and an actor, who
+had studied Morose, might make his fortune.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Clerimont's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">He would have hang'd a pewterer's 'prentice once upon a Shrove</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Tuesday's riot, for being of that trade, when the rest were
+<emph>quiet</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>The old copies read <emph>quit</emph>,&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi>,
+discharged from working, and
+gone to divert themselves.</q>&mdash;Whalley's note.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+It should be <q>quit</q> no doubt, but not meaning
+<q>discharged from working,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;but quit, that
+is, acquitted. The pewterer was at his holiday
+diversion as well as the other apprentices, and
+they as forward in the riot as he. But he alone
+was punished under pretext of the riot, but in fact
+for his trade.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q><hi rend='italic'>Morose.</hi> Cannot I, yet, find out a more compendious method
+than by this <emph>trunk</emph>, to save my servants the labour of speech, and
+mine ears the discord of sounds?</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+What does <q>trunk</q> mean here, and in the first
+scene of the first act? Is it a large ear-trumpet?&mdash;or
+rather a tube, such as passes from parlour to
+kitchen, instead of a bell?
+</p>
+
+<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/>
+
+<p>
+Whalley's note at the end:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Some critics of the last age imagined the character of Morose
+to be wholly out of nature. But to vindicate our poet, Mr. Dryden
+tells us from tradition, and we may venture to take his word, that
+Jonson was really acquainted with a person of this whimsical turn
+of mind: and as humour is a personal quality, the poet is acquitted
+from the charge of exhibiting a monster, or an extravagant unnatural
+<hi rend='italic'>caricatura</hi>.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+If Dryden had not made all additional proof
+superfluous by his own plays, this very vindication
+would evince that he had formed a false and
+vulgar conception of the nature and conditions of
+drama and dramatic personation. Ben Jonson
+would himself have rejected such a plea:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">For he knew, poet never credit gain'd</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">By writing <emph>truths</emph>, but things, like truths,
+well feign'd.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+By <q>truths</q> he means <q>facts.</q> Caricatures are
+not less so because they are found existing in real
+life. Comedy demands characters, and leaves
+caricatures to farce. The safest and the truest
+defence of old Ben would be to call the <hi rend='italic'>Epicœne</hi>
+the best of farces. The defect in Morose, as in
+other of Jonson's <hi rend='italic'>dramatis personæ</hi>, lies in this;&mdash;that
+the accident is not a prominence growing out
+of, and nourished by, the character which still
+circulates in it; but that the character, such as it
+is, rises out of, or, rather, consists in, the accident.
+Shakespeare's comic personages have exquisitely
+characteristic features; however awry, disproportionate,
+and laughable they may be, still, like
+Bardolph's nose, they are features. But Jonson's
+are either a man with a huge wen, having a circulation
+of its own, and which we might conceive
+amputated, and the patient thereby losing all his
+character; or they are mere wens themselves
+<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/>
+instead of men,&mdash;wens personified, or with eyes,
+nose, and mouth cut out, mandrake-fashion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Nota bene.</hi>&mdash;All the above, and much more,
+will have justly been said, if, and whenever, the
+drama of Jonson is brought into comparisons of
+rivalry with the Shakespearian. But this should
+not be. Let its inferiority to the Shakespearian
+be at once fairly owned,&mdash;but at the same time as
+the inferiority of an altogether different <hi rend='italic'>genius</hi> of
+the drama. On this ground, old Ben would still
+maintain his proud height. He, no less than
+Shakespeare stands on the summit of his hill, and
+looks round him like a master,&mdash;though his be
+Lattrig and Shakespeare's Skiddaw.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Alchemist.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 2. Face's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Will take his oath o' the Greek <hi rend='italic'>Xenophon</hi>,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">If need be, in his pocket.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Another reading is <q>Testament.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably, the meaning is&mdash;that intending
+to give false evidence, he carried a Greek <hi rend='italic'>Xenophon</hi>
+to pass it off for a Greek Testament, and so
+avoid perjury&mdash;as the Irish do, by contriving to
+kiss their thumb-nails instead of the book.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2. Mammon's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I will have all my beds blown up; not stuft:</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Down is too hard.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Thus the air-cushions, though perhaps only
+lately brought into use, were invented in idea in
+the seventeenth century!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Catiline's Conspiracy.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+A fondness for judging one work by comparison
+with others, perhaps altogether of a
+different class, argues a vulgar taste. Yet it is
+chiefly on this principle that the <hi rend='italic'>Catiline</hi> has been
+rated so low. Take it and <hi rend='italic'>Sejanus</hi>, as compositions
+of a particular kind, namely, as a mode of relating
+great historical events in the liveliest and most
+interesting manner, and I cannot help wishing
+that we had whole volumes of such plays. We
+might as rationally expect the excitement of the
+<hi rend='italic'>Vicar of Wakefield</hi> from Goldsmith's <hi rend='italic'>History of
+England</hi>, as that of <hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Othello</hi>,
+&amp;c., from the
+<hi rend='italic'>Sejanus</hi> or <hi rend='italic'>Catiline</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Cat.</hi> Sirrah, what ail you?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">(<hi rend='italic'>He spies one of his boys not
+answer.</hi>)</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Pag.</hi> Nothing.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Best.</hi> Somewhat modest.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Cat.</hi> Slave, I will strike your soul
+out with my foot,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is either an unintelligible, or, in every
+sense, a most unnatural, passage,&mdash;improbable, if
+not impossible, at the moment of signing and
+swearing such a conspiracy, to the most libidinous
+satyr. The very presence of the boys is an outrage
+to probability. I suspect that these lines down to
+the words <q>throat opens,</q> should be removed back
+so as to follow the words <q>on this part of the
+house,</q> in the speech of Catiline soon after the
+<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/>
+entry of the conspirators. A total erasure, however,
+would be the best, or, rather, the only
+possible, amendment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2. Sempronia's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">...<q rend="pre">He is but a new fellow,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">An <emph>inmate</emph> here in Rome, as Catiline calls him.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+A <q>lodger</q> would have been a happier imitation
+of the <hi rend='italic'>inquilinus</hi> of Sallust.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 6. Speech of Cethegus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Can these or such be any aids to us,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What a strange notion Ben must have formed
+of a determined, remorseless, all-daring, foolhardiness,
+to have represented it in such a
+mouthing Tamburlane, and bombastic tonguebully
+as this Cethegus of his!
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Bartholomew Fair.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Induction. Scrivener's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">If there be never a <emph>servant-monster</emph> in the Fair,
+who can help it</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">he says, nor a nest of antiques?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The best excuse that can be made for Jonson,
+and in a somewhat less degree for Beaumont
+and Fletcher, in respect of these base and silly
+sneers at Shakespeare is, that his plays were
+present to men's minds chiefly as acted. They
+had not a neat edition of them, as we have, so as,
+by comparing the one with the other, to form a
+just notion of the mighty mind that produced the
+whole. At all events, and in every point of view,
+Jonson stands far higher in a moral light than
+Beaumont and Fletcher. He was a fair contemporary,
+and in his way, and as far as Shakespeare
+is concerned, an original. But Beaumont and
+Fletcher were always imitators of, and often
+borrowers from him, and yet sneer at him with a
+spite far more malignant than Jonson, who,
+besides, has made noble compensation by his
+praises.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Just.</hi> I mean a child of the horn-thumb,
+a babe <emph>of booty</emph>, boy, a</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">cut purse.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Does not this confirm, what the passage itself
+cannot but suggest, the propriety of substituting
+<q>booty</q> for <q>beauty</q> in Falstaff's speech, <hi rend='italic'>Henry
+IV.</hi> part i. act i. sc. 2. <q>Let not us, &amp;c.?</q>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/>
+
+<p>
+It is not often that old Ben condescends to
+imitate a modern author; but Master Dan. Knockhum
+Jordan, and his vapours are manifest reflexes
+of Nym and Pistol.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Quarl.</hi> She'll make excellent geer for
+the coachmakers here in</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Smithfield, to anoint wheels and axletrees with.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Good! but yet it falls short of the speech of a
+Mr. Johnes, M.P., in the Common Council, on
+the invasion intended by Buonaparte:&mdash;<q>Houses
+plundered&mdash;then burnt;&mdash;sons conscribed&mdash;wives
+and daughters ravished,</q> &amp;c., &amp;c.&mdash;<q>But as for
+you, you luxurious Aldermen! with your fat will
+he grease the wheels of his triumphant chariot!</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Cok.</hi> Avoid in your satin doublet, Numps.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This reminds me of Shakespeare's <q>Aroint thee,
+witch!</q> I find in several books of that age the
+words <hi rend='italic'>aloigne</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>eloigne</hi>&mdash;that
+is,&mdash;<q>keep your
+distance!</q> or <q>off with you!</q> Perhaps <q>aroint</q>
+was a corruption of <q>aloigne</q> by the vulgar.
+The common etymology from <hi rend='italic'>ronger</hi> to gnaw
+seems unsatisfactory.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Quarl.</hi> How now, Numps! almost
+tired in your protectorship?</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">overparted, overparted?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+An odd sort of propheticality in this Numps and
+old Noll!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6. Knockhum's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>He eats with his eyes, as well as his teeth.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+A good motto for the Parson in Hogarth's <hi rend='italic'>Election
+Dinner</hi>,&mdash;who shows how easily he might be
+reconciled to the Church of Rome, for he worships
+what he eats.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 5.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Pup.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Di.</hi> It is not
+profane.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Lan.</hi> It is not profane, he says.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Boy.</hi> It is profane.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Pup.</hi> It is not profane.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Boy.</hi> It is profane.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Pup.</hi> It is not profane.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Lan.</hi> Well said, confute him with Not,
+still.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+An imitation of the quarrel between Bacchus
+and the Frogs in Aristophanes:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Χο�ός.</q></l>
+<l>ἀλλὰ μὴν κεκ�αξόμεσθά γ',</l>
+<l>�πόσον ἡ φά�υνξ ἂν ἡμῶν</l>
+<l>χανδάνη δι' ἡμέ�ας,</l>
+<l>β�εκεκεκὲξ, κοὰξ, κοὰξ.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Διόνυσος.</l>
+<l>τούτω γὰ� ο� νικήσετε.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Χο�ός.</l>
+<l>ο�δὲ μὴν ἡμᾶς σὺ τάντως.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l>Διόνυσος.</l>
+<l><q rend="post">ο�δὲ μὴν ὑμεῖς γε δή μ' ο�δέποτε.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Devil Is An Ass.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Pug.</hi> Why any: Fraud,</q></l>
+<l>Or Covetousness, or lady Vanity,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Or old Iniquity, <emph>I'll call him hither</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>The words in italics should probably be given to the master-devil,
+Satan.</q>&mdash;Whalley's note.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+That is, against all probability, and with a (for
+Jonson) impossible violation of character.
+The words plainly belong to Pug, and mark at
+once his simpleness and his impatience.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4. Fitz-dottrel's soliloquy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Compare this exquisite piece of sense, satire, and
+sound philosophy in 1616 with Sir M. Hale's
+speech from the bench in a trial of a witch many
+years afterwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Meercraft's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Sir, money's a whore, a bawd, a drudge.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I doubt not that <q>money</q> was the first word of
+the line, and has dropped out:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Money! Sir, money's a,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Staple Of News.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Pecunia's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">No, he would ha' done,</q></l>
+<l>That lay not in his power: he had the use</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of your bodies, Band and Wax, and sometimes Statute's.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read (1815)&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 9">... <q rend="pre">he had the use of</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Your bodies,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Now, however, I doubt the legitimacy of my
+transposition of the <q>of</q> from the beginning
+of this latter line to the end of the one preceding;&mdash;for
+though it facilitates the metre and reading
+of the latter line, and is frequent in Massinger,
+this disjunction of the preposition from its case
+seems to have been disallowed by Jonson. Perhaps
+the better reading is&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>O' your bodies,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+the two syllables being slurred into one, or rather
+snatched, or sucked, up into the emphasised
+<q>your.</q> In all points of view, therefore, Ben's
+judgment is just; for in this way, the line cannot
+be read, as metre, without that strong and quick
+emphasis on <q>your</q> which the sense requires;&mdash;and
+had not the sense required an emphasis on
+<q>your,</q> the <hi rend='italic'>tmesis</hi> of the sign of its cases <q>of,</q>
+<q>to,</q> &amp;c., would destroy almost all boundary
+between the dramatic verse and prose in comedy:&mdash;a
+lesson not to be rash in conjectural amendments.&mdash;1818.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 4.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>P. jun.</hi> I love all men of virtue, <emph>frommy</emph>
+Princess.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>Frommy,</q> <hi rend='italic'>fromme</hi>&mdash;pious, dutiful, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act v. sc. 4. Penny-boy, sen., and Porter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I dare not, will not, think that honest Ben had
+<hi rend='italic'>Lear</hi> in his mind in this mock mad scene.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The New Inn.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Host's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>A heavy purse, and then two turtles, <emph>makes</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>Makes,</q> frequent in old books, and even now
+used in some counties for mates, or pairs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Host's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">...<q rend="pre">And for a leap</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of the vaulting horse, to <emph>play</emph> the vaulting
+<emph>house</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Instead of reading with Whalley <q>ply</q> for
+<q>play,</q> I would suggest <q>horse</q> for <q>house.</q>
+The meaning would then be obvious and pertinent.
+The punlet, or pun-maggot, or pun intentional,
+<q>horse and house,</q> is below Jonson. The <hi rend='italic'>jeu-de-mots</hi>
+just below&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">...<q rend="pre">Read a lecture</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Upon <hi rend='italic'>Aquinas</hi> at St. Thomas à <hi rend='italic'>Water</hi>ings</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+had a learned smack in it to season its insipidity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 6. Lovel's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Then shower'd his bounties on me, like the Hours,</q></l>
+<l>That open-handed sit upon the clouds,</l>
+<l>And press the liberality of heaven</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Down to the laps of thankful men!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Like many other similar passages in Jonson,
+this is εῖδος χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν&mdash;a sight which it is difficult
+to make one's self see,&mdash;a picture my fancy
+cannot copy detached from the words.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 5. Though it was hard upon old Ben,
+yet Felton, it must be confessed, was in the right
+in considering the Fly, Tipto, Bat Burst, &amp;c., of
+<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/>
+this play mere dotages. Such a scene as this was
+enough to damn a new play; and Nick Stuff is
+worse still,&mdash;most abominable stuff indeed!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 2. Lovel's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">So knowledge first begets benevolence,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Benevolence breeds friendship, friendship love.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Jonson has elsewhere proceeded thus far; but
+the part most difficult and delicate, yet, perhaps,
+not the least capable of being both morally and
+poetically treated, is the union itself, and what,
+even in this life, it can be.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/>
+
+<div rend="page-break-before: right">
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.</head>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>Seward's</hi> Preface. 1750.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>The <hi rend='italic'>King and No King</hi>, too, is extremely spirited in all its
+characters; Arbaces holds up a mirror to all men of virtuous
+principles but violent passions. Hence he is, as it were, at once
+magnanimity and pride, patience and fury, gentleness and rigour,
+chastity and incest, and is one of the finest mixtures of virtues and
+vices that any poet has drawn,</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+These are among the endless instances of the
+abject state to which psychology had sunk
+from the reign of Charles I. to the middle of the
+present reign of George III.; and even now it is
+but just awaking.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Seward's comparison of Julia's speech in
+the <hi rend='italic'>Two Gentlemen of Verona</hi>, act iv. last scene&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Madam, 'twas Ariadne passioning,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+with Aspatia's speech in the <hi rend='italic'>Maid's Tragedy</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I stand upon the sea-beach now,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;Act ii.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and preference of the latter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is strange to take an incidental passage of one
+writer, intended only for a subordinate part, and
+compare it with the same thought in another
+writer, who had chosen it for a prominent and
+principal figure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Seward's preference of Alphonso's poisoning
+<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/>
+in <hi rend='italic'>A Wife for a Month</hi>, act i. sc. 1, to the passage
+in <hi rend='italic'>King John</hi>, act v. sc. 7:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Poison'd, ill fare! dead, forsook, cast off!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Seward! Mr. Seward! you may be, and I
+trust you are, an angel; but you were an ass.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Every reader of <emph>taste</emph> will see how superior this is to the
+quotation from Shakespeare.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Of what taste?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Seward's classification of the plays.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Surely <hi rend='italic'>Monsieur Thomas</hi>, the
+<hi rend='italic'>Chances</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Beggar's
+Bush</hi>, and the <hi rend='italic'>Pilgrim</hi>, should have been placed in
+the very first class! But the whole attempt ends
+in a woful failure.
+</p>
+
+<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.</head>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">I'd have a state of wit convok'd, which hath</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">A <emph>power</emph> to take up on common faith:</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This is an instance of that modifying of
+quantity by emphasis, without which our
+elder poets cannot be scanned. <q>Power,</q> here,
+instead of being one long syllable&mdash;pow'r&mdash;must
+be sounded, not indeed as a spondee, nor yet as a
+trochee; but as - u u;&mdash;the first syllable is 1-1/4.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We can, indeed, never expect an authentic
+edition of our elder dramatic poets (for in those
+times a drama was a poem), until some man undertakes
+the work, who has studied the philosophy of
+metre. This has been found the main torch of
+sound restoration in the Greek dramatists by
+Bentley, Porson, and their followers;&mdash;how much
+more, then, in writers in our own language! It
+is true that quantity, an almost iron law with the
+Greek, is in English rather a subject for a peculiarly
+fine ear, than any law or even rule; but,
+then, instead of it, we have, first, accent; secondly,
+emphasis; and lastly, retardation, and acceleration
+of the times of syllables according to the meaning
+of the words, the passion that accompanies them,
+and even the character of the person that uses
+them. With due attention to these,&mdash;above all,
+to that, which requires the most attention and the
+finest taste, the character, Massinger, for example,
+might be reduced to a rich and yet regular metre.
+<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/>
+But then the <hi rend='italic'>regulæ</hi> must be first known; though
+I will venture to say, that he who does not find a
+line (not corrupted) of Massinger's flow to the time
+total of a trimeter catalectic iambic verse, has not
+read it aright. But by virtue of the last principle&mdash;the
+retardation of acceleration of time&mdash;we
+have the proceleusmatic foot u u u u, and the <hi rend='italic'>dispondæus</hi>
+- - - -, not to mention the <hi rend='italic'>choriambus</hi>, the
+ionics, pæons, and epitrites. Since Dryden, the
+metre of our poets leads to the sense; in our elder
+and more genuine bards, the sense, including the
+passion, leads to the metre. Read even Donne's
+satires as he meant them to be read, and as the
+sense and passion demand, and you will find in the
+lines a manly harmony.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head>Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.</head>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>In general their plots are more regular than Shakespeare's.</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+This is true, if true at all, only before a court
+of criticism, which judges one scheme by the
+laws of another and a diverse one. Shakespeare's
+plots have their own laws of <hi rend='italic'>regulæ</hi>, and according
+to these they are regular.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Maid's Tragedy.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. The metrical arrangement is most
+slovenly throughout.
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q><hi rend='italic'>Strat.</hi> As well as masque can be,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and all that follows to <q>who is return'd</q>&mdash;is
+plainly blank verse, and falls easily into it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Melantius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">These soft and silken wars are not for me:</q></l>
+<l>The music must be shrill, and all confus'd,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">That stirs my blood; and then I dance with arms.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What strange self-trumpeters and tongue-bullies
+all the brave soldiers of Beaumont and Fletcher
+are! Yet I am inclined to think it was the fashion
+of the age from the Soldier's speech in the Counter
+Scuffle; and deeper than the fashion B. and F. did
+not fashion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Lysippus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Yes, but this lady</q></l>
+<l>Walks discontented, with her wat'ry eyes</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Bent on the earth,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Opulent as Shakespeare was, and of his opulence
+prodigal, he yet would not have put this exquisite
+piece of poetry in the mouth of a no-character, or
+as addressed to a Melantius. I wish that B. and
+F. had written poems instead of tragedies.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Mel.</hi> I might run fiercely, not more
+hastily,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Upon my foe.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I mĭght rūn <emph>m�re</emph> fiērcelȳ, not more hastily.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Calianax:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Office! I would I could put it off! I am sure I sweat quite
+through my office!</q>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The syllable <hi rend='italic'>off</hi> reminds the testy statesman of
+his robe, and he carries on the image.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Melantius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Would that blood,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">That sea of blood, that I have lost in fight,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+All B. and F.'s generals are pugilists or cudgel-fighters,
+that boast of their bottom and of the <hi rend='italic'>claret</hi>
+they have shed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> The Masque;&mdash;Cinthia's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">But I will give a greater state and glory,</q></l>
+<l>And raise to time a <emph>noble</emph> memory</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of what these lovers are.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I suspect that <q>nobler,</q> pronounced as <q>nobiler</q>
+- u -, was the poet's word, and that the accent is
+to be placed on the penultimate of <q>memory.</q> As
+to the passage&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Yet, while our reign lasts, let us stretch our power,</q> &amp;c.&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+removed from the text of Cinthia's speech, by these
+foolish editors as unworthy of B. and F.&mdash;the first
+eight lines are not worse, and the last couplet
+incomparably better, than the stanza retained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Amintor's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Oh, thou hast nam'd a word, that wipes away</q></l>
+<l>All thoughts revengeful! In that sacred name,</l>
+<l><q rend="post"><q>The king,</q> there lies a terror.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It is worth noticing that of the three greatest
+tragedians, Massinger was a democrat, Beaumont
+and Fletcher the most servile <hi rend='italic'>jure divino</hi> royalists,
+and Shakespeare a philosopher;&mdash;if aught personal,
+an aristocrat.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>A King And No King.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. Speech of Tigranes:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">She, that forgat the greatness of her grief</q></l>
+<l>And miseries, that must follow such mad passions,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Endless and wild as women!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward's note and suggestion of <q>in.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would be amusing to learn from some
+existing friend of Mr. Seward what he meant, or
+rather dreamed, in this note. It is certainly a
+difficult passage, of which there are two solutions;&mdash;one,
+that the writer was somewhat more injudicious
+than usual;&mdash;the other, that he was very,
+very much more profound and Shakespearian than
+usual. Seward's emendation, at all events, is right
+and obvious. Were it a passage of Shakespeare, I
+should not hesitate to interpret it as characteristic
+of Tigranes' state of mind, disliking the very
+virtues, and therefore half-consciously representing
+them as mere products of the violence of the sex
+in general in all their whims, and yet forced to
+admire, and to feel and to express gratitude for,
+the exertion in his own instance. The inconsistency
+of the passage would be the consistency of the
+author. But this is above Beaumont and Fletcher.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Scornful Lady.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Sir Roger's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>Did I for this consume my <emph>quarters</emph> in meditations, vows, and
+woo'd her in heroical epistles? Did I expound the <hi rend='italic'>Owl</hi>,
+and undertake,
+with labour and expense, the recollection of those thousand
+pieces, consum'd in cellars and tobacco-shops, of that our honour'd
+Englishman, Nic. Broughton?</q> &amp;c.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Strange, that neither Mr. Theobald nor Mr.
+Seward should have seen that this mock
+heroic speech is in full-mouthed blank verse!
+Had they seen this, they would have seen that
+<q>quarters</q> is a substitution of the players for
+<q>quires</q> or <q>squares,</q> (that is) of paper:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Consume my quires in meditations, vows,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And woo'd her in heroical epistles.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+They ought, likewise, to have seen that the
+abbreviated <q>Ni. Br.</q> of the text was properly
+<q>Mi. Dr.</q>&mdash;and that Michael Drayton, not
+Nicholas Broughton, is here ridiculed for his
+poem <hi rend='italic'>The Owl</hi> and his <hi rend='italic'>Heroical Epistles</hi>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Younger Loveless:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Fill him some wine. Thou dost not see me mov'd,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+These Editors ought to have learnt, that scarce
+an instance occurs in B. and F. of a long speech
+not in metre. This is plain staring blank verse.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Custom Of The Country.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+I cannot but think that in a country conquered
+by a nobler race than the natives, and
+in which the latter became villeins and bondsmen,
+this custom, <hi rend='italic'>lex merchetæ</hi>, may have been introduced
+for wise purposes,&mdash;as of improving the
+breed, lessening the antipathy of different races,
+and producing a new bond of relationship between
+the lord and the tenant, who, as the eldest born,
+would at least have a chance of being, and a probability
+of being thought, the lord's child. In
+the West Indies it cannot have these effects,
+because the mulatto is marked by nature different
+from the father, and because there is no bond, no
+law, no custom, but of mere debauchery.&mdash;1815.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Rutilio's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Yet if you play not fair play,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Evidently to be transposed, and read thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Yet if you play not fair, above-board too,</q></l>
+<l>I'll tell you what&mdash;</l>
+<l>I've a foolish engine here:&mdash;I say no more&mdash;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But if your Honour's guts are not enchanted.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Licentious as the comic metre of B. and F. is,&mdash;a
+far more lawless, and yet far less happy, imitation
+of the rhythm of animated talk in real life than
+Massinger's&mdash;still it is made worse than it really
+is by ignorance of the halves, thirds, and two-thirds
+of a line which B. and F. adopted from the
+<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/>
+Italian and Spanish dramatists. Thus, in Rutilio's
+speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Though I confess</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Any man would desire to have her, and by any means,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Correct the whole passage,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Though I confess</q></l>
+<l>Any man would</l>
+<l>Desire to have her, and by any means,</l>
+<l>At any rate too, yet this common hangman</l>
+<l>That hath whipt off a thousănd măids heads already&mdash;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">That he should glean the harvest, sticks in my stomach!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In all comic metres the gulping of short syllables,
+and the abbreviation of syllables ordinarily long
+by the rapid pronunciation of eagerness and vehemence,
+are not so much a license as a law,&mdash;a
+faithful copy of nature, and let them be read
+characteristically, the times will be found nearly
+equal. Thus, the three words marked above make
+a <hi rend='italic'>choriambus</hi> -- u u,
+or perhaps a <hi rend='italic'>pæon primus</hi> - u u u;
+a dactyl, by virtue of comic rapidity,
+being only equal to an iambus when distinctly
+pronounced. I have no doubt that all B. and F.'s
+works might be safely corrected by attention to
+this rule, and that the editor is entitled to transpositions
+of all kinds, and to not a few omissions.
+For the rule of the metre once lost&mdash;what was to
+restrain the actors from interpolation?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Elder Brother.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 2. Charles's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">For what concerns tillage,</q></l>
+<l>Who better can deliver it than Virgil</l>
+<l>In his Georgicks? and to cure your herds,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">His Bucolicks is a master-piece.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Fletcher was too good a scholar to fall into
+so gross a blunder, as Messrs. Sympson and
+Colman suppose. I read the passage thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">For what concerns tillage,</q></l>
+<l>Who better can deliver it than Virgil,</l>
+<l>In his Georgicks, <emph>or</emph> to cure your herds</l>
+<l><q rend="post">(His Bucolicks are a master-piece); but when,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Jealous of Virgil's honour, he is afraid lest, by
+referring to the <hi rend='italic'>Georgics</hi> alone, he might be understood
+as undervaluing the preceding work. <q>Not
+that I do not admire the <hi rend='italic'>Bucolics</hi> too, in their
+way.&mdash;But when,</q> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 3. Charles's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 8">... <q rend="pre">She has a face looks like a
+<emph>story</emph>;</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">The <emph>story</emph> of the heavens looks very like her.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward reads <q>glory;</q> and Theobald quotes from
+Philaster:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>That reads the story of a woman's face.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I can make sense of this passage as little as Mr.
+Seward;&mdash;the passage from Philaster is nothing
+to the purpose. Instead of <q>a story,</q> I have
+sometimes thought of proposing <q>Astræa.</q>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Angellina's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">You're old and dim, Sir,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And the shadow of the earth eclips'd your judgment.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Inappropriate to Angellina, but one of the finest
+lines in our language.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 3. Charles's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">And lets the serious part of life run by</q></l>
+<l>As thin neglected sand, whiteness of name.</l>
+<l><q rend="post">You must be mine,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward's note, and reading:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 5">... <q rend="pre">Whiteness of name,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">You must be mine!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Nonsense! <q>Whiteness of name</q> is in apposition
+to <q>the serious part of life,</q> and means a
+deservedly pure reputation. The following line&mdash;<q>You
+<emph>must</emph> be mine!</q> means&mdash;<q>Though I do not
+enjoy you to-day, I shall hereafter, and without
+reproach.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Spanish Curate.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 7. Amaranta's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>And still I push'd him on, as he had been <emph>coming</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Perhaps the true word is <q>conning,</q>&mdash;that
+is, learning, or reading, and therefore
+inattentive.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Wit Without Money.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. Valentine's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>One without substance,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The present text, and that proposed by Seward,
+are equally vile. I have endeavoured to
+make the lines sense, though the whole is, I
+suspect, incurable except by bold conjectural reformation.
+I would read thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">One without substance of herself, that's woman;</q></l>
+<l>Without the pleasure of her life, that's wanton;</l>
+<l>Tho' she be young, forgetting it; tho' fair,</l>
+<l>Making her glass the eyes of honest men,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Not her own admiration.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>That's wanton,</q> or, <q>that is to say, wantonness.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Valentine's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Of half-a crown a week for pins and puppets.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<q>As there is a syllable wanting in the measure here.</q>&mdash;Seward.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+A syllable wanting! Had this Seward neither
+ears nor fingers? The line is a more than usually
+regular iambic hendecasyllable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">With one man satisfied, with one rein guided;</q></l>
+<l>With one faith, one content, one bed;</l>
+<l><emph>Aged</emph>, she makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;</l>
+<l><q rend="post">A widow is,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Is <q>apaid</q>&mdash;contented&mdash;too obsolete for B. and
+F.? If not, we might read it thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Content with one faith, with one bed apaid,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">She makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/>
+
+<p>
+Or, it may be,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q>with one breed apaid</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+that is, satisfied with one set of children, in
+opposition to,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>A widow is a Christmas-box,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Colman's note on Seward's attempt to put this
+play into metre.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The editors, and their contemporaries in general,
+were ignorant of any but the regular iambic verse.
+A study of the Aristophanic and Plautine metres
+would have enabled them to reduce B. and F.
+throughout into metre, except where prose is
+really intended.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Humorous Lieutenant.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Second Ambassador's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q rend="pre">When your angers,</q></l>
+<l><emph>Like</emph> so many brother billows, rose together,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And, curling up <emph>your</emph> foaming crests,
+defied,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This worse than superfluous <q>like</q> is very
+like an interpolation of some matter of fact
+critic&mdash;all <hi rend='italic'>pus, prose atque venenum</hi>. The <q>your</q>
+in the next line, instead of <q>their,</q> is likewise
+yours, Mr. Critic!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Timon's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Another of a new <emph>way</emph> will be look'd at.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<quote rend="display">
+<p>
+<q rend="pre">We must suspect the poets wrote, <q>of a new <emph>day</emph>.</q>
+So immediately after,</q>
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... Time may</l>
+<l><q rend="post">For all his wisdom, yet give us a day.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward's Note.
+</p>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+For this very reason I more than suspect the
+contrary.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> sc. 3. Speech of Leucippe:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I'll put her into action for a <emph>wastcoat</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What we call a riding-habit,&mdash;some mannish
+dress.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Mad Lover.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. Masque of beasts:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">This goodly tree,</q></l>
+<l>An usher that still grew before his lady,</l>
+<l>Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">A grumbling lawyer:</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Here must have been omitted a line rhyming
+to <q>tree;</q> and the words of the next line
+have been transposed:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">This goodly tree,</q></l>
+<l><emph>Which leafless, and obscur'd with moss you see</emph>,</l>
+<l>An usher this, that 'fore his lady grew,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Loyal Subject.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+It is well worthy of notice, and yet has not been,
+I believe, noticed hitherto, what a marked
+difference there exists in the dramatic writers of
+the Elizabetho-Jacobæan age&mdash;(Mercy on me!
+what a phrase for <q>the writers during the reigns
+of Elizabeth and James I.!</q>)&mdash;in respect of their
+political opinions. Shakespeare, in this, as in all
+other things, himself and alone, gives the permanent
+politics of human nature, and the only
+predilection which appears, shows itself in his
+contempt of mobs and the populacy. Massinger
+is a decided Whig;&mdash;Beaumont and Fletcher high-flying,
+passive-obedience, Tories. The Spanish
+dramatists furnished them with this, as with
+many other ingredients. By the by, an accurate
+and familiar acquaintance with all the productions
+of the Spanish stage previously to 1620, is an
+indispensable qualification for an editor of B. and
+F.;&mdash;and with this qualification a most interesting
+and instructive edition might be given. This
+edition of Colman's (Stockdale, 1811) is below
+criticism.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In metre, B. and F. are inferior to Shakespeare,
+on the one hand, as expressing the poetic part of
+the drama, and to Massinger, on the other, in the
+art of reconciling metre with the natural rhythm
+of conversation,&mdash;in which, indeed, Massinger is
+<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/>
+unrivalled. Read him aright, and measure by
+time, not syllables, and no lines can be more legitimate,&mdash;none
+in which the substitution of equipollent
+feet, and the modifications by emphasis,
+are managed with such exquisite judgment. B.
+and F. are fond of the twelve syllable (not
+Alexandrine) line, as:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Too many fears 'tis thought too: and to nourish those.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This has often a good effect, and is one of the
+varieties most common in Shakespeare.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Rule A Wife And Have A Wife.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. Old Woman's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">I fear he will knock my</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Brains out for lying.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Seward discards the words <q>for lying,</q>
+because <q>most of the things spoke of Estifania
+are true, with only a little exaggeration,
+and because they destroy all appearance of measure.</q>&mdash;Colman's
+note.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Seward had his brains out. The humour
+lies in Estifania's having ordered the Old Woman
+to tell these tales of her; for though an intriguer,
+she is not represented as other than chaste; and
+as to the metre, it is perfectly correct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Marg.</hi> As you love me, give way.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Leon.</hi> It shall be better, I
+will give none, madam,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The meaning is:&mdash;<q>It shall be a better way,
+first;&mdash;as it is, I will not give it, or any that you
+in your present mood would wish.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Laws Of Candy.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. Speech of Melitus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Whose insolence and never yet match'd pride</q></l>
+<l>Can by no character be well express'd,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">But in her only name, the proud Erota.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Colman's note.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poet intended no allusion to the word
+<q>Erota</q> itself; but says that her very name,
+<q>the proud Erota,</q> became a character and adage;&mdash;as
+we say, a Quixote or a Brutus: so to say an
+<q>Erota,</q> expressed female pride and insolence of
+beauty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Speech of Antinous:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Of my peculiar honours, not deriv'd</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">From <emph>successary</emph>, but purchas'd with my blood.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The poet doubtless wrote <q>successry,</q> which,
+though not adopted in our language, would be, on
+many occasions, as here, a much more significant
+phrase than ancestry.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Little French Lawyer.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1. Dinant's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Are you become a patron too? 'Tis a new one,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">No more on't,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward reads:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Are you become a patron too? <emph>How long</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post"><emph>Have you been conning this speech?</emph> 'Tis a new one,</q>
+&amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+If conjectural emendation like this be allowed,
+we might venture to read:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Are you become a patron <emph>to a new tune</emph>?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+or,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Are you become a patron? 'Tis a new <emph>tune</emph>.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Din.</hi> Thou wouldst not willingly</q></l>
+<l>Live a protested coward, or be call'd one?</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><hi rend='italic'>Cler.</hi> Words are but words.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post"><hi rend='italic'>Din.</hi> Nor wouldst thou take a blow?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward's note.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+O miserable! Dinant sees through Cleremont's
+gravity, and the actor is to explain it. <q>Words
+are but words,</q> is the last struggle of affected
+morality.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Valentinian.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 3.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a real trial of charity to read this scene
+with tolerable temper towards Fletcher. So
+very slavish&mdash;so reptile&mdash;are the feelings and
+sentiments represented as duties. And yet, remember,
+he was a bishop's son, and the duty to
+God was the supposed basis.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Personals, including body, house, home, and
+religion;&mdash;property, subordination, and inter-community;&mdash;these
+are the fundamentals of
+society. I mean here, religion negatively taken,&mdash;so
+that the person be not compelled to do or
+utter, in relation of the soul to God, what would
+be, in that person, a lie;&mdash;such as to force a man
+to go to church, or to swear that he believes what
+he does not believe. Religion, positively taken,
+may be a great and useful privilege, but cannot
+be a right,&mdash;were it for this only, that it cannot
+be pre-defined. The ground of this distinction
+between negative and positive religion, as a social
+right, is plain. No one of my fellow-citizens is
+encroached on by my not declaring to him what I
+believe respecting the super-sensual; but should
+every man be entitled to preach against the
+preacher, who could hear any preacher? Now,
+it is different in respect of loyalty. There we
+have positive rights, but not negative rights;&mdash;for
+every pretended negative would be in effect a
+positive;&mdash;as if a soldier had a right to keep to
+<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/>
+himself whether he would, or would not, fight.
+Now, no one of these fundamentals can be rightfully
+attacked, except when the guardian of it has
+abused it to subvert one or more of the rest. The
+reason is, that the guardian, as a fluent, is less
+than the permanent which he is to guard. He is
+the temporary and mutable mean, and derives his
+whole value from the end. In short, as robbery
+is not high treason, so neither is every unjust act
+of a king the converse. All must be attacked and
+endangered. Why? Because the king, as <hi rend='italic'>a</hi> to A,
+is a mean to A, or subordination, in a far higher
+sense than a proprietor, as <hi rend='italic'>b</hi> to A, is a mean to B,
+or property.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 2. Claudia's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Chimney-pieces!</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The whole of this speech seems corrupt; and if
+accurately printed,&mdash;that is, if the same in all the
+prior editions,&mdash;irremediable but by bold conjecture.
+<q><emph>Till</emph> my tackle,</q> should be, I think,
+<q><emph>While</emph>,</q> &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act iii. sc. 1. B. and F. always write as if
+virtue or goodness were a sort of talisman, or
+strange something, that might be lost without the
+least fault on the part of the owner. In short,
+their chaste ladies value their chastity as a material
+thing,&mdash;not as an act or state of being; and
+this mere thing being imaginary, no wonder that
+all their women are represented with the minds of
+strumpets, except a few irrational humourists, far
+less capable of exciting our sympathy than a
+Hindoo who has had a basin of cow-broth thrown
+over him;&mdash;for this, though a debasing superstition,
+is still real, and we might pity the poor
+<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/>
+wretch, though we cannot help despising him.
+But B. and F.'s Lucinas are clumsy fictions. It
+is too plain that the authors had no one idea of
+chastity as a virtue, but only such a conception as
+a blind man might have of the power of seeing by
+handling an ox's eye. In <hi rend='italic'>The Queen of Corinth</hi>,
+indeed, they talk differently; but it is all talk,
+and nothing is real in it but the dread of losing a
+reputation. Hence the frightful contrast between
+their women (even those who are meant for virtuous)
+and Shakespeare's. So, for instance, <hi rend='italic'>The
+Maid in the Mill</hi>:&mdash;a woman must not merely have
+grown old in brothels, but have chuckled over
+every abomination committed in them with a
+rampant sympathy of imagination, to have had
+her fancy so drunk with the <hi rend='italic'>minutiæ</hi> of lechery as
+this icy chaste virgin evinces hers to have been.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It would be worth while to note how many of
+these plays are founded on rapes,&mdash;how many on
+incestuous passions, and how many on mere lunacies.
+Then their virtuous women are either crazy
+superstitions of a mere bodily negation of having
+been acted on, or strumpets in their imaginations
+and wishes, or, as in this <hi rend='italic'>Maid in the Mill</hi>, both at
+the same time. In the men, the love is merely
+lust in one direction,&mdash;exclusive preference of one
+object. The tyrant's speeches are mostly taken
+from the mouths of indignant denouncers of the
+tyrant's character, with the substitution of <q>I</q>
+for <q>he,</q>" and the omission of the prefatory <q>he
+acts as if he thought</q> so and so. The only feelings
+they can possibly excite are disgust at the
+Æciuses, if regarded as sane loyalists, or compassion
+if considered as Bedlamites. So much for
+their tragedies. But even their comedies are,
+<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/>
+most of them, disturbed by the fantasticalness, or
+gross caricature, of the persons or incidents. There
+are few characters that you can really like (even
+though you should have erased from your mind
+all the filth which bespatters the most likeable of
+them, as Piniero in <hi rend='italic'>The Island Princess</hi>
+for instance),&mdash;scarcely
+one whom you can love. How
+different this from Shakespeare, who makes one
+have a sort of sneaking affection even for his
+Barnardines;&mdash;whose very Iagos and Richards
+are awful, and, by the counteracting power of
+profound intellects, rendered fearful rather than
+hateful;&mdash;and even the exceptions, as Goneril and
+Regan, are proofs of superlative judgment and the
+finest moral tact, in being left utter monsters,
+<hi rend='italic'>nulla virtute redemptæ</hi>, and in being kept out of
+sight as much as possible,&mdash;they being, indeed,
+only means for the excitement and deepening of
+noblest emotions towards the Lear, Cordelia, &amp;c.
+and employed with the severest economy! But
+even Shakespeare's grossness&mdash;that which is really
+so, independently of the increase in modern times
+of vicious associations with things indifferent (for
+there is a state of manners conceivable so pure,
+that the language of Hamlet at Ophelia's feet
+might be a harmless rallying, or playful teazing,
+of a shame that would exist in Paradise)&mdash;at the
+worst, how diverse in kind is it from Beaumont
+and Fletcher's! In Shakespeare it is the mere
+generalities of sex, mere words for the most
+part, seldom or never distinct images, all head-work,
+and fancy drolleries; there is no sensation
+supposed in the speaker. I need not proceed to
+contrast this with B. and F.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Rollo.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+This, perhaps, the most energetic of Fletcher's
+tragedies. He evidently aimed at a new
+Richard III. in Rollo;&mdash;but, as in all his other
+imitations of Shakespeare, he was not philosopher
+enough to bottom his original. Thus, in Rollo, he
+has produced a mere personification of outrageous
+wickedness, with no fundamental characteristic
+impulses to make either the tyrant's words or
+actions philosophically intelligible. Hence the
+most pathetic situations border on the horrible,
+and what he meant for the terrible, is either
+hateful, τὸ μισητὸν, or ludicrous. The scene of
+Baldwin's sentence in the third act is probably
+the grandest working of passion in all B. and F.'s
+dramas;&mdash;but the very magnificence of filial affection
+given to Edith, in this noble scene, renders
+the after scene (in imitation of one of the least
+Shakespearian of all Shakespeare's works, if it be
+his, the scene between Richard and Lady Anne)
+in which Edith is yielding to a few words and
+tears, not only unnatural, but disgusting. In
+Shakespeare, Lady Anne is described as a weak,
+vain, very woman throughout.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Gis.</hi> He is indeed the perfect character</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Of a good man, and so his actions speak him.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This character of Aubrey, and the whole spirit
+of this and several other plays of the same authors,
+<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/>
+are interesting as traits of the morals which it was
+fashionable to teach in the reigns of James I. and
+his successor, who died a martyr to them. Stage,
+pulpit, law, fashion,&mdash;all conspired to enslave the
+realm. Massinger's plays breathe the opposite
+spirit; Shakespeare's the spirit of wisdom which is
+for all ages. By the by, the Spanish dramatists&mdash;Calderon,
+in particular,&mdash;had some influence in
+this respect, of romantic loyalty to the greatest
+monsters, as well as in the busy intrigues of B.
+and F.'s plays.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Wildgoose Chase.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1. Belleur's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l>... <q rend="pre">That wench, methinks,</q></l>
+<l>If I were but well set on, for she is a <emph>fable</emph>,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">If I were but hounded right, and one to teach me.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Sympson reads <q>affable,</q> which Colman rejects,
+and says, <q>the next line seems to
+enforce</q> the reading in the text.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pity, that the editor did not explain wherein
+the sense, <q>seemingly enforced by the next line,</q>
+consists. May the true word be <q>a sable</q>&mdash;that
+is, a black fox, hunted for its precious fur?
+Or <q>at-able,</q>&mdash;as we now say,&mdash;<q>she is come-at-able?</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>A Wife For A Month.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 1. Alphonso's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Betwixt the cold bear and the raging lion</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Lies my safe way.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Seward's note and alteration to&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>'Twixt the cold bears, far from the raging lion</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+This Mr. Seward is a blockhead of the provoking
+species. In his itch for correction, he
+forgot the words&mdash;<q>lies my safe way!</q> The bear
+is the extreme pole, and thither he would travel
+over the space contained between it and <q>the
+raging lion.</q>
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Pilgrim.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act iv. sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Alinda's interview with her father is lively,
+and happily hit off; but this scene with
+Roderigo is truly excellent. Altogether, indeed,
+this play holds the first place in B. and F.'s
+romantic entertainments, <hi rend='italic'>Lustspiele</hi>, which collectively
+are their happiest performances, and are
+only inferior to the romance of Shakespeare in the
+<hi rend='italic'>As You Like It</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Twelfth Night</hi>, &amp;c.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre"><hi rend='italic'>Alin.</hi> To-day you shall wed Sorrow,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">And Repentance will come to-morrow.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read <q>Penitence,</q> or else&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Repentance, she will come to-morrow.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Queen Of Corinth.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. sc. 1.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Merione's speech. Had the scene of this
+tragi-comedy been laid in Hindostan instead
+of Corinth, and the gods here addressed been the
+Vishnu and Co. of the Indian Pantheon, this rant
+would not have been much amiss.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In respect of style and versification, this play and
+the following of <hi rend='italic'>Bonduca</hi> may be taken as the best,
+and yet as characteristic, specimens of Beaumont
+and Fletcher's dramas. I particularly instance
+the first scene of the <hi rend='italic'>Bonduca</hi>. Take Shakespeare's
+<hi rend='italic'>Richard II.</hi>, and having selected some one scene of
+about the same number of lines, and consisting
+mostly of long speeches, compare it with the first
+scene in <hi rend='italic'>Bonduca</hi>,&mdash;not for the idle purpose of
+finding out which is the better, but in order to see
+and understand the difference. The latter, that of
+B. and F., you will find a well-arranged bed of
+flowers, each having its separate root, and its
+position determined aforehand by the will of the
+gardener,&mdash;each fresh plant a fresh volition. In
+the former you see an Indian fig-tree, as described
+by Milton;&mdash;all is growth, evolution;&mdash;each
+line, each word almost, begets the following,
+and the will of the writer is an interfusion, a
+continuous agency, and not a series of separate
+acts. Shakespeare is the height, breadth, and
+depth of Genius: Beaumont and Fletcher the
+excellent mechanism, in juxta-position and succession,
+of talent.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Noble Gentleman.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Why have the dramatists of the times of
+Elizabeth, James I., and the first Charles
+become almost obsolete, with the exception of
+Shakespeare? Why do they no longer belong to
+the English, being once so popular? And why is
+Shakespeare an exception?&mdash;One thing, among
+fifty, necessary to the full solution is, that they all
+employed poetry and poetic diction on unpoetic
+subjects, both characters and situations, especially
+in their comedy. Now Shakespeare is all, all ideal,&mdash;of
+no time, and therefore for all times. Read,
+for instance, Marine's panegyric in the first scene
+of this play:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Know</q></l>
+<l>The eminent court, to them that can be wise,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">And fasten on her blessings, is a sun,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+What can be more unnatural and inappropriate
+(not only is, but must be felt as such) than such
+poetry in the mouth of a silly dupe? In short,
+the scenes are mock dialogues, in which the poet
+<hi rend='italic'>solus</hi> plays the ventriloquist, but cannot keep down
+his own way of expressing himself. Heavy complaints
+have been made respecting the transposing
+of the old plays by Cibber; but it never occurred
+to these critics to ask, how it came that no one
+ever attempted to transpose a comedy of Shakespeare's.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Coronation.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. Speech of Seleucus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Altho' he be my enemy, should any</q></l>
+<l>Of the gay flies that buz about the court,</l>
+<l><emph>Sit</emph> to catch trouts i' the summer, tell me so,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">I durst,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Colman's note.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pshaw! <q>Sit</q> is either a misprint for <q>set,</q>
+or the old and still provincial word for <q>set,</q>
+as the participle passive of <q>seat</q> or <q>set.</q> I
+have heard an old Somersetshire gardener say:&mdash;<q>Look,
+Sir! I set these plants here; those yonder
+I <emph>sit</emph> yesterday.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Speech of Arcadius:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Nay, some will swear they love their mistress,</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">Would hazard lives and fortunes,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Nay, some will swear they love their mistress so,</q></l>
+<l>They would hazard lives and fortunes to preserve</l>
+<l>One of her hairs brighter than Berenice's,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Or young Apollo's; and yet, after this,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<q>Thĕy woŭld h�zard</q>&mdash;furnishes an anapæst for
+an <hi rend='italic'>iambus</hi>. <q>And yet,</q> which must be read,
+<hi rend='italic'>anyĕt</hi>, is an instance of the enclitic force in an
+accented monosyllable. <q>And yēt,</q> is a complete
+<hi rend='italic'>iambus</hi>; but <hi rend='italic'>anyet</hi> is,
+like <hi rend='italic'>spirit</hi>, a dibrach u u,
+trocheized, however, by the <hi rend='italic'>arsis</hi> or first accent
+damping, though not extinguishing, the second.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>Wit At Several Weapons.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. Oldcraft's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>I'm arm'd at all points,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+It would be very easy to restore all this passage
+to metre, by supplying a sentence of four
+syllables, which the reasoning almost demands,
+and by correcting the grammar. Read thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="pre">Arm'd at all points 'gainst treachery, I hold</q></l>
+<l>My humour firm. If, living, I can see thee</l>
+<l>Thrive by thy wits, I shall have the more courage,</l>
+<l>Dying, to trust thee with my lands. If not,</l>
+<l>The best wit, I can hear of, carries them.</l>
+<l>For since so many in my time and knowledge,</l>
+<l>Rich children of the city, have concluded</l>
+<l><emph>For lack of wit</emph> in beggary, I'd rather</l>
+<l>Make a wise stranger my executor,</l>
+<l>Than a fool son my heir, and have my lands call'd</l>
+<l><q rend="post">After my wit than name: and that's my nature!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Oldcraft's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>To prevent which I have sought out a match for her.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>Which to prevent I've sought a match out for her.</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>Ib.</hi> Sir Gregory's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre"><emph>Do you think</emph></q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">I'll have any of the wits hang upon me after I am married once?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+Read it thus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Do you think</q></l>
+<l>That I'll have any of the wits to hang</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Upon me after I am married once?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+and afterwards&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 9">... <q rend="pre">Is it a fashion in London</q></l>
+<l><q rend="post">To marry a woman, and to never see her?</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+The superfluous <q>to</q> gives it the Sir Andrew
+Ague-cheek character.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Fair Maid Of The Inn.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act ii. Speech of Albertus:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">But, Sir,</q></l>
+<l>By my life, I vow to take assurance from you,</l>
+<l>That right hand never more shall strike my son,</l>
+</lg>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q rend="post">Chop his hand off!</q></l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+In this (as, indeed, in all other respects, but
+most in this) it is that Shakespeare is so incomparably
+superior to Fletcher and his friend,&mdash;in
+judgment! What can be conceived more unnatural
+and motiveless than this brutal resolve?
+How is it possible to feel the least interest in
+Albertus afterwards? or in Cesario after his
+conduct?
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Two Noble Kinsmen.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+On comparing the prison scene of <hi rend='italic'>Palamon and
+Arcite</hi>, act ii. sc. 2, with the dialogue between
+the same speakers, act i. sc. 2, I can
+scarcely retain a doubt as to the first act's having
+been written by Shakespeare. Assuredly it was
+not written by B. and F. I hold Jonson more
+probable than either of these two.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The main presumption, however, for Shakespeare's
+share in this play rests on a point, to
+which the sturdy critics of this edition (and indeed
+all before them) were blind,&mdash;that is, the construction
+of the blank verse, which proves beyond all
+doubt an intentional imitation, if not the proper
+hand, of Shakespeare. Now, whatever improbability
+<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/>
+there is in the former (which supposes
+Fletcher conscious of the inferiority, the too
+poematic <hi rend='italic'>minus</hi>-dramatic nature of his versification,
+and of which, there is neither proof nor likelihood)
+adds so much to the probability of the
+latter. On the other hand, the harshness of
+many of these very passages, a harshness unrelieved
+by any lyrical inter-breathings, and still
+more the want of profundity in the thoughts, keep
+me from an absolute decision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 3. Emilia's speech:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l rend="margin-left: 10">... <q rend="pre">Since his depart, his
+<emph>sports</emph></q>,</l>
+<l><q rend="post">Tho' craving seriousness and skill,</q> &amp;c.</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+I conjecture <q>imports,</q>&mdash;that is, duties or offices
+of importance. The flow of the versification in
+this speech seems to demand the trochaic ending - u;
+while the text blends jingle and <emph>hisses</emph> to
+the annoyance of less sensitive ears than Fletcher's&mdash;not
+to say, Shakespeare's.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<index index="toc"/>
+<index index="pdf"/>
+<head><q>The Woman Hater.</q></head>
+
+<p>
+Act i. sc. 2.&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This scene from the beginning is prose printed
+as blank verse, down to the line&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<lg>
+<l><q>E'en all the valiant stomachs in the court</q>&mdash;</l>
+</lg>
+
+<p>
+where the verse recommences. This transition
+from the prose to the verse enhances, and indeed
+forms the comic effect. Lazarillo concludes his
+soliloquy with a hymn to the goddess of plenty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+THE END.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/>
+
+<div>
+<head>Advertisement.</head>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='italic'>NEW EDITION, REVISED.</hi>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+AIDS TO REFLECTION
+</p>
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+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>In the Formation of a Manly Character, on the several
+grounds of Prudence, Morality, and Religion.</hi>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>By</hi> S. T. COLERIDGE.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>With a copious Index to the Work, and Translations of
+the Greek and Latin Quotations.</hi>
+</p>
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+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+</body>
+<back rend="page-break-before: right">
+  <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+    <divGen type="pgfooter" />
+  </div>
+</back>
+</text>
+</TEI.2>
diff --git a/25585.txt b/25585.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and
+Fletcher by S. T. Coleridge
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher
+
+Author: S. T. Coleridge
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2008 [Ebook #25585]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
+
+
+                              *Shakespeare*
+
+                                Ben Jonson
+
+                          Beaumont And Fletcher
+
+                            Notes and Lectures
+
+                            by S. T. Coleridge
+
+                               New Edition
+
+                                Liverpool
+
+                              Edward Howell
+
+                                MDCCCLXXIV
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Shakespeare
+   Definition Of Poetry.
+   Greek Drama.
+   Progress Of The Drama.
+   The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+   Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+   Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.
+   Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's
+   Dramas.
+   Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+   Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.
+   Notes On The "Tempest."
+   "Love's Labour's Lost."
+   "Midsummer Night's Dream."
+   "Comedy Of Errors."
+   "As You Like It."
+   "Twelfth Night."
+   "All's Well That Ends Well."
+   "Merry Wives Of Windsor."
+   "Measure For Measure."
+   "Cymbeline."
+   "Titus Andronicus."
+   "Troilus And Cressida."
+   "Coriolanus."
+   "Julius Caesar."
+   "Antony And Cleopatra."
+   "Timon Of Athens."
+   "Romeo And Juliet."
+   Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.
+   "King John."
+   "Richard II."
+   "Henry IV.--Part I."
+   "Henry IV.--Part II."
+   "Henry V."
+   "Henry VI.--Part I."
+   "Richard III."
+   "Lear."
+   "Hamlet."
+   "Macbeth."
+   "Winter's Tale."
+   "Othello."
+Notes on Ben Jonson.
+   Whalley's Preface.
+   "Whalley's 'Life Of Jonson.' "
+   "Every Man Out Of His Humour."
+   "Poetaster."
+   "Fall Of Sejanus."
+   "Volpone."
+   "Apicaene."
+   "The Alchemist."
+   "Catiline's Conspiracy."
+   "Bartholomew Fair."
+   "The Devil Is An Ass."
+   "The Staple Of News."
+   "The New Inn."
+Notes On Beaumont And Fletcher.
+   Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+   Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.
+   "Maid's Tragedy."
+   "A King And No King."
+   "The Scornful Lady."
+   "The Custom Of The Country."
+   "The Elder Brother."
+   "The Spanish Curate."
+   "Wit Without Money."
+   "The Humorous Lieutenant."
+   "The Mad Lover."
+   "The Loyal Subject."
+   "Rule A Wife And Have A Wife."
+   "The Laws Of Candy."
+   "The Little French Lawyer."
+   "Valentinian."
+   "Rollo."
+   "The Wildgoose Chase."
+   "A Wife For A Month."
+   "The Pilgrim."
+   "The Queen Of Corinth."
+   "The Noble Gentleman."
+   "The Coronation."
+   "Wit At Several Weapons."
+   "The Fair Maid Of The Inn."
+   "The Two Noble Kinsmen."
+   "The Woman Hater."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SHAKESPEARE, WITH INTRODUCTORY MATTER ON POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND THE STAGE.
+
+
+
+
+Definition Of Poetry.
+
+
+Poetry is not the proper antithesis to prose, but to science. Poetry is
+opposed to science, and prose to metre. The proper and immediate object of
+science is the acquirement, or communication, of truth; the proper and
+immediate object of poetry is the communication of immediate pleasure.
+This definition is useful; but as it would include novels and other works
+of fiction, which yet we do not call poems, there must be some additional
+character by which poetry is not only divided from opposites, but likewise
+distinguished from disparate, though similar, modes of composition. Now
+how is this to be effected? In animated prose, the beauties of nature, and
+the passions and accidents of human nature, are often expressed in that
+natural language which the contemplation of them would suggest to a pure
+and benevolent mind; yet still neither we nor the writers call such a work
+a poem, though no work could deserve that name which did not include all
+this, together with something else. What is this? It is that pleasurable
+emotion, that peculiar state and degree of excitement, which arises in the
+poet himself in the act of composition;--and in order to understand this,
+we must combine a more than ordinary sympathy with the objects, emotions,
+or incidents contemplated by the poet, consequent on a more than common
+sensibility, with a more than ordinary activity of the mind in respect of
+the fancy and the imagination. Hence is produced a more vivid reflection
+of the truths of nature and of the human heart, united with a constant
+activity modifying and correcting these truths by that sort of pleasurable
+emotion, which the exertion of all our faculties gives in a certain
+degree; but which can only be felt in perfection under the full play of
+those powers of mind, which are spontaneous rather than voluntary, and in
+which the effort required bears no proportion to the activity enjoyed.
+This is the state which permits the production of a highly pleasurable
+whole, of which each part shall also communicate for itself a distinct and
+conscious pleasure; and hence arises the definition, which I trust is now
+intelligible, that poetry, or rather a poem, is a species of composition,
+opposed to science, as having intellectual pleasure for its object, and as
+attaining its end by the use of language natural to us in a state of
+excitement,--but distinguished from other species of composition, not
+excluded by the former criterion, by permitting a pleasure from the whole
+consistent with a consciousness of pleasure from the component parts;--and
+the perfection of which is, to communicate from each part the greatest
+immediate pleasure compatible with the largest sum of pleasure on the
+whole. This, of course, will vary with the different modes of poetry;--and
+that splendour of particular lines, which would be worthy of admiration in
+an impassioned elegy, or a short indignant satire, would be a blemish and
+proof of vile taste in a tragedy or an epic poem.
+
+It is remarkable, by the way, that Milton in three incidental words has
+implied all which for the purposes of more distinct apprehension, which at
+first must be slow-paced in order to be distinct, I have endeavoured to
+develope in a precise and strictly adequate definition. Speaking of
+poetry, he says, as in a parenthesis, "which is simple, sensuous,
+passionate." How awful is the power of words!--fearful often in their
+consequences when merely felt, not understood; but most awful when both
+felt and understood!--Had these three words only been properly understood
+by, and present in the minds of, general readers, not only almost a
+library of false poetry would have been either precluded or still-born,
+but, what is of more consequence, works truly excellent and capable of
+enlarging the understanding, warming and purifying the heart, and placing
+in the centre of the whole being the germs of noble and manlike actions,
+would have been the common diet of the intellect instead. For the first
+condition, simplicity,--while, on the one hand, it distinguishes poetry
+from the arduous processes of science, labouring towards an end not yet
+arrived at, and supposes a smooth and finished road, on which the reader
+is to walk onward easily, with streams murmuring by his side, and trees
+and flowers and human dwellings to make his journey as delightful as the
+object of it is desirable, instead of having to toil with the pioneers and
+painfully make the road on which others are to travel,--precludes, on the
+other hand, every affectation and morbid peculiarity;--the second
+condition, sensuousness, insures that framework of objectivity, that
+definiteness and articulation of imagery, and that modification of the
+images themselves, without which poetry becomes flattened into mere
+didactics of practice, or evaporated into a hazy, unthoughtful,
+day-dreaming; and the third condition, passion, provides that neither
+thought nor imagery shall be simply objective, but that the _passio vera_
+of humanity shall warm and animate both.
+
+To return, however, to the previous definition, this most general and
+distinctive character of a poem originates in the poetic genius itself;
+and though it comprises whatever can with any propriety be called a poem
+(unless that word be a mere lazy synonym for a composition in metre), it
+yet becomes a just, and not merely discriminative, but full and adequate,
+definition of poetry in its highest and most peculiar sense, only so far
+as the distinction still results from the poetic genius, which sustains
+and modifies the emotions, thoughts, and vivid representations of the poem
+by the energy without effort of the poet's own mind,--by the spontaneous
+activity of his imagination and fancy, and by whatever else with these
+reveals itself in the balancing and reconciling of opposite or discordant
+qualities, sameness with difference, a sense of novelty and freshness with
+old or customary objects, a more than usual state of emotion with more
+than usual order, self-possession and judgment with enthusiasm and
+vehement feeling,--and which, while it blends and harmonizes the natural
+and the artificial, still subordinates art to nature, the manner to the
+matter, and our admiration of the poet to our sympathy with the images,
+passions, characters, and incidents of the poem:--
+
+"Doubtless, this could not be, but that she turns
+Bodies to _spirit_ by sublimation strange,
+As fire converts to fire the things it burns--
+As we our food into our nature change!
+
+"From their gross matter she abstracts _their_ forms,
+And draws a kind of quintessence from things,
+Which to her proper nature she transforms
+To bear them light on her celestial wings!
+
+"_Thus_ doth she, when from _individual states_
+She doth abstract the universal kinds,
+_Which then reclothed in divers names and fates_
+_Steal access thro' our senses to our minds_."
+
+
+
+
+Greek Drama.
+
+
+It is truly singular that Plato,--whose philosophy and religion were but
+exotic at home, and a mere opposition to the finite in all things, genuine
+prophet and anticipator as he was of the Protestant Christian aera,--should
+have given in his Dialogue of the Banquet, a justification of our
+Shakespeare. For he relates that, when all the other guests had either
+dispersed or fallen asleep, Socrates only, together with Aristophanes and
+Agathon, remained awake, and that, while he continued to drink with them
+out of a large goblet, he compelled them, though most reluctantly, to
+admit that it was the business of one and the same genius to excel in
+tragic and comic poetry, or that the tragic poet ought, at the same time,
+to contain within himself the powers of comedy. Now, as this was directly
+repugnant to the entire theory of the ancient critics, and contrary to all
+their experience, it is evident that Plato must have fixed the eye of his
+contemplation on the innermost essentials of the drama, abstracted from
+the forms of age or country. In another passage he even adds the reason,
+namely, that opposites illustrate each other's nature, and in their
+struggle draw forth the strength of the combatants, and display the
+conqueror as sovereign even on the territories of the rival power.
+
+Nothing can more forcibly exemplify the separative spirit of the Greek
+arts than their comedy as opposed to their tragedy. But as the immediate
+struggle of contraries supposes an arena common to both, so both were
+alike ideal; that is, the comedy of Aristophanes rose to as great a
+distance above the ludicrous of real life, as the tragedy of Sophocles
+above its tragic events and passions,--and it is in this one point, of
+absolute ideality, that the comedy of Shakespeare and the old comedy of
+Athens coincide. In this also alone did the Greek tragedy and comedy
+unite; in every thing else they were exactly opposed to each other.
+Tragedy is poetry in its deepest earnest; comedy is poetry in unlimited
+jest. Earnestness consists in the direction and convergence of all the
+powers of the soul to one aim, and in the voluntary restraint of its
+activity in consequence; the opposite, therefore, lies in the apparent
+abandonment of all definite aim or end, and in the removal of all bounds
+in the exercise of the mind,--attaining its real end, as an entire
+contrast, most perfectly, the greater the display is of intellectual
+wealth squandered in the wantonness of sport without an object, and the
+more abundant the life and vivacity in the creations of the arbitrary
+will.
+
+The later comedy, even where it was really comic, was doubtless likewise
+more comic, the more free it appeared from any fixed aim.
+Misunderstandings of intention, fruitless struggles of absurd passion,
+contradictions of temper, and laughable situations there were; but still
+the form of the representation itself was serious; it proceeded as much
+according to settled laws, and used as much the same means of art, though
+to a different purpose, as the regular tragedy itself. But in the old
+comedy the very form itself is whimsical; the whole work is one great
+jest, comprehending a world of jests within it, among which each maintains
+its own place without seeming to concern itself as to the relation in
+which it may stand to its fellows. In short, in Sophocles, the
+constitution of tragedy is monarchical, but such as it existed in elder
+Greece, limited by laws, and therefore the more venerable,--all the parts
+adapting and submitting themselves to the majesty of the heroic
+sceptre:--in Aristophanes, comedy, on the contrary, is poetry in its most
+democratic form, and it is a fundamental principle with it, rather to risk
+all the confusion of anarchy, than to destroy the independence and
+privileges of its individual constituents,--place, verse, characters, even
+single thoughts, conceits, and allusions, each turning on the pivot of its
+own free will.
+
+The tragic poet idealizes his characters by giving to the spiritual part
+of our nature a more decided preponderance over the animal cravings and
+impulses, than is met with in real life: the comic poet idealizes his
+characters by making the animal the governing power, and the intellectual
+the mere instrument. But as tragedy is not a collection of virtues and
+perfections, but takes care only that the vices and imperfections shall
+spring from the passions, errors, and prejudices which arise out of the
+soul;--so neither is comedy a mere crowd of vices and follies, but whatever
+qualities it represents, even though they are in a certain sense amiable,
+it still displays them as having their origin in some dependence on our
+lower nature, accompanied with a defect in true freedom of spirit and
+self-subsistence, and subject to that unconnection by contradictions of
+the inward being, to which all folly is owing.
+
+The ideal of earnest poetry consists in the union and harmonious melting
+down, and fusion of the sensual into the spiritual,--of man as an animal
+into man as a power of reason and self-government. And this we have
+represented to us most clearly in the plastic art, or statuary; where the
+perfection of outward form is a symbol of the perfection of an inward
+idea; where the body is wholly penetrated by the soul, and spiritualized
+even to a state of glory, and like a transparent substance, the matter, in
+its own nature darkness, becomes altogether a vehicle and fixture of
+light, a means of developing its beauties, and unfolding its wealth of
+various colours without disturbing its unity, or causing a division of the
+parts. The sportive ideal, on the contrary, consists in the perfect
+harmony and concord of the higher nature with the animal, as with its
+ruling principle and its acknowledged regent. The understanding and
+practical reason are represented as the willing slaves of the senses and
+appetites, and of the passions arising out of them. Hence we may admit the
+appropriateness to the old comedy, as a work of defined art, of allusions
+and descriptions, which morality can never justify, and, only with
+reference to the author himself, and only as being the effect or rather
+the cause of the circumstances in which he wrote, can consent even to
+palliate.
+
+The old comedy rose to its perfection in Aristophanes, and in him also it
+died with the freedom of Greece. Then arose a species of drama, more fitly
+called dramatic entertainment than comedy, but of which, nevertheless, our
+modern comedy (Shakespeare's altogether excepted) is the genuine
+descendant. Euripides had already brought tragedy lower down and by many
+steps nearer to the real world than his predecessors had ever done, and
+the passionate admiration which Menander and Philemon expressed for him,
+and their open avowals that he was their great master, entitle us to
+consider their dramas as of a middle species, between tragedy and
+comedy,--not the tragi-comedy, or thing of heterogeneous parts, but a
+complete whole, founded on principles of its own. Throughout we find the
+drama of Menander distinguishing itself from tragedy, but not as the
+genuine old comedy, contrasting with, and opposing it. Tragedy, indeed,
+carried the thoughts into the mythologic world, in order to raise the
+emotions, the fears, and the hopes, which convince the inmost heart that
+their final cause is not to be discovered in the limits of mere mortal
+life, and force us into a presentiment, however dim, of a state in which
+those struggles of inward free will with outward necessity, which form the
+true subject of the tragedian, shall be reconciled and solved;--the
+entertainment or new comedy, on the other hand, remained within the circle
+of experience. Instead of the tragic destiny, it introduced the power of
+chance; even in the few fragments of Menander and Philemon now remaining
+to us, we find many exclamations and reflections concerning chance and
+fortune, as in the tragic poets concerning destiny. In tragedy, the moral
+law, either as obeyed or violated, above all consequences--its own
+maintenance or violation constituting the most important of all
+consequences--forms the ground; the new comedy, and our modern comedy in
+general (Shakespeare excepted as before) lies in prudence or imprudence,
+enlightened or misled self-love. The whole moral system of the
+entertainment exactly like that of fable, consists in rules of prudence,
+with an exquisite conciseness, and at the same time an exhaustive fulness
+of sense. An old critic said that tragedy was the flight or elevation of
+life, comedy (that of Menander) its arrangement or ordonnance.
+
+Add to these features a portrait-like truth of character,--not so far
+indeed as that a _bona fide_ individual should be described or imagined,
+but yet so that the features which give interest and permanence to the
+class should be individualized. The old tragedy moved in an ideal
+world,--the old comedy in a fantastic world. As the entertainment, or new
+comedy, restrained the creative activity both of the fancy and the
+imagination, it indemnified the understanding in appealing to the judgment
+for the probability of the scenes represented. The ancients themselves
+acknowledged the new comedy as an exact copy of real life. The grammarian,
+Aristophanes, somewhat affectedly exclaimed:--"O Life and Menander! which
+of you two imitated the other?" In short the form of this species of drama
+was poetry, the stuff or matter was prose. It was prose rendered
+delightful by the blandishments and measured motions of the muse. Yet even
+this was not universal. The mimes of Sophron, so passionately admired by
+Plato, were written in prose, and were scenes out of real life conducted
+in dialogue. The exquisite feast of Adonis ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}) in
+Theocritus, we are told, with some others of his eclogues, were close
+imitations of certain mimes of Sophron--free translations of the prose into
+hexameters.
+
+It will not be improper, in this place, to make a few remarks on the
+remarkable character and functions of the chorus in the Greek tragic
+drama.
+
+The chorus entered from below, close by the orchestra, and there, pacing
+to and fro during the choral odes, performed their solemn measured dance.
+In the centre of the _orchestra_, directly over against the middle of the
+_scene_, there stood an elevation with steps in the shape of a large
+altar, as high as the boards of the _logeion_ or moveable stage. This
+elevation was named the _thymele_ ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}), and served to recall the
+origin and original purpose of the chorus, as an altar-song in honour of
+the presiding deity. Here, and on these steps the persons of the chorus
+sate collectively, when they were not singing; attending to the dialogue
+as spectators, and acting as (what in truth they were) the ideal
+representatives of the real audience, and of the poet himself in his own
+character, assuming the supposed impressions made by the drama, in order
+to direct and rule them. But when the chorus itself formed part of the
+dialogue, then the leader of the band, the foreman, or _coryphaeus_,
+ascended, as some think, the level summit of the _thymele_ in order to
+command the stage, or, perhaps, the whole chorus advanced to the front of
+the orchestra, and thus put themselves in ideal connection, as it were,
+with the _dramatis personae_ there acting. This _thymele_ was in the centre
+of the whole edifice, all the measurements were calculated, and the
+semi-circle of the amphitheatre was drawn from this point. It had a double
+use, a twofold purpose; it constantly reminded the spectators of the
+origin of tragedy as a religious service, and declared itself as the ideal
+representative of the audience by having its place exactly in the point,
+to which all the radii from the different seats or benches converged.
+
+In this double character, as constituent parts, and yet at the same time
+as spectators, of the drama, the chorus could not but tend to enforce the
+unity of place;--not on the score of any supposed improbability, which the
+understanding or common sense might detect in a change of place;--but
+because the senses themselves put it out of the power of any imagination
+to conceive a place coming to, and going away from the persons, instead of
+the persons changing their place. Yet there are instances, in which,
+during the silence of the chorus, the poets have hazarded this by a change
+in that part of the scenery which represented the more distant objects to
+the eye of the spectator--a demonstrative proof, that this alternately
+extolled and ridiculed unity (as ignorantly ridiculed as extolled) was
+grounded on no essential principle of reason, but arose out of
+circumstances which the poet could not remove, and therefore took up into
+the form of the drama, and co-organised it with all the other parts into a
+living whole.
+
+The Greek tragedy may rather be compared to our serious opera than to the
+tragedies of Shakespeare; nevertheless, the difference is far greater than
+the likeness. In the opera all is subordinated to the music, the dresses,
+and the scenery;--the poetry is a mere vehicle for articulation, and as
+little pleasure is lost by ignorance of the Italian language, so is little
+gained by the knowledge of it. But in the Greek drama all was but as
+instruments and accessaries to the poetry; and hence we should form a
+better notion of the choral music from the solemn hymns and psalms of
+austere church music than from any species of theatrical singing. A single
+flute or pipe was the ordinary accompaniment; and it is not to be
+supposed, that any display of musical power was allowed to obscure the
+distinct hearing of the words. On the contrary, the evident purpose was to
+render the words more audible, and to secure by the elevations and pauses
+greater facility of understanding the poetry. For the choral songs are,
+and ever must have been, the most difficult part of the tragedy; there
+occur in them the most involved verbal compounds, the newest expressions,
+the boldest images, the most recondite allusions. Is it credible that the
+poets would, one and all, have been thus prodigal of the stores of art and
+genius, if they had known that in the representation the whole must have
+been lost to the audience,--at a time too, when the means of after
+publication were so difficult and expensive, and the copies of their works
+so slowly and narrowly circulated?
+
+The masks also must be considered--their vast variety and admirable
+workmanship. Of this we retain proof by the marble masks which represented
+them; but to this in the real mask we must add the thinness of the
+substance and the exquisite fitting on to the head of the actor; so that
+not only were the very eyes painted with a single opening left for the
+pupil of the actor's eye, but in some instances, even the iris itself was
+painted, when the colour was a known characteristic of the divine or
+heroic personage represented.
+
+Finally, I will note down those fundamental characteristics which
+contradistinguish the ancient literature from the modern generally, but
+which more especially appear in prominence in the tragic drama. The
+ancient was allied to statuary, the modern refers to painting. In the
+first there is a predominance of rhythm and melody, in the second of
+harmony and counterpoint. The Greeks idolized the finite, and therefore
+were the masters of all grace, elegance, proportion, fancy, dignity,
+majesty--of whatever, in short, is capable of being definitely conveyed by
+defined forms or thoughts: the moderns revere the infinite, and affect the
+indefinite as a vehicle of the infinite;--hence their passions, their
+obscure hopes and fears, their wandering through the unknown, their
+grander moral feelings, their more august conception of man as man, their
+future rather than their past--in a word, their sublimity.
+
+
+
+
+Progress Of The Drama.
+
+
+Let two persons join in the same scheme to ridicule a third, and either
+take advantage of, or invent, some story for that purpose, and mimicry
+will have already produced a sort of rude comedy. It becomes an inviting
+treat to the populace, and gains an additional zest and burlesque by
+following the already established plan of tragedy; and the first man of
+genius who seizes the idea, and reduces it into form,--into a work of
+art,--by metre and music, is the Aristophanes of the country.
+
+How just this account is will appear from the fact that in the first or
+old comedy of the Athenians, most of the _dramatis personae_ were living
+characters introduced under their own names; and no doubt, their ordinary
+dress, manner, person and voice were closely mimicked. In less favourable
+states of society, as that of England in the middle ages, the beginnings
+of comedy would be constantly taking place from the mimics and satirical
+minstrels; but from want of fixed abode, popular government, and the
+successive attendance of the same auditors, it would still remain in
+embryo. I shall, perhaps, have occasion to observe that this remark is not
+without importance in explaining the essential differences of the modern
+and ancient theatres.
+
+Phenomena, similar to those which accompanied the origin of tragedy and
+comedy among the Greeks, would take place among the Romans much more
+slowly, and the drama would, in any case, have much longer remained in its
+first irregular form from the character of the people, their continual
+engagements in wars of conquest, the nature of their government, and their
+rapidly increasing empire. But, however this might have been, the conquest
+of Greece precluded both the process and the necessity of it; and the
+Roman stage at once presented imitations or translations of the Greek
+drama. This continued till the perfect establishment of Christianity. Some
+attempts, indeed, were made to adapt the persons of Scriptural or
+ecclesiastical history to the drama; and sacred plays, it is probable,
+were not unknown in Constantinople under the emperors of the East. The
+first of the kind is, I believe, the only one preserved,--namely, the
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or, "Christ in his sufferings," by Gregory
+Nazianzen,--possibly written in consequence of the prohibition of profane
+literature to the Christians by the apostate Julian. In the West, however,
+the enslaved and debauched Roman world became too barbarous for any
+theatrical exhibitions more refined than those of pageants and
+chariot-races; while the spirit of Christianity, which in its most corrupt
+form still breathed general humanity, whenever controversies of faith were
+not concerned, had done away the cruel combats of the gladiators, and the
+loss of the distant provinces prevented the possibility of exhibiting the
+engagements of wild beasts.
+
+I pass, therefore, at once to the feudal ages which soon succeeded,
+confining my observation to this country; though, indeed, the same remark
+with very few alterations will apply to all the other states, into which
+the great empire was broken. Ages of darkness succeeded;--not, indeed, the
+darkness of Russia or of the barbarous lands unconquered by Rome; for from
+the time of Honorius to the destruction of Constantinople and the
+consequent introduction of ancient literature into Europe, there was a
+continued succession of individual intellects;--the golden chain was never
+wholly broken, though the connecting links were often of baser metal. A
+dark cloud, like another sky, covered the entire cope of heaven,--but in
+this place it thinned away, and white stains of light showed a half
+eclipsed star behind it,--in that place it was rent asunder, and a star
+passed across the opening in all its brightness, and then vanished. Such
+stars exhibited themselves only; surrounding objects did not partake of
+their light. There were deep wells of knowledge, but no fertilizing rills
+and rivulets. For the drama, society was altogether a state of chaos, out
+of which it was, for a while at least, to proceed anew, as if there had
+been none before it. And yet it is not undelightful to contemplate the
+education of good from evil. The ignorance of the great mass of our
+countrymen was the efficient cause of the reproduction of the drama; and
+the preceding darkness and the returning light were alike necessary in
+order to the creation of a Shakespeare.
+
+The drama re-commenced in England, as it first began in Greece, in
+religion. The people were not able to read,--the priesthood were unwilling
+that they should read; and yet their own interest compelled them not to
+leave the people wholly ignorant of the great events of sacred history.
+They did that, therefore, by scenic representations, which in after ages
+it has been attempted to do in Roman Catholic countries by pictures. They
+presented Mysteries, and often at great expense; and reliques of this
+system still remain in the south of Europe, and indeed throughout Italy,
+where at Christmas the convents and the great nobles rival each other in
+the scenic representation of the birth of Christ and its circumstances. I
+heard two instances mentioned to me at different times, one in Sicily and
+the other in Rome, of noble devotees, the ruin of whose fortunes was said
+to have commenced in the extravagant expense which had been incurred in
+presenting the _praesepe_ or manger. But these Mysteries, in order to
+answer their design, must not only be instructive, but entertaining; and
+as, when they became so, the people began to take pleasure in acting them
+themselves--in interloping--(against which the priests seem to have fought
+hard and yet in vain) the most ludicrous images were mixed with the most
+awful personations; and whatever the subject might be, however sublime,
+however pathetic, yet the Vice and the Devil, who are the genuine
+antecessors of Harlequin and the Clown, were necessary component parts. I
+have myself a piece of this kind, which I transcribed a few years ago at
+Helmstadt, in Germany, on the education of Eve's children, in which after
+the fall and repentance of Adam, the offended Maker, as in proof of his
+reconciliation, condescends to visit them, and to catechise the
+children,--who with a noble contempt of chronology are all brought together
+from Abel to Noah. The good children say the ten Commandments, the Belief,
+and the Lord's Prayer; but Cain and his rout, after he had received a box
+on the ear for not taking off his hat, and afterwards offering his left
+hand, is prompted by the devil so to blunder in the Lord's Prayer as to
+reverse the petitions and say it backward!
+
+Unaffectedly I declare I feel pain at repetitions like these, however
+innocent. As historical documents they are valuable; but I am sensible
+that what I can read with my eye with perfect innocence, I cannot without
+inward fear and misgivings pronounce with my tongue.
+
+Let me, however, be acquitted of presumption if I say that I cannot agree
+with Mr. Malone, that our ancestors did not perceive the ludicrous in
+these things, or that they paid no separate attention to the serious and
+comic parts. Indeed his own statement contradicts it. For what purpose
+should the Vice leap upon the Devil's back and belabour him, but to
+produce this separate attention? The people laughed heartily, no doubt.
+Nor can I conceive any meaning attached to the words "separate attention,"
+that is not fully answered by one part of an exhibition exciting
+seriousness or pity, and the other raising mirth and loud laughter. That
+they felt no impiety in the affair is most true. For it is the very
+essence of that system of Christian polytheism, which in all its
+essentials is now fully as gross in Spain, in Sicily, and the South of
+Italy, as it ever was in England in the days of Henry VI. (nay, more so,
+for a Wicliffe had not then appeared only, but scattered the good seed
+widely),--it is an essential part, I say, of that system to draw the mind
+wholly from its own inward whispers and quiet discriminations, and to
+habituate the conscience to pronounce sentence in every case according to
+the established verdicts of the church and the casuists. I have looked
+through volume after volume of the most approved casuists,--and still I
+find disquisitions whether this or that act is right, and under what
+circumstances, to a minuteness that makes reasoning ridiculous, and of a
+callous and unnatural immodesty, to which none but a monk could harden
+himself, who has been stripped of all the tender charities of life, yet is
+goaded on to make war against them by the unsubdued hauntings of our
+meaner nature, even as dogs are said to get the _hydrophobia_ from
+excessive thirst. I fully believe that our ancestors laughed as heartily,
+as their posterity do at Grimaldi;--and not having been told that they
+would be punished for laughing, they thought it very innocent;--and if
+their priests had left out murder in the catalogue of their prohibitions
+(as indeed they did under certain circumstances of heresy), the greater
+part of them,--the moral instincts common to all men having been smothered
+and kept from development,--would have thought as little of murder.
+
+However this may be, the necessity of at once instructing and gratifying
+the people produced the great distinction between the Greek and the
+English theatres;--for to this we must attribute the origin of
+tragi-comedy, or a representation of human events more lively, nearer the
+truth, and permitting a larger field of moral instruction, a more ample
+exhibition of the recesses of the human heart, under all the trials and
+circumstances that most concern us, than was known or guessed at by
+AEschylus, Sophocles, or Euripides;--and at the same time we learn to
+account for, and--relatively to the author--perceive the necessity of, the
+Fool or Clown or both, as the substitutes of the Vice and the Devil, which
+our ancestors had been so accustomed to see in every exhibition of the
+stage, that they could not feel any performance perfect without them. Even
+to this day in Italy, every opera--(even Metastasio obeyed the claim
+throughout)--must have six characters, generally two pairs of cross lovers,
+a tyrant and a confidant, or a father and two confidants, themselves
+lovers;--and when a new opera appears, it is the universal fashion to
+ask--which is the tyrant, which the lover? &c.
+
+It is the especial honour of Christianity, that in its worst and most
+corrupted form it cannot wholly separate itself from morality;--whereas the
+other religions in their best form (I do not include Mohammedanism, which
+is only an anomalous corruption of Christianity, like Swedenborgianism)
+have no connection with it. The very impersonation of moral evil under the
+name of Vice, facilitated all other impersonations; and hence we see that
+the Mysteries were succeeded by Moralities, or dialogues and plots of
+allegorical personages. Again, some character in real history had become
+so famous, so proverbial, as Nero for instance, that they were introduced
+instead of the moral quality, for which they were so noted;--and in this
+manner the stage was moving on to the absolute production of heroic and
+comic real characters, when the restoration of literature, followed by the
+ever-blessed Reformation, let in upon the kingdom not only new knowledge,
+but new motive. A useful rivalry commenced between the metropolis on the
+one hand,--the residence, independently of the court and nobles, of the
+most active and stirring spirits who had not been regularly educated, or
+who, from mischance or otherwise, had forsaken the beaten track of
+preferment,--and the universities on the other. The latter prided
+themselves on their closer approximation to the ancient rules and ancient
+regularity--taking the theatre of Greece, or rather its dim reflection, the
+rhetorical tragedies of the poet Seneca, as a perfect ideal, without any
+critical collation of the times, origin, or circumstances;--whilst, in the
+mean time, the popular writers, who could not and would not abandon what
+they had found to delight their countrymen sincerely, and not merely from
+inquiries first put to the recollection of rules, and answered in the
+affirmative, as if it had been an arithmetical sum, did yet borrow from
+the scholars whatever they advantageously could, consistently with their
+own peculiar means of pleasing.
+
+And here let me pause for a moment's contemplation of this interesting
+subject.
+
+We call, for we see and feel, the swan and the dove both transcendantly
+beautiful. As absurd as it would be to institute a comparison between
+their separate claims to beauty from any abstract rule common to both,
+without reference to the life and being of the animals themselves,--or as
+if, having first seen the dove, we abstracted its outlines, gave them a
+false generalization, called them the principles or ideal of bird-beauty,
+and then proceeded to criticise the swan or the eagle;--not less absurd is
+it to pass judgment on the works of a poet on the mere ground that they
+have been called by the same class-name with the works of other poets in
+other times and circumstances, or on any ground, indeed, save that of
+their inappropriateness to their own end and being, their want of
+significance, as symbols or physiognomy.
+
+O! few have there been among critics, who have followed with the eye of
+the imagination the imperishable yet ever wandering spirit of poetry
+through its various metempsychoses, and consequent metamorphoses;--or who
+have rejoiced in the light of clear perception at beholding with each new
+birth, with each rare _avatar_, the human race frame to itself a new body,
+by assimilating materials of nourishment out of its new circumstances, and
+work for itself new organs of power appropriate to the new sphere of its
+motion and activity!
+
+I have before spoken of the Romance, or the language formed out of the
+decayed Roman and the Northern tongues; and comparing it with the Latin,
+we find it less perfect in simplicity and relation--the privileges of a
+language formed by the mere attraction of homogeneous parts;--but yet more
+rich, more expressive and various, as one formed by more obscure
+affinities out of a chaos of apparently heterogeneous atoms. As more than
+a metaphor,--as an analogy of this, I have named the true genuine modern
+poetry the romantic; and the works of Shakespeare are romantic poetry,
+revealing itself in the drama. If the tragedies of Sophocles are in the
+strict sense of the word tragedies, and the comedies of Aristophanes
+comedies, we must emancipate ourselves from a false association arising
+from misapplied names, and find a new word for the plays of Shakespeare.
+For they are, in the ancient sense, neither tragedies nor comedies, nor
+both in one,--but a different _genus_, diverse in kind, and not merely
+different in degree. They may be called romantic dramas, or dramatic
+romances.
+
+A deviation from the simple forms and unities of the ancient stage is an
+essential principle, and, of course, an appropriate excellence, of the
+romantic drama. For these unities were to a great extent the natural form
+of that which in its elements was homogeneous, and the representation of
+which was addressed pre-eminently to the outward senses;--and though the
+fable, the language, and the characters appealed to the reason rather than
+to the mere understanding, inasmuch as they supposed an ideal state rather
+than referred to an existing reality,--yet it was a reason which was
+obliged to accommodate itself to the senses, and so far became a sort of
+more elevated understanding. On the other hand, the romantic poetry--the
+Shakespearian drama--appealed to the imagination rather than to the senses,
+and to the reason as contemplating our inward nature, and the workings of
+the passions in their most retired recesses. But the reason, as reason, is
+independent of time and space; it has nothing to do with them: and hence
+the certainties of reason have been called eternal truths. As for
+example--the endless properties of the circle:--what connection have they
+with this or that age, with this or that country?--The reason is aloof from
+time and space; the imagination is an arbitrary controller over both;--and
+if only the poet have such power of exciting our internal emotions as to
+make us present to the scene in imagination chiefly, he acquires the right
+and privilege of using time and space as they exist in imagination, and
+obedient only to the laws by which the imagination itself acts. These laws
+it will be my object and aim to point out as the examples occur, which
+illustrate them. But here let me remark what can never be too often
+reflected on by all who would intelligently study the works either of the
+Athenian dramatists, or of Shakespeare, that the very essence of the
+former consists in the sternest separation of the diverse in kind and the
+disparate in the degree, whilst the latter delights in interlacing, by a
+rainbow-like transfusion of hues, the one with the other.
+
+And here it will be necessary to say a few words on the stage and on
+stage-illusion.
+
+A theatre, in the widest sense of the word, is the general term for all
+places of amusement through the ear or eye, in which men assemble in order
+to be amused by some entertainment presented to all at the same time and
+in common. Thus an old Puritan divine says:--"Those who attend public
+worship and sermons only to amuse themselves, make a theatre of the
+church, and turn God's house into the devil's. _Theatra aedes
+diabololatricae._" The most important and dignified species of this _genus_
+is, doubtless, the stage (_res theatralis histrionica_), which, in
+addition to the generic definition above given, may be characterized in
+its idea, or according to what it does, or ought to, aim at, as a
+combination of several or of all the fine arts in an harmonious whole,
+having a distinct end of its own, to which the peculiar end of each of the
+component arts, taken separately, is made subordinate and
+subservient,--that, namely, of imitating reality--whether external things,
+actions, or passions---under a semblance of reality. Thus, Claude imitates
+a landscape at sunset, but only as a picture; while a forest-scene is not
+presented to the spectators as a picture, but as a forest; and though, in
+the full sense of the word, we are no more deceived by the one than by the
+other, yet are our feelings very differently affected; and the pleasure
+derived from the one is not composed of the same elements as that afforded
+by the other, even on the supposition that the _quantum_ of both were
+equal. In the former, a picture, it is a condition of all genuine delight
+that we should not be deceived; in the latter, stage-scenery (inasmuch as
+its principle end is not in or for itself, as is the case in a picture,
+but to be an assistance and means to an end out of itself), its very
+purpose is to produce as much illusion as its nature permits. These, and
+all other stage presentations, are to produce a sort of temporary
+half-faith, which the spectator encourages in himself and supports by a
+voluntary contribution on his own part, because he knows that it is at all
+times in his power to see the thing as it really is. I have often observed
+that little children are actually deceived by stage-scenery, never by
+pictures; though even these produce an effect on their impressible minds,
+which they do not on the minds of adults. The child, if strongly
+impressed, does not indeed positively think the picture to be the reality;
+but yet he does not think the contrary. As Sir George Beaumont was shewing
+me a very fine engraving from Rubens, representing a storm at sea without
+any vessel or boat introduced, my little boy, then about five years old,
+came dancing and singing into the room, and all at once (if I may so say)
+_tumbled in_ upon the print. He instantly started, stood silent and
+motionless, with the strongest expression, first of wonder and then of
+grief in his eyes and countenance, and at length said "And where is the
+ship? But that is sunk, and the men are all drowned!" still keeping his
+eyes fixed on the print. Now what pictures are to little children, stage
+illusion is to men, provided they retain any part of the child's
+sensibility; except, that in the latter instance, the suspension of the
+act of comparison, which permits this sort of negative belief, is somewhat
+more assisted by the will, than in that of a child respecting a picture.
+
+The true stage-illusion in this and in all other things consists--not in
+the mind's judging it to be a forest, but, in its remission of the
+judgment that it is not a forest. And this subject of stage-illusion is so
+important, and so many practical errors and false criticisms may arise,
+and indeed have arisen, either from reasoning on it as actual delusion
+(the strange notion, on which the French critics built up their theory,
+and on which the French poets justify the construction of their
+tragedies), or from denying it altogether (which seems the end of Dr.
+Johnson's reasoning, and which, as extremes meet, would lead to the very
+same consequences, by excluding whatever would not be judged probable by
+us in our coolest state of feeling, with all our faculties in even
+balance), that these few remarks will, I hope, be pardoned, if they should
+serve either to explain or to illustrate the point. For not only are we
+never absolutely deluded--or any thing like it, but the attempt to cause
+the highest delusion possible to beings in their senses sitting in a
+theatre, is a gross fault, incident only to low minds, which, feeling that
+they cannot affect the heart or head permanently, endeavour to call forth
+the momentary affections. There ought never to be more pain than is
+compatible with coexisting pleasure, and to be amply repaid by thought.
+
+Shakespeare found the infant stage demanding an intermixture of ludicrous
+character as imperiously as that of Greece did the chorus, and high
+language accordant. And there are many advantages in this;--a greater
+assimilation to nature, a greater scope of power, more truths, and more
+feelings;--the effects of contrast, as in Lear and the Fool; and especially
+this, that the true language of passion becomes sufficiently elevated by
+your having previously heard, in the same piece, the lighter conversation
+of men under no strong emotion. The very nakedness of the stage, too, was
+advantageous,--for the drama thence became something between recitation and
+a representation; and the absence or paucity of scenes allowed a freedom
+from the laws of unity of place and unity of time, the observance of which
+must either confine the drama to as few subjects as may be counted on the
+fingers, or involve gross improbabilities, far more striking than the
+violation would have caused. Thence, also, was precluded the danger of a
+false ideal,--of aiming at more than what is possible on the whole. What
+play of the ancients, with reference to their ideal, does not hold out
+more glaring absurdities than any in Shakespeare? On the Greek plan a man
+could more easily be a poet than a dramatist; upon our plan more easily a
+dramatist than a poet.
+
+
+
+
+The Drama Generally, And Public Taste.
+
+
+Unaccustomed to address such an audience, and having lost by a long
+interval of confinement the advantages of my former short schooling, I had
+miscalculated in my last Lecture the proportion of my matter to my time,
+and by bad economy and unskilful management, the several heads of my
+discourse failed in making the entire performance correspond with the
+promise publicly circulated in the weekly annunciation of the subjects to
+be treated. It would indeed have been wiser in me, and perhaps better on
+the whole, if I had caused my Lectures to be announced only as
+continuations of the main subject. But if I be, as perforce I must be,
+gratified by the recollection of whatever has appeared to give you
+pleasure, I am conscious of something better, though less flattering, a
+sense of unfeigned gratitude for your forbearance with my defects. Like
+affectionate guardians, you see without disgust the awkwardness, and
+witness with sympathy the growing pains, of a youthful endeavour, and look
+forward with a hope, which is its own reward, to the contingent results of
+practice--to its intellectual maturity.
+
+In my last address I defined poetry to be the art, or whatever better term
+our language may afford, of representing external nature and human
+thoughts, both relatively to human affections, so as to cause the
+production of as great immediate pleasure in each part, as is compatible
+with the largest possible sum of pleasure on the whole. Now this
+definition applies equally to painting and music as to poetry; and in
+truth the term poetry is alike applicable to all three. The vehicle alone
+constitutes the difference; and the term "poetry" is rightly applied by
+eminence to measured words, only because the sphere of their action is far
+wider, the power of giving permanence to them much more certain, and
+incomparably greater the facility, by which men, not defective by nature
+or disease, may be enabled to derive habitual pleasure and instruction
+from them. On my mentioning these considerations to a painter of great
+genius, who had been, from a most honourable enthusiasm, extolling his own
+art, he was so struck with their truth, that he exclaimed, "I want no
+other arguments;--poetry, that is, verbal poetry, must be the greatest; all
+that proves final causes in the world, proves this; it would be shocking
+to think otherwise!"--And in truth, deeply, O! far more than words can
+express, as I venerate the Last Judgment and the Prophets of Michel Angelo
+Buonarotti,--yet the very pain which I repeatedly felt as I lost myself in
+gazing upon them, the painful consideration that their having been painted
+in _fresco_ was the sole cause that they had not been abandoned to all the
+accidents of a dangerous transportation to a distant capital, and that the
+same caprice, which made the Neapolitan soldiery destroy all the exquisite
+masterpieces on the walls of the church of _Trinitado Monte_, after the
+retreat of their antagonist barbarians, might as easily have made vanish
+the rooms and open gallery of Raffael, and the yet more unapproachable
+wonders of the sublime Florentine in the Sixtine Chapel, forced upon my
+mind the reflection: How grateful the human race ought to be that the
+works of Euclid, Newton, Plato, Milton, Shakespeare, are not subjected to
+similar contingencies,--that they and their fellows, and the great, though
+inferior, peerage of undying intellect, are secured;--secured even from a
+second irruption of Goths and Vandals, in addition to many other
+safeguards, by the vast empire of English language, laws, and religion
+founded in America, through the overflow of the power and the virtue of my
+country;--and that now the great and certain works of genuine fame can only
+cease to act for mankind, when men themselves cease to be men, or when the
+planet on which they exist, shall have altered its relations, or have
+ceased to be. Lord Bacon, in the language of the gods, if I may use an
+Homeric phrase, has expressed a similar thought:--
+
+
+    "Lastly, leaving the vulgar arguments, that by learning man
+    excelleth man in that wherein man excelleth beasts; that by
+    learning man ascendeth to the heavens and their motions, where in
+    body he cannot come, and the like; let us conclude with the
+    dignity and excellency of knowledge and learning in that whereunto
+    man's nature doth most aspire, which is immortality or
+    continuance: for to this tendeth generation, and raising of houses
+    and families; to this tend buildings, foundations, and monuments;
+    to this tendeth the desire of memory, fame, and celebration, and
+    in effect the strength of all other human desires. We see then how
+    far the monuments of wit and learning are more durable than the
+    monuments of power, or of the hands. For have not the verses of
+    Homer continued twenty-five hundred years, or more, without the
+    loss of a syllable or letter; during which time, infinite palaces,
+    temples, castles, cities, have been decayed and demolished? It is
+    not possible to have the true pictures or statues of Cyrus,
+    Alexander, Caesar; no, nor of the kings or great personages of much
+    later years; for the originals cannot last, and the copies cannot
+    but lose of the life and truth. But the images of men's wits and
+    knowledges remain in books, exempted from the wrong of time, and
+    capable of perpetual renovation. Neither are they fitly to be
+    called images, because they generate still, and cast their seeds
+    in the minds of others, provoking and causing infinite actions and
+    opinions in succeeding ages: so that, if the invention of the ship
+    was thought so noble, which carrieth riches and commodities from
+    place to place, and consociateth the most remote regions in
+    participation of their fruits; how much more are letters to be
+    magnified, which, as ships, pass through the vast seas of time,
+    and make ages so distant to participate of the wisdom,
+    illuminations, and inventions, the one of the other?"
+
+
+But let us now consider what the drama should be. And first, it is not a
+copy, but an imitation, of nature. This is the universal principle of the
+fine arts. In all well laid out grounds what delight do we feel from that
+balance and antithesis of feelings and thoughts! How natural! we say;--but
+the very wonder that caused the exclamation, implies that we perceived art
+at the same moment. We catch the hint from nature itself. Whenever in
+mountains or cataracts we discover a likeness to any thing artificial
+which yet we know is not artificial--what pleasure! And so it is in
+appearances known to be artificial, which appear to be natural. This
+applies in due degrees, regulated by steady good sense, from a clump of
+trees to the _Paradise Lost_ or _Othello_. It would be easy to apply it to
+painting and even, though with greater abstraction of thought, and by more
+subtle yet equally just analogies--to music. But this belongs to others;
+suffice it that one great principle is common to all the fine arts, a
+principle which probably is the condition of all consciousness, without
+which we should feel and imagine only by discontinuous moments, and be
+plants or brute animals instead of men;--I mean that ever-varying balance,
+or balancing, of images, notions, or feelings, conceived as in opposition
+to each other;--in short, the perception of identity and contrariety; the
+least degree of which constitutes likeness, the greatest absolute
+difference; but the infinite gradations between these two form all the
+play and all the interest of our intellectual and moral being, till it
+leads us to a feeling and an object more awful than it seems to me
+compatible with even the present subject to utter aloud, though I am most
+desirous to suggest it. For there alone are all things at once different
+and the same; there alone, as the principle of all things, does
+distinction exist unaided by division; there are will and reason,
+succession of time and unmoving eternity, infinite change and ineffable
+rest!--
+
+"Return Alpheus! the dread voice is past
+Which shrunk thy streams!"
+
+    ----"Thou honour'd flood,
+Smooth-_flowing_ Avon, crown'd with vocal reeds,
+That strain I heard, was of a higher mood!--
+But now my _voice_ proceeds."
+
+We may divide a dramatic poet's characteristics before we enter into the
+component merits of any one work, and with reference only to those things
+which are to be the materials of all, into language, passion, and
+character; always bearing in mind that these must act and react on each
+other,--the language inspired by the passion, and the language and the
+passion modified and differenced by the character. To the production of
+the highest excellencies in these three, there are requisite in the mind
+of the author;--good sense, talent, sensibility, imagination;--and to the
+perfection of a work we should add two faculties of lesser importance, yet
+necessary for the ornaments and foliage of the column and the roof--fancy
+and a quick sense of beauty.
+
+As to language;--it cannot be supposed that the poet should make his
+characters say all that they would, or that, his whole drama considered,
+each scene, or paragraph should be such as, on cool examination, we can
+conceive it likely that men in such situations would say, in that order,
+or with that perfection. And yet, according to my feelings, it is a very
+inferior kind of poetry, in which, as in the French tragedies, men are
+made to talk in a style which few indeed even of the wittiest can be
+supposed to converse in, and which both is, and on a moment's reflection
+appears to be, the natural produce of the hot-bed of vanity, namely, the
+closet of an author, who is actuated originally by a desire to excite
+surprise and wonderment at his own superiority to other men,--instead of
+having felt so deeply on certain subjects, or in consequence of certain
+imaginations, as to make it almost a necessity of his nature to seek for
+sympathy,--no doubt, with that honourable desire of permanent action, which
+distinguishes genius.--Where then is the difference?--In this that each part
+should be proportionate, though the whole may be perhaps, impossible. At
+all events, it should be compatible with sound sense and logic in the mind
+of the poet himself.
+
+It is to be lamented that we judge of books by books, instead of referring
+what we read to our own experience. One great use of books is to make
+their contents a motive for observation. The German tragedies have in some
+respects been justly ridiculed. In them the dramatist often becomes a
+novelist in his directions to the actors, and thus degrades tragedy into
+pantomime. Yet still the consciousness of the poet's mind must be diffused
+over that of the reader or spectator; but he himself, according to his
+genius, elevates us, and by being always in keeping, prevents us from
+perceiving any strangeness, though we feel great exultation. Many
+different kinds of style may be admirable, both in different men, and in
+different parts of the same poem.
+
+See the different language which strong feelings may justify in Shylock,
+and learn from Shakespeare's conduct of that character the terrible force
+of every plain and calm diction, when known to proceed from a resolved and
+impassioned man.
+
+It is especially with reference to the drama, and its characteristics in
+any given nation, or at any particular period, that the dependence of
+genius on the public taste becomes a matter of the deepest importance. I
+do not mean that taste which springs merely from caprice or fashionable
+imitation, and which, in fact, genius can, and by degrees will, create for
+itself; but that which arises out of wide-grasping and heart-enrooted
+causes, which is epidemic, and in the very air that all breathe. This it
+is which kills, or withers, or corrupts. Socrates, indeed, might walk arm
+in arm with Hygeia, whilst pestilence, with a thousand furies running to
+and fro, and clashing against each other in a complexity and agglomeration
+of horrors, was shooting her darts of fire and venom all around him. Even
+such was Milton; yea, and such, in spite of all that has been babbled by
+his critics in pretended excuse for his damning, because for them too
+profound excellencies,--such was Shakespeare. But alas! the exceptions
+prove the rule. For who will dare to force his way out of the crowd,--not
+of the mere vulgar,--but of the vain and banded aristocracy of intellect,
+and presume to join the almost supernatural beings that stand by
+themselves aloof?
+
+Of this diseased epidemic influence there are two forms especially
+preclusive of tragic worth. The first is the necessary growth of a sense
+and love of the ludicrous, and a morbid sensibility of the assimilative
+power,--an inflammation produced by cold and weakness,--which in the boldest
+bursts of passion will lie in wait for a jeer at any phrase, that may have
+an accidental coincidence in the mere words with something base or
+trivial. For instance,--to express woods, not on a plain, but clothing a
+hill, which overlooks a valley, or dell, or river, or the sea,--the trees
+rising one above another, as the spectators in an ancient theatre,--I know
+no other word in our language (bookish and pedantic terms out of the
+question), but _hanging_ woods, the _sylvae superimpendentes_ of Catullus;
+yet let some wit call out in a slang tone,--"the gallows!" and a peal of
+laughter would damn the play. Hence it is that so many dull pieces have
+had a decent run, only because nothing unusual above, or absurd below,
+mediocrity furnished an occasion,--a spark for the explosive materials
+collected behind the orchestra. But it would take a volume of no ordinary
+size, however laconically the sense were expressed, if it were meant to
+instance the effects, and unfold all the causes, of this disposition upon
+the moral, intellectual, and even physical character of a people, with its
+influences on domestic life and individual deportment. A good document
+upon this subject would be the history of Paris society and of French,
+that is, Parisian, literature from the commencement of the latter half of
+the reign of Louis XIV. to that of Buonaparte, compared with the preceding
+philosophy and poetry even of Frenchmen themselves.
+
+The second form, or more properly, perhaps, another distinct cause, of
+this diseased disposition is matter of exultation to the philanthropist
+and philosopher, and of regret to the poet, the painter, and the statuary
+alone, and to them only as poets, painters, and statuaries;--namely, the
+security, the comparative equability, and ever increasing sameness of
+human life. Men are now so seldom thrown into wild circumstances, and
+violences of excitement, that the language of such states, the laws of
+association of feeling with thought, the starts and strange far-flights of
+the assimilative power on the slightest and least obvious likeness
+presented by thoughts, words, or objects,--these are all judged of by
+authority, not by actual experience,--by what men have been accustomed to
+regard as symbols of these states, and not the natural symbols, or
+self-manifestations of them.
+
+Even so it is in the language of man, and in that of nature. The sound
+_sun_, or the figures _s_, _u_, _n_, are purely arbitrary modes of
+recalling the object, and for visual mere objects they are not only
+sufficient, but have infinite advantages from their very nothingness _per
+se_. But the language of nature is a subordinate _Logos_, that was in the
+beginning, and was with the thing it represented, and was the thing it
+represented.
+
+Now the language of Shakespeare, in his _Lear_ for instance, is a
+something intermediate between these two; or rather it is the former
+blended with the latter,--the arbitrary, not merely recalling the cold
+notion of the thing, but expressing the reality of it, and, as arbitrary
+language is an heir-loom of the human race, being itself a part of that
+which it manifests. What shall I deduce from the preceding positions? Even
+this,--the appropriate, the never to be too much valued advantage of the
+theatre, if only the actors were what we know they have been,--a
+delightful, yet most effectual remedy for this dead palsy of the public
+mind. What would appear mad or ludicrous in a book, when presented to the
+senses under the form of reality, and with the truth of nature, supplies a
+species of actual experience. This is indeed the special privilege of a
+great actor over a great poet. No part was ever played in perfection, but
+nature justified herself in the hearts of all her children, in what state
+soever they were, short of absolute moral exhaustion, or downright
+stupidity. There is no time given to ask questions, or to pass judgments;
+we are taken by storm, and, though in the histrionic art many a clumsy
+counterfeit, by caricature of one or two features, may gain applause as a
+fine likeness, yet never was the very thing rejected as a counterfeit. O!
+when I think of the inexhaustible mine of virgin treasure in our
+Shakespeare, that I have been almost daily reading him since I was ten
+years old,--that the thirty intervening years have been unintermittingly
+and not fruitlessly employed in the study of the Greek, Latin, English,
+Italian, Spanish, and German _belle lettrists_, and the last fifteen years
+in addition, far more intensely in the analysis of the laws of life and
+reason as they exist in man,--and that upon every step I have made forward
+in taste, in acquisition of facts from history or my own observation, and
+in knowledge of the different laws of being and their apparent exceptions,
+from accidental collision of disturbing forces,--that at every new
+accession of information, after every successful exercise of meditation,
+and every fresh presentation of experience, I have unfailingly discovered
+a proportionate increase of wisdom and intuition in Shakespeare;--when I
+know this, and know too, that by a conceivable and possible, though hardly
+to be expected, arrangement of the British theatres, not all, indeed, but
+a large, a very large, proportion of this indefinite all--(round which no
+comprehension has yet drawn the line of circumscription, so as to say to
+itself, "I have seen the whole")--might be sent into the heads and
+hearts--into the very souls of the mass of mankind, to whom, except by this
+living comment and interpretation, it must remain for ever a sealed
+volume, a deep well without a wheel or a windlass;--it seems to me a
+pardonable enthusiasm to steal away from sober likelihood, and share in so
+rich a feast in the faery world of possibility! Yet even in the grave
+cheerfulness of a circumspect hope, much, very much, might be done;
+enough, assuredly, to furnish a kind and strenuous nature with ample
+motives for the attempt to effect what may be effected.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare, A Poet Generally.
+
+
+Clothed in radiant armour, and authorized by titles sure and manifold, as
+a poet, Shakespeare came forward to demand the throne of fame, as the
+dramatic poet of England. His excellences compelled even his
+contemporaries to seat him on that throne, although there were giants in
+those days contending for the same honour. Hereafter I would fain
+endeavour to make out the title of the English drama as created by, and
+existing in, Shakespeare, and its right to the supremacy of dramatic
+excellence in general. But he had shown himself a poet, previously to his
+appearance as a dramatic poet; and had no _Lear_, no _Othello_, no _Henry
+IV._, no _Twelfth Night_ ever appeared, we must have admitted that
+Shakespeare possessed the chief, if not every, requisite of a poet,--deep
+feeling and exquisite sense of beauty, both as exhibited to the eye in the
+combinations of form, and to the ear in sweet and appropriate melody; that
+these feelings were under the command of his own will; that in his very
+first productions he projected his mind out of his own particular being,
+and felt, and made others feel, on subjects no way connected with himself,
+except by force of contemplation and that sublime faculty by which a great
+mind becomes that on which it meditates. To this must be added that
+affectionate love of nature and natural objects, without which no man
+could have observed so steadily, or painted so truly and passionately, the
+very minutest beauties of the external world:--
+
+"And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare,
+Mark the poor wretch; to overshoot his troubles,
+How he outruns the wind, and with what care,
+He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles;
+The many musits through the which he goes
+Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes.
+
+"Sometimes he runs among the flock of sheep,
+To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell;
+And sometime where earth-delving conies keep,
+To stop the loud pursuers in their yell;
+And sometime sorteth with the herd of deer:
+Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear.
+
+"For there his smell with others' being mingled,
+The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt,
+Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled
+With much ado, the cold fault cleanly out,
+Then do they spend their mouths; echo replies,
+As if another chase were in the skies.
+
+"By this poor Wat far off, upon a hill,
+Stands on his hinder legs with listening ear,
+To harken if his foes pursue him still:
+Anon their loud alarums he doth hear,
+And now his grief may be compared well
+To one sore-sick, that hears the passing bell.
+
+"Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch
+Turn, and return, indenting with the way:
+Each envious briar his weary legs doth scratch,
+Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay.
+For misery is trodden on by many,
+And being low, never relieved by any."
+
+_Venus and Adonis._
+
+And the preceding description:--
+
+"But lo! from forth a copse that neighbours by,
+A breeding jennet, lusty, young and proud," &c.
+
+is much more admirable, but in parts less fitted for quotation.
+
+Moreover Shakespeare had shown that he possessed fancy, considered as the
+faculty of bringing together images dissimilar in the main by some one
+point or more of likeness, as in such a passage as this:--
+
+"Full gently now she takes him by the hand,
+A lily prisoned in a jail of snow,
+Or ivory in an alabaster band:
+So white a friend ingirts so white a foe!"--_Ib._
+
+And still mounting the intellectual ladder, he had as unequivocally proved
+the indwelling in his mind of imagination, or the power by which one image
+or feeling is made to modify many others, and by a sort of fusion to force
+many into one;--that which afterwards showed itself in such might and
+energy in Lear, where the deep anguish of a father spreads the feeling of
+ingratitude and cruelty over the very elements of heaven;--and which,
+combining many circumstances into one moment of consciousness, tends to
+produce that ultimate end of all human thought and human feeling, unity,
+and thereby the reduction of the spirit to its principle and fountain, who
+is alone truly one. Various are the workings of this the greatest faculty
+of the human mind, both passionate and tranquil. In its tranquil and
+purely pleasurable operation, it acts chiefly by creating out of many
+things, as they would have appeared in the description of an ordinary
+mind, detailed in unimpassioned succession, a oneness, even as nature, the
+greatest of poets, acts upon us, when we open our eyes upon an extended
+prospect. Thus the flight of Adonis in the dusk of the evening:--
+
+"Look! how a bright star shooteth from the sky;
+So glides he in the night from Venus' eye!"
+
+How many images and feelings are here brought together without effort and
+without discord, in the beauty of Adonis, the rapidity of his flight, the
+yearning, yet hopelessness, of the enamoured gazer, while a shadowy ideal
+character is thrown over the whole! Or this power acts by impressing the
+stamp of humanity, and of human feelings, on inanimate or mere natural
+objects:--
+
+"Lo! here the gentle lark, weary of rest,
+From his moist cabinet mounts up on high,
+And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast
+The sun ariseth in his majesty,
+Who doth the world so gloriously behold,
+The cedar-tops and hills seem burnish'd gold."
+
+Or again, it acts by so carrying on the eye of the reader as to make him
+almost lose the consciousness of words,--to make him see every thing
+flashed, as Wordsworth has grandly and appropriately said:--
+
+"_Flashed_ upon the inward eye
+Which is the bliss of solitude;"--
+
+and this without exciting any painful or laborious attention, without any
+anatomy of description (a fault not uncommon in descriptive poetry),--but
+with the sweetness and easy movement of nature. This energy is an absolute
+essential of poetry, and of itself would constitute a poet, though not one
+of the highest class;--it is, however, a most hopeful symptom, and the
+_Venus and Adonis_ is one continued specimen of it.
+
+In this beautiful poem there is an endless activity of thought in all the
+possible associations of thought with thought, thought with feeling, or
+with words, of feelings with feelings, and of words with words.
+
+"Even as the sun, with purple-colour'd face,
+Had ta'en his last leave of the weeping morn,
+Rose-cheek'd Adonis hied him to the chase:
+Hunting he loved, but love he laughed to scorn.
+Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him,
+And like a bold-faced suitor 'gins to woo him."
+
+Remark the humanizing imagery and circumstances of the first two lines,
+and the activity of thought in the play of words in the fourth line. The
+whole stanza presents at once the time, the appearance of the morning, and
+the two persons distinctly characterised, and in six simple lines puts the
+reader in possession of the whole argument of the poem.
+
+"Over one arm the lusty courser's rein,
+Under the other was the tender boy,
+Who blush'd and pouted in a dull disdain,
+With leaden appetite, unapt to toy,
+She red and hot, as coals of glowing fire,
+He red for shame, but frosty to desire:"--
+
+This stanza and the two following afford good instances of that poetic
+power, which I mentioned above, of making every thing present to the
+imagination--both the forms, and the passions which modify those forms,
+either actually, as in the representations of love or anger, or other
+human affections; or imaginatively, by the different manner in which
+inanimate objects, or objects unimpassioned themselves, are caused to be
+seen by the mind in moments of strong excitement, and according to the
+kind of the excitement,--whether of jealousy, or rage, or love, in the only
+appropriate sense of the word, or of the lower impulses of our nature, or
+finally of the poetic feeling itself. It is, perhaps, chiefly in the power
+of producing and reproducing the latter that the poet stands distinct.
+
+The subject of the _Venus and Adonis_ is unpleasing; but the poem itself
+is for that very reason the more illustrative of Shakespeare. There are
+men who can write passages of deepest pathos and even sublimity on
+circumstances personal to themselves and stimulative of their own
+passions; but they are not, therefore, on this account poets. Read that
+magnificent burst of woman's patriotism and exultation, _Deborah's Song of
+Victory_; it is glorious, but nature is the poet there. It is quite
+another matter to become all things and yet remain the same,--to make the
+changeful god be felt in the river, the lion, and the flame;--this it is,
+that is the true imagination. Shakespeare writes in this poem, as if he
+were of another planet, charming you to gaze on the movements of Venus and
+Adonis, as you would on the twinkling dances of two vernal butterflies.
+
+Finally, in this poem and the _Rape of Lucrece_, Shakespeare gave ample
+proof of his possession of a most profound, energetic, and philosophical
+mind, without which he might have pleased, but could not have been a great
+dramatic poet. Chance and the necessity of his genius combined to lead him
+to the drama his proper province: in his conquest of which we should
+consider both the difficulties which opposed him, and the advantages by
+which he was assisted.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare's Judgment equal to his Genius.
+
+
+Thus then Shakespeare appears, from his _Venus and Adonis_ and _Rape of
+Lucrece_ alone, apart from all his great works, to have possessed all the
+conditions of the true poet. Let me now proceed to destroy, as far as may
+be in my power, the popular notion that he was a great dramatist by mere
+instinct, that he grew immortal in his own despite, and sank below men of
+second or third rate power, when he attempted aught beside the drama--even
+as bees construct their cells and manufacture their honey to admirable
+perfection; but would in vain attempt to build a nest. Now this mode of
+reconciling a compelled sense of inferiority with a feeling of pride,
+began in a few pedants, who having read that Sophocles was the great model
+of tragedy, and Aristotle the infallible dictator of its rules, and
+finding that the _Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_ and other master-pieces were
+neither in imitation of Sophocles, nor in obedience to Aristotle,--and not
+having (with one or two exceptions) the courage to affirm, that the
+delight which their country received from generation to generation, in
+defiance of the alterations of circumstances and habits, was wholly
+groundless,--took upon them, as a happy medium and refuge, to talk of
+Shakespeare as a sort of beautiful _lusus naturae_, a delightful
+monster,--wild, indeed, and without taste or judgment, but like the
+inspired idiots so much venerated in the East, uttering, amid the
+strangest follies, the sublimest truths. In nine places out of ten in
+which I find his awful name mentioned, it is with some epithet of "wild,"
+"irregular," "pure child of nature," &c. If all this be true, we must
+submit to it; though to a thinking mind it cannot but be painful to find
+any excellence, merely human, thrown out of all human analogy, and thereby
+leaving us neither rules for imitation, nor motives to imitate;--but if
+false, it is a dangerous falsehood;--for it affords a refuge to secret
+self-conceit,--enables a vain man at once to escape his reader's
+indignation by general swoln panegyrics, and merely by his _ipse dixit_ to
+treat, as contemptible, what he has not intellect enough to comprehend, or
+soul to feel, without assigning any reason, or referring his opinion to
+any demonstrative principle;--thus leaving Shakespeare as a sort of grand
+Lama, adored indeed, and his very excrements prized as relics, but with no
+authority or real influence. I grieve that every late voluminous edition
+of his works would enable me to substantiate the present charge with a
+variety of facts, one-tenth of which would of themselves exhaust the time
+allotted to me. Every critic, who has or has not made a collection of
+black letter books--in itself a useful and respectable amusement,--puts on
+the seven-league boots of self-opinion, and strides at once from an
+illustrator into a supreme judge, and blind and deaf, fills his
+three-ounce phial at the waters of Niagara; and determines positively the
+greatness of the cataract to be neither more nor less than his three-ounce
+phial has been able to receive.
+
+I think this a very serious subject. It is my earnest desire--my passionate
+endeavour--to enforce at various times and by various arguments and
+instances the close and reciprocal connection of just taste with pure
+morality. Without that acquaintance with the heart of man, or that
+docility and childlike gladness to be made acquainted with it, which those
+only can have, who dare look at their own hearts--and that with a
+steadiness which religion only has the power of reconciling with sincere
+humility;--without this, and the modesty produced by it, I am deeply
+convinced that no man, however wide his erudition, however patient his
+antiquarian researches, can possibly understand, or be worthy of
+understanding, the writings of Shakespeare.
+
+Assuredly that criticism of Shakespeare will alone be genial which is
+reverential. The Englishman who, without reverence--a proud and
+affectionate reverence--can utter the name of William Shakespeare, stands
+disqualified for the office of critic. He wants one at least of the very
+senses, the language of which he is to employ, and will discourse at best
+but as a blind man, while the whole harmonious creation of light and shade
+with all its subtle interchange of deepening and dissolving colours rises
+in silence to the silent _fiat_ of the uprising Apollo. However inferior
+in ability I may be to some who have followed me, I own I am proud that I
+was the first in time who publicly demonstrated to the full extent of the
+position, that the supposed irregularity and extravagances of Shakespeare
+were the mere dreams of a pedantry that arraigned the eagle because it had
+not the dimensions of the swan. In all the successive courses of lectures
+delivered by me, since my first attempt at the Royal Institution, it has
+been, and it still remains, my object, to prove that in all points from
+the most important to the most minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is
+commensurate with his genius,--nay, that his genius reveals itself in his
+judgment, as in its most exalted form. And the more gladly do I recur to
+this subject from the clear conviction, that to judge aright, and with
+distinct consciousness of the grounds of our judgment, concerning the
+works of Shakespeare, implies the power and the means of judging rightly
+of all other works of intellect, those of abstract science alone excepted.
+
+It is a painful truth, that not only individuals, but even whole nations,
+are ofttimes so enslaved to the habits of their education and immediate
+circumstances, as not to judge disinterestedly even on those subjects, the
+very pleasure arising from which consists in its disinterestedness,
+namely, on subjects of taste and polite literature. Instead of deciding
+concerning their own modes and customs by any rule of reason, nothing
+appears rational, becoming, or beautiful to them, but what coincides with
+the peculiarities of their education. In this narrow circle, individuals
+may attain to exquisite discrimination, as the French critics have done in
+their own literature; but a true critic can no more be such without
+placing himself on some central point, from which he may command the
+whole,--that is, some general rule, which, founded in reason, or the
+faculties common to all men, must therefore apply to each,--than an
+astronomer can explain the movements of the solar system without taking
+his stand in the sun. And let me remark, that this will not tend to
+produce despotism, but, on the contrary, true tolerance, in the critic. He
+will, indeed, require, as the spirit and substance of a work, something
+true in human nature itself, and independent of all circumstances; but in
+the mode of applying it, he will estimate genius and judgment according to
+the felicity with which the imperishable soul of intellect shall have
+adapted itself to the age, the place, and the existing manners. The error
+he will expose, lies in reversing this, and holding up the mere
+circumstances as perpetual to the utter neglect of the power which can
+alone animate them. For art cannot exist without, or apart from nature;
+and what has man of his own to give to his fellow man, but his own
+thoughts and feelings, and his observations, so far as they are modified
+by his own thoughts or feelings?
+
+Let me, then, once more submit this question to minds emancipated alike
+from national, or party, or sectarian prejudice:--Are the plays of
+Shakespeare works of rude uncultivated genius, in which the splendour of
+the parts compensates, if aught can compensate, for the barbarous
+shapelessness and irregularity of the whole?--Or is the form equally
+admirable with the matter, and the judgment of the great poet not less
+deserving our wonder than his genius?--Or, again, to repeat the question in
+other words:--is Shakespeare a great dramatic poet on account only of those
+beauties and excellences which he possesses in common with the ancients,
+but with diminished claims to our love and honour to the full extent of
+his differences from them?--Or are these very differences additional proofs
+of poetic wisdom, at once results and symbols of living power as
+contrasted with lifeless mechanism--of free and rival originality as
+contradistinguished from servile imitation, or, more accurately, a blind
+copying of effects, instead of a true imitation of the essential
+principles?--Imagine not that I am about to oppose genius to rules. No! the
+comparative value of these rules is the very cause to be tried. The spirit
+of poetry, like all other living powers, must of necessity circumscribe
+itself by rules, were it only to unite power with beauty. It must embody
+in order to reveal itself; but a living body is of necessity an organized
+one; and what is organization but the connection of parts in and for a
+whole, so that each part is at once end and means?--This is no discovery of
+criticism;--it is a necessity of the human mind; and all nations have felt
+and obeyed it, in the invention of metre, and measured sounds, as the
+vehicle and _involucrum_ of poetry--itself a fellow-growth from the same
+life,--even as the bark is to the tree!
+
+No work of true genius dares want its appropriate form, neither indeed is
+there any danger of this. As it must not, so genius cannot, be lawless;
+for it is even this that constitutes it genius--the power of acting
+creatively under laws of its own origination. How then comes it that not
+only single _Zoili_, but whole nations have combined in unhesitating
+condemnation of our great dramatist, as a sort of African nature, rich in
+beautiful monsters--as a wild heath where islands of fertility look the
+greener from the surrounding waste, where the loveliest plants now shine
+out among unsightly weeds, and now are choked by their parasitic growth,
+so intertwined that we cannot disentangle the weed without snapping the
+flower?--In this statement I have had no reference to the vulgar abuse of
+Voltaire, save as far as his charges are coincident with the decisions of
+Shakespeare's own commentators and (so they would tell you) almost
+idolatrous admirers. The true ground of the mistake lies in the
+confounding mechanical regularity with organic form. The form is mechanic,
+when on any given material we impress a pre-determined form, not
+necessarily arising out of the properties of the material;--as when to a
+mass of wet clay we give whatever shape we wish it to retain when
+hardened. The organic form, on the other hand is innate; it shapes, as it
+developes, itself from within, and the fulness of its development is one
+and the same with the perfection of its outward form. Such as the life is,
+such is the form. Nature, the prime genial artist, inexhaustible in
+diverse powers, is equally inexhaustible in forms;--each exterior is the
+physiognomy of the being within,--its true image reflected and thrown out
+from the concave mirror;--and even such is the appropriate excellence of
+her chosen poet, of our own Shakespeare,--himself a nature humanized, a
+genial understanding directing self-consciously a power and an implicit
+wisdom deeper even than our consciousness.
+
+I greatly dislike beauties and selections in general; but as proof
+positive of his unrivalled excellence, I should like to try Shakespeare by
+this criterion. Make out your amplest catalogue of all the human
+faculties, as reason or the moral law, the will, the feeling of the
+coincidence of the two (a feeling _sui generis et demonstratio
+demonstrationum_) called the conscience, the understanding or prudence,
+wit, fancy, imagination, judgment,--and then of the objects on which these
+are to be employed, as the beauties, the terrors, and the seeming caprices
+of nature, the realities and the capabilities, that is, the actual and the
+ideal, of the human mind, conceived as an individual or as a social being,
+as in innocence or in guilt, in a play-paradise, or in a war-field of
+temptation;--and then compare with Shakespeare under each of these heads
+all or any of the writers in prose and verse that have ever lived! Who,
+that is competent to judge, doubts the result?--And ask your own hearts--ask
+your own common-sense--to conceive the possibility of this man being--I say
+not, the drunken savage of that wretched sciolist, whom Frenchmen, to
+their shame, have honoured before their elder and better worthies,--but the
+anomalous, the wild, the irregular, genius of our daily criticism! What!
+are we to have miracles in sport?--Or, I speak reverently, does God choose
+idiots by whom to convey divine truths to man?
+
+
+
+
+Recapitulation, And Summary Of the Characteristics of Shakespeare's
+Dramas.
+
+
+In lectures, of which amusement forms a large part of the object, there
+are some peculiar difficulties. The architect places his foundation out of
+sight, and the musician tunes his instrument before he makes his
+appearance; but the lecturer has to try his chords in the presence of the
+assembly; an operation not likely, indeed, to produce much pleasure, but
+yet indispensably necessary to a right understanding of the subject to be
+developed.
+
+Poetry in essence is as familiar to barbarous as to civilized nations. The
+Laplander and the savage Indian are cheered by it as well as the
+inhabitants of London and Paris;--its spirit takes up and incorporates
+surrounding materials, as a plant clothes itself with soil and climate,
+whilst it exhibits the working of a vital principle within independent of
+all accidental circumstances. And to judge with fairness of an author's
+works, we ought to distinguish what is inward and essential from what is
+outward and circumstantial. It is essential to poetry that it be simple,
+and appeal to the elements and primary laws of our nature; that it be
+sensuous, and by its imagery elicit truth at a flash; that it be
+impassioned, and be able to move our feelings and awaken our affections.
+In comparing different poets with each other, we should inquire which have
+brought into the fullest play our imagination and our reason, or have
+created the greatest excitement and produced the completest harmony. If we
+consider great exquisiteness of language and sweetness of metre alone, it
+is impossible to deny to Pope the character of a delightful writer; but
+whether he be a poet, must depend upon our definition of the word; and,
+doubtless, if everything that pleases be poetry, Pope's satires and
+epistles must be poetry. This, I must say, that poetry, as distinguished
+from other modes of composition, does not rest in metre, and that it is
+not poetry, if it make no appeal to our passions or our imagination. One
+character belongs to all true poets, that they write from a principle
+within, not originating in any thing without; and that the true poet's
+work in its form, its shapings, and its modifications, is distinguished
+from all other works that assume to belong to the class of poetry, as a
+natural from an artificial flower, or as the mimic garden of a child from
+an enamelled meadow. In the former the flowers are broken from their stems
+and stuck into the ground; they are beautiful to the eye and fragrant to
+the sense, but their colours soon fade, and their odour is transient as
+the smile of the planter;--while the meadow may be visited again and again
+with renewed delight; its beauty is innate in the soil, and its bloom is
+of the freshness of nature.
+
+The next ground of critical judgment, and point of comparison, will be as
+to how far a given poet has been influenced by accidental circumstances.
+As a living poet must surely write, not for the ages past, but for that in
+which he lives, and those which are to follow, it is on the one hand
+natural that he should not violate, and on the other necessary that he
+should not depend on, the mere manners and modes of his day. See how
+little does Shakespeare leave us to regret that he was born in his
+particular age! The great aera in modern times was what is called the
+Restoration of Letters;--the ages preceding it are called the dark ages;
+but it would be more wise, perhaps, to call them the ages in which we were
+in the dark. It is usually overlooked that the supposed dark period was
+not universal, but partial and successive, or alternate; that the dark age
+of England was not the dark age of Italy, but that one country was in its
+light and vigour, whilst another was in its gloom and bondage. But no
+sooner had the Reformation sounded through Europe like the blast of an
+archangel's trumpet, than from king to peasant there arose an enthusiasm
+for knowledge; the discovery of a manuscript became the subject of an
+embassy; Erasmus read by moonlight, because he could not afford a torch,
+and begged a penny, not for the love of charity, but for the love of
+learning. The three great points of attention were religion, morals, and
+taste; men of genius, as well as men of learning, who in this age need to
+be so widely distinguished, then alike became copyists of the ancients;
+and this, indeed, was the only way by which the taste of mankind could be
+improved, or their understandings informed. Whilst Dante imagined himself
+a humble follower of Virgil, and Ariosto of Homer, they were both
+unconscious of that greater power working within them, which in many
+points carried them beyond their supposed originals. All great discoveries
+bear the stamp of the age in which they are made;--hence we perceive the
+effects of the purer religion of the moderns visible for the most part in
+their lives; and in reading their works we should not content ourselves
+with the mere narratives of events long since passed, but should learn to
+apply their maxims and conduct to ourselves.
+
+Having intimated that times and manners lend their form and pressure to
+genius, let me once more draw a slight parallel between the ancient and
+modern stage,--the stages of Greece and of England. The Greeks were
+polytheists; their religion was local; almost the only object of all their
+knowledge, art, and taste, was their gods; and, accordingly, their
+productions were, if the expression may be allowed, statuesque, whilst
+those of the moderns are picturesque. The Greeks reared a structure,
+which, in its parts, and as a whole, filled the mind with the calm and
+elevated impression of perfect beauty, and symmetrical proportion. The
+moderns also produced a whole--a more striking whole; but it was by
+blending materials, and fusing the parts together. And as the Pantheon is
+to York Minster or Westminster Abbey, so is Sophocles compared with
+Shakespeare; in the one a completeness, a satisfaction, an excellence, on
+which the mind rests with complacency; in the other a multitude of
+interlaced materials, great and little, magnificent and mean, accompanied,
+indeed, with the sense of a falling short of perfection, and yet, at the
+same time, so promising of our social and individual progression, that we
+would not, if we could, exchange it for that repose of the mind which
+dwells on the forms of symmetry in the acquiescent admiration of grace.
+This general characteristic of the ancient and modern drama might be
+illustrated by a parallel of the ancient and modern music;--the one
+consisting of melody arising from a succession only of pleasing
+sounds,--the modern embracing harmony also, the result of combination, and
+the effect of a whole.
+
+I have said, and I say it again, that great as was the genius of
+Shakespeare, his judgment was at least equal to it. Of this any one will
+be convinced, who attentively considers those points in which the dramas
+of Greece and England differ, from the dissimilitude of circumstances by
+which each was modified and influenced. The Greek stage had its origin in
+the ceremonies of a sacrifice, such as of the goat to Bacchus, whom we
+most erroneously regard as merely the jolly god of wine;--for among the
+ancients he was venerable, as the symbol of that power which acts without
+our consciousness in the vital energies of nature--the _vinum mundi_--as
+Apollo was that of the conscious agency of our intellectual being. The
+heroes of old, under the influences of this Bacchic enthusiasm, performed
+more than human actions; hence tales of the favourite champions soon
+passed into dialogue. On the Greek stage the chorus was always before the
+audience; the curtain was never dropped, as we should say; and change of
+place being therefore, in general, impossible, the absurd notion of
+condemning it merely as improbable in itself was never entertained by any
+one. If we can believe ourselves at Thebes in one act, we may believe
+ourselves at Athens in the next.
+
+If a story lasts twenty-four hours or twenty-four years, it is equally
+improbable. There seems to be no just boundary but what the feelings
+prescribe. But on the Greek stage, where the same persons were perpetually
+before the audience, great judgment was necessary in venturing on any such
+change. The poets never, therefore, attempted to impose on the senses by
+bringing places to men, but they did bring men to places, as in the
+well-known instance in the _Eumenides_, where, during an evident
+retirement of the chorus from the orchestra, the scene is changed to
+Athens, and Orestes is first introduced in the temple of Minerva, and the
+chorus of Furies come in afterwards in pursuit of him.
+
+In the Greek drama there were no formal divisions into scenes and acts;
+there were no means, therefore, of allowing for the necessary lapse of
+time between one part of the dialogue and another, and unity of time in a
+strict sense was, of course, impossible. To overcome that difficulty of
+accounting for time, which is effected on the modern stage by dropping a
+curtain, the judgment and great genius of the ancients supplied music and
+measured motion, and with the lyric ode filled up the vacuity. In the
+story of the _Agamemnon_ of AEschylus, the capture of Troy is supposed to
+be announced by a fire lighted on the Asiatic shore, and the transmission
+of the signal by successive beacons to Mycenae. The signal is first seen at
+the 21st line, and the herald from Troy itself enters at the 486th, and
+Agamemnon himself at the 783rd line. But the practical absurdity of this
+was not felt by the audience, who, in imagination stretched minutes into
+hours, while they listened to the lofty narrative odes of the chorus which
+almost entirely filled up the interspace. Another fact deserves attention
+here, namely, that regularly on the Greek stage a drama, or acted story,
+consisted in reality of three dramas, called together a trilogy, and
+performed consecutively in the course of one day. Now you may conceive a
+tragedy of Shakespeare's as a trilogy connected in one single
+representation. Divide _Lear_ into three parts, and each would be a play
+with the ancients; or take the three AEschylean dramas of _Agamemnon_, and
+divide them into, or call them, as many acts, and they together would be
+one play. The first act would comprise the usurpation of AEgisthus, and the
+murder of Agamemnon; the second, the revenge of Orestes, and the murder of
+his mother; and the third, the penance and absolution of
+Orestes;--occupying a period of twenty-two years.
+
+The stage in Shakespeare's time was a naked room with a blanket for a
+curtain; but he made it a field for monarchs. That law of unity, which has
+its foundations, not in the factitious necessity of custom, but in nature
+itself, the unity of feeling, is everywhere and at all times observed by
+Shakespeare in his plays. Read _Romeo and Juliet_;--all is youth and
+spring;--youth with its follies, its virtues, its precipitancies;--spring
+with its odours, its flowers, and its transiency; it is one and the same
+feeling that commences, goes through, and ends the play. The old men, the
+Capulets and Montagues, are not common old men; they have an eagerness, a
+heartiness, a vehemence, the effect of spring; with Romeo, his change of
+passion, his sudden marriage, and his rash death, are all the effects of
+youth;--whilst in Juliet love has all that is tender and melancholy in the
+nightingale, all that is voluptuous in the rose, with whatever is sweet in
+the freshness of spring; but it ends with a long deep sigh like the last
+breeze of the Italian evening. This unity of feeling and character
+pervades every drama of Shakespeare.
+
+It seems to me that his plays are distinguished from those of all other
+dramatic poets by the following characteristics:--
+
+1. Expectation in preference to surprise. It is like the true reading of
+the passage--"God said, Let there be light, and there was _light_;"--not,
+there _was_ light. As the feeling with which we startle at a shooting star
+compared with that of watching the sunrise at the pre-established moment,
+such and so low is surprise compared with expectation.
+
+2. Signal adherence to the great law of nature, that all opposites tend to
+attract and temper each other. Passion in Shakespeare generally displays
+libertinism, but involves morality; and if there are exceptions to this,
+they are, independently of their intrinsic value, all of them indicative
+of individual character, and, like the farewell admonitions of a parent,
+have an end beyond the parental relation. Thus the Countess's beautiful
+precepts to Bertram, by elevating her character, raise that of Helena her
+favourite, and soften down the point in her which Shakespeare does not
+mean us not to see, but to see and to forgive, and at length to justify.
+And so it is in Polonius, who is the personified memory of wisdom no
+longer actually possessed. This admirable character is always
+misrepresented on the stage. Shakespeare never intended to exhibit him as
+a buffoon; for although it was natural that Hamlet--a young man of fire and
+genius, detesting formality, and disliking Polonius on political grounds,
+as imagining that he had assisted his uncle in his usurpation--should
+express himself satirically, yet this must not be taken as exactly the
+poet's conception of him. In Polonius a certain induration of character
+had arisen from long habits of business; but take his advice to Laertes,
+and Ophelia's reverence for his memory, and we shall see that he was meant
+to be represented as a statesman somewhat past his faculties,--his
+recollections of life all full of wisdom, and showing a knowledge of human
+nature, whilst what immediately takes place before him, and escapes from
+him, is indicative of weakness.
+
+But as in Homer all the deities are in armour, even Venus; so in
+Shakespeare all the characters are strong. Hence real folly and dulness
+are made by him the vehicles of wisdom. There is no difficulty for one
+being a fool to imitate a fool; but to be, remain, and speak like a wise
+man and a great wit, and yet so as to give a vivid representation of a
+veritable fool,--_hic labor, hoc opus est_. A drunken constable is not
+uncommon, nor hard to draw; but see and examine what goes to make up a
+Dogberry.
+
+3. Keeping at all times in the high road of life. Shakespeare has no
+innocent adulteries, no interesting incests, no virtuous vice;--he never
+renders that amiable which religion and reason alike teach us to detest,
+or clothes impurity in the garb of virtue, like Beaumont and Fletcher, the
+Kotzebues of the day. Shakespeare's fathers are roused by ingratitude, his
+husbands stung by unfaithfulness; in him, in short, the affections are
+wounded in those points in which all may, nay, must, feel. Let the
+morality of Shakespeare be contrasted with that of the writers of his own,
+or the succeeding age, or of those of the present day, who boast their
+superiority in this respect. No one can dispute that the result of such a
+comparison is altogether in favour of Shakespeare;--even the letters of
+women of high rank in his age were often coarser than his writings. If he
+occasionally disgusts a keen sense of delicacy, he never injures the mind;
+he neither excites, nor flatters, passion, in order to degrade the subject
+of it; he does not use the faulty thing for a faulty purpose, nor carries
+on warfare against virtue, by causing wickedness to appear as no
+wickedness, through the medium of a morbid sympathy with the unfortunate.
+In Shakespeare vice never walks as in twilight; nothing is purposely out
+of its place;--he inverts not the order of nature and propriety,--does not
+make every magistrate a drunkard or glutton, nor every poor man meek,
+humane, and temperate; he has no benevolent butchers, nor any sentimental
+rat-catchers.
+
+4. Independence of the dramatic interest on the plot. The interest in the
+plot is always in fact on account of the characters, not _vice versa_, as
+in almost all other writers; the plot is a mere canvass and no more. Hence
+arises the true justification of the same stratagem being used in regard
+to Benedict and Beatrice,--the vanity in each being alike. Take away from
+the _Much Ado about Nothing_ all that which is not indispensable to the
+plot, either as having little to do with it, or, at best, like Dogberry
+and his comrades, forced into the service, when any other less ingeniously
+absurd watchmen and night-constables would have answered the mere
+necessities of the action;--take away Benedict, Beatrice, Dogberry, and the
+reaction of the former on the character of Hero,--and what will remain? In
+other writers the main agent of the plot is always the prominent
+character; in Shakespeare it is so, or is not so, as the character is in
+itself calculated, or not calculated, to form the plot. Don John is the
+main-spring of the plot of this play; but he is merely shown and then
+withdrawn.
+
+5. Independence of the interest on the story as the ground-work of the
+plot. Hence Shakespeare never took the trouble of inventing stories. It
+was enough for him to select from those that had been already invented or
+recorded such as had one or other, or both, of two recommendations,
+namely, suitableness to his particular purpose, and their being parts of
+popular tradition,--names of which we had often heard, and of their
+fortunes, and as to which all we wanted was, to see the man himself. So it
+is just the man himself--the Lear, the Shylock, the Richard--that
+Shakespeare makes us for the first time acquainted with. Omit the first
+scene in _Lear_, and yet everything will remain; so the first and second
+scenes in the _Merchant of Venice_. Indeed it is universally true.
+
+6. Interfusion of the lyrical--that which in its very essence is
+poetical--not only with the dramatic, as in the plays of Metastasio, where
+at the end of the scene comes the _aria_ as the _exit_ speech of the
+character,--but also in and through the dramatic. Songs in Shakespeare are
+introduced as songs only, just as songs are in real life, beautifully as
+some of them are characteristic of the person who has sung or called for
+them, as Desdemona's "Willow," and Ophelia's wild snatches, and the sweet
+carollings in _As You Like It_. But the whole of the _Midsummer Night's
+Dream_ is one continued specimen of the dramatised lyrical. And observe
+how exquisitely the dramatic of Hotspur;--
+
+"Marry, and I'm glad on't with all my heart;
+I'd rather be a kitten and cry--mew." &c.
+
+melts away into the lyric of Mortimer;--
+
+"I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh
+Which thou pourest down from these swelling heavens,
+I am too perfect in," &c.
+
+_Henry IV._ part i. act iii, sc. 1.
+
+7. The characters of the _dramatis personae_, like those in real life, are
+to be inferred by the reader;--they are not told to him. And it is well
+worth remarking that Shakespeare's characters, like those in real life,
+are very commonly misunderstood, and almost always understood by different
+persons in different ways. The causes are the same in either case. If you
+take only what the friends of the character say, you may be deceived, and
+still more so, if that which his enemies say; nay, even the character
+himself sees himself through the medium of his character, and not exactly
+as he is. Take all together, not omitting a shrewd hint from the clown or
+the fool, and perhaps your impression will be right; and you may know
+whether you have in fact discovered the poet's own idea, by all the
+speeches receiving light from it, and attesting its reality by reflecting
+it.
+
+Lastly, in Shakespeare the heterogeneous is united, as it is in nature.
+You must not suppose a pressure or passion always acting on or in the
+character!--passion in Shakespeare is that by which the individual is
+distinguished from others, not that which makes a different kind of him.
+Shakespeare followed the main march of the human affections. He entered
+into no analysis of the passions or faiths of men, but assured himself
+that such and such passions and faiths were grounded in our common nature,
+and not in the mere accidents of ignorance or disease. This is an
+important consideration, and constitutes our Shakespeare the morning star,
+the guide and the pioneer, of true philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+Outline Of An Introductory Lecture Upon Shakespeare.
+
+
+Of that species of writing termed tragi-comedy, much has been produced and
+doomed to the shelf. Shakespeare's comic are continually reacting upon his
+tragic characters. Lear, wandering amidst the tempest, has all his
+feelings of distress increased by the overflowings of the wild wit of the
+Fool, as vinegar poured upon wounds exacerbates their pain. Thus, even his
+comic humour tends to the development of tragic passion.
+
+The next characteristic of Shakespeare is his keeping at all times in the
+high road of life, &c. Another evidence of his exquisite judgment is, that
+he seizes hold of popular tales; _Lear_ and the _Merchant of Venice_ were
+popular tales, but are so excellently managed, that both are the
+representations of men in all countries and of all times.
+
+His dramas do not arise absolutely out of some one extraordinary
+circumstance, the scenes may stand independently of any such one
+connecting incident, as faithful representations of men and manners. In
+his mode of drawing characters there are no pompous descriptions of a man
+by himself; his character is to be drawn, as in real life, from the whole
+course of the play, or out of the mouths of his enemies or friends. This
+may be exemplified in Polonius, whose character has been often
+misrepresented. Shakespeare never intended him for a buffoon, &c.
+
+Another excellence of Shakespeare, in which no writer equals him, is in
+the language of nature. So correct is it, that we can see ourselves in
+every page. The style and manner have also that felicity, that not a
+sentence can be read, without its being discovered if it is Shakespearian.
+In observation of living characters--of landlords and postilions--Fielding
+has great excellence; but in drawing from his own heart, and depicting
+that species of character, which no observation could teach, he failed in
+comparison with Richardson, who perpetually places himself, as it were, in
+a day-dream. Shakespeare excels in both. Witness the accuracy of character
+in Juliet's name; while for the great characters of Iago, Othello, Hamlet,
+Richard III., to which he could never have seen anything similar, he seems
+invariably to have asked himself--How should I act or speak in such
+circumstances? His comic characters are also peculiar. A drunken constable
+was not uncommon; but he makes folly a vehicle for wit, as in Dogberry:
+everything is a _sub-stratum_ on which his genius can erect the mightiest
+superstructure.
+
+To distinguish that which is legitimate in Shakespeare from what does not
+belong to him, we must observe his varied images symbolical of novel
+truth, thrusting by, and seeming to trip up each other, from an
+impetuosity of thought, producing a flowing metre, and seldom closing with
+the line. In _Pericles_, a play written fifty years before, but altered by
+Shakespeare, his additions may be recognised to half a line, from the
+metre, which has the same perfection in the flowing continuity of
+interchangeable metrical pauses in his earliest plays, as in _Love's
+Labour's Lost_.
+
+Lastly, contrast his _morality_ with the writers of his own or of the
+succeeding age, &c. If a man speak injuriously of our friend, our
+vindication of him is naturally warm. Shakespeare has been accused of
+profaneness. I for my part have acquired from perusal of him, a habit of
+looking into my own heart, and am confident that Shakespeare is an author
+of all others the most calculated to make his readers better as well as
+wiser.
+
+                                * * * * *
+
+Shakespeare, possessed of wit, humour, fancy, and imagination, built up an
+outward world from the stores within his mind, as the bee finds a hive
+from a thousand sweets gathered from a thousand flowers. He was not only a
+great poet but a great philosopher. Richard III., Iago, and Falstaff are
+men who reverse the order of things, who place intellect at the head,
+whereas it ought to follow, like Geometry, to prove and to confirm. No
+man, either hero or saint, ever acted from an unmixed motive; for let him
+do what he will rightly, still Conscience whispers "it is your duty."
+Richard, laughing at conscience and sneering at religion, felt a
+confidence in his intellect, which urged him to commit the most horrid
+crimes, because he felt himself, although inferior in form and shape,
+superior to those around him; he felt he possessed a power which they had
+not. Iago, on the same principle, conscious of superior intellect, gave
+scope to his envy, and hesitated not to ruin a gallant, open, and generous
+friend in the moment of felicity, because he was not promoted as he
+expected. Othello was superior in place, but Iago felt him to be inferior
+in intellect, and, unrestrained by conscience, trampled upon him.
+Falstaff, not a degraded man of genius, like Burns, but a man of degraded
+genius, with the same consciousness of superiority to his companions,
+fastened himself on a young Prince, to prove how much his influence on an
+heir-apparent would exceed that of a statesman. With this view he
+hesitated not to adopt the most contemptible of all characters, that of an
+open and professed liar: even his sensuality was subservient to his
+intellect: for he appeared to drink sack, that he might have occasion to
+show off his wit. One thing, however, worthy of observation, is the
+perpetual contrast of labour in Falstaff to produce wit, with the ease
+with which Prince Henry parries his shafts; and the final contempt which
+such a character deserves and receives from the young king, when Falstaff
+exhibits the struggle of inward determination with an outward show of
+humility.
+
+
+
+
+Order Of Shakespeare's Plays.
+
+
+Various attempts have been made to arrange the plays of Shakespeare, each
+according to its priority in time, by proofs derived from external
+documents. How unsuccessful these attempts have been might easily be
+shewn, not only from the widely different results arrived at by men, all
+deeply versed in the black-letter books, old plays, pamphlets, manuscript
+records, and catalogues of that age, but also from the fallacious and
+unsatisfactory nature of the facts and assumptions on which the evidence
+rests. In that age, when the press was chiefly occupied with controversial
+or practical divinity,--when the law, the Church, and the State engrossed
+all honour and respectability,--when a degree of disgrace, _levior quaedam
+infamiae macula_, was attached to the publication of poetry, and even to
+have sported with the Muse, as a private relaxation, was supposed to be--a
+venial fault, indeed, yet--something beneath the gravity of a wise
+man,--when the professed poets were so poor, that the very expenses of the
+press demanded the liberality of some wealthy individual, so that
+two-thirds of Spenser's poetic works, and those most highly praised by his
+learned admirers and friends, remained for many years in manuscript, and
+in manuscript perished,--when the amateurs of the stage were comparatively
+few, and therefore for the greater part more or less known to each
+other,--when we know that the plays of Shakespeare, both during and after
+his life, were the property of the stage, and published by the players,
+doubtless according to their notions of acceptability with the visitants
+of the theatre,--in such an age, and under such circumstances, can an
+allusion or reference to any drama or poem in the publication of a
+contemporary be received as conclusive evidence, that such drama or poem
+had at that time been published? Or, further, can the priority of
+publication itself prove anything in favour of actually prior composition?
+
+We are tolerably certain, indeed, that the _Venus and Adonis_, and the
+_Rape of Lucrece_, were his two earliest poems, and though not printed
+until 1593, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, yet there can be little
+doubt that they had remained by him in manuscript many years. For Mr.
+Malone has made it highly probable that he had commenced as a writer for
+the stage in 1591, when he was twenty-seven years old, and Shakespeare
+himself assures us that the _Venus and Adonis_ was the first heir of his
+invention.
+
+Baffled, then, in the attempt to derive any satisfaction from outward
+documents, we may easily stand excused if we turn our researches towards
+the internal evidences furnished by the writings themselves, with no other
+positive _data_ than the known facts that the _Venus and Adonis_ was
+printed in 1593, the _Rape of Lucrece_ in 1594, and that the _Romeo and
+Juliet_ had appeared in 1595,--and with no other presumptions than that the
+poems, his very first productions, were written many years earlier--(for
+who can believe that Shakespeare could have remained to his twenty-ninth
+or thirtieth year without attempting poetic composition of any kind?),--and
+that between these and _Romeo and Juliet_ there had intervened one or two
+other dramas, or the chief materials, at least of them, although they may
+very possibly have appeared after the success of the _Romeo and Juliet_,
+and some other circumstances, had given the poet an authority with the
+proprietors, and created a prepossession in his favour with the theatrical
+audiences.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1802.
+
+FIRST EPOCH.
+
+      The London Prodigal.
+      Cromwell.
+      Henry VI., three parts, first edition.
+      The old King John.
+      Edward III.
+      The old Taming of the Shrew.
+      Pericles.
+
+All these are transition works, _Uebergangswerke_; not his, yet of him.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      All's Well that Ends Well;--but afterwards worked up afresh
+      (_umgearbeitet_), especially Parolles.
+      The Two Gentlemen of Verona; a sketch.
+      Romeo and Juliet; first draft of it.
+
+THIRD EPOCH
+
+rises into the full, although youthful, Shakespeare; it was the negative
+period of his perfection.
+
+      Love's Labour's Lost.
+      Twelfth Night.
+      As You Like It.
+      Midsummer Night's Dream.
+      Richard II.
+      Henry IV. and V.
+      Henry VIII.; _Gelegenheitsgedicht_.
+      Romeo and Juliet, as at present.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH.
+
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor; first edition.
+      Henry VI.; _rifacimento_.
+
+FIFTH EPOCH.
+
+The period of beauty was now past; and that of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and grandeur
+succeeds.
+
+      Lear.
+      Macbeth.
+      Hamlet.
+      Timon of Athens; an after vibration of Hamlet.
+      Troilus and Cressida; _Uebergang in die Ironie_.
+      The Roman Plays.
+      King John, as at present.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor
+      Taming of the Shrew _umgearbeitet._
+      Measure for Measure.
+      Othello.
+      Tempest.
+      Winter's Tale.
+      Cymbeline.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1810.
+
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas I take to be--
+
+      Love's Labour's Lost.
+      All's Well that Ends Well.
+      Comedy of Errors.
+      Romeo and Juliet.
+
+In the second class I reckon--
+
+      Midsummer Night's Dream.
+      As You Like It.
+      Tempest.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+In the third, as indicating a greater energy--not merely of poetry, but of
+all the world of thought, yet still with some of the growing pains, and
+the awkwardness of growth--I place--
+
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+      Cymbeline.
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Much Ado about Nothing.
+      Taming of the Shrew.
+
+In the fourth, I place the plays containing the greatest characters--
+
+      Macbeth.
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Othello.
+
+And lastly, the historic dramas, in order to be able to show my reasons
+for rejecting some whole plays, and very many scenes in others.
+
+CLASSIFICATION ATTEMPTED, 1819.
+
+I think Shakespeare's earliest dramatic attempt--perhaps even prior in
+conception to the _Venus and Adonis_, and planned before he left
+Stratford--was _Love's Labour's Lost_. Shortly afterwards I suppose
+_Pericles_ and certain scenes in _Jeronymo_ to have been produced; and in
+the same epoch, I place the _Winter's Tale_ and _Cymbeline_, differing
+from the _Pericles_ by the entire _rifacimento_ of it, when Shakespeare's
+celebrity as poet, and his interest, no less than his influence, as
+manager, enabled him to bring forward the laid-by labours of his youth.
+The example of _Titus Andronicus_, which, as well as _Jeronymo_, was most
+popular in Shakespeare's first epoch, had led the young dramatist to the
+lawless mixture of dates and manners. In this same epoch I should place
+the _Comedy of Errors_, remarkable as being the only specimen of poetical
+farce in our language, that is, intentionally such; so that all the
+distinct kinds of drama, which might be educed _a priori_, have their
+representatives in Shakespeare's works. I say intentionally such; for many
+of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, and the greater part of Ben Jonson's
+comedies, are farce plots. I add _All's Well that Ends Well_, originally
+intended as the counterpart of _Love's Labour's Lost_, _Taming of the
+Shrew_, _Midsummer Night's Dream_, _Much Ado about Nothing_, and _Romeo
+and Juliet_.
+
+SECOND EPOCH.
+
+      Richard II.
+      King John.
+      Henry VI.,--_rifacimento_ only.
+      Richard III.
+
+THIRD EPOCH.
+
+      Henry IV.
+      Henry V.
+      Merry Wives of Windsor.
+      Henry VIII.,--a sort of historical masque, or show play.
+
+FOURTH EPOCH
+
+gives all the graces and facilities of a genius in full possession and
+habitual exercise of power, and peculiarly of the feminine, the _lady's_
+character.
+
+      Tempest.
+      As You Like It
+      Merchant of Venice.
+      Twelfth Night.
+
+And, finally, at its very point of culmination--
+
+      Lear.
+      Hamlet.
+      Macbeth.
+      Othello.
+
+LAST EPOCH.
+
+when the energies of intellect in the cycle of genius were, though in a
+rich and more potentiated form, becoming predominant over passion and
+creative self-manifestation--
+
+      Measure for Measure,
+      Timon of Athens.
+      Coriolanus.
+      Julius Caesar.
+      Antony and Cleopatra.
+      Troilus and Cressida.
+
+Merciful, wonder-making Heaven! what a man was this Shakespeare!
+Myriad-minded, indeed, he was.
+
+
+
+
+Notes On The "Tempest."
+
+
+There is a sort of improbability with which we are shocked in dramatic
+representation, not less than in a narrative of real life. Consequently,
+there must be rules respecting it; and as rules are nothing but means to
+an end previously ascertained--(inattention to which simple truth has been
+the occasion of all the pedantry of the French school),--we must first
+determine what the immediate end or object of the drama is. And here, as I
+have previously remarked, I find two extremes of critical decision;--the
+French, which evidently presupposes that a perfect delusion is to be aimed
+at,--an opinion which needs no fresh confutation; and the exact opposite to
+it, brought forward by Dr. Johnson, who supposes the auditors throughout
+in the full reflective knowledge of the contrary. In evincing the
+impossibility of delusion, he makes no sufficient allowance for an
+intermediate state, which I have before distinguished by the term
+illusion, and have attempted to illustrate its quality and character by
+reference to our mental state when dreaming. In both cases we simply do
+not judge the imagery to be unreal; there is a negative reality, and no
+more. Whatever, therefore, tends to prevent the mind from placing itself,
+or being placed, gradually in that state in which the images have such
+negative reality for the auditor, destroys this illusion, and is
+dramatically improbable.
+
+Now, the production of this effect--a sense of improbability--will depend on
+the degree of excitement in which the mind is supposed to be. Many things
+would be intolerable in the first scene of a play, that would not at all
+interrupt our enjoyment in the height of the interest, when the narrow
+cockpit may be made to hold
+
+"The vasty field of France, or we may cram
+Within its wooden O, the very casques,
+That did affright the air at Agincourt."
+
+Again, on the other hand, many obvious improbabilities will be endured, as
+belonging to the groundwork of the story rather than to the drama itself,
+in the first scenes, which would disturb or disentrance us from all
+illusion in the acme of our excitement; as for instance, Lear's division
+of his kingdom, and the banishment of Cordelia.
+
+But, although the other excellences of the drama besides this dramatic
+probability, as unity of interest, with distinctness and subordination of
+the characters, and appropriateness of style, are all, so far as they tend
+to increase the inward excitement, means towards accomplishing the chief
+end, that of producing and supporting this willing illusion,--yet they do
+not on that account cease to be ends themselves; and we must remember
+that, as such, they carry their own justification with them, as long as
+they do not contravene or interrupt the total illusion. It is not even
+always, or of necessity, an objection to them, that they prevent the
+illusion from rising to as great a height as it might otherwise have
+attained;--it is enough that they are simply compatible with as high a
+degree of it as is requisite for the purpose. Nay, upon particular
+occasions, a palpable improbability may be hazarded by a great genius for
+the express purpose of keeping down the interest of a merely instrumental
+scene, which would otherwise make too great an impression for the harmony
+of the entire illusion. Had the panorama been invented in the time of Pope
+Leo X., Raffael would still, I doubt not, have smiled in contempt at the
+regret, that the broom twigs and scrubby bushes at the back of some of his
+grand pictures were not as probable trees as those in the exhibition.
+
+The _Tempest_ is a specimen of the purely romantic drama, in which the
+interest is not historical, or dependent upon fidelity of portraiture, or
+the natural connection of events, but is a birth of the imagination, and
+rests only upon the coaptation and union of the elements granted to, or
+assumed by, the poet. It is a species of drama which owes no allegiance to
+time or space, and in which, therefore, errors of chronology and
+geography--no mortal sins in any species--are venial faults, and count for
+nothing. It addresses itself entirely to the imaginative faculty; and
+although the illusion may be assisted by the effect on the senses of the
+complicated scenery and decorations of modern times, yet this sort of
+assistance is dangerous. For the principal and only genuine excitement
+ought to come from within--from the moved and sympathetic imagination;
+whereas, where so much is addressed to the mere external senses of seeing
+and bearing, the spiritual vision is apt to languish, and the attraction
+from without will withdraw the mind from the proper and only legitimate
+interest which is intended to spring from within.
+
+The romance opens with a busy scene admirably appropriate to the kind of
+drama, and giving, as it were, the key-note to the whole harmony. It
+prepares and initiates the excitement required for the entire piece, and
+yet does not demand anything from the spectators, which their previous
+habits had not fitted them to understand. It is the bustle of a tempest,
+from which the real horrors are abstracted;--therefore it is poetical,
+though not in strictness natural--(the distinction to which I have so often
+alluded)--and is purposely restrained from concentering the interest on
+itself, but used merely as an induction or tuning for what is to follow.
+
+In the second scene, Prospero's speeches, till the entrance of Ariel,
+contain the finest example I remember of retrospective narration for the
+purpose of exciting immediate interest, and putting the audience in
+possession of all the information necessary for the understanding of the
+plot. Observe, too, the perfect probability of the moment chosen by
+Prospero (the very Shakespeare himself, as it were, of the tempest) to
+open out the truth to his daughter, his own romantic bearing, and how
+completely anything that might have been disagreeable to us in the
+magician, is reconciled and shaded in the humanity and natural feelings of
+the father. In the very first speech of Miranda, the simplicity and
+tenderness of her character are at once laid open;--it would have been lost
+in direct contact with the agitation of the first scene. The opinion once
+prevailed, but happily is now abandoned, that Fletcher alone wrote for
+women;--the truth is, that with very few, and those partial exceptions, the
+female characters in the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are, when of the
+light kind, not decent; when heroic, complete viragos. But in Shakespeare
+all the elements of womanhood are holy, and there is the sweet yet
+dignified feeling of all that _continuates_ society, as sense of ancestry
+and of sex, with a purity unassailable by sophistry, because it rests not
+in the analytic processes, but in that sane equipoise of the faculties,
+during which the feelings are representative of all past experience,--not
+of the individual only, but of all those by whom she has been educated,
+and their predecessors, even up to the first mother that lived.
+Shakespeare saw that the want of prominence, which Pope notices for
+sarcasm, was the blessed beauty of the woman's character, and knew that it
+arose not from any deficiency, but from the more exquisite harmony of all
+the parts of the moral being constituing one living total of head and
+heart. He has drawn it, indeed, in all its distinctive energies of faith,
+patience, constancy, fortitude,--shown in all of them as following the
+heart, which gives its results by a nice tact and happy intuition, without
+the intervention of the discursive faculty, sees all things in and by the
+light of the affections, and errs, if it ever err, in the exaggerations of
+love alone. In all the Shakespearian women there is essentially the same
+foundation and principle; the distinct individuality and variety are
+merely the result of modification of circumstances, whether in Miranda the
+maiden, in Imogen the wife, or in Katherine the queen.
+
+But to return. The appearance and characters of the super or ultra natural
+servants are finely contrasted. Ariel has in everything the airy tint
+which gives the name; and it is worthy of remark that Miranda is never
+directly brought into comparison with Ariel, lest the natural and human of
+the one and the supernatural of the other should tend to neutralise each
+other; Caliban, on the other hand, is all earth, all condensed and gross
+in feelings and images; he has the dawnings of understanding without
+reason or the moral sense, and in him, as in some brute animals, this
+advance to the intellectual faculties, without the moral sense, is marked
+by the appearance of vice. For it is in the primacy of the moral being
+only that man is truly human; in his intellectual powers he is certainly
+approached by the brutes, and, man's whole system duly considered, those
+powers cannot be considered other than means to an end--that is, to
+morality.
+
+In this scene, as it proceeds, is displayed the impression made by
+Ferdinand and Miranda on each other; it is love at first sight;--
+
+       ... "At the first sight
+They have chang'd eyes;"--
+
+and it appears to me, that in all cases of real love, it is at one moment
+that it takes place. That moment may have been prepared by previous
+esteem, admiration, or even affection,--yet love seems to require a
+momentary act of volition, by which a tacit bond of devotion is imposed,--a
+bond not to be thereafter broken without violating what should be sacred
+in our nature. How finely is the true Shakespearian scene contrasted with
+Dryden's vulgar alteration of it, in which a mere ludicrous psychological
+experiment, as it were, is tried--displaying nothing but indelicacy without
+passion.
+
+Prospero's interruption of the courtship has often seemed to me to have
+had no sufficient motive; still, his alleged reason--
+
+      ... "Lest too light winning
+Make the prize light"--
+
+is enough for the ethereal connections of the romantic imagination,
+although it would not be so for the historical. The whole courting scene,
+indeed, in the beginning of the third act, between the lovers, is a
+masterpiece; and the first dawn of disobedience in the mind of Miranda to
+the command of her father is very finely drawn, so as to seem the working
+of the Scriptural command--"Thou shalt leave father and mother," &c. Oh!
+with what exquisite purity this scene is conceived and executed!
+Shakespeare may sometimes be gross, but I boldly say that he is always
+moral and modest. Alas! in this our day, decency of manners is preserved
+at the expense of morality of heart, and delicacies for vice are allowed,
+whilst grossness against it is hypocritically, or at least morbidly,
+condemned.
+
+In this play are admirably sketched the vices generally accompanying a low
+degree of civilisation; and in the first scene of the second act
+Shakespeare has, as in many other places, shown the tendency in bad men to
+indulge in scorn and contemptuous expressions as a mode of getting rid of
+their own uneasy feelings of inferiority to the good, and also, by making
+the good ridiculous, of rendering the transition of others to wickedness
+easy. Shakespeare never puts habitual scorn into the mouths of other than
+bad men, as here in the instances of Antonio and Sebastian. The scene of
+the intended assassination of Alonzo and Gonzalo is an exact counterpart
+of the scene between Macbeth and his lady, only pitched in a lower key
+throughout, as designed to be frustrated and concealed, and exhibiting the
+same profound management in the manner of familiarising a mind, not
+immediately recipient, to the suggestion of guilt, by associating the
+proposed crime with something ludicrous or out of place,--something not
+habitually matter of reverence. By this kind of sophistry the imagination
+and fancy are first bribed to contemplate the suggested act, and at length
+to become acquainted with it. Observe how the effect of this scene is
+heightened by contrast with another counterpart of it in low life,--that
+between the conspirators Stephano, Caliban, and Trinculo in the second
+scene of the third act, in which there are the same essential
+characteristics.
+
+In this play, and in this scene of it, are also shown the springs of the
+vulgar in politics,--of that kind of politics which is inwoven with human
+nature. In his treatment of this subject, wherever it occurs, Shakespeare
+is quite peculiar. In other writers we find the particular opinions of the
+individual; in Massinger it is rank republicanism; in Beaumont and
+Fletcher even _jure divino_ principles are carried to excess;--but
+Shakespeare never promulgates any party tenets. He is always the
+philosopher and the moralist, but at the same time with a profound
+veneration for all the established institutions of society, and for those
+classes which form the permanent elements of the State,--especially never
+introducing a professional character, as such, otherwise than as
+respectable. If he must have any name, he should be styled a philosophical
+aristocrat, delighting in those hereditary institutions which have a
+tendency to bind one age to another, and in that distinction of ranks, of
+which, although few may be in possession, all enjoy the advantages. Hence,
+again, you will observe the good nature with which he seems always to make
+sport with the passions and follies of a mob, as with an irrational
+animal. He is never angry with it, but hugely content with holding up its
+absurdities to its face; and sometimes you may trace a tone of almost
+affectionate superiority, something like that in which a father speaks of
+the rogueries of a child. See the good-humoured way in which he describes
+Stephano passing from the most licentious freedom to absolute despotism
+over Trinculo and Caliban. The truth is, Shakespeare's characters are all
+_genera_ intensely individualised; the results of meditation, of which
+observation supplied the drapery and the colours necessary to combine them
+with each other. He had virtually surveyed all the great component powers
+and impulses of human nature,--had seen that their different combinations
+and subordinations were in fact the individualisers of men, and showed how
+their harmony was produced by reciprocal disproportions of excess or
+deficiency. The language in which these truths are expressed was not drawn
+from any set fashion, but from the profoundest depths of his moral being,
+and is therefore for all ages.
+
+
+
+
+"Love's Labour's Lost."
+
+
+The characters in this play are either impersonated out of Shakespeare's
+own multiformity by imaginative self-position, or out of such as a country
+town and schoolboy's observation might supply,--the curate, the
+schoolmaster, the Armado (who even in my time was not extinct in the
+cheaper inns of North Wales), and so on. The satire is chiefly on follies
+of words. Biron and Rosaline are evidently the pre-existent state of
+Benedict and Beatrice, and so, perhaps, is Boyet of Lafeu, and Costard of
+the tapster in _Measure for Measure_; and the frequency of the rhymes, the
+sweetness as well as the smoothness of the metre, and the number of acute
+and fancifully illustrated aphorisms, are all as they ought to be in a
+poet's youth. True genius begins by generalising and condensing; it ends
+in realising and expanding. It first collects the seeds.
+
+Yet, if this juvenile drama had been the only one extant of our
+Shakespeare, and we possessed the tradition only of his riper works, or
+accounts of them in writers who had not even mentioned this play,--how many
+of Shakespeare's characteristic features might we not still have
+discovered in _Love's Labour's Lost_, though as in a portrait taken of him
+in his boyhood.
+
+I can never sufficiently admire the wonderful activity of thought
+throughout the whole of the first scene of the play, rendered natural, as
+it is, by the choice of the characters, and the whimsical determination on
+which the drama is founded. A whimsical determination certainly;--yet not
+altogether so very improbable to those who are conversant in the history
+of the middle ages, with their Courts of Love, and all that lighter
+drapery of chivalry, which engaged even mighty kings with a sort of
+serio-comic interest, and may well be supposed to have occupied more
+completely the smaller princes, at a time when the noble's or prince's
+court contained the only theatre of the domain or principality. This sort
+of story, too, was admirably suited to Shakespeare's times, when the
+English court was still the foster-mother of the state and the muses; and
+when, in consequence, the courtiers, and men of rank and fashion, affected
+a display of wit, point, and sententious observation, that would be deemed
+intolerable at present,--but in which a hundred years of controversy,
+involving every great political, and every dear domestic, interest, had
+trained all but the lowest classes to participate. Add to this the very
+style of the sermons of the time, and the eagerness of the Protestants to
+distinguish themselves by long and frequent preaching, and it will be
+found that, from the reign of Henry VIII. to the abdication of James II.
+no country ever received such a national education as England.
+
+Hence the comic matter chosen in the first instance is a ridiculous
+imitation or apery of this constant striving after logical precision and
+subtle opposition of thoughts, together with a making the most of every
+conception or image, by expressing it under the least expected property
+belonging to it, and this, again, rendered specially absurd by being
+applied to the most current subjects and occurrences. The phrases and
+modes of combination in argument were caught by the most ignorant from the
+custom of the age, and their ridiculous misapplication of them is most
+amusingly exhibited in Costard; whilst examples suited only to the gravest
+propositions and impersonations, or apostrophes to abstract thoughts
+impersonated, which are in fact the natural language only of the most
+vehement agitations of the mind, are adopted by the coxcombry of Armado as
+mere artifices of ornament.
+
+The same kind of intellectual action is exhibited in a more serious and
+elevated strain in many other parts of this play. Biron's speech at the
+end of the Fourth Act is an excellent specimen of it. It is logic clothed
+in rhetoric;--but observe how Shakespeare, in his two-fold being of poet
+and philosopher, avails himself of it to convey profound truths in the
+most lively images,--the whole remaining faithful to the character supposed
+to utter the lines, and the expressions themselves constituting a further
+development of that character:--
+
+"Other slow arts entirely keep the brain:
+And therefore finding barren practisers,
+Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil:
+But love, first learned in a lady's eyes,
+Lives not alone immured in the brain;
+But, with the motion of all elements,
+Courses as swift as thought in every power;
+And gives to every power a double power,
+Above their functions and their offices.
+It adds a precious seeing to the eye,
+A lover's eyes will gaze an eagle blind;
+A lover's ear will hear the lowest sound,
+When the suspicious head of theft is stopp'd:
+Love's feeling is more soft and sensible,
+Than are the tender horns of cockled snails;
+Love's tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste;
+For valour, is not love a Hercules,
+Still climbing trees in the Hesperides?
+Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical,
+As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair;
+And when love speaks, the voice of all the gods
+Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony.
+Never durst poet touch a pen to write,
+Until his ink were tempered with love's sighs;
+Oh, then his lines would ravish savage ears,
+And plant in tyrants mild humility.
+From women's eyes this doctrine I derive:
+They sparkle still the right Promethean fire;
+They are the books, the arts, the academes,
+That show, contain, and nourish all the world;
+Else, none at all in aught proves excellent;
+Then fools you were these women to forswear;
+Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools.
+For wisdom's sake, a word that all men love;
+Or for love's sake, a word that loves all men;
+Or for men's sake, the authors of these women;
+Or women's sake, by whom we men are men;
+Let us once lose our oaths, to find ourselves,
+Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths:
+It is religion to be thus forsworn:
+For charity itself fulfils the law:
+And who can sever love from charity?"--
+
+This is quite a study;--sometimes you see this youthful god of poetry
+connecting disparate thoughts purely by means of resemblances in the words
+expressing them,--a thing in character in lighter comedy, especially of
+that kind in which Shakespeare delights, namely, the purposed display of
+wit, though sometimes too, disfiguring his graver scenes;--but more often
+you may see him doubling the natural connection or order of logical
+consequence in the thoughts by the introduction of an artificial and
+sought for resemblance in the words, as, for instance, in the third line
+of the play,--
+
+"And then grace us in the disgrace of death;"--
+
+this being a figure often having its force and propriety, as justified by
+the law of passion, which, inducing in the mind an unusual activity, seeks
+for means to waste its superfluity,--when in the highest degree--in lyric
+repetitions and sublime tautology--"At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay
+down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down
+dead,"--and, in lower degrees, in making the words themselves the subjects
+and materials of that surplus action, and for the same cause that agitates
+our limbs, and forces our very gestures into a tempest in states of high
+excitement.
+
+The mere style of narration in _Love's Labour's Lost_, like that of AEgeon
+in the first scene of the _Comedy of Errors_, and of the Captain in the
+second scene of _Macbeth_, seems imitated with its defects and its
+beauties from Sir Philip Sidney; whose _Arcadia_, though not then
+published, was already well known in manuscript copies, and could hardly
+have escaped the notice and admiration of Shakespeare as the friend and
+client of the Earl of Southampton. The chief defect consists in the
+parentheses and parenthetic thoughts and descriptions, suited neither to
+the passion of the speaker, nor the purpose of the person to whom the
+information is to be given, but manifestly betraying the author
+himself,--not by way of continuous undersong, but--palpably, and so as to
+show themselves addressed to the general reader. However, it is not
+unimportant to notice how strong a presumption the diction and allusions
+of this play afford, that, though Shakespeare's acquirements in the dead
+languages might not be such as we suppose in a learned education, his
+habits had, nevertheless, been scholastic, and those of a student. For a
+young author's first work almost always bespeaks his recent pursuits, and
+his first observations of life are either drawn from the immediate
+employments of his youth, and from the characters and images most deeply
+impressed on his mind in the situations in which those employments had
+placed him;--or else they are fixed on such objects and occurrences in the
+world, as are easily connected with, and seem to bear upon, his studies
+and the hitherto exclusive subjects of his meditation. Just as Ben Jonson,
+who applied himself to the drama after having served in Flanders, fills
+his earliest plays with true or pretended soldiers, the wrongs and
+neglects of the former, and the absurd boasts and knavery of their
+counterfeits. So Lessing's first comedies are placed in the universities,
+and consist of events and characters conceivable in an academic life.
+
+I will only further remark the sweet and tempered gravity, with which
+Shakespeare in the end draws the only fitting moral which such a drama
+afforded. Here Rosaline rises up to the full height of Beatrice:--
+
+"_Ros._ Oft have I heard of you, my lord Biron,
+Before I saw you: and the world's large tongue
+Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks;
+Full of comparisons, and wounding flouts,
+Which you on all estates will execute
+That lie within the mercy of your wit:
+To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain,
+And therewithal, to win me, if you please
+(Without the which I am not to be won),
+You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day
+Visit the speechless sick, and still converse
+With groaning wretches; and your talk shall be,
+With all the fierce endeavour of your wit,
+To enforce the pained impotent to smile.
+
+_Biron._ To move wild laughter in the throat of death?
+It cannot be; it is impossible;
+Mirth cannot move a soul in agony.
+
+_Ros._ Why, that's the way to choke a gibing spirit,
+Whose influence is begot of that loose grace,
+Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools;
+A jest's prosperity lies in the ear
+Of him that hears it, never in the tongue
+Of him that makes it: then, if sickly ears,
+Deaf'd with the clamours of their own dear groans,
+Will hear your idle scorns, continue then,
+And I will have you, and that fault withal:
+But, if they will not, throw away that spirit,
+And I shall find you empty of that fault,
+Right joyful of your reformation."
+
+Act v. sc. 2. In Biron's speech to the Princess:
+
+          "And, therefore, like the eye,
+Full of _straying_ shapes, of habits, and of forms"--
+
+either read _stray_, which I prefer; or throw _full_ back to the preceding
+lines,--
+
+        "Like the eye, full
+Of straying shapes," &c,
+
+In the same scene:--
+
+"_Biron._ And what to me, my love? and what to me?
+
+_Ros._ You must be purged too, your sins are rank;
+You are attaint with fault and perjury:
+Therefore, if you my favour mean to get,
+A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest,
+But seek the weary beds of people sick."
+
+There can be no doubt, indeed, about the propriety of expunging this
+speech of Rosaline's; it soils the very page that retains it. But I do not
+agree with Warburton and others in striking out the preceding line also.
+It is quite in Biron's character; and Rosaline, not answering it
+immediately, Dumain takes up the question for him, and, after he and
+Longaville are answered, Biron, with evident propriety, says:--
+
+"_Studies_ my mistress?" &c.
+
+
+
+
+"Midsummer Night's Dream."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Her._ O cross! too high to be enthrall'd to low--
+
+_Lys._ Or else misgrafted in respect of years;
+
+_Her._ O spite! too old to be engaged to young--
+
+_Lys._ Or else it stood upon the choice of friends;
+
+_Her._ O hell! to chuse love by another's eye!"
+
+There is no authority for any alteration;--but I never can help feeling how
+great an improvement it would be, if the two former of Hermia's
+exclamations were omitted;--the third and only appropriate one would then
+become a beauty, and most natural.
+
+_Ib._ Helena's speech:--
+
+"I will go tell him of fair Hermia's flight," &c.
+
+I am convinced that Shakespeare availed himself of the title of this play
+in his own mind, and worked upon it as a dream throughout, but especially,
+and perhaps unpleasingly, in this broad determination of ungrateful
+treachery in Helena, so undisguisedly avowed to herself, and this, too,
+after the witty cool philosophising that precedes. The act itself is
+natural, and the resolve so to act is, I fear, likewise too true a picture
+of the lax hold which principles have on a woman's heart, when opposed to,
+or even separated from, passion and inclination. For women are less
+hypocrites to their own minds than men are, because in general they feel
+less proportionate abhorrence of moral evil in and for itself, and more of
+its outward consequences, as detection and loss of character, than
+men,--their natures being almost wholly extroitive. Still, however just in
+itself, the representation of this is not poetical; we shrink from it, and
+cannot harmonise it with the ideal.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Theobald's edition--
+
+"_Through_ bush, _through_ briar--
+
+_Through_ flood, _through fire_--"
+
+What a noble pair of ears this worthy Theobald must have had! The eight
+amphimacers or cretics,--
+
+"Over hill, over dale,
+Thoro' bush, thoro' briar,
+Over park, over pale,
+Throro' flood, thoro' fire"--
+
+have a delightful effect on the ear in their sweet transition to the
+trochaic,--
+
+"I do wander ev'ry where
+Swifter than the moones sphere," &c.
+
+The last words, as sustaining the rhyme, must be considered, as in fact
+they are, trochees in time.
+
+It may be worth while to give some correct examples in English of the
+principle metrical feet:--
+
+Pyrrhic or Dibrach, u u = _body_, _spirit_.
+Tribrach, u u u = _nobody_, hastily pronounced.
+Iambus, u - = _delight_.
+Trochee, - u  = _lightly_.
+Spondee, - - = _God spake_.
+
+The paucity of spondees in single words in English, and indeed in the
+modern languages in general, makes perhaps the greatest distinction,
+metrically considered, between them and the Greek and Latin.
+
+Dactyl, - u u = _merrily_.
+Anapaest, u u - = _a propos_, or the first three syllables of _ceremony_.
+Amphibrachys, u - u = _delightful_.
+Amphimacer, - u - = _over hill_.
+Antibacchius, u -  = _the Lord God_.
+Bacchius, - - u = _Helvellyn_.
+Molossus, - - - = _John James Jones_.
+
+These simple feet may suffice for understanding the metres of Shakespeare,
+for the greater part at least;--but Milton cannot be made harmoniously
+intelligible without the composite feet, the Ionics, Paeons, and Epitrites.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Titania's speech (Theobald, adopting Warburton's reading):--
+
+"Which she, with pretty and with swimming gate
+_Follying_ (her womb then rich with my young squire)
+Would imitate," &c.
+
+Oh! oh! Heaven have mercy on poor Shakespeare, and also on Mr. Warburton's
+mind's eye!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Theseus' speech (Theobald):--
+
+"And what poor [_willing_] duty cannot do,
+Noble respect takes it in might, not merit."
+
+To my ears it would read far more Shakespearian thus:--
+
+"And what poor duty cannot do, _yet would_,
+Noble respect," &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Puck._ Now the hungry lion roars,
+  And the wolf behowls the moon;
+Whilst the heavy ploughman snores
+  All with weary task foredone," &c.
+
+Very Anacreon in perfectness, proportion, grace, and spontaneity! So far
+it is Greek;--but then add, O! what wealth, what wild ranging, and yet what
+compression and condensation of, English fancy! In truth, there is nothing
+in Anacreon more perfect than these thirty lines, or half so rich and
+imaginative. They form a speckless diamond.
+
+
+
+
+"Comedy Of Errors."
+
+
+The myriad-minded man, our, and all men's Shakespeare, has in this piece
+presented us with a legitimate farce in exactest consonance with the
+philosophical principles and character of farce, as distinguished from
+comedy and from entertainments. A proper farce is mainly distinguished
+from comedy by the licence allowed, and even required, in the fable, in
+order to produce strange and laughable situations. The story need not be
+probable, it is enough that it is possible. A comedy would scarcely allow
+even the two Antipholuses; because, although there have been instances of
+almost indistinguishable likeness in two persons, yet these are mere
+individual accidents, _casus ludentis naturae_, and the _verum_ will not
+excuse the _inverisimile_. But farce dares add the two Dromios, and is
+justified in so doing by the laws of its end and constitution. In a word,
+farces commence in a postulate, which must be granted.
+
+
+
+
+"As You Like It."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.
+
+"_Oli._ What, boy!
+
+_Orla._ Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this.
+
+_Oli._ Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain?"
+
+There is a beauty here. The word "boy" naturally provokes and awakens in
+Orlando the sense of his manly powers; and with the retort of "elder
+brother," he grasps him with firm hands, and makes him feel he is no boy.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Oli._ Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester: I hope, I
+shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why, hates nothing
+more than him. Yet he's gentle; never school'd, and yet learn'd; full of
+noble device; of all sorts enchantingly beloved! and, indeed, so much in
+the heart of the world, and especially of my own people, who best know
+him, that I am altogether misprised: but it shall not be so long; this
+wrestler shall clear all."
+
+This has always appeared to me one of the most un-Shakespearian speeches
+in all the genuine works of our poet; yet I should be nothing surprised,
+and greatly pleased, to find it hereafter a fresh beauty, as has so often
+happened to me with other supposed defects of great men.--1810.
+
+It is too venturous to charge a passage in Shakespeare with want of truth
+to nature; and yet at first sight this speech of Oliver's expresses
+truths, which it seems almost impossible that any mind should so
+distinctly, so livelily, and so voluntarily, have presented to itself, in
+connection with feelings and intentions so malignant, and so contrary to
+those which the qualities expressed would naturally have called forth. But
+I dare not say that this seeming unnaturalness is not in the nature of an
+abused wilfulness, when united with a strong intellect. In such characters
+there is sometimes a gloomy self-gratification in making the absoluteness
+of the will (_sit pro ratione voluntas!_) evident to themselves by setting
+the reason and the conscience in full array against it.--1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Celia._ If your saw yourself with _your_ eyes, or knew yourself with
+_your_ judgment, the fear of your adventure would counsel you to a more
+equal enterprise."
+
+Surely it should be "_our_ eyes" and "_our_ judgment."
+
+_Ib._ sc 3.--
+
+"_Cel._ But is all this for your father?
+
+_Ros._ No; some of it is for _my child's father_."
+
+Theobald restores this as the reading of the older editions. It may be so:
+but who can doubt that it is a mistake for "my father's child," meaning
+herself? According to Theobald's note, a most indelicate anticipation is
+put into the mouth of Rosalind without reason;--and besides, what a strange
+thought, and how out of place and unintelligible!
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+"Take thou no scorn
+To wear the horn, the lusty horn;
+It was a crest ere thou wast born."
+
+I question whether there exists a parallel instance of a phrase, that like
+this of "horns" is universal in all languages, and yet for which no one
+has discovered even a plausible origin.
+
+
+
+
+"Twelfth Night."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Duke's speech:--
+
+      ... "So full of shapes is fancy,
+That it alone is high fantastical."
+
+Warburton's alteration of _is_ into _in_ is needless. "Fancy" may very
+well be interpreted "exclusive affection," or "passionate preference."
+Thus, bird-fanciers; gentlemen of the fancy, that is, amateurs of boxing,
+&c. The play of assimilation,--the meaning one sense chiefly, and yet
+keeping both senses in view, is perfectly Shakespearian.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3. Sir Andrew's speech:--
+
+An explanatory note on _Pigrogromitus_ would have been more acceptable
+than Theobald's grand discovery that "lemon" ought to be "leman."
+
+_Ib._ Sir Toby's speech (Warburton's note on the Peripatetic philosophy):--
+
+"Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch, that will draw three
+"souls out of one weaver?"
+
+O genuine, and inimitable (at least I hope so) Warburton! This note of
+thine, if but one in five millions, would be half a one too much.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Duke._ My life upon't, young though thou art, thine eye
+Hath stay'd upon some favour that it loves;
+Hath it not, boy?
+
+_Vio._ A little, by your favour.
+
+_Duke._ What kind of woman is't?"
+
+And yet Viola was to have been presented to Orsino as a eunuch!--Act i. sc.
+2. Viola's speech. Either she forgot this, or else she had altered her
+plan.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Vio._ A blank, my lord: she never told her love!--
+But let concealment," &c.
+
+After the first line (of which the last five words should be spoken with,
+and drop down in, a deep sigh), the actress ought to make a pause; and
+then start afresh, from the activity of thought, born of suppressed
+feelings, and which thought had accumulated during the brief interval, as
+vital heat under the skin during a dip in cold water.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Fabian._ Though our silence be drawn from us by _cars_, yet
+peace."
+
+Perhaps, "cables."
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Clown._ A sentence is but a _cheveril_ glove to a good wit."
+(Theobald's note.)
+
+Theobald's etymology of "cheveril" is, of course, quite right;--but he is
+mistaken in supposing that there were no such things as gloves of
+chicken-skin. They were at one time a main article in chirocosmetics.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Clown's speech:--
+
+"So that, _conclusions to be as kisses_, if your four negatives make
+your two affirmatives, why, then, the worse for my friends, and the
+better for my foes."
+
+(Warburton reads "conclusion to be asked, is.")
+
+Surely Warburton could never have wooed by kisses and won, or he would not
+have flounder-flatted so just and humorous, nor less pleasing than
+humorous, an image into so profound a nihility. In the name of love and
+wonder, do not four kisses make a double affirmative? The humour lies in
+the whispered "No!" and the inviting "Don't!" with which the maiden's
+kisses are accompanied, and thence compared to negatives, which by
+repetition constitute an affirmative.
+
+
+
+
+"All's Well That Ends Well."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Count._ If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes
+it soon mortal.
+
+_Bert._ _Madam, I desire your holy wishes._
+
+_Laf._ _How understand we that?_"
+
+Bertram and Lafeu, I imagine, both speak together,--Lafeu referring to the
+Countess's rather obscure remark.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. (Warburton's note.)
+
+"_King._   ... let _higher_ Italy
+(Those _'bated_, that inherit but the fall
+Of the last monarchy) see, that you come
+Not to woo honour, but to wed it."
+
+It would be, I own, an audacious and unjustifiable change of the text; but
+yet, as a mere conjecture, I venture to suggest "bastards," for "'bated."
+As it stands, in spite of Warburton's note, I can make little or nothing
+of it. Why should the king except the then most illustrious states, which,
+as being republics, were the more truly inheritors of the Roman
+grandeur?--With my conjecture, the sense would be;--"let higher, or the more
+northern part of Italy--(unless 'higher' be a corruption for 'hir'd,'--the
+metre seeming to demand a monosyllable) (those bastards that inherit the
+infamy only of their fathers) see," &c. The following "woo" and "wed" are
+so far confirmative as they indicate Shakespeare's manner of connection by
+unmarked influences of association from some preceding metaphor. This it
+is which makes his style so peculiarly vital and organic. Likewise "those
+girls of Italy" strengthen the guess. The absurdity of Warburton's gloss,
+which represents the king calling Italy superior, and then excepting the
+only part the lords were going to visit, must strike every one.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3.--
+
+"_Laf._ They say, miracles are past; and we have our philosophical
+persons to make modern and familiar, things supernatural
+and _causeless_."
+
+Shakespeare, inspired, as it might seem, with all knowledge, here uses the
+word "causeless" in its strict philosophical sense;--cause being truly
+predicable only of _phenomena_, that is, things natural, and not of
+_noumena_, or things supernatural.
+
+Act iii. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Dia._ The Count Rousillon:--know you such a one?
+
+_Hel._ But by the ear that hears most nobly of him;
+His face I know not."
+
+Shall we say here, that Shakespeare has unnecessarily made his loveliest
+character utter a lie?--Or shall we dare think that, where to deceive was
+necessary, he thought a pretended verbal verity a double crime, equally
+with the other a lie to the hearer, and at the same time an attempt to lie
+to one's own conscience?
+
+
+
+
+"Merry Wives Of Windsor."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish, the salt fish is an old coat."
+
+I cannot understand this. Perhaps there is a corruption both of words and
+speakers. Shallow no sooner corrects one mistake of Sir Hugh's, namely,
+"louse" for "luce," a pike, but the honest Welchman falls into another,
+namely, "cod" (_baccala_). _Cambrice_--"cot" for coat.
+
+"_Shal._ The luce is the fresh fish--
+
+_Evans._ The salt fish is an old cot."
+
+"Luce is a fresh fish, and not a louse;" says Shallow. "Aye, aye," quoth
+Sir Hugh; "the _fresh_ fish is the luce; it is an old cod that is the salt
+fish." At all events, as the text stands, there is no sense at all in the
+words.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3--
+
+"_Fal._ Now, the report goes, she has all the rule of her husband's
+purse; He hath a legion of angels.
+
+_Pist._ As many devils entertain; and _To her, boy_, say I."
+
+Perhaps it is--
+
+"As many devils enter (or enter'd) swine; and _to her, boy_,
+say I:"--
+
+a somewhat profane, but not un-Shakespearian, allusion to the "legion" in
+St. Luke's "gospel."
+
+
+
+
+"Measure For Measure."
+
+
+This play, which is Shakespeare's throughout, is to me the most
+painful--say rather, the only painful--part of his genuine works. The comic
+and tragic parts equally border on the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~},--the one being disgusting,
+the other horrible; and the pardon and marriage of Angelo not merely
+baffles the strong indignant claim of justice--(for cruelty, with lust and
+damnable baseness, cannot be forgiven, because we cannot conceive them as
+being morally repented of); but it is likewise degrading to the character
+of woman. Beaumont and Fletcher, who can follow Shakespeare in his errors
+only, have presented a still worse, because more loathsome and
+contradictory, instance of the same kind in the _Night-Walker_, in the
+marriage of Alathe to Algripe. Of the counter-balancing beauties of
+_Measure for Measure_, I need say nothing; for I have already remarked
+that the play is Shakespeare's throughout.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"Ay, but to die, and go we know not where," &c.
+
+
+    "This natural fear of Claudio, from the antipathy we have to
+    death, seems very little varied from that infamous wish of
+    Maecenas, recorded in the 101st epistle of Seneca:--
+
+    "_Debilem facito manu,_
+    _Debilem pede, coxa_" &c.--Warburton's note.
+
+
+I cannot but think this rather a heroic resolve, than an infamous wish. It
+appears to me to be the grandest symptom of an immortal spirit, when even
+that bedimmed and overwhelmed spirit recked not of its own immortality,
+still to seek to be,--to be a mind, a will.
+
+As fame is to reputation, so heaven is to an estate, or immediate
+advantage. The difference is, that the self-love of the former cannot
+exist but by a complete suppression and habitual supplantation of
+immediate selfishness. In one point of view, the miser is more estimable
+than the spendthrift;--only that the miser's present feelings are as much
+of the present as the spendthrift's. But _caeteris paribus_, that is, upon
+the supposition that whatever is good or lovely in the one coexists
+equally in the other, then, doubtless, the master of the present is less a
+selfish being, an animal, than he who lives for the moment with no
+inheritance in the future. Whatever can degrade man, is supposed in the
+latter case; whatever can elevate him, in the former. And as to
+self;--strange and generous self! that can only be such a self by a
+complete divestment of all that men call self,--of all that can make it
+either practically to others, or consciously to the individual himself,
+different from the human race in its ideal. Such self is but a perpetual
+religion, an inalienable acknowledgment of God, the sole basis and ground
+of being. In this sense, how can I love God, and not love myself, as far
+as it is of God?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"Pattern in himself to know,
+Grace to stand, and virtue go."
+
+Worse metre, indeed, but better English would be,--
+
+"Grace to stand, virtue to go."
+
+
+
+
+"Cymbeline."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"You do not meet a man, but frowns: our bloods
+No more obey the heavens, than our courtiers'
+Still seem, as does the king's."
+
+There can be little doubt of Mr. Tyrwhitt's emendations of "courtiers" and
+"king," as to the sense;--only it is not impossible that Shakespeare's
+dramatic language may allow of the word "brows" or "faces" being
+understood after the word "courtiers'," which might then remain in the
+genitive case plural. But the nominative plural makes excellent sense, and
+is sufficiently elegant, and sounds to my ear Shakespearian. What,
+however, is meant by "our bloods no more obey the heavens?"--Dr. Johnson's
+assertion that "bloods" signify "countenances," is, I think, mistaken both
+in the thought conveyed--(for it was never a popular belief that the stars
+governed men's countenances)--and in the usage, which requires an
+antithesis of the blood,--or the temperament of the four humours, choler,
+melancholy, phlegm, and the red globules, or the sanguine portion, which
+was supposed not to be in our own power, but to be dependent on the
+influences of the heavenly bodies,--and the countenances which are in our
+power really, though from flattery we bring them into a no less apparent
+dependence on the sovereign, than the former are in actual dependence on
+the constellations.
+
+I have sometimes thought that the word "courtiers" was a misprint for
+"countenances," arising from an anticipation, by foreglance of the
+compositor's eye, of the word "courtier" a few lines below. The written
+_r_ is easily and often confounded with, the written _n_. The compositor
+read the first syllable _court_, and--his eye at the same time catching the
+word "courtier" lower down--he completed the word without reconsulting the
+copy. It is not unlikely that Shakespeare intended first to express,
+generally, the same thought, which a little afterwards he repeats with a
+particular application to the persons meant;--a common usage of the
+pronominal "our," where the speaker does not really mean to include
+himself; and the word "you" is an additional confirmation of the "our,"
+being used in this place for "men" generally and indefinitely,--just as
+"you do not meet" is the same as "one does not meet."
+
+Act i. sc. 1 Imogen's speech:--
+
+          ... "My dearest husband,
+I something fear my father's wrath; but nothing
+(Always reserved my holy duty) what
+His rage can do on me;"
+
+Place the emphasis on "me"; for "rage" is a mere repetition of "wrath."
+
+"_Cym._ O disloyal thing;
+That should'st repair my youth; thou heapest
+A year's age on me!"
+
+How is it that the commentators take no notice of the un-Shakespearian
+defect in the metre of the second line, and what in Shakespeare is the
+same, in the harmony with the sense and feeling? Some word or words must
+have slipped out after "youth,"--possibly "and see":--
+
+"That should'st repair my youth!--and see, thou heap'st," &c.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Pisanio's speech:--
+
+          ... "For so long
+As he could make me with _this_ eye or ear
+Distinguish him from others," &c.
+
+But "_this_ eye," in spite of the supposition of its being used {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+is very awkward. I should think that either "or" or "the" was
+Shakespeare's word;--
+
+"As he could make me or with eye or ear."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Iachimo's speech:--
+
+        ... "Hath nature given them eyes
+To see this vaulted arch, and the rich crop
+Of sea and land, which can distinguish 'twixt
+The fiery orbs above, and the twinn'd stones
+Upon the number'd beach."
+
+I would suggest "cope" for "crop." As to "twinn'd stones"--may it not be a
+bold _catachresis_ for muscles, cockles, and other empty shells with
+hinges, which are truly twinned? I would take Dr. Farmer's "umber'd,"
+which I had proposed before I ever heard of its having been already
+offered by him: but I do not adopt his interpretation of the word, which I
+think is not derived from _umbra_, a shade, but from _umber_, a dingy
+yellow-brown soil, which most commonly forms the mass of the sludge on the
+sea-shore, and on the banks of tide-rivers at low water. One other
+possible interpretation of this sentence has occurred to me, just barely
+worth mentioning;--that the "twinn'd stones" are the _augrim_ stones upon
+the number'd beech,--that is, the astronomical tables of beech-wood.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Sooth._ When, as a lion's whelp," &c.
+
+It is not easy to conjecture why Shakespeare should have introduced this
+ludicrous scroll, which answers no one purpose, either propulsive, or
+explicatory, unless as a joke on etymology.
+
+
+
+
+"Titus Andronicus."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Theobald's note:--
+
+
+    "I never heard it so much as intimated, that he (Shakespeare) had
+    turned his genius to stage-writing, before he associated with the
+    players, and became one of their body."
+
+
+That Shakespeare never "turned his genius to stage-writing," as Theobald
+most _Theobaldice_ phrases it, before he became an actor, is an assertion
+of about as much authority as the precious story that he left Stratford
+for deer-stealing, and that he lived by holding gentlemen's horses at the
+doors of the theatre, and other trash of that arch-gossip, old Aubrey. The
+metre is an argument against _Titus Andronicus_ being Shakespeare's, worth
+a score such chronological surmises. Yet I incline to think that both in
+this play and in _Jeronymo_, Shakespeare wrote some passages, and that
+they are the earliest of his compositions.
+
+Act v. sc. 2. I think it not improbable that the lines from--
+
+"I am not mad; I know thee well enough;
+
+to
+
+So thou destroy Rapine, and Murder there"--
+
+were written by Shakespeare in his earliest period. But instead of the
+text--
+
+    "Revenge, _which makes the foul offenders quake._
+_Tit. Art thou_ Revenge? and art thou sent to me?"--
+
+the words in italics ought to be omitted.
+
+
+
+
+"Troilus And Cressida."
+
+
+    "Mr. Pope (after Dryden) informs us that the story of _Troilus and
+    Cressida_ was originally the work of one Lollius, a Lombard: but
+    Dryden goes yet further; he declares it to have been written in
+    Latin verse, and that Chaucer translated it. _Lollius was a
+    historiographer of Urbino in Italy._"--Note in Stockdale's edition,
+    1807.
+
+
+"Lollius was a historiographer of Urbino in Italy." So affirms the notary
+to whom the Sieur Stockdale committed the _disfacimento_ of Ayscough's
+excellent edition of Shakespeare. Pity that the researchful notary has not
+either told us in what century, and of what history, he was a writer, or
+been simply content to depose, that Lollius, if a writer of that name
+existed at all, was a somewhat somewhere. The notary speaks of the _Troy
+Boke_ of Lydgate, printed in 1513. I have never seen it; but I deeply
+regret that Chalmers did not substitute the whole of Lydgate's works from
+the MSS. extant, for the almost worthless Gower.
+
+The _Troilus and Cressida_ of Shakespeare can scarcely be classed with his
+dramas of Greek and Roman history; but it forms an intermediate link
+between the fictitious Greek and Roman histories, which we may call
+legendary dramas, and the proper ancient histories,--that is, between the
+_Pericles_ or _Titus Andronicus_, and the _Coriolanus_ or _Julius Caesar_.
+_Cymbeline_ is a _congener_ with _Pericles_, and distinguished from _Lear_
+by not having any declared prominent object. But where shall we class the
+_Timon of Athens_? Perhaps immediately below _Lear_. It is a _Lear_ of the
+satirical drama; a _Lear_ of domestic or ordinary life;--a local eddy of
+passion on the high road of society, while all around is the week-day
+goings on of wind and weather; a _Lear_, therefore, without its
+soul-searching flashes, its ear-cleaving thunder-claps, its meteoric
+splendours,--without the contagion and the fearful sympathies of nature,
+the fates, the furies, the frenzied elements, dancing in and out, now
+breaking through and scattering,--now hand in hand with,--the fierce or
+fantastic group of human passions, crimes, and anguishes, reeling on the
+unsteady ground, in a wild harmony to the shock and the swell of an
+earthquake. But my present subject was _Troilus and Cressida_; and I
+suppose that, scarcely knowing what to say of it, I by a cunning of
+instinct ran off to subjects on which I should find it difficult not to
+say too much, though certain after all that I should still leave the
+better part unsaid, and the gleaning for others richer than my own
+harvest.
+
+Indeed, there is no one of Shakespeare's plays harder to characterise. The
+name and the remembrances connected with it, prepare us for the
+representation of attachment no less faithful than fervent on the side of
+the youth, and of sudden and shameless inconstancy on the part of the
+lady. And this is, indeed, as the gold thread on which the scenes are
+strung, though often kept out of sight and out of mind by gems of greater
+value than itself. But as Shakespeare calls forth nothing from the
+mausoleum of history, or the catacombs of tradition, without giving, or
+eliciting, some permanent and general interest, and brings forward no
+subject which he does not moralise or intellectualise,--so here he has
+drawn in Cressida the portrait of a vehement passion, that, having its
+true origin and proper cause in warmth of temperament, fastens on, rather
+than fixes to, some one object by liking and temporary preference.
+
+"There's language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,
+Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirit looks out
+At every joint and motive of her body."
+
+This Shakespeare has contrasted with the profound affection represented in
+Troilus, and alone worthy the name of love;--affection, passionate
+indeed,--swoln with the confluence of youthful instincts and youthful
+fancy, and growing in the radiance of hope newly risen, in short, enlarged
+by the collective sympathies of nature;--but still having a depth of calmer
+element in a will stronger than desire, more entire than choice, and which
+gives permanence to its own act by converting it into faith and duty.
+Hence, with excellent judgment, and with an excellence higher than mere
+judgment can give, at the close of the play, when Cressida has sunk into
+infamy below retrieval and beneath hope, the same will, which had been the
+substance and the basis of his love, while the restless pleasures and
+passionate longings, like sea-waves, had tossed but on its surface,--this
+same moral energy is represented as snatching him aloof from all
+neighbourhood with her dishonour, from all lingering fondness and
+languishing regrets, whilst it rushes with him into other and nobler
+duties, and deepens the channel, which his heroic brother's death had left
+empty for its collected flood. Yet another secondary and subordinate
+purpose Shakespeare has inwoven with his delineation of these two
+characters,--that of opposing the inferior civilisation, but purer morals,
+of the Trojans to the refinements, deep policy, but duplicity and sensual
+corruptions of the Greeks.
+
+To all this, however, so little comparative projection is given,--nay, the
+masterly group of Agamemnon, Nestor, and Ulysses, and, still more in
+advance, that of Achilles, Ajax, and Thersites, so manifestly occupying
+the fore-ground, that the subservience and vassalage of strength and
+animal courage to intellect and policy seems to be the lesson most often
+in our poet's view, and which he has taken little pains to connect with
+the former more interesting moral impersonated in the titular hero and
+heroine of the drama. But I am half inclined to believe, that
+Shakespeare's main object, or shall I rather say his ruling impulse, was
+to translate the poetic heroes of paganism into the not less rude, but
+more intellectually vigorous, and more _featurely_, warriors of Christian
+chivalry,--and to substantiate the distinct and graceful profiles or
+outlines of the Homeric epic into the flesh and blood of the romantic
+drama;--in short, to give a grand history-piece in the robust style of
+Albert Durer.
+
+The character of Thersites, in particular, well deserves a more careful
+examination, as the Caliban of demagogic life;--the admirable portrait of
+intellectual power deserted by all grace, all moral principle, all not
+momentary impulse;--just wise enough to detect the weak head, and fool
+enough to provoke the armed fist of his betters;--one whom malcontent
+Achilles can inveigle from malcontent Ajax, under the one condition, that
+he shall be called on to do nothing but abuse and slander, and that he
+shall be allowed to abuse as much and as purulently as he likes, that is,
+as he can;--in short, a mule,--quarrelsome by the original discord of his
+nature;--a slave by tenure of his own baseness,--made to bray and be brayed
+at, to despise and be despicable. "Aye, Sir, but say what you will, he is
+a very clever fellow, though the best friends will fall out. There was a
+time when Ajax thought he deserved to have a statue of gold erected to him
+and handsome Achilles, at the head of the Myrmidons, gave no little credit
+to his _friend Thersites_!"
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Speech of Ulysses:--
+
+"O, these encounterers, so glib of tongue,
+That give a _coasting_ welcome ere it comes"--
+
+Should it be "accosting?" "Accost her, knight, accost!" in the _Twelfth
+Night_. Yet there sounds a something so Shakespearian in the phrase--"give
+a coasting welcome" ("coasting" being taken as the epithet and adjective
+of "welcome"), that had the following words been, "ere _they land_,"
+instead of "ere it comes," I should have preferred the interpretation. The
+sense now is, "that give welcome to a salute ere it comes."
+
+
+
+
+"Coriolanus."
+
+
+This play illustrates the wonderfully philosophic impartiality of
+Shakespeare's politics. His own country's history furnished him with no
+matter but what was too recent to be devoted to patriotism. Besides, he
+knew that the instruction of ancient history would seem more
+dispassionate. In _Coriolanus_ and _Julius Caesar_, you see Shakespeare's
+good-natured laugh at mobs. Compare this with Sir Thomas Brown's
+aristocracy of spirit.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Marcius' speech:--
+
+          ... "He that depends
+Upon your favours, swims with fins of lead,
+And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye?"
+
+I suspect that Shakespeare wrote it transposed!
+
+"Trust ye? Hang ye!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 10. Speech of Aufidius:--
+
+          ... "Mine emulation
+Hath not that honour in't, it had; for where
+I thought to crush him in an equal force,
+True sword to sword; I'll potch at him some way
+Or wrath, or craft may get him.--
+          ... My valour (poison'd
+With only suffering stain by him) for him
+Shall fly out of itself: nor sleep, nor sanctuary,
+Being naked, sick, nor fane, nor capitol,
+The prayers of priests, nor times of sacrifices,
+Embankments all of fury, shall lift up
+Their rotten privilege and custom 'gainst
+My hate to Marcius."
+
+I have such deep faith in Shakespeare's heart-lore, that I take for
+granted that this is in nature, and not as a mere anomaly; although I
+cannot in myself discover any germ of possible feeling, which could wax
+and unfold itself into such sentiment as this. However, I perceive that in
+this speech is meant to be contained a prevention of shock at the
+after-change in Aufidius's character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Menenius:--
+
+"The most sovereign prescription in _Galen_," &c.
+
+Was it without, or in contempt of, historical information that Shakespeare
+made the contemporaries of Coriolanus quote Cato and Galen? I cannot
+decide to my own satisfaction.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Coriolanus:--
+
+"Why in this wolvish toge should I stand hero"
+
+That the gown of the candidate was of whitened wool, we know. Does
+"wolvish" or "woolvish" mean "made of wool?" If it means "wolfish," what
+is the sense?
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Speech of Aufidius:--
+
+"All places yield to him ere he sits down," &c.
+
+I have always thought this, in itself so beautiful speech, the least
+explicable from the mood and full intention of the speaker of any in the
+whole works of Shakespeare. I cherish the hope that I am mistaken, and
+that, becoming wiser, I shall discover some profound excellence in that,
+in which I now appear to detect an imperfection.
+
+
+
+
+"Julius Caesar."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Mar._ What meanest _thou_ by that? Mend me, thou saucy
+fellow!"
+
+The speeches of Flavius and Marullus are in blank verse. Wherever regular
+metre can be rendered truly imitative of character, passion, or personal
+rank, Shakespeare seldom, if ever, neglects it. Hence this line should be
+read:--
+
+"What mean'st by that? mend me, thou saucy fellow!"
+
+I say regular metre: for even the prose has in the highest and lowest
+dramatic personage, a Cobbler or a Hamlet, a rhythm so felicitous and so
+severally appropriate, as to be a virtual metre.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Bru._ A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March."
+
+If my ear does not deceive me, the metre of this line was meant to express
+that sort of mild philosophic contempt, characterising Brutus even in his
+first casual speech. The line is a trimeter,--each _dipodia_ containing two
+accented and two unaccented syllables, but variously arranged, as thus:--
+
+u -   - u  |  -    u   u -   |  u  -  u  -
+A soothsayer   | bids you beware     | the Ides of March.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"Set honour in one eye, and death i' the other,
+And I will look on _both_ indifferently."
+
+Warburton would read "death" for "both;" but I prefer the old text. There
+are here three things, the public good, the individual Brutus' honour, and
+his death. The latter two so balanced each other, that he could decide for
+the first by equipoise; nay--the thought growing--that honour had more
+weight than death. That Cassius understood it as Warburton, is the beauty
+of Cassius as contrasted with Brutus.
+
+_Ib._ Caesar's speech:--
+
+          ... "He loves no plays
+As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music," &c.
+
+
+    "This is not a trivial observation, nor does our poet mean barely
+    by it, that Cassius was not a merry, sprightly man; but that he
+    had not a due temperament of harmony in his
+    disposition."--Theobald's note.
+
+
+O Theobald! what a commentator wast thou, when thou would'st affect to
+understand Shakespeare, instead of contenting thyself with collating the
+text! The meaning here is too deep for a line ten-fold the length of thine
+to fathom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Caesar's speech:--
+
+"Be _factious_ for redress of all these griefs;
+And I will set this foot of mine as far,
+As who goes farthest."
+
+I understand it thus: "You have spoken as a conspirator; be so in _fact_,
+and I will join you. Act on your principles, and realize them in a fact."
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"It must be by his death; and, for my part,
+I know no personal cause to spurn at him,
+But for the general. He would be crown'd:
+How that might change his nature, there's the question.
+          ... And, to speak truth of Caesar,
+I have not known when his affections sway'd
+More than his reason.
+          ... So Caesar may;
+Then, lest he may, prevent."
+
+This speech is singular;--at least, I do not at present see into
+Shakespeare's motive, his _rationale_, or in what point of view he meant
+Brutus' character to appear. For surely--(this, I mean, is what I say to
+myself, with my present _quantum_ of insight, only modified by my
+experience in how many instances I have ripened into a perception of
+beauties, where I had before descried faults;) surely, nothing can seem
+more discordant with our historical preconceptions of Brutus, or more
+lowering to the intellect of the Stoico-Platonic tyrannicide, than the
+tenets here attributed to him--to him, the stern Roman republican;
+namely,--that he would have no objection to a king, or to Caesar, a monarch
+in Rome, would Caesar but be as good a monarch as he now seems disposed to
+be! How, too, could Brutus say that he found no personal cause--none in
+Caesar's past conduct as a man? Had he not passed the Rubicon? Had he not
+entered Rome as a conqueror? Had he not placed his Gauls in the
+Senate?--Shakespeare, it may be said, has not brought these things
+forward--True;--and this is just the ground of my perplexity. What character
+did Shakespeare mean his Brutus to be?
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Brutus:--
+
+"For if thou _path_, thy native semblance on."
+
+Surely, there need be no scruple in treating this "path" as a mere
+misprint or mis-script for "put." In what place does Shakespeare--where
+does any other writer of the same age--use "path" as a verb for "walk?"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Caesar's speech:--
+
+"She dreamt to-night, she saw my _statue_."
+
+No doubt, it should be _statua_, as in the same age, they more often
+pronounced "heroes" as a trisyllable than dissyllable. A modern tragic
+poet would have written,--
+
+"Last night she dreamt that she my statue saw."
+
+But Shakespeare never avails himself of the supposed license of
+transposition, merely for the metre. There is always some logic either of
+thought or passion to justify it.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Antony's speech:--
+
+"Pardon me, Julius--here wast thou bay'd, brave hart:
+Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand
+Sign'd in thy spoil, and crimson'd in thy lethe.
+_O world! thou wast the forest to this hart,_
+_And this, indeed, O world! the heart of thee._"
+
+I doubt the genuineness of the last two lines;--not because they are vile;
+but first, on account of the rhythm, which is not Shakespearian, but just
+the very tune of some old play, from which the actor might have
+interpolated them;--and secondly, because they interrupt, not only the
+sense and connection, but likewise the flow both of the passion, and (what
+is with me still more decisive) of the Shakespearian link of association.
+As with many another parenthesis or gloss slipt into the text, we have
+only to read the passage without it, to see that it never was in it. I
+venture to say there is no instance in Shakespeare fairly like this.
+Conceits he has; but they not only rise out of some word in the lines
+before, but also lead to the thought in the lines following. Here the
+conceit is a mere alien: Antony forgets an image, when he is even touching
+it, and then recollects it, when the thought last in his mind must have
+led him away from it.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Brutus:--
+
+          ... "What, shall one of us,
+That struck the foremost man of all this world,
+But for _supporting robbers_."
+
+This seemingly strange assertion of Brutus is unhappily verified in the
+present day. What is an immense army, in which the lust of plunder has
+quenched all the duties of the citizen, other than a horde of robbers, or
+differenced only as fiends are from ordinarily reprobate men? Caesar
+supported, and was supported by, such as these;--and even so Buonaparte in
+our days.
+
+I know no part of Shakespeare that more impresses on me the belief of his
+genius being superhuman, than this scene between Brutus and Cassius. In
+the Gnostic heresy it might have been credited with less absurdity than
+most of their dogmas, that the Supreme had employed him to create,
+previously to his function of representing, characters.
+
+
+
+
+"Antony And Cleopatra."
+
+
+Shakespeare can be complimented only by comparison with himself: all other
+eulogies are either heterogeneous, as when they are in reference to
+Spenser or Milton; or they are flat truisms, as when he is gravely
+preferred to Corneille, Racine, or even his own immediate successors,
+Beaumont and Fletcher, Massinger and the rest. The highest praise, or
+rather form of praise, of this play, which I can offer in my own mind, is
+the doubt which the perusal always occasions in me, whether the _Antony
+and Cleopatra_ is not, in all exhibitions of a giant power in its strength
+and vigour of maturity, a formidable rival of _Macbeth_, _Lear_, _Hamlet_,
+and _Othello_. _Feliciter audax_ is the motto for its style comparatively
+with that of Shakespeare's other works, even as it is the general motto of
+all his works compared with those of other poets. Be it remembered, too,
+that this happy valiancy of style is but the representative and result of
+all the material excellencies so expressed.
+
+This play should be perused in mental contrast with _Romeo and Juliet_;--as
+the love of passion and appetite opposed to the love of affection and
+instinct. But the art displayed in the character of Cleopatra is profound;
+in this, especially, that the sense of criminality in her passion is
+lessened by our insight into its depth and energy, at the very moment that
+we cannot but perceive that the passion itself springs out of the habitual
+craving of a licentious nature, and that it is supported and reinforced by
+voluntary stimulus and sought-for associations, instead of blossoming out
+of spontaneous emotion.
+
+Of all Shakespeare's historical plays, _Antony and Cleopatra_ is by far
+the most wonderful. There is not one in which he has followed history so
+minutely, and yet there are few in which he impresses the notion of
+angelic strength so much;--perhaps none in which he impresses it more
+strongly. This is greatly owing to the manner in which the fiery force is
+sustained throughout, and to the numerous momentary flashes of nature
+counteracting the historic abstraction. As a wonderful specimen of the way
+in which Shakespeare lives up to the very end of this play, read the last
+part of the concluding scene. And if you would feel the judgment as well
+as the genius of Shakespeare in your heart's core, compare this
+astonishing drama with Dryden's _All For Love_.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Philo's speech:--
+
+          ... "His captain's heart
+Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst
+The buckles on his breast, _reneges_ all temper."
+
+It should be "reneagues," or "reniegues," as "fatigues," &c.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"Take but good note, and you shall see in him
+The triple pillar of the world transform'd
+Into a strumpet's _fool_."
+
+Warburton's conjecture of "stool" is ingenious, and would be a probable
+reading, if the scene opening had discovered Antony with Cleopatra on his
+lap. But, represented as he is walking and jesting with her, "fool" must
+be the word. Warburton's objection is shallow, and implies that he
+confounded the dramatic with the epic style. The "pillar" of a state is so
+common a metaphor as to have lost the image in the thing meant to be
+imaged.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+          ... "Much is breeding;
+Which, like the courser's hair, hath yet but life,
+And not a serpent's poison."
+
+This is so far true to appearance, that a horse-hair, "laid," as
+Hollinshed says, "in a pail of water," will become the supporter of
+seemingly one worm, though probably of an immense number of small slimy
+water-lice. The hair will twirl round a finger, and sensibly compress it.
+It is a common experiment with school boys in Cumberland and Westmoreland.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Speech of Enobarbus:--
+
+"Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides,
+So many _mermaids_, tended her i' th' eyes,
+And made their bends adornings. At the helm
+A seeming mermaid steers."
+
+I have the greatest difficulty in believing that Shakespeare wrote the
+first "mermaids." He never, I think, would have so weakened by useless
+anticipation the fine image immediately following. The epithet "seeming"
+becomes so extremely improper after the whole number had been positively
+called "so many mermaids."
+
+
+
+
+"Timon Of Athens."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Tim._ The man is honest.
+
+_Old Ath._ _Therefore he will be_, Timon.
+His honesty rewards him in itself."
+
+Warburton's comment--"If the man be honest, for that reason he will be so
+in this, and not endeavour at the injustice of gaining my daughter without
+my consent"--is, like almost all his comments, ingenious in blunder; he can
+never see any other writer's thoughts for the mist-working swarm of his
+own. The meaning of the first line the poet himself explains, or rather
+unfolds, in the second. "The man is honest!"--"True;--and for that very
+cause, and with no additional or extrinsic motive, he will be so. No man
+can be justly called honest, who is not so for honesty's sake, itself
+including its own reward." Note, that "honesty" in Shakespeare's age
+retained much of its old dignity, and that contradistinction of the
+_honestum_ from the _utile_, in which its very essence and definition
+consist. If it be _honestum_, it cannot depend on the _utile_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Apemantus, printed as prose in Theobald's edition:--
+
+"So, so! aches contract, and starve your supple joints!"
+
+I may remark here the fineness of Shakespeare's sense of musical period,
+which would almost by itself have suggested (if the hundred positive
+proofs had not been extant) that the word "aches" was then _ad libitum_, a
+dissyllable--_aitches_. For read it "aches," in this sentence, and I would
+challenge you to find any period in Shakespeare's writings with the same
+musical or, rather dissonant, notation. Try the one, and then the other,
+by your ear, reading the sentence aloud, first with the word as a
+dissyllable and then as a monosyllable, and you will feel what I mean.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cupid's speech: Warburton's correction of--
+
+"There taste, touch, all pleas'd from thy table rise"--
+
+into
+
+"Th' ear, taste, touch, smell," &c.
+
+This is indeed an excellent emendation.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Senator's speech:--
+
+          ... "Nor then silenc'd with
+"Commend me to your master"--_and the cap_
+_Plays in the right hand, thus_."
+
+Either, methinks, "plays" should be "play'd," or "and" should be changed
+to "while." I can certainly understand it as a parenthesis, an
+interadditive of scorn; but it does not sound to my ear as in
+Shakespeare's manner.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Timon's speech (Theobald):--
+
+"And that unaptness made _you_ minister,
+Thus to excuse yourself."
+
+Read _your_;--at least I cannot otherwise understand the line. You made my
+chance indisposition and occasional inaptness your minister--that is, the
+ground on which you now excuse yourself. Or, perhaps, no correction is
+necessary, if we construe "made you" as "did you make;" "and that
+unaptness did you make help you thus to excuse yourself." But the former
+seems more in Shakespeare's manner, and is less liable to be
+misunderstood.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Servant's speech:--
+
+
+    "How fairly this lord strives to appear foul!--takes virtuous
+    copies to be wicked; _like those that under hot, ardent zeal would
+    set whole realms on fire. Of such a nature is his politic love_."
+
+
+This latter clause I grievously suspect to have been an addition of the
+players, which had hit, and, being constantly applauded, procured a
+settled occupation in the prompter's copy. Not that Shakespeare does not
+elsewhere sneer at the Puritans; but here it is introduced so _nolenter
+volenter_ (excuse the phrase) by the head and shoulders!--and is besides so
+much more likely to have been conceived in the age of Charles I.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Timon's speech:--
+
+"Raise me this beggar, and _deny't_ that lord."
+
+Warburton reads "denude."
+
+I cannot see the necessity of this alteration. The editors and
+commentators are, all of them, ready enough to cry out against
+Shakespeare's laxities and licenses of style, forgetting that he is not
+merely a poet, but a dramatic poet; that, when the head and the heart are
+swelling with fulness, a man does not ask himself whether he has
+grammatically arranged, but only whether (the context taken in) he has
+conveyed his meaning. "Deny" is here clearly equal to "withhold;" and the
+"it," quite in the genius of vehement conversation, which a syntaxist
+explains by ellipses and _subauditurs_ in a Greek or Latin classic, yet
+triumphs over as ignorances in a contemporary, refers to accidental and
+artificial rank or elevation, implied in the verb "raise." Besides, does
+the word "denude" occur in any writer before, or of, Shakespeare's age?
+
+
+
+
+"Romeo And Juliet."
+
+
+I have previously had occasion to speak at large on the subject of the
+three unities of time, place, and action, as applied to the drama in the
+abstract, and to the particular stage for which Shakespeare wrote, as far
+as he can be said to have written for any stage but that of the universal
+mind. I hope I have in some measure succeeded in demonstrating that the
+former two, instead of being rules, were mere inconveniences attached to
+the local peculiarities of the Athenian drama; that the last alone
+deserved the name of a principle, and that in the preservation of this
+unity Shakespeare stood pre-eminent. Yet, instead of unity of action, I
+should greatly prefer the more appropriate, though scholastic and uncouth,
+words homogeneity, proportionateness, and totality of
+interest,--expressions, which involve the distinction, or rather the
+essential difference, betwixt the shaping skill of mechanical talent, and
+the creative, productive, life-power of inspired genius. In the former
+each part is separately conceived, and then by a succeeding act put
+together;--not as watches are made for wholesale--(for there each part
+supposes a pre-conception of the whole in some mind),--but more like
+pictures on a motley screen. Whence arises the harmony that strikes us in
+the wildest natural landscapes,--in the relative shapes of rocks, the
+harmony of colours in the heaths, ferns, and lichens, the leaves of the
+beech and the oak, the stems and rich brown branches of the birch and
+other mountain trees, varying from verging autumn to returning
+spring,--compared with the visual effect from the greater number of
+artificial plantations?--From this, that the natural landscape is effected,
+as it were, by a single energy modified _ab intra_ in each component part.
+And as this is the particular excellence of the Shakespearian drama
+generally, so is it especially characteristic of the _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+The groundwork of the tale is altogether in family life, and the events of
+the play have their first origin in family feuds. Filmy as are the eyes of
+party-spirit, at once dim and truculent, still there is commonly some real
+or supposed object in view, or principle to be maintained; and though but
+the twisted wires on the plate of rosin in the preparation for electrical
+pictures, it is still a guide in some degree, an assimilation to an
+outline. But in family quarrels, which have proved scarcely less injurious
+to states, wilfulness, and precipitancy, and passion from mere habit and
+custom can alone be expected. With his accustomed judgment, Shakespeare
+has begun by placing before us a lively picture of all the impulses of the
+play; and, as nature ever presents two sides, one for Heraclitus, and one
+for Democritus, he has, by way of prelude, shown the laughable absurdity
+of the evil by the contagion of it reaching the servants who have so
+little to do with it, but who are under the necessity of letting the
+superfluity of sensoreal power fly off through the escape-valve of
+wit-combats, and of quarrelling with weapons of sharper edge, all in
+humble imitation of their masters. Yet there is a sort of unhired
+fidelity, an _ourishness_ about all this that makes it rest pleasant on
+one's feelings. All the first scene, down to the conclusion of the
+Prince's speech, is a motley dance of all ranks and ages to one tune, as
+if the horn of Huon had been playing behind the scenes.
+
+Benvolio's speech:--
+
+"Madam, an hour before the worshipp'd sun
+Peer'd forth the golden window of the east"--
+
+and, far more strikingly, the following speech of old Montague:--
+
+"Many a morning hath he there been seen
+With tears augmenting the fresh morning dew"--
+
+prove that Shakespeare meant the _Romeo and Juliet_ to approach to a poem,
+which, and indeed its early date, may be also inferred from the multitude
+of rhyming couplets throughout. And if we are right, from the internal
+evidence, in pronouncing this one of Shakespeare's early dramas, it
+affords a strong instance of the fineness of his insight into the nature
+of the passions, that Romeo is introduced already love-bewildered. The
+necessity of loving creates an object for itself in man and woman; and yet
+there is a difference in this respect between the sexes, though only to be
+known by a perception of it. It would have displeased us if Juliet had
+been represented as already in love, or as fancying herself so;--but no
+one, I believe, ever experiences any shock at Romeo's forgetting his
+Rosaline, who had been a mere name for the yearning of his youthful
+imagination, and rushing into his passion for Juliet. Rosaline was a mere
+creation of his fancy; and we should remark the boastful positiveness of
+Romeo in a love of his own making, which is never shown where love is
+really near the heart.
+
+"When the devout religion of mine eye
+Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fires!
+
+One fairer than my love! the all-seeing sun
+Ne'er saw her match, since first the world begun."
+
+The character of the Nurse is the nearest of any thing in Shakespeare to a
+direct borrowing from mere observation; and the reason is, that as in
+infancy and childhood the individual in nature is a representative of a
+class,--just as in describing one larch tree, you generalise a grove of
+them,--so it is nearly as much so in old age. The generalisation is done to
+the poet's hand. Here you have the garrulity of age strengthened by the
+feelings of a long-trusted servant, whose sympathy with the mother's
+affections gives her privileges and rank in the household; and observe the
+mode of connection by accidents of time and place, and the childlike
+fondness of repetition in a second childhood, and also that happy humble,
+ducking under, yet constant resurgence against, the check of her
+superiors!--
+
+"Yes, madam!--Yet I cannot choose but laugh," &c.
+
+In the fourth scene we have Mercutio introduced to us. O! how shall I
+describe that exquisite ebullience and overflow of youthful life, wafted
+on over the laughing waves of pleasure and prosperity, as a wanton beauty
+that distorts the face on which she knows her lover is gazing enraptured,
+and wrinkles her forehead in the triumph of its smoothness! Wit ever
+wakeful, fancy busy and procreative as an insect, courage, an easy mind
+that, without cares of its own, is at once disposed to laugh away those of
+others, and yet to be interested in them,--these and all congenial
+qualities, melting into the common _copula_ of them all, the man of rank
+and the gentleman, with all its excellencies and all its weaknesses,
+constitute the character of Mercutio!
+
+Act i. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Tyb._ It fits when such a villain is a guest;
+I'll not endure him.
+
+_Cap._ He shall be endur'd.
+What, goodman boy!--I say, he shall:--Go to;--
+Am I the master here, or you?--Go to.
+You'll not endure him!--God shall mend my soul--
+You'll make a mutiny among my guests!
+You will set cock-a-hoop! you'll be the man!
+
+_Tyb._ Why, uncle, 'tis a shame.
+
+_Cap._ Go to, go to,
+You are a saucy boy!" &c.
+
+How admirable is the old man's impetuosity at once contrasting, yet
+harmonised, with young Tybalt's quarrelsome violence! But it would be
+endless to repeat observations of this sort. Every leaf is different on an
+oak tree; but still we can only say--our tongues defrauding our eyes-- "This
+is another oak-leaf!"
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. The garden scene.
+
+Take notice in this enchanting scene of the contrast of Romeo's love with
+his former fancy; and weigh the skill shown in justifying him from his
+inconstancy by making us feel the difference of his passion. Yet this,
+too, is a love in, although not merely of, the imagination.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Jul._ Well, do not swear; although I joy in thee,
+I have no joy in this contract to-night:
+It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden," &c.
+
+With love, pure love, there is always an anxiety for the safety of the
+object, a disinterestedness, by which it is distinguished from the
+counterfeits of its name. Compare this scene with Act iii. sc. 1 of the
+_Tempest_. I do not know a more wonderful instance of Shakespeare's
+mastery in playing a distinctly rememberable variety on the same
+remembered air, than in the transporting love confessions of Romeo and
+Juliet and Ferdinand and Miranda. There seems more passion in the one, and
+more dignity in the other; yet you feel that the sweet girlish lingering
+and busy movement of Juliet, and the calmer and more maidenly fondness of
+Miranda, might easily pass into each other.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Friar's speech.
+
+The reverend character of the Friar, like all Shakespeare's
+representations of the great professions, is very delightful and
+tranquillising, yet it is no digression, but immediately necessary to the
+carrying on of the plot.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+
+    "_Rom._ Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give you?"
+    &c.
+
+
+Compare again Romeo's half-exerted, and half real, ease of mind with his
+first manner when in love with Rosaline! His will had come to the
+clenching point.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.--
+
+"_Rom._ Do thou but close our hands with holy words,
+Then love-devouring death do what he dare,
+It is enough I may but call her mine."
+
+The precipitancy, which is the character of the play, is well marked in
+this short scene of waiting for Juliet's arrival.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+
+    "_Mer._ No, 'tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
+    door; but 'tis enough: 'twill serve: ask for me to-morrow, and you
+    shall find me a grave man," &c.
+
+
+How fine an effect the wit and raillery habitual to Mercutio, even
+struggling with his pain, give to Romeo's following speech, and at the
+same time so completely justifying his passionate revenge on Tybalt!
+
+_Ib._ Benvolio's speech:--
+
+          ... "But that he tilts
+With piercing steel at bold Mercutio's breast."
+
+This small portion of untruth in Benvolio's narrative is finely conceived.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Juliet's speech:--
+
+"For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night
+Whiter than new snow on a raven's back."
+
+Indeed the whole of this speech is imagination strained to the highest;
+and observe the blessed effect on the purity of the mind. What would
+Dryden have made of it?
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Nurse._ Shame come to Romeo.
+
+_Jul._ Blister'd be thy tongue
+For such a wish!"
+
+Note the Nurse's mistake of the mind's audible struggles with itself for
+its decision _in toto_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo's speech:--
+
+"'Tis torture, and not mercy: heaven's here,
+Where Juliet lives," &c.
+
+All deep passions are a sort of atheists, that believe no future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Cap._ Soft! take me with you, take me with you, wife--How!
+will she none?" &c.
+
+A noble scene! Don't I see it with my own eyes?--Yes! but not with
+Juliet's. And observe in Capulet's last speech in this scene his mistake,
+as if love's causes were capable of being generalised.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Juliet's speech.:--
+
+"O, look! methinks I see my cousin's ghost
+Seeking out Romeo, that did spit his body
+Upon a rapier's point:--Stay, Tybalt, stay!--
+Romeo, I come! this do I drink to thee."
+
+Shakespeare provides for the finest decencies. It would have been too bold
+a thing for a girl of fifteen;--but she swallows the draught in a fit of
+fright.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+As the audience know that Juliet is not dead, this scene is, perhaps,
+excusable. But it is a strong warning to minor dramatists not to introduce
+at one time many separate characters agitated by one and the same
+circumstance. It is difficult to understand what effect, whether that of
+pity or of laughter, Shakespeare meant to produce;--the occasion and the
+characteristic speeches are so little in harmony! For example, what the
+Nurse says is excellently suited to the Nurse's character, but grotesquely
+unsuited to the occasion.
+
+Act v. sc. 1. Romeo's speech:--
+
+          ... "O mischief! thou art swift
+To enter in the thoughts of desperate men!
+I do remember an apothecary," &c.
+
+This famous passage is so beautiful as to be self-justified; yet, in
+addition, what a fine preparation it is for the tomb scene!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Romeo's speech:--
+
+"Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man,
+Fly hence and leave me."
+
+The gentleness of Romeo was shown before, as softened by love; and now it
+is doubled by love and sorrow and awe of the place where he is.
+
+_Ib._ Romeo's speech:----
+
+"How oft when men are at the point of death
+Have they been merry! which their keepers call
+A lightning before death. O, how may I
+Call this a lightning?----O, my love, my wife!" &c.
+
+Here, here, is the master example how beauty can at once increase and
+modify passion!
+
+_Ib._ Last scene.
+
+How beautiful is the close! The spring and the winter meet;--winter assumes
+the character of spring, and spring the sadness of winter.
+
+
+
+
+Shakespeare's English Historical Plays.
+
+
+The first form of poetry is the epic, the essence of which may be stated
+as the successive in events and characters. This must be distinguished
+from narration, in which there must always be a narrator, from whom the
+objects represented receive a colouring and a manner;--whereas in the epic,
+as in the so-called poems of Homer, the whole is completely objective, and
+the representation is a pure reflection. The next form into which poetry
+passed was the dramatic;--both forms having a common basis with a certain
+difference, and that difference not consisting in the dialogue alone. Both
+are founded on the relation of providence to the human will; and this
+relation is the universal element, expressed under different points of
+view according to the difference of religion, and the moral and
+intellectual cultivation of different nations. In the epic poem fate is
+represented as overruling the will, and making it instrumental to the
+accomplishment of its designs:--
+
+... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}
+
+In the drama, the will is exhibited as struggling with fate, a great and
+beautiful instance and illustration of which is the _Prometheus_ of
+AEschylus; and the deepest effect is produced when the fate is represented
+as a higher and intelligent will, and the opposition of the individual as
+springing from a defect.
+
+In order that a drama may be properly historical, it is necessary that it
+should be the history of the people to whom it is addressed. In the
+composition, care must be taken that there appear no dramatic
+improbability, as the reality is taken for granted. It must, likewise, be
+poetical;--that only, I mean, must be taken which is the permanent in our
+nature, which is common, and therefore deeply interesting to all ages. The
+events themselves are immaterial, otherwise than as the clothing and
+manifestation of the spirit that is working within. In this mode, the
+unity resulting from succession is destroyed, but is supplied by a unity
+of a higher order, which connects the events by reference to the workers,
+gives a reason for them in the motives, and presents men in their
+causative character. It takes, therefore, that part of real history which
+is the least known, and infuses a principle of life and organisation into
+the naked facts, and makes them all the framework of an animated whole.
+
+In my happier days, while I had yet hope and onward-looking thoughts, I
+planned an historical drama of King Stephen, in the manner of Shakespeare.
+Indeed, it would be desirable that some man of dramatic genius should
+dramatise all those omitted by Shakespeare, as far down as Henry VII.
+Perkin Warbeck would make a most interesting drama. A few scenes of
+Marlow's _Edward II._ might be preserved. After Henry VIII., the events
+are too well and distinctly known, to be, without plump inverisimilitude,
+crowded together in one night's exhibition. Whereas, the history of our
+ancient kings--the events of the reigns, I mean--are like stars in the
+sky;--whatever the real interspaces may be, and however great, they seem
+close to each other. The stars--the events--strike us and remain in our eye,
+little modified by the difference of dates. An historic drama is,
+therefore, a collection of events borrowed from history, but connected
+together in respect of cause and time, poetically and by dramatic fiction.
+It would be a fine national custom to act such a series of dramatic
+histories in orderly succession, in the yearly Christmas holidays, and
+could not but tend to counteract that mock cosmopolitism, which under a
+positive term really implies nothing but a negation of, or indifference
+to, the particular love of our country. By its nationality must every
+nation retain its independence;--I mean a nationality _quoad_ the nation.
+Better thus;--nationality in each individual, _quoad_ his country, is equal
+to the sense of individuality _quoad_ himself; but himself as sub-sensuous
+and central. Patriotism is equal to the sense of individuality reflected
+from every other individual. There may come a higher virtue in both--just
+cosmopolitism. But this latter is not possible but by antecedence of the
+former.
+
+Shakespeare has included the most important part of nine reigns in his
+historical dramas;--namely--King John, Richard II.--Henry IV. (two)--Henry
+V.--Henry VI. (three) including Edward V. and Henry VIII., in all ten
+plays. There remain, therefore, to be done, with the exception of a single
+scene or two that should be adopted from Marlow--eleven reigns--of which the
+first two appear the only unpromising subjects;--and those two dramas must
+be formed wholly or mainly of invented private stories, which, however,
+could not have happened except in consequence of the events and measures
+of these reigns, and which should furnish opportunity both of exhibiting
+the manners and oppressions of the times, and of narrating dramatically
+the great events;--if possible, the death of the two sovereigns, at least
+of the latter, should be made to have some influence on the finale of the
+story. All the rest are glorious subjects; especially Henry I. (being the
+struggle between the men of arms and of letters, in the persons of Henry
+and Becket), Stephen, Richard I., Edward II., and Henry VII.
+
+
+
+
+"King John."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Bast._ James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile?
+
+_Gur._ Good leave, good Philip.
+
+_Bast._ Philip? _sparrow!_ James," &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of "_spare me_."
+
+O true Warburton! and the _sancta simplicitas_ of honest dull Theobald's
+faith in him! Nothing can be more lively or characteristic than "Philip?
+Sparrow!" Had Warburton read old Skelton's _Philip Sparrow_, an exquisite
+and original poem, and, no doubt, popular in Shakespeare's time, even
+Warburton would scarcely have made so deep a plunge into the _bathetic_ as
+to have deathified "_sparrow_" into "_spare me_!"
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Speech of Faulconbridge:--
+
+"Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot;
+Some _airy_ devil hovers in the sky," &c.
+
+Theobald adopts Warburton's conjecture of "fiery."
+
+I prefer the old text: the word "devil" implies "fiery." You need only
+read the line, laying a full and strong emphasis on "devil," to perceive
+the uselessness and tastelessness of Warburton's alteration.
+
+
+
+
+"Richard II."
+
+
+I have stated that the transitional link between the epic poem and the
+drama is the historic drama; that in the epic poem a pre-announced fate
+gradually adjusts and employs the will and the events as its instruments,
+whilst the drama, on the other hand, places fate and will in opposition to
+each other, and is then most perfect, when the victory of fate is obtained
+in consequence of imperfections in the opposing will, so as to leave a
+final impression that the fate itself is but a higher and a more
+intelligent will.
+
+From the length of the speeches, and the circumstance that, with one
+exception, the events are all historical, and presented in their results,
+not produced by acts seen by, or taking place before, the audience, this
+tragedy is ill suited to our present large theatres. But in itself, and
+for the closet, I feel no hesitation in placing it as the first and most
+admirable of all Shakespeare's purely historical plays. For the two parts
+of _Henry IV._ form a species of themselves, which may be named the mixed
+drama. The distinction does not depend on the mere quantity of historical
+events in the play compared with the fictions; for there is as much
+history in _Macbeth_ as in _Richard_, but in the relation of the history
+to the plot. In the purely historical plays, the history forms the plot;
+in the mixed, it directs it; in the rest, as _Macbeth_, _Hamlet_,
+_Cymbeline_, _Lear_, it subserves it. But, however unsuited to the stage
+this drama may be, God forbid that even there it should fall dead on the
+hearts of jacobinised Englishmen! Then, indeed, we might say--_praeteriit
+gloria mundi!_ For the spirit of patriotic reminiscence is the
+all-permeating soul of this noble work. It is, perhaps, the most purely
+historical of Shakespeare's dramas. There are not in it, as in the others,
+characters introduced merely for the purpose of giving a greater
+individuality and realness, as in the comic parts of _Henry IV._, by
+presenting as it were our very selves. Shakespeare avails himself of every
+opportunity to effect the great object of the historic drama,--that,
+namely, of familiarising the people to the great names of their country,
+and thereby of exciting a steady patriotism, a love of just liberty, and a
+respect for all those fundamental institutions of social life, which bind
+men together:--
+
+"This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,
+This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
+This other Eden, demi-paradise;
+This fortress, built by nature for herself,
+Against infection, and the hand of war;
+This happy breed of men, this little world;
+This precious stone set in the silver sea,
+Which serves it in the office of a wall,
+Or as a moat defensive to a home,
+Against the envy of less happier lands;
+This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,
+This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,
+Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth," &c.
+
+Add the famous passage in _King John_:--
+
+"This England never did nor ever shall,
+Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror,
+But when it first did help to wound itself.
+Now these her princes are come home again,
+Come the three corners of the world in arms,
+And we shall shock them: nought shall make us rue,
+If England to itself do rest but true."
+
+And it certainly seems that Shakespeare's historic dramas produced a very
+deep effect on the minds of the English people, and in earlier times they
+were familiar even to the least informed of all ranks, according to the
+relation of Bishop Corbett. Marlborough, we know, was not ashamed to
+confess that his principal acquaintance with English history was derived
+from them; and I believe that a large part of the information as to our
+old names and achievements even now abroad is due, directly or indirectly,
+to Shakespeare.
+
+Admirable is the judgment with which Shakespeare always in the first
+scenes prepares, yet how naturally, and with what concealment of art, for
+the catastrophe. Observe how he here presents the germ of all the after
+events in Richard's insincerity, partiality, arbitrariness, and
+favouritism, and in the proud, tempestuous, temperament of his barons. In
+the very beginning, also, is displayed that feature in Richard's
+character, which is never forgotten throughout the play--his attention to
+decorum, and high feeling of the kingly dignity. These anticipations show
+with what judgment Shakespeare wrote, and illustrate his care to connect
+the past and the future, and unify them with the present by forecast and
+reminiscence.
+
+It is interesting to a critical ear to compare the six opening lines of
+the play--
+
+"Old John of Gaunt, time-honour'd Lancaster,
+Hast thou, according to thy oath and band," &c.
+
+each closing at the tenth syllable, with the rhythmless metre of the verse
+in _Henry VI._ and _Titus Andronicus_, in order that the difference,
+indeed, the heterogeneity, of the two may be felt _etiam in simillimis
+prima superficie_. Here the weight of the single words supplies all the
+relief afforded by intercurrent verse, while the whole represents the
+mood. And compare the apparently defective metre of Bolingbroke's first
+line--
+
+"Many years of happy days befal"--
+
+with Prospero's--
+
+"Twelve years since, Miranda! twelve years since."
+
+The actor should supply the time by emphasis, and pause on the first
+syllable of each of these verses.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"First (heaven be the record to my speech!),
+In the devotion of a subject's love," &c.
+
+I remember in the Sophoclean drama no more striking example of the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} than this speech; and the rhymes in the last six lines
+well express the preconcertedness of Bolingbroke's scheme so beautifully
+contrasted with the vehemence and sincere irritation of Mowbray.
+
+_Ib._ Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries,
+Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth,
+To _me_, for justice and rough chastisement."
+
+Note the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} of this "to me," which is evidently felt by Richard:--
+
+"How high a pitch his resolution soars!"
+
+and the affected depreciation afterwards;--
+
+"As he is but my father's brother's son."
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+"In haste whereof, most heartily I pray
+Your highness to assign our trial day."
+
+The occasional interspersion of rhymes, and the more frequent winding up
+of a speech therewith--what purpose was this designed to answer? In the
+earnest drama, I mean. Deliberateness? An attempt, as in Mowbray, to
+collect himself and be cool at the close?--I can see that in the following
+speeches the rhyme answers the end of the Greek chorus, and distinguishes
+the general truths from the passions of the dialogue; but this does not
+exactly justify the practice, which is unfrequent in proportion to the
+excellence of Shakespeare's plays. One thing, however, is to be
+observed,--that the speakers are historical, known, and so far formal
+characters, and their reality is already a fact. This should be borne in
+mind. The whole of this scene of the quarrel between Mowbray and
+Bolingbroke seems introduced for the purpose of showing by anticipation
+the characters of Richard and Bolingbroke. In the latter there is
+observable a decorous and courtly checking of his anger in subservience to
+a predetermined plan, especially in his calm speech after receiving
+sentence of banishment compared with Mowbray's unaffected lamentation. In
+the one, all is ambitious hope of something yet to come; in the other it
+is desolation and a looking backward of the heart,
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Gaunt._ God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute,
+His deputy anointed in his right,
+Hath caus'd his death: the which, if wrongfully,
+Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift
+An angry arm against his minister."
+
+Without the hollow extravagance of Beaumont and Fletcher's ultra-royalism,
+how carefully does Shakespeare acknowledge and reverence the eternal
+distinction between the mere individual, and the symbolic or
+representative, on which all genial law, no less than patriotism, depends.
+The whole of this second scene commences, and is anticipative of, the tone
+and character of the play at large.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. In none of Shakespeare's fictitious dramas, or in those
+founded on a history as unknown to his auditors generally as fiction, is
+this violent rupture of the succession of time found:--a proof, I think,
+that the pure historic drama, like _Richard II._ and _King John_, had its
+own laws.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+"A dearer _merit_
+Have I deserved at your highness' hand."
+
+O, the instinctive propriety of Shakespeare in the choice of words!
+
+_Ib._ Richard's speech:--
+
+"Nor never by advised purpose meet,
+To plot, contrive, or complot any ill,
+'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land."
+
+Already the selfish weakness of Richard's character opens. Nothing will
+such minds so readily embrace, as indirect ways softened down to their
+_quasi_-consciences by policy, expedience, &c.
+
+_Ib._ Mowbray's speech:--
+
+... "All the world's my way."
+
+"The world was all before him."--_Milt._
+
+_Ib._--
+
+  "_Boling._ How long a time lies in one little word!
+Four lagging winters, and four wanton springs,
+End in a word: such is the breath of kings."
+
+Admirable anticipation!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. This is a striking conclusion of a first act,--letting the
+reader into the secret;--having before impressed us with the dignified and
+kingly manners of Richard, yet by well managed anticipations leading us on
+to the full gratification of pleasure in our own penetration. In this
+scene a new light is thrown on Richard's character. Until now he has
+appeared in all the beauty of royalty; but here, as soon as he is left to
+himself, the inherent weakness of his character is immediately shown. It
+is a weakness, however, of a peculiar kind, not arising from want of
+personal courage, or any specific defect of faculty, but rather an
+intellectual feminineness, which feels a necessity of ever leaning on the
+breasts of others, and of reclining on those who are all the while known
+to be inferiors. To this must be attributed as its consequences all
+Richard's vices, his tendency to concealment, and his cunning, the whole
+operation of which is directed to the getting rid of present difficulties.
+Richard is not meant to be a debauchee; but we see in him that sophistry
+which is common to man, by which we can deceive our own hearts, and at one
+and the same time apologize for, and yet commit, the error. Shakespeare
+has represented this character in a very peculiar manner. He has not made
+him amiable with counterbalancing faults; but has openly and broadly drawn
+those faults without reserve, relying on Richard's disproportionate
+sufferings and gradually emergent good qualities for our sympathy; and
+this was possible, because his faults are not positive vices, but spring
+entirely from defect of character.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_K. Rich._ Can sick men play so nicely with their names?"
+
+Yes! on a death-bed there is a feeling which may make all things appear
+but as puns and equivocations. And a passion there is that carries off its
+own excess by plays on words as naturally, and, therefore, as
+appropriately to drama, as by gesticulations, looks, or tones. This
+belongs to human nature as such, independently of associations and habits
+from any particular rank of life or mode of employment; and in this
+consists Shakespeare's vulgarisms, as in Macbeth's--
+
+"The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac'd loon!" &c.
+
+This is (to equivocate on Dante's words) in truth the _nobile volgare
+eloquenza_. Indeed it is profoundly true that there is a natural, an
+almost irresistible, tendency in the mind, when immersed in one strong
+feeling, to connect that feeling with every sight and object around it;
+especially if there be opposition, and the words addressed to it are in
+any way repugnant to the feeling itself, as here in the instance of
+Richard's unkind language:--
+
+"Misery makes sport to mock itself."
+
+No doubt, something of Shakespeare's punning must be attributed to his
+age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favourite pastime of
+the courtly and accomplished. It was an age more favourable, upon the
+whole, to vigour of intellect than the present, in which a dread of being
+thought pedantic dispirits and flattens the energies of original minds.
+But independently of this, I have no hesitation in saying that a pun, if
+it be congruous with the feeling of the scene, is not only allowable in
+the dramatic dialogue, but oftentimes one of the most effectual intensives
+of passion.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_K. Rich._ Right; you say true, as Hereford's love, so his;
+As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is."
+
+The depth of this compared with the first scene:--
+
+"How high a pitch," &c.
+
+There is scarcely anything in Shakespeare in its degree, more admirably
+drawn than York's character; his religious loyalty struggling with a deep
+grief and indignation at the king's follies; his adherence to his word and
+faith, once given in spite of all, even the most natural, feelings. You
+see in him the weakness of old age, and the overwhelmingness of
+circumstances, for a time surmounting his sense of duty,--the junction of
+both exhibited in his boldness in words and feebleness in immediate act;
+and then again his effort to retrieve himself in abstract loyalty, even at
+the heavy price of the loss of his son. This species of accidental and
+adventitious weakness is brought into parallel with Richard's continually
+increasing energy of thought, and as constantly diminishing power of
+acting;--and thus it is Richard that breathes a harmony and a relation into
+all the characters of the play.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Queen._ To please the king I did; to please myself
+I cannot do it; yet I know no cause
+Why I should welcome such a guest as grief,
+Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard: yet again, methinks,
+Some unborn sorrow, ripe in sorrow's womb,
+Is coming toward me; and my inward soul
+With nothing trembles: at something it grieves,
+More than with parting from my lord the king."
+
+It is clear that Shakespeare never meant to represent Richard as a vulgar
+debauchee, but a man with a wantonness of spirit in external show, a
+feminine _friendism_, an intensity of woman-like love of those immediately
+about him, and a mistaking of the delight of being loved by him for a love
+of him. And mark in this scene Shakespeare's gentleness in touching the
+tender superstitions, the _terrae incognitae_ of presentiments, in the human
+mind; and how sharp a line of distinction he commonly draws between these
+obscure forecastings of general experience in each individual, and the
+vulgar errors of mere tradition. Indeed, it may be taken once for all as
+the truth, that Shakespeare, in the absolute universality of his genius,
+always reverences whatever arises out of our moral nature; he never
+profanes his muse with a contemptuous reasoning away of the genuine and
+general, however unaccountable, feelings of mankind.
+
+The amiable part of Richard's character is brought full upon us by his
+queen's few words--
+
+      ... "So sweet a guest
+As my sweet Richard:"--
+
+and Shakespeare has carefully shown in him an intense love of his country,
+well-knowing how that feeling would, in a pure historic drama, redeem him
+in the hearts of the audience. Yet even in this love there is something
+feminine and personal:--
+
+"Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand,--
+As a long parted mother with her child
+Plays fondly with her tears, and smiles in meeting;
+So weeping, smiling, greet I thee, my earth,
+And do thee favour with my royal hands."
+
+With this is combined a constant overflow of emotions from a total
+incapability of controlling them, and thence a waste of that energy, which
+should have been reserved for actions, in the passion and effort of mere
+resolves and menaces. The consequence is moral exhaustion, and rapid
+alternations of unmanly despair and ungrounded hope,--every feeling being
+abandoned for its direct opposite upon the pressure of external accident.
+And yet when Richard's inward weakness appears to seek refuge in his
+despair, and his exhaustion counterfeits repose, the old habit of
+kingliness, the effect of flatterers from his infancy, is ever and anon
+producing in him a sort of wordy courage which only serves to betray more
+clearly his internal impotence. The second and third scenes of the third
+act combine and illustrate all this:--
+
+"_Aumerle._ He means, my lord, that we are too remiss;
+Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security,
+Grows strong and great, in substance, and in friends.
+
+_K. Rich._ Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not,
+That when the searching eye of heaven is hid
+Behind the globe, that lights the lower world,
+Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen,
+In murders and in outrage, bloody here;
+But when, from under this terrestrial ball,
+He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines,
+And darts his light through every guilty hole,
+Then murders, treasons, and detested sins,
+The cloke of night being pluckt from off their backs,
+Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves?
+So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ Where is the Duke my father with his power?
+
+_K. Rich._ No matter where; of comfort no man speak:
+Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs,
+Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes
+Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth, &c.
+
+_Aumerle._ My father hath a power, enquire of him;
+And learn to make a body of a limb.
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou chid'st me well: proud Bolingbroke, I come
+To change blows with thee for our day of doom.
+This ague-fit of fear is over-blown;
+An easy task it is to win our own.
+
+_Scroop._ Your uncle York hath join'd with Bolingbroke.--
+
+_K. Rich._ Thou hast said enough,
+Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth
+Of that sweet way I was in to despair!
+What say you now? what comfort have we now?
+By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly,
+That bids me be of comfort any more."
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Bolingbroke's speech:--
+
+"Noble lord,
+Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle," &c.
+
+Observe the fine struggle of a haughty sense of power and ambition in
+Bolingbroke with the necessity for dissimulation.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. See here the skill and judgment of our poet in giving reality
+and individual life, by the introduction of accidents in his historic
+plays, and thereby making them dramas, and not histories. How beautiful an
+islet of repose--a melancholy repose, indeed--is this scene with the
+Gardener and his Servant. And how truly affecting and realising is the
+incident of the very horse Barbary, in the scene with the Groom in the
+last act!--
+
+"_Groom._ I was a poor groom of thy stable, King,
+When thou wert King; who, travelling towards York,
+With much ado, at length have gotten leave
+To look upon my sometimes master's face.
+O, how it yearn'd my heart, when I beheld,
+In London streets, that coronation day,
+When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary!
+That horse, that thou so often hast bestrid;
+That horse, that I so carefully have dress'd!
+
+_K. Rich._ Rode he on Barbary?"
+
+Bolingbroke's character, in general, is an instance how Shakespeare makes
+one play introductory to another; for it is evidently a preparation for
+Henry IV., as Gloster in the third part of _Henry VI._ is for Richard III.
+
+I would once more remark upon the exalted idea of the only true loyalty
+developed in this noble and impressive play. We have neither the rants of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, nor the sneers of Massinger;--the vast importance of
+the personal character of the sovereign is distinctly enounced, whilst, at
+the same time, the genuine sanctity which surrounds him is attributed to,
+and grounded on, the position in which he stands as the convergence and
+exponent of the life and power of the state.
+
+The great end of the body politic appears to be to humanise, and assist in
+the progressiveness of, the animal man;--but the problem is so complicated
+with contingencies as to render it nearly impossible to lay down rules for
+the formation of a state. And should we be able to form a system of
+government, which should so balance its different powers as to form a
+check upon each, and so continually remedy and correct itself, it would,
+nevertheless, defeat its own aim;--for man is destined to be guided by
+higher principles, by universal views, which can never be fulfilled in
+this state of existence,--by a spirit of progressiveness which can never be
+accomplished, for then it would cease to be. Plato's Republic is like
+Bunyan's Town of Man-Soul,--a description of an individual, all of whose
+faculties are in their proper subordination and inter-dependence; and this
+it is assumed may be the prototype of the state as one great individual.
+But there is this sophism in it, that it is forgotten that the human
+faculties, indeed, are parts and not separate things; but that you could
+never get chiefs who were wholly reason, ministers who were wholly
+understanding, soldiers all wrath, labourers all concupiscence, and so on
+through the rest. Each of these partakes of, and interferes with, all the
+others.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry IV.--Part I."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:--
+
+"No more the thirsty entrance of this soil
+Shall daub her lips with her own children's blood."
+
+A most obscure passage: but I think Theobald's interpretation right,
+namely, that "thirsty entrance" means the dry penetrability, or bibulous
+drought, of the soil. The obscurity of this passage is of the
+Shakespearian sort.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. In this, the first introduction of Falstaff, observe the
+consciousness and the intentionality of his wit, so that when it does not
+flow of its own accord, its absence is felt, and an effort visibly made to
+recall it. Note also throughout how Falstaff's pride is gratified in the
+power of influencing a prince of the blood, the heir apparent, by means of
+it. Hence his dislike to Prince John of Lancaster, and his mortification
+when he finds his wit fail on him:--
+
+"_P. John._ Fare you well, Falstaff: I, in my condition,
+Shall better speak of you than you deserve.
+
+_Fal._ I would you had but the wit; 'twere better than your
+dukedom.--Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth
+not love me;--nor a man cannot make him laugh."
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Second Carrier's speech:--
+
+... "breeds fleas like a _loach_."
+
+Perhaps it is a misprint, or a provincial pronunciation, for "leach," that
+is, blood-suckers. Had it been gnats, instead of fleas, there might have
+been some sense, though small probability, in Warburton's suggestion of
+the Scottish "loch." Possibly "loach," or "lutch," may be some lost word
+for dovecote, or poultry-lodge, notorious for breeding fleas. In Stevens's
+or my reading, it should properly be "loaches," or "leeches," in the
+plural; except that I think I have heard anglers speak of trouts like _a_
+salmon.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Glend._ _Nay_, if you melt, then will she run mad."
+
+This "nay" so to be dwelt on in speaking, as to be equivalent to a
+dissyllable - u, is characteristic of the solemn Glendower; but the
+imperfect line
+
+"_She bids you_
+Upon the wanton rushes lay you down," &c.,
+
+is one of those fine hair-strokes of exquisite judgment peculiar to
+Shakespeare;--thus detaching the Lady's speech, and giving it the
+individuality and entireness of a little poem, while he draws attention to
+it.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry IV.--Part II."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 2--
+
+"_P. Hen._ Sup any women with him?
+
+_Page._ None, my lord, but old mistress Quickly, and mistress
+Doll Tear-sheet.
+
+_P. Hen._ This Doll Tear-sheet should be some road."
+
+I am sometimes disposed to think that this respectable young lady's name
+is a very old corruption for Tear-street--street-walker, _terere stratam_
+(_viam_). Does not the Prince's question rather show this?--
+
+"This Doll Tear-street should be some road?"
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. King Henry's speech:--
+
+        ... "Then, _happy low, lie down_;
+Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown."
+
+I know no argument by which to persuade any one to be of my opinion, or
+rather of my feeling; but yet I cannot help feeling that "Happy
+low-lie-down!" is either a proverbial expression, or the burthen of some
+old song, and means, "Happy the man, who lays himself down on his straw
+bed or chaff pallet on the ground or floor!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Shallow's speech:--
+
+"_Rah, tah, tah_, would 'a say; _bounce_, would 'a say," &c.
+
+That Beaumont and Fletcher have more than once been guilty of sneering at
+their great master, cannot, I fear, be denied; but the passage quoted by
+Theobald from the _Knight of the Burning Pestle_ is an imitation. If it be
+chargeable with any fault, it is with plagiarism, not with sarcasm.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry V."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Westmoreland's speech:--
+
+"They know your _grace_ hath cause, and means, and might;
+So hath your _highness_; never King of England
+Had nobles richer," &c.
+
+Does "grace" mean the king's own peculiar domains and legal revenue, and
+"highness" his feudal rights in the military service of his nobles?--I have
+sometimes thought it possible that the words "grace" and "cause" may have
+been transposed in the copying or printing;--
+
+"They know your cause hath grace," &c.
+
+What Theobald meant, I cannot guess. To me his pointing makes the passage
+still more obscure. Perhaps the lines ought to be recited dramatically
+thus:--
+
+"They know your Grace hath cause, and means, and might:--
+So _hath_ your Highness--never King of England
+_Had_ nobles richer," &c.
+
+He breaks off from the grammar and natural order from earnestness, and in
+order to give the meaning more passionately.
+
+_Ib._ Exeter's speech:--
+
+"Yet that is but a _crush'd_ necessity."
+
+Perhaps it may be "crash" for "crass" from _crassus_, clumsy; or it may be
+"curt," defective, imperfect: anything would be better than Warburton's
+"'scus'd," which honest Theobald, of course, adopts. By the by, it seems
+clear to me that this speech of Exeter's properly belongs to Canterbury,
+and was altered by the actors for convenience.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. King Henry's speech:--
+
+"We would not _die_ in that man's company
+That fears his fellowship to die with us."
+
+Should it not be "live" in the first line?
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Const._ _O diable!_
+
+_Orl._ _O seigneur! le jour est perdu, tout est perdu!_
+
+_Dan._ _Mort de ma vie!_ all is confounded, all!
+Reproach and everlasting shame
+Sit mocking in our plumes!--_O meschante fortune!_
+Do not run away!"
+
+Ludicrous as these introductory scraps of French appear, so instantly
+followed by good, nervous mother-English, yet they are judicious, and
+produce the impression which Shakespeare intended,--a sudden feeling struck
+at once on the ears, as well as the eyes, of the audience, that "here come
+the French, the baffled French braggards!"--And this will appear still more
+judicious, when we reflect on the scanty apparatus of distinguishing
+dresses in Shakespeare's tyring-room.
+
+
+
+
+"Henry VI.--Part I."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Bedford's speech:--
+
+"Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to night!
+Comets, importing change of times and states,
+Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;
+And with them scourge the bad revolting stars
+That have consented unto Henry's death!
+Henry the fifth, too famous to live long!
+England ne'er lost a king of so much worth."
+
+Read aloud any two or three passages in blank verse even from
+Shakespeare's earliest dramas, as _Love's Labour's Lost_, or _Romeo and
+Juliet_; and then read in the same way this speech, with especial
+attention to the metre; and if you do not feel the impossibility of the
+latter having been written by Shakespeare, all I dare suggest is, that you
+may have ears,--for so has another animal,--but an ear you cannot have, _me
+judice_.
+
+
+
+
+"Richard III."
+
+
+This play should be contrasted with _Richard II._ Pride of intellect is
+the characteristic of Richard, carried to the extent of even boasting to
+his own mind of his villany, whilst others are present to feed his pride
+of superiority; as in his first speech, act ii. sc. 1. Shakespeare here,
+as in all his great parts, developes in a tone of sublime morality the
+dreadful consequences of placing the moral, in subordination to the mere
+intellectual, being. In Richard there is a predominance of irony,
+accompanied with apparently blunt manners to those immediately about him,
+but formalised into a more set hypocrisy towards the people as represented
+by their magistrates.
+
+
+
+
+"Lear."
+
+
+Of all Shakespeare's plays _Macbeth_ is the most rapid, _Hamlet_ the
+slowest, in movement. _Lear_ combines length with rapidity,--like the
+hurricane and the whirlpool, absorbing while it advances. It begins as a
+stormy day in summer, with brightness; but that brightness is lurid, and
+anticipates the tempest.
+
+It was not without forethought, nor is it without its due significance,
+that the division of Lear's kingdom is in the first six lines of the play
+stated as a thing already determined in all its particulars, previously to
+the trial of professions, as the relative rewards of which the daughters
+were to be made to consider their several portions. The strange, yet by no
+means unnatural, mixture of selfishness, sensibility, and habit of feeling
+derived from, and fostered by, the particular rank and usages of the
+individual;--the intense desire of being intensely beloved,--selfish, and
+yet characteristic of the selfishness of a loving and kindly nature
+alone;--the self-supportless leaning for all pleasure on another's
+breast;--the craving after sympathy with a prodigal disinterestedness,
+frustrated by its own ostentation, and the mode and nature of its
+claims;--the anxiety, the distrust, the jealousy, which more or less
+accompany all selfish affections, and are amongst the surest
+contradistinctions of mere fondness from true love, and which originate
+Lear's eager wish to enjoy his daughter's violent professions, whilst the
+inveterate habits of sovereignty convert the wish into claim and positive
+right, and an incompliance with it into crime and treason;--these facts,
+these passions, these moral verities, on which the whole tragedy is
+founded, are all prepared for, and will to the retrospect be found
+implied, in these first four or five lines of the play. They let us know
+that the trial is but a trick; and that the grossness of the old king's
+rage is in part the natural result of a silly trick suddenly and most
+unexpectedly baffled and disappointed.
+
+It may here be worthy of notice, that _Lear_ is the only serious
+performance of Shakespeare, the interest and situations of which are
+derived from the assumption of a gross improbability; whereas Beaumont and
+Fletcher's tragedies are, almost all of them, founded on some out of the
+way accident or exception to the general experience of mankind. But
+observe the matchless judgment of our Shakespeare. First, improbable as
+the conduct of Lear is in the first scene, yet it was an old story rooted
+in the popular faith,--a thing taken for granted already, and consequently
+without any of the effects of improbability. Secondly, it is merely the
+canvass for the characters and passions,--a mere occasion for,--and not, in
+the manner of Beaumont and Fletcher, perpetually recurring as the cause,
+and _sine qua non_ of,--the incidents and emotions. Let the first scene of
+this play have been lost, and let it only be understood that a fond father
+had been duped by hypocritical professions of love and duty on the part of
+two daughters to disinherit the third, previously, and deservedly, more
+dear to him;--and all the rest of the tragedy would retain its interest
+undiminished, and be perfectly intelligible.
+
+The accidental is nowhere the groundwork of the passions, but that which
+is catholic, which in all ages has been, and ever will be, close and
+native to the heart of man,--parental anguish from filial ingratitude, the
+genuineness of worth, though coffined in bluntness, and the execrable
+vileness of a smooth iniquity. Perhaps I ought to have added the _Merchant
+of Venice_; but here too the same remarks apply. It was an old tale; and
+substitute any other danger than that of the pound of flesh (the
+circumstance in which the improbability lies), yet all the situations and
+the emotions appertaining to them remain equally excellent and
+appropriate. Whereas take away from the _Mad Lover_ of Beaumont and
+Fletcher the fantastic hypothesis of his engagement to cut out his own
+heart, and have it presented to his mistress, and all the main scenes must
+go with it.
+
+Kotzebue is the German Beaumont and Fletcher, without their poetic powers,
+and without their _vis comica_. But, like them, he always deduces his
+situations and passions from marvellous accidents, and the trick of
+bringing one part of our moral nature to counteract another; as our pity
+for misfortune and admiration of generosity and courage to combat our
+condemnation of guilt as in adultery, robbery, and other heinous
+crimes;--and, like them too, he excels in his mode of telling a story
+clearly and interestingly, in a series of dramatic dialogues. Only the
+trick of making tragedy-heroes and heroines out of shopkeepers and
+barmaids was too low for the age, and too unpoetic for the genius, of
+Beaumont and Fletcher, inferior in every respect as they are to their
+great predecessor and contemporary. How inferior would they have appeared,
+had not Shakespeare existed for them to imitate;--which in every play, more
+or less, they do, and in their tragedies most glaringly:--and yet--(O shame!
+shame!)--they miss no opportunity of sneering at the divine man, and
+sub-detracting from his merits!
+
+To return to _Lear_. Having thus in the fewest words, and in a natural
+reply to as natural a question,--which yet answers the secondary purpose of
+attracting our attention to the difference or diversity between the
+characters of Cornwall and Albany,--provided the _premisses_ and _data_, as
+it were, for our after insight into the mind and mood of the person, whose
+character, passions, and sufferings are the main subject-matter of the
+play;--from Lear, the _persona patiens_ of his drama, Shakespeare passes
+without delay to the second in importance, the chief agent and prime
+mover, and introduces Edmund to our acquaintance, preparing us with the
+same felicity of judgment, and in the same easy and natural way, for his
+character in the seemingly casual communication of its origin and
+occasion. From the first drawing up of the curtain Edmund has stood before
+us in the united strength and beauty of earliest manhood. Our eyes have
+been questioning him. Gifted as he is with high advantages of person, and
+further endowed by nature with a powerful intellect and a strong energetic
+will, even without any concurrence of circumstances and accident, pride
+will necessarily be the sin that most easily besets him. But Edmund is
+also the known and acknowledged son of the princely Gloster: he,
+therefore, has both the germ of pride, and the conditions best fitted to
+evolve and ripen it into a predominant feeling. Yet hitherto no reason
+appears why it should be other than the not unusual pride of person,
+talent, and birth,--a pride auxiliary, if not akin, to many virtues, and
+the natural ally of honourable impulses. But alas! in his own presence his
+own father takes shame to himself for the frank avowal that he is his
+father,--he has "blushed so often to acknowledge him that he is now brazed
+to it!" Edmund hears the circumstances of his birth spoken of with a most
+degrading and licentious levity,--his mother described as a wanton by her
+own paramour, and the remembrance of the animal sting, the low criminal
+gratifications connected with her wantonness and prostituted beauty,
+assigned as the reason why "the whoreson must be acknowledged!" This, and
+the consciousness of its notoriety; the gnawing conviction that every show
+of respect is an effort of courtesy, which recalls, while it represses, a
+contrary feeling;--this is the ever trickling flow of wormwood and gall
+into the wounds of pride,--the corrosive _virus_ which inoculates pride
+with a venom not its own, with envy, hatred, and a lust for that power
+which in its blaze of radiance would hide the dark spots on his disc,--with
+pangs of shame personally undeserved, and therefore felt as wrongs, and
+with a blind ferment of vindictive working towards the occasions and
+causes, especially towards a brother, whose stainless birth and lawful
+honours were the constant remembrancers of his own debasement, and were
+ever in the way to prevent all chance of its being unknown, or overlooked
+and forgotten. Add to this, that with excellent judgment, and provident
+for the claims of the moral sense,--for that which, relatively to the
+drama, is called poetic justice, and as the fittest means for reconciling
+the feelings of the spectators to the horrors of Gloster's after
+sufferings,--at least, of rendering them somewhat less unendurable--(for I
+will not disguise my conviction, that in this one point the tragic in this
+play has been urged beyond the outermost mark and _ne plus ultra_ of the
+dramatic);--Shakespeare has precluded all excuse and palliation of the
+guilt incurred by both the parents of the base-born Edmund, by Gloster's
+confession that he was at the time a married man, and already blest with a
+lawful heir of his fortunes. The mournful alienation of brotherly love,
+occasioned by the law of primogeniture in noble families, or rather by the
+unnecessary distinctions engrafted thereon, and this in children of the
+same stock, is still almost proverbial on the continent,--especially, as I
+know from my own observation, in the south of Europe,--and appears to have
+been scarcely less common in our own island before the Revolution of 1688,
+if we may judge from the characters and sentiments so frequent in our
+elder comedies. There is the younger brother, for instance, in Beaumont
+and Fletcher's play of the _Scornful Lady_, on the one side, and Oliver in
+Shakespeare's _As You Like It_, on the other. Need it be said how heavy an
+aggravation, in such a case, the stain of bastardy must have been, were it
+only that the younger brother was liable to hear his own dishonour and his
+mother's infamy related by his father with an excusing shrug of the
+shoulders, and in a tone betwixt waggery and shame!
+
+By the circumstances here enumerated as so many predisposing causes,
+Edmund's character might well be deemed already sufficiently explained;
+and our minds prepared for it. But in this tragedy the story or fable
+constrained Shakespeare to introduce wickedness in an outrageous form in
+the persons of Regan and Goneril. He had read nature too heedfully not to
+know that courage, intellect, and strength of character are the most
+impressive forms of power, and that to power in itself, without reference
+to any moral end, an inevitable admiration and complacency appertains,
+whether it be displayed in the conquests of a Buonaparte or Tamerlane, or
+in the foam and the thunder of a cataract. But in the exhibition of such a
+character it was of the highest importance to prevent the guilt from
+passing into utter monstrosity,--which again depends on the presence or
+absence of causes and temptations sufficient to account for the
+wickedness, without the necessity of recurring to a thorough fiendishness
+of nature for its origination. For such are the appointed relations of
+intellectual power to truth, and of truth to goodness, that it becomes
+both morally and poetically unsafe to present what is admirable--what our
+nature compels us to admire--in the mind, and what is most detestable in
+the heart, as co-existing in the same individual without any apparent
+connection, or any modification of the one by the other. That Shakespeare
+has in one instance, that of Iago, approached to this, and that he has
+done it successfully, is perhaps the most astonishing proof of his genius,
+and the opulence of its resources. But in the present tragedy, in which he
+was compelled to present a Goneril and a Regan, it was most carefully to
+be avoided;--and therefore the only one conceivable addition to the
+inauspicious influences on the preformation of Edmund's character is
+given, in the information that all the kindly counteractions to the
+mischievous feelings of shame, which might have been derived from
+co-domestication with Edgar and their common father, had been cut off by
+his absence from home, and foreign education from boyhood to the present
+time, and a prospect of its continuance, as if to preclude all risk of his
+interference with the father's views for the elder and legitimate son:--
+
+"He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again."
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Cor._ Nothing my lord.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing?
+
+_Cor._ Nothing.
+
+_Lear._ Nothing can come of nothing: speak again.
+
+_Cor._ Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave
+My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty
+According to my bond; nor more, nor less."
+
+There is something of disgust at the ruthless hypocrisy of her sisters,
+and some little faulty admixture of pride and sullenness in Cordelia's
+"Nothing;" and her tone is well contrived, indeed, to lessen the glaring
+absurdity of Lear's conduct, but answers the yet more important purpose of
+forcing away the attention from the nursery-tale, the moment it has served
+its end, that of supplying the canvas for the picture. This is also
+materially furthered by Kent's opposition, which displays Lear's moral
+incapability of resigning the sovereign power in the very act of disposing
+of it. Kent is, perhaps, the nearest to perfect goodness in all
+Shakespeare's characters, and yet the most individualised. There is an
+extraordinary charm, in his bluntness, which is that only of a nobleman,
+arising from a contempt of overstrained courtesy, and combined with easy
+placability where goodness of heart is apparent. His passionate affection
+for, and fidelity to, Lear act on our feelings in Lear's own favour:
+virtue itself seems to be in company with him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Edmund's speech:--
+
+"Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take
+More composition and fierce quality
+Than doth," &c.
+
+Warburton's note upon a quotation from Vanini.
+
+Poor Vanini!--Any one but Warburton would have thought this precious
+passage more characteristic of Mr. Shandy than of atheism. If the fact
+really were so (which it is not, but almost the contrary) I do not see why
+the most confirmed theist might not very naturally utter the same wish.
+But it is proverbial that the youngest son in a large family is commonly
+the man of the greatest talents in it; and as good an authority as Vanini
+has said--"incalescere in venerem ardentius, spei sobolis injuriosum esse."
+
+In this speech of Edmund you see, as soon as a man cannot reconcile
+himself to reason, how his conscience flies off by way of appeal to
+nature, who is sure upon such occasions never to find fault, and also how
+shame sharpens a predisposition in the heart to evil. For it is a profound
+moral, that shame will naturally generate guilt; the oppressed will be
+vindictive, like Shylock, and in the anguish of undeserved ignominy the
+delusion secretly springs up of getting over the moral quality of an
+action by fixing the mind on the mere physical act alone.
+
+_Ib._ Edmund's speech:--
+
+
+    "This is the excellent foppery of the world! that, when we are
+    sick in fortune (often the surfeit of our own behaviour), we make
+    guilty of our disasters, the sun, the moon, and the stars," &c.
+
+
+Thus scorn and misanthropy are often the anticipations and mouth-pieces of
+wisdom in the detection of superstitions. Both individuals and nations may
+be free from such prejudices by being below them, as well as by rising
+above them.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. The Steward should be placed in exact antithesis to Kent, as
+the only character of utter irredeemable baseness in Shakespeare. Even in
+this the judgment and invention of the poet are very observable;--for what
+else could the willing tool of a Goneril be? Not a vice but this of
+baseness was left open to him.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. In Lear old age is itself a character,--its natural
+imperfections being increased by life-long habits of receiving a prompt
+obedience. Any addition of individuality would have been unnecessary and
+painful; for the relations of others to him, of wondrous fidelity and of
+frightful ingratitude, alone sufficiently distinguish him. Thus Lear
+becomes the open and ample play-room of nature's passions.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Knight._ Since my young lady's going into France, Sir; the
+fool hath much pined away."
+
+The Fool is no comic buffoon to make the groundlings laugh,--no forced
+condescension of Shakespeare's genius to the taste of his audience.
+Accordingly the poet prepares for his introduction, which he never does
+with any of his common clowns and fools, by bringing him into living
+connection with the pathos of the play. He is as wonderful a creation as
+Caliban;--his wild babblings, and inspired idiocy, articulate and gauge the
+horrors of the scene.
+
+The monster Goneril prepares what is necessary, while the character of
+Albany renders a still more maddening grievance possible--namely, Regan and
+Cornwall in perfect sympathy of monstrosity. Not a sentiment, not an
+image, which can give pleasure on its own account is admitted; whenever
+these creatures are introduced, and they are brought forward as little as
+possible, pure horror reigns throughout. In this scene and in all the
+early speeches of Lear, the one general sentiment of filial ingratitude
+prevails as the main-spring of the feelings;--in this early stage the
+outward object causing the pressure on the mind, which is not yet
+sufficiently familiarised with the anguish for the imagination to work
+upon it.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Gon._ Do you mark that, my lord?
+
+_Alb._ I cannot be so partial, Goneril,
+To the great love I bear you.
+
+_Gon._ Pray you content," &c.
+
+Observe the baffled endeavour of Goneril to act on the fears of Albany,
+and yet his passiveness, his _inertia_; he is not convinced, and yet he is
+afraid of looking into the thing. Such characters always yield to those
+who will take the trouble of governing them, or for them. Perhaps the
+influence of a princess, whose choice of him had royalised his state, may
+be some little excuse for Albany's weakness.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Lear._ O let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven!
+Keep me in temper! I would not be mad!"
+
+The mind's own anticipation of madness! The deepest tragic notes are often
+struck by a half sense of an impending blow. The Fool's conclusion of this
+act by a grotesque prattling seems to indicate the dislocation of feeling
+that has begun and is to be continued.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Edmund's speech:--
+
+          ... "He replied,
+Thou unpossessing bastard!" &c.
+
+Thus the secret poison in Edmund's own heart steals forth; and then
+observe poor Gloster's--
+
+"Loyal and _natural_ boy!"--
+
+as if praising the crime of Edmund's birth!
+
+_Ib._ Compare Regan's--
+
+"What, did _my father's_ godson seek your life?
+He whom _my father_ named?"--
+
+with the unfeminine violence of her--
+
+"All vengeance comes too short," &c.--
+
+and yet no reference to the guilt, but only to the accident, which she
+uses as an occasion for sneering at her father. Regan is not, in fact, a
+greater monster than Goneril, but she has the power of casting more venom.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Cornwall's speech:---
+
+          ... "This is some fellow,
+Who, having been praised for bluntness, doth affect
+A saucy roughness," &c.
+
+In thus placing these profound general truths in the mouths of such men as
+Cornwall, Edmund, Iago, &c., Shakespeare at once gives them utterance, and
+yet shows how indefinite their application is.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Edgar's assumed madness serves the great purpose of taking
+off part of the shock which would otherwise be caused by the true madness
+of Lear, and further displays the profound difference between the two. In
+every attempt at representing madness throughout the whole range of
+dramatic literature, with the single exception of Lear, it is mere
+lightheadedness, as especially in Otway. In Edgar's ravings Shakespeare
+all the while lets you see a fixed purpose, a practical end in view;--in
+Lear's, there is only the brooding of the one anguish, an eddy without
+progression.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Lear's speech:--
+
+"The king would speak with Cornwall; the dear father
+Would with his daughter speak, &c.
+
+No, but not yet: may be he is not well," &c.
+
+The strong interest now felt by Lear to try to find excuses for his
+daughter is most pathetic.
+
+_Ib._ Lear's speech:--
+
+          ... "Beloved Regan,
+Thy sister's naught;--O Regan, she hath tied
+Sharp-tooth'd unkindness, like a vulture, here.
+I can scarce speak to thee;--thou'lt not believe
+Of how deprav'd a quality--O Regan!
+
+_Reg._ I pray you, Sir, take patience; I have hope,
+You less know how to value her desert,
+Than she to scant her duty.
+
+_Lear._ Say, how is that?"
+
+Nothing is so heart-cutting as a cold unexpected defence or palliation of
+a cruelty passionately complained of, or so expressive of thorough
+hard-heartedness. And feel the excessive horror of Regan's "O, Sir, you
+are old!"--and then her drawing from that universal object of reverence and
+indulgence the very reason for her frightful conclusion--
+
+"Say, you have wrong'd her!"
+
+All Lear's faults increase our pity for him. We refuse to know them
+otherwise than as means of his sufferings, and aggravations of his
+daughters' ingratitude.
+
+_Ib._ Lear's speech:--
+
+"O, reason not the need: our basest beggars
+Are in the poorest thing superfluous," &c.
+
+Observe that the tranquillity which follows the first stunning of the blow
+permits Lear to reason.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4. O, what a world's convention of agonies is here! All
+external nature in a storm, all moral nature convulsed,--the real madness
+of Lear, the feigned madness of Edgar, the babbling of the Fool, the
+desperate fidelity of Kent--surely such a scene was never conceived before
+or since! Take it but as a picture for the eye only, it is more terrific
+than any which a Michael Angelo, inspired by a Dante, could have
+conceived, and which none but a Michael Angelo could have executed. Or let
+it have been uttered to the blind, the howlings of nature would seem
+converted into the voice of conscious humanity. This scene ends with the
+first symptoms of positive derangement; and the intervention of the fifth
+scene is particularly judicious,--the interruption allowing an interval for
+Lear to appear in full madness in the sixth scene.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Gloster's blinding.
+
+What can I say of this scene?--There is my reluctance to think Shakespeare
+wrong, and yet--
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Lear's speech:--
+
+
+    "Ha! Goneril!--with a white beard!--They flattered me like a dog;
+    and told me, I had white hairs in my beard, ere the black ones
+    were there. To say _Ay_ and _No_ to every thing I said!--Ay and No
+    too was no good divinity. When the rain came to wet me once," &c.
+
+
+The thunder recurs, but still at a greater distance from our feelings.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Lear's speech:--
+
+"Where have I been? Where am I?--Fair daylight?--
+I am mightily abused.--I should even die with pity
+To see another thus," &c.
+
+How beautifully the affecting return of Lear to reason, and the mild
+pathos of these speeches prepare the mind for the last sad, yet sweet,
+consolation of the aged sufferer's death!
+
+
+
+
+"Hamlet."
+
+
+Hamlet was the play, or rather Hamlet himself was the character, in the
+intuition and exposition of which I first made my turn for philosophical
+criticism, and especially for insight into the genius of Shakespeare,
+noticed. This happened first amongst my acquaintances, as Sir George
+Beaumont will bear witness; and subsequently, long before Schlegel had
+delivered at Vienna the lectures on Shakespeare, which he afterwards
+published, I had given on the same subject eighteen lectures substantially
+the same, proceeding from the very same point of view, and deducing the
+same conclusions, so far as I either then agreed, or now agree, with him.
+I gave these lectures at the Royal Institution, before six or seven
+hundred auditors of rank and eminence, in the spring of the same year, in
+which Sir Humphrey Davy, a fellow-lecturer, made his great revolutionary
+discoveries in chemistry. Even in detail the coincidence of Schlegel with
+my lectures was so extraordinary, that all who at a later period heard the
+same words, taken by me from my notes of the lectures at the Royal
+Institution, concluded a borrowing on my part from Schlegel. Mr. Hazlitt,
+whose hatred of me is in such an inverse ratio to my zealous kindness
+towards him, as to be defended by his warmest admirer, Charles Lamb--(who,
+God bless him! besides his characteristic obstinacy of adherence to old
+friends, as long at least as they are at all down in the world, is linked
+as by a charm to Hazlitt's conversation)--only as "frantic;"--Mr. Hazlitt, I
+say, himself replied to an assertion of my plagiarism from Schlegel in
+these words;--"That is a lie; for I myself heard the very same character of
+Hamlet from Coleridge before he went to Germany, and when he had neither
+read nor could read a page of German!" Now Hazlitt was on a visit to me at
+my cottage at Nether Stowey, Somerset, in the summer of the year 1798, in
+the September of which year I first was out of sight of the shores of
+Great Britain.--Recorded by me, S. T. Coleridge, 7th January, 1819.
+
+The seeming inconsistencies in the conduct and character of Hamlet have
+long exercised the conjectural ingenuity of critics; and, as we are always
+loth to suppose that the cause of defective apprehension is in ourselves,
+the mystery has been too commonly explained by the very easy process of
+setting it down as in fact inexplicable, and by resolving the phenomenon
+into a misgrowth or _lusus_ of the capricious and irregular genius of
+Shakespeare. The shallow and stupid arrogance of these vulgar and indolent
+decisions I would fain do my best to expose. I believe the character of
+Hamlet may be traced to Shakespeare's deep and accurate science in mental
+philosophy. Indeed, that this character must have some connection with the
+common fundamental laws of our nature may be assumed from the fact, that
+Hamlet has been the darling of every country in which the literature of
+England has been fostered. In order to understand him, it is essential
+that we should reflect on the constitution of our own minds. Man is
+distinguished from the brute animals in proportion as thought prevails
+over sense: but in the healthy processes of the mind, a balance is
+constantly maintained between the impressions from outward objects and the
+inward operations of the intellect;--for if there be an overbalance in the
+contemplative faculty, man thereby becomes the creature of mere
+meditation, and loses his natural power of action. Now one of
+Shakespeare's modes of creating characters is, to conceive any one
+intellectual or moral faculty in morbid excess, and then to place himself,
+Shakespeare, thus mutilated or diseased, under given circumstances. In
+Hamlet he seems to have wished to exemplify the moral necessity of a due
+balance between our attention to the objects of our senses, and our
+meditation on the workings of our minds,--an _equilibrium_ between the real
+and the imaginary worlds. In Hamlet this balance is disturbed: his
+thoughts, and the images of his fancy, are far more vivid than his actual
+perceptions, and his very perceptions, instantly passing through the
+_medium_ of his contemplations, acquire, as they pass, a form and a colour
+not naturally their own. Hence we see a great, an almost enormous,
+intellectual activity, and a proportionate aversion to real action,
+consequent upon it, with all its symptoms and accompanying qualities. This
+character Shakespeare places in circumstances, under which it is obliged
+to act on the spur of the moment:--Hamlet is brave and careless of death;
+but he vacillates from sensibility, and procrastinates from thought, and
+loses the power of action in the energy of resolve. Thus it is that this
+tragedy presents a direct contrast to that of _Macbeth_; the one proceeds
+with the utmost slowness, the other with a crowded and breathless
+rapidity.
+
+The effect of this overbalance of the imaginative power is beautifully
+illustrated in the everlasting broodings and superfluous activities of
+Hamlet's mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is constantly
+occupied with the world within, and abstracted from the world
+without,--giving substance to shadows, and throwing a mist over all
+commonplace actualities. It is the nature of thought to be
+indefinite;--definiteness belongs to external imagery alone. Hence it is
+that the sense of sublimity arises, not from the sight of an outward
+object, but from the beholder's reflection upon it;--not from the sensuous
+impression, but from the imaginative reflex. Few have seen a celebrated
+waterfall without feeling something akin to disappointment: it is only
+subsequently that the image comes back full into the mind, and brings with
+it a train of grand or beautiful associations. Hamlet feels this; his
+senses are in a state of trance, and he looks upon external things as
+hieroglyphics. His soliloquy--
+
+"O! that this too too solid flesh would melt," &c.--
+
+springs from that craving after the indefinite--for that which is not--which
+most easily besets men of genius; and the self-delusion common to this
+temper of mind is finely exemplified in the character which Hamlet gives
+of himself;--
+
+          ... "It cannot be
+But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall
+To make oppression bitter."
+
+He mistakes the seeing his chains for the breaking them, delays action
+till action is of no use, and dies the victim of mere circumstance and
+accident.
+
+There is a great significancy in the names of Shakespeare's plays. In the
+_Twelfth Night_, _Midsummer __ Night's Dream_, _As You Like It_, and
+_Winter's Tale_, the total effect is produced by a co-ordination of the
+characters as in a wreath of flowers. But in _Coriolanus_, _Lear_, _Romeo
+and Juliet_, _Hamlet_, _Othello_, &c., the effect arises from the
+subordination of all to one, either as the prominent person, or the
+principal object. _Cymbeline_ is the only exception; and even that has its
+advantages in preparing the audience for the chaos of time, place, and
+costume, by throwing the date back into a fabulous king's reign.
+
+But as of more importance, so more striking, is the judgment displayed by
+our truly dramatic poet, as well as poet of the drama, in the management
+of his first scenes. With the single exception of _Cymbeline_, they either
+place before us at one glance both the past and the future in some effect,
+which implies the continuance and full agency of its cause, as in the
+feuds and party-spirit of the servants of the two houses in the first
+scene of _Romeo and Juliet_; or in the degrading passion for shows and
+public spectacles, and the overwhelming attachment for the newest
+successful war-chief in the Roman people, already become a populace,
+contrasted with the jealousy of the nobles in _Julius Caesar_;--or they at
+once commence the action so as to excite a curiosity for the explanation
+in the following scenes, as in the storm of wind and waves, and the
+boatswain in the _Tempest_, instead of anticipating our curiosity, as in
+most other first scenes, and in too many other first acts;--or they act, by
+contrast of diction suited to the characters, at once to heighten the
+effect, and yet to give a naturalness to the language and rhythm of the
+principal personages, either as that of Prospero and Miranda by the
+appropriate lowness of the style, or as in _King John_, by the equally
+appropriate stateliness of official harangues or narratives, so that the
+after blank verse seems to belong to the rank and quality of the speakers,
+and not to the poet;--or they strike at once the key-note, and give the
+predominant spirit of the play, as in the _Twelfth Night_ and in
+_Macbeth_;--or finally, the first scene comprises all these advantages at
+once, as in _Hamlet_.
+
+Compare the easy language of common life, in which this drama commences,
+with the direful music and wild wayward rhythm and abrupt lyrics of the
+opening of _Macbeth_. The tone is quite familiar;--there is no poetic
+description of night, no elaborate information conveyed by one speaker to
+another of what both had immediately before their senses--(such as the
+first distich in Addison's _Cato_, which is a translation into poetry of
+"Past four o'clock and a dark morning!");--and yet nothing bordering on the
+comic on the one hand, nor any striving of the intellect on the other. It
+is precisely the language of sensation among men who feared no charge of
+effeminacy for feeling what they had no want of resolution to bear. Yet
+the armour, the dead silence, the watchfulness that first interrupts it,
+the welcome relief of the guard, the cold, the broken expressions of
+compelled attention to bodily feelings still under control--all excellently
+accord with, and prepare for, the after gradual rise into tragedy;--but,
+above all, into a tragedy, the interest of which is as eminently _ad et
+apud intra_, as that of _Macbeth_ is directly _ad extra_.
+
+In all the best attested stories of ghosts and visions, as in that of
+Brutus, of Archbishop Cranmer, that of Benvenuto Cellini recorded by
+himself, and the vision of Galileo communicated by him to his favourite
+pupil Torricelli, the ghost-seers were in a state of cold or chilling damp
+from without, and of anxiety inwardly. It has been with all of them as
+with Francisco on his guard,--alone, in the depth and silence of the night;
+"'twas bitter cold, and they were sick at heart, and _not a mouse
+stirring_." The attention to minute sounds,--naturally associated with the
+recollection of minute objects, and the more familiar and trifling, the
+more impressive from the unusualness of their producing any impression at
+all--gives a philosophic pertinency to this last image; but it has likewise
+its dramatic use and purpose. For its commonness in ordinary conversation
+tends to produce the sense of reality, and at once hides the poet, and yet
+approximates the reader or spectator to that state in which the highest
+poetry will appear, and in its component parts, though not in the whole
+composition, really is, the language of nature. If I should not speak it,
+I feel that I should be thinking it;--the voice only is the poet's,--the
+words are my own. That Shakespeare meant to put an effect in the actor's
+power in the very first words--"Who's there?"--is evident from the
+impatience expressed by the startled Francisco in the words that
+follow--"Nay, answer me: stand and unfold yourself." A brave man is never
+so peremptory, as when he fears that he is afraid. Observe the gradual
+transition from the silence and the still recent habit of listening in
+Francisco's--"I think I hear them"--to the more cheerful call out, which a
+good actor would observe, in the--"Stand ho! Who is there?" Bernardo's
+inquiry after Horatio, and the repetition of his name and in his own
+presence indicate a respect or an eagerness that implies him as one of the
+persons who are in the foreground; and the scepticism attributed to him,--
+
+"Horatio says, 'tis but our fantasy;
+And will not let belief take hold of him,"--
+
+prepares us for Hamlet's after eulogy on him as one whose blood and
+judgment were happily commingled. The actor should also be careful to
+distinguish the expectation and gladness of Bernardo's "Welcome, Horatio!"
+from the mere courtesy of his "Welcome, good Marcellus!"
+
+Now observe the admirable indefiniteness of the first opening out of the
+occasion of all this anxiety. The preparation informative of the audience
+is just as much as was precisely necessary, and no more;--it begins with
+the uncertainty appertaining to a question:--
+
+"_Mar._ What, has _this thing_ appear'd again to-night?"--
+
+Even the word "again" has its _credibilising_ effect. Then Horatio, the
+representative of the ignorance of the audience, not himself, but by
+Marcellus to Bernardo, anticipates the common solution--"'tis but our
+fantasy!" upon which Marcellus rises into--
+
+"This dreaded sight, twice seen of us"--
+
+which immediately afterwards becomes "this apparition," and that, too, an
+intelligent spirit--that is, to be spoken to! Then comes the confirmation
+of Horatio's disbelief;--
+
+"Tush! tush! 'twill not appear!"--
+
+and the silence, with which the scene opened, is again restored in the
+shivering feeling of Horatio sitting down, at such a time, and with the
+two eye-witnesses, to hear a story of a ghost, and that, too, of a ghost
+which had appeared twice before at the very same hour. In the deep feeling
+which Bernardo has of the solemn nature of what he is about to relate, he
+makes an effort to master his own imaginative terrors by an elevation of
+style,--itself a continuation of the effort,--and by turning off from the
+apparition, as from something which would force him too deeply into
+himself, to the outward objects, the realities of nature, which had
+accompanied it:--
+
+"_Ber._ Last night of all,
+When yon same star, that's westward from the pole
+Had made his course to illume that part of heaven
+Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself,
+The bell then beating one."
+
+This passage seems to contradict the critical law that what is told, makes
+a faint impression compared with what is beholden; for it does indeed
+convey to the mind more than the eye can see; whilst the interruption of
+the narrative at the very moment when we are most intensely listening for
+the sequel, and have our thoughts diverted from the dreaded sight in
+expectation of the desired, yet almost dreaded, tale--this gives all the
+suddenness and surprise of the original appearance:--
+
+"_Mar._ Peace, break thee off; look, where it comes again!"
+
+Note the judgment displayed in having the two persons present, who, as
+having seen the Ghost before, are naturally eager in confirming their
+former opinions,--whilst the sceptic is silent, and after having been twice
+addressed by his friends, answers with two hasty syllables--"Most
+like,"--and a confession of horror:--
+
+"It harrows me with fear and wonder."
+
+O heaven! words are wasted on those who feel, and to those who do not feel
+the exquisite judgment of Shakespeare in this scene, what can be said?
+Hume himself could not but have had faith in this Ghost dramatically, let
+his anti-ghostism have been as strong as Sampson against other ghosts less
+powerfully raised.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Mar._ Good now, sit down, and tell me, he that knows,
+Why this same strict and most observant watch," &c.
+
+How delightfully natural is the transition, to the retrospective
+narrative! And observe, upon the Ghost's reappearance, how much Horatio's
+courage is increased by having translated the late individual spectator
+into general thought and past experience,--and the sympathy of Marcellus
+and Bernardo with his patriotic surmises in daring to strike at the Ghost;
+whilst in a moment, upon its vanishing, the former solemn awe-stricken
+feeling returns upon them:--
+
+"We do it wrong, being so majestical,
+To offer it the show of violence."
+
+_Ib._ Horatio's speech:--
+
+          ... "I have heard,
+The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
+Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
+Awake the god of day," &c.
+
+No Addison could be more careful to be poetical in diction than
+Shakespeare in providing the grounds and sources of its propriety. But how
+to elevate a thing almost mean by its familiarity, young poets may learn
+in this treatment of the cock-crow.
+
+_Ib._ Horatio's speech:--
+
+          ... "And, by my advice,
+Let us impart what we have seen to-night
+Unto young Hamlet; for, upon my life,
+The spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him."
+
+Note the inobtrusive and yet fully adequate mode of introducing the main
+character, "young Hamlet," upon whom it transferred all the interest
+excited for the acts and concerns of the king his father.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. The audience are now relieved by a change of scene to the
+royal court, in order that Hamlet may not have to take up the leavings of
+exhaustion. In the king's speech, observe the set and pedantically
+antithetic form of the sentences when touching that which galled the heels
+of conscience,--the strain of undignified rhetoric,--and yet in what follows
+concerning the public weal, a certain appropriate majesty. Indeed was he
+not a royal brother?--
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"And now, Laertes, what's the news with you?" &c.
+
+Thus with great art Shakespeare introduces a most important, but still
+subordinate character first, Laertes, who is yet thus graciously treated
+in consequence of the assistance given to the election of the late king's
+brother instead of his son by Polonius.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ A little more than kin, and less than kind.
+
+_King._ How is it that the clouds still hang on you?
+
+_Ham._ Not so, my lord, I am too much i' the sun."
+
+Hamlet opens his mouth with a playing on words, the complete absence of
+which throughout characterises Macbeth. This playing on words may be
+attributed to many causes or motives, as either to an exuberant activity
+of mind, as in the higher comedy of Shakespeare generally;--or to an
+imitation of it as a mere fashion, as if it were said--"Is not this better
+than groaning?"--or to a contemptuous exultation in minds vulgarised and
+overset by their success, as in the poetic instance of Milton's Devils in
+the battle;--or it is the language of resentment, as is familiar to every
+one who has witnessed the quarrels of the lower orders, where there is
+invariably a profusion of punning invective, whence, perhaps, nicknames
+have in a considerable degree sprung up;--or it is the language of
+suppressed passion, and especially of a hardly smothered personal dislike.
+The first and last of these combine in Hamlet's case; and I have little
+doubt that Farmer is right in supposing the equivocation carried on in the
+expression "too much i' the sun," or son.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Ay, madam, it is common."
+
+Here observe Hamlet's delicacy to his mother, and how the suppression
+prepares him for the overflow in the next speech, in which his character
+is more developed by bringing forward his aversion to externals, and which
+betrays his habit of brooding over the world within him, coupled with a
+prodigality of beautiful words, which are the half embodyings of thought,
+and are more than thought, and have an outness, a reality _sui generis_,
+and yet retain their correspondence and shadowy affinity to the images and
+movements within. Note also Hamlet's silence to the long speech of the
+king which follows, and his respectful, but general, answer to his mother.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's first soliloquy:--
+
+"O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,
+Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew!" &c.
+
+This _taedium vitae_ is a common oppression on minds cast in the Hamlet
+mould, and is caused by disproportionate mental exertion, which
+necessitates exhaustion of bodily feeling. Where there is a just
+coincidence of external and internal action, pleasure is always the
+result; but where the former is deficient, and the mind's appetency of the
+ideal is unchecked, realities will seem cold and unmoving. In such cases,
+passion combines itself with the indefinite alone. In this mood of his
+mind the relation of the appearance of his father's spirit in arms is made
+all at once to Hamlet:--it is--Horatio's speech in particular--a perfect
+model of the true style of dramatic narrative;--the purest poetry, and yet
+in the most natural language, equally remote from the ink-horn and the
+plough.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This scene must be regarded as one of Shakespeare's lyric
+movements in the play, and the skill with which it is interwoven with the
+dramatic parts is peculiarly an excellence of our poet. You experience the
+sensation of a pause without the sense of a stop. You will observe in
+Ophelia's short and general answer to the long speech of Laertes the
+natural carelessness of innocence, which cannot think such a code of
+cautions and prudences necessary to its own preservation.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius (in Stockdale's edition):--
+
+"Or (not to crack the wind of the poor phrase),
+Wronging it thus, you'll tender me a fool."
+
+I suspect this "wronging" is here used much in the same sense as
+"wringing" or "wrenching," and that the parenthesis should be extended to
+"thus."
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Polonius:--
+
+          ... "How prodigal the soul
+Lends the tongue vows:--these blazes, daughter," &c.
+
+A spondee has, I doubt not, dropped out of the text. Either insert "Go to"
+after "vows";--
+
+"Lends the tongue vows: Go to, these blazes, daughter"--
+
+or read--
+
+"Lends the tongue vows:--These blazes, daughter, mark you"--
+
+Shakespeare never introduces a catalectic line without intending an
+equivalent to the foot omitted in the pauses, or the dwelling emphasis, or
+the diffused retardation. I do not, however, deny that a good actor might,
+by employing the last mentioned means--namely, the retardation, or solemn
+knowing drawl--supply the missing spondee with good effect. But I do not
+believe that in this or any other of the foregoing speeches of Polonius,
+Shakespeare meant to bring out the senility or weakness of that
+personage's mind. In the great ever-recurring dangers and duties of life,
+where to distinguish the fit objects for the application of the maxims
+collected by the experience of a long life, requires no fineness of tact,
+as in the admonitions to his son and daughter, Polonius is uniformly made
+respectable. But if an actor were even capable of catching these shades in
+the character, the pit and the gallery would be malcontent at their
+exhibition. It is to Hamlet that Polonius is, and is meant to be,
+contemptible, because in inwardness and uncontrollable activity of
+movement, Hamlet's mind is the logical contrary to that of Polonius; and
+besides, as I have observed before, Hamlet dislikes the man as false to
+his true allegiance in the matter of the succession to the crown.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. The unimportant conversation with which this scene opens is a
+proof of Shakespeare's minute knowledge of human nature. It is a well
+established fact, that on the brink of any serious enterprise, or event of
+moment, men almost invariably endeavour to elude the pressure of their own
+thoughts by turning aside to trivial objects and familiar circumstances:
+thus this dialogue on the platform begins with remarks on the coldness of
+the air, and inquiries, obliquely connected, indeed, with the expected
+hour of the visitation, but thrown out in a seeming vacuity of topics, as
+to the striking of the clock and so forth. The same desire to escape from
+the impending thought is carried on in Hamlet's account of, and moralizing
+on, the Danish custom of wassailing: he runs off from the particular to
+the universal, and, in his repugnance to personal and individual concerns,
+escapes, as it were, from himself in generalisations, and smothers the
+impatience and uneasy feelings of the moment in abstract reasoning.
+Besides this, another purpose is answered;--for by thus entangling the
+attention of the audience in the nice distinctions and parenthetical
+sentences of this speech of Hamlet's, Shakespeare takes them completely by
+surprise on the appearance of the Ghost, which comes upon them in all the
+suddenness of its visionary character. Indeed, no modern writer would have
+dared, like Shakespeare, to have preceded this last visitation by two
+distinct appearances,--or could have contrived that the third should rise
+upon the former two in impressiveness and solemnity of interest.
+
+But in addition to all the other excellences of Hamlet's speech concerning
+the wassail-music--so finely revealing the predominant idealism, the
+ratiocinative meditativeness, of his character--it has the advantage of
+giving nature and probability to the impassioned continuity of the speech
+instantly directed to the Ghost. The _momentum_ had been given to his
+mental activity; the full current of the thoughts and words had set in,
+and the very forgetfulness, in the fervour of his argumentation, of the
+purpose for which he was there, aided in preventing the appearance from
+benumbing the mind. Consequently, it acted as a new impulse,--a sudden
+stroke which increased the velocity of the body already in motion, whilst
+it altered the direction. The co-presence of Horatio, Marcellus, and
+Bernardo is most judiciously contrived; for it renders the courage of
+Hamlet, and his impetuous eloquence, perfectly intelligible. The
+knowledge,--the unthought of consciousness,--the sensation of human
+auditors--of flesh and blood sympathists--acts as a support and a
+stimulation _a tergo_, while the front of the mind, the whole
+consciousness of the speaker, is filled, yea, absorbed, by the apparition.
+Add too, that the apparition itself has, by its previous appearances, been
+brought nearer to a thing of this world. This accrescence of objectivity
+in a Ghost that yet retains all its ghostly attributes and fearful
+subjectivity, is truly wonderful.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Hamlet's speech:--
+
+"O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else?
+And shall I couple hell?"
+
+I remember nothing equal to this burst, unless it be the first speech of
+Prometheus in the Greek drama, after the exit of Vulcan and the two
+Afrites. But Shakespeare alone could have produced the vow of Hamlet to
+make his memory a blank of all maxims and generalised truths, that
+"observation had copied there,"--followed immediately by the speaker noting
+down the generalised fact,--
+
+"That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain!"
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mar._ Hillo, ho, ho, my lord!
+
+_Ham._ Hillo, ho, ho, boy! come bird, come," &c.
+
+This part of the scene, after Hamlet's interview with the Ghost, has been
+charged with an improbable eccentricity. But the truth is, that after the
+mind has been stretched beyond its usual pitch and tone, it must either
+sink into exhaustion and inanity, or seek relief by change. It is thus
+well known, that persons conversant in deeds of cruelty contrive to escape
+from conscience by connecting something of the ludicrous with them, and by
+inventing grotesque terms, and a certain technical phraseology, to
+disguise the horror of their practices. Indeed, paradoxical as it may
+appear, the terrible by a law of the human mind always touches on the
+verge of the ludicrous. Both arise from the perception of something out of
+the common order of things--something, in fact, out of its place; and if
+from this we can abstract danger, the uncommonness will alone remain, and
+the sense of the ridiculous be excited. The close alliance of these
+opposites--they are not contraries--appears from the circumstance, that
+laughter is equally the expression of extreme anguish and horror as of
+joy: as there are tears of sorrow and tears of joy, so is there a laugh of
+terror and a laugh of merriment. These complex causes will naturally have
+produced in Hamlet the disposition to escape from his own feelings of the
+overwhelming and supernatural by a wild transition to the ludicrous,--a
+sort of cunning bravado, bordering on the flights of delirium. For you
+may, perhaps, observe that Hamlet's wildness is but half false; he plays
+that subtle trick of pretending to act only when he is very near really
+being what he acts.
+
+The subterraneous speeches of the Ghost are hardly defensible;--but I would
+call your attention to the characteristic difference between this Ghost,
+as a superstition connected with the most mysterious truths of revealed
+religion,--and Shakespeare's consequent reverence in his treatment of
+it,--and the foul earthly witcheries and wild language in _Macbeth_.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Polonius and Reynaldo.
+
+In all things dependent on, or rather made up of, fine address, the manner
+is no more or otherwise rememberable than the light notions, steps, and
+gestures of youth and health. But this is almost everything:--no wonder,
+therefore, if that which can be put down by rule in the memory should
+appear to us as mere poring, maudlin, cunning,--slyness blinking through
+the watery eye of superannuation. So in this admirable scene, Polonius,
+who is throughout the skeleton of his own former skill and statecraft,
+hunts the trail of policy at a dead scent, supplied by the weak
+fever-smell in his own nostrils.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Speech of Polonius:--
+
+"My liege, and madam, to expostulate," &c.
+
+Warburton's note.
+
+
+    "Then as to the jingles, and play on words, let us but look into
+    the sermons of Dr. Donne (the wittiest man of that age), and we
+    shall find them full of this vein."
+
+
+I have, and that most carefully, read Dr. Donne's sermons, and find none
+of these jingles. The great art of an orator--to make whatever he talks of
+appear of importance--this, indeed, Donne has effected with consummate
+skill.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Excellent well;
+You are a fishmonger."
+
+That is, you are sent to fish out this secret. This is Hamlet's own
+meaning.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog,
+Being a god, kissing carrion."
+
+These purposely obscure lines, I rather think, refer to some thought in
+Hamlet's mind, contrasting the lovely daughter with such a tedious old
+fool, her father, as he, Hamlet, represents Polonius to himself:--"Why,
+fool as he is, he is some degrees in rank above a dead dog's carcase; and
+if the sun, being a god that kisses carrion, can raise life out of a dead
+dog,--why may not good fortune, that favours fools, have raised a lovely
+girl out of this dead-alive old fool?" Warburton is often led astray, in
+his interpretations, by his attention to general positions without the due
+Shakespearian reference to what is probably passing in the mind of his
+speaker, characteristic, and expository of his particular character and
+present mood. The subsequent passage,--
+
+"O Jephthah, judge of Israel! what a treasure hadst thou!"
+
+is confirmatory of my view of these lines.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ You cannot, Sir, take from me any thing that I will
+more willingly part withal; except my life, except my life, except
+my life."
+
+This repetition strikes me as most admirable.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Then are our beggars, bodies; and our monarchs, and
+out-stretched heroes, the beggars' shadows?"
+
+I do not understand this; and Shakespeare seems to have intended the
+meaning not to be more than snatched at:--"By my fay, I cannot reason!"
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The rugged Pyrrhus--he whose sable arms," &c.
+
+This admirable substitution of the epic for the dramatic, giving such a
+reality to the impassioned dramatic diction of Shakespeare's own dialogue,
+and authorised too, by the actual style of the tragedies before his time
+(_Porrex and Ferrex_, _Titus Andronicus_, &c.)--is well worthy of notice.
+The fancy, that a burlesque was intended, sinks below criticism: the
+lines, as epic narrative, are superb.
+
+In the thoughts, and even in the separate parts of the diction, this
+description is highly poetical: in truth, taken by itself, that is its
+fault that it is too poetical!--the language of lyric vehemence and epic
+pomp, and not of the drama. But if Shakespeare had made the diction truly
+dramatic, where would have been the contrast between Hamlet and the play
+in _Hamlet_?
+
+_Ib._--
+
+... "Had seen the _mobled_ queen," &c.
+
+A mob-cap is still a word in common use for a morning cap, which conceals
+the whole head of hair, and passes under the chin. It is nearly the same
+as the night-cap, that is, it is an imitation of it, so as to answer the
+purpose ("I am not drest for company"), and yet reconciling it with
+neatness and perfect purity.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+"O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!" &c.
+
+This is Shakespeare's own attestation to the truth of the idea of Hamlet
+which I have before put forth.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The spirit that I have seen,
+May be a devil: and the devil hath power
+To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and, perhaps
+Out of my weakness, and my melancholy
+(As he is very potent with such spirits),
+Abuses me to damn me."
+
+See Sir Thomas Brown:--
+
+
+    "I believe ... that those apparitions and ghosts of departed
+    persons are not the wandering souls of men, but the unquiet walks
+    of devils, prompting and suggesting us unto mischief, blood, and
+    villany, instilling and stealing into our hearts, that the blessed
+    spirits are not at rest in their graves, but wander solicitous of
+    the affairs of the world."--_Relig. Med._ part. i. sect. 37.
+
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+"To be, or not to be, that is the question," &c.
+
+This speech is of absolutely universal interest,--and yet to which of all
+Shakespeare's characters could it have been appropriately given but to
+Hamlet? For Jaques it would have been too deep, and for Iago too habitual
+a communion with the heart; which in every man belongs, or ought to
+belong, to all mankind.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"The undiscover'd country, from whose bourn
+No traveller returns."
+
+Theobald's note in defence of the supposed contradiction of this in the
+apparition of the Ghost.
+
+O miserable defender! If it be necessary to remove the apparent
+contradiction,--if it be not rather a great beauty,--surely, it were easy to
+say, that no traveller returns to this world, as to his home, or
+abiding-place.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ Ha, ha! are you honest?
+
+_Oph._ My lord?
+
+_Ham._ Are you fair?"
+
+Here it is evident that the penetrating Hamlet perceives, from the strange
+and forced manner of Ophelia, that the sweet girl was not acting a part of
+her own, but was a decoy; and his after speeches are not so much directed
+to her as to the listeners and spies. Such a discovery in a mood so
+anxious and irritable accounts for a certain harshness in him;--and yet a
+wild up-working of love, sporting with opposites in a wilful
+self-tormenting strain of irony, is perceptible throughout. "I did love
+you once:"--"I lov'd you not:"--and particularly in his enumeration of the
+faults of the sex from which Ophelia is so free, that the mere freedom
+therefrom constitutes her character. Note Shakespeare's charm of composing
+the female character by the absence of characters, that is, marks and
+out-juttings.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's speech:--
+
+
+    "I say, we will have no more marriages: those that are married
+    already, all but one, shall live: the rest shall keep as they
+    are."
+
+
+Observe this dallying with the inward purpose, characteristic of one who
+had not brought his mind to the steady acting point. He would fain sting
+the uncle's mind;--but to stab his body!--The soliloquy of Ophelia, which
+follows, is the perfection of love--so exquisitely unselfish!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This dialogue of Hamlet with the players is one of the
+happiest instances of Shakespeare's power of diversifying the scene while
+he is carrying on the plot.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ham._ My lord, you played once i' the university, you say?"
+(_To Polonius._)
+
+To have kept Hamlet's love for Ophelia before the audience in any direct
+form, would have made a breach in the unity of the interest;--but yet to
+the thoughtful reader it is suggested by his spite to poor Polonius, whom
+he cannot let rest.
+
+_Ib._ The style of the interlude here is distinguished from the real
+dialogue by rhyme, as in the first interview with the players by epic
+verse.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Ros._ My lord, you once did love me.
+
+_Ham._ _So_ I do still, by these pickers and stealers."
+
+I never heard an actor give this word "so" its proper emphasis.
+Shakespeare's meaning is--"lov'd you? Hum!--_so_ I do still," &c. There has
+been no change in my opinion:--I think as ill of you as I did. Else Hamlet
+tells an ignoble falsehood, and a useless one, as the last speech to
+Guildenstern--"Why look you now," &c.--proves.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's soliloquy:--
+
+    "Now could I drink hot blood,
+And do such business as the bitter day
+Would quake to look on."
+
+The utmost at which Hamlet arrives, is a disposition, a mood, to do
+something:--but what to do, is still left undecided, while every word he
+utters tends to betray his disguise. Yet observe how perfectly equal to
+any call of the moment is Hamlet, let it only not be for the future.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Polonius. Polonius's volunteer obtrusion of himself
+into this business, while it is appropriate to his character, still
+itching after former importance, removes all likelihood that Hamlet should
+suspect his presence, and prevents us from making his death injure Hamlet
+in our opinion.
+
+_Ib._ The king's speech:--
+
+"O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven," &c.
+
+This speech well marks the difference between crime and guilt of habit.
+The conscience here is still admitted to audience. Nay, even as an audible
+soliloquy, it is far less improbable than is supposed by such as have
+watched men only in the beaten road of their feelings. But the final--"all
+may be well!" is remarkable;--the degree of merit attributed by the
+self-flattering soul to its own struggle, though baffled, and to the
+indefinite half-promise, half-command, to persevere in religious duties.
+The solution is in the divine _medium_ of the Christian doctrine of
+expiation:--not what you have done, but what you are, must determine.
+
+_Ib._ Hamlet's speech:--
+
+"Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying:
+And now I'll do't:--And so he goes to heaven:
+And so am I revenged? That would be scann'd," &c.
+
+Dr. Johnson's mistaking of the marks of reluctance and procrastination for
+impetuous, horror-striking, fiendishness!--Of such importance is it to
+understand the germ of a character. But the interval taken by Hamlet's
+speech is truly awful! And then--
+
+"My words fly up, my thoughts remain below:
+Words, without thoughts, never to heaven go."
+
+O what a lesson concerning the essential difference between wishing and
+willing, and the folly of all motive-mongering, while the individual self
+remains!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Ham._ A bloody deed;--almost as bad, good mother,
+As kill a king, and marry with his brother.
+
+_Queen._ As kill a king?"
+
+I confess that Shakespeare has left the character of the Queen in an
+unpleasant perplexity. Was she, or was she not, conscious of the
+fratricide?
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+"_Ros._ Take you me for a spunge, my lord?
+
+_Ham._ Ay, Sir; that soaks up the King's countenance, his
+rewards, his authorities," &c.
+
+Hamlet's madness is made to consist in the free utterance of all the
+thoughts that had passed through his mind before;--in fact, in telling
+home-truths.
+
+Act iv. sc. 5. Ophelia's singing. O, note the conjunction here of these
+two thoughts that had never subsisted in disjunction, the love for Hamlet,
+and her filial love, with the guileless floating on the surface of her
+pure imagination of the cautions so lately expressed, and the fears not
+too delicately avowed, by her father and brother, concerning the dangers
+to which her honour lay exposed. Thought, affliction, passion, murder
+itself--she turns to favour and prettiness. This play of association is
+instanced in the close:--
+
+
+    "My brother shall know of it, and I thank you for your good
+    counsel."
+
+
+_Ib._ Gentleman's speech:--
+
+"And as the world were now but to begin
+Antiquity forgot, custom not known,
+The ratifiers and props of every word--
+They cry," &c.
+
+Fearful and self-suspicious as I always feel, when I seem to see an error
+of judgment in Shakespeare, yet I cannot reconcile the cool, and, as
+Warburton calls it, "rational and consequential," reflection in these
+lines with the anonymousness, or the alarm, of this Gentleman or
+Messenger, as he is called in other editions.
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"There's such divinity doth hedge a king,
+That treason can but peep to what it would,
+Acts little of his will."
+
+Proof, as indeed all else is, that Shakespeare never intended us to see
+the King with Hamlet's eyes; though, I suspect, the managers have long
+done so.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Laertes:--
+
+"To hell, allegiance! vows, to the blackest devil!"
+
+
+    "Laertes is a _good_ character, but," &c.--WARBURTON.
+
+
+Mercy on Warburton's notion of goodness! Please to refer to the seventh
+scene of this act;--
+
+"I will do't;
+And for that purpose I'll anoint my sword," &c.--
+
+uttered by Laertes after the King's description of Hamlet;--
+
+          ... "He being remiss,
+Most generous, and free from all contriving,
+Will not peruse the foils."
+
+Yet I acknowledge that Shakespeare evidently wishes, as much as possible,
+to spare the character of Laertes,--to break the extreme turpitude of his
+consent to become an agent and accomplice of the King's treachery;--and to
+this end he re-introduces Ophelia at the close of this scene to afford a
+probable stimulus of passion in her brother.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Hamlet's capture by the pirates. This is almost the only play
+of Shakespeare, in which mere accidents, independent of all will, form an
+essential part of the plot;--but here how judiciously in keeping with the
+character of the over-meditative Hamlet, ever at last determined by
+accident or by a fit of passion!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Note how the King first awakens Laertes's vanity by praising
+the reporter, and then gratifies it by the report itself, and finally
+points it by--
+
+          ... "Sir, this report of his
+Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy!"
+
+_Ib._ King's speech:--
+
+"For goodness, growing to a _pleurisy_,
+Dies in his own too much."
+
+Theobald's note from Warburton, who conjectures "plethory."
+
+I rather think that Shakespeare meant "pleurisy," but involved in it the
+thought of _plethora_, as supposing pleurisy to arise from too much blood;
+otherwise I cannot explain the following line--
+
+"And then this _should_ is like a spendthrift sigh,
+That hurts by easing."
+
+In a stitch in the side every one must have heaved a sigh that "hurt by
+easing."
+
+Since writing the above I feel confirmed that "pleurisy" is the right
+word; for I find that in the old medical dictionaries the pleurisy is
+often called the "plethory."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Queen._ Your sister's drown'd, Laertes.
+
+_Laer._ Drown'd! O, where?"
+
+That Laertes might be excused in some degree for not cooling, the Act
+concludes with the affecting death of Ophelia,--who in the beginning lay
+like a little projection of land into a lake or stream, covered with
+spray-flowers, quietly reflected in the quiet waters, but at length is
+undermined or loosened, and becomes a faery isle, and after a brief
+vagrancy sinks almost without an eddy!
+
+Act v. sc. 1. O, the rich contrast between the Clowns and Hamlet, as two
+extremes! You see in the former the mockery of logic, and a traditional
+wit valued, like truth, for its antiquity, and treasured up, like a tune,
+for use.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 1 and 2. Shakespeare seems to mean all Hamlet's character to be
+brought together before his final disappearance from the scene;--his
+meditative excess in the grave-digging, his yielding to passion with
+Laertes, his love for Ophelia blazing out, his tendency to generalise on
+all occasions in the dialogue with Horatio, his fine gentlemanly manners
+with Osrick, and his and Shakespeare's own fondness for presentment:--
+
+
+    "But thou wouldst not think, how ill all's here about my heart:
+    but it is no matter."
+
+
+
+
+"Macbeth."
+
+
+"Macbeth" stands in contrast throughout with _Hamlet_; in the manner of
+opening more especially. In the latter, there is a gradual ascent from the
+simplest forms of conversation to the language of impassioned
+intellect,--yet the intellect still remaining the seat of passion: in the
+former, the invocation is at once made to the imagination and the emotions
+connected therewith. Hence the movement throughout is the most rapid of
+all Shakespeare's plays; and hence also, with the exception of the
+disgusting passage of the Porter (Act ii. sc. 3), which I dare pledge
+myself to demonstrate to be an interpolation of the actors, there is not,
+to the best of my remembrance, a single pun or play on words in the whole
+drama. I have previously given an answer to the thousand times repeated
+charge against Shakespeare upon the subject of his punning, and I here
+merely mention the fact of the absence of any puns in _Macbeth_, as
+justifying a candid doubt, at least, whether even in these figures of
+speech and fanciful modifications of language, Shakespeare may not have
+followed rules and principles that merit and would stand the test of
+philosophic examination. And hence, also, there is an entire absence of
+comedy, nay, even of irony and philosophic contemplation in _Macbeth_,--the
+play being wholly and purely tragic. For the same cause, there are no
+reasonings of equivocal morality, which would have required a more
+leisurely state and a consequently greater activity of mind;--no sophistry
+of self-delusion,--except only that previously to the dreadful act, Macbeth
+mistranslates the recoilings and ominous whispers of conscience into
+prudential and selfish reasonings; and, after the deed done, the terrors
+of remorse into fear from external dangers,--like delirious men who run
+away from the phantoms of their own brains, or, raised by terror to rage,
+stab the real object that is within their reach:--whilst Lady Macbeth
+merely endeavours to reconcile his and her own sinkings of heart by
+anticipations of the worst, and an affected bravado in confronting them.
+In all the rest, Macbeth's language is the grave utterance of the very
+heart, conscience-sick, even to the last faintings of moral death. It is
+the same in all the other characters. The variety arises from rage, caused
+ever and anon by disruption of anxious thought, and the quick transition
+of fear into it.
+
+In _Hamlet_ and _Macbeth_ the scene opens with superstition; but, in each
+it is not merely different, but opposite. In the first it is connected
+with the best and holiest feelings; in the second with the shadowy,
+turbulent, and unsanctified cravings of the individual will. Nor is the
+purpose the same; in the one the object is to excite, whilst in the other
+it is to mark a mind already excited. Superstition, of one sort or
+another, is natural to victorious generals; the instances are too
+notorious to need mentioning. There is so much of chance in warfare, and
+such vast events are connected with the acts of a single individual,--the
+representative, in truth, of the efforts of myriads, and yet to the
+public, and doubtless to his own feelings, the aggregate of all,--that the
+proper temperament for generating or receiving superstitious impressions
+is naturally produced. Hope, the master element of a commanding genius,
+meeting with an active and combining intellect, and an imagination of just
+that degree of vividness which disquiets and impels the soul to try to
+realise its images, greatly increases the creative power of the mind; and
+hence the images become a satisfying world of themselves, as is the case
+in every poet and original philosopher:--but hope fully gratified, and yet
+the elementary basis of the passion remaining, becomes fear; and, indeed,
+the general, who must often feel, even though he may hide it from his own
+consciousness, how large a share chance had in his successes, may very
+naturally be irresolute in a new scene, where he knows that all will
+depend on his own act and election.
+
+The Weird Sisters are as true a creation of Shakespeare's, as his Ariel
+and Caliban,--fates, furies, and materialising witches being the elements.
+They are wholly different from any representation of witches in the
+contemporary writers, and yet presented a sufficient external resemblance
+to the creatures of vulgar prejudice to act immediately on the audience.
+Their character consists in the imaginative disconnected from the good;
+they are the shadowy obscure and fearfully anomalous of physical nature,
+the lawless of human nature,--elemental avengers without sex or kin:--
+
+"Fair is foul, and foul is fair;
+Hover through the fog and filthy air."
+
+How much it were to be wished in playing _Macbeth_, that an attempt should
+be made to introduce the flexile character-mask of the ancient
+pantomime;--that Flaxman would contribute his genius to the embodying and
+making sensuously perceptible that of Shakespeare!
+
+The style and rhythm of the Captain's speeches in the second scene should
+be illustrated by reference to the interlude in _Hamlet_, in which the
+epic is substituted for the tragic, in order to make the latter be felt as
+the real-life diction. In _Macbeth_ the poet's object was to raise the
+mind at once to the high tragic tone, that the audience might be ready for
+the precipitate consummation of guilt in the early part of the play. The
+true reason for the first appearance of the Witches is to strike the
+key-note of the character of the whole drama, as is proved by their
+re-appearance in the third scene, after such an order of the king's as
+establishes their supernatural power of information. I say
+information,--for so it only is as to Glamis and Cawdor; the "king
+hereafter" was still contingent,--still in Macbeth's moral will; although,
+if he should yield to the temptation, and thus forfeit his free agency,
+the link of cause and effect _more physico_ would then commence. I need
+not say, that the general idea is all that can be required from the
+poet,--not a scholastic logical consistency in all the parts so as to meet
+metaphysical objectors. But O! how truly Shakespearian is the opening of
+Macbeth's character given in the _unpossessedness_ of Banquo's mind,
+wholly present to the present object,--an unsullied, unscarified mirror!
+And how strictly true to nature it is that Banquo, and not Macbeth
+himself, directs our notice to the effect produced on Macbeth's mind,
+rendered temptible by previous dalliance of the fancy with ambitious
+thoughts:--
+
+"Good Sir, why do you start; and seem to fear
+Things that do sound so fair?"
+
+And then, again, still unintroitive, addresses the Witches:--
+
+      ... "I' the name of truth,
+Are ye fantastical, or that indeed
+Which outwardly ye show?"
+
+Banquo's questions are those of natural curiosity,--such as a girl would
+put after hearing a gipsy tell her schoolfellow's fortune;--all perfectly
+general, or rather, planless. But Macbeth, lost in thought, raises himself
+to speech only by the Witches being about to depart:--
+
+"Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more:"--
+
+and all that follows is reasoning on a problem already discussed in his
+mind,--on a hope which he welcomes, and the doubts concerning the
+attainment of which he wishes to have cleared up. Compare his
+eagerness,--the keen eye with which he has pursued the Witches' evanishing--
+
+"Speak, I charge you!"
+
+with the easily satisfied mind of the self-uninterested Banquo:--
+
+"The air hath bubbles, as the water has,
+And these are of them:--Whither are they vanish'd?"
+
+and then Macbeth's earnest reply,--
+
+"Into the air; and what seem'd corporal, melted
+As breath into the wind.--_Would they had stay'd!_"
+
+Is it too minute to notice the appropriateness of the simile "as breath,"
+&c., in a cold climate?
+
+Still again Banquo goes on wondering like any common spectator,--
+
+"Were such things here as we do speak about?"
+
+whilst Macbeth persists in recurring to the self-concerning:--
+
+"Your children shall be kings.
+
+_Ban._ You shall be king.
+
+_Macb._ And thane of Cawdor too: went it not so?"
+
+So surely is the guilt in its germ anterior to the supposed cause, and
+immediate temptation! Before he can cool, the confirmation of the tempting
+half of the prophecy arrives, and the concatenating tendency of the
+imagination is fostered by the sudden coincidence:--
+
+"Glamis, and thane of Cawdor:
+The greatest is behind."
+
+Oppose this to Banquo's simple surprise:--
+
+"What, can the devil speak true?"
+
+_Ib._ Banquo's speech:--
+
+"That, trusted home,
+Might yet enkindle you unto the crown,
+Besides the thane of Cawdor."
+
+I doubt whether "enkindle" has not another sense than that of
+"stimulating;" I mean of "kind" and "kin," as when rabbits are said to
+"kindle." However, Macbeth no longer hears anything _ab extra_:--
+
+"Two truths are told,
+As happy prologues to the swelling act
+Of the imperial theme."
+
+Then in the necessity of recollecting himself,--
+
+"I thank you, gentlemen."
+
+Then he relapses into himself again, and every word of his soliloquy shows
+the early birth-date of his guilt. He is all-powerful without strength; he
+wishes the end, but is irresolute as to the means; conscience distinctly
+warns him, and he lulls it imperfectly:--
+
+"If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me
+Without my stir."
+
+Lost in the prospective of his guilt, he turns round alarmed lest others
+may suspect what is passing in his own mind, and instantly vents the lie
+of ambition:--
+
+"My dull brain was wrought
+With things _forgotten_;"--
+
+and immediately after pours forth the promising courtesies of a usurper in
+intention:--
+
+        ... "Kind gentlemen, your pains
+Are register'd where every day I turn
+The leaf to read them."
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth's speech:--
+
+          ... "Present _fears_
+Are less than horrible imaginings."
+
+Warburton's note, and substitution of "feats" for "fears."
+
+Mercy on this most wilful ingenuity of blundering, which, nevertheless,
+was the very Warburton of Warburton--his inmost being! "Fears," here, are
+present fear-striking objects, _terribilia adstantia_.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. O! the affecting beauty of the death of Cawdor, and the
+presentimental speech of the king:--
+
+"There's no art
+To find the mind's construction in the face:
+He was a gentleman on whom I built
+An absolute trust."
+
+Interrupted by--
+
+"O worthiest cousin!"
+
+on the entrance of the deeper traitor for whom Cawdor had made way! And
+here in contrast with Duncan's "plenteous joys," Macbeth has nothing but
+the common-places of loyalty, in which he hides himself with "our duties."
+Note the exceeding effort of Macbeth's addresses to the king, his
+reasoning on his allegiance, and then especially when a new difficulty,
+the designation of a successor, suggests a new crime. This, however, seems
+the first distinct notion, as to the plan of realising his wishes; and
+here, therefore, with great propriety, Macbeth's cowardice of his own
+conscience discloses itself. I always think there is something especially
+Shakespearian in Duncan's speeches throughout this scene, such pourings
+forth, such abandonments, compared with the language of vulgar dramatists,
+whose characters seem to have made their speeches as the actors learn
+them.
+
+_Ib:_ Duncan's speech:--
+
+          ... "Sons, kinsmen, thanes,
+And you whose places are the nearest, know,
+We will establish our estate upon
+Our eldest Malcolm, whom we name hereafter
+The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must
+Not unaccompanied, invest him only;
+But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine
+On all deservers."
+
+It is a fancy;--but I can never read this and the following speeches of
+Macbeth, without involuntarily thinking of the Miltonic Messiah and Satan.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5. Macbeth is described by Lady Macbeth so as at the same time
+to reveal her own character. Could he have every thing he wanted, he would
+rather have it innocently;--ignorant, as alas! how many of us are, that he
+who wishes a temporal end for itself, does in truth will the means; and
+hence the danger of indulging fancies.
+
+Lady Macbeth, like all in Shakespeare, is a class individualised:--of high
+rank, left much alone, and feeding herself with day-dreams of ambition,
+she mistakes the courage of fantasy for the power of bearing the
+consequences of the realities of guilt. His is the mock fortitude of a
+mind deluded by ambition; she shames her husband with a superhuman
+audacity of fancy which she cannot support, but sinks in the season of
+remorse, and dies in suicidal agony. Her speech:--
+
+          ... "Come, you spirits
+That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here," &c.--
+
+is that of one who had habitually familiarised her imagination to dreadful
+conceptions, and was trying to do so still more. Her invocations and
+requisitions are all the false efforts of a mind accustomed only hitherto
+to the shadows of the imagination, vivid enough to throw the every-day
+substances of life into shadow, but never as yet brought into direct
+contact with their own correspondent realities. She evinces no womanly
+life, no wifely joy, at the return of her husband, no pleased terror at
+the thought of his past dangers, whilst Macbeth bursts forth naturally--
+
+"My dearest love"--
+
+and shrinks from the boldness with which she presents his own thoughts to
+him. With consummate art she at first uses as incentives the very
+circumstances, Duncan's coming to their house, &c., which Macbeth's
+conscience would most probably have adduced to her as motives of
+abhorrence or repulsion. Yet Macbeth is not prepared:--
+
+"We will speak further."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. The lyrical movement with which this scene opens, and the
+free and unengaged mind of Banquo, loving nature, and rewarded in the love
+itself, form a highly dramatic contrast with the laboured rhythm and
+hypocritical over-much of Lady Macbeth's welcome, in which you cannot
+detect a ray of personal feeling, but all is thrown upon the "dignities,"
+the general duty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 7. Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"We will proceed no further in this business:
+He hath honour'd me of late; and I have bought
+Golden opinions from all sorts of people,
+Which would be worn now in their newest gloss,
+Not cast aside so soon."
+
+Note the inward pangs and warnings of conscience interpreted into
+prudential reasonings.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Banquo's speech:--
+
+"A heavy summons lies like lead upon me,
+And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers!
+Restrain in me the cursed thoughts, that nature
+Gives way to in repose."
+
+The disturbance of an innocent soul by painful suspicions of another's
+guilty intentions and wishes, and fear of the cursed thoughts of sensual
+nature.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Now that the deed is done or doing--now that the first reality
+commences, Lady Macbeth shrinks. The most simple sound strikes terror, the
+most natural consequences are horrible, whilst previously every thing,
+however awful, appeared a mere trifle; conscience, which before had been
+hidden to Macbeth in selfish and prudential fears, now rushes in upon him
+in her own veritable person:--
+
+"Methought I heard a voice cry--Sleep no more!
+          I could not say Amen,
+When they did say, God bless us!"
+
+And see the novelty given to the most familiar images by a new state of
+feeling.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. This low soliloquy of the Porter and his few speeches
+afterwards, I believe to have been written for the mob by some other hand,
+perhaps with Shakespeare's consent; and that finding it take, he with the
+remaining ink of a pen otherwise employed, just interpolated the words--
+
+
+    "I'll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in
+    some of all professions, that go the primrose way to the
+    everlasting bonfire."
+
+
+Of the rest not one syllable has the ever-present being of Shakespeare.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. Compare Macbeth's mode of working on the murderers in this
+place with Schiller's mistaken scene between Butler, Devereux, and
+Macdonald in _Wallenstein_.--(Part II. act iv. sc. 2.) The comic was wholly
+out of season. Shakespeare never introduces it, but when it may react on
+the tragedy by harmonious contrast.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"But let the frame of things disjoint, both the worlds suffer,
+Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep
+In the affliction of these terrible dreams
+That shake us nightly."
+
+Ever and ever mistaking the anguish of conscience for fears of
+selfishness, and thus as a punishment of that selfishness, plunging still
+deeper in guilt and ruin.
+
+_Ib._ Macbeth's speech:--
+
+"Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck,
+Till thou applaud the deed."
+
+This is Macbeth's sympathy with his own feelings, and his mistaking his
+wife's opposite state.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_Macb._ It will have blood; they say, blood will have blood:
+Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak;
+Augurs, and understood relations, have
+By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth
+The secret'st man of blood."
+
+The deed is done; but Macbeth receives no comfort, no additional security.
+He has by guilt torn himself live-asunder from nature, and is, therefore,
+himself in a preternatural state: no wonder, then, that he is inclined to
+superstition, and faith in the unknown of signs and tokens, and
+super-human agencies.
+
+Act iv. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Len._ 'Tis two or three, my lord, that bring you word
+Macduff is fled to England.
+
+_Macb._ Fled to England!"
+
+The acme of the avenging conscience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2. This scene, dreadful as it is, is still a relief, because a
+variety, because domestic, and therefore soothing, as associated with the
+only real pleasures of life. The conversation between Lady Macduff and her
+child heightens the pathos, and is preparatory for the deep tragedy of
+their assassination. Shakespeare's fondness for children is everywhere
+shown;--in Prince Arthur, in _King John_; in the sweet scene in the
+_Winter's Tale_ between Hermione and her son; nay, even in honest Evans's
+examination of Mrs. Page's schoolboy. To the objection that Shakespeare
+wounds the moral sense by the unsubdued, undisguised description of the
+most hateful atrocity--that he tears the feelings without mercy, and even
+outrages the eye itself with scenes of insupportable horror--I, omitting
+_Titus Andronicus_, as not genuine, and excepting the scene of Gloster's
+blinding in _Lear_, answer boldly in the name of Shakespeare, not guilty.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Malcolm's speech:--
+
+         ... "Better Macbeth,
+Than such an one to reign."
+
+The moral is--the dreadful effects even on the best minds of the
+soul-sickening sense of insecurity.
+
+_Ib._ How admirably Macduff's grief is in harmony with the whole play! It
+rends, not dissolves, the heart. "The tune of it goes manly." Thus is
+Shakespeare always master of himself and of his subject,--a genuine
+Proteus:--we see all things in him, as images in a calm lake, most
+distinct, most accurate,--only more splendid, more glorified. This is
+correctness in the only philosophical sense. But he requires your sympathy
+and your submission; you must have that recipiency of moral impression
+without which the purposes and ends of the drama would be frustrated, and
+the absence of which demonstrates an utter want of all imagination, a
+deadness to that necessary pleasure of being innocently--shall I say,
+deluded?--or rather, drawn away from ourselves to the music of noblest
+thought in harmonious sounds. Happy he, who not only in the public
+theatre, but in the labours of a profession, and round the light of his
+own hearth, still carries a heart so pleasure-fraught!
+
+Alas for Macbeth! now all is inward with him; he has no more prudential
+prospective reasonings. His wife, the only being who could have had any
+seat in his affections, dies; he puts on despondency, the final
+heart-armour of the wretched, and would fain think every thing shadowy and
+unsubstantial, as indeed all things are to those who cannot regard them as
+symbols of goodness:--
+
+          "Out, out, brief candle!
+Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,
+That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
+And then is heard no more; it is a tale
+Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
+Signifying nothing."
+
+
+
+
+"Winter's Tale."
+
+
+Although, on the whole, this play is exquisitely respondent to its title,
+and even in the fault I am about to mention, still a winter's tale; yet it
+seems a mere indolence of the great bard not to have provided in the
+oracular response (Act ii. sc. 2.) some ground for Hermione's seeming
+death and fifteen years' voluntary concealment. This might have been
+easily effected by some obscure sentence of the oracle, as for example:--
+
+
+    " 'Nor shall he ever recover an heir, if he have a wife before
+    that recovery.' "
+
+
+The idea of this delightful drama is a genuine jealousy of disposition,
+and it should be immediately followed by the perusal of _Othello_, which
+is the direct contrast of it in every particular. For jealousy is a vice
+of the mind, a culpable tendency of the temper, having certain well-known
+and well-defined effects and concomitants, all of which are visible in
+Leontes, and, I boldly say, not one of which marks its presence in
+Othello;--such as, first, an excitability by the most inadequate causes,
+and an eagerness to snatch at proofs; secondly, a grossness of conception,
+and a disposition to degrade the object of the passion by sensual fancies
+and images; thirdly, a sense of shame of his own feelings exhibited in a
+solitary moodiness of humour, and yet from the violence of the passion
+forced to utter itself, and therefore catching occasions to ease the mind
+by ambiguities, equivoques, by talking to those who cannot, and who are
+known not to be able to, understand what is said to them,--in short, by
+soliloquy in the form of dialogue, and hence a confused, broken, and
+fragmentary, manner; fourthly, a dread of vulgar ridicule, as distinct
+from a high sense of honour, or a mistaken sense of duty; and lastly, and
+immediately, consequent on this, a spirit of selfish vindictiveness.
+
+Act i. sc. 1, 2.--
+
+Observe the easy style of chitchat between Camillo and Archidamus as
+contrasted with the elevated diction on the introduction of the kings and
+Hermione in the second scene: and how admirably Polixenes' obstinate
+refusal to Leontes to stay,--
+
+"There is no tongue that moves; none, none i' the world
+So soon as yours, could win me;"--
+
+prepares for the effect produced by his afterwards yielding to
+Hermione;--which is, nevertheless, perfectly natural from mere courtesy of
+sex, and the exhaustion of the will by former efforts of denial, and well
+calculated to set in nascent action the jealousy of Leontes. This, when
+once excited, is unconsciously increased by Hermione,--
+
+          ... "Yet, good deed, Leontes,
+I love thee not a jar o' the clock behind
+What lady she her lord;"--
+
+accompanied, as a good actress ought to represent it, by an expression and
+recoil of apprehension that she had gone too far.
+
+"At my request, he would not:"--
+
+The first working of the jealous fit;--
+
+"Too hot, too hot:"--
+
+The morbid tendency of Leontes to lay hold of the merest trifles, and his
+grossness immediately afterwards,--
+
+"Paddling palms and pinching fingers;"--
+
+followed by his strange loss of self-control in his dialogue with the
+little boy.
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Paulina's speech:--
+
+"That thou betray'dst Polixenes, 'twas nothing;
+That did but show thee, of a _fool_, inconstant,
+And damnable ingrateful."
+
+Theobald reads "soul."
+
+I think the original word is Shakespeare's. 1. My ear feels it to be
+Shakespearian; 2. The involved grammar is Shakespearian--"show thee, being
+a fool naturally, to have improved thy folly by inconstancy;" 3. The
+alteration is most flat, and un-Shakespearian. As to the grossness of the
+abuse--she calls him "gross and foolish" a few lines below.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Speech of Autolycus:--
+
+"For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it."
+
+Fine as this is, and delicately characteristic of one who had lived and
+been reared in the best society, and had been precipitated from it by dice
+and drabbing; yet still it strikes against my feelings as a note out of
+tune, and as not coalescing with that pastoral tint which gives such a
+charm to this act. It is too Macbeth-like in the "snapper up of
+unconsidered trifles."
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Perdita's speech:--
+
+"From Dis's waggon! daffodils."
+
+An epithet is wanted here, not merely or chiefly for the metre, but for
+the balance, for the aesthetic logic. Perhaps "golden" was the word which
+would set off the "violets dim."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+          ... "Pale primroses
+That die unmarried."
+
+Milton's--
+
+"And the rathe primrose that forsaken dies."
+
+_Ib._ Perdita's speech:--
+
+"Even here undone:
+I was not much afraid; for once or twice
+I was about to speak, and tell him plainly,
+The self-same sun, that shines upon his court,
+Hides not his visage from our cottage, but
+Looks on alike. Will't please you, Sir, be gone!
+          (_To Florizel._)
+I told you, what would come of this. Beseech you,
+Of your own state take care: this dream of mine,
+Being now awake, I'll queen it no inch farther,
+But milk my ewes, and weep."
+
+O how more than exquisite is this whole speech! And that profound nature
+of noble pride and grief venting themselves in a momentary peevishness of
+resentment toward Florizel:--
+
+... "Will't please you, Sir, be gone!"
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Autolycus:--
+
+
+    "Let me have no lying; it becomes none but tradesmen, and they
+    often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them for it with
+    stamped coin, not stabbing steel;--therefore they do not _give_ us
+    the lie."
+
+
+As we _pay_ them, they, therefore, do not _give_ it us.
+
+
+
+
+"Othello."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+Admirable is the preparation, so truly and peculiarly Shakespearian, in
+the introduction of Roderigo, as the dupe on whom Iago shall first
+exercise his art, and in so doing display his own character. Roderigo,
+without any fixed principle, but not without the moral notions and
+sympathies with honour, which his rank and connections had hung upon him,
+is already well fitted and predisposed for the purpose; for very want of
+character and strength of passion, like wind loudest in an empty house,
+constitute his character. The first three lines happily state the nature
+and foundation of the friendship between him and Iago,--the purse,--as also
+the contrast of Roderigo's intemperance of mind with Iago's coolness,--the
+coolness of a preconceiving experimenter. The mere language of
+protestation,--
+
+"If ever I did dream of such a matter, abhor me,"--
+
+which, falling in with the associative link, determines Roderigo's
+continuation of complaint,--
+
+"Thou told'st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate,"--
+
+elicits at length a true feeling of Iago's mind, the dread of contempt
+habitual to those who encourage in themselves, and have their keenest
+pleasure in, the expression of contempt for others. Observe Iago's high
+self-opinion, and the moral, that a wicked man will employ real feelings,
+as well as assume those most alien from his own, as instruments of his
+purposes:--
+
+          "And, by the faith of man,
+I know my price, I am worth no worse a place."
+
+I think Tyrwhitt's reading of "life" for "wife"--
+
+"A fellow almost damn'd in a fair _wife_"--
+
+the true one, as fitting to Iago's contempt for whatever did not display
+power, and that intellectual power. In what follows, let the reader feel
+how by and through the glass of two passions, disappointed vanity and
+envy, the very vices of which he is complaining, are made to act upon him
+as if they were so many excellences, and the more appropriately, because
+cunning is always admired and wished for by minds conscious of inward
+weakness;--but they act only by half, like music on an inattentive auditor,
+swelling the thoughts which prevent him from listening to it.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Rod._ What a full fortune does the _thick-lips_ owe,
+If he can carry 't thus."
+
+Roderigo turns off to Othello; and here comes one, if not the only,
+seeming justification of our blackamoor or negro Othello. Even if we
+supposed this an uninterrupted tradition of the theatre, and that
+Shakespeare himself, from want of scenes, and the experience that nothing
+could be made too marked for the senses of his audience, had practically
+sanctioned it,--would this prove aught concerning his own intention as a
+poet for all ages? Can we imagine him so utterly ignorant as to make a
+barbarous negro plead royal birth,--at a time, too, when negroes were not
+known except as slaves? As for Iago's language to Brabantio, it implies
+merely that Othello was a Moor,--that is, black. Though I think the rivalry
+of Roderigo sufficient to account for his wilful confusion of Moor and
+Negro,--yet, even if compelled to give this up, I should think it only
+adapted for the acting of the day, and should complain of an enormity
+built on a single word, in direct contradiction to Iago's "Barbary horse."
+Besides, if we could in good earnest believe Shakespeare ignorant of the
+distinction, still why should we adopt one disagreeable possibility
+instead of a ten times greater and more pleasing probability? It is a
+common error to mistake the epithets applied by the _dramatis personae_ to
+each other, as truly descriptive of what the audience ought to see or
+know. No doubt Desdemona saw Othello's visage in his mind; yet, as we are
+constituted, and most surely as an English audience was disposed in the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, it would be something monstrous to
+conceive this beautiful Venetian girl falling in love with a veritable
+negro. It would argue a disproportionateness, a want of balance, in
+Desdemona, which Shakespeare does not appear to have in the least
+contemplated.
+
+_Ib._ Brabantio's speech:--
+
+"This accident is not unlike my dream."
+
+The old careful senator, being caught careless, transfers his caution to
+his dreaming power at least.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's speech:--
+
+          ... "For their souls,
+Another of his fathom they have not,
+To lead their business."
+
+The forced praise of Othello, followed by the bitter hatred of him in this
+speech! And observe how Brabantio's dream prepares for his recurrence to
+the notion of philtres, and how both prepare for carrying on the plot of
+the arraignment of Othello on this ground.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 2.--
+
+"_Oth._ 'Tis better as it is."
+
+How well these few words impress at the outset the truth of Othello's own
+character of himself at the end--"that he was not easily wrought!" His
+self-government contradistinguishes him throughout from Leontes.
+
+_Ib._ Othello's speech:--
+
+          ... "And my demerits
+May speak, _unbonneted_."
+
+The argument in Theobald's note, where "and bonneted" is suggested, goes
+on the assumption that Shakespeare could not use the same word differently
+in different places; whereas I should conclude, that as in the passage in
+_Lear_ the word is employed in its direct meaning, so here it is used
+metaphorically; and this is confirmed by what has escaped the editors,
+that it is not "I," but "my demerits" that may speak unbonneted,--without
+the symbol of a petitioning inferior.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello's speech:--
+
+"So please your grace, my ancient;
+A man he is of honesty and trust:
+To his conveyance I assign my wife."
+
+Compare this with the behaviour of Leontes to his true friend Camillo.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Bra._ Look to her, Moor; if thou hast eyes to see;
+She has deceived her father, and may thee.
+
+_Oth._ My life upon her faith."
+
+In real life, how do we look back to little speeches as presentimental of,
+or contrasted with, an affecting event! Even so, Shakespeare, as secure of
+being read over and over, of becoming a family friend, provides this
+passage for his readers, and leaves it to them.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's speech:--
+
+"Virtue? a fig! 'tis in ourselves, that we are thus, or thus," &c.
+
+This speech comprises the passionless character of Iago. It is all will in
+intellect; and therefore he is here a bold partizan of a truth, but yet of
+a truth converted into a falsehood by the absence of all the necessary
+modifications caused by the frail nature of man. And then comes the last
+sentiment:--
+
+
+    "Our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts,
+    whereof I take this, that you call--love, to be a sect or scion!"
+
+
+Here is the true Iagoism of, alas! how many! Note Iago's pride of mastery
+in the repetition of "Go, make money!" to his anticipated dupe, even
+stronger than his love of lucre: and when Roderigo is completely won,--
+
+"I am chang'd. I'll go sell all my land,"--
+
+when the effect has been fully produced, the repetition of triumph:--
+
+"Go to; farewell; put money enough in your purse!"
+
+The remainder--Iago's soliloquy--the motive-hunting of a motiveless
+malignity--how awful it is! Yea, whilst he is still allowed to bear the
+divine image, it is too fiendish for his own steady view,--for the lonely
+gaze of a being next to devil, and only not quite devil,--and yet a
+character which Shakespeare has attempted and executed, without disgust
+and without scandal!
+
+Dr. Johnson has remarked that little or nothing is wanting to render the
+_Othello_ a regular tragedy, but to have opened the play with the arrival
+of Othello in Cyprus, and to have thrown the preceding act into the form
+of narration. Here then is the place to determine whether such a change
+would or would not be an improvement;--nay (to throw down the glove with a
+full challenge), whether the tragedy would or not by such an arrangement
+become more regular,--that is, more consonant with the rules dictated by
+universal reason, on the true common-sense of mankind, in its application
+to the particular case. For in all acts of judgment, it can never be too
+often recollected, and scarcely too often repeated, that rules are means
+to ends, and, consequently, that the end must be determined and understood
+before it can be known what the rules are or ought to be. Now, from a
+certain species of drama, proposing to itself the accomplishment of
+certain ends,--these partly arising from the idea of the species itself,
+but in part, likewise, forced upon the dramatist by accidental
+circumstances beyond his power to remove or control,--three rules have been
+abstracted;--in other words, the means most conducive to the attainment of
+the proposed ends have been generalised, and prescribed under the names of
+the three unities,--the unity of time, the unity of place, and the unity of
+action--which last would, perhaps, have been as appropriately, as well as
+more intelligibly, entitled the unity of interest. With this last the
+present question has no immediate concern: in fact, its conjunction with
+the former two is a mere delusion of words. It is not properly a rule, but
+in itself the great end not only of the drama, but of the epic poem, the
+lyric ode, of all poetry, down to the candle-flame cone of an
+epigram,--nay, of poesy in general, as the proper generic term inclusive of
+all the fine arts as its species. But of the unities of time and place,
+which alone are entitled to the name of rules, the history of their origin
+will be their best criterion. You might take the Greek chorus to a place,
+but you could not bring a place to them without as palpable an equivoque
+as bringing Birnam wood to Macbeth at Dunsinane. It was the same, though
+in a less degree, with regard to the unity of time:--the positive fact, not
+for a moment removed from the senses, the presence, I mean, of the same
+identical chorus, was a continued measure of time;--and although the
+imagination may supersede perception, yet it must be granted to be an
+imperfection--however easily tolerated--to place the two in broad
+contradiction to each other. In truth, it is a mere accident of terms; for
+the Trilogy of the Greek theatre was a drama in three acts, and
+notwithstanding this, what strange contrivances as to place there are in
+the Aristophanic Frogs. Besides, if the law of mere actual perception is
+once violated--as it repeatedly is, even in the Greek tragedies--why is it
+more difficult to imagine three hours to be three years than to be a whole
+day and night?
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+Observe in how many ways Othello is made, first, our acquaintance, then
+our friend, then the object of our anxiety, before the deeper interest is
+to be approached!
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mont._ But, good lieutenant, is your general wived?
+
+_Cas._ Most fortunately: he hath achieved a maid
+That paragons description, and wild fame;
+One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens,
+And, in the essential vesture of creation,
+Does tire the ingener."
+
+Here is Cassio's warm-hearted, yet perfectly disengaged, praise of
+Desdemona, and sympathy with the "most fortunately" wived Othello;--and yet
+Cassio is an enthusiastic admirer, almost a worshipper, of Desdemona. Oh,
+that detestable code that excellence cannot be loved in any form that is
+female, but it must needs be selfish! Observe Othello's "honest" and
+Cassio's "bold" Iago, and Cassio's full guileless-hearted wishes for the
+safety and love-raptures of Othello and "the divine Desdemona." And also
+note the exquisite circumstance of Cassio's kissing Iago's wife, as if it
+ought to be impossible that the dullest auditor should not feel Cassio's
+religious love of Desdemona's purity. Iago's answers are the sneers which
+a proud bad intellect feels towards women, and expresses to a wife. Surely
+it ought to be considered a very exalted compliment to women, that all the
+sarcasms on them in Shakespeare are put in the mouths of villains.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Des._ I am not merry; but I do beguile," &c.
+
+The struggle of courtesy in Desdemona to abstract her attention.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+
+    "(_Iago aside_). He takes her by the palm: Ay, well said, whisper;
+    with as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as
+    Cassio. Ay, smile upon her, do," &c.
+
+
+The importance given to trifles, and made fertile by the villany of the
+observer.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's dialogue with Roderigo.
+
+This is the rehearsal on the dupe of the traitor's intentions on Othello.
+
+_Ib._ Iago's soliloquy:--
+
+"But partly led to diet my revenge,
+For that I do suspect the lusty Moor
+Hath leap'd into my seat."
+
+This thought, originally by Iago's own confession a mere suspicion, is now
+ripening, and gnaws his base nature as his own "poisonous mineral" is
+about to gnaw the noble heart of his general.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Othello's speech:--
+
+"I know, Iago,
+Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter,
+Making it light to Cassio."
+
+Honesty and love! Ay, and who but the reader of the play could think
+otherwise?
+
+_Ib._ Iago's soliloquy:--
+
+"And what's he then that says--I play the villain?
+When this advice is free I give, and honest,
+Provable to thinking, and, indeed, the course
+To win the Moor again."
+
+He is not, you see, an absolute fiend; or, at least, he wishes to think
+himself not so.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3.--
+
+"_Des._ Before AEmilia here,
+I give thee warrant of thy place."
+
+The over-zeal of innocence in Desdemona.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Enter Desdemona and AEmilia._
+
+_Oth._ If she be false, O, then, heaven mocks itself!
+I'll not believe't."
+
+Divine! The effect of innocence and the better genius!
+
+Act iv. sc. 3.--
+
+"_AEmil._ Why, the wrong is but a wrong i' the world; and
+having the world for your labour, 'tis a wrong in your own world,
+and you might quickly make it right."
+
+Warburton's note.
+
+What any other man, who had learning enough, might have quoted as a
+playful and witty illustration of his remarks against the Calvinistic
+_thesis_, Warburton gravely attributes to Shakespeare as intentional; and
+this, too, in the mouth of a lady's woman!
+
+Act v. last scene. Othello's speech:--
+
+... "Of one, whose hand,
+Like the base _Indian_, threw a pearl away
+Richer than all his tribe," &c.
+
+Theobald's note from Warburton.
+
+Thus it is for no-poets to comment on the greatest of poets! To make
+Othello say that he, who had killed his wife, was like Herod who killed
+Mariamne!--O, how many beauties, in this one line, were impenetrable to the
+ever thought-swarming, but idealess, Warburton! Othello wishes to excuse
+himself on the score of ignorance, and yet not to excuse himself,--to
+excuse himself by accusing. This struggle of feeling is finely conveyed in
+the word "base," which is applied to the rude Indian, not in his own
+character, but as the momentary representative of Othello's. "Indian"--for
+I retain the old reading--means American, a savage _in genere_.
+
+Finally, let me repeat that Othello does not kill Desdemona in jealousy,
+but in a conviction forced upon him by the almost superhuman art of Iago,
+such a conviction as any man would and must have entertained who had
+believed Iago's honesty as Othello did. We, the audience, know that Iago
+is a villain, from the beginning; but in considering the essence of the
+Shakespearian Othello, we must perseveringly place ourselves in his
+situation, and under his circumstances. Then we shall immediately feel the
+fundamental difference between the solemn agony of the noble Moor, and the
+wretched fishing jealousies of Leontes, and the morbid suspiciousness of
+Leonatus, who is, in other respects, a fine character. Othello had no life
+but in Desdemona:--the belief that she, his angel, had fallen from the
+heaven of her native innocence, wrought a civil war in his heart. She is
+his counterpart; and, like him, is almost sanctified in our eyes by her
+absolute unsuspiciousness, and holy entireness of love. As the curtain
+drops, which do we pity the most?
+
+_Extremum hunc_----. There are three powers:--Wit, which discovers partial
+likeness hidden in general diversity; subtlety, which discovers the
+diversity concealed in general apparent sameness;--and profundity, which
+discovers an essential unity under all the semblances of difference.
+
+Give to a subtle man fancy, and he is a wit; to a deep man imagination,
+and he is a philosopher. Add, again, pleasurable sensibility in the
+threefold form of sympathy with the interesting in morals, the impressive
+in form, and the harmonious in sound,--and you have the poet.
+
+But combine all,--wit, subtlety, and fancy, with profundity, imagination,
+and moral and physical susceptibility of the pleasurable,--and let the
+object of action be man universal; and we shall have--O, rash prophecy!
+say, rather, we have--a SHAKESPEARE!
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEN JONSON.
+
+
+It would be amusing to collect out of our dramatists from Elizabeth to
+Charles I. proofs of the manners of the times. One striking symptom of
+general coarseness of manners, which may co-exist with great refinement of
+morals, as, alas! _vice versa_, is to be seen in the very frequent
+allusions to the olfactories with their most disgusting stimulants, and
+these, too, in the conversation of virtuous ladies. This would not appear
+so strange to one who had been on terms of familiarity with Sicilian and
+Italian women of rank: and bad as they may, too many of them, actually be,
+yet I doubt not that the extreme grossness of their language has impressed
+many an Englishman of the present era with far darker notions than the
+same language would have produced in the mind of one of Elizabeth's or
+James's courtiers. Those who have read Shakespeare only, complain of
+occasional grossness in his plays; but compare him with his
+contemporaries, and the inevitable conviction, is that of the exquisite
+purity of his imagination.
+
+The observation I have prefixed to the _Volpone_ is the key to the faint
+interest which these noble efforts of intellectual power excite, with the
+exception of the fragment of the _Sad Shepherd_; because in that piece
+only is there any character with whom you can morally sympathise. On the
+other hand, _Measure for Measure_ is the only play of Shakespeare's in
+which there are not some one or more characters, generally many, whom you
+follow with affectionate feeling. For I confess that Isabella, of all
+Shakespeare's female characters, pleases me the least; and _Measure for
+Measure_ is, indeed, the only one of his genuine works, which is painful
+to me.
+
+Let me not conclude this remark, however, without a thankful
+acknowledgment to the _manes_ of Ben Jonson, that the more I study his
+writings, I the more admire them; and the more my study of him resembles
+that of an ancient classic, in the _minutiae_ of his rhythm, metre, choice
+of words, forms of connection, and so forth, the more numerous have the
+points of my admiration become. I may add, too, that both the study and
+the admiration cannot but be disinterested, for to expect therefrom any
+advantage to the present drama would be ignorance. The latter is utterly
+heterogeneous from the drama of the Shakespearian age, with a diverse
+object and contrary principle. The one was to present a model by imitation
+of real life, taking from real life all that in it which it ought to be,
+and supplying the rest;--the other is to copy what is, and as it is,--at
+best a tolerable but most frequently a blundering, copy. In the former the
+difference was an essential element; in the latter an involuntary defect.
+We should think it strange, if a tale in dance were announced, and the
+actors did not dance at all;--and yet such is modern comedy.
+
+
+
+
+Whalley's Preface.
+
+
+    "But Jonson was soon sensible, how inconsistent this medley of
+    names and manners was in reason and nature; and with how little
+    propriety it could ever have a place in a legitimate and just
+    picture of real life."
+
+
+But did Jonson reflect that the very essence of a play, the very language
+in which it is written, is a fiction to which all the parts must conform?
+Surely, Greek manners in English should be a still grosser improbability
+than a Greek name transferred to English manners. Ben's _personae_ are too
+often not characters, but derangements;--the hopeless patients of a
+mad-doctor rather,--exhibitions of folly betraying itself in spite of
+exciting reason and prudence. He not poetically, but painfully exaggerates
+every trait; that is, not by the drollery of the circumstance, but by the
+excess of the originating feeling.
+
+
+    "But to this we might reply, that far from being thought to build
+    his characters upon abstract ideas, he was really accused of
+    representing particular persons then existing; and that even those
+    characters which appear to be the most exaggerated, are said to
+    have had their respective archetypes in nature and life."
+
+
+This degrades Jonson into a libeller, instead of justifying him as a
+dramatic poet. _Non quod verum est, sed quod verisimile_, is the
+dramatist's rule. At all events, the poet who chooses transitory manners,
+ought to content himself with transitory praise. If his object be
+reputation, he ought not to expect fame. The utmost he can look forwards
+to, is to be quoted by, and to enliven the writings of, an antiquarian.
+Pistol, Nym, and _id genus omne_, do not please us as characters, but are
+endured as fantastic creations, foils to the native wit of Falstaff.--I say
+wit emphatically; for this character so often extolled as the masterpiece
+of humour, neither contains, nor was meant to contain, any humour at all.
+
+
+
+
+"Whalley's 'Life Of Jonson.' "
+
+
+    "It is to the honour of Jonson's judgment, that _the greatest poet
+    of our nation_ had the same opinion of Donne's genius and wit; and
+    hath preserved part of him from perishing, by putting his thoughts
+    and satire into modern verse."
+
+
+_Videlicet_ Pope!--
+
+
+    "He said further to Drummond, Shakespeare wanted art, and
+    sometimes sense; for in one of his plays he brought in a number of
+    men, saying they had suffered shipwreck in Bohemia, where is no
+    sea near by a hundred miles."
+
+
+I have often thought Shakespeare justified in this seeming anachronism. In
+Pagan times a single name of a German kingdom might well be supposed to
+comprise a hundred miles more than at present. The truth is, these notes
+of Drummond's are more disgraceful to himself than to Jonson. It would be
+easy to conjecture how grossly Jonson must have been misunderstood, and
+what he had said in jest, as of Hippocrates, interpreted in earnest. But
+this is characteristic of a Scotchman; he has no notion of a jest, unless
+you tell him--"This is a joke!"--and still less of that finer shade of
+feeling, the half-and-half, in which Englishmen naturally delight.
+
+
+
+
+"Every Man Out Of His Humour."
+
+
+Epilogue.--
+
+"The throat of war be stopt within her land,
+And _turtle-footed_ peace dance fairie rings
+About her court."
+
+"Turtle-footed" is a pretty word, a very pretty word: pray, what does it
+mean? Doves, I presume, are not dancers; and the other sort of turtle,
+land or sea, green-fat or hawksbill, would, I should suppose, succeed
+better in slow minuets than in the brisk rondillo. In one sense, to be
+sure, pigeons and ring-doves could not dance but with _eclat_--_a claw_!
+
+
+
+
+"Poetaster."
+
+
+Introduction.--
+
+"Light! I salute thee, but with wounded nerves,
+Wishing thy golden splendour pitchy darkness."
+
+There is no reason to suppose Satan's address to the sun in the _Paradise
+Lost_, more than a mere coincidence with these lines; but were it
+otherwise, it would be a fine instance what usurious interest a great
+genius pays in borrowing. It would not be difficult to give a detailed
+psychological proof from these constant outbursts of anxious
+self-assertion, that Jonson was not a genius, a creative power. Subtract
+that one thing, and you may safely accumulate on his name all other
+excellences of a capacious, vigorous, agile, and richly-stored intellect.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Ovid._ While slaves be false, fathers hard, and bawds be
+whorish."
+
+The roughness noticed by Theobald and Whalley, may be cured by a simple
+transposition:--
+
+"While fathers hard, slaves false, and bawds be whorish."
+
+Act. iv. sc. 3--
+
+"_Crisp._ O--oblatrant--furibund--fatuate--strenuous.
+O--conscious."
+
+It would form an interesting essay, or rather series of essays, in a
+periodical work, were all the attempts to ridicule new phrases brought
+together, the proportion observed of words ridiculed which have been
+adopted, and are now common, such as _strenuous_, _conscious_, &c., and a
+trial made how far any grounds can be detected, so that one might
+determine beforehand whether a word was invented under the conditions of
+assimilability to our language or not. Thus much is certain, that the
+ridiculers were as often wrong as right; and Shakespeare himself could not
+prevent the naturalisation of _accommodation_, _remuneration_, &c.; or
+Swift the gross abuse even of the word _idea_.
+
+
+
+
+"Fall Of Sejanus."
+
+
+Act i.--
+
+"_Arruntius._ The name Tiberius,
+I hope, will keep, howe'er he hath foregone
+The dignity and power.
+
+_Silius._ Sure, while he lives.
+
+_Arr._ And dead, it comes to Drusus. Should he fail,
+To the brave issue of Germanicus;
+And they are three: too many (ha?) for him
+To have a plot upon?
+
+_Sil._ I do not know
+The heart of his designs; but, sure, their face
+Looks farther than the present.
+
+_Arr._ By the gods,
+If I could guess he had but such a thought,
+My sword should cleave him down," &c.
+
+The anachronic mixture in this Arruntius of the Roman republican, to whom
+Tiberius must have appeared as much a tyrant as Sejanus, with his
+James-and-Charles-the-First zeal for legitimacy of descent in this
+passage, is amusing. Of our great names Milton was, I think, the first who
+could properly be called a republican. My recollections of Buchanan's
+works are too faint to enable me to judge whether the historian is not a
+fair exception.
+
+Act ii. Speech of Sejanus:--
+
+"Adultery! it is the lightest ill
+I will commit. A race of wicked acts
+Shall flow out of my anger, and o'erspread
+The world's wide face, which no posterity
+Shall e'er approve, nor yet keep silent," &c.
+
+The more we reflect and examine, examine and reflect, the more astonished
+shall we be at the immense superiority of Shakespeare over his
+contemporaries;--and yet what contemporaries!--giant minds indeed! Think of
+Jonson's erudition, and the force of learned authority in that age; and
+yet, in no genuine part of Shakespeare's works is there to be found such
+an absurd rant and ventriloquism as this, and too, too many other passages
+ferruminated by Jonson from Seneca's tragedies, and the writings of the
+later Romans. I call it ventriloquism, because Sejanus is a puppet, out of
+which the poet makes his own voice appear to come.
+
+Act v. Scene of the sacrifice to Fortune.
+
+This scene is unspeakably irrational. To believe, and yet to scoff at, a
+present miracle is little less than impossible. Sejanus should have been
+made to suspect priestcraft and a secret conspiracy against him.
+
+
+
+
+"Volpone."
+
+
+This admirable, indeed, but yet more wonderful than admirable, play is,
+from the fertility and vigour of invention, character, language, and
+sentiment, the strongest proof how impossible it is to keep up any
+pleasurable interest in a tale, in which there is no goodness of heart in
+any of the prominent characters. After the third act, this play becomes
+not a dead, but a painful, weight on the feelings. _Zeluco_ is an instance
+of the same truth. Bonario and Celia should have been made in some way or
+other principals in the plot; which they might have been, and the objects
+of interest, without having been made characters. In novels, the person in
+whose fate you are most interested, is often the least marked character of
+the whole. If it were possible to lessen the paramountcy of Volpone
+himself, a most delightful comedy might be produced, by making Celia the
+ward or niece of Corvino, instead of his wife, and Bonario her lover.
+
+
+
+
+"Apicaene."
+
+
+This is to my feelings the most entertaining of old Ben's comedies, and,
+more than any other, would admit of being brought out anew, if under the
+management of a judicious and stage-understanding playwright; and an
+actor, who had studied Morose, might make his fortune.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Clerimont's speech:--
+
+"He would have hang'd a pewterer's 'prentice once upon a Shrove
+Tuesday's riot, for being of that trade, when the rest were _quiet_."
+
+
+    "The old copies read _quit_,--_i.e._, discharged from working, and
+    gone to divert themselves."--Whalley's note.
+
+
+It should be "quit" no doubt, but not meaning "discharged from working,"
+&c.--but quit, that is, acquitted. The pewterer was at his holiday
+diversion as well as the other apprentices, and they as forward in the
+riot as he. But he alone was punished under pretext of the riot, but in
+fact for his trade.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+
+    "_Morose._ Cannot I, yet, find out a more compendious method than
+    by this _trunk_, to save my servants the labour of speech, and
+    mine ears the discord of sounds?"
+
+
+What does "trunk" mean here, and in the first scene of the first act? Is
+it a large ear-trumpet?--or rather a tube, such as passes from parlour to
+kitchen, instead of a bell?
+
+Whalley's note at the end:--
+
+
+    "Some critics of the last age imagined the character of Morose to
+    be wholly out of nature. But to vindicate our poet, Mr. Dryden
+    tells us from tradition, and we may venture to take his word, that
+    Jonson was really acquainted with a person of this whimsical turn
+    of mind: and as humour is a personal quality, the poet is
+    acquitted from the charge of exhibiting a monster, or an
+    extravagant unnatural _caricatura_."
+
+
+If Dryden had not made all additional proof superfluous by his own plays,
+this very vindication would evince that he had formed a false and vulgar
+conception of the nature and conditions of drama and dramatic personation.
+Ben Jonson would himself have rejected such a plea:--
+
+"For he knew, poet never credit gain'd
+By writing _truths_, but things, like truths, well feign'd."
+
+By "truths" he means "facts." Caricatures are not less so because they are
+found existing in real life. Comedy demands characters, and leaves
+caricatures to farce. The safest and the truest defence of old Ben would
+be to call the _Epicoene_ the best of farces. The defect in Morose, as in
+other of Jonson's _dramatis personae_, lies in this;--that the accident is
+not a prominence growing out of, and nourished by, the character which
+still circulates in it; but that the character, such as it is, rises out
+of, or, rather, consists in, the accident. Shakespeare's comic personages
+have exquisitely characteristic features; however awry, disproportionate,
+and laughable they may be, still, like Bardolph's nose, they are features.
+But Jonson's are either a man with a huge wen, having a circulation of its
+own, and which we might conceive amputated, and the patient thereby losing
+all his character; or they are mere wens themselves instead of men,--wens
+personified, or with eyes, nose, and mouth cut out, mandrake-fashion.
+
+_Nota bene._--All the above, and much more, will have justly been said, if,
+and whenever, the drama of Jonson is brought into comparisons of rivalry
+with the Shakespearian. But this should not be. Let its inferiority to the
+Shakespearian be at once fairly owned,--but at the same time as the
+inferiority of an altogether different _genius_ of the drama. On this
+ground, old Ben would still maintain his proud height. He, no less than
+Shakespeare stands on the summit of his hill, and looks round him like a
+master,--though his be Lattrig and Shakespeare's Skiddaw.
+
+
+
+
+"The Alchemist."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Face's speech:--
+
+"Will take his oath o' the Greek _Xenophon_,
+If need be, in his pocket."
+
+Another reading is "Testament."
+
+Probably, the meaning is--that intending to give false evidence, he carried
+a Greek _Xenophon_ to pass it off for a Greek Testament, and so avoid
+perjury--as the Irish do, by contriving to kiss their thumb-nails instead
+of the book.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Mammon's speech:--
+
+"I will have all my beds blown up; not stuft:
+Down is too hard."
+
+Thus the air-cushions, though perhaps only lately brought into use, were
+invented in idea in the seventeenth century!
+
+
+
+
+"Catiline's Conspiracy."
+
+
+A fondness for judging one work by comparison with others, perhaps
+altogether of a different class, argues a vulgar taste. Yet it is chiefly
+on this principle that the _Catiline_ has been rated so low. Take it and
+_Sejanus_, as compositions of a particular kind, namely, as a mode of
+relating great historical events in the liveliest and most interesting
+manner, and I cannot help wishing that we had whole volumes of such plays.
+We might as rationally expect the excitement of the _Vicar of Wakefield_
+from Goldsmith's _History of England_, as that of _Lear_, _Othello_, &c.,
+from the _Sejanus_ or _Catiline_.
+
+Act i. sc. 4.--
+
+"_Cat._ Sirrah, what ail you?
+
+          (_He spies one of his boys not answer._)
+
+_Pag._ Nothing.
+
+_Best._ Somewhat modest.
+
+_Cat._ Slave, I will strike your soul out with my foot," &c.
+
+This is either an unintelligible, or, in every sense, a most unnatural,
+passage,--improbable, if not impossible, at the moment of signing and
+swearing such a conspiracy, to the most libidinous satyr. The very
+presence of the boys is an outrage to probability. I suspect that these
+lines down to the words "throat opens," should be removed back so as to
+follow the words "on this part of the house," in the speech of Catiline
+soon after the entry of the conspirators. A total erasure, however, would
+be the best, or, rather, the only possible, amendment.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Sempronia's speech:--
+
+          ..."He is but a new fellow,
+An _inmate_ here in Rome, as Catiline calls him."
+
+A "lodger" would have been a happier imitation of the _inquilinus_ of
+Sallust.
+
+Act iv. sc. 6. Speech of Cethegus:--
+
+"Can these or such be any aids to us," &c.
+
+What a strange notion Ben must have formed of a determined, remorseless,
+all-daring, foolhardiness, to have represented it in such a mouthing
+Tamburlane, and bombastic tonguebully as this Cethegus of his!
+
+
+
+
+"Bartholomew Fair."
+
+
+Induction. Scrivener's speech:--
+
+"If there be never a _servant-monster_ in the Fair, who can help it
+he says, nor a nest of antiques?"
+
+The best excuse that can be made for Jonson, and in a somewhat less degree
+for Beaumont and Fletcher, in respect of these base and silly sneers at
+Shakespeare is, that his plays were present to men's minds chiefly as
+acted. They had not a neat edition of them, as we have, so as, by
+comparing the one with the other, to form a just notion of the mighty mind
+that produced the whole. At all events, and in every point of view, Jonson
+stands far higher in a moral light than Beaumont and Fletcher. He was a
+fair contemporary, and in his way, and as far as Shakespeare is concerned,
+an original. But Beaumont and Fletcher were always imitators of, and often
+borrowers from him, and yet sneer at him with a spite far more malignant
+than Jonson, who, besides, has made noble compensation by his praises.
+
+Act ii. sc. 3.--
+
+"_Just._ I mean a child of the horn-thumb, a babe _of booty_, boy, a
+cut purse."
+
+Does not this confirm, what the passage itself cannot but suggest, the
+propriety of substituting "booty" for "beauty" in Falstaff's speech,
+_Henry IV._ part i. act i. sc. 2. "Let not us, &c.?"
+
+It is not often that old Ben condescends to imitate a modern author; but
+Master Dan. Knockhum Jordan, and his vapours are manifest reflexes of Nym
+and Pistol.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 5.--
+
+"_Quarl._ She'll make excellent geer for the coachmakers here in
+Smithfield, to anoint wheels and axletrees with."
+
+Good! but yet it falls short of the speech of a Mr. Johnes, M.P., in the
+Common Council, on the invasion intended by Buonaparte:--"Houses
+plundered--then burnt;--sons conscribed--wives and daughters ravished," &c.,
+&c.--"But as for you, you luxurious Aldermen! with your fat will he grease
+the wheels of his triumphant chariot!"
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6.--
+
+"_Cok._ Avoid in your satin doublet, Numps."
+
+This reminds me of Shakespeare's "Aroint thee, witch!" I find in several
+books of that age the words _aloigne_ and _eloigne_--that is,--"keep your
+distance!" or "off with you!" Perhaps "aroint" was a corruption of
+"aloigne" by the vulgar. The common etymology from _ronger_ to gnaw seems
+unsatisfactory.
+
+Act iii. sc. 4.--
+
+"_Quarl._ How now, Numps! almost tired in your protectorship?
+overparted, overparted?"
+
+An odd sort of propheticality in this Numps and old Noll!
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Knockhum's speech:--
+
+"He eats with his eyes, as well as his teeth."
+
+A good motto for the Parson in Hogarth's _Election Dinner_,--who shows how
+easily he might be reconciled to the Church of Rome, for he worships what
+he eats.
+
+Act v. sc. 5.--
+
+"_Pup._ _Di._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ It is not profane, he says.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Boy._ It is profane.
+
+_Pup._ It is not profane.
+
+_Lan._ Well said, confute him with Not, still."
+
+An imitation of the quarrel between Bacchus and the Frogs in
+Aristophanes:--
+
+"{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}',
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}' {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}."
+
+
+
+
+"The Devil Is An Ass."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Pug._ Why any: Fraud,
+Or Covetousness, or lady Vanity,
+Or old Iniquity, _I'll call him hither_."
+
+
+    "The words in italics should probably be given to the
+    master-devil, Satan."--Whalley's note.
+
+
+That is, against all probability, and with a (for Jonson) impossible
+violation of character. The words plainly belong to Pug, and mark at once
+his simpleness and his impatience.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4. Fitz-dottrel's soliloquy.
+
+Compare this exquisite piece of sense, satire, and sound philosophy in
+1616 with Sir M. Hale's speech from the bench in a trial of a witch many
+years afterwards.
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Meercraft's speech:--
+
+"Sir, money's a whore, a bawd, a drudge."
+
+I doubt not that "money" was the first word of the line, and has dropped
+out:--
+
+"Money! Sir, money's a," &c.
+
+
+
+
+"The Staple Of News."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Pecunia's speech:--
+
+"No, he would ha' done,
+That lay not in his power: he had the use
+Of your bodies, Band and Wax, and sometimes Statute's."
+
+Read (1815)--
+
+         ... "he had the use of
+Your bodies," &c.
+
+Now, however, I doubt the legitimacy of my transposition of the "of" from
+the beginning of this latter line to the end of the one preceding;--for
+though it facilitates the metre and reading of the latter line, and is
+frequent in Massinger, this disjunction of the preposition from its case
+seems to have been disallowed by Jonson. Perhaps the better reading is--
+
+"O' your bodies," &c.--
+
+the two syllables being slurred into one, or rather snatched, or sucked,
+up into the emphasised "your." In all points of view, therefore, Ben's
+judgment is just; for in this way, the line cannot be read, as metre,
+without that strong and quick emphasis on "your" which the sense
+requires;--and had not the sense required an emphasis on "your," the
+_tmesis_ of the sign of its cases "of," "to," &c., would destroy almost
+all boundary between the dramatic verse and prose in comedy:--a lesson not
+to be rash in conjectural amendments.--1818.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 4.--
+
+"_P. jun._ I love all men of virtue, _frommy_ Princess."
+
+"Frommy," _fromme_--pious, dutiful, &c.
+
+Act v. sc. 4. Penny-boy, sen., and Porter.
+
+I dare not, will not, think that honest Ben had _Lear_ in his mind in this
+mock mad scene.
+
+
+
+
+"The New Inn."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Host's speech:--
+
+"A heavy purse, and then two turtles, _makes_."
+
+"Makes," frequent in old books, and even now used in some counties for
+mates, or pairs.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Host's speech:--
+
+          ..."And for a leap
+Of the vaulting horse, to _play_ the vaulting _house_."
+
+Instead of reading with Whalley "ply" for "play," I would suggest "horse"
+for "house." The meaning would then be obvious and pertinent. The punlet,
+or pun-maggot, or pun intentional, "horse and house," is below Jonson. The
+_jeu-de-mots_ just below--
+
+          ..."Read a lecture
+Upon _Aquinas_ at St. Thomas a _Water_ings"--
+
+had a learned smack in it to season its insipidity.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 6. Lovel's speech:--
+
+"Then shower'd his bounties on me, like the Hours,
+That open-handed sit upon the clouds,
+And press the liberality of heaven
+Down to the laps of thankful men!"
+
+Like many other similar passages in Jonson, this is {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}--a
+sight which it is difficult to make one's self see,--a picture my fancy
+cannot copy detached from the words.
+
+Act ii. sc. 5. Though it was hard upon old Ben, yet Felton, it must be
+confessed, was in the right in considering the Fly, Tipto, Bat Burst, &c.,
+of this play mere dotages. Such a scene as this was enough to damn a new
+play; and Nick Stuff is worse still,--most abominable stuff indeed!
+
+Act iii. sc. 2. Lovel's speech:--
+
+"So knowledge first begets benevolence,
+Benevolence breeds friendship, friendship love."
+
+Jonson has elsewhere proceeded thus far; but the part most difficult and
+delicate, yet, perhaps, not the least capable of being both morally and
+poetically treated, is the union itself, and what, even in this life, it
+can be.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.
+
+
+SEWARD'S Preface. 1750.--
+
+
+    "The _King and No King_, too, is extremely spirited in all its
+    characters; Arbaces holds up a mirror to all men of virtuous
+    principles but violent passions. Hence he is, as it were, at once
+    magnanimity and pride, patience and fury, gentleness and rigour,
+    chastity and incest, and is one of the finest mixtures of virtues
+    and vices that any poet has drawn," &c.
+
+
+These are among the endless instances of the abject state to which
+psychology had sunk from the reign of Charles I. to the middle of the
+present reign of George III.; and even now it is but just awaking.
+
+_Ib._ Seward's comparison of Julia's speech in the _Two Gentlemen of
+Verona_, act iv. last scene--
+
+"Madam, 'twas Ariadne passioning," &c.
+
+with Aspatia's speech in the _Maid's Tragedy_--
+
+"I stand upon the sea-beach now," &c.--Act ii.--
+
+and preference of the latter.
+
+It is strange to take an incidental passage of one writer, intended only
+for a subordinate part, and compare it with the same thought in another
+writer, who had chosen it for a prominent and principal figure.
+
+_Ib._ Seward's preference of Alphonso's poisoning in _A Wife for a Month_,
+act i. sc. 1, to the passage in _King John_, act v. sc. 7:--
+
+"Poison'd, ill fare! dead, forsook, cast off!"
+
+Mr. Seward! Mr. Seward! you may be, and I trust you are, an angel; but you
+were an ass.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+
+    "Every reader of _taste_ will see how superior this is to the
+    quotation from Shakespeare."
+
+
+Of what taste?
+
+_Ib._ Seward's classification of the plays.
+
+Surely _Monsieur Thomas_, the _Chances_, _Beggar's Bush_, and the
+_Pilgrim_, should have been placed in the very first class! But the whole
+attempt ends in a woful failure.
+
+
+
+
+Harris's Commendatory Poem On Fletcher.
+
+
+"I'd have a state of wit convok'd, which hath
+A _power_ to take up on common faith:"--
+
+This is an instance of that modifying of quantity by emphasis, without
+which our elder poets cannot be scanned. "Power," here, instead of being
+one long syllable--pow'r--must be sounded, not indeed as a spondee, nor yet
+as a trochee; but as - u u;--the first syllable is 1-1/4.
+
+We can, indeed, never expect an authentic edition of our elder dramatic
+poets (for in those times a drama was a poem), until some man undertakes
+the work, who has studied the philosophy of metre. This has been found the
+main torch of sound restoration in the Greek dramatists by Bentley,
+Porson, and their followers;--how much more, then, in writers in our own
+language! It is true that quantity, an almost iron law with the Greek, is
+in English rather a subject for a peculiarly fine ear, than any law or
+even rule; but, then, instead of it, we have, first, accent; secondly,
+emphasis; and lastly, retardation, and acceleration of the times of
+syllables according to the meaning of the words, the passion that
+accompanies them, and even the character of the person that uses them.
+With due attention to these,--above all, to that, which requires the most
+attention and the finest taste, the character, Massinger, for example,
+might be reduced to a rich and yet regular metre. But then the _regulae_
+must be first known; though I will venture to say, that he who does not
+find a line (not corrupted) of Massinger's flow to the time total of a
+trimeter catalectic iambic verse, has not read it aright. But by virtue of
+the last principle--the retardation of acceleration of time--we have the
+proceleusmatic foot u u u u, and the _dispondaeus_ - - - -, not to mention
+the _choriambus_, the ionics, paeons, and epitrites. Since Dryden, the
+metre of our poets leads to the sense; in our elder and more genuine
+bards, the sense, including the passion, leads to the metre. Read even
+Donne's satires as he meant them to be read, and as the sense and passion
+demand, and you will find in the lines a manly harmony.
+
+
+
+
+Life Of Fletcher In Stockdale's Edition, 1811.
+
+
+    "In general their plots are more regular than Shakespeare's."
+
+
+This is true, if true at all, only before a court of criticism, which
+judges one scheme by the laws of another and a diverse one. Shakespeare's
+plots have their own laws of _regulae_, and according to these they are
+regular.
+
+
+
+
+"Maid's Tragedy."
+
+
+Act i. The metrical arrangement is most slovenly throughout.
+
+"_Strat._ As well as masque can be," &c.--
+
+and all that follows to "who is return'd"--is plainly blank verse, and
+falls easily into it.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:--
+
+"These soft and silken wars are not for me:
+The music must be shrill, and all confus'd,
+That stirs my blood; and then I dance with arms."
+
+What strange self-trumpeters and tongue-bullies all the brave soldiers of
+Beaumont and Fletcher are! Yet I am inclined to think it was the fashion
+of the age from the Soldier's speech in the Counter Scuffle; and deeper
+than the fashion B. and F. did not fashion.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Lysippus:--
+
+"Yes, but this lady
+Walks discontented, with her wat'ry eyes
+Bent on the earth," &c.
+
+Opulent as Shakespeare was, and of his opulence prodigal, he yet would not
+have put this exquisite piece of poetry in the mouth of a no-character, or
+as addressed to a Melantius. I wish that B. and F. had written poems
+instead of tragedies.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Mel._ I might run fiercely, not more hastily,
+Upon my foe."
+
+Read
+
+"I might run _more_ fiercely, not more hastily."
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Calianax:--
+
+
+    "Office! I would I could put it off! I am sure I sweat quite
+    through my office!"
+
+
+The syllable _off_ reminds the testy statesman of his robe, and he carries
+on the image.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Melantius:--
+
+          ... "Would that blood,
+That sea of blood, that I have lost in fight," &c.
+
+All B. and F.'s generals are pugilists or cudgel-fighters, that boast of
+their bottom and of the _claret_ they have shed.
+
+_Ib._ The Masque;--Cinthia's speech:--
+
+"But I will give a greater state and glory,
+And raise to time a _noble_ memory
+Of what these lovers are."
+
+I suspect that "nobler," pronounced as "nobiler" - u -, was the poet's
+word, and that the accent is to be placed on the penultimate of "memory."
+As to the passage--
+
+"Yet, while our reign lasts, let us stretch our power," &c.--
+
+removed from the text of Cinthia's speech, by these foolish editors as
+unworthy of B. and F.--the first eight lines are not worse, and the last
+couplet incomparably better, than the stanza retained.
+
+Act ii. Amintor's speech:--
+
+"Oh, thou hast nam'd a word, that wipes away
+All thoughts revengeful! In that sacred name,
+'The king,' there lies a terror."
+
+It is worth noticing that of the three greatest tragedians, Massinger was
+a democrat, Beaumont and Fletcher the most servile _jure divino_
+royalists, and Shakespeare a philosopher;--if aught personal, an
+aristocrat.
+
+
+
+
+"A King And No King."
+
+
+Act iv. Speech of Tigranes:--
+
+"She, that forgat the greatness of her grief
+And miseries, that must follow such mad passions,
+Endless and wild as women!" &c.
+
+Seward's note and suggestion of "in."
+
+It would be amusing to learn from some existing friend of Mr. Seward what
+he meant, or rather dreamed, in this note. It is certainly a difficult
+passage, of which there are two solutions;--one, that the writer was
+somewhat more injudicious than usual;--the other, that he was very, very
+much more profound and Shakespearian than usual. Seward's emendation, at
+all events, is right and obvious. Were it a passage of Shakespeare, I
+should not hesitate to interpret it as characteristic of Tigranes' state
+of mind, disliking the very virtues, and therefore half-consciously
+representing them as mere products of the violence of the sex in general
+in all their whims, and yet forced to admire, and to feel and to express
+gratitude for, the exertion in his own instance. The inconsistency of the
+passage would be the consistency of the author. But this is above Beaumont
+and Fletcher.
+
+
+
+
+"The Scornful Lady."
+
+
+Act ii. Sir Roger's speech:--
+
+
+    "Did I for this consume my _quarters_ in meditations, vows, and
+    woo'd her in heroical epistles? Did I expound the _Owl_, and
+    undertake, with labour and expense, the recollection of those
+    thousand pieces, consum'd in cellars and tobacco-shops, of that
+    our honour'd Englishman, Nic. Broughton?" &c.
+
+
+Strange, that neither Mr. Theobald nor Mr. Seward should have seen that
+this mock heroic speech is in full-mouthed blank verse! Had they seen
+this, they would have seen that "quarters" is a substitution of the
+players for "quires" or "squares," (that is) of paper:--
+
+"Consume my quires in meditations, vows,
+And woo'd her in heroical epistles."
+
+They ought, likewise, to have seen that the abbreviated "Ni. Br." of the
+text was properly "Mi. Dr."--and that Michael Drayton, not Nicholas
+Broughton, is here ridiculed for his poem _The Owl_ and his _Heroical
+Epistles_.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Younger Loveless:--
+
+"Fill him some wine. Thou dost not see me mov'd," &c.
+
+These Editors ought to have learnt, that scarce an instance occurs in B.
+and F. of a long speech not in metre. This is plain staring blank verse.
+
+
+
+
+"The Custom Of The Country."
+
+
+I cannot but think that in a country conquered by a nobler race than the
+natives, and in which the latter became villeins and bondsmen, this
+custom, _lex merchetae_, may have been introduced for wise purposes,--as of
+improving the breed, lessening the antipathy of different races, and
+producing a new bond of relationship between the lord and the tenant, who,
+as the eldest born, would at least have a chance of being, and a
+probability of being thought, the lord's child. In the West Indies it
+cannot have these effects, because the mulatto is marked by nature
+different from the father, and because there is no bond, no law, no
+custom, but of mere debauchery.--1815.
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Rutilio's speech:--
+
+"Yet if you play not fair play," &c.
+
+Evidently to be transposed, and read thus:--
+
+"Yet if you play not fair, above-board too,
+I'll tell you what--
+I've a foolish engine here:--I say no more--
+But if your Honour's guts are not enchanted."
+
+Licentious as the comic metre of B. and F. is,--a far more lawless, and yet
+far less happy, imitation of the rhythm of animated talk in real life than
+Massinger's--still it is made worse than it really is by ignorance of the
+halves, thirds, and two-thirds of a line which B. and F. adopted from the
+Italian and Spanish dramatists. Thus, in Rutilio's speech:--
+
+"Though I confess
+Any man would desire to have her, and by any means," &c.
+
+Correct the whole passage,--
+
+"Though I confess
+Any man would
+Desire to have her, and by any means,
+At any rate too, yet this common hangman
+That hath whipt off a thousand maids heads already--
+That he should glean the harvest, sticks in my stomach!"
+
+In all comic metres the gulping of short syllables, and the abbreviation
+of syllables ordinarily long by the rapid pronunciation of eagerness and
+vehemence, are not so much a license as a law,--a faithful copy of nature,
+and let them be read characteristically, the times will be found nearly
+equal. Thus, the three words marked above make a _choriambus_ -- u u, or
+perhaps a _paeon primus_ - u u u; a dactyl, by virtue of comic rapidity,
+being only equal to an iambus when distinctly pronounced. I have no doubt
+that all B. and F.'s works might be safely corrected by attention to this
+rule, and that the editor is entitled to transpositions of all kinds, and
+to not a few omissions. For the rule of the metre once lost--what was to
+restrain the actors from interpolation?
+
+
+
+
+"The Elder Brother."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2. Charles's speech:--
+
+          ... "For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil
+In his Georgicks? and to cure your herds,
+His Bucolicks is a master-piece."
+
+Fletcher was too good a scholar to fall into so gross a blunder, as
+Messrs. Sympson and Colman suppose. I read the passage thus:--
+
+          ... "For what concerns tillage,
+Who better can deliver it than Virgil,
+In his Georgicks, _or_ to cure your herds
+(His Bucolicks are a master-piece); but when," &c.
+
+Jealous of Virgil's honour, he is afraid lest, by referring to the
+_Georgics_ alone, he might be understood as undervaluing the preceding
+work. "Not that I do not admire the _Bucolics_ too, in their way.--But
+when," &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 3. Charles's speech:--
+
+        ... "She has a face looks like a _story_;
+The _story_ of the heavens looks very like her."
+
+Seward reads "glory;" and Theobald quotes from Philaster:--
+
+"That reads the story of a woman's face."
+
+I can make sense of this passage as little as Mr. Seward;--the passage from
+Philaster is nothing to the purpose. Instead of "a story," I have
+sometimes thought of proposing "Astraea."
+
+_Ib._ Angellina's speech:--
+
+          ... "You're old and dim, Sir,
+And the shadow of the earth eclips'd your judgment."
+
+Inappropriate to Angellina, but one of the finest lines in our language.
+
+Act iv. sc. 3. Charles's speech:--
+
+"And lets the serious part of life run by
+As thin neglected sand, whiteness of name.
+You must be mine," &c.
+
+Seward's note, and reading:--
+
+     ... "Whiteness of name,
+You must be mine!"
+
+Nonsense! "Whiteness of name" is in apposition to "the serious part of
+life," and means a deservedly pure reputation. The following line--"You
+_must_ be mine!" means--"Though I do not enjoy you to-day, I shall
+hereafter, and without reproach."
+
+
+
+
+"The Spanish Curate."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 7. Amaranta's speech:--
+
+"And still I push'd him on, as he had been _coming_."
+
+Perhaps the true word is "conning,"--that is, learning, or reading, and
+therefore inattentive.
+
+
+
+
+"Wit Without Money."
+
+
+Act i. Valentine's speech:--
+
+"One without substance," &c.
+
+The present text, and that proposed by Seward, are equally vile. I have
+endeavoured to make the lines sense, though the whole is, I suspect,
+incurable except by bold conjectural reformation. I would read thus:--
+
+"One without substance of herself, that's woman;
+Without the pleasure of her life, that's wanton;
+Tho' she be young, forgetting it; tho' fair,
+Making her glass the eyes of honest men,
+Not her own admiration."
+
+"That's wanton," or, "that is to say, wantonness."
+
+Act ii. Valentine's speech:--
+
+"Of half-a crown a week for pins and puppets."
+
+
+    "As there is a syllable wanting in the measure here."--Seward.
+
+
+A syllable wanting! Had this Seward neither ears nor fingers? The line is
+a more than usually regular iambic hendecasyllable.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"With one man satisfied, with one rein guided;
+With one faith, one content, one bed;
+_Aged_, she makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;
+A widow is," &c.
+
+Is "apaid"--contented--too obsolete for B. and F.? If not, we might read it
+thus:--
+
+"Content with one faith, with one bed apaid,
+She makes the wife, preserves the fame and issue;"--
+
+Or, it may be,--
+
+... "with one breed apaid"--
+
+that is, satisfied with one set of children, in opposition to,--
+
+"A widow is a Christmas-box," &c.
+
+Colman's note on Seward's attempt to put this play into metre.
+
+The editors, and their contemporaries in general, were ignorant of any but
+the regular iambic verse. A study of the Aristophanic and Plautine metres
+would have enabled them to reduce B. and F. throughout into metre, except
+where prose is really intended.
+
+
+
+
+"The Humorous Lieutenant."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Second Ambassador's speech:--
+
+... "When your angers,
+_Like_ so many brother billows, rose together,
+And, curling up _your_ foaming crests, defied," &c.
+
+This worse than superfluous "like" is very like an interpolation of some
+matter of fact critic--all _pus, prose atque venenum_. The "your" in the
+next line, instead of "their," is likewise yours, Mr. Critic!
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Timon's speech:--
+
+"Another of a new _way_ will be look'd at."
+
+
+    "We must suspect the poets wrote, 'of a new _day_.' So immediately
+    after,
+
+              ... Time may
+    For all his wisdom, yet give us a day."
+
+    Seward's Note.
+
+
+For this very reason I more than suspect the contrary.
+
+_Ib._ sc. 3. Speech of Leucippe:--
+
+"I'll put her into action for a _wastcoat_."
+
+What we call a riding-habit,--some mannish dress.
+
+
+
+
+"The Mad Lover."
+
+
+Act iv. Masque of beasts:--
+
+          ... "This goodly tree,
+An usher that still grew before his lady,
+Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo,
+A grumbling lawyer:" &c.
+
+Here must have been omitted a line rhyming to "tree;" and the words of the
+next line have been transposed:--
+
+          ... "This goodly tree,
+_Which leafless, and obscur'd with moss you see_,
+An usher this, that 'fore his lady grew,
+Wither'd at root: this, for he could not woo," &c.
+
+
+
+
+"The Loyal Subject."
+
+
+It is well worthy of notice, and yet has not been, I believe, noticed
+hitherto, what a marked difference there exists in the dramatic writers of
+the Elizabetho-Jacobaean age--(Mercy on me! what a phrase for "the writers
+during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.!")--in respect of their
+political opinions. Shakespeare, in this, as in all other things, himself
+and alone, gives the permanent politics of human nature, and the only
+predilection which appears, shows itself in his contempt of mobs and the
+populacy. Massinger is a decided Whig;--Beaumont and Fletcher high-flying,
+passive-obedience, Tories. The Spanish dramatists furnished them with
+this, as with many other ingredients. By the by, an accurate and familiar
+acquaintance with all the productions of the Spanish stage previously to
+1620, is an indispensable qualification for an editor of B. and F.;--and
+with this qualification a most interesting and instructive edition might
+be given. This edition of Colman's (Stockdale, 1811) is below criticism.
+
+In metre, B. and F. are inferior to Shakespeare, on the one hand, as
+expressing the poetic part of the drama, and to Massinger, on the other,
+in the art of reconciling metre with the natural rhythm of
+conversation,--in which, indeed, Massinger is unrivalled. Read him aright,
+and measure by time, not syllables, and no lines can be more
+legitimate,--none in which the substitution of equipollent feet, and the
+modifications by emphasis, are managed with such exquisite judgment. B.
+and F. are fond of the twelve syllable (not Alexandrine) line, as:--
+
+"Too many fears 'tis thought too: and to nourish those."
+
+This has often a good effect, and is one of the varieties most common in
+Shakespeare.
+
+
+
+
+"Rule A Wife And Have A Wife."
+
+
+Act iii. Old Woman's speech:--
+
+          ... "I fear he will knock my
+Brains out for lying."
+
+Mr. Seward discards the words "for lying," because "most of the things
+spoke of Estifania are true, with only a little exaggeration, and because
+they destroy all appearance of measure."--Colman's note.
+
+Mr. Seward had his brains out. The humour lies in Estifania's having
+ordered the Old Woman to tell these tales of her; for though an intriguer,
+she is not represented as other than chaste; and as to the metre, it is
+perfectly correct.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Marg._ As you love me, give way.
+
+_Leon._ It shall be better, I will give none, madam," &c.
+
+The meaning is:--"It shall be a better way, first;--as it is, I will not
+give it, or any that you in your present mood would wish."
+
+
+
+
+"The Laws Of Candy."
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Melitus:--
+
+"Whose insolence and never yet match'd pride
+Can by no character be well express'd,
+But in her only name, the proud Erota."
+
+Colman's note.
+
+The poet intended no allusion to the word "Erota" itself; but says that
+her very name, "the proud Erota," became a character and adage;--as we say,
+a Quixote or a Brutus: so to say an "Erota," expressed female pride and
+insolence of beauty.
+
+_Ib._ Speech of Antinous:--
+
+"Of my peculiar honours, not deriv'd
+From _successary_, but purchas'd with my blood."
+
+The poet doubtless wrote "successry," which, though not adopted in our
+language, would be, on many occasions, as here, a much more significant
+phrase than ancestry.
+
+
+
+
+"The Little French Lawyer."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 1. Dinant's speech:--
+
+"Are you become a patron too? 'Tis a new one,
+No more on't," &c.
+
+Seward reads:--
+
+"Are you become a patron too? _How long_
+_Have you been conning this speech?_ 'Tis a new one," &c.
+
+If conjectural emendation like this be allowed, we might venture to read:--
+
+"Are you become a patron _to a new tune_?"
+
+or,--
+
+"Are you become a patron? 'Tis a new _tune_."
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Din._ Thou wouldst not willingly
+Live a protested coward, or be call'd one?
+
+_Cler._ Words are but words.
+
+_Din._ Nor wouldst thou take a blow?"
+
+Seward's note.
+
+O miserable! Dinant sees through Cleremont's gravity, and the actor is to
+explain it. "Words are but words," is the last struggle of affected
+morality.
+
+
+
+
+"Valentinian."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 3.--
+
+It is a real trial of charity to read this scene with tolerable temper
+towards Fletcher. So very slavish--so reptile--are the feelings and
+sentiments represented as duties. And yet, remember, he was a bishop's
+son, and the duty to God was the supposed basis.
+
+Personals, including body, house, home, and religion;--property,
+subordination, and inter-community;--these are the fundamentals of society.
+I mean here, religion negatively taken,--so that the person be not
+compelled to do or utter, in relation of the soul to God, what would be,
+in that person, a lie;--such as to force a man to go to church, or to swear
+that he believes what he does not believe. Religion, positively taken, may
+be a great and useful privilege, but cannot be a right,--were it for this
+only, that it cannot be pre-defined. The ground of this distinction
+between negative and positive religion, as a social right, is plain. No
+one of my fellow-citizens is encroached on by my not declaring to him what
+I believe respecting the super-sensual; but should every man be entitled
+to preach against the preacher, who could hear any preacher? Now, it is
+different in respect of loyalty. There we have positive rights, but not
+negative rights;--for every pretended negative would be in effect a
+positive;--as if a soldier had a right to keep to himself whether he would,
+or would not, fight. Now, no one of these fundamentals can be rightfully
+attacked, except when the guardian of it has abused it to subvert one or
+more of the rest. The reason is, that the guardian, as a fluent, is less
+than the permanent which he is to guard. He is the temporary and mutable
+mean, and derives his whole value from the end. In short, as robbery is
+not high treason, so neither is every unjust act of a king the converse.
+All must be attacked and endangered. Why? Because the king, as _a_ to A,
+is a mean to A, or subordination, in a far higher sense than a proprietor,
+as _b_ to A, is a mean to B, or property.
+
+Act ii. sc. 2. Claudia's speech:--
+
+"Chimney-pieces!" &c.
+
+The whole of this speech seems corrupt; and if accurately printed,--that
+is, if the same in all the prior editions,--irremediable but by bold
+conjecture. "_Till_ my tackle," should be, I think, "_While_," &c.
+
+Act iii. sc. 1. B. and F. always write as if virtue or goodness were a
+sort of talisman, or strange something, that might be lost without the
+least fault on the part of the owner. In short, their chaste ladies value
+their chastity as a material thing,--not as an act or state of being; and
+this mere thing being imaginary, no wonder that all their women are
+represented with the minds of strumpets, except a few irrational
+humourists, far less capable of exciting our sympathy than a Hindoo who
+has had a basin of cow-broth thrown over him;--for this, though a debasing
+superstition, is still real, and we might pity the poor wretch, though we
+cannot help despising him. But B. and F.'s Lucinas are clumsy fictions. It
+is too plain that the authors had no one idea of chastity as a virtue, but
+only such a conception as a blind man might have of the power of seeing by
+handling an ox's eye. In _The Queen of Corinth_, indeed, they talk
+differently; but it is all talk, and nothing is real in it but the dread
+of losing a reputation. Hence the frightful contrast between their women
+(even those who are meant for virtuous) and Shakespeare's. So, for
+instance, _The Maid in the Mill_:--a woman must not merely have grown old
+in brothels, but have chuckled over every abomination committed in them
+with a rampant sympathy of imagination, to have had her fancy so drunk
+with the _minutiae_ of lechery as this icy chaste virgin evinces hers to
+have been.
+
+It would be worth while to note how many of these plays are founded on
+rapes,--how many on incestuous passions, and how many on mere lunacies.
+Then their virtuous women are either crazy superstitions of a mere bodily
+negation of having been acted on, or strumpets in their imaginations and
+wishes, or, as in this _Maid in the Mill_, both at the same time. In the
+men, the love is merely lust in one direction,--exclusive preference of one
+object. The tyrant's speeches are mostly taken from the mouths of
+indignant denouncers of the tyrant's character, with the substitution of
+"I" for "he,"" and the omission of the prefatory "he acts as if he
+thought" so and so. The only feelings they can possibly excite are disgust
+at the AEciuses, if regarded as sane loyalists, or compassion if considered
+as Bedlamites. So much for their tragedies. But even their comedies are,
+most of them, disturbed by the fantasticalness, or gross caricature, of
+the persons or incidents. There are few characters that you can really
+like (even though you should have erased from your mind all the filth
+which bespatters the most likeable of them, as Piniero in _The Island
+Princess_ for instance),--scarcely one whom you can love. How different
+this from Shakespeare, who makes one have a sort of sneaking affection
+even for his Barnardines;--whose very Iagos and Richards are awful, and, by
+the counteracting power of profound intellects, rendered fearful rather
+than hateful;--and even the exceptions, as Goneril and Regan, are proofs of
+superlative judgment and the finest moral tact, in being left utter
+monsters, _nulla virtute redemptae_, and in being kept out of sight as much
+as possible,--they being, indeed, only means for the excitement and
+deepening of noblest emotions towards the Lear, Cordelia, &c. and employed
+with the severest economy! But even Shakespeare's grossness--that which is
+really so, independently of the increase in modern times of vicious
+associations with things indifferent (for there is a state of manners
+conceivable so pure, that the language of Hamlet at Ophelia's feet might
+be a harmless rallying, or playful teazing, of a shame that would exist in
+Paradise)--at the worst, how diverse in kind is it from Beaumont and
+Fletcher's! In Shakespeare it is the mere generalities of sex, mere words
+for the most part, seldom or never distinct images, all head-work, and
+fancy drolleries; there is no sensation supposed in the speaker. I need
+not proceed to contrast this with B. and F.
+
+
+
+
+"Rollo."
+
+
+This, perhaps, the most energetic of Fletcher's tragedies. He evidently
+aimed at a new Richard III. in Rollo;--but, as in all his other imitations
+of Shakespeare, he was not philosopher enough to bottom his original.
+Thus, in Rollo, he has produced a mere personification of outrageous
+wickedness, with no fundamental characteristic impulses to make either the
+tyrant's words or actions philosophically intelligible. Hence the most
+pathetic situations border on the horrible, and what he meant for the
+terrible, is either hateful, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or ludicrous. The scene of
+Baldwin's sentence in the third act is probably the grandest working of
+passion in all B. and F.'s dramas;--but the very magnificence of filial
+affection given to Edith, in this noble scene, renders the after scene (in
+imitation of one of the least Shakespearian of all Shakespeare's works, if
+it be his, the scene between Richard and Lady Anne) in which Edith is
+yielding to a few words and tears, not only unnatural, but disgusting. In
+Shakespeare, Lady Anne is described as a weak, vain, very woman
+throughout.
+
+Act i. sc. 1.--
+
+"_Gis._ He is indeed the perfect character
+Of a good man, and so his actions speak him."
+
+This character of Aubrey, and the whole spirit of this and several other
+plays of the same authors, are interesting as traits of the morals which
+it was fashionable to teach in the reigns of James I. and his successor,
+who died a martyr to them. Stage, pulpit, law, fashion,--all conspired to
+enslave the realm. Massinger's plays breathe the opposite spirit;
+Shakespeare's the spirit of wisdom which is for all ages. By the by, the
+Spanish dramatists--Calderon, in particular,--had some influence in this
+respect, of romantic loyalty to the greatest monsters, as well as in the
+busy intrigues of B. and F.'s plays.
+
+
+
+
+"The Wildgoose Chase."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1. Belleur's speech:--
+
+... "That wench, methinks,
+If I were but well set on, for she is a _fable_,
+If I were but hounded right, and one to teach me."
+
+Sympson reads "affable," which Colman rejects, and says, "the next line
+seems to enforce" the reading in the text.
+
+Pity, that the editor did not explain wherein the sense, "seemingly
+enforced by the next line," consists. May the true word be "a sable"--that
+is, a black fox, hunted for its precious fur? Or "at-able,"--as we now
+say,--"she is come-at-able?"
+
+
+
+
+"A Wife For A Month."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 1. Alphonso's speech:--
+
+"Betwixt the cold bear and the raging lion
+Lies my safe way."
+
+Seward's note and alteration to--
+
+"'Twixt the cold bears, far from the raging lion"--
+
+This Mr. Seward is a blockhead of the provoking species. In his itch for
+correction, he forgot the words--"lies my safe way!" The bear is the
+extreme pole, and thither he would travel over the space contained between
+it and "the raging lion."
+
+
+
+
+"The Pilgrim."
+
+
+Act iv. sc. 2.--
+
+Alinda's interview with her father is lively, and happily hit off; but
+this scene with Roderigo is truly excellent. Altogether, indeed, this play
+holds the first place in B. and F.'s romantic entertainments,
+_Lustspiele_, which collectively are their happiest performances, and are
+only inferior to the romance of Shakespeare in the _As You Like It_,
+_Twelfth Night_, &c.
+
+_Ib._--
+
+"_Alin._ To-day you shall wed Sorrow,
+And Repentance will come to-morrow."
+
+Read "Penitence," or else--
+
+"Repentance, she will come to-morrow."
+
+
+
+
+"The Queen Of Corinth."
+
+
+Act ii. sc. 1.--
+
+Merione's speech. Had the scene of this tragi-comedy been laid in
+Hindostan instead of Corinth, and the gods here addressed been the Vishnu
+and Co. of the Indian Pantheon, this rant would not have been much amiss.
+
+In respect of style and versification, this play and the following of
+_Bonduca_ may be taken as the best, and yet as characteristic, specimens
+of Beaumont and Fletcher's dramas. I particularly instance the first scene
+of the _Bonduca_. Take Shakespeare's _Richard II._, and having selected
+some one scene of about the same number of lines, and consisting mostly of
+long speeches, compare it with the first scene in _Bonduca_,--not for the
+idle purpose of finding out which is the better, but in order to see and
+understand the difference. The latter, that of B. and F., you will find a
+well-arranged bed of flowers, each having its separate root, and its
+position determined aforehand by the will of the gardener,--each fresh
+plant a fresh volition. In the former you see an Indian fig-tree, as
+described by Milton;--all is growth, evolution;--each line, each word
+almost, begets the following, and the will of the writer is an
+interfusion, a continuous agency, and not a series of separate acts.
+Shakespeare is the height, breadth, and depth of Genius: Beaumont and
+Fletcher the excellent mechanism, in juxta-position and succession, of
+talent.
+
+
+
+
+"The Noble Gentleman."
+
+
+Why have the dramatists of the times of Elizabeth, James I., and the first
+Charles become almost obsolete, with the exception of Shakespeare? Why do
+they no longer belong to the English, being once so popular? And why is
+Shakespeare an exception?--One thing, among fifty, necessary to the full
+solution is, that they all employed poetry and poetic diction on unpoetic
+subjects, both characters and situations, especially in their comedy. Now
+Shakespeare is all, all ideal,--of no time, and therefore for all times.
+Read, for instance, Marine's panegyric in the first scene of this play:--
+
+          ... "Know
+The eminent court, to them that can be wise,
+And fasten on her blessings, is a sun," &c.
+
+What can be more unnatural and inappropriate (not only is, but must be
+felt as such) than such poetry in the mouth of a silly dupe? In short, the
+scenes are mock dialogues, in which the poet _solus_ plays the
+ventriloquist, but cannot keep down his own way of expressing himself.
+Heavy complaints have been made respecting the transposing of the old
+plays by Cibber; but it never occurred to these critics to ask, how it
+came that no one ever attempted to transpose a comedy of Shakespeare's.
+
+
+
+
+"The Coronation."
+
+
+Act i. Speech of Seleucus:--
+
+"Altho' he be my enemy, should any
+Of the gay flies that buz about the court,
+_Sit_ to catch trouts i' the summer, tell me so,
+I durst," &c.
+
+Colman's note.
+
+Pshaw! "Sit" is either a misprint for "set," or the old and still
+provincial word for "set," as the participle passive of "seat" or "set." I
+have heard an old Somersetshire gardener say:--"Look, Sir! I set these
+plants here; those yonder I _sit_ yesterday."
+
+Act ii. Speech of Arcadius:--
+
+"Nay, some will swear they love their mistress,
+Would hazard lives and fortunes," &c.
+
+Read thus:--
+
+"Nay, some will swear they love their mistress so,
+They would hazard lives and fortunes to preserve
+One of her hairs brighter than Berenice's,
+Or young Apollo's; and yet, after this," &c.
+
+"They would hazard"--furnishes an anapaest for an _iambus_. "And yet," which
+must be read, _anyet_, is an instance of the enclitic force in an accented
+monosyllable. "And yet," is a complete _iambus_; but _anyet_ is, like
+_spirit_, a dibrach u u, trocheized, however, by the _arsis_ or first
+accent damping, though not extinguishing, the second.
+
+
+
+
+"Wit At Several Weapons."
+
+
+Act i. Oldcraft's speech:--
+
+"I'm arm'd at all points," &c.
+
+It would be very easy to restore all this passage to metre, by supplying a
+sentence of four syllables, which the reasoning almost demands, and by
+correcting the grammar. Read thus:--
+
+"Arm'd at all points 'gainst treachery, I hold
+My humour firm. If, living, I can see thee
+Thrive by thy wits, I shall have the more courage,
+Dying, to trust thee with my lands. If not,
+The best wit, I can hear of, carries them.
+For since so many in my time and knowledge,
+Rich children of the city, have concluded
+_For lack of wit_ in beggary, I'd rather
+Make a wise stranger my executor,
+Than a fool son my heir, and have my lands call'd
+After my wit than name: and that's my nature!"
+
+_Ib._ Oldcraft's speech:--
+
+"To prevent which I have sought out a match for her."
+
+Read--
+
+"Which to prevent I've sought a match out for her."
+
+_Ib._ Sir Gregory's speech:--
+
+          ... "_Do you think_
+I'll have any of the wits hang upon me after I am married once?"
+
+Read it thus:--
+
+          ... "Do you think
+That I'll have any of the wits to hang
+Upon me after I am married once?"
+
+and afterwards--
+
+         ... "Is it a fashion in London
+To marry a woman, and to never see her?"
+
+The superfluous "to" gives it the Sir Andrew Ague-cheek character.
+
+
+
+
+"The Fair Maid Of The Inn."
+
+
+Act ii. Speech of Albertus:--
+
+          ... "But, Sir,
+By my life, I vow to take assurance from you,
+That right hand never more shall strike my son,
+
+Chop his hand off!"
+
+In this (as, indeed, in all other respects, but most in this) it is that
+Shakespeare is so incomparably superior to Fletcher and his friend,--in
+judgment! What can be conceived more unnatural and motiveless than this
+brutal resolve? How is it possible to feel the least interest in Albertus
+afterwards? or in Cesario after his conduct?
+
+
+
+
+"The Two Noble Kinsmen."
+
+
+On comparing the prison scene of _Palamon and Arcite_, act ii. sc. 2, with
+the dialogue between the same speakers, act i. sc. 2, I can scarcely
+retain a doubt as to the first act's having been written by Shakespeare.
+Assuredly it was not written by B. and F. I hold Jonson more probable than
+either of these two.
+
+The main presumption, however, for Shakespeare's share in this play rests
+on a point, to which the sturdy critics of this edition (and indeed all
+before them) were blind,--that is, the construction of the blank verse,
+which proves beyond all doubt an intentional imitation, if not the proper
+hand, of Shakespeare. Now, whatever improbability there is in the former
+(which supposes Fletcher conscious of the inferiority, the too poematic
+_minus_-dramatic nature of his versification, and of which, there is
+neither proof nor likelihood) adds so much to the probability of the
+latter. On the other hand, the harshness of many of these very passages, a
+harshness unrelieved by any lyrical inter-breathings, and still more the
+want of profundity in the thoughts, keep me from an absolute decision.
+
+Act i. sc. 3. Emilia's speech:--
+
+          ... "Since his depart, his _sports_,
+Tho' craving seriousness and skill," &c.
+
+I conjecture "imports,"--that is, duties or offices of importance. The flow
+of the versification in this speech seems to demand the trochaic ending -
+u; while the text blends jingle and _hisses_ to the annoyance of less
+sensitive ears than Fletcher's--not to say, Shakespeare's.
+
+
+
+
+"The Woman Hater."
+
+
+Act i. sc. 2.--
+
+This scene from the beginning is prose printed as blank verse, down to the
+line--
+
+"E'en all the valiant stomachs in the court"--
+
+where the verse recommences. This transition from the prose to the verse
+enhances, and indeed forms the comic effect. Lazarillo concludes his
+soliloquy with a hymn to the goddess of plenty.
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Advertisement.
+
+
+_NEW EDITION, REVISED._
+
+AIDS TO REFLECTION
+
+IN THE FORMATION OF A MANLY CHARACTER, ON THE SEVERAL GROUNDS OF PRUDENCE,
+MORALITY, AND RELIGION.
+
+BY S. T. COLERIDGE.
+
+WITH A COPIOUS INDEX TO THE WORK, AND TRANSLATIONS OF THE GREEK AND LATIN
+QUOTATIONS.
+
+BY THOMAS FENBY.
+
+400 pp. _Fscp. 8vo, cloth extra_, 3/6.
+
+EDWARD HOWELL, PUBLISHER, LIVERPOOL
+
+MDCCCLXXIV.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHAKESPEARE, BEN JONSON, BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER***
+
+
+
+CREDITS
+
+
+May 24, 2008
+
+            Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1
+            Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, David King, and the
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